50 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ac990edc70fd0516cd4ed954dd47c527.pdf 5b760d629587c64ba8d0a7eadb8a2968 PDF Text Text The Comparison Of Some Cowpea Populations According To Their Growth, Yield and Seed Quality Canan OZTOKAT Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture cananoztokat@yahoo.com Ibrahim DEMĐR Ankara University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture Ibrahim.Demir@ankara.agri.edu.tr Abstract : This research has been carried out in Canakkale-Turkey in order to determine the growth, yield and seed quality of 31 cowpea populations which were collected from Agean and Marmara Coastal Region. Research has been laid out in randomized block design with three replication. Emergence rate, days to flowering and harvest, pod length, pod weight, pod number, 100 seed weight, fresh pod yield (kg/da), seed yield (kg/da), standart germination tests, cold test and accelerated ageing have been determined. According to the test results, second population gave the highest seed yield 26.95 g/plant (84.20 kg/da). For fresh pod weight 30rd population has the highest yield with 277.84 g. Keywords: Cowpea, yield, seed quality Introduction Insufficient agricultural products for earth's growing population put significant nutrition problems down on the agenda. Especially, apart from danger of starvation in underdeveloped countries, in also developing countries problems of malnutrition threatens people's health on a large scale. On a balanced and regular diet program, a person needs 70 gr protein daily. Arora (1963), emphasizes that the legumes which contains qualified and highly proportioned proteins (%17-32) is an important source to supply the deficit. Fresh seeds of cowpea contain %4.5-5.0 protein (Terra 1966). Cowpea is a significant legume plant in Asia, South Europe, Middle and South America and in the United States. For it has the capacity of linking nitrogen on even poor lands which have resistance to drought, it can be grown together with many tuber plants and grains. Today, cowpeas are produced in 63 country all over the world (Singh et al.1997). World cowpea harvested area is establish as 11806648 ha and 5389235 tonne. production (Anonymous, 2010). Cultural methods and choice of appropriate type comes first among the factors which affect the yield of cowpea. Mostly, local landraces are used in production. In spite of this, there has been no important steps to determine the features of landraces and apply for registration. After studying this field and determining the features of landraces, as Pandey and Torrie mentioned (1973), determining the elements which can be criterion for yield in different genotypes is important in order to pay new cultivars. The adaptation of cowpea was studied in Turkey-Samsun under the ecological circumstances. In this study, it was found out that the most important factors which affect the time of emergence are the features of seed and cultivar, the heat of soil and its dumpness. It was also determined that the cultivars emerged between 7 or 12 days (Gülümser et. al., 1989). Quinn (1999), claims that for Indiana, the appropriate cultivars can be sown on June, after sowing, cultivars grow in 60 days and in between 90-100 days it turns into a mature pod harvest. The researcher emphasizes that cowpea isn't resistant to dump conditions and it can't be grown in undrained grounds. Vural et. al. (2000) mentioned that depending on growing conditions, almost 700-1000 kg/da fresh cowpeas can be harvested. They also emphasized that ecological conditions highly affects the fertility of cowpeas. Tomer and Verma (1989), on their study with cowpea cultivars, divided cultivars into 3 groups as heavy, light and medium according to seed weight and determined that heavy seeds when compared to the other groups show superior features in seed yield. 238 �Today, most of the producers use modern cultivars for their superior yield characteristics. In spite of the negatives like loss of soil or heavily used chemicals which were caused by conventional agriculture , some environmental friendly production systems emerged. (Aksoy and Altındişli, 2001). Those agriculture systems advice and urge the use of local cultivars and populations. In Aegean and Marmara regions, cowpea is consumed very much. In this study, yield, quality, morphological and physiological features of different populations from those regions were studied. The most important aim is to get prep-findings related to production of a cultivar which can be planted on Aegean and Marmara regions and which can be consumed as fresh or as a short term dry legumes. Material and Method In this research, 31 cowpea populations; 9 from Çanakkale, 1 from Muğla and 21 from Menemen Agricultural Research institute, were used as plant material. In the experiment ,features like the shape , greatness, color of every grain were taken into consideration. The seeds out of the type were throwed away and similar seeds were chosen as material , and were numbered. During the research year, the average temperatures on May, June, July,August and September, were 17.8, 22.4, 25.9, 25.6, 21.2 °C. When temperatures were observed, it was seen that the province of Çanakkale has a warm climate. The session in which the summer products are grown without taking any risk is the period about 140 days between June and September. The experiment was set as three replication in accordance with randomized block design. Every population was located in a parcel. Populations were planted in two lines, 80 cm line distance and 40 cm above the lines. The largeness of parcel was 32m². Five plant for fresh pod harvest and 5 plant for dry harvest were chosen randomly from every population, they were marked and the measurements were made over those plants. In June 10, planting took place on the holes which were digged before. Throughout the experiment, irrigation took place for 6 times. On the land of experiment, only 5 ton manure was used. Fungucide and insectiside applied against to (Callosobruchus maculatus) and fungal diseases. The experiment was carried out on 31 cowpea totally. The features of experimented populations is shown at Table -1. Pop. Pop 1* Pop 2 Pop 3 Pop 4 Pop 5 Pop 6 Pop 7 Pop 8 Pop 9 Pop 10 Pop 11 Pop 12 Pop 13 Pop 14 Pop 15 Pop 16* Pop 17 Pop 18 Pop 19 Pop 20 Pop 21 Pop 22 Pop 23 Seed Weight (g) 0,142 0,237 0,158 0,216 0,187 0,256 0,250 0,215 0,255 0,260 0,266 0,219 0,219 0,175 0,170 0,244 0,162 0,213 0,129 0,225 0,165 0,159 0,218 Seed Colour Hilum Colour Black Black sprinkled Brown sprinkled Dark Brown Light Brown Cream Cream Black Dark Brown Cream Cream Cream Dark Brown Cream Cream Dark Brown Cream Light Brown Cream Light Brown Dark Brown Cream Cream Black Black Brown Brown Brown Yellow Black Black Balck Brown Black Black Brown Cream Black Dark Brown Black Brown Cream Brown Brown Black Black 239 Seed Shape Index (Length/Diameter) 1,76 1,57 1,27 1,43 1,28 1,49 1,46 1,35 1,31 1,46 1,43 1,34 1,18 1,50 1,18 1,58 1,29 1,25 1,51 1,23 1,26 1,32 1,26 Seed Origin Çan /Ç.Kale Bayramiç/Ç.Kale Çan /Ç.Kale Ezine /Ç.Kale Yenice /Ç.Kale Ayvacık/Ç.Kale Kepez /Ç.Kale Ezine /Ç.Kale Saraycık Ç.Kale Muğla TR-43810 TR-49625 TR-38179 TR-49617 TR-38157 TR-54581 TR-47716 TR-39081 TR-28021 TR-43785 TR-38948 TR-35487 TR-43866 �Pop 24* 0,175 Black-Brown Black-Brown 1,78 TR-49626 Pop 25 0,170 Cream Cream 1,63 TR-49619 Pop 26 0,148 Cream Balck 1,48 TR-49620 Pop 27 0,258 Cream Black 1,41 TR-49623 Pop 28* 0,249 Purple-Black Purple-Black 1,54 TR-49618 Pop 29 0,158 Cream Brown 1,41 TR-39080 Pop 30 0,277 Cream Black 1,40 TR-49627 Pop 31 0,223 Cream Black 1,51 TR-49621 *vining cowpea types Table 1. The place from which used cowpea populations were obtained , and some features of seeds. The features taken into considerations and the methods of research in are as below: the emergence rate (%)(calculating the rate of percentage of sowed seeds that emerges in 7 days the number of days to blooming, the number of days to fresh harvest, pod lenght (selecting randomly 3 units from harvested population in each harvest ,then measuring the length of these 3 units by the help of digital caliper compass as centimeter) pod diameter (selecting randomly 3 units from harvested population in each harvest, then measuring the diameters of these 3 units by the help of digital caliper compass as milimeter) Number of pods (g/plant) Yield per plant (g/plant) Seed yield (g/plant) In addition to these parameters some germination tests performed with the harvested seeds Standard germination test: Germination test was done 25 °C with three replication from each population which 50 seeds at each replication.(ISTA,1985) A thousand seed weight: Counting five groups ,each one includes 100 units of seeds that gotten from dry harvest in each population then they were weighted in precision scales, the average of this weight was taken and multiplicated by 10. Accelerated Aging: After taking 75 seeds initial weights from every population (with 3 replicate), then placed in covered plastic pot (upon strand) which includes 100ml pure water and put in incubator at 45 °C. The seeds were taken out of the incubator in 2.-4.-6.days and put in room temperature and humidity for 24 hours. Then the seeds were germinated between the germination papers in incubator at 25 °C and the seeds that were normally germinated were counted and their rates were determined . Cold test: 30 seeds that were selected randomly from each population were placed between germination papers as 3 replicate then were placed in incubator at 10 °C. At the end of the fifth day they were taken to the incubator of 25 °C and after two days the seeds that germinated normally were counted .The statistical analysis of data that belongs to the examined features in experiment was made by using MSTAT-C statistic packet programme. The differences which belongs to the averages were determined according to 0,01 importance level. Research Findings Data of the results are shown in Table 2. The emergence rate showed a change between 12%100% in populations and the best emerging rate as 100% was gotten from 3rd population. The worst one as 12.20% was observed in 22th and 29th populations. The averages about the number of the days to be fresh pod harvest showed changes between the days 57-77.33; the highest average as 77.33 days was in 23rd population and the lowest ones as 57th days were in 5.,8.,9.,10.,12.,20.,26.,27.,29.and 30.populations ;the differences amongs the population averages show importance in P=0.01 level. From the point of length of pod, the population averages show a change between 388.11-133.52 mm. The highest values were obtained from the vining types. Pod diameter changed between 6.98-7.54 mm and the highest result obtained from 6th population while the lowest from the 11th. In terms of pod number per plant the values change between 18.67-70.50. The highest values obtained from 14th and 27th populations with 70.50 and 67.60 respectively where the lowest values from 1st and 23rd with 18.47 and 22.13. Pod yield per plant shows a range between 82.46 277.84 g and the best yield obtained from 30th (277.84 g/plant), 9th (265.67 g/plant), 28th (262.36 g/plant), 240 �27th ((256.42 g/plant), 14th (252.83 g/plant) and 2nd (243.79 g/plant) populations whereas the lowest one from 23rd (82.46 g). In terms of seed yield the average values changes between 8.39-26.95 g and it’s found important at P=0.01 level. When the highest value is maintained from the second population with 26.95 g, it’s followed by the eleventh population with 25.93 g, the ninth population with 25.84 g, the thirtieth population with 25.00 g, twelfth population with 24.54 g, the twenty-seventh population with 24.20 g and the twentyeighth population 23.84 g. Additionally, the lowest value is obtained from the twenty-third population with 8.39 g. The values of standard germination (normal seedlings) rates show in the sixteenth population 66%, in the twenty-eighth population 71%, in the first and twenty-fourth population 78% and the rest of populations provide a germination over 80%. The average values of a thousand seed number differ 129.07277.49 g and the highest value is observed in the twenty-ninth population with 277.49 g, also the lowest value is found in the eighteenth population with 129.07 g. In the second day germination of accelerated aging test, the differences between the F test is found significant in the level of P=0.01. The averages differ 38.67-94.67 % and the highest average is maintained in the third population with the 94.67 and the lowest average is from twenty-eighth population with 38.67%. The difference of fourth-day germination rate changes with 12% and 76%, the highest average in the third population with %76 and in the fifth population with 74.67%. On the other hand, the lowest average is observed in the twenty-eighth population with 12%. In the sixth day, the difference between the F Test and the growing test is %0.01-%56, the highest average is from third and fifth population with %56 and the lowest average is observed in the twenty-fourth population with %0.01. The proportion of the cold test differs 15.55-91.11%, the highest proportion is maintained from the thirteenth population with 91.11% and the lowest proportion is maintained from the fourteenth population with %24.44 and from twenty-seventh population with %15.56. Discussion The aspect of emergence, in the results of test, the third population is the highest one with %100. Emergence ratio of the populations which are picked up from the villages directly is over %74.00 and particularly, it is interesting that the low proportion of the other seeds from Menemen Araştırma Enstitüsü. In these populations, being high proportion of germination in standard germination test in lab conditions, signs that the negativities of emergence during the process of storing seeds. Its necessary to renew the seeds which are stored in gen sources once in 5 years. The lowest proportions of emerging are observed in the twenty-second and twenty-ninth population with %12.20. As a kind of characteristic, germination is related with both genotype and environmental conditions of. The heat and the humidity are the two of the most important factors for germination of seeds. If one of these factors gets away from optimum, it effects the germination badly. When the need of soil humidity is nearly same for types for germination of seeds, the necessary heat changes for each. Gül (1996), observes that in the soil with the same proportion of humidity when the bean seeds normally germinate, the cowpea never germinate. The accelerated aging and the cold tests, are tests that to find out before the performance of emergence ratio of seeds in field. Among these tests, accelerated aging tests and emergence ratio is found correlative . However, it should be repeated these tests for uprightness and coherence. When the first blooming is observed, the third population is the earliest one with 46.67 days and the latest ones are seventh and twenty-eighth populations with 55.00 days. Jadhav et. al (1991), explains after an observing in India, the processes of types to bloom are changeable from 38.8 days to 55.3 days. Olediran (1990), showed that planting between March,1 and April,30; the blooming of the cowpeas decrease from 95 days to 49 days with connected to increasing heat until blooming. It is possible to say that the number of days affects the first blooming how it can be earlier but there is no effect to yield. It is explained by Altınbaş and Sepetoğlu (1993), that the process which composes vegetation until blooming and they say that the process until the first harvest have little and unimportant effect to the yield. As the number of days to the first harvest, the latest population is twenty-third with 77.33 days and this is followed by fifteenth population with 72.00 days. To the first harvest as the earliest ones are fifth, eighth, ninth, tenth, twelfth, twentieth, twenty-sixth, twenty-seventh and thirtieth with 57 days. The differences among populations according to findings are in Bornova conditions, by Ceylan and Sepetoğlu (1983), the changing of the vegetation process and it shows similar observations with Jathav at al (1991), 241 �saying that the shortest vegetation differs from 56.3 days to 75.5 days. In terms of pod length, the firs population is located in the first group with 338.11 mm; the sixteenth population with 229.98 and the twentyfourth population with 208.170 follow it. While it is taken into account that these populations are vining types, it is possible that the number of pod for each plant is lower compared to the other populations. While the first population (vining) with 7.41 g is in the first group in the point of the weight of single pod as in the case of pod length, the nineth population with the sixteenth and the twentyfourth population as the other vining populations are located in the following group. While it is observed that there is an important and positive relation between the single pod weight and the pod length, it is determined that there is an important and negative relation between the number of pod for each plant. It is possible to say that the pod weights especially in the vining populations are much more than the others; howewer the number of pod declines. In terms of pod number per plant, the thiertieth population gets the highest the number with 70.5 and the lowest pod numbers are got by the first population with 18.67, the twentythird population with 22.13 and the sixteenth population with 26.73. Altınbaş and Sepetoğlu (1993), emphasize in their study that the element which has the most positive direct effect is the number of pods in terms of yield. The thiertieth population with 277.849 gets the highest value in the point of yield per plant plant and the nineth population follows it with 265.67 g. The lowest value is got from the twentythird population with 82.46. The values that are found differ 129.07-277.499 for the thousand seed weight. The lowest value is taken from the eighteenth population while the highest values are got from the twentynineth population with 277.49 g, the eleventh population with 266.46 g, the tenth population with 260.14 g, the twentysixth population with 258.31 and the sixth population 256.18 g. Dixit and Dubey (1984) emphasize that thousand seed weight does not contribute to the yield. On the other hand Altınbaş and Sepetoğlu (1993), state that there are negative and important correlations between the thousand seed weight and the pod per plant.According to the results which the researchers get from the path analysis, the found results match with the findings which are in the aspect that the number of pod per plant is the element contributing more to the yield. The highest production of seed weight for each plant is got from the second population with 26.941 g while the lowest one is got from twentythird population with 8.399 g. The highest production of seed to decare is alike got from the second population with 84.20 kg while the lowest one is got from the twentythird population with 26.22 kg. According to the accelarated test result, the highest performance is obtained from the third population in the second day and the lowest performance is got from the twentyeighth. The results of fourth day are the same. In the sixth day, the third and fifth populations have given the highest germination rates while the twentyeighth and twentyfourth populations have given the lowest germination rates. It’s seen that the first, the sixteenth, the twentyfourth and the twentyeighth have the lowest germination rate when the Standard germination rates are examined. According to the cold test results, the highest germination rate is observed in the thirteenth population, the lowest germination rate is observed in the fourteenth and the twentyseventh populations. In spite of the fact that the results at hand are not connected with standard germination and growing test results, it must be considered that the cowpea populations are taken from the reigons which have very different climate and altitude. It can be said that among the populations; the third and the fifth populations have higher strength relatively than the others when the positive correlation between the growing test and emergence rate are taken into account. As a result, it can be stated that it can be studied on the thiertieth population amongt the others, interms of the highest fresh pod yield . On the other hand; second population in which the highest seed yield obtained, and second , nineth, thiertieth and the eleventh populations in the point of production components can be evaluate for thre further studies. In the condition that, especially the “Vigna unguiculata L. Walp” which is a species with short vegatation is used as a second crop for the late summer months, while it can be claimed that the seventeenth, the eleventh and the third populations can be used in terms of earliness. The first, sixteenth and twentyfourth populations can be used in the point of its harmony to the changing needs because of the fact that the are vining types. It’s possible to grow the other vegatable species among the vining populations, to the mix culture vegatable production or to grow it as a border plant for yearly in vegatable garden. So the commercial source can be created by growing the cowpea populations whose production are low together with the other species. Howewer, it is important that these features have genetic stability as a lot of researchers emphasize. As Altınbaş et. al.. (1999) state that the production between the agronomic and morphologic features which affetct it and knowing that to what extend their greatness is affected by the changes of environment conditions and for determining correctly the feature or the features on which in indirect choice related to the production will be applied, it will be more realistic to determine these features in different conditions. 242 �1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Ort . LS D 54.67 ab 49.33 f-g 47.67 g 52.33 a-f 51.00 c-f 53.33 a-d 55.00 a 50.67 d-g 53.33 a-d 53.33 a-d 51.67 b-f 54.67 ab 53.33 a-d 53.00 a-e 53.00 a-e 52.00 a-f 53.00 a-e 53.67 a-d 53.33 a-d 50.00 efg 51.67 b-f 52.00 a-f 54.33 ab 52.00 a-f 53.67 a-d 53.00 a-e 53.33 a-d 55.00 a 54.00 abc 50.00 efg 53.67 a-d 52.56 3,31 54.27 11.54 Days to Bloo. 83.07 bcd 82.17 bcd 100.00 a 89.97 abc 91.10 ab 85.53 bcd 74.43 de 78.87 cd 81.07 bcd 57.73 fg 41.07 hij 40.00 hij 40.00 hij 43.30 hi 42.20 hij 41.07 hij 59.97 fg 64.40 ef 31.10 jk 76.63 d 64.40 ef 12.20 l 32.20 ijk 49.93 gh 27.73 k 33.27 ijk 37.73 ijk 37.73 ijk 12.20 l 35.53 ijk 35.33 ijk Pop Em. Rat. 3,63 60.69 Days to Fr. Har 58.67 gh 59.33 gh 59.33 gh 59.33 gh 57.00 h 58.67 gh 67.00 cd 57.00 h 57.00 h 57.00 h 59.67 gh 57.00 h 58.67 gh 58.67 gh 72.00 b 70.00 bc 58.67 gh 62.00 fg 69.33 bcd 57.00 h 60.00 fgh 68.33 cd 77.33 a 58.67 gh 60.67 fg 57.00 h 57.00 h 63.33 ef 57.00 h 57.00 h 66.33 de 39.73 160.64 388.11a 163.23 def 145.71 def 147.64 def 153.90 def 151.23 def 140.25 ef 164.24 def 180.10 cd 140.58 def 138.99 ef 133.52 f 139.85 ef 136.91 ef 141.27 def 230.00 b 142.82 def 142.34 def 136.40 ef 147.85 def 134.84 ef 143.50 def 136.75 ef 208.17 bc 174.01 cde 135.51 ef 136.37 ef 205.74 bc 143.67 def 145.02 def 151.25 def Pod Num. 39.73 388.11a 163.23 def 145.71 def 147.64 def 153.90 def 151.23 def 140.25 ef 164.24 def 180.10 cd 140.58 def 138.99 ef 133.52 f 139.85 ef 136.91 ef 141.27 def 230.00 b 142.82 def 142.34 def 136.40 ef 147.85 def 134.84 ef 143.50 def 136.75 ef 208.17 bc 174.01 cde 135.51 ef 136.37 ef 205.74 bc 143.67 def 145.02 def 151.25 def 160.64 Pod Lgt 0.36 7.28 243 7.40abc 7.34a-d 7.29a-e 7.06cde 7.26a-e 7.54a 7.42ab 7.18a-e 7.39abc 7.30a-e 6.98e 7.01de 7.05cde 7.28a-e 7.47a 7.08b-e 7.37a-d 7.34a-d 7.34a-e 7.38abc 7.30a-e 7.37abc 7.01de 7.25a-e 7.22a-e 7.33a-e 7.33a-e 7.21a-e 7.38abc 7.37abc 7.31a-e Pod Dia. 10,88 48.67 Pod per Pla. 18.67m 59.27bcd 50.37d-i 46.73f-i 49.67d-i 47.33e-i 54.30d-g 44.93f-k 53.43d-g 48.47d-i 57.82b-e 65.77abc 54.23d-g 67.60ab 35.23jkl 26.73lm 42.20h-k 45.20f-j 55.33c-f 49.63d-i 46.93f-i 50.65d-i 22.13m 34.27kl 40.37ijk 52.57d-h 66.33ab 53.53d-g 54.70def 70.50a 43.77g-k 19.8 199.290 173.59 j-n 243.79 a-f 190.51 h-m 190.72 h-m 205.38 f-k 194.46 g-m 220.95 c-i 212.45 e-j 265.67 ab 186.11 i-m 232.76 b-g 220.14 d-i 192.33 g-m 252.83 a-e 134.65 no 128.45 o 159.74 mno 165.36 k-o 202.72 f-l 189.18 h-m 157.95 mno 228.63 b-h 82.46 p 187.95 h-m 159.64 mno 223.92 b-i 256.42 a-d 262.36 abc 220.14 d-i 277.84 a 161.90 l-o 3.57 21.01 17.11l-o 26.95a 18.37i-n 21.84c-i 21.04d-k 19.30h-m 22.05c-h 20.38f-l 25.84ab 20.00g-l 25.93ab 24.54a-d 19.13h-m 23.99a-e 15.34n-o 13.62op 18.33i-n 17.93j-n 20.70e-k 21.70j-i 17.67k-n 23.16b-g 8.39r 11.38pr 16.01mno 21.37d-j 24.20a-e 23.84a-f 19.95g-l 25.00abc 17.79k-n Frsh Yld . Pl Seed Yld Pl. 11.48 77.46 17.50 67.99 1000 Seed Ac. Ag. Wg Test 142,01 o 78.67 defg 236,70 ef 85.33 a-e 158,17 mn 94.67 a 216,29 h 92.67 abc 187,16 i 93.33 ab 256,18 bc 84.67 a-f 250,45 cd 85.33 a-e 215,22 h 82.67 b-g 254,64 cd 76.00 e-h 260,14 bc 81.33 c-g 266,46 ab 78.67 d-g 219,19 h 81.33 c-g 175,08 j 88.00 a-d 170,45 jk 84.00 a-f 243,55 de 82.67 b-g 162,43 klm 62.67 ij 213,33 h 82.67 b-g 129,07 p 78.67 d-g 224,55 gh 76.00 e-h 165,37 jklm 65.33 hij 158,94 lmn 65.33 hij 218,27 h 76.00 e-h 175,19 j 73.33 f-i 170,24 jkl 62.67 i-j 147,56 no 76.00 e-h 258,31 bc 72.00 ghi 249,34 cd 54.67 j 157,53 mn 38.67 k 277,49 a 80.00 d-g 222,65 gh 81.33 c-g 231,81 fg 86.67 a-e 17.50 76.67 a-f 48.89 hi 63.33 d-h 81.11 abc 43.33 i 70.00 b-g 76.67 a-f 81.11 abc 72.22 b-g 80.00a-d 74.44 a-g 61.11 e-h 91.11 a 24.44 j 57.78 ghi 78.89 a-d 63.33 d-h 77.78 a-e 77.78 a-e 82.22 abc 86.67 ab 78.89 a-d 72.22 b-g 47.78 h-i 71.11 b-g 68.87 c-g 15.56 j 71.11 b-g 60.00 f-i 74.44 a-g 78.89 a-d 67.99 Cold Test �244 Table 2. Mean values of yield morphological and phenological characteristics and vigour tests results. Em. Rat. (%): emergence rate, Days to Bloo.(day): days to blooming, Days to Fr. Har. (day): days to fresh harvest , Pod Num.(number/plant): pod number per plant Pod Lgt (cm): Pod length, Pod Dia. (mm): pod diameter, Pod per Pla.(number): pod per plant , Frsh Yld . Pl (g/plant): fresh yield per plant, Seed Yld Pl.(g/plant): seed yield per plant, 1000 Seed Wg (g): thousand seed weight, Ac. Ag. Test (%): accelerated aging test, Cold Test (%) �References Altinbaş, M., Sepetoğlu, H., 1993. Bir Börülce (Vigna Unguiculata L.) Populasyonunda Dane Verimini Etkileyen Öğelerin Belirlenmesi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Doğa-Tr. J. Of Agricultural And Forestry. Sayı 17. 775-784. Altinbaş, M., Sepetoğlu, H., Karasu. A. 1999. Nohutta Verim Öğelerinin Farklı Çevre Koşullarında Verime Etkileri Üzerine Bir Çalışma. Türkiye Iii. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi. Cilt Iii.S. 348-353. Isparta. Aksoy, U. And Altindişli, A., 1999. Dünya’da Ve Türkiye’de Ekolojik Tarım Ürünleri Üretimi, Đhracatı Ve Geliştirme Olanakları. Đstanbul Ticaret Odası Yayınları, Yayın No: 1999-70. Đstanbul. S. 125. Anonymous, 2010. Faostat Data Base Results. Http://Faostat.Fao.Org/ Arora S.K., 1963. Chemistry And Biochemistry Of Legumes. Adward Arnold, London. Ceylan, A. Ve Sepetoğlu, H., 1983. Börülcede (Vigna Unguiculata, (L.) Walp) Çeşit-Ekim Zamanı Üzerinde Araştırma. E. Ü. Zir. Fak. Dergisi, 20/1, 25-40, Đzmir. Dixit, P., And Dubey, D. K., 1984. Path Analysis In Lentil (Lens Culinaris Med.) Lens News., 11, 2, 15-17. Gül, K., 1996. Börülce (Vigna Sinensis (L.) Endi) Tokat-Kazova Ekolojik Şartlarında Adaptasyonu Ve Uygun Ekim Zamanının Belirlenmesi Üzerine Bir Araştırma, G. Ü. Zir. Fak. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Tokat. Gülümser, A., Tosun, F., And Bozoğlu, H., 1989. Samsun Ekolojik Şartlarında Börülce Yetiştirilmesi Üzerinde Bir Araştırma. O. M. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 4, 1-2, 49-65, Samsun. Jadhav, B. B., Khalfe, S. D. And Birari. S.P., 1991. Role Of Environmental Factors In Flowering And Maturity Of Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata (Linn) Walp.). Indian Journal Plant Physiol, 34, 215-221, India. Oladiran, J. A., 1990. The Effect Of The Time Of Planting On Flowering And Seed Yield In Some Varietes Of Cowpeas (Vigna Unguiculata (L.) Walp.). Nigerian Journal Of Tecnological Research, 2:2, 91-94, Nigeria. Pandley, J. P., And Torrie, J. H., 1973. Path Coefficient Analysis Of Seed Yield Components In Soybeans (Glycine Max (L) Merr.), Crop Sci., 13, 505-507. Quinn, J. 1999 Alternative Crop Guide ‘Cowpea’. Jefferson Institute. Colombia. Mo. Indiana Edition. P:2. Singh, B. B., Mohan D. R., Dashiel, K. E. Jackai, L. E. N. 1997. Advances In Cowpea Research. Iita And Jircas. Terra G.J.A., 1966. Tropical Vegetables. Cummung 54, Dept. Agric. Res. Rept. Trop. Inst., Amsterdam. Tomer, R. P. S., And Verma S.R., 1989. Effect Of Seed Size On Seedling Size On Seedling Vigour And Mature Plant Characters In Cowpea (Vigna Unguiculata (L.) Walp.) Seed And Farms. 15:6, 25-27. Vural, H., Eşiyok H., Ve Duman. Đ., 2000. Kültür Sebzeleri Yetiştiriciliği. S:207-208. Đzmir.205-209 S. 245 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 433 Title A name given to the resource The Comparison Of Some Cowpea Populations According To Their Growth, Yield and Seed Quality Author Author OZTOKAT, Canan DEMİR, Ibrahim Abstract A summary of the resource. This research has been carried out in Canakkale-Turkey in order to determine the growth, yield and seed quality of 31 cowpea populations which were collected from Agean and Marmara Coastal Region. Research has been laid out in randomized block design with three replication. Emergence rate, days to flowering and harvest, pod length, pod weight, pod number, 100 seed weight, fresh pod yield (kg/da), seed yield (kg/da), standart germination tests, cold test and accelerated ageing have been determined. According to the test results, second population gave the highest seed yield 26.95 g/plant (84.20 kg/da). For fresh pod weight 30rd population has the highest yield with 277.84 g. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fd93db7de5db22dee2959d79122addc8.pdf c10e230f70b2e5ac0e6b09e4aeb04beb PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Educational Values in Rodop Folk Tales Dr. Erol OGUR Uludağ University Faculty of Education Bursa ogur@uludag.edu.tr Abstract: Tales have an important place and value in transferring and adopting national and universal values. Tales as a genre in folk literature are very rich in terms of language features and values. Tales deal with humans’ common feelings and thoughts before nature and life. Individuals of a society and particularly children find and acquire an important part of experiences preparing them for future in fabulous tales. This feature of theirs makes them a very important resource for children and children’s literature in addition to the education of society and transferring values. Tales have a very important role in developing children’s imagination, their ability to perceive abstract concepts and language skills. The child finds an environment similar to which he/she lives in the literary work created for him/her. S/he catches the opportunity to make connections and comparisons between the written or the told and the lived. Tales not only perform all these educational functions and duties but also entertain. Tales through symbolic elements they bear open the doors of a very different world to their readers and listeners. When symbolic and imaginary elements are taken out of tales making this environment entertaining with a style specific to them, real life comes out. In the present study, the tales published with the title “Rodop Turkish Folk Tales” compiled by Emil Boev and Hayriye Memova from the Turks living in Bulgaria will be examined in terms of values they include. Key Words: Tale, Rodop folk tales, education, educational values Introduction The tale, a literary text type, is one of the richest folk narrative types. From past to present various definitions have been made about the tale. The definition of Boratav is: “Tale is a short narrative which is told in prose, independent from divine and supremacy beliefs and customs, completely fabulous, irrelevant to reality, and does not allege to make people believe in what it tells” (Boratav, 1992; 75). Elçin’s definition of tale is a bit more comprehensive: “Tale, according to its prevailing characteristics, can be defined as the adventure or story of events pertaining to unknown persons or entities in an unknown place. In due course, adherent to rooted tradition, possessing collective character, “fictional-real”, “abstract-concrete”, or “earthly-spiritual,” tales are told and written using a special style about some topics, adventures, events, problems, themes and elements in prose language starting from the thought of spending time, educating people while entertaining” (Elçin, 1981; 369). Human being have been in continuous development to show his language force and developed various means of expression. Kunos explains about the value of the tale, one of the folk narrative types, in terms of language and culture like this: “….One of the first and most important of the artistic expression means brought by language is the tale. Tales as an oral literature type with which dreams and aspirations of humans are expressed in the course of time shed light on the past today like a diary. Tales tell about both the religions of old times and their natures and the literary judgements of those living in old times more than their written histories. The thing that we call tale is the period mirror of every nation. If we look at that mirror, we see both the worships of old people and the morality of our old times” (Kunos, 1978, s.113). Tales grew out of the effort that human being has spent to reach his desires and dreams (Güney, 1971; 87). Observed in the social life of the old times and ordinary people’s becoming a padishah or vizier by performing a task, in one sense, carries a meaning of ironizing the code that “royalty is closed to persons from the public.” This new status of the tale hero is sometimes a result of his being fortunate or sometimes a result of his saving the country from the unrighteous and incompetent ruler. This case should be considered as the fact that the tale is a reflection of the call-for-right desire and dream of the human coming from the collective unconscious (Boratav, 1983; 277-278). Tales have two important functions, namely amusing and educating. Tales treat the attitudes, intuitions and thoughts of the human toward life and nature. The extraordinary elements of the period when the human 331 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo started to struggle with the nature created tales. For this reason, we frequently come across motifs pertaining to the old cultures, religions and customs in tales. A tale told in any part of a country is told in other parts of that country with little variations. It is even observed that a tale belonging to a country is told in other countries with some motif and element variations. In this case, tales facilitate the transfer of national and universal values to young generations, enable educationalists to work easily and usefully during practice, and determine the reason for and the method of using them in educational environments (Karatay, 2007; 469). Besides the entertaining and instructive functions, tales, as mentioned above, are observed to have another function like being a source of history. The most important element which is included in its structure and used while classifying tales is “type”. Depending on their types, tales take different forms. Boratav classifies tales as “animal tales”, “actual tales”, “extraordinary tales”, “realistic tales”, “humorous stories”, “epigrammatic anecdotes”, “contradictions”, “chained tales” (Boratav, 1992). Starting from types, Alptekin (Alptekin, 2002; 53) classifies tales as “Animal Tales”, “Actual Folk Tales”, “Anecdotes”, “Chained Tales”, “Tales not Included in These Groups”. Among tales, the most encountered in terms of type is “Actual Folk Tales” and “Animal Tales”. “Actual Folk Tales” have such characteristics as the inclusion of rhymes in the introduction part, being very rich in terms of motifs and event patterns, selection of main heroes from humans and supportive heroes from extraordinary creatures such as animals, genies and fairies. Padishahs, viziers, beys and merchants are the mostly encountered heroes in Keloğlan tales. The main hero shows sometimes positive and sometimes negative personal characteristics. Different from the tales of other countries in the world, padishahs and other heroes in the Turkish tales are strongly criticized due to their not using the material and spiritual power in their hands fairly, not executing laws honestly and not hitting the right road. Moreover, in “Animal Tales”, creatures other than animals are not regarded as heroes (Alptekin, 2002; 35). In tales, the “motif”, the smallest indivisible part of the story, is, too, a very important element. In place of the word “motif”, Propp uses the concept “function” and Vesselovski uses the concept “tem”. In Turkey, the works of motif on tales starts with Pertev Naili Boratav. Boratav in accompany with Wolfrom Eberhard determined 378 tale types in the work entitled Typen Türkischer Volksmarchen, which they prepared together, and provided the motif order in these tales (Alptekin, 2002; 116). Included in the tales, such features as “a donkey’s bringing out gold”, “a snake’s giving advice”, “an animal’s marrying a human”, “animals’ speaking like a human”, “animal’s giving help”, “different events related to magic”, “extraordinary creatures” etc. are of mostly observed motif examples. In the book entitled Rodop Turkish Folk Tales (Boev-Memova, 1963), the source of our present study, fifty-nine tales are included.∗ The tales in the book were gathered under two categories, namely “animal tales” and “actual folk tales”, and these tales were examined in terms of the educational values they include. It is appropriate to evaluate fifty-five of the totally fifty-nine tales included in the book under the title of “Actual Folk Tales” in terms of type characteristics. In the book, there are four tales with the titles of “Sheep without a Shepherd” (p.5), “Learned from the Wolf” (p. 6), “The Cunningness of the Fox” (p.33), “The Wolf and the Cat” (p. 35). Educational Values in Tales The use of literary works in education brings along many opportunities. The language, esthetical and moral-ethical values in the literary wok realize an education to those reading it within the frame of these characteristics. The reader-audience seeing the life and many different life experiences in the literary works get benefited largely from this in knowing themselves and shaping their behaviors. Moreover, tales as literary texts will contribute a lot to the development and enrichment of individuals and especially children in terms of language, esthetics and ethics. Tales, the rich treasures of nations, include the characters and ideals of nations. The character of a nation shaped since the past, the targets and ideals, which started to form since the old times, almost permeated in tales. It is partly possible to remove the old traces of civilizations from tales (Tezel, 1968; 455). These narratives have a very important place in mass education, formal education ad especially in the education of children. Tales, very much liked especially by small children, are the sources from which they learn about the basic values such as “heroism”, “sacrifice”, and “importance of family” at the same time. The presence of very rich hero types and a dream world in tales is of the most distinctive characteristics of this type. In the tale, one of the basic elements educating a society, some relationships can be set up between problems that tale heroes encounter and realities of life. On the other hand, in tales, it is possible to reach information and principles regarding how a society perceives life (Yavuz, 1999). Human being has told from his own perspective about the realities of life, solution proposals and expectations by attributing them to tale events 332 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo and heroes, and hence tried to warn and educate next generations and equip them with skills against difficulties of life. The struggle of heroes in tales generally appears within the frame of such opposite concepts as “goodbad”, “right-wrong”, “fair-unfair”, “virtue-virtueless”, “justice-cruelty”, and “modesty-arrogance”. “The struggles of the good and the bad, the beautiful and the ugly, the rich and the poor, in other words, the positive and the negative are told. Apart from some exceptions, tales end with happy endings; the winning of the good, the beautiful, the intelligent. In tales, mishaps and hitches, different form the real life, appear at a time or interdependently. After these are resolved, no new problems appear, and the crown and marriage symbolizing the power, success and happiness never get harmed” (Günay, 1992; 326). Besides these values, such features as the willpower to reach goals, the testing of the power of hero are treated. Furthermore, the characteristics of the language used in tales actualize various educational acquisitions. It is tales that teaches the child how to use his or her mother tongue, and shows the skills, neatness and richness of this language for the first time. Especially the ease and amusement in saying have a strong effect on the language development of the child. On the other hand, tale rhymes make the language teaching enjoyable and undertake an important role in the improvement of listening skills of children as well. Tales, in terms of educational characteristics, carry values mostly for children. When it becomes a matter of using tales in education, firstly comes to mind the education of children. The characteristics expressing the importance and necessity of using tales in the education of children are these: 1. Fantastic elements they include, 2. Their realization of the education of emotions and thoughts due to their powerful esthetical aspect, 3. Elements of Humor, 4. The use of language differently and with their characteristics showing richness. The evaluation of the tales included in the book entitled Rodop Turkish Folk Tales within the frame of their thematic characteristics will reveal the educational features included in these in concrete manner. It is possible to gather the tales that we examined under the themes expressed below. Other than these, there are also tales treating such themes as “love”, “laziness”, “dullness”, and “agedness”. The actual aim in these is to reveal some values pertaining to social life through events. Besides this, in these tales, humor is a powerful element. The tales that we examined within the scope of the present study were evaluated within the frame of the themes specified below: 1. Struggle between goodness and badness 2. Courage and heroism 3. Using mind-practical intelligence 4. Patience and perseverance Struggle between goodness and badness The matters mostly treated in tales are under this title. Struggle between goodness and badness takes place both among animals and among people with different social structures. This struggle in tales is shown to audience by using imaginary and fantastic elements. These tales include powerful educational messages by embodying such value judgements as good-bad, right-wrong. Struggle between goodness and badness is included in tales, the heroes of which are animals, as well. In the tale entitled “Sheep without a Shepherd” (p. 5), the number of the sheep firing the shepherd in charge gradually decreases because of their being killed by dogs and wolves. At last they decide to find a shepherd again. The tales tells about that societies with no person to govern and protect themselves will easily be disintegrated and even destroyed by their enemies. In the tale entitled “The Wolf and the Cat” (p. 35), the wolf represents cruel and merciless people and the cat represents people under tyranny. The fact that badness will not go unnoticed, the bad will definitely pay for what they have done, and it’s no use crying over spilt milk is emphasized. In the tales entitled “Greedy Obsession” and “Goat the Liar”, where the heroes are a goat, a similar subject is treated. The goat in the tale entitled “Greedy Obsession” (p. 36) is decided to be punished by cutting when its lies expose. It cannot be thrown out from the rabbit hole where it takes refuge by such animals as wolf and bear. A very small insect entering its ear throws this goat out the hole. In the tale, people considering themselves as intelligent and violating others’ rights and looking down on them are criticized. In the tale entitled “Goat the Liar” (p. 186), the goat, as a result of its telling lies, causes the girl shepherding it and itself to be kicked from the house. At the end of the tale, the goat comes to senses. The goat and the girl go to the house of the homeowner. The owner of the goat is delighted with their returning, too, and they live happily after. In the tale entitled “The Vengeful Rooster” (p. 180), the theme of taking revenge from the bad is treated. The rooster takes revenge from the woman stealing the bells hanged by its owner on its neck by getting 333 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo help from the fountain together with such animals as fox, wolf and bee. Moreover, in the tale of “The Snake Fairy” (p. 29), at the end of the struggle between goodness and badness, goodness wins. The snake fairy marrying the daughter of a bey by taking shape of a human confines the girl to the cave it lives and oppresses her. Seven sons of an old woman with seven children save the daughter of Bey by killing the snake fairy. Bey gives her daughter to the eldest of these children. In the tale, that the struggle made against the tyranny with perseverance, determination and courage is always won is emphasized. The tale of “The Finger Child” (p. 71) includes the struggle between the weak and the strong, between the poor and the rich. In the tale of “An Orhan Girl” (p. 45), an orphan girl’s adventure is told. The step mother and her daughter are the figures who do evils and are the source of evils. The orphan girl living with her step mother and sister is sent by the step mother to a grain mill where demons come over to be killed. Listening to the demons, the girl takes the gold hidden by the demons in the grain mill and returns home. With the hope of becoming rich, the step mother takes her daughter and goes to the grain mill. Unable to find the gold, the demons find the step mother and her daughter and kill them on the grounds that they stole the gold. Thus, both the orphan girl gets rid of the evil deeds of the step mother and the bad get their deserts. “The Step Daughter” (p. 112), as understood from the title of the tale, the events lived by a step daughter are treated. The bad behaviors exhibited by the malignant step mother and her children toward the step daughter of the home are the mostly-treated themes in tales. The step daughter banished from home to get lost or die manages to survive with the help of good fortune and her true-heartedness. Through the event taking place in the tale, the thought of the presence of divine justice to watch and protect the step children against injustice in a society is observed. In the tale of “The Squash Girl” (p. 61), attention is attracted to the fact that malignant people will suffer a pang of conscience in the world in reply to their bad behaviors. In these tales, such messages as “the necessity of helping people suffering wrong”, “every struggle made with patience, perseverance and courage against the bad is won” are given. In “The Lame Goose” (p. 38), the lame goose gives the miller, a poor and old man, magic table and tells him not to tell anybody about the secret of the table. When the old man tells about the secret of the table to those coming to the grain mill, thieves steal the table. A magic mace that the lame goose has given the old man and his wife compassionately hits first the old people then the thieves on their heads. At the end, the oldsters feel happy to get the table back. The tale includes such thoughts as “a helpful hand is always available to give the poor” and “bad behaviors are certainly punished”. In the tale of “The Rich and the Poor” (p. 120), the symbol of badness is the elder one of the two brothers. He does not give his younger brother a share from the inheritance left by their father. The younger brother becomes rich when he finds the cave of the giants and their treasures. And when his elder brother goes to the cave with the hope of becoming rich, he is killed by the giants. In the tale, the badness of greediness and ambition to become rich is shown. In the tale of “The Vizier and the Padishah’s Daughter” (p. 110), the girl runs away from the palace as a result of the vizier’s drawing a bead on the padishah’s daughter and marries the son of a villager. The girl meets with her father again at the end of the tale. And the Padishah learning about the inside story has the vizier killed. The villager and his family in the tale become rich through this marriage at the end of the tale. The conflict element in the tale entitled “The Outstanding Beauty” (p. 144) is the Padishah’s daughter’s being jealous of the vizier’s daughter’s beauty and her desire to get revenge on her. The vizier, who is kind-hearted and loves her daughter very much, under strong influence of the feeling of fatherhood, puts her in a chest and sells in the bazaar to save his daughter. A young man saying that the Vizier’s daughter is more beautiful than the Padishah’s daughter buys the Vizier’s daughter. These two youngsters get married and live a happy life. From the tale, the following message is derived “Although the strong seems to beat the weak, the weak gets rid of this tyranny and gets happy thanks to the divine justice and kind-hearted people.” In the tale entitled “Sister Elçınar” (p. 173), the source of badness is the black-hearted and clumsy sisters and the witch accompanying them. Three sisters marry the son of the Padishah and dig in the palace. When the eldest and the middle sisters turn out to be clumsy, the youngest sister, as promised, gives birth to two babies, a girl and a boy, with a moon on the forehead of the one and a star on the forehead of the other, for the son of the Padishah. Being jealous of this, two sisters start to do evils to their youngest sister through the witch and cause her family to break up. In the tale, there are two entities helping the kind-hearted and honest people: Sister Elçınar and Deus Ex Machina (Hizir). Sister Elçınar is a half-fairy and half-human entity having heavenly powers. Provided they obey the rules, she helps the good. And she punishes the bad and the rule-less by gorgonising them. Deus Ex Machina (Hizir) is a guiding heavenly entity giving useful information to solve problems. At the end of the tale, Sister Elçınar tells the son of the Padishah about what has happened to the children makes him learn about the truth. The son of the Padishah takes his children and wife and comes to the palace. He punishes those who have done evils to himself and he and his family live a happy life. In the tale, the main idea that the kind-hearted and the right will definitely be watched and protected by an extraordinary power is treated. 334 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The heroes and heroines of the tale entitled “Pearl-toothed and Dagger-toothed” (p. 146) are humans and animals. Some of the animals have exceptional powers. The hero of the tale is a shepherd living with his mother, poor but kind-hearted and merciful. Because of his these qualities, he is helped by the animals with extraordinary powers. When the shepherd feeds and raises the baby snake that he finds it wounded and saves, the Padishah of the snakes’ gives the shepherd a magic ring. When the shepherd kisses the ring one time, the appearing Arab realizes all his wishes. With this help, he marries the daughter of the Padishah. A man hearing about the ring cheats the shepherd’s wife and replaces this ring with normal rings. Using the power of the ring, he takes the shepherd’s palace and family to a far-away place. The shepherd, with the help of his dog, Daggertoothed, and his cat, Pearl-toothed, continuously accompanying him, gets hold of the ring again. From the tale appear such messages as “The bad and those doing evils in a society pay sooner or later for what they have done. The good should be rewarded and the bad should not be let get away with his badness”. In the tale of “Atoğlu” (p. 126), there is a padishah with three sons and a daughter. Before his death, the Padishah tells his sons his will that they will let their sister marry whom she likes. After the Padishah dies, a giant asks for the girl’s hand. On her rejection, the giant kidnaps the girl. Atoğlu, saving his elder brother and sister from the giants’ hands, is a person with heavenly qualities. For his mother did not give birth to him by falling pregnant from a father. He has such power, courage and knowledge to beat the giants easily. The message from the tale is: “Disasters that human and societies experience are not permanent, and a kind of power will definitely help people to cope with these.” Courage and heroism In the tales, courage and heroism, appearing depending on this, is a frequently observed and treated theme. The understanding and character of a society on this matter reveal themselves through heroes’ extraordinary powers and adventures they live with heroes in the tales. The theme of courage and heroism in the tale is seen in the struggles between heroes selected from among animals and people from different social classes and people and animals or between supernatural powers. Tale audience is given ethics training through heroes’ adventures, and it is aimed to introduce people with understandings and behaviors that they are supposed to possess in life and made to adopt. Courage and heroism appear around the type of “Keloğlan”, which is frequently seen in Turkish folk tales, as it is in the tales entitled “Keloğlan and Kemer Tay” and “Bald Mehmet”. In the tale of “Keloğlan and Kemer Tay” (p. 11), Kemer Tay is a horse with extraordinary powers and intuitions. Keloğlan is a son of a bey; however, he leaves home as a result of his mother’s doing evils to him. Thanks to Kemer Tay, he beats every difficulty and finds remedies for cureless diseases. He gets the right to be bey as a result of heroisms he shows. In this tale finishing with a happy ending, the punishment of the bad is not seen. In the tale, the following message is given: “The people not leaving the true path and using their mind and willpower will never be beaten and become happy at the end even if they face difficulties.” In the tale of Bald Mehmet” (p. 8), humor is the actual element, but courage and heroism appear depending on coincidences. The coincidences-dependent heroism of the clumsy and feckless Bald Mehmet causes him to have a lucky break. The Padishah asks him to watch for his property, and if he achieves this, he will give him his daughter. Depending on a coincidence and a funny event, Bald Mehmet kills the enemy giant and becomes the sultan of the country. The thought that “it is necessary to resist injustice and tyranny” is treated as a theme in the tale of “Avcuoğlu Kara Mehmet” (p. 105). The tale hero is tested through various events. In the tale where such values as rebelling against the tyranny and removing tyranny are treated, the source of tyranny is the people and the Padishah pretending to be friends but continuously thinking of doing evils. For this reason, on returning the country, Kara Mehmet and his friends dethrone the Padishah and kill him. Kara Mehmet accesses to the throne and marries the Padishah’s daughter he brings with him and they live happily after. In the tale, various events and behaviors which are likely to be encountered in social life and the behaviors to exhibit against these are shown. In life around very successful and brave people there will absolutely be malignant people desiring to do evils secretly. No matter how big their responsibilities are and how difficult their works are, the brave, capable and honest people certainly accomplish these. If people want to be successful and happy in life, they should show attention to the fact that there should be informed, capable and faithful people around them. If tyranny exists in a place and no matter wherever it comes, it is unlikely to continue forever. And to get rid of tyranny, intelligent and brave people should certainly take the plunge and call off tyranny. In the tale of “Three Brothers and the Golden Apple” (p. 112), “disloyalty and punishment of disloyalty” is treated as a theme. The hero of the tale is the youngest of the Padishah’s three sons and superior to the others in terms of intelligence, honesty and courage. At the end of the tale, the youngest brother gets rid of the place where his elder brothers leaves him and comes to the land of his father. He kills his father and brothers and then marries the girl he loves and they live a happy life. In this tale, the source of badness is the padishah 335 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo and his sons. In the tale, such qualities as intelligence, courage and loyalty are glorified. In addition to this, such behaviors as disloyalty, promise-breaking, doing evil in return for goodness and discriminating between children are punished as well. The male treats the main idea that “Even the people near and dear to us may sometimes go through most unlikely evils for their own interest, but those doing these should keep in their minds that the evils they do may cause them to die.” Using Mind-Practical Intelligence This theme is most frequently treated in animal tales. Especially in animal tales that children like most, educational-instructive features with such aims as reinforcing a certain thought, providing an example, giving a warning lesson outweigh. Since children live the age of tales in terms of personality development, it is known that animal tales are necessary and amusing for them. A child never believes that a crow or fox can really speak. The child needs such extraordinariness in tales where motion element, diversion and extraordinariness are very intensive (Oğuzkan, 2001; 25). If children are not told tales, they will show the attitude of creating events and heroes similar to those in tales in their own world. In animal tales, it is known that animals represent some behavior patterns. Fox represents “cunningness and practical intelligence”, wolf represents “courage and heroism”, and lion represents “authoritative power and law.” In the tales entitled “Learned from the Wolf” (p. 6) and “Cunningness of the Fox” (p. 33), using its mind and producing practical solutions, the fox gets rid of the bad condition or danger it falls in. Seeing the death of the wolf with the lion-claw, the fox in the first tale saves its life by exhibiting obedient but practical solutionproducing personality before the lion. Moreover, the fox in the second tale gives harm to the animals, not having accepted it among them, in the forest and tarnishes their interest. Thus, though forcefully, it gets itself through the society where it lives. Both tales include such ethical values as “using mind”, “producing different solutions to problems”, “using the ways of producing solutions in place of fighting”, and “believing in the fact that people with different understandings and ideas can live together in the society by showing respect to one another’s differences.” In some tales, too, the theme of getting rid of poverty and becoming rich by using mind is treated. In the tale of “The Miller and The Fox” (p. 135), the fox first shows an evil-doing character. However, just while it is being killed due to its this offense, it starts to play the role of a character deciding to become a kind-hearted one both to get rid of death and to make its offense forgiven. And the miller suffering from the fox at the beginning of the tale, while he is a poor person at the beginning of the tale, both marries a girl and owns a palace through the help of the fox at the end of the tale. In the tale showing the importance of social justice and fair sharing, the fox with its cunningness and ability to persuade people and wittiness represents justice. In the tales entitled “Köse (Beardless)”, “Cunning Gipsy”, and “Lame Ismail”, there is a similar plot. The heroes in these tales go into fight against the giants, and thanks to their wise behaviors, they both beat the giants and get rich and happy. The giant in these tales represents big events and disasters that people may face and become unable to overcome in real life. In the tale of “Köse” (p. 67), Köse, thanks to his being wise and vigilance, both knows to protect him from the giants’ evils and becomes rich with the help of the giants. Köse represents witty, cautious people knowing how to overcome fears and knowing to use difficult-but-useful possibilities. In the tale of “Cunning Gipsy” (p. 79), when the dragon comes to eat the last villager in the village, a gipsy saves the villager from the dragon by acting wisely and intelligently. Making the dragon believe that both she and her children are very strong, she makes the dragon flee and gets the fortune left by the dragon. In the tale, since the villagers do not fight against the enemy dragon killing them and wait for others to fight in place of them, this results in their disaster. In the tale of “Lame Ismail” (p. 96), it is shown that the people seeming to be thin and weak can achieve such big works that they are not expected to do with their courage and by acting wisely. Lame Ismail looks weaker compared to his friends. However, by acting wisely and cautiously, he jerks the giant around and saves his friends from death. This behavior tells us that it is wrong to judge about people just by looking at their appearance. In the tale of “The Giant and the Padishah’s Daughter” (p.17), a giant falls in love with the Padishah’s daughter and they escape from the palace at night and play together in the giant’s palace. Keleş, a wise and vigilant person, gets the magic power in the hands of the demons by acting wisely and intelligently and, with the help of this power, learns about the inside story of the giant’s adventure. At the end of the tale, Keleş gets the right to marry the Bey’s daughter and half of the regality. In the tale, the following main idea is treated: “No matter how big difficulties you face in life, you can overcome everything with using your intelligence and perseverance.” In the tale of “Blind Şaban” (p. 72), Blind Şaban, a person without father and brought up by his uncle and in fact very intelligent, cautious and fearless, at first commits thefts. This tale aims to make its audience believe that Blind Şaban has the intelligence and cunningness to do the heroic works which he will achieve in the 336 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo future. Although the thefts committed by the hero of the tale are regarded as unfavorable in terms of individual and social education, the actual message is hidden in the style of performing these behaviors. Blind Şaban can make a very cunning plan and weather the storm in order to manage to perform a task on which he sets eyes or to steal. In the tale, Blind Şaban is the symbol of the intelligence, courage and power that can even hold the enemy Padishah captive. The tale conveys educationally rich messages. Raising children and the attitudes of parents in the education to be given to them are very important. Blind Şaban’s becoming a thief is due to his uncle’s encouraging him to become a thief. In the tale, to punish the theft and the thief, not Blind Şaban but his uncle is selected. For parents are responsible for the education of children and their behaviors. The second message in the tale appears with the event in which Blind Şaban takes the enemy Padishah captive to save his country from enemies. With this behavior, patriotism and heroism for the sake of a country are glorified. The attitude of the Padishah reveals the third message in the tale. The Padishah forgives Blind Şaban although he robs him and survives the traps he sets up to catch him. His forgiving him is not in return for nothing but in return for the heroism he will do for his country. The Padishah discovers the intelligence and ingenuity of Blind Şaban that he cannot capture in any way. With this behavior, a positive and successful administrator model selecting successful people to serve their country in a positive direction and using them in the administration of the country is exhibited. In the tales of “The Padishah and His Vizier” (p. 82), “A Codger Boy” (p. 91), “The Youngest Daughter” (s. 89), “Gotten His Teacher into Trouble” (p. 94), there are heroes and heroines coming to the fore thanks to their intelligence despite their young ages. In these tales, the importance of knowledge and the fact that intelligence and knowledge are present not only in adults but also in children are told. The heroes and heroines behave wisely when tested and successfully solve their problems by acting wisely and intelligently before the events they encounter. Moreover, from time to time, the heroes and the heroines having these qualities are observed to possess extraordinary powers as well. In these tales, such understandings as “it is necessary to pay regard to children even if they are young and pay attention and show respect to their ideas; it is important that government executives should appoint intelligent and cautious people having the ability to produce practical solutions instead of those with different qualities, and the overindulgence with money brings badness” are emphasized. In some tales, the intelligence appears in the form of a person‘s possessing the information that he or she is supposed to know about. In the tale entitled “The Padishah and His Two Viziers” (p. 84), the Padishah having the power, information and intuition and the viziers being unaware of these kinds of information are criticized. In the tale, persons holding offices in the government but weak in terms of information and understanding are criticized. Moreover, in the tale of “The Stupid Thieves” (p. 99), the message that those thinking that they are intelligent but others are stupid will be mistaken and fall on their swords is emphasized. Patience and Perseverance In tale plots, the struggle between one another occupies an important place. It is observed that, from time to time, extraordinary powers interfere in these struggles. In order for heroes or heroines to win the struggles they get into, they need to become patient and bear difficulties. A dimension of struggle appears in the form of heroes and heroines’ earning their lives by working. The heroes and heroines showing patience against the events they live and not losing their perseverance become happy and rich at the end of tales. In the tale entitled “Mustafa Çelebi” (s. 43), Mustafa Çelebi was given a cat, an animal not known in the world up to that time, in return for his work. Not liking this, the hero, when he arrives at a village, exchanges the cat for a sack of gold to hunt the mice and becomes a rich man. In the tale, the necessity of showing patience despite the unimportance of the things a person works and earns is emphasized. Mustafa Çelebi, who shows patience, becomes rich thanks to the cat. In the tale of “Misadventures” (p. 138), it is told that a family gets united and becomes happy as a result of showing patience to various troubles. The tale includes a message that “It is not possible to escape evils and troubles. Despite this, one should never give up fighting. Gracious and honest people will eventually win.” In the tale entitled “The Poor Girl and the Poor Bird” (p. 25), the young girl, the heroine of the tale, goes through the test of patience by waiting by a deceased young man for forty days. The young man awakening on the fortieth day makes a pilgrimage and marries the young girl and they become happy. The heroes of the tale entitled “A Rooster Tale” (p. 40) are a rooster and humans. The owner of the rooster tells the idle rooster to work and serve a purpose, or else, that he will cut it. The importance of being patient and in a struggle is treated. In the tale of “Padishah’s Daughter” (p. 49), the heroes are humans and fairies. Padishah’s son falls in love with a padishah’s daughter, but the son is kidnapped by the fairies and transformed into a pigeon. Padishah’s daughter waits patiently for her lover to come back. “Bald Boy” tells padishah’s daughter about the place of padishah’s son falling into the hands of the fairies. He figures out the events that nobody can solve and 337 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo brings the two youngsters together. In the tale, such values as “Being patient, not losing hope no matter how big difficulties are” are treated. A similar event is present in the tale entitled “The Youngest Brother” (p. 142) as well. Thanks to his patience and perseverance, the hero, who is poor at the beginning of the tale, becomes happy and rich at the end of the tale with the help of non-human entities and fortune. In the tale entitled “Iskender Padishah” (p. 23), the Padishah, the servant and the shepherd’s pipe constitute the central figures. The servant accidentally learning that the Padishah has horns cannot show the patience of keeping this secret. When the girl lies on the ground in the country and heaves a sigh, her secret passes to a bulrush sprouting on the ground. And when a shepherd’s pipe is made from this bulrush and blown, it tells that the Padishah has horns on his forehead. From the tale, the following message appears: “No secrets remain hidden in the world, and a secret known by person is no longer a secret.” Conclusion Knowledge, patterns of behavior and cultural values transferred from one generation to another and respected by everyone in a society are expressed by the concept of tradition. The tales having a part in the traditions of the Turkish society have been expressed by using not only the rich and fluent expressional characteristics of the language just with an understanding of giving advice, but also with a fantastic fiction. For centuries nations have accumulated the lessons they have extracted from their experiences, their philosophies of life, and their expectations about the future, their characters and senses of humor in tales. Thus, tales have become a type that not only a certain part of a society but all individuals like both to read and listen. This has made tales a source feeding informal educational activities in the society. Besides holding the values coming from the past and transferring these to upcoming generations, tales are a source preparing individuals for the future at the same time. In the struggle between the good and the bad, the good’s winning at the end and reaching the happy end, at the same time, realizes a social educational activity drawing away individuals from badness and guiding them to goodness, fidelity and graciousness. Since tales benefit from humor intensively while transferring and teaching these values and give place to a fantastic fiction in terms of the selection of heroes and the organization of events, they have been adopted and learned not only by children but also all the individuals of a society. While fulfilling the duty of transferring the values that a society itself has produced through reshaping them and educating the society around these values, they have done an important service in creating a “national consciousness” in individuals. References Some of the tales included in this book have also been compiled by other source persons and examined comparatively with different variants of these tales in Anatolia. This study shows that there are great similarities between the tales living among the Bulgarian Turks and those told in Anatolia. (For further information on this issue, see Dr. Ahmet Öcal, “Bulgaristan Türk Masalları ile Yozgat (Karakuyu) Masallarının Karşılaştırılması”, Erciyes University Social Sciences Institute Journal, Volume : 13 Year : 2002, pp. 113-123.) Alptekin, Ali Berat, (2002) Taşeli Masalları, Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara. Boev, Emil-Memova, Hayriye, (1963) Rodop Türk Halk Masalları, Sofya. Boratav, Pertev Naili, (1983) Folklor ve Edebiyat (1982) II, Adam Yayınları, Đstanbul. Boratav, Pertev Naili, (1992), 100 Soruda Türk Halk Edebiyatı, Gerçek Yayınevi, Đstanbul. Çevirme, Hülya, (2004) “Masal ve Efsanelerde Halk Eğitimi”, Đnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı: 548. Elçin, Şükrü, (1986) Halk Edebiyatına Giriş, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara. Günay, Umay, (1992) Masal, Türk Dünyası El Kitabı 3, Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayınları, Ankara. 338 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Güney, Eflatun Cem, (1971) Folklor ve Halk Edebiyatı, Millî Eğitim Basımevi, Đstanbul. Kantarcıoğlu, Selçuk, (1991) Eğitimde Masalın Yeri, MEB Yayınevi, Đstanbul. Karatay, Halit, (2007), “Dil Edinimi ve Değer Öğretimi Sürecinde Masalın Önemi ve Đşlevi”, Türk Egitim Bilimleri Dergisi, Yaz, 5(3). Kunos, Ignacz, (1978) Türk Halk Edebiyatı, Tercüman 1001 Temel Eser Serisi, Tercüman Yayınları, Đstanbul. Oğuzkan, Ferhan, (2001) Çocuk Edebiyatı, Anı Yayınları, Ankara. Tezel, Naki, (1968) “Türk Edebiyatında Masal”, Türk Dili, C. XIX, S: 207. Yavuz, Muhsine Helimoğlu, (1999) Masallar ve Eğitimsel Đşlevleri, Ürün Yayınları, Ankara. 339 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 715 Title A name given to the resource Educational Values in Rodop Folk Tales Author Author OGUR, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. Tales have an important place and value in transferring and adopting national and universal values. Tales as a genre in folk literature are very rich in terms of language features and values. Tales deal with humans’ common feelings and thoughts before nature and life. Individuals of a society and particularly children find and acquire an important part of experiences preparing them for future in fabulous tales. This feature of theirs makes them a very important resource for children and children’s literature in addition to the education of society and transferring values. Tales have a very important role in developing children’s imagination, their ability to perceive abstract concepts and language skills. The child finds an environment similar to which he/she lives in the literary work created for him/her. S/he catches the opportunity to make connections and comparisons between the written or the told and the lived. Tales not only perform all these educational functions and duties but also entertain. Tales through symbolic elements they bear open the doors of a very different world to their readers and listeners. When symbolic and imaginary elements are taken out of tales making this environment entertaining with a style specific to them, real life comes out. In the present study, the tales published with the title “Rodop Turkish Folk Tales” compiled by Emil Boev and Hayriye Memova from the Turks living in Bulgaria will be examined in terms of values they include. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/be5e76a6e22980aa39a06b8da90fe20d.pdf afc0a9b694d7268208b06464afce6bd1 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Attempt of Problematizing the Implementation of the European Bologna Process in Higher Education in South Eastern European Countries that are not Members of the European Union Tarik Obralić, PhD Faculty of Education, University of Travnik Bosnia and Herzegovina obralict@hotmail.com Hanifa Obralić. MA “Edhem Mulabdić” School, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina obralich@hotmail.com Abstract: World economic crisis has variously impacted higher education in the countries of the Europian Union and South East European Countries, which are not members of the European Union (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkey). In some countries, there was a significant increase in appropriations for higher education, but in some there was a drastic fall in investment in higher education. In the advanced ICT environment of the South Eastern European countries, countries which are not members of the European Union were given a global technology demand: high quality education, despite high cost and general economic, social and political opportunities. Many countries faced the most growing problems, and it led to a very slow or even stopped process of applying the basic principles of Bologna. South Eastern European countries, to some extent used to the crisis, couldn't sufficiently recognize oncoming dangers they have experienced. The study Bologna Process***** has started a new epoch of European education, especially higher education which undoubtedly entails educational reforms of national education programs at lower levels. These reforms are essential for higher education to become more attractive and more competitive for students who will receive an equivalent to a diploma. In spite of the fact, that the application of Bologna process has not affected the entire European educational space of South Eastern European countries (Oxford, Cambridge and the famous universities in Heidelberg, Paris and others, did not accept the concept of the Bologna), the countries that are not Members of the European Union accepted unconditionally and tended to apply Bologna principles. The World Market for Knowledge The globalization of the education market is a direct consequence of the overall development of ICT and the determination of English as the universal language of understanding, especially in science. Undoubtedly, ***** Certainly today, in the University circles and more broadly, one of most mentioned notions is the Bologna Declaration or more precisely the Bologna Process. Officially started with Bologna Declaration on June 19, 1999., the Bologna Process rests on the series of documents and declarations, beginning with Magna Charta Universitatum, on September 18, 1988, in which are given the basic principles of founding, constituting and acting of the Universities, then on the Lisbon Convention, Sorbonne Declaration, Bologna Declaration, Salaman's Convention, Prague and Berlin Communiqué, to the Bergen Conference, Norway, in May 2005. The essence of the Bologna Process is outlined by the Bologna Declaration, by which 29 European Ministers took the obligation to establish European Higher Education Area all over the world. Only in that way established European Higher Education System can realize desired synergetic effect, by which the increase would be enabled of concurring ability, either in economic and in cultural - educational domain as well, of the mentioned area. 315 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo this places education in the same place as the largest industries. According to its investment and rate, it can even overtake the military industry. In a such constellations of relation, universities in countries in transition, actually the countries of Southeast Europe that are not members of the European Union, faced a completely new position overnight. The universities faced a new reality and became totally dependent. In the advanced ICT environment of the South Eastern European countries, countries which are not members of the European Union were given a global technology demand: high quality education, despite high cost and general economic, social and political opportunities. Otherwise, the national systems and individual institutions will face serious consequences while participating in the global knowledge market. Therefore it is necessary to make changes. They are demanding and painful. This, primarily refers to the organization of classes, in which there has to dominate a new approach to a system that is aimed at students, rather at system focusing on the professor. South Eastern European countries (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cyprus, Montenegro, Serbia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkey), while in the process of transition and the world economic crisis, encountered in own crisis of economic, social and political structures, which has been present since the early nineties of the last century, supported by the negative financial events that have affected the world after failure of Wall Street, in October 2008, faced the most growing problems, and it led to a very slow or even stopped process of applying the basic principles of Bologna. South Eastern European countries, to some extent used to the crisis, especially after the fall of communism, war casualties in the postwar period, are not sufficiently aware of oncoming dangers that have to be confronted not only by the countries of Southeastern Europe, but also members of the European Union. In checking the functioning and implementation of the Bologna Process, based on ten indicators divided into three groups, the countries of Southeast Europe which are not members of the European Union ’’cling’’ to final rankings of the European scale implementation of the Bologna principles in the period of 2007 - 2009 . Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey are taking last places among last twenty countries on the list of 46 countries that are implementing Bologna. Then, will there be filled a new economic strategy plan "Europe 2020" which aims to increase the number of graduates in higher education institutions from the current 33% to 40% of the desired? World economic crisis had a completely different impact on higher education in EU countries and countries in Southeast Europe which are not members of the European Union. In some countries, there was a significant increase in appropriations for higher education, and in some there was a drastic fall in investment in higher education. The fact that Premature Report of the European Commission affirmed that the Bologna process has been greatly in use, and that the basic principles are obeyed in many ways and as such have become the rule in Europe (system based on studies in three cycles and more qualitative standards), does not help the countries of Southeast Europe which are not members of the European Union to overcome difficulties in implementing the Bologna principles. South Eastern European countries which are not members of the European Union (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkey) have a long and rich tradition of education at all levels of education, from preschool to university, and thus good basis for development. Is that enough? Is it possible to live and survive, while the global education market daily develops and brings new challenges? No, not enough, therefore radical changes are very necessary. They will provide global competitiveness on European market, as well as, on the global education market. This is unconditionally suggested by The World Bank’s Country Economic Memorandum. These changes can be divided into three levels: - Change what is taught (Curriculum) - Change the way of teaching (pedagogy) and - Change service providers (professors). Thus, under the new conditions that the time and circumstances dictate, each student during the raising and educational process has special needs that are necessary to determine, and according to these needs react. It can be managed only during lectures aimed at students. Therefore, individualized instruction. The studentcentered teaching demands the harmony of internal and external conditions of learning: a) the external conditions of learning 316 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo - Curriculum Textbooks and teaching aids Teaching competence Methods and teaching techniques Evaluation b) the internal conditions of learning (achievements in learning depend on them) - Backround knowledge of students - Motivation of students and - Ability (psychomotor and cognitive) Thus, the teaching focused on students, is a process of harmonization of the curriculum, textbooks, teaching resources, teacher competence, methods and techniques of teaching, evaluation, and at the same time student's background knowledge, student motivation and its psychomotor and cognitive abilities. In such an organized, student-oriented teaching (individualized teaching) students are able to fulfill the holes in education as soon he "enters" to the educational institution. In the process of student-centered teaching, the two fundamental preconditions are extremely important. They both refer to the one who teaches (the external condition of learning). In fact, it's about a professor who, on one side needs to know each student individually, and on the other hand, needs to be trained to do quality assessment of each student's abilities. Such kind of student-centered teaching application (support to each student) is widely prefered by Sweden, Denmark and Norway, which are well-known in European pedagogical practices among other European systems. What does it mean in terms of educational system countries in transition, countries of Southeast Europe which are not members of the European Union? The dynamization of markets, among others, implies the conclusion which demands changes in the organization of university. Thus, if we consider the Bologna process as a quality control system, then it assumes the reform of higher education in Europe, whose objectives include, inter alia, promotion of mobility of students, teaching assistants, professors and scientific workers, by establishing a European educational space in higher education which should be completed Scope by 2010.††††† The Bologna process is based on ISO 9001:2000 standards, therefore it's considered to a guarantee of quality. So it's about quality control, not production (achievements) quality. This is certainly a great challenge for the countries of South Eastern Europe which are not members of the European Union. European educational space tends to become a club of a knowledge society. It’s obvious that ‘’knowledge society’’ is widespread. It’s expected to respond to European challenges that are changing and in the labor market (enlargement of the EU and migration of workforce, the consequences of the recession, etc.). Education must become better and more efficient, while transfer of knowledge should be more effective. In such a relation constellation (migration, unemployment, recession) changes are more common. There is no guarantee for the job. Workers are in constant risk area of social exclusion. Quality education is a basic prerequisite for the establishment and activity of a knowledge society. The relationship between quality education and social development is very complex (not linear), and there are obstacles (prerequisites) to be overcome while trying to reach to the knowledge society. Great barrier (and not the only) are not components of the national development (including economic, political and cultural dimensions) that interact and evolve, but they are antagonistic (full contradictions and opposites) components of social reality. The way of quality education to the knowledge society is burdened with the constant dilemma of whether the goal of national development is to improve the quality of life in all its levels, or only some. European educational space with its 46 member countries can be a model, but not universal because it lags for non European educational space, referring primarily to the educational systems in the United States, ††††† The realization of this idea in praxis should be realized, according already mentioned Bologna Declaration, by: - Adapting the system of easy understandable and comparable academic titles, - Adapting the system with two main cycles (undergraduate / postgraduate), - Establishing of Credit system - ECTS, - Promotion of the mobility by eliminating the obstacles to effective applying of free movement of the students, lecturers, scientific collaborators and administrative personnel, - Advancing the European Collaboration and assuring the quality with the goal to develop comparable criteria and methodologies 317 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Canada and Australia. So, from the world's 20 best top ranked universities, none of them is a university of the EU member country. Even, 17 best top ranked universities in the world are from the U.S., then one from Japan and two from Great Britain (Oxford and Cambridge). As Great Britain isn't a member of the European Union, it is quite clear that none of the "top 20" is not from the European Union. In the global education market, Proctor European education, which includes 46 countries working on implementing the Bologna principles is significantly behind North American (U.S. and Canada) and the Australian system, although higher education institutions had been set in Europe even before America and Australia were discovered by sailors. So, what are the causes, if the consequences are very obvious? The following are some indicators that can be accepted as an answer to the problem: - The United States allocate 2.7% of the national budget for higher education, unlike European countries, which allocate just 1.1%. Investments in students in the U.S. are much higher (2-5 times) than those in Europe Students in the U.S. have a lower age limit of those successfully completing their studies than those in Europe Nearly half a million scholars from Europe work in the U.S. without thinking of returning In the U.S., there are 4 times more patents occurring (scientific discoveries) per capita, than in Europe * World “TOP 20” Ranking Universities Among The world's "Top 20" ranked, 17 universities are from the United States, 1 from Japan and two from Great Britain (Oxford and Cambridge) Table 1. World “TOP 20” Ranking Universities World Rank Institution Country Total Score 1 Harvard University USA 100.0 2 Stanford University USA 77.2 3 University Cambridge UK 76.2 4 University California - Berkeley USA 74.2 5 Massachusetts Inst Tech (MIT) USA 72.4 6 California Inst Tech USA 69.0 7 Princeton University USA 63.6 8 University Oxford UK 61.4 9 Columbia University USA 61.2 10 University Chicago USA 60.5 11 Yale University USA 58.6 12 Cornell University USA 55.5 13 University California – San Diego USA 53.8 14 Tokyo University Japan 51.9 15 University Pennsylvania USA 51.8 16 University California - Los Angeles USA 51.6 17 University California - San Francisco USA 50.8 18 University Wisconsin - Madison USA 50.0 19 University Michigan – Ann Arbor USA 49.3 20 University Washington - Seattle USA 49.1 * World “TOP 50” Ranking Universities 318 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1. Among the World "TOP 50" ranked universities, 40 of them are outside the European educational space, 36 of them are from the USA, two from Japan (Tokyo and Kyoto UNIVERSITY University) and Canada (Toronto University and the University of British Columbia ). 10 of them are from Europe: 4 from Great Britain (Cambridge University, Oxford University, Imperial Coll London, Edinburgh University), two from France (University Paris 06 and University Paris 11), and there is one from Switzerland (Swiss Fed Inst Tech - Zurich), Holland (Utrecht University), Sweden (Karolinska Inst Stockholm) and Germany (Munich Tech University). So, in Europe, among the "TOP 50", 10 ranked institutions are from Europe and only 5 of "TOP 50" ranked are from the EU Member States. 2. Among the "TOP 50"‡‡‡‡‡ ranked universities, 13 ranked universities are from Europe, with 300 million inhabitants, (8 from the UK, and only 5 from the countries in the EU, for example, while Australia is claimed for six ranked universities (20 million). If we pay attention to relationship, in the context of population, then we can reach different indicators which show that a top ranked university in the "TOP 50" is having 3.3 million Australians, whereas the ratio in Europe is not favorable because a top ranked university in the "TOP 50" is having more than 38 million Europeans. * World “TOP 500” Ranking Universities 1.In the category of ''Top 500'', again the U.S. is ranked at the first place with 178 universities among 500 universities in the world (35.6%), while the European countries ranked universities are from United Kingdom ,43, from Germany, 41, and from France, 22 universities. Among ''500 top ranked'' Asian universities, Japan leads with 34, China 19 and Korea 10 universities. From the region of Southeast Europe, there is no any ranked universitiy among the 500 best universities in the world. There are only two universities from Russia among universities of East European countries (Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University). It is very interesting that Belgium has participated with 7 universities ranked among top 500 (University Ghent, Leuven University, University Libre Bruxelles, Louvain University, University Antwerp, Liege University, Vrije University Brussel ) and Israel (3.5 million inhabitants), with the same number of universities ( Hebrew University Jerusalem, Tel Aviv University, Weizmann Inst Sci, Technion Israel Inst Tech, Bar Ilan University, Ben Gurion University, Haifa University). **Top 8000 World Ranking Universities Table 2. World University Ranking - Albania WORLD RANK 4355 UNIVERSITY SIZE VISIBILITY University Ismail Oemali Vlore 6,250 5,441 RICH FILES 3,014 SCHOLAR 3,936 Table 3. World University Ranking – Bosnia and Herzegovina WORLD RANK UNIVERSITY SIZE VISIBILITY RICH FILES SCHOLAR 2285 4410 4562 4654 University of Sarajevo University of Tuzla University of Mostar University of Zenica Faculty of Electrical Engineering University of Banja Luka University of East Sarajevo Faculty of Economics University of Banja 2,293 4,886 5,876 5,935 3,183 6,937 5,116 6,859 2,108 1,797 2,073 2,827 2,062 4,247 7,631 3,295 4,892 7,683 3,505 3,317 7,464 9,330 8,690 8,961 4,245 4,604 3,707 5,815 4963 6217 7572 ‡‡‡‡‡ Howard Davies, Higher Education in Europe: Crisis and Opportunity, Lisbon, 2006 319 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 7599 7923 Luka Faculty of Forestry University of Banja Luka University Dzemal Bijedic Mostar 11,548 7,912 10,712 2,509 6,683 7,391 11,208 8,001 Table 4. World University ranking - Montenegro WORLD RANK - UNIVERSITY SIZE - VISIBILITY - - RICH FILES - Table 5. World University Ranking - The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia RICH WORLD UNIVERSITY SIZE VISIBILITY RANK FILES 1720 Ss Cyril and Methodius University 2,533 1,801 1,984 Skopje 3821 SCHOLAR - SCHOLAR 1,739 6330 Saint Clement of Ohrid University of Bitola European University Macedonia 6655 State University of Tetovo 11,828 4,558 7,377 6,429 South Eastern European University 5,326 8,968 5,964 5,761 6987 6,657 3,486 3,404 4,627 6,384 5,524 10,883 5,635 Table 6. World University Ranking - Croatia WORLD UNIVERSITY SIZE RANK 1144 University of Zagreb 894 VISIBILITY 2,177 RICH FILES 4,958 SCHOLAR 6 2609 University of Zadar 3,851 2,846 2,790 2,517 4188 University of Split 6,725 4,653 2,735 4,500 4221 University of Rijeka 6,631 4,206 2,815 5,618 4675 Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek School of Medicine University of Rijeka University of Dubrovnik 7,662 3,798 4,844 5,655 5,314 6,895 2,794 5,078 6,792 6,629 3,677 4,535 University of Rijeka Faculty of Maritime Studies Rijeka Polytechnic 5,886 8,368 2,799 4,500 6,584 4,972 6,887 7,631 Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek Faculty of Mathematics 6,501 10,247 1,924 3,589 5006 5277 5564 5808 5892 320 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 7. World University Ranking - Turkey WORLD UNIVERSITY RANK 499 Middle East Technical University* 523 Bogazici University 607 Bilkent University 792 Istanbul Technical University 865 Ankara University 911 University of Anatolia 925 Hacettepe University 942 Sabanci University* 1017 Gazi University 1151 Agean University SIZE 418 873 421 760 1,250 1,115 895 1,060 857 1,029 VISIBILITY 794 498 990 1,346 1,294 884 1,463 1,550 1,868 2,007 RICH FILES 315 499 461 599 948 1,102 655 943 822 732 SCHOLAR 563 786 641 572 347 1,119 820 381 569 987 Table 8. World University ranking - Serbia UNIVERSITY SIZE VISIBILITY RICH FILES 212 SCHOLAR WORLD RANK 384 University of Belgrade 455 851 1181 University of Novi Sad 1,185 1,862 714 1,212 1790 University of Nis 3,260 3,438 789 975 2427 University of Kragujevac 3,208 4,601 1,029 1,694 5471 Singidunum University 4,980 9,163 3,293 3,195 6450 Faculty of Economics Subotica University of Novi Sad Megatrend University of Applied Sciences 7,867 6,906 5,310 6,004 8,264 6,782 5,613 6,507 6687 81 Conclusion The efforts of the European Union, to follow and apply changes among countries member of the EU, in the educational sphere the same way as in political, economic and social sphere, and even a step forward, to accelerate fundamental changes of educational strategies, in countries that are not even candidate countries for EU accession (countries South East Europe), after ten years have not brought the expected results. European University Association (EUA), a leading voice of higher education community in Europe with more than 800 members in 46 countries, is not hiding optimistic that the application of the Bologna principles is going better than expected. But reality of the situation on the ground denies it. The Bologna process is meant to be a unique framework of European higher education, in order to facilitate mobility of students and teachers and validation studies and diploma. In the SEE countries which are not members of the European Union, it is still far from expected. There are various reasons for it is so. A lack of university professors, a poor space, technological and financial capabilities make universities struggle for mere survival, which is certainly not a guarantee of forthcoming implementation of the Bologna principles. Burdened by the past, more and more confrontations between private - state universities and a modest investment in higher education are slowing down the initial application of Bologna. The economic crisis in Southeast Europe has also had an impact on enrollment quotas, employment and infrastructure and the continued development of lifelong learning, although the nature of this influence was not identical in all countries.§§§§§ The tendation of Europezation education area (Bologna process) in the SEE §§§§§ As the supplement of this list the Prague Communiqué enhanced the following elements important for the field higher education Lifelong learning Including the students in all segments of their academic life 321 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo countries, which are not members of the European Union (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkey), is far (at least for now) than expected. Literature: Bologna Declaration, (19 June 1999) Bolonjska deklaracija (prijevod) Credit Accumulation And Transfer Systems, (24-25 November 2000), Leiria, Portugal) Furthering the Bologna process - Reports to the Ministers of Education of the signatory countries, Prague, (May 2001) Joint Declaration On Harmonisation Of The Architecture Of The European Higher Education System, (May 25th 1998), Paris, The Sorbonne) Message from the Salamanca Convention of European higher education institutions SHAPING THE EUROPEAN HIGHER EDUCATION AREA, (29-30 March 2001) The Bologna Process Seminar on Bachelor-level Degrees Helsinki, Finland (February 16-17, 2001) The Magna Charta of University, Bologna, (18 September 1988) Towards The European Higher Education Area Communiqué Of The Meeting Of European Ministers In Charge Of Higher Education In Prague On May 19th 2001) Transnational Education Project Report And Recommendations, (March 2001 ) Advancing the attraction and concurring ability of the European Area of Higher Education to other parts of the world 322 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 713 Title A name given to the resource Attempt of Problematizing the Implementation of the European Bologna Process in Higher Education in South Eastern European Countries that are not Members of the European Union Author Author OBRALIĆ, Tarik Obralić, Hanifa Abstract A summary of the resource. World economic crisis has variously impacted higher education in the countries of the Europian Union and South East European Countries, which are not members of the European Union (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Turkey). In some countries, there was a significant increase in appropriations for higher education, but in some there was a drastic fall in investment in higher education. In the advanced ICT environment of the South Eastern European countries, countries which are not members of the European Union were given a global technology demand: high quality education, despite high cost and general economic, social and political opportunities. Many countries faced the most growing problems, and it led to a very slow or even stopped process of applying the basic principles of Bologna. South Eastern European countries, to some extent used to the crisis, couldn't sufficiently recognize oncoming dangers they have experienced. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b37b24ad03cf73380d9a4a3ca3c675b8.pdf 127dc21b851e5ccddaf6feaa81dfc19e PDF Text Text Effects of Different Applications on In-vitro Germination of Guava (Psidium guajavas L.) Seeds Hüseyin Namal Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey hus_namal@hotmail.com Beyza Biner Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey beyzabiner@hotmail.com Meliha Temirkaynak Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey temirkaynak@hotmail.com Sadettin Küçük Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey kucuksadettin07@hotmail.com Recep Çoşkun Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey recep0768@mynet.com Abstract: This research has been conducted in-vitro conditions to determine the effect of different applications on germination of guava (Psidium guajavas L.) seeds. GA3, sulfiric acid, cold and hot water treatments were used on this study. After the treatments, seeds were germinated in the dark in MS basal medium supplemented with different hormones. At the end of the studies optimum germination treatments were determined. Keywords: guava, seed, in-vitro, germination. Introduction Guava (Psidium guajavas L.), the apple of tropics, is a low evergreen tree or shrub, with widespreading branches and squae, is a native of tropical America. Guava fruit contain Vitamin C, A, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Guavas are up to 5 times richer in Vitamin C than oranges, 10-30 times more than bananas, 10 times more than papaya (Jain et al, 2001; Khushk et al, 2009; Anonymous a, 2010). Guava is being importance of trade in most tropic countries and some subtropic countries such as Türkiye. It is commonly propagated by rooting of stem cuttings. Air layering, grafting and propagated by seed are also used for these species propagation (Anonymous, 2010). There are several reports on seed germination and seed emergence revealed the beneficial effects of seed priming by several ways (heat, cold, soaking, temperatue, scarification, KNO3, GA3 and NaCl salinity) (Ahmed et al. 2006; Tiryaki, 2006; Tzortzakis, 2009). The objectives of the present study is to determine the effects of some pre-sowing treatments on seed germination of guava (Psidium guajavas L.). Material and Methods The studies were carried out with seeds of guava (Psidium guajavas L.). For germination, different seed pre- treatments were tested in vitro conditions. Applications made below: 828 �Gibberellins treatment: GA3 was mixed with distil water and made to different concentrations. The seeds were soaked in 250, 500, 750 and 1000 ppm GA3 concentrations. This treatments were made in light and at room temperature for 24 h. Chemical stratification: In the chemical stratification treatment, seeds were immersed sulfuric acid (H2SO4) 1, 2 and 3 minutes. Thereafter, the seeds were rinsed several times in clean distilled water. Hot water treatment: Seeds were treated in 60ºC hot water bath and respectively 5, 10 and 15 minutes. Hot water treatment+cold storage (4ºC+24 hours): Guava seeds immersed in top water in a jar and placed refrigerator at +4ºC for 24 hour. Cold treatment (4ºC+24 hours): Seed placed in jar and placed refrigerator at +4ºC for 24 hour. Soaking the seeds in tap water for 24 hours: Guava seeds immersed in top water for 24 hour. Germination After each treatment the seeds were surface sterilized by soaking in 70 % alcohol for 30 second and 5 % sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution for 20 minutes and subsequently rinsed thoroughly with sterilized water prior to applying any treatment. Thereafter, seeds were transferred to Murashige Skoog (1962) basal medium with darkness and temperatures of 24ºC and relative humidity of 70 %. Germinated seeds were counted every 3 day. Germination experiments were conducted using six replications of 30 seeds per treatment. Seeds were placed on Murashige Skoog basal medium. All dishes were sealed with a trip of parafilm to reduce water loss. The number of germinated seeds was recorded for 15th, 21th, 27th, 21st and 33th days. The GP and GR values were determined for each pre-treatment. The formula used in determining GR values is as follows (Pieper, 1952); GR = (n1× t1)+ (n2× t2)+ (n3× t3)+………+(ni× ti) T Where GP= Germination percentage (%), GR = Germination rate, n = number of days for each counting of t = number of germinated seeds at each counting day, and T = total number of germinated germinated seeds, seeds. The experiment lasted for about 50 days when it was observed that the seeds had stopped germinating. Results and Discussion Data for all variables for all treatments are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2. Germination percentage ranges among treatments from 0 to 96.67. At the end of 33rd day, germination rate ranges from 20 to 96.67, also an 4.5-fold ranges (Table 1). The hot water treated for 15 minutes seeds have higher germination percentage than all other treated seeds. Gemination percentage is significantly higher in hot water treated (different times) seeds than others. Table 2 shows that the effects of differnet applications on the germination rate of guava seeds. Guava seeds wasinfluenced by treatments. The highest germination rate was determined from hot water (exposed by 15 min) and cold water (exposed by 24 hours) treatments. The germination responses to heat treatments (especially hot water) of guava seeds were higher than GA3 and control treatments. Seed germination was not enhanced by gibberellin. Several studies (Cited in Tzortzakis, 2009) show that hot water, GA3 and cold water tretments of seeds ensure higher germination percentage and rate than control treatment. Thus, it is concluded that hot water treatments may be recommended for obtaining higher germination rate of guava seeds. Treatments 1 (250 ppm GA3) 2 (500 ppm GA3) 3 (750 ppm GA3) 4 (1000 ppm GA3) 15th day 21st day 27 th day 33rd day 0 0 23.33 10 6.67 10 23.33 16.67 16.67 10 26.67 23.33 20 13.33 26.67 33.33 829 �5 (Hot water+5 min) 6 (Hot water+10 min) 7 (Hot water+15 min) 8 (Cold water+24 hours) 9 (Cold+24 hours) 10 (Tap water+24 hours) 11 (Control) 0 0 56.67 13.33 10 6.67 10 26.67 16.67 73.33 23.33 33.33 16.67 30 50 40 83.33 50 36.67 33.33 60 56.67 50.33 96.67 70 50.33 36.67 76.67 Table 1. Effects of treatments on germination percentage (%) Treatments 1 (250 ppm GA3) 2 (500 ppm GA3) 3 (750 ppm GA3) 4 (1000 ppm GA3) 5 (Hot water+5 min) 6 (Hot water+10 min) 7 (Hot water+15 min) 8 (Cold water+24 hours) 9 (Cold+24 hours) 10 (Tap water+24 hours) 11 (Control) 15th day 21st day 27 th day 33rd day 0,00 0,00 13,13 4,50 0,00 0,00 8,79 2,86 2,81 2,72 1,96 7,00 15,75 13,13 8,70 9,88 6,56 12,41 5,86 2,81 8,45 7,44 20,50 15,75 16,50 14,10 21,00 18,38 15,21 16,14 16,31 20,72 21,52 26,60 24,00 16,50 24,00 24,88 26,63 19,76 25,57 26,63 23,72 24,39 Table 2. Effects of treatments on germination ratio The present study suggest that hot water or secondly water treatments may improve guava seed germination rate and quality in in vitro conditions. They are economic and easily applicable by workers, compared to costly plant growth regulators and associated technicalities. References Ahmed A.K., Johnson K.A., Burchett M.D. & B.J. Kenny, 2006. The effects of heat, smoke, leaching, scraification, temperature and NaCl salinity on the germination rate of Solanum centrale (The Australian bush tomato). Seed Science and Technology, 34:33-35. Anonymous, 2010. http://aggie.horticulture.tamu.edu/syllabi/423/3-6 SouthAmerFruts.pdf Jain N., K. Dhawan, S.P. Malhotra, S. Siddiqui & R. Singh, 2009. Compositional and enzimatic changes in guava (Psidium guajavas L.) fruits during ripening. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum. Vol. 23: (357-362) Khushk A.M., A. Memon & M.Đ. Lashari, 2009. Factors effecting guava production in Pakistan. J. Agric. Res., 2009, 47(2-12). Murashige T. & F. Skoog, 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bio-assays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant. 15: 473-497. Pieper A., 1952. Das Saatgut P, Parey Verlag, Berlin, Hamburg,Germany. Tiryaki I., 2006. Priming and storage of amaranth seeds:effects of plant growth regulatos on germination performance at low temperatute. Seed Science and Technology, 4:169-179. 830 �Tzortzakis N.G, 2009. Effect of pre-sowing treatment on seed germination and seedling vigor in endive and hicory. Hort.Sci. (Prague), 36, 2009 (3):117-125. 831 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 634 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Different Applications on In-vitro Germination of Guava (Psidium guajavas L.) Seeds Author Author Namal, Hüseyin Biner, Beyza Temirkaynak, Meliha Küçük, Sadettin Çoskun, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource. This research has been conducted in-vitro conditions to determine the effect of different applications on germination of guava (Psidium guajavas L.) seeds. GA3, sulfiric acid, cold and hot water treatments were used on this study. After the treatments, seeds were germinated in the dark in MS basal medium supplemented with different hormones. At the end of the studies optimum germination treatments were determined. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/99f1516c5814a1b1748b94adc0ea71d8.pdf f63e494b57a139e11c6b8bd3ac8b5711 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Two Women, Two Wars, Two Plays:Queen Elizabeth I and Lady Thatcher in the Theatre Nilgün Müftüoğlu Department of Translation & Interpretation School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey denizmuftuoglu6107@hotmail.com Abstract: Theatre does not only provide people with mere entertainment but also throughout history it has functioned as an effective instrument through which those in power impose their policies or playwrights vigorously criticize these policies. In this sense, Elizabethan drama, which is often associated with Shakespeare, played a significant role of endorsing the ideas and policies of a woman ruler, Queen Elizabeth I, namely maintenance of order and equilibrium in that particular period, whereas Lady Thatcher’s policies, one of the longest serving politician in British Political History, came under severe criticism from the prominent contemporary playwrights in the 1980s. In this paper, Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher are compared in terms of their portrait in the theatre by referring to two plays, Henry V and Sink the Belgrano!. Although Henry V is not a play directly about Elizabeth I, it celebrates Elizabeth I and her victory at the defeat of Spanish Armada. And Sink the Belgrano! directly criticizes Thatcher’s policy in Falklands War. Throughout history theatre has not only provided people with mere entertainment but also functioned as an effective instrument through which those in power have imposed their policies while simultaneously allowing playwrights to vigorously criticize these policies. This can be seen particularly clearly in the comparison between Elizabethan Drama and the theatre under Thatcher’s rule. Elizabethan drama which is often associated with Shakespeare played a significant role in endorsing the ideas and policies of a woman ruler, Queen Elizabeth I, namely maintenance of order and equilibrium in that particular period. On the other hand, Lady Thatcher’s policies, one of the longest serving politicians in British Political History, came under severe criticism from the prominent contemporary playwrights in the 1980s. Such an argument might be strengthened by attention to their portraits in the theatre by referring to two plays, Shakespeare’s Henry V and Steven Berkoff’s Sink the Belgrano!. Although Henry V is not a play directly about Queen Elizabeth I, it alludes to Elizabeth and her victory at the defeat of the Spanish Armada. On the other hand, Sink the Belgrano! directly criticizes Thatcher’s policy in the Falklands War. These two ruling women, Queen Elizabeth I from the sixteenth century and Margaret Thatcher from the twentieth century, share many similarities in terms of their character and political events of their era. Both women exhibit characteristics that prevent themselves from behaviors peculiar to the weaker sex. Elizabeth I was so concerned with the welfare of her country that she turned down all marriage proposals for the sake of her country as she thought that marriage would only serve to distract her from her governmental duties. Elizabeth’s commitment to her country is strikingly clear in this expert from her coronation speech. As she displayed her coronation ring, just like a wedding ring she stated as such “Behold…the Pledge of this my Wedlock and Marriage with my Kingdom. Every one of you, and as many as are English-men, are Children and Kinsmen to me” (Thomas, 1998, p. 95). Like a wife and a mother with responsibilities for her husband and children, Elizabeth had the responsibility to maintain the order and safety in the country as well as to remain faithful. Then, how could people expect her to marry while she had already been married? As for Margaret Thatcher, she had a hair-style in the appearance of being contrived and always dressed in either black or blue with an intention to have more impact than her male colleagues (Peacock, 1999). Elizabeth I had only one wish which was to get England to be recognized as a world power. By the same token, Margaret Thatcher desired to prove that England was still the world power as it used to be. Neither Elizabeth I nor Lady Thatcher inherited a peaceful and stable country. When Elizabeth I ascended to the throne in 1558, country was suffering from serious economic problems including inflation, the debasement of coinage and their farmers were struggling with another bad harvest (Hibbert, 1992). Likewise, in 1979 when Margaret Thatcher was elected as the Prime Minister, she too witnessed a near national breakdown with an inherent consequence of widespread distress (Reitan, 2003). Moreover, both Elizabeth I and Lady Thatcher had to deal with the power 356 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo struggles between two opposites. The former was caught between Protestantism and Catholicism and the latter between the Conservative and the Labor Party. In other words, they both had to prove themselves as powerful and talented leaders in the eyes of their people as well as their enemies. In this respect, the victories at the wars against Spain in 1588 and against Argentina in 1982 provided the prestige and popularity they looked for. In 1588, Philip II of Spain attacked England for a number of reasons: the piratical raids of English sailors on Spanish ships and ports, the intolerable interference of Elizabeth I in the Netherlands and the Pope’s desire to overthrow Elizabeth I, whom he announced as heretic (Carter & Mears, 1960). The battle drew to a conclusion with the defeat of the Spanish Armada. This victory not only secured the throne of Elizabeth I but also made England the most powerful naval force in the world. Thus, it paved the way for England to colonize North America. In addition, this meant a victory gained against Catholicism. On November 24th 1588, Elizabeth I gave thanks for the nation’s victory in St Paul’s Cathedral. Hibbert (1990) states that she arrived at the cathedral in a chariot drawn by two white horses and she was like the Goddess of Victory. From then on, people admired her so much that whenever the queen passed through the streets, they were eager to show their adherence. In the same manner, the Falklands War began when Argentina invaded the Falklands Islands and South Georgia in April, 1982, propounding the historic claim that the islands belonged to them. The Falklands issue was regarded as a chance by the governments because neither political nor economic situation was good in either country. For this reason, this war had important political consequences for both sides. The defeat of Argentina hastened the downfall of its government. In England’s case it reminded individuals all around the globe that England still had the power and ability that was so notable in its past. In particular, this victory meant a great deal to Margaret Thatcher since “Thatcherite triumphalism was born in the Falklands war” (Clarke, 1996: 375 cited in Cross, 2004: 174). It secured a second term as Prime Minister for Thatcher, who hitherto has been among the most unpopular leaders of Britain. With the advent of victory, people began to regard her as a powerful leader standing against a foreign power and voted for the Conservatives in the 1983 election (Evans, 2004). Thatcher recognized herself as the savior and unifying force of Britain (Cross, 2004), which reaches its fullest expression in her remarks on April 25th of 1982. Addressing to the public in front of the cameras outside 10 Downing Street, she wanted them just to rejoice. As Peacock (1999) states, “such self-aggrandizement exhibited monarchical tendencies.” (p. 19). The fact the Thatcher sunk a battleship and eventually defeated Argentina- a Spanish speaking nation, identified her in the minds of the people as a second Queen Elizabeth I (Cross, 2004). However, unlike Elizabeth I, Thatcher was annoyed by the Archbishop of Canterbury at the service of thanksgiving for the victory which was held at St. Paul’s Cathedral. In his sermon, Robert Runcie said “War is a sign of human failure, and everything we say and do in this service must be in that context” (Blewett, 2008, p. 4). Contrary to their parallels in personal character and political history, Queen Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher differ almost entirely when it comes to their portrayal in theater. Elizabeth I manipulated theater to maintain her power and authority. She herself patronized and protected the theatre. Stephen Greenblatt puts forward that it is because of the fact that Elizabeth had neither a powerful army nor an extensive police force (Hall, 1997). However, she had a more powerful thing, which was the pen of Shakespeare. Writing his histories with a pedagogical and political intention, Shakespeare became her preeminent comrade. By means of these plays, particularly Henry V, he aimed to “reinforce and consolidate belief in social order based on the power of the monarch” (Hall, 1997, p. 17). On the other hand, after Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979, the contemporary playwrights such as John McGrath, David Hare and Carly Churchill, who criticized capitalism in their works until that time, saw Thatcherism as a great threat and turned their harsh criticism towards Lady Thatcher and her policies (Cross, 2004). One play in particular was Berkoff’s Sink the Belgrano!. It is highly critical of Thatcher and particularly her policies during the Falklands War. In fact, when Shakespeare wrote his play, Henry V in 1599, it had passed eleven years after the defeat of Spanish Armada and there were four years to the end of the reign of Elizabeth I. The Golden Age of the British Empire was near to end and people were wondering who would be the successor of the queen. Moreover, the threat of war with Spain was still there to be prevented, and Queen Elizabeth was providing help to the Protestants in other countries (Hall, 1997). This historical and political background makes all the more apparent to us the fact that Henry V is not just one of those history plays of Shakespeare but that it embodies a profoundly important mission beneath its surface meaning. As Hall (1997) points out, “the play implicitly reflects Elizabethan England’s desire for a peaceful succession of the monarchy” (p. 14) while expressing the gratitude towards the queen. The play is full of implicit references to Queen Elizabeth I herself, her current reign and her victory on Catholic force of Spanish Armada. As for Berkoff, he waited four years to write his play, Sink the Belgrano! after the Argentine light cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by British nuclear-powered submarine Conqueror in 1982. It had been seven years since Lady Thatcher came to power and she would continue to rule the country for four more years. This meant that contemporary playwrights shifted their focus away from socialist and Marxist critique of capitalism to 357 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo an emphasis on Thatcherism (Cross, 2004) which aimed at low inflation through controlling the money supply in the economy, privatization and applying constraints on labor movement. Explicitly criticizing “the jingoistic patriotism of the Falklands War” (Cross, 2004, p. 170), Berkoff may try to warn about other inherent threats of Thatcher herself and Thatcherism. When it comes to their portrait in the plays, however, the names under which they appear immediately attract our attention. Queen Elizabeth I is replaced by another Tudor king, King Henry V who is in the process of proving himself a great king and a hero as well through not only his victory at the war with France but also his decisions concerning the state and his old friends. On the other hand, Margaret Thatcher turns out to be Maggot Scratcher in the play. This name leaves the impression that she feeds on other people’s death like a maggot and it can be understood that she gives damage around herself slightly like in the act of scratching. She gains prestige and popularity by means of 400 dead bodies in sinking the Belgrano. Even John Nott and Francis Pym, who worked as Secretary of State of Defence during the Thatcher government, are called through different names: Nott becomes “Nit”, which means a silly or stupid person, and Pym as “Pimp”. These names make it clear how Shakespeare and Berkoff perceive their characters and their deeds as well. The difference in their portraits becomes more visible in their deeds and speeches. First of all, both Henry V and Maggot Scratcher assert a claim on a land which is far away from the home. Henry V has a claim to the throne of France. His following question to the Archbishop of Canterbury suggests his already desire for such a claim: “May I right and conscience make this claim?” (I. ii. p. 446). Beneath such a question lies a sixteenth century fact. In this question, Henry V only looks for a justification for the war because in the sixteenth century there was the question of whether two Christian states could make war against one another (Campbell, 1970). And the Archbishop of Canterbury explains that one can not inherit the throne through the mother in France but Henry V can inherit that throne since there is not such a law in England and as he is the grand-grandgrand son of the daughter of the king of France, he can claim the throne to France. Thus, this claim is justified in the eyes of sixteenth century audience as well. However, there is something disturbing in Maggot’s claim on Falklands Islands. This is understood in what she says to Pimp: “the land is ours, that’s plain to see.” Maggot recognizes the islands as her own even though she does not know even how to locate on the map. At one point she asks “By the way Pimp… where is the Falklands??” Moreover, as one of the farmers living on the island states, it is Argentina but not England who concerns about their problems: They’ve done sweet FA all these years No roads are built, no hospitals… When we are ill or hurt we fly To Argy land where Argy hands Repair our broken bodies or we’d die (Berkoff, 1994, p. 12) Henry tries to show himself as a king who has been forced to make war against France. He achieves this by means of allowing the message from the French king to be delivered “freely” and thus showing himself as gracious (Hall, 1997): We are no tyrant, but a Christian king; Unto whose grace our passion is as subject As are our wretches fetter’d in our prisons: (I. ii. p. 448) Then he learns about the present of tennis balls from the French king. Realizing the mock under such a present, Henry states that it is a cause of a war: And tell the pleasant prince this mock of his Hath turn’d his balls to gun-stones; … Tell you the Dauphin, I am coming on, To venge me as I may, and to put forth My rightful hand in a well-hallow’d cause. (I. ii. p. 448) However, Maggot is shown to have a big desire for war. For example, when Pimp tells her that the Argentine government wants to make peace terms, Maggot gets nervous and says: They bloody what? Why peace terms no? After they shit on our front door (Berkoff, 1994, p. 158) It seems that she has not become happy with this news as she longs for a war in which she will make “a Spanish omelette”: I’ll make a Spanish omelette! At first I’ll crack some Argy eggs Throw in some tasty British herbs Well flavoured with strong English earth (Berkoff, 1994, p. 162) She needs a war to “establish once again our might and strength, Shake our old mane, out fly the moths” as she states herself in the play. As Margaret Thatcher declared, “We have ceased to be a nation in retreat. We have 358 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo instead a new-found confidence, born in the economic battles at home and tested and found true 8.000 miles away” (Young, 1989, p. 281). This was a message generally to the rest of the world and more specifically to the leftists. In her great desire to prove this, Maggot Scratcher does not miss the chance to sink the Belgrano although it stays out the Zone and even returning back. Affected by the speech of Tell who tells her to be hard as steel befitting her name “Iron Lady”, Maggot says: Then sink the bloody sod, that’s why I say We’ll change the engagement rules … OK (Berkoff, 1994, p. 181) and then gives the order: Then give the order… Let it be swift. Anyway those bastards started it Let them now take the consequence… (Berkoff, 1994, p. 182) However, Margaret Thatcher herself did not admit that the Argentine battleship was sailing back home when she was questioned on TV a year later during the 1983 election campaign. Mrs. Diana Gould asked the reason to sink the Belgrano while it was in fact drawing away from the Falklands, the answer of Thatcher was that “But it was not sailing away from the Falklands” (Young, 1989, p. 286). As Peacock (1999) observes, the decision to sink the battleship was heroic for her. In such a decision, she demonstrated her characteristics of decisiveness and fortitude that Young (1989) talks about in his work. If we refer to the play once again, we come across Berkoff’s explicit criticism in one of the speeches of the Chorus: Around the world, in every pub, In every dining room and lounge The voice of England can be heard Discussing the Falklands with angry sounds As if the family jewels had been thieved. Outraged. The telly on, the pot of tea Refueling parched throats for verbal war You’d never believe until last week They didn’t know Falklands from Leigh-on-Sea. (Berkoff, 1994, p. 169) Berkoff here criticizes the English public supporting Thatcher on this war and presenting jingoism to a place that they have not known about anything hitherto. The jingoistic attitudes of the ordinary public are because of the fact that there exists petrol in Falklands Islands. There is irony in the words “family jewels” pointing out the fact that the Falkland Islands and the petrol there do not already belong to England. Contrary to this portrayal, Shakespeare presents Henry V as an ideal hero and achieves to create a mood of exultation throughout the play (Campbell, 1970). For example, Henry V does not hesitate to execute his former friend, Scroop when he betrays the king. This shows that Henry V attaches more importance to the safety of the country than his relationships (Hall, 1997). When Scroop begs forgiveness, King Henry says: Touching our person, seek we no revenge; But we our kingdom’s safety must so tender, Whose ruin you have sought, that to her laws We do deliver you. Get you, therefore, hence, Poor miserable wretches, to your death: (II. ii. p. 451) King Henry once more proves himself when he learns that one of his old friends, Bardolph was killed in the battle field. He was already sentenced to death by King Henry because of stealing a “pax” from a French church. This is also evidence to the fact that King Henry gives importance to show respect towards the conquered country and that “the expedient military leader can not afford to be sentimental” (Hall, 1997, p. 88) as in the case of Scroop: We would have all such offenders so cut off: – and we give express charge that in our marches through the country there be nothing compelled from the villages, nothing taken but paid for, none of the French upbraided or abused in disdainful language; for when lenity and cruelty play for a kingdom the gentler gamester is the soonest winner (III. v. p. 458) However, celebrating Elizabeth I reaches its fullest expression in the speech Henry delivers before the battle of Agincourt. This speech becomes “the ultimate proof of Henry’s strength as a leader” (Hall, 1997, p. 90). Stating that they will fight for honour, justice and glory, Henry manages to encourage and inspire his soldiers and make them feel that to fight shoulder to shoulder with the King is a sign of brotherhood: If we are mark’d to die, we are enow To do our country loss; and if to live, The fewer men the greater share of honour. God’s will! I pray thee, wish not one man more. 359 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo By Jove, I am not covetous for gold; Nor care I who doth feed upon my cost; It yearns me not if men my garments wear; Such outward things dwell not in my desires: But if it be a sin to covet honour, I am the most offending soul alive. …. We few, we happy few, we band of brothers; For he to-day that shed his blood with me Shall be my brother; be he ne’er so vile, This day shall gentle his condition: (IV. iii. p. 464) This famous St. Crispin’s Day Speech immediately reminds one of Queen Elizabeth I’s address to her troops at Tilbury on 19 August 1588, when they were at the preparation to meet with the Spanish army: My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit our selves to armed multitudes, for fear of treachery; but I assure you I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear. I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects; and therefore I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. … I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. … but by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and of my people (Hibbert, 1992, p. 221). Both of these speeches present King Henry and Elizabeth I as rulers devoted to their country, individuals who would give their right arm for the sake of their kingdom and their people. Thus, celebrating Queen Elizabeth I, Shakespeare conveys the message of the importance of obedience to the throne and tries to convince the Elizabethan audience that a skillful and powerful leader’s concerns lie only with the well-being and stability of the kingdom and its people. And just as King Henry, Elizabeth I has been a great king and a hero; she had “the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too” (Hibbert, 1992, p. 221) as the queen herself states at her Tilbury speech. As can be deduced, there are a number of parallels between Queen Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher. Even both have a nickname. Elizabeth I was called as the “Virgin Queen” as she chose to remain single throughout her life, namely her reign. Margaret Thatcher is known as “Iron Lady” because of her tough-talking. Even tough the women share many similarities in their character and political history, one is celebrated by the theater of Shakespeare and the other receives harsh criticism from contemporary leading playwrights. While in the former theatre becomes a propaganda machine for the governments to strengthen their power and maintain order in the society, in the latter it turns out to be a means for the playwrights to attack the governments and their foreign policies. All these make it clear that theatre has served as a means of reflecting the characteristics of the time and some important personalities. References Berkoff, S. (1994). The Collected Plays. London: Faber and Faber. Blewitt, T. (2008). Introduction. In T. Blewitt, A. Hyde-Price & W. Rees (Eds.), British Foreign Policy and Anglican Church: Christian Engagement with the Contemporary World (pp. 3-8). Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Campbell, L. S. (1970). Shakespeare’s Histories: Mirrors of Elizabethan Policy. London: Methuen. Carter, E. H. & Mears, R. A. F. (1960). A History of Britain. London: Oxford University Press. Cross, R. (2004). Steven Berkoff and the Theatre of Self-Performance. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Evans, E. J. (2004). Thatcher and Thatcherism. NY: Routledge. Hall, J. L. (1997). Henry V: A Guide to the Play. Westport: Greenwood Press. Hibbert, C. (1992). The Virgin Queen: The Personal History of Elizabeth I. London: Penguin. Peacock, D. K. (1999). Thatcher’s Theatre: British Theatre and Drama in the Eighties. Westport: Greenwood Press. Reitan, E. A. (2003). The Thatcher Revolution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major, Tony Blair, and the Transformation of Modern Britain, 1979-2001. USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 360 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Shakespeare, W. (1987). The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, (Ed.). London: The Hamlyn Publishing Group. Thomas, J. R. (1998). Behind the Mask: The Life of Queen Elizabeth I. NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. Young, H. (1989). One of Us: A Biography of Margaret Thatcher. London: Macmillan. 361 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 718 Title A name given to the resource Two Women, Two Wars, Two Plays:Queen Elizabeth I and Lady Thatcher in the Theatre Author Author Müftüoğlu, Nilgün Abstract A summary of the resource. Theatre does not only provide people with mere entertainment but also throughout history it has functioned as an effective instrument through which those in power impose their policies or playwrights vigorously criticize these policies. In this sense, Elizabethan drama, which is often associated with Shakespeare, played a significant role of endorsing the ideas and policies of a woman ruler, Queen Elizabeth I, namely maintenance of order and equilibrium in that particular period, whereas Lady Thatcher’s policies, one of the longest serving politician in British Political History, came under severe criticism from the prominent contemporary playwrights in the 1980s. In this paper, Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher are compared in terms of their portrait in the theatre by referring to two plays, Henry V and Sink the Belgrano!. Although Henry V is not a play directly about Elizabeth I, it celebrates Elizabeth I and her victory at the defeat of Spanish Armada. And Sink the Belgrano! directly criticizes Thatcher’s policy in Falklands War. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/62a6e6b1b2450b46e2c744637d2fdd4a.pdf 9feafcfa61fcc56e3511084ffd141232 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Story Behind the Progress Alisa Mesihović International Burch University apindzo@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The aim of this paper is to discuss how are women affected by the collapse of the state socialist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe but the main focus will be ex-Yugoslavia countries. Social status and employment of women will be discussed, especially tertiary-educated women. I am particularly interested in quality of life that has changed and I will argue that these changes affect men and women in different ways i.e. that women lost much more of their quality of life due to great social changes. I am going to use different sources, primary researches, but I have also conducted small case study of women scientists working at the university. In conclusion I will show that “opening” and “liberalization” of new labour markets contributed to loss of the quality of life but especially forced women to change their ways of life. This is very interesting in light of the fact that in countries discussed woman is still expected to fulfil her domestic roles first and then to have successful carrier as well. Key words: university, education, market, gender equality, life quality Introduction Sustainable development rests on maintaining long-term economic, social and environmental capital. While the importance of investing in economic assets to assure progress has long been recognised, sustainable development also bring attention to the ecological and human dimensions which are also key to growth and development. In failing to make the best use of their female populations, many countries are under investing in the human capital needed to insure sustainability. The aim of this essay is to discuss how women are affected by the collapse of the state socialist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe but the main focus will be ex-Yugoslavia countries. Social status and employment of women will be discussed, especially tertiary-educated women. I am particularly interested in quality of life that has changed and I will argue that these changes affect men and women in different ways i.e. that women lost much more of their quality of life due to great social changes. Indicators of life quality are not only material, i.e. economic but for the purpose of this assignment I will limit them to education, health-care and welfare. Case study conducted here is about three women, different age groups who basically do the same job, in the same country, even at the same institution – University of Sarajevo, but under very different conditions. Theoretical approach used in this study is frog’s perspective i.e. the process of transition will be discussed through the lives of these three individuals. Methodology used is qualitative analysis, one focus group aimed to provide better insight in specificity of gender roles in two different social systems. To explain, feminist epistemology is different from the classical one and so are the feminist methods of research. One of the main characteristic of feminist methodology is domination of personal experiences and oral histories that are recorded, so the interview was the most convenient method to get primary information.†††††††††††††††††† The Story Behind Numbers, Post-Transition and Gender Equality: “Blessings of Transition” After the war in ex-Yugoslavia countries and transition in other ex-socialistic countries question of gender equality became well known to general public, but most of the people still believe that it is the product from western democracies. †††††††††††††††††† Note: Names in the interviews are changed in order to protect the privacy of participants. 475 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo I am not going to claim that socialistic society was not patriarchal but my claim is that if it had not been less patriarchal than Western European and American societies it was not more so. The phenomenon of a relatively high female presence among professionals and highly-educated is a legacy of women’s long history of attaining advanced degrees under state socialism.‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Socialistic system provided strong educational support for everyone regardless of gender, age, social status… etc. I am not trying to prove that there were no discriminatory experiences in that system but that would be the subject of another research and assignments. I was informed that in ex-Yugoslavia, for example, scholarships were available for everyone and that the education was in most cases absolutely free. When gender is considered there have always been professions which are considered to be exclusively male or female occupations but lack of legal frame for such claims opened the door to change these stereotypes. During the process of transition and after the collapse of socialistic system, countries faced “the blessings of transition”. One of the most prominent is definitely opening of markets which I could experience as a child in 1989. and at the beginning of 1990ies. My generation can still remember famous “Ante Marković’s Reforms” in ex-Yugoslavia and bananas and Austrian chocolates that became so cheap in that period of time. So my first image of transition is definitely the bright one. Others seem a bit foggy since the war came and the only economy I can speak about is the economy of survival. Interesting experience of both Croatia and BiH is that in spite of escalation of war and abnormal life condition education in all levels was rarely stopped. Schools and faculties continued to function regardless of unimaginably miserable conditions. It is important to say that most men took the weapon and that education depended on women. Collapse of once collective state and construction of new ones reinforced sense of ethnicity and ethno politics did renew the role of patriarchy, greatly helped by religious feeling regained. This added an extra burden for women to re-prove how good mothers and wives they are. In this contest linguistic analyses of word meanings is very interesting where we can prove that the term “nation” (narod) the most popular one during the age of transition is deeply enrooted in terms “birth, gender”…(rod, roditi…). So hand in hand of opening of new labour and all other markets came reinforcement of patriarchy and importance of women’s domestic roles. By conducting a small case study I tried to find out what has transition brought to tertiary educated women. Women in the Sciences, B&H Universities Focus of this research is age of the women that took part in this study, since their profession is the same one. Two of them finished the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Sarajevo and the third one finished Faculty of Arts at University of Sarajevo as well. Ms. Amy (as aforementioned names are changed) was born in 1940. and she got her B.A. degree at Sarajevo University in 1965. Being the best student in generation she was awarded a scholarship to continue her education in England and position of Teacher Assistant at the University was guaranteed to her. When she came back from UK in 1967. she was working at the University and in the meantime she got married and had her first child. Ms. Amy remember that period as one of the most beautiful in her life since she was already starting her PhD and than she had enough time to think about her baby and her future education. She was provided maternity lave for one year without any reduction of her salary. Anyway she came back to work after six months since she had great help of both her mother and mother in law and also of the whole her end her husband’s family who were very proud of her academic achievements. Her second child Ms. Amy had as already well known young university professor and once again she enjoyed her maternity leave. She explained to me that at the time when her children were babies and while growing up there was no need to worry for health care since it was free of charge for everyone and for every cure that people needed. Her salary was a bit higher than average one in ex-Yugoslavia so she was happy to be able to travel abroad both for business and private purposes. Ms. Amy still works in couple of universities in BiH and is highly admired by all her students for being great professor and a great person. Ms. Layla is 29 years old. She got her B.A. at University of Sarajevo in 2002. and continued her education at the same institution. Ms. Layla had to pay full tuition fees for her education since no scholarships were available. She’s been also working as a teacher’s assistant for three years now, for one of the public universities but her engagement is still on free lance basis. That mean she has no pension or health insurance ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ UNIFEM, The Story Behind the numbers: Women and Employment in Central and eastern Europe and the Western Commonwealth of Independent States, 2006. p. 47; in „Gender and Development“, Reader, Ceter for Interdisciplinary Post-graduate Studies Sarajevo, 2008/2009, edited by Marina Blagojevic, PhD 476 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo paid and now being pregnant, Ms. Layla has to pay for every single health care service. She will have no kind of maternity leave since she cannot afford the luxury of not working. That would mean she wouldn’t be able to pay for her child health care. Ms. Layla also works at two more different places where she teaches to get some extra money. At the same time although she has a great support of her mother she cannot rely on her service to look after new born baby since her mother is still working. Their plan is that grandmother to be, will take one month vacation when baby is one month old so Ms. Layla can go back to work. Although Ms. Layla is teaching foreign languages and is quite an expert, she has never visited a foreign country. The third story is about Ms. Nina, 31 years old lecturer who is regularly employed at full time basis at university of Sarajevo. She has been working for 7 years when she had her first child. Although she was guaranteed one year of fully paid maternity leave, no one could guarantee her that promotion of lecturer into a senior lecturer will not happen to the colleague who replaced her while she was absent. For this reason Ms. Nina decided to go back to work when her baby was only 3 months old and since there is no any official child-care institutions available for that age of children, Ms. Nina had to hire a lady to look after her child. Absurd is that she had enormous choice between lots of very well educated women who were ready to work for one quarter of her salary. Now I come back to the question what has “patriarchy regained” brought to women in ex-socialist countries? Is the role of mother and wife appreciated more and can we find women who enjoy respect for just being mothers and giving up all other occupations? It is hard to believe so. We see much more women who are expected to fulfil their domestic roles and have successful career at the same time. The European Commission’s report “Waste of Talents: Turning Private Struggles into a Public issue”, represented that women were better represented in the scientific work force in new EU member states and candidate countries from CEE than in the EU -15 accounting for 38 percent of total scientific researchers. The proportion ranges from 52 per cent in Latvia to 27 percent in The Czech Republic, while the average for EU-15 is 27 per cent.§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ This gap is definitely not due to the fact that women in EU-15 have more children or that domestic roles are more important and appreciated in this society. Moreover rate of birth is still significantly higher in CEE countries than in EU-15 countries. Authors of afore mentioned research, question if the high levels of participation are good news for women scientists in region. But when this research “peeled out layers” it was found that this statistics covered bitter truths, one of those already described in case-study of this assignment. Furthermore, large number of women scientists and scholars is employed in areas where work conditions are suboptimal. Very interesting is detail from UNIFEM’S research that shows how majority of teaching stuff at universities, (54%) is female but men are three times more likely than women to reach senior academic positions. The prospects of young female scientists and scholars are bleak due to lack of funding, rigid patterns of promotion and lack of appropriate welfare policies.******************* The unfavourable position of science and education which can be observed in former socialist societies and former industrialized societies going through or having gone through the process of “transition” (i.e. East-Central European societies within the EU or outside) is closely connected to the feminisation of science. According to the Enwise Report, scientific work is characterised by low salaries, low prestige and bad working conditions. Research clearly shows that both location and gender are crosscutting differences as regards the material, epistemic, technical and administrative as well as emotional support which scientists receive. Women (and other non-dominant groups) are more vulnerable if meritocracy is not exercised through transparent and objective sets of rules and procedures.††††††††††††††††††† Realizing that women are so often in charge of at least two employments ( in public and private sphere) would be a good start for necessary changes in procedures in force. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ UNIFEM, The Story Behind the numbers: Women and Employment in Central and eastern Europe and the Western Commonwealth of Independent States, 2006.p. 47; in „Gender and Development“, Reader, Ceter for Interdisciplinary Post-graduate Studies Sarajevo, 2008/2009, edited by Marina Blagojevic, PhD ******************* Ibid. p. 47 ††††††††††††††††††† http://www.wbc-inco.net/object/news/2653.html Archive : Gender and Excellence in S&T - An issue in the Western Balkans? By Marina BLAGOJEVIC on Dec 16, 2007 477 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Part-time and free lance employment: Coming back to the case study once more, I have to mention part-time employment and free-lance based employment which is very often seen as a good solution to problem of work-family balance. But as the example showed apart from saving a couple of working hours, part time engagement can only provide social insecurity for women. So as flexibilization of employment relations and lowering of social protection have been widespread in Central and Eastern Europe since transition, reduction in unemployment was expected. It is not necessary to mention again that the goals are not achieved and that as the transition started, the number of employed people has never reached the level of employed workers in industrialized communist society. Gender gap is envisaged once again if we just consider how much easier is for men to take more flexible jobs at the same time since the reinforcement of patriarchy once again confirmed the attitude that it is not their obligation to participate in “care-work”. This shows that woman does not necessarily have to be married or to have children to be “eligible” for extra work of providing care. Women have always been first in chain to provide care for older members of family, sick ones, etc. It is obvious than why employers are very often so keen to give advantage to men, when choosing employees. Conclusion: Trying to reflect my personal impressions through the lance of feminist perspective I gave my best to show that “opening” and “liberalization” of new labour markets contributed to loss of the quality of life but especially forced women to change their ways of life. Private life became almost impossible, or at least undesirable in the process of establishing successful carrier. My greatest wish is that this claim becomes false and outdated as soon as possible and one of lights at the end of tunnel might be plan of European Commission to improve communication between society and science. Still as long as we expect someone else to solve our problems and are waiting to see »the sun coming from the west« there cannot be much improvement. Successful model of career-private life symbiosis has already been seen in EEC and it is up to educated people to renew and improve that model now. If we just pay enough attention to the facts how this change affects not only women, but also those who »rely on« their help in some phase of their life (children and other members of family) we shall se that it is not only feminists' policy and duty to improve these condition. In this case it is so obvious that term feminist implays terms »childrenist«, »humanist«... I gues that than patriachists would not have such a big problem to understand that improwing the quality of life for women means the quality of life for everyone and science is to play the key role in creating new pespectives. Very interesting for me was the statement that classical academic knowledge is too slow, and that centers established apart from universities should enable articulation of new knowledge created by interaction of excellent scientists. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ . http://www.womenngo.org.rs/sajt/sajt/saopstenja/razgovori/marina_blagojevic.htm Accesed july, 2009. Iz knjige: Nadežda Radović, Politika na ženski način – RAZGOVORI MARINA BLAGOJEVIĆ 478 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References: Blagojević Marina, (2009), Knowledge Production and the Semiperiphery: A Gender Perspective, Belgrade, Institute for Criminological and Sociological Researches. UNIFEM, (2006), The Story Behind the Numbers: Women and Employment in Central and Eastern Europe and the Western Commonwealth of Independent States,. Daša Šašić-Šilović, (2009), Eastern Europe-capacity challenge. http://www.womenngo.org.rs/sajt/sajt/saopstenja/razgovori/marina_blagojevic.htm Accesed july, 2009. Iz knjige: Nadežda Radović, Politika na ženski način – RAZGOVORI MARINA BLAGOJEVIĆ Tragičan spoj patrijarhalne i postindustrijske mizoginije http://ec.europa.eu/research/science-society/pdf/sc_soc_wasted_talents_en.pdf Accesed july, 2009. http://www.wbc-inco.net/object/news/2653.html Archive : Gender and Excellence in S&T - An issue in the Western Balkans? By Marina BLAGOJEVIC on Dec 16, 2007 Accesed july, 2009 479 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 737 Title A name given to the resource The Story Behind the Progress Author Author Mesihović, Alisa Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this paper is to discuss how are women affected by the collapse of the state socialist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe but the main focus will be ex-Yugoslavia countries. Social status and employment of women will be discussed, especially tertiary-educated women. I am particularly interested in quality of life that has changed and I will argue that these changes affect men and women in different ways i.e. that women lost much more of their quality of life due to great social changes. I am going to use different sources, primary researches, but I have also conducted small case study of women scientists working at the university. In conclusion I will show that “opening” and “liberalization” of new labour markets contributed to loss of the quality of life but especially forced women to change their ways of life. This is very interesting in light of the fact that in countries discussed woman is still expected to fulfil her domestic roles first and then to have successful carrier as well. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1addbd9dd51c1ca4d0a14922bad354fc.pdf 346c00f8785af23e28692341a74acee7 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Criticism on Edward Said’s Orientalism Çağrı Tuğrul Mart Ishik University tugrulbey@hotmail.com Alpaslan Toker International Burch University atoker@ibu.edu.ba M. Fatih Esen International Burch University fesen@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Orient was a system of ideological fictions whose purpose was and is to legitimize Western cultural and political superiority; furthermore, the Western understanding of the East has grown out of a relationship of power, of dominance, of varying degrees of complex hegemony. The Orient signifies a system of representations framed by political forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and Western empire. The Orient exists for the West, and is constructed by and in relation to the West. It is a mirror image of what is inferior and alien ("Other") to the West. Orientalism is "a manner of regularized (or Orientalized) writing, vision, and study, dominated by imperatives, perspectives, and ideological biases ostensibly suited to the Orient." It is the image of the 'Orient' expressed as an entire system of thought and scholarship. The Oriental is the person represented by such thinking. The Oriental is a single image, a sweeping generalization, a stereotype that crosses countless cultural and national boundaries. The term Orient particularly included regions that used to be known as Persia, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Egypt. As awareness of other Asian countries grew in European consciousness, the term often came to mean South Asia, Southeast Asia or East Asia. By the late 19th century, the term usually referred to China, Japan, Korea and surrounding nations while the British colonists frequently used it when speaking of India. Key Words: Orient, Oriental, Other, Occident Introduction Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists. Orientalism was more widely used in art history referring mostly to the works of French artists in the 19th century, whose subject matter, color and style used elements from their travel to the Mediterranean countries of North Africa and Western Asia. Orientalism refers to the way in which non-Western specifically Asian cultures are perceived in the West, by scholars, writers, thinkers, politicians and society at large. Orientalism first appeared during the 19th century, when many scholars felt that a better knowledge of Asia was necessary to further the West's colonial aspirations. Edward Said argued in his highly influential book Orientalism (1978) that western scholars were so contaminated by their European ideas and preconceptions that they could not deal honestly and fairly with Asian topics. Said focused on the discipline of Oriental Studies in Europe, including philology, linguistics, ethnography, and the interpretation of culture through the discovery and translation of Oriental texts. Said stressed that they regarded their subjects as inferior to Westerners, and in general backward and in need of European authority and guidance. He repeatedly complained the Orientalists saw the Orient as unchanging and without an internal dynamic; it lacked internal potential for growth, unless it westernized. Edward Said 367 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo developed the notion of Orientalism and argued that this form of thought tells more about the values and biases of western society than about the far East. Said is best known for describing and critiquing "Orientalism", which he perceived as a constellation of false assumptions underlying Western attitudes toward the East. In Orientalism, Said claimed a "subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo-Islamic peoples and their culture. He argued that a long tradition of false and romanticized images of Asia and the Middle East in Western culture had served as an implicit justification for Europe and the US' colonial and imperial ambitions. Just as fiercely, he denounced the practice of Arab elites who internalized the US and British Orientalists' ideas of Arabic culture. Said argued that the West had dominated the East for more than 2,000 years, since the composition of The Persians by Aeschylus. Europe had dominated Asia politically so completely for so long that even the most outwardly objective Western texts on the East were permeated with a bias that even most Western scholars could not recognize. His contention was not only that the West has conquered the East politically but also that Western scholars have appropriated the exploration and interpretation of the Orient’s languages, history and culture for themselves. They have written Asia’s past and constructed its modern identities from a perspective that takes Europe as the norm, from which the "exotic", "inscrutable" Orient deviates. Edward Said argues that the Europeans divided the world into two parts; the east and the west or the occident and the orient or the civilized and the uncivilized. This was totally an artificial boundary; and it was laid on the basis of the concept of them and us or theirs and ours. The Europeans used Orientalism to define themselves. Some particular attributes were associated with the Orientals, and whatever the Orientals weren’t the Occidents were. The Europeans defined themselves as the superior race compared to the Orientals; and they justified their colonization by this concept. They said that it was their duty towards the world to civilize the uncivilized world. The main problem, however, arose when the Europeans started generalizing the attributes they associated with Orientals, and started portraying these artificial characteristics associated with Orientals in their western world through their scientific reports, literary work, and other media sources. What happened was that it created a certain image about the Orientals in the European mind and in doing that infused a bias in the European attitude towards the Orientals. This prejudice was also found in the Orientalists (scientist studying the Orientals); and all their scientific research and reports were under the influence of this (Orientalism 1978). Said puts forward several definitions of 'Orientalism' in the introduction to Orientalism (the quotations coming directly from Said) : • • • • • • • "A way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient's special place in European Western experience." (p.1) "a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between 'the Orient' and (most of the time) 'the Occident'." (p.2) "A Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient." "...particularly valuable as a sign of European-Atlantic power over the Orient than it is as a veridic discourse about the Orient." (p.3) "A distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts." (p.12) “The classical tradition of studying a region by means of its languages and writings: thus anyone who teaches, researches or writes about the Orient is an orientalist.” “A library or archive of information commonly and, in some of its aspects, unanimously held … a family of ideas and a unifying set of values … These ideas explained the behavior of Orientals; they supplied the Orientals with a mentality, a genealogy, an atmosphere; most important, they allowed Europeans to deal with and even to see Orientals as a phenomenon possessing regular characteristics.” Said summarized his work in these terms: My contention is that Orientalism is fundamentally a political doctrine willed over the Orient because the Orient was weaker than the West, which elided the Orient’s difference with its weakness. As a cultural apparatus Orientalism is all aggression, activity, judgment, will-to-truth, and knowledge. (Orientalism 1978) 368 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Criticism on Edward Said’s Orientalism Orientalism is a study of the genesis, evolution, and reproduction of a specific Western tradition of knowledge concerned with the Mashreq, or the eastern part of the Arabo-Islamic world. This tradition, however, is not one of pure and objective knowledge; rather it is the elaboration of a set of fantasies and beliefs that is subsequently used as the basis for Western colonial enterprise. Thus, Said's book is about aggression both symbolic and real; it is about the politics of knowledge, or rather about knowledge as a form of politics (Rassam 1980: 505). Said's radical thesis is set: the easy and logical convergence between Orientalism and Imperialism; the Orientalists as a conscious or unconscious collaborator in the colonial takeover of the Orient (Rassam 1980: 506). Said in Orientalism never really tackles the problem of the proper approach to "other" cultures and a sense of ambiguity and unresolved dilemma persists with the reader. Said sidesteps the issue by saying that his purpose is not to displace the old system of representations with a new one but simply to describe the context for the rise and development of Orientalism and its consequences. At one point, however, Said writes that "human societies, or at least the most advanced cultures, have rarely offered the individual anything but imperialism, racism, and ethnocentrism in dealing with 'other' cultures." Now, if all "advanced cultures" (including the developing Oriental ones) share this basic tendency, why single out Europe's failure to rise above it unless one assumes that because of its intellectual superiority and cultural achievement the West should have been able to overcome this natural human tendency. Said never says so outright, but one gets the feeling that he is judging Europe not in terms of its own historical reality and intellectual development, but in terms of the claims it makes for itself as the arbitor and guardian of humanity's highest values. And that is perhaps fair enough, since within the Western intellectual tradition, modern Orientalism in a sense represents a dinosaur, an outdated, fossilized theoretical edifice using language and concepts better suited to the nineteenth century (Rassam 1980: 508). If you study a culture or group of cultures having the character of the "Oriental," your study, as Edward Said's book points out, is itself open to analysis as a manifestation of "Western" culture. A book which indicates, as his does, that "Western" representations of the East (beginning with the notion of the East itself) have purposes which relate to purely Western needs and projects can be seen in its turn as a representation of Orientalism having purposes of its own, such as the furtherance of Arab political causes. A review which points these things out is itself asking to be reviewed in terms of its own representations and purposes (Chambers 1980: 509). Said's work can be seen as coming at the end of and to a considerable degree negating an earlier body of debate and work, much of it stimulated by the war in Vietnam and the broader upheavals of the Third World at the time. Said's work both subsumed that earlier debate and started a new one because while much of the other work was framed in broadly Marxist terms and was a universalist critique, Said, eschewing materialist analysis, sought to apply literary critical methodology and to offer an analysis specific to something called 'the Orient'; the result is that the issue of Orientalism, as debated in the Anglo-Saxon world over the past decade and a half, has had relatively clear battle lines, familiar to you all. On the one hand, the book of Edward Said advanced a comprehensive critique of Western, particularly English, French and American, writing on the Middle East, ranging from the eighteenth century to the present day, and encompassing literature, history, political and other sciences. Under the influence of Said's critique a range of work has been produced, criticizing academic and other writing on the region as, in various terms, Eurocentric, imperialist, racist, essentialist, and so forth. On the other hand, a range of writers on the region, most notably Bernard Lewis, have rebutted Said's charge and argued for an approach which falls, to a greater or lesser extent, into the 'Orientalist' category (Halliday 1983: 148). Said would seem to engage in an injudicious elision namely, that treatment of texts produced within the social sciences and in related activities such as journalism or travel writing, and literature. Of course, there are similarities and mutual influences; but while one is a necessarily fictional activity, without controls in reality or direct links to the acts of administration, domination, exploitation, the former is so controlled. To assume that the same critique of discourses within literature can be made of those within social science is questionable; it may indeed reflect the hubris, rather too diffuse at the moment, of theorists deriving their validation from cultural studies. This brings an area of difficulty with the critique of Orientalism, namely its analysis, or rather absence thereof, of the ideas and ideologies of the Middle East itself. Said himself has, in his other writings, been a trenchant critic of the myths of the Middle East and of its politicians, and nowhere more so than in his critique of the poverty of the intellectual life of the Arab world: while the rulers have constructed numerous international airports, he once pointed out, they have failed to construct one good library. But the absence of such a critique in his Orientalism does allow for a more incautious silence, since it prevents us from addressing how the issues discussed by the Orientalists and the relations between East and West are presented in the region itself (Halliday 1983: 160). 369 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Said’s thesis, shaped by both Gramscian Marxism and post-modernist French “high theory” (particularly that of Foucault), has provided the magnetic pole around which much of the recent debate about Orientalism has gravitated. Said’s argument was not altogether new but the originality and force of Orientalism derived, at least in part, from his insistent application of the Foucauldian principle that knowledge can never be “innocent” and is always deeply implicated in the operations of power. Through a wide-ranging analysis of literary texts, travel writing and a mass of European documents, Said uncovered a system of cultural description which was “deeply inscribed with the politics, the considerations, the positions, and the strategies of power.” (Oldmeadow 2004: 9). Ziauddin Sardar in his recent work “Orientalism” argues that the problem of Orientalism, what makes the dissection and display of its skeletal being a tricky matter, is the very fact of its existence. Because Orientalism exists we have a world where reality is differently perceived, expressed and experienced across a great divide of mutual misunderstanding. To discuss Orientalism one has to urge people to go beyond this misunderstanding and see what has been made invisible: to distinguish a different outline in a picture that has been distorted by centuries of myopic vision. There is nothing about Orientalism that is neutral or objective. By definition it is a partial and partisan subject. No one comes to the subject without a background and baggage. The baggage for many consists of the assumption that, given its long history, somewhere within or about this subject there is real knowledge about the Orient; and that this knowledge can be used to develop an understanding of the cultures East of the West. The task of this book is to undermine this assumption. While Orientalism is real, it is still, nevertheless, an artificial construction. It is entirely distinct and unattached to the East as understood within and by the East. There is no route map, no itinerary locked within the subject to bridge that divide (Sardar Orientalism: 75) Orientalism is a book with a thesis –that “Orientalism derives from a particular closeness experienced between Britain and France and the Orient which until the early nineteenth century had really meant only in India and the Bible lands”. To prove this point Said makes a number of very arbitrary decisions. His Orient is reduced to the Middle East, and his Middle East to a part of the Arab world. By eliminating Turkish and Persian studies on the one hand and Semitic studies on the other, he isolates Arabic studies from both their historical and philological contexts. The period and area of Orientalism are similarly restricted (Lewis 1982: 50) Said's account contains many factual, methodological and conceptual errors. Said ignores many genuine contributions to the study of Eastern cultures made by Westerners during the Enlightenment and Victorian eras. Said's theory does not explain why the French and English pursued the study of Islam in the 16th and 17th centuries, long before they had any control or hope of control in the Middle East. Critics have noted Said ignored the contributions of Italian, Dutch, and particularly the massive contribution of German scholars. Lewis claims that the scholarship of these nations was more important to European Orientalism than the French or British, but the countries in question either had no colonial projects in the Mideast (Dutch and Germans), or no connection between their Orientalist research and their colonialism (Italians). Said's theory also does not explain why much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of imperialism (Lewis 1982: 52) The critique of Orintalism raises several genuine questions. A point made by several critics is that the guiding principle of these studies is expressed in the dictum “knowledge is power” and that Orientalists were seeking knowledge of Oriental peoples in order to dominate them, most of them being directly or objectively in the service of imperialism. Another charge leveled against the Orientalists is that of bias against the peoples they study, even of a built-in hostility to them. The most important question least mentioned by the current wave of critics – is that of the scholarly merits, indeed the scholarly validity, of Orientalist findings. And Said has hardly touched on this question and has indeed given very little attention to the scholarly writings of the scholars whose putative attitudes, motives, and purposes form the theme of his book (Lewis 1982: 54) In his book Dangerous Knowledge, British historian Robert Irwin criticizes what he claims to be Said's thesis that throughout Europe’s history, “every European, in what he could say about the Orient, was a racist, an imperialist, and almost totally ethnocentric.” Irwin points out that long before notions like third-worldism and post-colonialism entered academia, many Orientalists were committed advocates for Arab and Islamic political causes. Irwin's argument is that the field of European research into Middle Eastern language, culture, and history was by no means so tightly linked to Western imperial ambitions as Orientalism suggests. He is also very skeptical of the value of analyzing Orientalist scholarship alongside Western literary texts devoted to the East— evading the distinctions between kinds of texts by treating them all as manifestations of a colonialist discourse. While acknowledging the great influence of Orientalism on postcolonial theory since its publication in 1978, George P. Landow - a professor of English and Art History at Brown University in the United States - 370 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo finds Said's scholarship lacking. He chides Said for ignoring the non-Arab Asian countries, non-Western imperialism, the Occidentalist ideas that abound in East towards the Western, and gender issues. Orientalism assumes that Western imperialism, Western psychological projection, "and its harmful political consequences are something that only the West does to the East rather than something all societies do to one another." Landow also finds Orientalism's political focus harmful to students of literature since it has led to the political study of literature at the expense of philological, literary, and rhetorical issues Landow points out that Said completely ignores China, Japan, and South East Asia, in talking of "the East," but then goes on to criticise the West’s homogenisation of the East. Furthermore, Landow states that Said failed to capture the essence of the Middle East, not least by overlooking important works by Egyptian and Arabic scholars. In addition to poor knowledge about the history of European and non-European imperialism, another of Landow’s criticisms is that Said sees only the influence of the West on the East in colonialism. Landow argues that these influences were not simply one-way, but cross-cultural, and that Said fails to take into account other societies or factors within the East. He also criticises Said’s "dramatic assertion that no European or American scholar could `know` the Orient." However, in his view what they have actually done constitutes acts of oppression. Moreover, one of the principal claims made by Landow is that Said did not allow the views of other scholars to feature in his analysis; therefore, he committed “the greatest single scholarly sin” in Orientalism. In Defending the West, Ibn Warraq demonstrates that Said is guilty of the major intellectual errors he ostentatiously decries in the twenty-fifth anniversary edition preface: obscuring the diversity and complexity of lived experience by falsely ascribing essential features to peoples and civilizations; and rendering categorical moral and political judgments without the adequate historical knowledge on which responsible judgment depends. He shows that Said routinely produces pretentious, meaningless, and contradictory speech. Most notably, in the fashion of the more glib postmodernism, Said stresses that "the Orient" does not exist but is rather the paranoid construction of Western scholars. This, however, does not prevent him from blatantly contradicting himself by positing that two centuries of study by scholars in Europe and the U.S. have produced "a growing systematic knowledge in Europe about the Orient" and "a fair amount of exact positive knowledge about the Orient." Nor does it stop Said from decrying Orientalists because contrary to his insistence that a real Orient does not exist and contrary to his acknowledgment that the Orientalists have gained substantial knowledge of it — they have "‘no interest in, much less capacity for, showing what the true Orient and Islam really are.' Said’s case against the West is seriously flawed. Warraq accuses Said of not only willfully misinterpreting the work of many scholars, but also of systematically misrepresenting Western civilization as a whole. Charles Paul Freund in his article “The end of the Orientalist critique” argues that Said in his book Orientalism was a harsh interpretation of the West's attitude toward just these matters, and the critique he established has since dominated the intellectual appraisal of the West's political and cultural relationship to the Muslim world and other peoples of the East. What was Orientalism? Said identified it in his foundational work as the political, cultural, and intellectual system by which the West has for centuries "managed" its relationship with the Islamic world. The central stratagem of this process has been reductionist misrepresentation. In brief, according to Said and the army of intellectual critics and journalists who have come in his wake, Orientalism transforms the East and its people into an alien "Other." That Other—usually a Dark Other—was in every way the inferior of the West: unenlightened, barbarous, cruel, craven, enslaved to its senses, given to despotism, and, in general, contemptible. Having established an Eastern Other in these degrading terms, the West emerged at the center of its self-serving discourse as, by obvious contrast, enlightened and progressive. 371 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Conclusion Edward Said in his study “Orientalism Reconsidered” as an answer to these criticism writes “my argument was that neither existed except as 'communities of interpretation', and that, like the Orient itself, each designation represented interests, claims, projects, ambitions and rhetorics that were not only in violent disagreement, but were in a situation open warfare. So saturated wi t h meanings, so overdetermined by history, religion and politics are labels like 'Arab' or 'Muslim' as subdivisions of 'The Orient' that no one today can use them without some a t t e n t i o n to the formidable polemical mediations that screen the objects, if they exist at all, that the labels designate.”. Said in “Orientalism Reconsidered” argues that the challenge to Orientalism, and the colonial era of which it is so organically a pail, was a challenge to the muteness imposed upon the Orient as object. Insofar as it was a science of incorporation and inclusion by virtue of which the Orient was constituted and then introduced into Europe, Orientalism was a scientific movement whose analogue in the world of politics was the Orient's colonial accumulation and acquisition by Europe. The Orient was, therefore, not Europe's interlocutor, but its silent Other. From roughly the end of the eighteenth century, when the Orient was re-discovered by Europe, its history had been a paradigm of antiquity and originality, functions that drew Europe's interests in acts of recognition or acknowledgement but from which Europe moved as its own industrial, economic and cultural development seemed to leave the Orient far behind. Oriental history for Hegel, for Marx, later for Burkhardt, Nietzsche, Spengler and other major philosophers of history was useful in portraying a region of great age, and what had to be left behind. Literary historians have further noted in all sorts of aesthetic writing and figurative portrayals that a trajectory of 'Westering', found for example in Keats and Holderlin, customarily saw the Orient as ceding its historical preeminence and importance to the world spirit moving westwards away from Asia and towards Europe. Said in the study writes The divergences between the numerous critiques of Orientalism us ideology and praxis arc very wide nonetheless. Some attack Orientalism as a prelude to assertions about the virtues of one or another native culture: these are the nalivists. Others criticize Orientalism as a defence against attacks on one or another political creed: these are the nationalists. Still others criticize Orientalism for falsifying the nature of Islam: These are, grosso modo, t h e believers. I will not adjudicate between these claims, except to say that I have avoided taking stands on such matters as the real, true or authentic Islamic or Arab world. But, in common with all the recent critics of Orientalism, I think that two things are especially important one, a methodological vigilance that construes Orientalism less as a positive than as a critical discipline and therefore makes it subject to intense scrutiny, and two, a determination not to allow the segregation and confinement of the Orient to go on without challenge. My understanding of this second point has led me entirely to refuse designations like 'Orient' and 'Occident'. (Orientalism Reconsidered 1985) 372 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Castle, Gregory. The Blackwell Guide to Literary Theory Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007 Freund, C. Paul. “The end of the <http://www.reason.com/archives.html>. Orientalist Critique” December 2001 25 Jan. 2010 Habib, M.A.R. A History of Literary Criticism From Plato to the Present Malden: Blackwell Publishing. 2005. Halliday, Fred. “Orientalism and Its Critics” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 20.2 (1983), 145-163 Lewis, Bernard. “The Questions of Orientalism” The New York Review (1982), 49-56. Ning, Wang. “Orientalism Versus Occidentalism” New Literary History 28.1 (1997), 57-67 Oldmeadow, Harry. “The debate About Orientalism” World Wisdom (2004), 3-19 Parry, Benita. “Problems in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse” Oxford Literary Review 1.2 (1987) Rassam, Amal, and Ross Chambers. “Comments on Orientalism” Comparative Studies in Society and History 22.4 (1980), 505-512 Robert, Irwin. Dangerous Knowledge London: Penguin Group Publishing, 2006 Said Edward W. Orintalism. 1978. London: Penguin, 1985 Said, Edward. “Orientalism Reconsidered” Race Class (1985) Sardar, Ziauddin. Orientalism Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Ed. Cary Nelson and Lawrance Grossberg. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988. Warraq, ibn. Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said’s Orientalism New York: Prometheus Books, 2007 373 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 720 Title A name given to the resource Criticism on Edward Said’s Orientalism Author Author Mart, Çağrı Tuğrul Toker, Alpaslan Esen, M. Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Orient was a system of ideological fictions whose purpose was and is to legitimize Western cultural and political superiority; furthermore, the Western understanding of the East has grown out of a relationship of power, of dominance, of varying degrees of complex hegemony. The Orient signifies a system of representations framed by political forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and Western empire. The Orient exists for the West, and is constructed by and in relation to the West. It is a mirror image of what is inferior and alien ("Other") to the West. Orientalism is "a manner of regularized (or Orientalized) writing, vision, and study, dominated by imperatives, perspectives, and ideological biases ostensibly suited to the Orient." It is the image of the 'Orient' expressed as an entire system of thought and scholarship. The Oriental is the person represented by such thinking. The Oriental is a single image, a sweeping generalization, a stereotype that crosses countless cultural and national boundaries. The term Orient particularly included regions that used to be known as Persia, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Egypt. As awareness of other Asian countries grew in European consciousness, the term often came to mean South Asia, Southeast Asia or East Asia. By the late 19th century, the term usually referred to China, Japan, Korea and surrounding nations while the British colonists frequently used it when speaking of India. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cbedac93474433fb3e128e5705500c7c.pdf 7d442b2398a7ec679a3bcc1585819d8d PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Power of Words in Communicating Effectively Çağrı Tuğrul Mart Ishik University tugrulbey@hotmail.com Abstract: Words are the keys to the heart. Beautifully crafted words have the power to captivate the mind of anybody. A sweet-tongued man is loved by one and all. Audience is always attracted towards those who can speak efficiently and effectively. Wisdom is knowing when to speak your mind and when to mind your speech. Words have the power to heal broken hearts and make dreams come true. They have the power to make someone feel better about themselves. They also have the power to break hearts in the first place and to keep dreams from coming true. And of course they have the power to tear someone down completely and cause them to feel completely worthless. Words have the power to both destroy and heal. When words are both true and kind, they can change our world. “Language (n): The music with which we charm the serpents guarding another's treasure.” Ambrose Bierce. Have you ever taken the time to think about just how powerful and effective words are? Words are important elements of oral communication. They help us communicate to others our beliefs, opinions, sentiments and experiences. Words used determine what we receive, how we think, and the accuracy with which we communicate these thoughts and feelings. In oral communication, meanings are relayed or affected by the way we say the words, by the tone of our voice, and by our body movements. Yet, the words themselves must mean the same thing to the listener that they do to the speaker if we want to achieve effective and accurate communication (Gutierrez). The words you speak can have a profound effect on the people they reach so effective communication involves carefully chosen words. Are you encouraging or discouraging? Words are continuously propelling us through life. They lift us up, drag us down, wound us deeply or heal our hearts. Words have the power to break confidences, build life long alliances or start wars (Jane). Words have set whole nations in motion…Give me the right word and the right accent and I will move the world. Joseph Conrad Words can inspire us to greatness; they enable us to share our deepest feelings with one another. Words can change us as individuals. When used with care, they can change the world around us. Choose to use your words to encourage and uplift. Choose them with wisdom and love (Jane). “Few things in the world are more powerful than a positive push. A smile. A word of optimism and hope.” Richard M. DeVos, billionaire businessman Words are of different kinds, affecting and influencing our life beyond our expectations. Sometimes, we fail to grasp their true power and how they affect our lives (Subhpoto 2009). Speaking comes to most people as naturally as breathing. On many occasions our words are uttered without conscious thought; in fact we rarely stop and think about what we are saying. Thousands of words pour out of our mouths each day as our thoughts, opinions, judgements and beliefs are freely expressed. Often, however, we are oblivious to the positive or negative effect these words have on ourselves and the people around us. At times we find it so difficult to refrain from saying words we know will only harm. We have to think carefully before we let them go (White 2005). “The real art of conversation is not only to say the right thing at the right time, but to leave unsaid the wrong thing at the tempting moment. “ Dorothy Nevill “By words we learn thoughts, and by thoughts we learn life.” Jean Baptiste Girard Words can reveal thoughts, conceal pain, paint dreams, correct errors, and pass along dearly bought lessons to the latest generation. Words can transport knowledge from the past, interpret the present, and speak to the future. Words can build walls between people, or bridges. Words can tear down or build up, wound or heal, 152 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo tarnish or cleanse. The ability to use words can endear you to your fellows, win them to your side, and enable you to rise to heights you may now only dream of (Griessman 2007). “Words are potent weapons for all causes, good or bad.” Manly Hall Using proper words in communication is a skill. It is the skill of communicating. It is a skill to cloth beautiful words in fitting words. It is the ability to use fitting words to captivate an audience. We should be mindful of the word that comes through our tongue. Poorly chosen words can kill enthusiasm, impact selfesteem, lower expectations and hold people back. Well chosen ones can motivate, offer hope, create vision, impact thinking and alter results. Select words that create a visual of the desired outcome; and choose each word as if it mattered. If you want better results check your words because positive words produce positive results (Russell 2004). "Words are, of course, the most powerful drug used by mankind." Rudyard Kipling The greatest power a man possesses is words. There is nothing that can compare to the power and the impact of words. Putting in mind that the use of a single word can create a big impression or the other way around. So know your words. They stimulate, inspire and motivate us to use our energy to the fullest to gain maximum. Encouraging words can do wonders for us. Our kind words can refresh and energize the people and give them fillip to do great and constructive work, sometimes even beyond their power and capacity. Good words gladden hearts and harsh words sadden and disappoint the listeners. Words of praise and admiration are indeed magical (Subhpoto 2009). Most of us are unaware of the power of words and their effective use to make the most of them to be successful in our life. We hardly give the words their due importance. We are supposed to have good understanding of the words we use daily in both our written and spoken language. We must try to understand the meaning of words and use them accordingly. When someone asked Confucius the meaning of the word “Virtue”, the sage said: “Five things constitute virtue. They are courtesy, magnanimity, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness. With courtesy you avoid insult. With magnanimity you win all. With sincerity men will come to trust you. With earnestness and kindness you can achieve success.” (Subhpoto 2009). Kind words can warm for three winters, while harsh words can chill even in the heat of summer. Words have immense power to transform our life. What we need is to grasp their power to use them to our own advantage and to improve our relations with the people we come into contact. By using good, soft and pleasant words we can win the hearts of people and get their love, sincerity, devotion and dedication in return. Sweet words can make our world a happy Eden where nothing but love and peace reign supreme (Subhpoto 2009). Using words and terms that are understandable is wiser over impressive and not so often use ones that are used sometimes to impress and not mean anything to the audiences. Know who your target audiences are (Nodalo 2005). Lee Iacocca said: "We can have brilliant ideas, but if you can't get them across, your ideas won't get you anywhere". Words have tremendous power. Words give out energy and a message which creates a reaction in others. Everything you say produces an effect in the world. Whatever you say to someone else will produce some kind of an effect in that person. We are constantly creating something, either positive or negative with our words. Words of kindness and acceptance will generate a warm and appreciative reaction in a person. That person’s response to the words will be stronger because it will have the emotion created by the words attached to it. The power of words has a ripple effect in our life and those around us. We govern the world with words said one successful leader (White 2005). "You have it easily in your power to increase the sum total of this world's happiness now. How? By giving a few words of sincere appreciation to someone who is lonely or discouraged. Perhaps you will 153 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo forget tomorrow the kind words you say today, but the recipient may cherish them over a lifetime." Dale Carnegie An important key to success in life is to understand the power of words. A word is a thought eternalized. Our thoughts do have a great effect on us even though they are internal. What we think effects the way we live our life, it effects our emotions, our attitudes and our behaviour. A thought spoken, however, has even more power. It can never be taken back; it is out of our mouth and will have an effect. Our words have even more power than our thoughts because they not only affect ourselves, but the people and the world around us (White 2005). "A careless word may kindle strife, A cruel word may wreck a life, A timely word may lessen stress, A loving word may heal and bless." Successful people take control of their words, rather than letting their words control them. They are more conscious of their thoughts and words and the power they unleash. Successful people understand that they need to speak positively rather than negatively in order to see success. Successful people are characterized by the words that they speak. They know the importance of speaking words that will build self-esteem and confidence, build relationships and build possibilities. They speak words of affirmation, encouragement, love, acceptance and appreciation (White 2005). “Thanks to words, we have been able to rise above the brutes, and thanks to words, we have sunk to the level of the demons.” Aldous Huxley To see more personal success, the words that we speak need to be in alignment with what we want to see being produced in our life – our vision and our dreams. Your words can determine your destiny. Even more importantly, your words can make a positive difference on the people you interact with every day. Before you speak ask yourself: Is what I am about to say going to uplift the hearer? Will it inspire, motivate, and create forward momentum for them? Will it dissolve fear and create safety and trust? Will I create a positive or negative ripple effect by speaking out these words? Let‘s be determined to unleash the power of words for positive change (White 2005). Conclusion Positive communication is a necessary life skill, an essential part of emotional intelligence, a way to get ahead, and simply a way to be decent to others and words we use in communication can have a powerful hidden influence on our motivation and faith in ourselves. Words can be used to build your own or another’s selfconfidence. Words have power. Think carefully before you let them go. Words have profound effect. Pearl Strachan said “Handle them carefully, for words have more power than atom bombs.” References Clark, Anna. “The Power of Your Words.” January 2010 12 February 2010 <http://www.sustainlane.com.html. Griessman, Gene. “ The Power of Words.” May 2007 10 February 2010 <http://www.impactarticles.com.html>. Gutierrez, T. Burgos. “Power-Packed Words and Praises” 13 February <http://www.jobsdb.com/PH/EN/.../Home/.../skills-impvmt.html>. Jane, Amy. “The Power of Words” 15 February 2010 http://www. hubpages.com/hub/Power-Of-YourWords.com.html. Nodalo, Karen. “ The Power of Words.” July 2005 15 February <http://www.articleblast.com.html>. Perera, Chandrasoma.” The Role of Words in Our Communicating Effectiveness.” September 2009 . 154 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 17 February 2010 <http:// www.articlesbase.com. html>. Russell S. Nan. “Words. Words. Words.” 2004 . 15 February <http://www.careerknowhow.com/improvement/words.htm>. Subhpoto, Khadim Hussain. “The Magic Power of Words and Their Influence on People.” May 2009. 14th February <http://www.articlealley.com.html>. White, Barbara. “Harness the Power of Words in Your Life” August 2005. 14 February 2010 <http://ezinearticles.com. html> 155 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 418 Title A name given to the resource The Power of Words in Communicating Effectively Author Author Mart, Çağrı Tuğrul Abstract A summary of the resource. Words are the keys to the heart. Beautifully crafted words have the power to captivate the mind of anybody. A sweet-tongued man is loved by one and all. Audience is always attracted towards those who can speak efficiently and effectively. Wisdom is knowing when to speak your mind and when to mind your speech. Words have the power to heal broken hearts and make dreams come true. They have the power to make someone feel better about themselves. They also have the power to break hearts in the first place and to keep dreams from coming true. And of course they have the power to tear someone down completely and cause them to feel completely worthless. Words have the power to both destroy and heal. When words are both true and kind, they can change our world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/053bff520088d8b106d2847429e08343.pdf b4dae7acc7cc7e013d13d4112d6eab8d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Film Making and Language Learning Prof. Dr. Visam Mansur Department of English Language and Literature Beykent University, Istanbul-Turkey visammansur@gmail.com Abstract: Theodosakos in The Director in the Classroom: How Filmmaking Inspires Learning argues that filmmaking ―enables students to explore any curriculum subject through the active process of making a film about it‖ (p. 30). Furthermore, while Simkins (2007), David Nunan (2004), emphasize the tendency to teach language through group based projects, Joyce, etal (2000) establish the essentiality of such group based projects on developing and enhancing communication skills. In my paper I will examine the impact of film making activities on English Language learning in classes of mine over a period of few years where most students were hesitant to produce language effectively at the onset of the course. The paper will view the cons and pros of film making activities with emphasis on the potential advantages it carries for the leaner in terms of enhancing learner‘s pronunciation, vocabulary acquisition, awareness of language structures and sound language production. Key Words: Language acquisition, cinema, scriptwriting Introduction The best possible kind of input required for language acquisition and learning has been at the center of arguments and research by so many scholars (Krashen, 1987; Pinker 1994; Morgan 1986; Ingram 1989). For instance Stephen Krashen proposes that language "Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language." (1987: 6) Krashen maintains further that "The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situation." (1988: 7) Most educators would agree that the following input items enhance both acquisition and learning:   Input should be comprehensible introduced with simple vocabulary and clear instructions in standard language Input should be interesting Such optimal input helps reduce the so called ―Affective Filter‖ and enhance students‘ ability at language acquisition and production. Krashen maintains ―Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.‖ (1988: 68) Film Making The term sounds daunting and interesting at the same time. Daunting because it requires well prepared teachers and students willing to take the challenge involved in such an activity. Interesting because it involves plenty of what is needed to learn and produce language in new environments: collaborativity (teamwork), creativity, art, performance and multimedia usage. My story with teaching English via movie making started few years ago in a beginner‘s class in the English department where I was working then. I observed that students were timid and reluctant to produce English language effectively as they were conscious of the processes of both acquisition and production. What strikes me about the class is the fact that most of the students were well versed in a very passive way of the language structure. They all know in theory the various verb forms; they know the basic sentence structure and know well about the various irregularities that come up with English. The problem we faced in the class was that students would not talk in English and when they do so they do it horribly with the basic structural rules violated. It was then that I decided to resort to the old-new method of using drama in teaching to simulate a somewhat natural atmosphere for language acquisition and production. In order to make the activity as natural and spontaneous as possible, I introduced students first to computer software that helps generate a screen script and guide the students step by step to generate characters‘ descriptions and needed objects‘ details. 1222 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The software I chose for this task is called CELTX. It is easily available for download online and is usually offered for free. Introducing the students to the software is not that difficult for both teacher and student. Furthermore, the activity of introducing the students to the software constitutes a natural environment for enhancing students‘ acquisition of program related jargon and helping a lot in lowering the so called affective filter that inhibits language learning and production. Key Features of CELTX The software is neither made for English language teaching nor for teaching creative writing. What it does is simply to guide the students, help organize the student‘s ideas and help leading the students to include what is needed for a script in a very natural and stimulating environment. For instance as the students begin to write, the software makes them aware of six basic elements needed for the script: Scene Heading, Action, Character, Dialogue, Parenthetical, Transition, It is observed that these elements in the program create the control environment needed by the learners to help them start and finish their scripts. These also function as subtle and constant instructor reminding the students and guiding them to accomplish their desired task in the standard format without them having to waste time thinking of the structure of the script. In this respect the software spares the students the time needed for structuring the activity in favor of focusing on the creative and linguistic sides of the activity. As a professional teacher whose aim is to instruct and lead his students to learning rather than drilling those in the conventional manner CEKTX through its modules that explore in details aspects of character and objects included in the script helps students generate the language needed to fulfill the requirements of their scripts using the maximum language they can afford. The Character Module for instance requires that the students describe a given character in the following terms: Name, Actor, Description, Media (image), Age, Hair, Eyes, Height, Weight, Distinguishing Features, Key Character Traits, Principal Function, Goal, Plan to Achieve Goal, Family Background, Habits, Vices, Education, Personality, Likes, and Dislikes. Another module that guides the students to detail the Scene Heading requires students to generate text describing the scene under the following headings: Description, the central event of the scene, the effect of the event on the plot, the characters in the scene, the setting of the scene, time of the scene, the mood of the scene, the protagonist, the antagonist, the goal of the protagonist, the goal of the antagonist, the way the antagonist achieves her goal, the way the protagonist achieves her goal. In short such modules by breaking down the process of perceiving a scene, character, or event into its multiple components help the language learners approach a full scene step at a time, thus making language production easier and systematic. Scenario Writing Theodosakos in The Director in the Classroom: How Filmmaking Inspires Learning argues that filmmaking ―enables students to explore any curriculum subject through the active process of making a film about it‖ (2009:30). As far as language learning is concerned, the first step to film making lies in writing its script. Making a film involves creating it from an idea and turning the idea into a producible script. The students are given CELTX and are asked to generate a short script made of as many scenes needed to tell a simple story. As the students already learnt while experimenting with the software that the basic components of a script are the scene heading, the action, the character and the dialogue; each proceeds in generating a script in accordance with the dictates of the software and the student‘s creative imagination. It is observed that students receive the activity of creating a script with some reluctance and fears of failing their teacher and themselves. But like all activities that require multitasking and collaborative presence, teacher‘s proper instructions and constant encouragement dispel students‘ misgivings and before the elapse of the first few weeks in the course the students get really indulged in the activity and begin to enjoy it. The role of the teacher at this junction is to keep checking students‘ projects and provide feedback in terms of suggestions and language corrections when needed. Also students are encouraged to edit each others projects as it is a wise practice to split the class into several groups of fives or sixes as such groups will have to relay on each other when they move from the individual process of writing scripts to managing and filming them. Camera and Collaborative Learning While Simkins (2007), David Nunan (2004), emphasize the tendency among educators to teach language through group based projects; Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2000) establish the essentiality of such group based projects on developing and enhancing communication skills. Such 1223 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo findings come true when students engage each other in performing their and each others scripts. This part of the activity engages the two basic skills of filming , and language acquisition and production as the students practice:  what they learnt about simple filming techniques and camera angles  language as they memorize/improvise and act their roles in English  language while negotiating with their partners in the processes of writing, editing, producing and filming Once the scripts are written and activities are shared among students involved, the teacher encourages students to read about the basic techniques of camera shots and angles. It is preferable that teachers point their students to simple texts in English that elaborate on such activities to make sure that the students acquire additional jargon related to camera and its manipulation in filming. Terms such as long shot, establishing shot, medium shot and close up shot among several others will keep recurring all the time and will become part of the jargon of the students. In short filming as a multitasked activity provides learners with motivation, self-confidence, low level of anxiety and contributes more effectively to language acquisition, retention and production. Computer Editing To make the film aesthetically presentable it needs editing by computer software. The market is saturated with such movie editing programs, the simplest and most accessible among which is Windows Movie Maker. This software is part of Windows with the exception of Windows 7 and can be downloaded for free form Microsoft Windows site if not available on one‘s computer. By asking the students to familiarize themselves with the software before coming to edit their films students will find themselves again learning a computer skill and language, too. Going through the help files and accessing various additional e-files on how to run and use the program act as a language teacher in quite a natural condition. The internet is replete with sites like You Tube and Ehow that show help videos in English on almost any conceivable topic. Such editing programs enable students to add the various shots taken earlier in order or at random and place them in the time sequence they should be in. The program enables the student to edit and cut unwanted scenes, add and delete music and sound effects and furthermore add titles, captions and subtitles. By asking the students to include as many effects as the program and the capacity of the students‘ permit, the students are likely to get more engaged in the film, its language and its metalanguage in real and natural environment. After all Krashen rightly maintains that ―language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill.‖ (1987:6) Conclusion A lot has been said about the effectiveness of media and multimedia in language acquisition and learning. While Clark (1983) contends that there is little or no evidence to show the positive effects of multimedia on language acquisition and production, educators such as Liu (1995), Johnston (1995), Borras (1994), Garza (1991), Vanderplank (1988), Salomon (1979) among others accentuated the various functionality of multimedia in helping learners cope with language learning and language production. Though most of those educators worked on the effect of watching films with or without subtitling in the target language, very little has been said on the advantages of utilizing film making and script editing software in enhancing language acquisition and production. Theodosakos (2009), for instance, advocated the potentiality of teaching any subject matter in the curricula via simulating film making and direction in the classroom. The over all observation of educators and language teachers who wrote on collaborative learning is that film and multimedia usage in the language classroom show increased percentage of language acquisition and production in comparison to classroom practices where conventional methods persisted in teaching. My empirical observations over the years showed me reluctant and timid students with poor performance records in previous courses and classes taught in less interactive ways produce promising scripts coupled with eloquent and impressing dialogues and performances. Naturally, for the activity to yield effective results, it always requires a dedicated student equipped with perseverance and desire to learn. From my observation, the activities of script writing, filming, and film editing have always triggered the learner‘s desire for language acquisition and production. 1224 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Borras, I. and Lafayette, R. (1994). Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling in the speaking performance of college students of French. The Modern Language Journal ,78 (1): 61-75. Clark, R. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53 (4): 445-59. Garza, T. (1991). Evaluating the use of captioned video materials in advanced foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 24, 239-48. Ingram., D. (1989). First language acquisition: Method, description, and explanation, New York: Cambridge University Press. Johnston, J. and Milne, L. (1995). Scaffolding second language communicative discourse with teachercontrolled multimedia. Foreign Language Annals, 28 (3): 315-29. Joyce, B. etal. (2000) Models of teaching, New York: Plenum Press. Krashen, D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition, London: Prentice-Hall International. Krashen, D. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning, London: Prentice-Hall International. Liu, M. and Reed, W. (1995). The effect of hypermedia assisted instruction on second language learning. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 12 (2): 159-75. Morgan, L. (1986). From simple input to complex grammar, Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct, New York: Morrow. Salomon, G. (1979). Interaction of media, cognition and learning, Washington, DC: Jossey-Bass. Simkins, S. (2007). Encouragıng faculty involvement in the scholarship o teaching and learning. A cademic Leader, 23 (6):1-26 Theodosakos, N. (2009). The director in the classroom: How filmmaking inspires learning, Penticton: Tech4learning Publishing. Vanderplank, R. (1988). The value of teletext sub-titles in language learning. English Language Teaching Journal, 42 (4): 272-81. 1225 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 671 Title A name given to the resource Film Making and Language Learning Author Author Mansur, Visam Abstract A summary of the resource. Theodosakos in The Director in the Classroom: How Filmmaking Inspires Learning argues that filmmaking ―enables students to explore any curriculum subject through the active process of making a film about it‖ (p. 30). Furthermore, while Simkins (2007), David Nunan (2004), emphasize the tendency to teach language through group based projects, Joyce, etal (2000) establish the essentiality of such group based projects on developing and enhancing communication skills. In my paper I will examine the impact of film making activities on English Language learning in classes of mine over a period of few years where most students were hesitant to produce language effectively at the onset of the course. The paper will view the cons and pros of film making activities with emphasis on the potential advantages it carries for the leaner in terms of enhancing learner‘s pronunciation, vocabulary acquisition, awareness of language structures and sound language production. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1223dad5968785a27ceae11ae5b0b47f.pdf 0014e308278e48d841e6c6eb1e6d8afa PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Forward and Backward Linkage Effects of the Energy Sector in Turkey Mehmet MERCAN mmercan48@hotmail.com Abdullah ÖZDEMIR abdullahozdemir@hotmail.com Abstract: Energy sector has a great importance for producers and consumers. Energy sector has been found as a leading sector as a result at the input-output analysis. This analysis has been done by using input-output tables which are constructed by goverment Statistical Institude. Turkey is dependent to other countries as energy. To satisfy the development in Turkish economy is only available by reducing the depandencies to the other countries by the energy. Also it should be continued as the leading sector. Key Words: Input-Output Analysis, Energy Sector. Introduction Energy constitutes the most important causes of wealth through a variety of manifestations. Besides water, coal. Petroleum and other valuable resources, the existence of wind and sun are sources of wealth as well. Energy resources are used as inputs by other sectors in manufacturing industries. Therefore, it is important to know the forward and backward linkages of this sector for the general situation of the economy. The importance of energy resources has doubled in Turkey because of the energy crises experienced in recent years. In this context, this study aims to find and interpret the forward and backward linkage effects of the energy sector. The purpose in this study is to observe the direct and indirect effects of input exchange between sectors and their change over the years. The main data set used in the study is the Input-Output Flow Tables about Turkish economy that is prepared by the Turkish Statistical Association (TUIK). The data for 1996, 1998 and 2002 are used in the study. The Importance of the Energy Sector An increase in energy prices also increases the costs of inputs and product prices. Energy prices that are not fixed influence inflation and increase the pressure for economic stagnation through affecting total demand. The more important the use of energy resources in an economy the higher the inflationist pressure against the increases in oil prices (LeBlanc and Chinn, 2004: 8). Increases in the prices of energy resources raise the costs of airways, transportation and the costs of the companies that produce chemical products and therefore, lead to inflation. For this reason, any change in energy prices is watched very closely (Bennet, 2003: 1). Plants in the energy sector should be planned long before the demand for energy exists. Otherwise, delays in planning and investments raise the cost of energy and adversely affect economic activities and societal wealth. It is imperative to determine the potential needs in the energy sector at least ten years in advance, decide the projects to cover the increasing demand, and make necessary political decisions (Gerek, 1998: 370-371). In developing countries like Turkey, the sectors that produce energy have important structural ties with other sectors. Especially electricity sector in Turkey positively affect economic growth because of its backward linkage. In today‘s modern societies, electrical energy used increasingly ignite other sectors of the economy by providing considerable amounts of inputs. The insufficiency of electric energy supply that should increase parallel to economic growth adversely affects economic growth as well as prevents the stimulatory effect on the economy (Terzi, 1998: 63). Input-Output Analysis 685 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The input-output model is a model that considers the relationship between the level of activities in the all sectors of economy (Akkaya and Pazarlioglu, 2000: 14). The input-output models are simple mathematical equilibrium models that quantitatively analysis the mutual linkages between production and consumption units on the whole economy scale in a multi-sectoral way. Different from micro economical analysis that focuses on the behaviors of firms and households and macroeconomic analysis that analyzes the whole economy, the input-output analysis‘ focus is on sectors and good exchanges between sectors. The input-output models provide an opportunity to quantitatively analyze the production and use of outputs of productive sectors on whole economical and sectoral basis and fulfill and important gap between partial and total analyses especially in the analysis of empirical problems (Aydogus, 1999: 1-2). In the input-output model, under the assumption that the share of technology or inputs in production costs is constant, the equilibrium prices of goods and services produced in every sector can be obtained as the prices of main inputs (Aydogus, 1993: 36). According to Hirschman, the effects of forward and backward linkages that reflect sectors‘ ―feeding‖ and ―stimulating‖ powers on other sectors must be considered (Hirschman, 1958: 9). In Hirschman‘s unbalanced growth model, one of the most important factors that restricts economic growth is the ability of decision making, especially the ability to take an investment decision. Inferring from Hirschman‘s ideas, a quadruple grouping can be developed. The categories of this grouping that considers forward and backward linkages together can be summarized as follows: Category 1: Sectors that have high forward and backward linkage effects. Category 2: Sectors that have high backward but low forward linkage effects. Category 3: Sectors that have high forward but low backward linkage effects. Category 4: Sectors that have low backward and forward linkage effects. The above arrangement shows sectoral investment priorities from the lowest to the highest. According to this, the sectors in the first category constitute the key sectors in the economy and have the highest investment priority. The scarce resources should primarily be devoted to these sectors. If there are still unused resources, then, they should be devoted to the sectors in the second category. Sectors in the III. and IV. categories come last in terms of investment priorities, that is, these sectors are expected to be stimulated by the key sectors (Aydogus, 1999: 100101). The Forward and Backward Linkage Effects for 1996, 1998, and 2002 The 1996 and 1998 input-output tables prepared by TUIK consist of total 97 sectors and the 2002 table consists of 59 sectors. The forward and backward linkage effects are as follows in terms of sectoral arrangement. The Table consists of 97 sectors but to observe it more clearly it is divided. In Table 1, there are Forward Linkage Effects (FLE) and Backward Linkage Effects (BLE) of 24 sectors. 686 �Sectors 1-Growing of cereals and other crops n.e.c. 2-Growing of vege- tables, horticultural specialities and nursery products 3-Growing of fruit, nuts, beverage and spice crops 4- Farming of animals 5-Agricultural and animal husbandry service activities (excl. veterinary act.) 6-Forestry, logging and related service activities 7- Fishing 8- Mining of coal and lignite 9-Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas 10- Mining of metal ores 11- Quarrying of stone, sand and clay 12- Mining and Quarrying n.e.c. 13- Production, proces- sing and preserving of meat and meat products 14-Processing and preserving of fish and fish products 15- Processing and preserving of fruit and vegetables 16- Manufacture of vegetable and animal oils and fats 17-Manufacture of dairy products 18-Manufacture of grain mill produtcs, starches and starch products 19-Manufacture of preparad animal feeds 20-Manufacture of bakery products 1996 ĠBE GBE 5,89 1,66 1998 ĠBE GBE 5,07 1,42 1,21 1,54 2,53 1,50 1,20 1,93 1,23 1,89 2,00 1,31 1,14 1,74 1,92 1,87 1,16 1,65 4,31 1,26 1,33 1,23 2,13 1,22 1,41 1,33 1,23 1,61 1,40 1,31 1,42 1,72 1,15 1,50 1,32 1,16 1,38 1,24 1,78 1,17 1,26 1,44 1,25 1,45 1,27 1,23 1,72 2,49 1,55 2,07 1,11 1,13 1,54 1,10 1,86 1,96 2,33 2,19 1,02 1,37 1,53 1,21 1,74 1,70 2,06 1,87 1,57 1,33 1,02 2,14 2,32 2,16 1,55 1,27 1,03 1,81 2,04 2,03 Sectors Agriculture, hunting and related service activities Forestry, logging and related service activities Fishing, operating of fish hatcheries and fish farms; service activities incidental to fishing Mining of coal and lignite; extraction of peat Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas; service activities incidental to oil and gas extraction excluding surveying Mining of uranium and thorium ores Mining of metal ores Other mining and quarrying Manufacture of food products and beverages Manufacture of tobacco products Manufacture of textiles Manufacture of wearing apparel; dressing and dyeing of fur Tanning and dressing of leather; manufacture of luggage, handbags, saddlery, harness and footwear Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork, except furniture; manufacture of articles of straw and plaiting materials Manufacture of pulp, paper and paper products Publishing, printing and reproduction of recorded media Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuels Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products Manufacture of rubber and plastic products Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products Table 1: 1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of First Twenty Sector (Direct+Indirect) (Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 ve 2002 Years) IBE :Forward linkage effect GBE:Backward linkage effect 2002 ĠBE GBE 1,86 3,66 1,35 1,64 1,60 1,45 1,06 1,37 1,05 1,00 1,92 2,14 2,95 2,79 2,98 3,21 3,24 1,00 1,16 1,82 2,52 1,14 3,81 1,32 2,94 1,69 2,88 2,59 2,65 2,30 1,68 3,99 1,65 2,81 2,06 2,69 2,66 5,82 2,63 2,39 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 21- Manufacture of sugar 22-Manufacture of cocoa, chocolate, sugar confertionery and other food products n.e.c. 23-Manufacture of alcoholic beverages 24- Manufacture of soft drinks; production of mineral waters 25- Manufacture of tobacco products 26-Manufacture of textiles 27- Manufacture of other textiles 28-Manufacture of knitted and fabrics and articles 29- Manufacture of wearing apperel, except fur apparel 30-Dressing and dyeing of fur; manufacture of articles of fur 31- Tanning and dressing of leather; manufac.of luggage, handbags & harness 32-Manufacture of footwear 33-Sawmilling and planing of wood 34- Manufacture of wood and of products of wood and cork 1,37 2,18 1,33 1,94 1,43 1,24 1,27 1,08 2,96 1,26 1,13 1,13 1,39 2,02 1,56 2,24 2,00 2,45 2,13 2,49 2,37 2,45 1,34 1,16 1,08 1,08 2,67 1,22 1,07 1,53 1,01 1,88 1,51 2,10 1,83 1,76 1,68 1,76 1,88 1,86 1,91 1,14 2,19 1,43 2,46 2,55 2,42 2,17 1,69 1,07 2,06 1,45 1,96 2,00 2,08 1,98 35- Manufacture of paper and paper products 36-Publishing 3,41 1,09 2,10 1,86 2,39 1,09 1,69 1,53 37- Printing and service activities related to printing 38- Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum produtcs 39- Manufacture of basic chemicals, plastics in primary & synthetics rubber 40- Manufacture of fertilizers and nitrogen compounds 1,51 5,79 2,10 1,55 1,52 3,92 1,62 1,13 4,89 1,77 2,16 2,16 1,79 1,30 1,58 1,66 Manufacture of basic metals Manufacture of fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment Manufacture of machinery and equipment n.e.c. Manufacture of office machinery and computers Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus n.e.c. Manufacture of radio, television and communication equipment and apparatus Manufacture of medical, precision and optical instruments, watches and clocks Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers Manufacture of other transport equipment Manufacture of furniture; manufacturing n.e.c. Recycling Electricity, gas, steam and hot water supply Collection, purification and distribution of water Construction Sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles; retail sale services of automotive fuel Wholesale trade and commission trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles Retail trade, except of motor vehicles and motorcycles; repair of personal and household goods Hotels and restaurants Land transport; transport via pipelines Water transport Table 2: 1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of Second Twenty Sector (Direct+Indirect) (Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 ve 2002 Years) 688 2,35 5,74 2,60 1,94 1,17 2,40 2,21 1,57 2,52 1,73 2,85 2,17 2,27 1,21 1,96 1,98 1,20 1,92 1,37 1,26 3,25 2,98 1,55 2,56 1,02 4,98 1,38 1,54 2,24 2,13 2,62 4,59 1,86 2,53 3,14 1,57 2,10 1,80 4,76 1,89 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sectors 41-Manufacture of pesticides, other agro-chemicals and paints, varnishes 42-Manufacture of pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemicals & botanical products 43-Manufacture of cleaning materials, cosmatics and other chemicals & fibres 44- Manufacture of rubber products 45- Manufacture of plastic products 46-Manufacture of glass and glass products 47-Manufacture of ceramic products 48-Manufacture of cement, lime and plaster related articles these items 49- Cutting and finishing of stone and man. of other non-metallic mineral products n.e.c. 50-Manufacture of basic iron and steel 51-Manufacture of basic precious and non- ferrous metals 52- Casting of metals 53-Manufacture of fabricated metal products, tanks, reser.&steam gen. 54- Manufacture of other fabricated metal products; metal working services 55-Manufacture of general purpose machinery 56- Manufacture of special purpose machinery 57- Manufacture of domestic appliances n.e.c. 58-Manufacture of office, accounting and computing machinery 59-Manufacture of electrical machinery and apparatus n.e.c. 60-Manufacture of radio, television and communication equip- ment & apparatus 1996 ĠBE GBE 1,49 2,01 1998 ĠBE GBE 1,32 1,59 1,68 1,84 1,27 1,54 2,19 1,47 1,64 1,32 1,08 2,06 2,09 2,31 1,83 1,79 1,67 1,39 1,56 1,28 1,10 1,72 1,72 1,69 1,61 1,58 1,24 1,83 1,44 1,60 1,06 4,61 3,05 1,13 1,16 1,54 2,26 2,13 2,18 2,24 1,04 3,28 1,80 1,28 1,50 1,68 1,81 1,74 1,67 1,69 2,40 1,51 2,85 1,10 1,59 1,73 2,10 2,01 2,02 2,04 1,61 2,15 1,81 1,15 1,37 1,06 1,05 1,26 1,73 1,68 1,76 1,57 1,49 1,66 1,82 1,81 1,20 1,44 Sectors Air transport Supporting and auxiliary transport activities; activities of travel agencies Post and telecommunications Financial intermediation, except insurance and pension funding Insurance and pension funding, except compulsory social security Activities auxiliary to financial intermediation Real estate activities Renting of machinery and equipment without operator and of personal and household goods Computer and related activities Research and development Other business activities Public administration and defence; compulsory social security Education Health and social work Sewage and refuse disposal, sanitation and similar activities Activities of membership organisation n.e.c. Recreational, cultural and sporting activities Other service activities Private households with employed persons Table 3: 1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of Third Twenty Sector (Direct+Indirect) (Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 ve 2002 Years) 689 2002 ĠBE GBE 2,68 1,36 2,41 3,38 2,20 1,91 1,64 2,54 1,59 2,17 4,47 1,26 1,38 2,33 2,20 1,18 1,95 2,90 1,98 2,06 1,60 1,27 1,33 4,64 1,02 1,14 2,32 2,37 2,23 2,14 2,23 1,00 1,12 1,43 1,46 1,70 1,11 1,00 �Sectors 61-Manufacture of medical, precision &optical instruments, watches and clocks 62- Manufacture of motor vehicles, trailers and semi-trailers 63- Building and repairing of ships, pleasure &sporting boats 64-Manufacture of railway and &tramvay lokomo- tives & rolling stock 65-Manufacture of aircraft and spacecraft 66-Manufacture of transport equipment n.e.c. 67-Manufacture of furniture 68- Manufacturing n.e.c. 69-Production, collection and distribution of electricity 70-Manufacture of gas; distribution of gaseous fuels 71-Collection, purification and distribution of water 72-Construction 73-Sale, maintenance and repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles; retail sale of fuel 74-Wholesale trade and commission trade, except of motor vehicles & motorcyles 75-Retail trade, repair of personal and household materials 76-Hotels; camping sites and other provision of short-stay accommodatin 77-Restaurants, bars and canteens 78-Transport via railways 79-Land transport; transport via pipelines 80-Water transport 81- Air transport 82-Supporting and auxiliary transport activities; activities of travel agencies 83-Post and telecom- nications 84-Financial intermedediation, except insurance and pension funding 85- Insurance 86-Real estate activities 87-Renting of machinery and equipment without operator & of personal and household goods 88-Computer and related activities 89- Research and development 90- Other business activities 91-Education 92-Health and social work services 93-Activities of membership organizations n.e.c 94- Recreational, cultural and and sporting activities 95-Other service activities 96- Public services 97-Ownership of dwelling 1996 ĠBE 1,29 GBE 1,82 1998 ĠBE 1,04 GBE 1,56 1,60 1,10 1,30 1,18 1,39 1,07 1,21 4,38 1,16 1,53 1,06 2,40 2,15 1,48 1,93 1,16 2,25 2,24 1,96 1,45 1,77 1,25 2,02 1,45 1,21 1,01 1,02 1,02 1,08 1,08 1,05 3,69 1,18 1,38 1,16 2,17 1,72 1,54 1,48 1,23 1,66 2,01 1,27 1,35 1,18 1,19 1,67 1,29 5,87 1,39 3,54 1,26 2,65 1,61 1,40 1,24 6,05 2,12 1,17 1,15 2,19 5,34 1,34 1,51 1,08 1,46 1,81 1,91 2,20 1,54 1,80 1,97 2,28 1,38 1,48 1,74 1,51 1,60 2,97 1,23 1,80 1,07 5,11 1,70 1,20 1,03 2,22 5,23 1,20 1,55 1,18 1,25 1,69 1,70 1,58 1,35 1,48 1,55 1,86 1,15 1,43 1,44 1,52 1,62 1,11 1,28 3,42 1,02 1,04 1,00 1,38 1,21 1,00 1,00 1,95 1,14 1,75 1,74 1,59 1,47 1,53 1,63 1,00 1,31 1,13 1,30 2,92 1,05 1,03 1,04 1,47 1,10 1,00 1,00 1,53 1,61 1,48 1,53 1,29 1,48 1,48 1,46 1,00 1,25 Table 4:1996 ,1998 ve 2002 Years Total Backward and Forward Linkage Effect of Third Twenty Sector (Direct+Indirect) (Tables was calculated by using the Input-Output Table 1996, 1998 Years) . If the total increase in production caused by the increase in demand by one unit in a sector can be defined as that sector‘s backward linkage effect and the increase in a certain sector‘s production by one unit increase in last demand can be defined as that sector‘s forward linkage effect. In this context, the study includes calculations of both forward and backward linkage effects for 1996, 1998 and 2002. �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When the tables 1,2,3, and 4 above are analyzed, it is seen that sectors with high forward linkage effects have an important place for creating supply to other sectors. Below are the sectors with high forward linkage effects. As can be seen in Tables 1,2,3, and 4 for the year 1996, the sectors with the highest forward linkage effects are the 79th sector highway transportation (6,05), 1 st sector grain and vegetable plantation (5,89), 74 th sector wholesale and trade brokering (5,87), 38 th sector coke furnace and refined petroleum product manufacturing (5,78), 84th sector intermediary financial institutions (5,34), 39 th sector main chemical materials, synthetic rubber and plastic raw material production (4,88), 50th sector iron-steel industry (4,61), 69th sector production and distribution of electricity (4,38), 9th sector crude oil and natural gas production (4,31), 35 th sector paper and paper product production (3,40), 51st sector main metal industry other than iron and steel (3,04), and 26th sector textile threads and weaving (2,96). As can be seen the other sectors of the economy used the most input from highway transportation and agricultural sector. The energy sub-sectors such as refined petroleum products and electricity production and distribution are among the first five sectors in terms of providing inputs to other sectors. As can be observed in Tables 1,2,3, and 4, the highest forward linkage effect sectors for 1998 total (direct and indirect) are; 84th sector intermediary financial institutions and auxiliary activities (5,22), 79 th sector highway transportation (5,11), 1st sector grain and vegetable plantation (5,07), 38 th sector coke furnace and refined petroleum product production (3,92), 69th sector electricity production and distribution (3,69), 74 th sector wholesale and brokering (3,53), 50th sector iron and steel industry (3,27), 75 th sector retail, and the repair of personal and home equipment (2,96), 26th sector textile thread and weaving (2,67), and 35th sector paper and paper product manufacturing (2,39). The sectors with highest forward linkage effects for 2002, as can be seen in Tables 1,2,3, and 4, are; clothing manufacturing (3,21), electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution (2,97), textile manufacturing (2,97), food and drink manufacturing (2,95), leather tanning and processing; suitcase, handbag, saddler, harness and shoe manufacturing ((2,93), research and development services (2,90), wood and cork products manufacturing (2,88), furniture production (2,84), tobacco products manufacturing (2,79), plastic and rubber production (2,69), airway transportation (2,68). When direct forward linkage effects for 1996 are analyzed, highway transportation, grain and other plants plantation, wholesale and trade brokering coke furnace, refined petroleum products and intermediary financial institutions are the five sectors with highest sector linkage effects. The highest forward linkage effects for 1998 includes the first five sectors including the production of grain and other plants, highway transportation, intermediary financial institutions, wholesale trade and trade brokering, electricity production and distribution. The two sub-sectors of the energy sector are among the first five sectors with the highest forward linkage effects in 1996 and 1998. In 2002, food and drink production, clothing manufacturing, fur processing and dying, wood and cork products production, electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution and research and development services are the first five sectors with highest direct forward linkage effects. The sectors with the highest forward linkage effects are important for reducing dependency on foreigners since they can be used as inputs in other sectors. In terms of their use as inputs in 1996 and 1998 highway transportation, agriculture and electricity production and distribution, petroleum refinery, iron and steel industry, textile, paper products manufacturing, wholesale trade and trade brokering sectors are remarkable. In 2002, clothing manufacturing, electricity production and distribution, petroleum, textile, leather tanning and processing, shoe manufacturing, tobacco, research and development services, wood and cork products manufacturing, plastic and paper products production, and airway transportation rather than highway transportation came forward. When we look at the years 1996, 1998, and 2002 together, the sub-sectors of the energy sector such as petroleum refinery, electricity production and distribution,, cruse oil production, coal and nuclear energy production, and natural gas production are among the first sectors that provide inputs to other sectors. The sectors with the highest backward linkage effects are the sectors which have influence for stimulating the level of production in other sectors. That is, since these sectors demand inputs from other sectors, they stimulate the economy. When the backward linkage effects for 1996, 1998, and 2002 are analyzed, the high linkage effects of the sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry stand out. It is well known that the manufacturing industry is very important in stimulating the level of production in other sectors in developing countries. When 1996 backward linkage effects are examined, meat processing and keeping, clothing, leather tanningsuitcase, handbag production, textile threads-weaving sectors are the first five sectors. 691 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In terms of backward linkage effects for 1998, metal industry, chemical materials production, wholesale trade and trade brokering, the activities of financial institutions and highway and pipeline transportation are the first five sectors. The sectors with the highest backward linkage effects in 1996 are shoe manufacturing, meat processing and keeping, clothing manufacturing, leather tanning-suitcase, handbag manufacturing, and textile thread and weaving and finishing. The sectors with the highest backward linkage effects in 1998 are non-alcoholic beverage and spring water production, timber and hardwood industry, meat processing and keeping, vegetative-bestial oil, animal food production. As seen, the sectors that are the sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry are the sectors with the highest backward linkage effects in 1996 and 1998. The five sectors with the highest backward linkage effects in 2002 (direct and indirect) are chemical material production, main metal industry, electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution, highway and pipeline transportation, and wholesale trading and trade brokering. The sectors with high backward and forward linkage effects are described as the locomotives of an economy. When the similar studies are reviewed, it was concluded that the manufacturing industry in the 1980s and 1990s is the locomotive (pioneer) sector. The locomotive sectors in 1996 are plastic products production and iron and steel industries. In 1998, the locomotive sectors are chemical products, synthetic rubber and plastic material manufacturing, iron and steel industry and metal industry. The locomotive sectors in 2002 are electricity, gas, steam and hot water production and distribution, textile products manufacturing, plastic and rubber products manufacturing, coke coal, refined petroleum products and nuclear fuel production and food and beverage production. Even though the manufacturing sector was the locomotive sector in the previous years, in 2002, the energy sector became a locomotive sector and contributed to economic revival. Conclusion In the years analyzed, the sub-sectors of the manufacturing industry in 1996 and 1998 are the sectors with high direct and total backward linkage effects. In 2002, it is seen that the energy sector has both high backward and forward linkage effects. When the Tables above are analyzed in detail, the sub-sectors of the energy sector score high in terms of both backward and forward linkage effects. According to Hirschman‘s categorization, the sectors with high backward and forward linkage effects at the same time are described as the locomotive sectors. Therefore, the sub-sectors of the energy sector in 2002 fit in this category. As a result, investment in the energy sector in Turkey should be increased. In this context, studies aiming to reduce dependency on foreign powers in energy should be done. Especially, the industrial model based on the fossil fuel increases dependency. Turkey can support the other sectors only if can it use resources such as wind, solar and hydrologic energy. References AKKAYA, ġ., PAZARLIOĞLU, M. V., (2000). Ekonometri I, Berk Masa Üstü Yayıncılık, Ġzmir, 581 s. AYDOĞUġ, O., (1993). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Maliyet-Fiyat ĠliĢkileri Sektörel Fiyat OluĢumu ve Enflasyon, 3. Ġzmir Ġktisat Kongresi, Sektörel GeliĢme Stratejileri, Ġzmir, 35-48 ss. AYDOĞUġ, O., (1999). Girdi-Çıktı Modellerine GiriĢ, Gazi Kitabevi, Ankara, 121 s. BENNETT, R. F., (2003). 10 Facts About Oil Prices, Joint Economic Committee, Economic Update, 4 p. TÜĠK, (1985). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1985, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 87 s. TÜĠK, (1994). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1990, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 89 s. TÜĠK, (2001). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1996, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 141 s. TÜĠK, (2004). Türkiye Ekonomisinin Input-Output Yapısı 1998, TĠK Yayınları, Ankara, 127 s. 692 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo LEBLANC, M.; and CHINN, M., (2004). Do High Oil Prices Presage Inflation? The Evidence from G-5 Countries, UC Santa Cruz Economics Department 2000-05 Working Paper Series, 25 p. TERZĠ, Ġ., (1998). Türkiye‘de Elektrik Tüketimi ve Ekonomik Büyüme ĠliĢkisi: Sektörel Bir KarĢılaĢtırma, Ġktisat-ĠĢletme ve Finans Dergisi, Ġstanbul, ss. 62-71. 693 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 264 Title A name given to the resource The Forward and Backward Linkage Effects of the Energy Sector in Turkey Author Author MERCAN, Mehmet ÖZDEMIR, Abdullah Abstract A summary of the resource. Energy sector has a great importance for producers and consumers. Energy sector has been found as a leading sector as a result at the input-output analysis. This analysis has been done by using input-output tables which are constructed by goverment Statistical Institude. Turkey is dependent to other countries as energy. To satisfy the development in Turkish economy is only available by reducing the depandencies to the other countries by the energy. Also it should be continued as the leading sector. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory