48 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2da719baef8078325db30f143bd6d94b.pdf 44332d7a0c85a6a5ad99cb7de4215b3e PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo An Experiment Aimed at Gender Apartheids Being Evaluated In Terms of The Trust Factor Hümeyra TAġÇIOĞLU Dr., Sakaraya University humeyratasci@gmail.com Abstract: The trust factor is an important topic for all companies. It is important especially in order to provide the loyalty of employee and high motivation. In that study being experimented the trust factors impacts on the gender apartheid in the companies, it is defined that the perception of gendern apartheid haven‘t developed in the companies having the trust factor and all employees have showed similar tendency , as well. It is concluded that the trust factor for the company is highly in company, having been done research. Introduction The employee to trust themselves, their chefs and each others makes a contribution to establish an organizational environment that prepossess to working conditions. To provide the employee of the organization to work in an atmosphere, in which the trust is prevelant, is not only the duty of the management, but also is the heavy responsibility of the employee. It is known that the voluntary contribution aimed at building up trust is of essential importance. On the other hand, it may be said that these conditions can be easily carried out, provided that the management give the importance of the factors related with building up trust. All of the participants in company to do a work in an environment, that is high trust, increase the performance and job satisfaction and all conclusions have positiv impacts on all parts of thecompany. It is seen as an invitable realitat that the employee that fells as behaved differently than the others or in other words, as discriminated in the organizations will have a distrustful attitude towards both their co-workers and their manager and hereat will come about a distrustful atmosphere. However, the trust of the employees in the company, in which they worked, affects a lot of positive results such as the loyalty, job satisfaction and performance level. The Notion of Trust The trust means that a person has a personal positive expectation and displays psychological sensitivity regarding this expectation. Furthermore; the trust notion includes also emotive loyalty, that represents the essential interest for the persons (Wech, 2002: 354; Asunakutlu,T: 2002). Trust is the belief in which the behaviours of the people in our environment will develop with the aim of meeting our expectations without any control action (Mayer et al., 1995). Trust is a phonemon that is defined as an expectation of any individuals from the other part based on the procedure and the relations between the individuals. Therefore, the trust notion is studied firstly by chracter theorists and then by psyhologists, sociologists, social psyhologists, political scientists and economist, although it is a notion relating quite a few diciplines, The trust, used as a notion in different areas for years, was being a subject of the researchs in the fields of the organization, the management and organizational behaviours in the in 1980s years (Lewicki et al., 1998). When considered from the social aspect, trust is to be perceived as a feature of collective units and be aproached independent from the individuals. In other words, trust develops when the procedures with the aim of that persons, in social system, put eachothers under protection through symbolic representation, is carried out (Lewis ve Weigert, 1985: 968). On account of the fact that the trust topic is approached from different standpoints by the social scientists, there isn‘t any specipic definition of trust, agreed in general. Researchers adressed the trust considering quite a few factors and devoloped quite few different definitions. As a conclusion, it is stated that they let the trust topic remain 764 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo undefined, claiming the diffuculty of its definition because of being in some studies different approachs, related with the trust topic some researchs (Küskü, 1999). However, on the definitions being reviewed, there develops a common consensus across the researchers that the trust has an important place in the arrangement of the organizational activities and in teamworks, leadership, adoption a course of action, performance management and often colloborative attitudes. (Elangovan and Shapiro, 1998:547). Trust is a relation based on confidence, as well (Erdem, 2003:156). The trust in individual relations and also in individual‘s relations with the company and in the company‘s relations with individual is equally important. Since the trust, which is the base item of social capital, is an important factor to maintain the relationship. Any company cannot reach its aims without trust. Furthermore, one of the environments, in which the human relations, interaction and collaboration are common, is the organizational lifes. The base reason is trust issue. Why the people are not open to the cooperation in some companies or why they insist in the all changes in the practices being open or not, are related with the humane features of the company rather than its structural or technical features. While the apparent economical, social or political reasons of the crisis encountered is actually the results of the trust issue, the story of the successful companies is being real through the features such as the trust in the company, in the managers, and in the organizational vision. (Erdem, 2003: 154-155). Lewicki and Bunker (1996) stated through the definitions of trust that there be three situations to provide a trust based relation. These are: a. the uncertainty and konflikts related with the future, b. the decisions and results related with the future being dependent on the attitudes of the others, c. the possibility of the potential loss‘s being more than the possibility of the positive and advantageous conditions. The researchs related with the trust have focused on basically three fields as interpersonal trust, trust in manager and top manager. There is less importance to the trust in company. (Tan and Tan, 2000) The organizational trust can be defined as an effort of one person or the people, included in group, to act the another person or the group in good faith accordingly to express warranty or not express warranty. It has a role in the trust of not taking any advantage of another person, even if there is any opportunity in predetermined contracts. (Cummings and Bromiley, 1996). According to Lewicki et al., organizational trust is both the individual‘s being sure even in the stuations that are risky, about the procedures and policies that affect the company itself, and individual‘s supporting these. (1998). Although there is quite a few definition of organizational trust, confidence and willingness are the key words which are common in all definitions. The most important discrimination of the organizational trust topic is of the trust in the individual and the company. (Blomqvist et al. , 2003). A lot of writers and researchers separate the trust topic of the individual from the company.(Nyhan and Marlowe, 1997; Tan and Tan, 2000). The workers in the company trust the others in the compnay ( to colleagues and managers) and the organization at a different level.(Nyhan and Marlowe, 1997). The trust in the company develops both at a level of individual and at a level of the company. However, the trust in the individual and the trust in the company is different notions from the each others .(Doney and Cannon, 1997, Zaheer et al. , 1998; Blomqvist et al, 2003). Therefore the notion of the trust in the individual and in the company and the trust which concur with these, have developed. (Polat, 2007:35) Costs and losses, encountered on reaching at common aims, can be reduced to the lowest level through the trust medium that will be provided and the uncertainties related with the futures of the company can be reduced, as well (AteĢ, 2004). In this way, the trust is an important factor to keep companies more and also it helps the companies to extend their visions (Rosen,1998). Moreover, the trust medium has a lot of advantage in the compnay. The trust medium has an important role in being open to improvement, qualitative communication and organizational efficiency (Tschannen-Moran, 2001). The trust between the workers and the employers, the company and the participants in a company, is one of the determiners of providing productivity, efficiency and of reaching the aims. There will be certainly deficiencies of reaching the aims in the company (Yücel and Samancı, 2009:117-118). Gender Apartheid The discrimination is the people‘ being subject to the disrimination due to the reasons such as the gender, the laguage, the religion, the race or the ethnic origin. This discrimination means that when taking somebody on, paying sallary, accepting them to the school or allowing them take advantage of various opportunities, the practices against the individuals are carried out according to the stated factors (Demir and Acar, 2002:54). Although the based-gender discrimination has not any effect of the work‘s carried out in terms of working life, the women‘ being excluded from the working life due to their gender and consequently, the satisfaction level‘s 765 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and income‘s being distributed between the men can be defined as and the processed , in ,education , the department of work, payment not in terms of the business which the women and the men carried on, but in terms of the base of the gender ( Kasımoglu and Halıcı, 2000: 374; Demir, 2002). The based- gender discrimination can be defined in a way that that the women lack the basic needs in the society , they have unequal conditions compared to men, they are exposed to violence , and they are represented rarely in politics and the work life . The based-gender discrimination develops through the unequal power distribution in the relations between the men and the women. The unequality of the power distribution between the men and the women brings about the gender apartheid (www.undp.org,2009) . Bringing forward its gender or its gender-specific feature as a reason, to avoid from taking somebody on, to apply different working conditions, to pay different sallaries are regarded as the gender apartheid. (Hoffman and Everett, 2005). The women who are subjected to the dicrimination before joining in the business world and also after taking place in, cause distribution of roles, unequality of education level, the women oriented prejudices and attitudes, discriminatory practices before joining in the business world. After taking place in the business world, the woman, a member of the immediate family, spend less time on housework. The results of this stituation affect her business life and additionally, the social pressure to which they are subjected and the obstacles increase through the dicriminatory behaviours of her employers and workmates. The most important sign of the gender apartheid is that the duties are divided as the women-work and the men-work. It is clear that the common practices, the traditional value judegement and the choices of women cause this phonemon (Çiçek, 2000:14). Due to the general prejuces, the women work mostly gaining less in the fields such as office, houseworks, agriculture. The discrimination notion comprises of the direct and indirect discrimination. Furthermore, the women are preferred less compared to single women in both two discrimination types in terms of their being married or mother. It is the direct discrimination that the individuals are subjected to the disriminatory practices in parallel with their features such as the gender, the race, the ethnic origin in the phase of their acceptance for the job, their promotion and their performance evaluation. The direct discrimination means that person or the group is discriminated from the others due to the gender, the race and disability. (Stredwick, 2000:66). ın this wayi it is clear that there is the direct discrimination between the genders. (www.uknetguide.co.uk, 2010). There are following examples for this stiuation ; • the applications of the man is preferred in an ad which is to meet the lack of personnel, • a difference in payment in favor of the men, • the women‘s being fired because of their pregnance, • the women‘s being fired due to their asking permission for their children, • the women‘s being subject to the sexual disturbance Indirect discrimination appear on the situations that the employer behaves same to all workers apparently, however, the workers are subjected to more negative behaviours due to their features. Although these negative behaviours seems as if they were objective, these are aimed at the people that have a set features with gender, race, age, in practice (Stredwick, 2000: 66). There are some examples of the direct discrimination; • The mothers‘ not being prefered on taking somebody on. • The working women‘s being as part-time workers on the top of the list of the companies to fire , • Single women‘s being assigned showing reason of the quality of the job.( especially in jobs includes business trips (www.eoc.org.uk2010) The perception of discrimination brings about quite a few adverse outcomes from the point of the emloyees. The adverse outcomes such as the sense of mistrust, motivation and underperformance, decrease in bondage are of the unintended consequences from the point of the company, as well. The Purpose of The Study and Its Importance When it is considered that human is so important for the companies, we can see inevitably that it is so important to increase the productivity that individuals trust the company, in which they work, their managers and the other employees. The organizational trust factor will be reviewed from the point of the gender apartheid through this 766 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo claim and also it will be analyzed, which factors is effective on providing a trust atmosphare and if these factors changes according to genders , or not. The Concept of Experiment and Its Process This research is carried out making a quastainnare to 90 persons, working in service industry in sakarya. So researchers have applied qualitative methods. In this research they make use of SPSS statistical program. The survey, applied in the research, aimed at defining the relation between the based-gender discrimination and organizational trust , comprises of three parts. First part of the survey includes 10 questions that measure the based- gender discrimination, second part includes 13 questions aimed at measuring organizatonal trust and the last part of the survey includes 5 questions aimed at defining demographic features of the employees. The Limitations of The Experiment It is one of the most important limitations of the experiment that the field of the experiment includes only one company and as a result of this situation, the relatability and the generability property of the sample is not sufficient. It numbers also the analiysis that the concept of the research is limited. The other limitation of the research is the way of the process. The researchers apply survey method to acquire datas of the research. It is supposed that participants answer correctly when answering surver questions, however, to be applied the survey method as a process can cause them not to research extensively and not to notice the details which maynot appear on survey method. The Questions of The Study 1: Does the sense of the gender apartheid from the point of women and men make a diffenrence? 2: Does the sense of the trust differ according to gender? 3: Does the based-gender discrimination differ according to educational background? 4: Does the based-gender discrimination differ according to maritial status? 5: What is the gender apartheid perception of the company in which the research is carried out? 6: What is the trust perception of the company in which the study is carried out? 7: How does the perception of trust affect the gender apartheid? Findings The Demographic Characters of The Employee Having Participated In This Study %45 of the participative employee in reseach comprises of the women, and its %55 includes the men. %44.8 of the participants from the employees between 25- 30 age , its %36.2 from the employees 31-36 age, and its %19 from the employees being at 36 and the olders are choosed. %34,2 of the sample comprises of high- school graduates, its %40.5 includes university graduates and its %8.9 comprises of people graduated from primary school. %65 of the sample comprises of married workers and its %35 comprises of single workers. %46,8 of the participants includes the workers having worked 0-5 years, its %22,1 the workers having worked 6-10 years and its %31.2 comprises of the employee having worked 10 years or more.. The Analysis Related With The Variables In The Study ANOVA The perception of gender Sum of squares Degree of freedom Average of squares F P 0,666722783 1 0,67 2,13 0,15 In-group 24,46352413 78 0,31 Total 25,13024691 79 Among groups the 767 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo As it is also understood from the table, because p=0,15>0,05 is the sense of gender apartheid differs according to gender. In the company, in which the research is carried out , the perception of gender apartheid doesn‘t differ from the point of women and men ANOVA The perception of trust Sum of squares Degree of freedom Average of sguares F P Among the groups 0,035505947 1 0,04 0,30 0,59 In-group 9,277807662 78 0,12 Total 9,313313609 79 As it is also understood from the table, because p=0,15>0,59 is , the perception of trust doesn‘t differ according to gender. All employees who are working in the same company, have same perception of the trust notion without any difference. All workers in the company have the same perception of the trust factor without any difference. ANOVA The perception of the gender apartheid Sum of squares Degree of freedom Average of squares F 0,582420443 3 0,19 0,61 0,61 In-group 23,96547767 75 0,32 Total 24,54789811 78 Among groups P the As understood from the table, since p=0,61>0,05 is , the sense of gender apartheid doesn‘t change according to education level. Furthermore, it is found that when the relation between the trust factor and the sex discrimination is studied , the level of the relation between these two variable is %13 (r:13) and the trust factor affects the perception of the discrimination %17. there is not any inmportant difference between these two parts in according to the results of the analyse to see whether the perception of the gender apartheid differs in terms of the marital status, or not.(sig=0.46>0.05) it can be said that trust factor‘s being provided in the company means that it helps to feel the gender apartheid less. It is concluded that the level of the trust perception is % 3,46, when compared to the trust perception in the company and the level of the gender apartheid perception is %3.01. Conclusion The self confidence and the trust in the other person is of the base conditions of success and well-being. If the level of workers‘ self confidence and trust in their managers and workmates becomes higher, it can be said that the productivity and efficiency will increase in the company, as well. The trust factor is prerequisite for providing to the adherence to the aims and the connection across the workers. The trust develops through the interindividual relations and organizational practices. The sense of the trust has a vital role to maintain the relationships. The trust notion has an variable feature, that can affect quite a few relations between the parties, such as the transmission of the datas , solution of of the problems, authorization and sharig the responsibilities and the aims. The high level trust sense brings about the loyalty in paralell with this. There must be participation of the all parts to provide the trust notion in the company.Not only the managers but also the workers have the responsibility in this respect. It can prevent the interpersonal discrimination that the people trust each others and believe that they will not be treated unjustly by the other person in companies. 768 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The distrustful mediums cause some interindividual based-gender discriminations to come about and become widespread. The trust medium in the company is important to prevent any the base-gender discrimination. The findings of this research show that if the trust perception is high, the perception of the gender apartheid is lower in this company. Furthermore, the trust perception of the man and women workers doesn‘t differ in the companies, in which the trust factor is prevalent. References Cummings, L. L. and Bromiley, P. (1996). The organizational trust inventory (OTI) Çiçek F., O. (2000). No women executives Women's World Magazine, (Number:8,May, p.14- 15) Demir, Ö. ve ACAR, M. (2002). Glossary of Social Sciences, Vadi Publications, 3.Print, Ankara, Kasımoglu M. and , Halıcı . (2000). A., Toward Human Resources Relating to Discrimination Scale Development, Erciyes University Press, 8.Ulusal Management and Organization Conference Proceedings Lewicki, R.J., McAllister, D.J., Bies, R.J., (1998). Trust and Distrust: New Relationships and Realities, Academy of Management Review. 23: 438-459. Lewis, J.D. and A. Weıgert, (1985). Trust as A Social Reality‖, Social Forces, Vol 63. Asunakutlu T. (2002), Elements for creating a trust, and organizational assessment, Mugla University Institute of Social Sciences Journal Issue, Number: 9 Wech, Barbara A. (2002). Trust Context, Effect on Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Supervisory Fairness, and Job Satisfaction Beyond the Influence of Leader-Member Exchange, Business & Society, Vol. 41 No. 3, September. Elangovan A.R. and Shapiro D.L. (1988). Betrayal of Trust in Organizations. Academy of Management Review, 23, vol.3 Erdem, F. (2003). Confidence in Social Sciences, Vadi Publications , Ankara Hoffman, S. and Everett, S.L. (2005), Women and The Economy: Family, Work and Pay. Pearson Addison Wesley. Mayer, R.C., J.H.,Davis, & F.D., Schooonman. (1995). An Integrative Model of Organizational Trust, Academy of Management Review, 20, 709-734. Polat, S. (2007). Secondary Teachers' Perceptions of Organizational Justice, Organizational Trust Relationship Between Levels of Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Unpublished PhD Thesis, City University Institute of Social Sciences. Stredwick, J. (2000). An Introduction to Human Resource Management, Bath Press, First Edition, Oxford, s.66. Yücel C. and Samancı G. Kalaycı (2009). Organizational Trust and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors, Firat University Journal of Social Sciences, Volume: 19, Issue 1, Page: 113-132, Elazığ―Gender Equality:Practise Note‖, (http://www.undp.org/policy/docs/policynotes/gender-9dec02.doc, (05.03.2009). 769 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 234 Title A name given to the resource An Experiment Aimed at Gender Apartheids Being Evaluated In Terms of The Trust Factor Author Author TAŞÇIOĞLU, Hümeyra Abstract A summary of the resource. The trust factor is an important topic for all companies. It is important especially in order to provide the loyalty of employee and high motivation. In that study being experimented the trust factors impacts on the gender apartheid in the companies, it is defined that the perception of gendern apartheid haven‘t developed in the companies having the trust factor and all employees have showed similar tendency , as well. It is concluded that the trust factor for the company is highly in company, having been done research. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd3a7f408161e05028bd57ae792cd56d.pdf 2d8dbaebe8b8ad1152f270344a6922d6 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Public Expenditure and Political Business Cycles inTurkey Recep TARI Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Kocaeli University, Turkey rtari@kocaeli.edu.tr Filiz ÖZKAN Kaynarca Vocational School, Department of Economics and Administrative Sciences Sakarya University, Turkey fozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: According to the theory of ―Political Business Cycles (PBC)‖, politicians prefer to pursue opportunistic policies in order to increase their chance of election. For this reason, they apply expansionary policies before the elections. Hence, they start to do this by increasing public expenditures. There is an increase in the indicators of money parallel to the increase in public expenditures. In this study it is examined that whether there have been appropriate developments in terms of PBC theory during the elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980. In order to determine the effect of PBC ―the traditional opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is used to test the PBC effect. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. The results obtained as a result of the empirical analysis support the PBC theory. Introduction The history of economics is the history of debates between the ones who claim that the government intervention is necessary and who claim that it is unnecessary. In the framework of these debates, applications of both of these approaches are observed due to the economic conditions of each period. However, there is a fact which should be accepted that every day the state intervenes in the economic life with different reasons and through various legal and institutional regulations. If the economists are not able to put their developed theories into the application, then they just do brain gymnastic. Thus, this situation is seemed during many years and this distinction between economics and politics give the idea to the politicians that they can arrange the economic life according to their own vote calculations. This idea becomes widespread along with the economists isolate themselves from the legal and institutional structure of the society (SavaĢ, 1997). Especially in the developing countries with a less institutional and legal structure, the public share in the economy is more than others. Through the political instabilities it is understood that the financial issues are not the only reason of this situation. In the beginning the state is seem as maintaining the social order and it is associated with the Leviathan which is a superhuman being, whereas later it is seen that the state is transformed to a monster that gives harm to its environment. Especially, after the Second World War the rapid increase in the contribution of state in the economic life is defined as a very big danger (Erim, 2007). If being away from the economic life is impossible for the state, at least there should be a limit of this contribution. Politics and political institutions should be accepted as endogenous rather than exogenous in the economic theories. After the long historical development process from this view, the Political Economic Theory (PET) is developed. According to the PBC theory economy is manipulated by policy makers during the electoral periods since politicians behave with political interest mostly in these periods. If the politicians are not restricted enough with the laws in terms of their usage of economic policy tools, they prefer to pursue opportunistic policies instead of policies for the interest of the public. In order to affect electorates, they mostly increase public expenditures. The financing of the increased public expenditures is funded through increasing the money supply instead of increasing taxes since taxes are not pleased by the electorates (Azgün, 2006). In this study, it is examined that whether the PBC has an effect on the money variables of public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation during the general elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980 in Turkey. ―The traditional opportunistic model‖ of Nordhaus is used in order to test the effect of PBC. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the 471 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991, 1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. Political Business Cycles Models The concept of Political Business Cycles is firstly used by Nordhaus. According to Nordhaus, by aiming vote maximization politicians pursue expansionary policies before the elections in order to boost the economy whereas they pursue contractionary policies after the elections in order to remove the effects of these expansionary policies. Therefore, a cycle occurs in economy due to the electoral periods (Nordhaus, 1975). When the studies related with Political Business Cycles is examined it is observed that the literature regarding to this issue is developed on two cycles. The first one is ―traditional model‖ that is considered in two categories and the first of these is the opportunistic model developed by Nordhaus and the second one is the partisanship model developed later by Hibbs (Hibbs, 1977). According to opportunistic model, politicians do not have partisan objectives, they just appeal all kinds of manipulations in order to win elections. According to partisanship model, politicians try to gain votes of their own electoral group by implementing ideological policies. Secondly, in the framework of ―rational expectations theory‖ which is popular in 1980s, the PBC theory has been developed as a ―modern approach‖. With the acceptance of rational expectations theory, the PBC theory is criticized at the beginning. However, as a result of the empirical studies positive findings are obtained regarding to that the PBC theory can still be explanatory even though the rational expectations theory is valid. According to the modern PBC theory, because of the asymmetric information between the governments and citizens governments continue to exhibit opportunistic or partisanship behaviors. Methodology In this study, in order to determine whether the politicians pursue opportunistic policies or not in the electoral periods, the autoregressive analysis method is used which is applied by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries (Alesina, 1991). The autoregressive models are preferred instead of the structural models regarding each macroeconomic indicator which is due to the reason that by testing each variable with the same model it is aimed to decrease the probability of difference that can be arisen from modeling error in the determination of the effect of electoral periods. Furthermore, in the literature it is emphasized that structural models are mainly valid in the developed countries with strong economy whereas their validity is questionable in the less developed and developing countries with fragile economic system (Özkan, 2005). General notation of the autoregressive model which is used in this study is as in the following: Yt = α0 + α1 Yt-1+ α2 Yt-2+……+ αn Yt-n+PBCDUMMY + εt (1) Here, Yt represents each macroeconomic indicator. PBCDUMMY is the dummy variable that indicates the dynamic implications of the theory of political business cycles. PBCDUMMY is defined as ―1‖ for the election quarter and three quarters before the election, and defined as ―0‖ for other periods. εt represents the error terms. The lagged values of autoregressive model is determined through the ―from general to special theory‖. The stability of series is examined through the ADF unit root test (Dickey and Fuller, 1990). The Jarque-Bera(JB) test is used in order to test whether the normality assumption, which is one of the necessary assumptions to perform autoregression analysis, is satisfied or not (Bera and Jarque, 1981). After these models are tested, through the Breusch Godfrey (LM) test it is checked whether there is an autocorrelation between the error terms or not (Godfrey, 1988). For error terms having constant variance is another necessary condition for autoregression analysis. The ARCH LM test is used in order to determine whether the error terms have constant variance or not. Test Results Unit Root Analyses Result When the graphic of public expenditures series in real terms is examined, seasonal effects are observed in the series. It is observed that the coefficients are significant in the regression analysis which is performed with the seasonal dummy variables. The seasonality effects are removed from the series and the stability of the series is checked with the ADF test. As seen on Table 1, the real public expenditures series which does not include seasonal effects is not stable as its degree. It is seen that the yearly percentage change of series is stable with 0.05% significance level according to the ADF model which has a constant term and trend. 472 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 12000000 150 10000000 100 8000000 50 6000000 0 4000000 -50 2000000 0 -100 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 92 KAMUHARREEL 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 KAMUHARREELSAYD Figure 1: Degree of Public Expenditures and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics When the graphic of public expenditures series in real terms is examined, seasonal effects are observed in the series. It is observed that the coefficients are significant in the regression analysis which is performed with the seasonal dummy variables. The seasonality effects are removed from the series and the stability of the series is checked with the ADF test. As seen on Table 1, the real public expenditures series which does not include seasonal effects is not stable as its degree. It is seen that the yearly percentage change of series is stable with 0.05% significance level according to the ADF model which has a constant term and trend. 50000000 60 40 40000000 20 30000000 0 20000000 -20 10000000 -40 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 92 94 96 RELM1 98 00 02 04 06 08 RE LM1YD Figure 2: Degree of Real M1 and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics When the graphic of Real M1 series is examined, at first it is observed that the series is not stable. Furthermore, it appears that there can also be seasonal effect. It is seen that the coefficients are significant as a result of the regression analysis done with the seasonal dummy variables. However, when the yearly percentage change is considered the seasonality effect disappears. Furthermore, when Table 1 is examined it is seen that while the real M1 series is not stable, the percentage change is stable in all ADF models in terms of various significance levels. 24000000 60 20000000 40 16000000 20 12000000 0 8000000 -20 4000000 -40 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 REELDOLPARA 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 RE ELDOLPARA YD Figure 3: Degree of Real Money in Circulation and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics 473 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When the graphic of real money in circulation is examined, it is understood that the series is not stable, however it is not certainly understood whether there is a seasonal effect or not. As a result of the regression analysis done with the seasonal dummy variables it is seen that the coefficients are insignificant, therefore it is understood that there is no seasonality effect. When the results of the unit root test is examined, it is observed that the series of real money in circulation is not stable in degree of level whereas the percentage change is stable in all ADF models in terms of various significance levels. The results of ADF unit root test, which is performed to determine the stability structures of series, are shown on Table 1. with constant term Public expenditures -2,04 Public expenditures % -1,80 M1 0,03 M1% -2,70*** Money in circulation 1,62 Money in circulation % -2,85*** %1 -3,51 Kritical values, %5 -2,89 %10 -2,58 Lag. 3 8 4 4 6 4 constant and trend -1,47 -3,79** -1,00 -4,08* 0,37 -4,90* -4,06 -3,46 -3,15 term Lag. 3 3 4 7 6 3 without constant term and trend -0,91 -0,76 0,98 -2,02** 2,12 -2,44** -2,59 -1,94 -1,61 Lag. 4 4 4 8 6 4 Table 1: ADF Test Results Autoregressive Model Analyses Results The summary of statistical values for autoregressive model examining public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation is shown on Table 2. The autoregressive models which are estimated by lagged values are as in the following: Pub.Expen. = 2,53+ 13,6 Pub.Expen. (-2) + 0,18 Pub.Expen. (-4) + 0,39 PBCdummy (0,00) (0,03) (0,08) (0,00) M1 = 7,47 (0.05) (0.00) +0,79 M1(-1) (0,01) +0,42 M1(-5) (0,00) + 0,21 M1(-7) (0,04) – 0,22 M1(-8) (0,03) +8,22PBCdummy (0,06) M.Cir. = 2,95+ 0,49 M.Cir.(-1) + 0,20 M.Cir.(-2) - 0,33 M.Cir.(-4) + 26 M.Cir.(-5) + 11,79 PBCdummy (0,41) (0,00) (0,07) (0,00) (0,01) (0,00) Independent Varieble PBC 2 R Dummy DW F probably JB LM ARCH Dependent Variable Public Money Supply α t ist. t pro αi t ist. t ol. Harcamaları i 13,6 2,17 0,03 8,22 1,87 0,06 ** *** 0,25 0,62 2,07 2,07 0,00 0,00 47,47 (0.00) 1,40 (0,49) 0,85 (0,47) 0,53(0,58) 0,92 (0,40) 0,30(0,73) Money Circulation αi t ist. t prob 11,79* 3,07 0,00 0,44 2,05 0,00 17,10 (0,00) 0,56(0,56) 1,27(0,27) Table 2: Autoregressive Analyses Results According to the regression estimate results on Table 2, it is observed that there is no autocorrelation and changing variance problems in the LM and ARCH tests. Even the normality assumption is not satisfied in the model regarding money supply since the number of observation (80) is sufficient enough and since there is no changing variance problem the regression is highly confidential. 474 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When coefficient estimate results regarding to the examined variables are concerned, it is seen that PBCDummy coefficient is positive and significant as appropriate to the theory. This acquired result confirms the argument of the PBC theory that when the politicians try to affect the electorates they mostly use the ―public expenditures‖ as fiscal policy tool. As a result of the increase in public expenditures there is an increase in money supply and money in circulation. Conclusion Manipulating the macroeconomic policies in the direction of politic interests is one of the significant problems of Turkish economy as in the economies of many countries. In order to come to power and to establish government, politicians do not avoid using macroeconomic policies as instruments. In this study it is aimed to determine whether politicians have opportunistic behavior or not. Therefore, it is analyzed that being appropriate to the PBC theory whether there is a significant change in policy instrument variables such as public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation during the electoral periods. When the obtained results are examined it is observed that the election dummy variable regarding public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation is positive and statistically significant which is appropriate to the theory. These findings assert that governments pursue opportunistic policies in electoral periods in Turkey. References SavaĢ, V.F., (1997), Anayasal Ġktisat, Ġstanbul: Avcıol Basım Yayım. Nordhaus, W,(1975), The Political Business Cycle, The Review of Economic Studies, 42(2), 169-190. Alesina, A., Cohen G.D. & Roubini, N., (1991), Makroeconomic Policy and Elections in OECD Democracies, NBER Working Paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge. Özkan, F., (2005), Döviz Kuru Öngörü Yöntemleri: Türkiye Uygulaması, Y. Lisans Tezi, Zonguldak Karaelmas Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Erim, N., (2007), Ġktisadi DüĢünce Tarihi, Ankara: Palme Yayıncılık. Azgün, S., (2006), Kamu Açığı ve DıĢ Açıkların GeliĢimi: 1980–2004 Dönem Analizi, E-Akademi Hukuk, Ekonomi ve Siyasal Bilimler Dergisi, 53(7). Hibbs, D.G., (1977), Political Parties and Macroeconomic Policy, The American Political Science Review, 71 (4), 1467-1487. Dickey, D.A. & Fuller, W.A., (1979), Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74, 427–431. Perron, P., (1990), Testing for a Unit Root in a Time Series With a Changing Mean, Journal of Business Economic Satistics, 8(2), 19-25. Godfrey, L.G. (1988), Spesicification Test in Econometrics, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge. Bera, A. & Jarque, C. (1981), Efficient est for Normality, Heterosedasticity and Serial Indepence of Regression Residuals: Monte Carlo Evidence, Economics Letter, 7, 313-318. 475 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 249 Title A name given to the resource Public Expenditure and Political Business Cycles inTurkey Author Author TARI, Recep ÖZKAN, Filiz Abstract A summary of the resource. According to the theory of ―Political Business Cycles (PBC)‖, politicians prefer to pursue opportunistic policies in order to increase their chance of election. For this reason, they apply expansionary policies before the elections. Hence, they start to do this by increasing public expenditures. There is an increase in the indicators of money parallel to the increase in public expenditures. In this study it is examined that whether there have been appropriate developments in terms of PBC theory during the elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980. In order to determine the effect of PBC ―the traditional opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is used to test the PBC effect. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. The results obtained as a result of the empirical analysis support the PBC theory. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c15003c04d0090b495aa9449c1e62e37.pdf a6d2d9f84212023cc86f449bf8605c6b PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Experimental Fieldwork Study of Methodology, With Classification, On The Collected Bosniak Folk Tales and Identification of These Tales With Their Evaluation Yusuf Ziya Sümbüllü Adnan Menderes University Faculty of Arts and Sciences /Turkey yzsumbullu@yahoo.com Abstract: Tale, which has been the subject of research studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina and around the world, is a type of oral narrative which doesn’t have to be plausible, yet may make the reader believe in its plausibility; based on morality, useful and didactic; whose source dates back to ancient times and which are marked with characteristics from time and culture they were created in. There has been different opinions about the sources and classification of the tale which is in close relation with different sorts of narration. The history of tale extends back to the ages without writing however the history of tale studies could only be extended to the beginning of 20th century. The aim of this study is to bring interpretation to in particular, Bosanski tale culture, and in general, study of tales, in relation with the function and context of the fairy tale, the narrator, and the listener. By transferring social values from one generation to another, tales provide the continuity and unity of community in terms of training the young generations in a better way. Therefore, tales are important with their role and power on guiding and shaping new generations lives. Introduction The Balkans which are found on the strategic point where Black sea and Mediterranean sea touch each other are on the position of extension where old continent Europe connects with the East.( Selver, 2003) This strategic position which stems from geographical position of the Balkans is reflected in historical, political, and cultural facts.( Yürür, 2007) The region of overlapping Muslim, Christian and Jewish believes, the geography for triggering I and II world wars, this seems that as in history being away from the centers of heat and movement it will not loose on own importance in present and future. (Seyhan, 2007) Located in the center of Balkan region Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of three founding nationalities Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs. In the country word the Bosniak is usually identified with Muslim, Croat with Catholic, and Serb with Orthodox religion. Only in the Bosnia and Herzegovina from time to time ‘Bosnian’ and ‘Bosniak’ can be used as synonyms. On the “Muslim Intellectual Congress” in 1993 the name Bosniak was accepted and in this sense nation in question prior to 1993 was defined as “Bosniak”. Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs all together belong to the South Slavic branch of people, but when ethnicity is taken into account other factors in terms of cultural and religious preferences are peculiar to them. Each society preserves own cultural values and national identity with the lookout for their continuity. Be it material or if necessarily spiritual facts of culture, important part of them is consisted of the oral products. Among the fruits of oral culture the fairy tales play more important role in educational sense then the other kinds, they do not serve only the purposes for spending of time or to have a fun, but they rather firstly aim to be coding products of the society’s views on life. Important part of the Bosniak oral culture is fairytales whose structural characteristics constituted the starting point for our study. Types of Fairy Tales In the scope of folk literature products which are based on narration at the first place comes fairytales. The fairytales are anonymous works in an unknown time, at undetermined place, happening to imagined persons narrating a dangerous situation(s) happened to those persons. They are based on past and are important but at the same time are related to present. The most popular in the oral literature is the type of fairytale depicting knowledge models of individual and social life which is orally transferred from generation to generation. (Elçin, 1986) The fairytale which is defined as story said to children and mostly decorated with the supernatural events to attract attention (Agakay, 1966 ), was subject to many researches in the world. Definition of the fairytale can change in accordance of time and people. While Ahmet Vefik Pasa in his work called Lehçe-i Osmânî say:”Saying , still story, saga, in paragraph without thesis, informal postulate” Muallim Naci the word fairytale defines as: ”Saga, the famous story”. 374 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo As opposed to this Semseddin Sami in Kâmûs-i Türkî defines fairytale as: “A small story related to manners, morals and advices”, while Hüseyin Kâzım Kadri define in Türk Lügati:”Arabic parable, example of story, legend, saga” , Ferit Devellioglu in Ottoman-Turkish encyclopedic dictionary defines as: “Useful story purposed for discipline and good manners” (Sakaoğlu, 1995) While according to the Pertev Naili Boratav fairytale is; “Short narration said with prose, independent from religious and magic beliefs and customs, entirely fiction, unrelated to reality without pretension to convince those who listen to it. (Boratav, 1982) While Şükrü Elçin defines fairytale as:”In such a time, connected to a long tradition, with collective character, with a set of topics like; ‘dream-reality’, ‘abstract-concrete’, ‘materialspiritual’, then set of elements like adventure, case, problem and motive, narrated with the language of prose to spend a time, to educate people while having fun with the idea of moving, is written or said in a distinctive style”. Bilge Seyidoğlu says: “Fairytale is a specific oral type said among folk for centuries, contains supernatural persons and events, starts with clichés like “once upon time”, has a certain length, ends with words like “ate, drank, reached goal”, or “they achieved their goals let us be on their positions now”, “three apples have fallen from the sky one to the narrator, one to listener and one to me”, it is also without specified place and time. (Seyidoğlu, 1986) Umay Günay says:”According to the most widely assent logic of fairytales are life stories narrated in a distinctive way. Those life stories generally reflect the world different than ours, realize impossible, make heroes happy at the end and give hope to those who listen.(Günay, 1992) While Esma Şimşek defines fairytale as following: “Type of oral narration product which starts with cliché words, said by private persons in self purposeful framework of (supernatural) time, place and person, describes the real life lived together with imagined life in a systematic way” ( Şimşek, 2001) General Characteristics of The Bosniak Fairytales Bosniak fairytales from the general aspect of structure, framework, topic and heroes have common characteristics of the other fairytales. In this sense it easily can be expressed that Bosniak fairytales are generally similar to the other fairytales. But, with all similarities to the fairytales of the other people Bosniak fairytales again have their own distinctive characteristics. This distinction can be explained with the society’s cultural, economic and historical development in the civilization process. (Nametak, 1998) The Bosniak fairytales as stated above, although in terms of structural characteristics are universal, their mainline is national. It is because Bosniak fairytales reflect altogether interests of the Bosniak society, its needs and expectations with the views of life. These fairytales from the core give knowledge about Bosniak cultural structure, language characteristics, ways of life, religious and historical facts in such a way that from these aspects Bosniak fairytales are different than other fairytales in the world. Perhaps one of the most important distinction of the Bosniak fairytales which makes them national is the synthesis format that stems from the interaction of belief and culture. As a members of the South Slavic branch Bosniaks were exposed to the beliefs of Bogumil Christianity for a long time, in 1463 when starts Ottoman conquest they are directed to the process of Islamization that lasted for 200 of years. Be it ethnic structure or the cultural one, the influence of the new civilization circle was inevitable, and by the time ambivalent expressions in fairytales like mosque-church, Ayşe- Stefan, imam-monk, sultan-tzar seem to become a national character. ( Goric, 1976) One of the most important features of the Bosniak fairytales is stability in the specter of optimist views. In these fairytales there is no insurmountable obstacle, punishments are not creepy, the evil ones instead of being negative are rather passive and sometimes even in a funny role, narrator and listener are not concerned that heroes and good ones will succeed and this is more obvious than in the fairytales of other nations. In the Bosniak fairytales the most important stance is being very flexible with status quo. The youngest son of the poor family, the only son, the only daughter, extraordinary intelligence, taking help from supernatural beings because of the benevolent structure can be reason for changing the social class at once. Motives like; poor young man who becomes tzar, young man who marries tzar’s daughter, poor girl who becomes sultan’ bride, king who is in pathetic situation, expulsion of evil vezir from palace, when step-mothers evil becomes obvious and etc. are characteristics which show that Bosniak cultural structure does not have strong influence of bourgeois as it is case in the European fairytales. It is important to emphasize that during collecting and reviewing of 50 Bosniak fairytales which we had chance to find beside fairytales with supernatural characteristics there are also tales which focus the real life. Characters like king, tzar, ban, sultan, vezir, poor young man, poor girl, step mother, black smith, landlord, baker and etc. are the heroes which turn Bosniak fairytale to real life. Of course it is completely normal in Bosniak fairytales to meet frequently together with characters from the real life supernatural characters like demon, devil, nymph, titan, witch and etc. As it is known the fairytale is distinguished from other narrations not only by fiction but also by inquiries of time, place and person. 375 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Bosniak fairytales usually are realized in unknown part of a time. Long time ago, in very old time, in a time out of a mind and etc. are concepts of time that we meet in Bosniak fairytales. In the Bosniak fairytales place is with the main lines of the fairytale lands, sometimes is undetermined and sometimes it is real places like Istanbul, Sarajevo, Herzegovina and etc. As in the case of place notions Bosniak fairytales give the similar notions of persons who are sometimes real sometimes imaginary. Those Bosniak fairytales that were subject to our review give are shaped in framework of the most obvious messages like: the truth will be rewarded, evil will not be without response, justice will triumph, importance of work, damages of lies and etc. All Bosniak fairytales finish with happy end. This case is appropriate for the usual type of fairy tale fiction. The powers which represent good, beautiful, the right, fighting with the accumulated powers of evil make that good is rewarded and evil punished what at the end gives positive sense to the aim of the fairytale. This fact prepares Bosniak fairytales for the ground of pretty contrast elements like: good-evil, beauty-ugliness, justice-injustice, smart-stupid, big-small and etc. It is important to emphasize those most important contrasting elements in the Bosniak fairytales. There is no impossible in the world of fairytales and this base is also important source for the Bosniak fairytales. Insurmountable mountains, on travelling with winged horses, magic wand with ring, with sword, unopening doors, with magic word, roads old hundreds of years etc. all this can be opened with just one closure of eye. ( Softic, 1977) Classification of The Bosniak Fairytales As a result of our collecting and translation of the 50 fairytales which we had possibility to reach according to the international Andre-Arne catalogue of the fairytales it is possible to distinct three main groups of the Bosniak fairytales: supernatural fairytales, animal fairytales, and realist fairytales. . A. Supernatural Bosniak Fairytales Those fairytales which constitute majority of the Bosniak fairytales in the main line are mythological in the origin. The majority of these fairytales has a universal aspect when characteristics of fiction are taken into account. In terms of motive patterns these supernatural fairytales are in the parallel view of fairytales that belong to other nations. Elements valued in Bosniak culture should not be kept out of a sight. General view of the Bosniak supernatural fairytale is that they are in the framework where hero with help of other objects crosses many barriers and takes emperors daughter or takes the power of magical object. Those fairytales usually start when poor young man in search for solution of the situation leaves his home. Solving quiet hard problems he reaches his aim with his intelligence and courage and the help taken some times from the supernatural objects. Evil, unjust, tzar, sultan, witch, titan, step mother, wizard and trouble maker, if they are old die, lose their position or are turned into some another object. In the supernatural Bosniak fairytales part of the supernatural beings like nymphs, titans, demons, dragoons, flying horses, lord of snakes and etc. helps the hero while part of these supernatural beings are in mission to make the task for hero more harder. In the supernatural fairytales the enemy is usually strong, very dangerous and particularly very powerful. Their strength is much stronger than the strength an ordinary people. However as it is said above in the Bosniak fairytales there is no place for the impossible. Tasks like to reach soul of a hidden titan at the bottom of the sea, taking a magical ring which is source of power from a wizard woman that she does not feel it, despite of their hardship never can result with failure. (Softic, 1977) 376 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo B. Bosniak Animal Fairytales As it is known emergence of fairytales related to animals is older compared to other fairytale types. Considering educational aspect of these fairytales which can have characteristics of human-animal or as allegoric animal-animal relations we can say that they are the most practical means of communication. In these fairytales animals identify themselves with human characteristic and in onomatopoeic art speaks, thinks, argues, humiliates, and understands as a man. Bosniak animal fairytales are in the format where relations humansanimals, and animals-humans are depicted as relations between humans. In some animal fairytales dialogue between humans and animals even if it is little, still exists. In this fairytales we see animals as helping people who have right attributes or in a mission of competitor to an evil person or greedy person.(Softic, 1977) As it is case with the fairytales of other people in the Bosniak fairy tale animals like wolf, fox, bear, lion, snake and etc. are symbolically identified with some human characteristics which stem from their nature, some of those characteristics are smartness, greed, honesty and etc. In these fairytales physically stronger and wilder animals stand in opposition to meeker, small, and thin animal, with their anger, greed, being dishonest and etc, they are in function of reflecting the human relations. C. Bosniak Realist Fairytales The realist fairytales are more focused on the daily life that we know than the other two types. In the Bosniak realist fairytales, the tale events and heroes are shaped in the framework of heroes and events that we can meet in any moment in the daily life. Young girl, young man, poor peasant, rich man, step mother, merchant, robber, end etc. actors and actresses of the daily life, social and moral topics like honesty, injustice, justice, generosity, helpfulness and etc. the natural manners that man takes altogether. ( Hörmann, 1976) It is not striking that in the Bosniak realist fairytales this type of characteristics helps to the heroes to cross all barriers and achieve their aims without any supernatural help. In these fairytales there is no flying horse, magical stick, or nymph which helps to the hero. The hero with his intelligence, honesty, hard working, courage, intuition and personal skills succeeds in winning his competitors and reaches the happy end. In the Bosniak realist fairytales there are opposites on the main lines like; breaking of moral principles of society or individuals, good-evil, justice-injustice, hard working-laziness, smartness-stupidity, greedsatisfaction. Naturally in this type of the fairytales good is rewarded while evil is sanctioned. However in the realist fairytales differentiate from other two types because rewards and sanctions are more in reasonable. (Softıc, 1977) The Formal Structure of The Bosniak Fairytales The formal is defined stereotyped expression having exact particular shape. The fairytale formals firstly aim to take listener from the real life, have listener’s attention, bring him to imaginary world, make him more interested into the fairytale, give time to the narrator from the unknown point, using own skills of narrator he gives the purpose of the tale. The Bosniak fairytale formals are in the order as follows below\ 1. Staring formals In the Bosniak fairytales the starting formals are a little bit out of the usual standard rhyme form. In the Bosniak fairytales the staring formals on the main lines are: once upon time, in ancient times, in one of the times, in ancient time when demons, titans and humans all lived together., in old times. 2. Passing Formals The passing formals in the Bosniak fairytales are merely used. Except couple of examples in those fairytales, we do not have them. Months and months and years and years have passed after, less gone, nice gone, went one step to go away. 3. Ending Formals Bosniak fairytales usually finish with the same ending formals. They reached their goals, they have become happy, were happy, made a huge wedding, and lived happily after. 4. Number Formals In the Bosniak fairytales the numeric formals show the uniting characteristics of eastan west. Among the numbers listed below number 3 is seen more frequently than the others. Three girls, three boys, three titans. 377 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo While it can be seen that number 40 is more popular than other numbers after number 3. 40 titans, 40 gates, 40 bandits. Numbers in the fairytales can be listed as following: 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 21, 22, 40, 5. Time Formals One of the most important distinctions of the fairytale narrations is undetermined time. The Bosniak fairytales in this case do not show big structural difference from the fairytales of other people. The expressions of time in the Bosniak fairytale are as day, month and year. 3 days, 5 days , 7days, 3 months, 5 months, 10 months, 3 years, 5 years, 40 years. 6. Colors In the Bosniak fairytale we face color as related assets associated with function. For example if the demon is dark this mean he is very strong and dangerous, of horse is white this means he is supernatural. In this sense colors used in the fairytales are as following: black, white, yellow, red, blue. 7. Place Formals The most important characteristic of the fairytale is imaginary plot for place. It is impediment without which Bosniak fairytale cannot exist. It is possible to compare these places with the places in the real world. It is important to emphasize that in Bosniak fairytales places are under cultural influence as it is case in Turksih culture. Istanbul, Bosna, Sarajevo, Krajina, Travnik… Characters in the Bosniak Fairytales The first characters who took our attention in the Bosniak fairytales during reviewing is hunter-hero type. To hunt, it is self desire of a tzar who goes on journey, meets with supernatural beings or fighting with evil rulers, where he wins and his noble characteristics of hunter and tzar are listed. Another character that we meet in the Bosniak fairytales is the small boy character. The character of the small boy is widely spread not only in the Bosniak fairytales but in the fairytales of other nations, in Bosniak fairy tales it is a character of hunter-hero who either has ability to save people from supernatural beings, or is in the arbitrary function among siblings who quarrel and fight each other. One more character that we meet in the Bosniak fairytales is the bald character who with the main lines belongs to the Turkish fairytale character of the “bald boy” (keloğlan). In the Bosniak fairytales we see him successful with his vigilance, intelligence, and supernatural adventures which from time to tome need courage. In those fairytales poor bald thanks to ingenuity and foresight changes his status by marrying the tzar’s daughter. Another character in the Bosniak fairytales is the character of the poor young boy. In those fairytales because of search for the solution of material problems young man leaves old mother and father and way leads to one country. Under very hard conditions he succeeds with supernatural support to kill huge demon or dragoon which was the main problem of the country and as a reward marries the kings daughter. One more character that we meet in the Bosniak fairytales is old wise man. This character who is in mission to help a hero in the hardest times, he fulfills his duty by giving useful advices to hero how travel of fight efficiently. One of the very important types that appears in the fairytales is also the type of step mother. We can see her sometimes having also supernatural abilities, wants to remove daughter of her husband from the previous marriage, plays with all possible options without fear, but at the end is always defeated and gets punished. The last character we will present in the Bosniak fairytale is trouble maker or witch. In those fairytales young girl or old woman, represented as very ugly being, is one the most important rivals of heroes. Despite of her supernatural abilities, she cannot save herself from the defeat by hero and is mostly punished with death. Conclusion Bosniak fairytales in terms of quality and quantity keep very important place in the Bosniak folk literature. Type of tale which has the duty to save cultural values and transfer them to the new generations, are big concern because they are unfortunately forgotten very fast from the folk memory and there is lack of interest into field work to collect products of Bosniak culture. Rich both in fiction and structural elements, pretty rich in motives the Bosniak fairytales as it is said in the introduction have their own standing between east and west. Perhaps more attention is needed to the unknown period and elements of Islamic culture which occurred under specific circumstances when those these fairytales were shaped and re-shaped. Historical and social processes in their own conditions on the core of the human community transferred to future generation as any kind of material of spiritual culture as a whole are called culture. Culture which makes one society to be distinctive from another represent DNA of that society. Concern for protection of 378 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo cultural values is so important that question of national independence and national consciousness is nothing less important. A community’s perception, thinking and way of life directly overlap with the cultural views. As mentioned before importance of culture is vital what makes especially oral culture being more important with all types of narration in itself what again makes protection and recording of these types a must. Balkans which connect the Europe to the east have Bosnia and Herzegovina hosting the richest cultural samples as it is perceived, that will be even more richer when Bosniaks as one of the three constitutive nations start discover own cultural treasury. 379 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Boratav, P.N., (1982) 100 Soruda Türk Halk Edebiyatı, Gerçek Yay.,Đstanbul Elçin, Ş., (1986) Halk Edebiyatına Giriş, Akçağ Yay., Ankara Goric, M., (1976) Narodna Proza, Price Puslovice Pıtalıc I Zagonetke, Vaselin Masleca, Sarajevo Günay, U., (1992) Elazığ Masallarının Muhtevası. Fırat Üniversitesi, Fırat Havzası Folklor ve Etnografya Sempozyumu Bildirileri. Elazığ, s. 109. Hörmann,K., (1976) Narodne Pjesma Muslimana BĐH, Priredila Denana Buturovic, Sarajevo Nametak,A., (1998) Traza Zaboravka, Publishing, Sarajevo Sakaoğlu, Saim., (1992) Masallar Türk Dünyası Ortak Edebiyatı,TAV Yay., Ankara Selver, M., (2003)Balkanlara Stratejik Yaklaşım ve Bosna, IQ Kültür Yayıncılık, Đstanbul Seyhan, E. (2007) Bosna-Hersek’in Jeo-Stratejik Önemi ve Türkiye, Yayımlanmamış YL Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Ünv. Sosyal Bililimler Enst., Afyon Seyidoğlu, B., (1975) Erzurum Masalları, Atatürk Ünv., Yay., Erzurum Softic, A., (1977) Antologija, Bošnjacke Usmene Price, Alef, Izdavacka Kuca, Sarajevo Şimşek, E., (2001) Yukarıçukurova Masallarında Motif ve Tip Araştırmas, ıKültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ankara Yürür, P., (2007) Uluslararası Toplumun Bosna-Hersek’i Yeniden Yapuılandırma Süreci ve Modeli, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Gazi Ünv. Sosyal Bilimler Enst., Ankara 380 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 721 Title A name given to the resource The Experimental Fieldwork Study of Methodology, With Classification, On The Collected Bosniak Folk Tales and Identification of These Tales With Their Evaluation Author Author Sümbüllü, Yusuf Ziya Abstract A summary of the resource. Tale, which has been the subject of research studies in Bosnia-Herzegovina and around the world, is a type of oral narrative which doesn’t have to be plausible, yet may make the reader believe in its plausibility; based on morality, useful and didactic; whose source dates back to ancient times and which are marked with characteristics from time and culture they were created in. There has been different opinions about the sources and classification of the tale which is in close relation with different sorts of narration. The history of tale extends back to the ages without writing however the history of tale studies could only be extended to the beginning of 20th century. The aim of this study is to bring interpretation to in particular, Bosanski tale culture, and in general, study of tales, in relation with the function and context of the fairy tale, the narrator, and the listener. By transferring social values from one generation to another, tales provide the continuity and unity of community in terms of training the young generations in a better way. Therefore, tales are important with their role and power on guiding and shaping new generations lives. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/76191cf365a48239da0821b054d04b34.pdf 7283e5f7005615d39c3e0fd3e8d58f14 PDF Text Text Constructed Wetland Filter Use for Controlling Nutrient and Sediment Runoff from Golf Course Developments Yasin Çağatay Seçkin College of Architecture Istanbul Technical University Turkey cseckin@itu.edu.tr Abstract: Interest in the control of pollution entering into waterways has risen significantly since the last quarter of 20th Century and golf course developments have been identified as areas that use some of the chemical pollutants found in these waterways. Runoff control of pollutants from golf course developments is vital in assuring clean waterway systems for the future. This study investigates the runoff issues that can be related to golf course turf grass systems and their control through use of wetland filters. Three issues addressed in this study are suspended sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus levels contained in turf grass runoff. Sediment runoff levels were found to be low to moderate for turf grass systems, while nutrient transport in runoff from turf grass areas can become a significant problem. Constructed wetland filtration systems were investigated as one potential method for controlling turf grass runoff. The design and construction of these wetland filters was investigated to determine their potential for filtering runoff from golf course facilities. Data showed that significant levels of runoff sediment and nutrient pollution could be removed if proper design and construction processes are followed. Information The game of golf as it is known today originated in the British Isles hundreds of years ago (Love, 2008) and as knowledge of the game spread, it became increasingly popular, and by the early 1900s had begun to experience tremendous growth. Depending on this growth, the importance of the field of turfgrass science was realized, and the associations, such as USGA or EGU, began sponsoring publications and research through the embodied departments or independent organizations (Beard, 2002). Since the beginning of this process, great steps have been taken to make turf grasses on golf courses the finest of all turfgrass areas. Intensive management practices have resulted in turfgrass areas becoming denser, softer, shorter and greener than previously thought possible. It is needless to say that, for reaching this result, considerable quantities of pesticides and fertilizers are used annually on golf courses throughout the World. The fate of these chemicals can be traced to the creeks, streams, lakes, and groundwater aquifers and the major environmental consequence of these intensive maintenance practices is the potential degradation of adjacent waterways and groundwater aquifers from chemical and nutrient runoff. Runoff Issues Runoff can be defined as any surface flow that may occur on turfgrass, soil, or other related surfaces after evaporation, interception, infiltration, plant uptake, and detention storage has been satisfied. Runoff events typically occur after: � � � � Extended periods of rain in which the soil profile becomes saturated and incapable of storing further water molecules. During rain or irrigation events in which precipitation rates exceed infiltration rates of soil. On areas with extreme slopes where gravity flow provides a quicker gradient for water movement than soil infiltration. On surfaces where soil structure is extremely exposed and compacted so that water cannot readily be absorbed. 493 �These forms of surface runoff are typically the means by which pollutants from golf course developments enter into the waterways and groundwater aquifers. In most cases, sediment runoff is identified as a potential guilty in the pollution of these waterways and aquifers, but more serious problems are posed by the potential eutrophication of downstream lakes and slow-moving water bodies by the nutrients that attach themselves to these soil particles (Balogh et al, 1992). Turfgrass management practices can have a direct effect upon runoff events and the levels of pollutants that they transport. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the nutrients most widely applied through use of fertilizers on golf course turfgrass areas. Especially, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are two of the most important nutrients used for the establishment and maintenance of golf course turf. Nitrogen is needed in the largest amount by turfgrass plants. This nutrient is essential for shoot growth, green-up, hardiness, rate of growth and shoot density. Phosphorus is vital to energy transformations in turfgrass plants and is key in turfgrasss establishment, rooting, growth and reproduction (Beard, 2003). Ideally, all of the fertilizer applied on golf course turf has to be taken up by the plants. But, extended periods of rain, irrigation system malfunction, extreme slopes or extremely compacted soils can cause nutrient runoff into the waterways. It is very crucial to control this kind of runoff from polluting the waterways. According to an USGA-sponsored research, nutrient runoff poses a greater threat to water quality than leaching (Kenna and Snow, 2000) and wetlands provide an effective control of nutrients (Vadineanu, 2005). Sediment and Nutrient Removal by Wetland Systems By definition, wetlands are regions that are flooded or saturated by either surface water or ground water often and long enough to support both flora and fauna specially adapted to saturated soil conditions (LaFlamme, 2005). They receive water from surrounding lacustrine systems, precipitation, groundwater and runoff. They act like a giant sponge absorbing water during wet periods and releasing water during dry periods of the year. In addition, wetlands can be considered as the kidneys of the planet since they have the ability to filter out pollutants, transform nutrients and serve as sinks for many compounds (Jordan et al., 1999). As well as natural wetlands, there exist constructed wetlands. These wetlands are mainly constructed with the purpose of treating wastewater. Constructed wetlands are capable of providing many of the same basic operational benefits of a natural wetland, but with a much greater degree of efficiency and control (Dodson, 2005). Natural wetlands have been used as convenient wastewater discharge sites for as long as sewage has been collected. But, wetlands constructed for the purpose of treating water have a much shorter history. The worldwide spread of this technology originated from research conducted at the Max Planck Institute in West Germany, starting in 1952 (Bastian and Hammer, 1993; Sakadevan and Bavor, 1998; Verhoeven and Meuleman, 1999) and in the western hemisphere during the 1970s. Implementation of wetland technology has been accelerating around the world since 1985 and now there are many thousands of treatment wetlands across the globe (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). Constructed wetlands control water runoff velocities so effectively that they can provide major sinks for suspended sediment. The removal of sediment from golf course watersheds is the first step in providing cleaner water to adjacent ecosystems. Recently, the use of construction wetlands as a means of reducing NPS pollution has garnered more attention. Constructed wetlands assimilate nutrients at remarkable levels and utilize added nutrients to increase net wetland productivity. The rate at which wetlands are able to assimilate these nutrients is dependent on four basic factors (Bayley, 1985): � � � � The hydrologic cycle or regime. The oxidation-reduction state of the soil. The nutrient levels currently in soil. The soil organic material content. If properly designed to satisfy these four factors, the wetland filtration system can be efficient in the removal of nutrient pollutants. However, to be truly effective, constructed wetlands must be carefully designed, constructed, monitored, and maintained. 494 �Guidelines for Constructed Wetlands on Golf Courses For any constructed wetland filtration system to operate correctly, it must be first sited and designed properly. The design process used by many golf course architects is a viable means of accomplishing this goal. The basic design process involves the following steps: (1) inventory, (2) analysis, (3) design, (4) construction, and (5) management. If these five steps are correctly instituted into the use of wetland filtration systems on golf courses, it will insure the designer of an efficient wetland filter design, effective incorporation into the golf course facility, and the most cost effective wetland filter location. Inventory The designers use the inventory process to identify existing site features and site conditions. These features and conditions are important for developing a wetland filtration system. First of all, determination of the effective drainage area that any wetland system will be filtering is a critical factor in the overall design process. The effective drainage area is the land from which water will runoff into a water body in a typical year. This must be identified for runoff calculation and wetland sizing purposes. Effective drainage area is one of the important parameter of the Rational Method, which is widely practiced in runoff calculation and the formulation is presented as follows (Seçkin, 2004): Q = 0.00277 C i A Q = peak flow (m3/s) C = runoff coefficient (dimensionless) i = precipitation intensity (mm/h) A = effective drainage area (ha) After calculating the runoff, next challenge is to find out how big a constructed wetland will be necessary to treat the first flush of polluted runoff from the golf course. As well as turfgrass or meadow areas, residential and commercial neighborhoods may also be located in the same watershed as the golf course facility, and may contribute significant nutrient loading levels to wetland filtration systems. Therefore, watershed areas that contain man-made landscapes such as residential neighborhoods, commercial developments or roadway systems must be included in the sizing of any wetland filter. If wetland filtration systems receive excess nutrient loading, the efficiency level of pollutant filtration will drop in significantly. Soil type and existing site vegetation also needs to be included in this inventory activity. The location of these features is needed to assist in determining the best wetland filtration system location. In addition to these, the golf course’s hole routing will play a major role in the location of a wetland filtration systems. Wetlands should be located as amenities to the golf course, thus proper hole location is critical for identifying runoff problem areas and creating strategic golf hole layouts. Analysis The location of existing site features and their potential relationship to the golf course and watershed areas is a key element in this process. Environmentally sensitive areas and natural drainage systems must be evaluated and identified so that proper wetland location and integration into the golf course development can occur. Calculation of nutrient removal levels to determine the feasibility of utilizing a wetland filtration system on a golf course development is a key evaluation step in this process. Here, it is important to note that there must be enough water in the wetland to maintain saturated soils and emergent plants. Additional volume within the wetland may be needed if the frequency of runoff will not create continuously moist soil conditions to provide habitat in which emergent plants can flourish (Melby and Cathcart, 2002). Storage volume and water elevations can be calculated using the following formula (Hammer, D, 1997): ∆V = V + I – E ∆L = L + ∆V / A x D V = volume of storage I = inputs, E = exports L = water level or elevation A = area of the wetlands 495 �D = depth Design The design process involves the actual implementation of the site inventory and site analysis information. Once the ideal site is found and the wetland filter size figured, incorporation of the wetlands into the golf course can begin. Wetland features can serve as excellent hazards on golf course facilities, and the interaction of wetland and golf course correctly can greatly enhance the strategic aspects of the golf course and the enjoyment of a round of golf. These interactions should be diagrammatically highlighted since alteration of the course or wetland may be necessary to achieve the desired results. Wetland vegetation selection is one of the most vital components of design process. Vegetation plays a vital role in wetlands, as they provide a suitable environment for microbial growth and filtration. The vegetation provides oxygen to the bacteria located in its root zone. It also maintains the permeability of the growth media. The stem and leaves in the water column promote sedimentation and provide a substrate for the growth of beneficial microorganisms (State of Georgia, 2002). In addition, plants add greatly to the aesthetic value of the wetland (USDA, n.d.). Besides vegetation, many factors should be evaluated and incorporated into the process, when designing a wetland filtration system. Some of the more critical factors are listed below (Mitsch, 1993): � � � � � Utilize the natural energies of the watershed systems. Incorporate the wetland system into the existing landscape. Provide sufficient buffering from areas, which experience heavy pedestrian or vehicular traffic. Design the system for ease of maintenance. Orient the wetland filtration system so that the greatest level of runoff flow runs parallel to the wetland. If these factors are met in the design layout, the incorporation of the wetland filter into the landscape could easily be provided as well as successful filtration of runoff. Construction After the site inventory, analysis and design processes have been completed; the site can be directly evaluated for construction purposes. Existing topsoil may be suitable as a substrate base for wetland filtration systems. If the topsoil is not predominantly clay or sand then it will most likely work as an effective rooting base. This soil should be scrapped from the site and stored in an appropriate location for later use. Reuse of this soil will drastically reduce construction costs. In addition, to protect existing environmentally sensitive areas and to prevent excessive soil erosion into adjacent drainage ways, proper Best Management Practices (BMP) for erosion control must also be instituted before any construction begins. Wetlands are frequently constructed by excavating, backfilling, grading, diking and installing water control structures to establish desired hydraulic flow patterns. If the site has highly permeable soils, an impervious, compacted clay liner is usually installed and the original soil placed over the liner. Wetland vegetation is then planted or allowed to establish naturally (U.S. EPA, 2004). After initial plant selection and rough grading of the site, any stockpiled topsoil material can be distributed in the planting zone areas. The best soil for plant establishment is usually a fertile loam or organic soil with a little sand content. Heavy clays should be avoided due to natural settling and compaction, which can make initial vegetation rooting and eventual spreading difficult. The plants should be well established before any wastewater is added to the system. A minimum of 4 to 6 weeks should be allowed for plant establishment after planting before wastewater is added to the wetland (State of Georgia, 2002). 496 �Figure 1: Profile of a free water surface (FWS) constructed wetland (U.S. EPA, 2000). Management Wetland management is vital issue for assuring proper wetland filter function. Wetland systems are not capable of establishing themselves within short periods of time. For example, additional vegetation planting may be required to speed plant coverage, replace damaged plants or to try more suitable varieties. Maintenance may also be needed to control the spread of undesired plant species. In addition, inlets and outlets can become blocked with debris, which will require periodic removal. Inlet and outlet structures should be inspected regularly and especially following big storm events (Jones, 1997). Furthermore, proper turfgrass management practices must occur so that the wetland filtration system does not experience extreme sediment or nutrient loading. Conclusion Water bodies are important strategical areas on most all golf course facilities. These water bodies can provide the golf course architect with a potentially beautiful amenity to use in creating their golf course design goals. To the player, these can become strategical features that must be negotiated in order to achieve an acceptable score. These water bodies can also act as signatures by which the golf course would be remembered, carrying its influence beyond the property of the facility. In other words, water features have and always will be important features in a golf course development; this includes wetlands. Constructed wetlands have been implemented as wastewater treatment facilities in many parts of the world and the wetlands used on a golf course have the potential for accepting, storing and filtering runoff from within the course and from neighboring areas. Today, some golf course developments are experimented with wetlands to filter irrigation runoff for reuse on the course, but the environmental significance of this type of use of constructed wetlands is minor at best. Golf course architects and superintendents must do more to insure the safety of the waterways. It is one of the important jobs of every superintendent to insure that the level of runoff is minimized as much as possible. This is where wetland filtration systems become a valuable amenity on golf course developments. It is time that the golf industry makes an effort to support the study and development of methods for controlling runoff from golf course turfgrass systems, so that the future popularity of the game of golf and the health of our environment will be assured. References Balogh, J.C., Gibeault, V.A., Walker, W.J., Kenna, M.P. & Snow, J.T. (1992). Background and Overview of Environmental Issues, In J.C. Balogh & W.J. Walker (Ed.), Golf Course Management & Construction: Environmental Issues (pp.1-38). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Bastian, R. & Hammer, D. (1993). The Use of Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment and Recycling, In G. Moshiri (Ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement (pp.59-65). New York, NY: CRC Press. 497 �Bayley, S.E. (1985). The Effect of Natural Hydroperiod Fluctuations on Freshwater Wetlands Receiving Added Nutrients, In P.J. Godfrey, E.R. Kaynor, S. Pelczarski & J. Benforado (Ed.), Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewater (pp.180-189). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Beard, J.B. (2003). Turfgrass: Science and Culture, USA: Pearson US Imports & PHIPEs Beard, J.B. (2002). Turf Management for Golf Courses, Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press. Dodson, R.G. (2005). Sustainable Golf Courses: A Guide to Environmental Stewardship, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Hammer, D.A. (1997). Creating Freshwater Wetlands, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Jones, W.W. (1997). Design Features of Constructed Wetlands for Nonpoint Source Treatment, USA: U.S. EPA and the Indiana Department of Environmental Management Jordan, T., Whigham D., Hofmockel, K. & Gerber, N. (1999). Restored wetlands in crop fields control nutrient runoff. In J. Vymasal (Ed.), Wetlands-Nutrients, Metals and Mass Cycling (pp.49-60). Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys Publishers. Kadlec, R.H. & Wallece, S.D. (2009). Treatment Wetlands, Boca Raton, FL: Taylor& Francis. Kenna, M.P. & Snow, J.T. (2000). The United States Golf Association Turfgrass and Environmental Research Program Overview, In J.M. Clark & M.P. Kenna (Ed.), Fate and Management of Turfgrass Chemicals (pp.2-35). Washington DC: American Chemical Society. LaFlamme, C. (2005). Nutrient removal using a constructed wetland in Southern Québec, Montreal, Canada: McGill University. Love, B. (2008). An Environmental Approach to Golf Course Development, Brookfield, WI: American Society of Golf Course Architects. Melby, P. & Cathcart, T. (2002). Regenerative Design Techniques: Practical Applications in Landscape Design, New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons. Mitsch, W.J. (1993). Landscape Design and the Role of Created, Restored, and Natural Riparian Wetlands in Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution, In R.K. Olsen (Ed.), Created and Natural Wetlands for Controlling Nonpoint Source Pollution (pp.43-70). USA: U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development and Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds. Sakadevan K. & Bavor, H. (1998). Phosphate adsorption characteristics of soils, slags and zeolite to be used as substrates in constructed wetland systems, Water Research. 32(2): 393-399. Seçkin, Ö.B. (2004). Peyzaj Konstrüksiyonu, Đstanbul, Türkiye: Đstanbul Üniversitesi. Seçkin, Y.Ç. (2009). Sustainable Redevelopment of Sanitary Landfills as Future Golf Courses, In H. Padem (Ed.), International Symposium on sustainable Development ISSD 2009 Science and Technology Proceedings, Volume 3, June 9-10, 2009, Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina: IBU Publications. State of Georgia, Department of Natural Resources, Environmental Protection Division (2002). Guidelines for Constructed Wetlands for Municipal Wastewater Facilities, USA: State of Georgia. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service and the US EPA-Region III (n.d.) A Handbook of Constructed Wetlands, Volume 1, USA: USDA & US EPA. U.S. EPA Office of Water (2004). Constructed Treatment Wetlands, USA: US EPA. U.S. EPA (2000). Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters, USA: U.S. EPA. Vadineanu, A. (2005). Identification of the Lagoon Ecosystems, In Đ.E. Gönenç & J.P. Wolflin (Ed.), Coastal Lagoons: Ecosystem Processes and Modeling for Sustainable Use and Development (pp.7-42) Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Verhoeven J.T.A & Meuleman, A.F.M. (1999). Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: Opportunities and Limitations. Ecological Engineering. 12: 5-12. 498 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 572 Title A name given to the resource Constructed Wetland Filter Use for Controlling Nutrient and Sediment Runoff from Golf Course Developments Author Author Seçkin, Yasin Çağatay Abstract A summary of the resource. Interest in the control of pollution entering into waterways has risen significantly since the last quarter of 20th Century and golf course developments have been identified as areas that use some of the chemical pollutants found in these waterways. Runoff control of pollutants from golf course developments is vital in assuring clean waterway systems for the future. This study investigates the runoff issues that can be related to golf course turf grass systems and their control through use of wetland filters. Three issues addressed in this study are suspended sediment, nitrogen, and phosphorus levels contained in turf grass runoff. Sediment runoff levels were found to be low to moderate for turf grass systems, while nutrient transport in runoff from turf grass areas can become a significant problem. Constructed wetland filtration systems were investigated as one potential method for controlling turf grass runoff. The design and construction of these wetland filters was investigated to determine their potential for filtering runoff from golf course facilities. Data showed that significant levels of runoff sediment and nutrient pollution could be removed if proper design and construction processes are followed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f5deca120af4cd5bd75ff41819cfe4be.pdf b7392eefce97d06765b5917f311398c0 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Industrial Developments in Turkey during the Transition Period from Ottoman State to Republic Kadir Şeker Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Burdur/Turkey kseker@mehmetakif.edu.tr Abstract: The guild system in Ottoman State maintain its vitality as an economic and social system until nineteenth century. The masters and apprentices who construct guild system lost their chances of economic entegration to the new system brought by Industrial Revolution which first started in England and then spread all over Europe. Although the Ottoman State had taken some actions to keep up with the industrial revolution in Europe, it couldn’t have industrialized in all fields. Ottoman State was eliminated by First World War and Independence War and then Turkish Republic took Ottoman State’s place. But the industry taken over from Ottoman State was almost next to nothing. In this respect, founder of new goverment Mustafa Kemal, gathered economic congress in Đzmir with the purpose with arranging industrial investments and economic developments just after Independence War. Because according to him, military victories which are unsupported by economical developments is not possible to be permanent. For this purpose, some radical precautions had been taken to develop the industrial just after the foundation of Republic. In this study, it is emphasized on the applications for developing the industry in the late period of Ottoman State and the industrial developments in the new state from the end of Indepence War to 1940s. Key Word: Ottoman State, Guild System, Economical Developments in Turkey Introduction Until the beginning of 19th Century, there was a developed industry which was made in small workshops and organized as guiltd to its time in Ottoman State. Industrial branches, such as cotton thread, cloth thread. Both met country’s needs and was exported. But starting of the Industrial Revolution in England and spreading to other European countries in a fast way caused the emerging of capitalism in Europea with the expression of economist J schumpeter while developing industry was bringing forth new goods with services, new prodiction and new life styles, also demolished the old ones( Kazgan, 2009). But this life style did not occur only special to Europe. It showed its effect nearly all around the world and as using its political interactions Europe started to exploit weak countries by taking them under their power. While the progress was going on like that at the ends of 18th Century and beginnings of 19th Century, Ottoman State which had large lands spreading to three continents and innersides of Europe didn’t keep in step with these developments for some reasons. Ottoman State didn’t get the technology which was bought by Industrial Revolution according to Europe and also Ottoman State had political agitation caused by Ayanlar and had to struggle with nationalist movements beceuse of French Revolution. Although movements about acquiring a newness had started inner Ottoman since at the beginning of 18th Century, these movements did not come to an end beceuse of reactions caused by either lawer or upper parts of society. As the most important examples to these, Nevşehirli Damat Đbrahim Pasa and III. Selim attempts trying to do in every fields can be given as examples. But these attempts did not work beceuse of Patrona and Kabakçı Mustafa rebellions. One of the most important causes of the Ottoman industry’s unrealization is Capitulations.In the period of Kanuni Sultan Süleyman for breaking the crusader unit, and between two sovereigns, by the condition of valid as long as they live, the capitulations being given to French were started to be given to other European countries in the following centuries of development, these attemps did not cause so many matters but these attemps started to be a pressure component for the Ottoman State in the term of both political trade and also economic in the period of unproductivity. Finally the conditions were followed to Industry Revolation, England, opening to world markets and exploiting these markets step by step, sign the Trade Agreements, 1838, with the Ottoman State (Cem, 1970). Trade agreements were signed with other European countries following this Trade Agreement. All agreements included both the continuation of former privilepe’s components and also new components with these agreements, for exporting and importing being limited to foreigns, and for zeroing the 425 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo advantages of indigenous merchants in domestic trade and at the same convenience foreign investors and merchants. But at the same time, against of England and French’s exploitation. while USA absorbed all the safeguard principles in foreign trade, Germany Principalities set up duty unity by demoslishing duty unity between them, and thus, supporting domestic production against England’s and France’s exploitation, they set the foundation of German Empire in the future. Industry Revoluation, starting in England, Pelmestor, Minister of foreign Affairs, started the process with the principle “any undeveloped country does not have right to obstruct the effect of Europe”. Thus, USA, Germany, Russia took against this progress by bringing function defending economic politicians. But 1838 English Trade Agreement did not give any economic development opportunity to the Ottoman State. In this way, while some countries were trying to keep their industries, The Ottoman State by signing trade agreement, opened up markets to European’s Industry goods. Economy Policies and Industrialization of 1838–1923 Administrative Reforms Period The announcement which was published in November 3, 1839 in front of people who are muslim and not Muslim just five months after the death of II. Mahmut and nearly one year after the commerce agreement signed with English with the enterprise of ministry of foreign affairs was called “Administrative Reforms Firman”. The word “Tanzimat” is the plural of “Tanzim” which means “putting into order”. Mustafa Reşit Paşa who was sent as an ambasador to London in II. Mahmut period gave a note to Ministry of Foreign Affairs of England in August 12, 1839. He explained the reform which he thought with three words in that note which was written out in French. Those three words are “a system which was settled in the form of not being able to be changed”. In fact Firman which was announced in 1839 had the feature of a human right’ report. Equality of Christian people who lived in Ottoman land, everbody paying tax according to their financial power, centralizing disorganized goverment structure, conducting military expenditure with laws were main foresight of Firman. Firman was announced by goverment administrator of Ottoman to decrease Europe’s intervention into our internal affairs. But that Firman made it ease for European goverments to interfere Ottoman’s internal affairs and in progressive term the process proceeded to work in non –muslem people’s favour. (yerasimov, 1976). Europe which quaranteed to enter Ottoman’s bazaars with 1838 trade agreement aimed with Firman that their own Merchant and minorty had a say in above their legal status. Briefly, while Ottoman Goverment was included in international markets by bringing to an open bazaar state with 1838–39 trade agreements, it was also introduced to Europe public law by 1839 Adminisrative Reform Firman (Kazgan, 2009). After those processes, Ottoman lands were brought to an important bazaar of global economy whose leaders were England and France. On the other hand, administrative Reforms Firman contributed to England Ambassador and also other Europen goverment’s represenatives to be the inspecter of Administrative applications. Ambassadors who complained that law and regulations wich would perform the reforms wich Firman promised weren’tmade and those which were made were not applied. They started to put pressure on Ottoman State about new regulations with the end of Crimea War in peace conference which woud be carried out in Paris. At the end of these attempts Ottoman State had to declare Improvement Firman in 1856. Two-third of Firman were parted to minorities privileges and the other parts were parted to foreigners privileges under Ottoman State. In fact, it started to be seen how Europe would treat in Ottoman region. By taking minority rights under guarantee, making cooperations with foreigners would be helped and thanks to minorities, commercial, economical and industrial privileges woud be obtained. On the other side, these treaties economical effects shoued themselves in a short time. In the period from 1838–1841 to 1852–1854 the growth in foreign trade rised as annually from 1–5 % to 5 % in Ottoman State. Although that was such a crucial figure, the main growth reached its peak with joining Ottoman State to Crimea War and right after with declaration of Improvement Firman (Kazgan, 2009). At the same time, Crimea War brought the firsts inside Ottoman State. Ottoman State went into dept to foreigner investors for the first time in its history. This debt was in fact based on very high interest. While some of European were going into debt only with 3 %, Ottoman State went into dept with high interest like 8 % in those years. While that situation was leading to conclusion of not being paid of Ottoman State’s depts in progress, it caused the foundation of Duyunu Umumiye characterized as depts law. Ottoman State went into dept sixteen times between 1854–1876. Borrowed Money started to be spent to cover new depts and their interest more than countrie’s development and being turned into investments. At that point, Ottoman State couldn’t pay its dept and declared moratorium. In the end, firstly Rüsum-i Sitte Đdaresi (A Traditional Board) was founded in order to make debts paid in Berlin Congress gathered in 1878. As a result, some incomings were left to Ottoman 426 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Bank with creditor local banket. As that system worked well, that time, Duyunu Umumiye which was fathered by European creditor was turned into “General Debts Management” (Kazgan, 2009). The Term of Constitutional Monarchy In 1876, 1st Constitutional Monarchy was announced with Abdulhamit’s ascending the throne and the suggestions of some intellectual people and statesmen of that time. The term from that year to 1908 is called 1st. Constitutional Monarchy. The time from 1908 to the demolition of the Ottoman State is called Era of 2nd Constitutional Monarchy. In the term, passing from the beginning of going in to debt to the announcement of moratorium, that is within twenty years, the debts were used in a great proportion for consumer items, buying weapons, construction of barracks and palaces. The interests’ being already high and the exportations’ being insufficient brought the investments to the last point. When the increase of income couldn’t be obtained in the Ottoman State, the credits taken from outside were transformed into paying for the debts of outside again. Especially in 1894, that the short time debt’s reaching to 16 million sterlin while export income was 19 million sterlin was the most important factor sabotaging the investments. In the same term, total state income remained at only 22,5 million sterlin (Pamuk, 1984). Maybe among the increase of income was that foreign merchants weren’t paying tax to the Ottoman State due to the advantages the capitulation guaranteed. Native minorities also began to try ways of avoiding from capitulations. Naturally, these two groups whose income increased couldn’t be taxed in the some proportion. Therefore, the state tried to increase the Asar tax applied on Muslim population in order to assure the increase of income. However; since the agriculture was done with traditional ways, any increase of production couldn’t be ensured. Consequently; increase of tax couldn’t be realized in this area, either. But especially increase of the military expenses was observed in the same term (Kazgan, 2009). General Debt Management ensures Ottoman’s debts’ being organized in response to take 20-32 % part of Ottoman’s income in hand. On the other hand, operations which decreased tax evasion were put into force. Thanks to administration holding tightly the work, nearly until the end of 1880, deficit in budget was ceased. Moreover excess budget came about and that action continued until I. World War. After that time, in different regions of Ottoman territories, some rail ways, shipyards and hardbours were started to be built. Especially, accelaration of building of railways both aimed at strengthening of central admiration and providing of collection, control and transportation of taxes collected. In fact, when 1908 was reached Tithe tax that was collected in country increased nearly the foundation of General Debt Manegement, Ottoman state directly went towards invesment and started to grow in agriculture and in industry. In spite of low proportion, devolopments started in proportions of natural income. Findings related to the development are given in the chart below. Annual Avarage increase Speed (%) With the Price of 1948 and1968  Portion in GNP (%)  WPI Annual Average Exportation/Inportation Development Period Population GNP IGNP Agriculture Industry Exportation Investment Inportation Speed (%) 1889-1914 1.0 2.0 1.0 1.6 3.0 55 7–8 15.5 - 1923-1929 - 10.4 9.2 15.0 8.5 62.6 9.1 14.5 3.1 (%) Chart 1: Turkey’s main Development indicators: 1889–1929 Resource: Taken from Kazgan, G. 2009, p.75). On the other hand, investment activity based on national capital was tried to be carried out with the help of II. Constituonal Monarchy and the power of Ittihat Terakki Party. Nevertheless, in this term, the portion which could be seperated from state’s budget to investment below shows regional distribution of business enterprises called as factory and ethnic structures of workers together with capital structures, since the year of 1915. 427 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Recional Distribution (Numbers) Cities Factory Đstanbul Đzmir Other Cities 149 61 73 Total 283 Ethnic Distribution of Capital and Work Power (%) Worker Ethnic Origin Capital Worker Muslim-Turk Greek-Roum Armenian Jewish Foreigner 15 50 20 5 10 15 60 15 10 - 100 100 15.000 Chart 2: The Distribution of Big Manufacture Industry in the Otoman State in 1915, as percentage (%) Resource: Taken from Kazgan, G.(2009, p.52). As it can be inferred from the table, the shares at non-Muslims are %75 in 283 factories. The Muslim have only % 15 capital and also %15 at the working class. If it is thought that, although the owners and the ruling class at the state are Muslim- Turks, it is understood that how low the rates are. In Ottoman, that change which occurred with the foreign capital continued to increase the injustice of the incomes. Because while on the one side the European merchants, living in the big cities, and the non-Muslim minorities that are cooperating and having commercial privileges with the agreements made with. European Merchants, on the other side, were continuing to increase their incomes, the Muslims that had to manage with the difficulties at the state, started to be poor with the same rate. Futhermore, foreign and non-Muslim investors were not solely doing investments in the Ottoman lands but increasing their income via exporting goods and on the other hand, they were not doing anything that would be beneficial to the employment. So, as a result of the changes above the objections to ‘’the Constitutional Monarchy’’ started. Now the changes that we could say as ‘’improvements in every aspects’’ started to occur. While the intellectuals were interpreting books of economy, they started to argue whether liberal trade or conservative policies should be followed. As a result at these arguments the increasing responses against foreign investors started to emerge. The tram workers in Istanbul and Izmir, the railway workers in Aydın and the workers at Şirket-i Hayriye went on strikes. And also in 1908, the boycott was carried out against the exported Austrian goods. These boycotts did not only stand as strikes but also meant to be the starting of the Nationalist movements which emerged and spread a many Turks after The Constituonal Monarchy II. Actually, these changes and movements were inevitable in the flow of history. Because all of the ethnic groups living in the borders at the Empire were in a search for independence and started to collaborate with variuos European Countries. As a conclusion, for the period of Ottoman we can say that; during the period between Tanzimat Reforms and The Constituonal Monarchy I, the goverment did not make a considerable investment. The most important one, was maybe, in 1870s ‘’Menafi’’ caissons –later in 1878 they turned out to be Agriculture Bank. This meant that the first ‘’Public Financial Association’’ was founded. (Yasa, 1966). But it was difficult to say that these improvements could be accepted as industrialization. However, it can be observed that some investments started to be done; especially the railway construction was hastened after The Constutional Monarchy I. Also, as a paralel with the investments, ‘’GNP’’ started to increase which can be understood from the tables. Besides, the starting of railway construction, some industrial associations were founded with the aim of compensating the military needs. (Anonim, 1980) However, in the Ottoman State, the large number of foreign priviledged companies, the practice of Capitulation, the non-extistence at customs policies and the poor economy of the state prevented public investments. 428 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Period of 1923–1933 the Practice of Financial Policies and Insdustrialization The Period 1923–1933 From year 1923 to 1929, in which the Great Depression occured, corresponding with the foundation years at the Republic. During this period, our country where social, political and legal improvoments and reforms were done, faced with financial problems and sought for the solutions. Soon after the Indepence War, Atatürk stated that Military Victories that we did not support with economical success can not be permanent. So, with this aim to define financial policies and to practise them immediately, he arranged Izmir Congress of Economy in 1923 with the participation of every group. That Congress was held between 17 February- 4 March 1923 in Izmir with the participation of some public associations, trade, industry, farmer, worker and other groups members. ‘’We must give much importance to our economy to be able to carry Turkey to the highest level it deserves. It is completely time of economy, nothing else. In fact, if Turkish history is analysed, it will be seen clearly that the reasons for rise and collapse are economical reasons.’’ Atatürk emphazised the importance of economy and the reason why this congress was held. The decisions made in meeting were gathered in two parts as ‘’Economical Decisions and the problems belonging to farmer, merchant, industrialists and worker groups. Some of the decisions made in the meeting were studied because of its connection to our topic. At the first session of the meeting, such decisions as developing the sectors of forest and mine, letting foreigns capital in condition of contribution to developing economy, not letting to monopoly, were made. And at the second session of the meeting, such decisions as cancelling the Tithe (Aşar) tax, refoundation of Agriculture Bank, the developing in gunpowder and other war industry branches, processing productivity in coke antracite and emery branches, training some coal area, were taken. The most important decision made in the second session was maybe the protection of native industry against to foreign industry products with putting customs tax. When the decisions were investigated as a whole, it may be said ‘’a protective and nationalist economical policy that would get the success in developing with special enterpise.’’ (Akbank Culture Prints, 1980) Though most of the decisions taken in this congress were reflected in the economic policies after the declartation of Republic, the adhibition of some items took some time. For example monopoly of baccy could not be taken away and the import of sugar was kept on. Above all, Treaty of Lausanne congealled the customs fax for five years, thereby domestic manufacture could not be espoused. Even though command economy was stood by some enouraging cautions with Insentive Industry Law, both the opportunities of goverment and private sector were limited, the desired industry investment were not elicited. As the government’s installation term between the years 1923-1932, exaggerated loan contracted could not be done and the investments could be done on the condition of taxes. For instance, though the ancestral railroad net which was 4138 kms inherited from Ottoman State reached 6040 km in 1932 it could not be supported with motorways which could maintain these railroads. Nationalizing the industry facilities in foreign goverments were limited with a few adhibitions because of limited financial impossibilities (Avcıoglu, 1968) . In the same way, though the decisions of Izmir Economics Congress foresaw mixed economy structure, liberal policies were tried to be applied in general term. In other words, 1930’s Goverments saw the private sector as dominant factor in Economic policies and tried to help private sector and adopted the principle that cluster the areas private sector made investments. Goverment founded World Bank of Turkey which was characterized as a trade bank in order to give credits to private sector and develop it in 1924 while it was carrying at this foresight. Right after this it also constituted Industry and Mine Bank of Turkey in order to bring functionality to private industrial organizations. Meanwhile, Ottoman Bank’s privilege period also was prolonged for ten years and Real Estate Bank of Turkey was established in order to deal with legal residence credit (Anonymous, 1980). But in spite of these organizations, improvement in economy couldn’t be carried on beceuse of the World Economic Crisis in 1929 and developing private sector was not at the demanded level. 429 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Annual Average Increase Level (%) With 1948 and 1968 Charges  GNP Portion (%)  Turkey Consumer Price Index Export/Import Period 1929–1935 1935–1939 1939–1948 Population GNP 2.1 1.7 1.06 IGNP 3.2 0.7 11.6 8.8 0.5 -0.07 Agriculture Industry -1.3 15.6 1.0 17.1 11.0 -0.9 Import (%) 105.2 113.1 137.2 Invest 10.1 10.1 8.6 Export 8.0 7.0 5.6 Speed (%) -12.0 5.1 19.0 Chart 3: Turkey’s Main Development Indicators: 1929–1948 Resource: Taken from Kazgan, G.(2009, p.75). 1929 World Economic Crisis As in many cases affecting the World, lots of studies have been carried out and different comments have been made on the reasons of this case, as well. However, some common reasons taking part in most of these can be ordered in this way; the first one is the economic power of the companies in USA. While in the 1870’s there were so many companies both large and small in USA, the small companies had to unite and after war monopolies emerged against the difficulties caused during World War I. In 1929, the number of holding companies having autharity on the 50 percent of the USA economy was about 200. This meant that even a single holding company’s bankruptcy is enough to weaken economy. The second reason is the banks’ having been badly constructed. The laws determining the banks’ capital essentials and the proportions of reserve and credit had not been made yet. For instance, there were no laws providing the reliability of financial tables of companies. For this reason, the investor was unable to have enough information about the company from which he took the written certification. Again, there were no laws that distinguish the commercial banks from investment banks, either. As for the third reason, it is the inexperience of the goverment of President Hoover approved not to interfere in economy according to the liberal economy understanding that prevailed in the 1920s. However, not interfering in the 1929 crisis costed society so much. Later on, when the President decided to interfere, it was too late and the interference could not succeed. The other sign of the inexperience of the goverment is its having insisted on depending on the gold standard. The goverment pursued a strict money policy by refusing to print money independent from gold. So, the markets began to experience the liquidity problem, the economical activities halted and the real sector had to become small. And, this meant more unemployment, less income. Fourth reason, America was almost the only country which giving debt in the world. During first World War, USA had given debt about 10,3 billion Dollars to its the Allied Powers. After first World War, USA was demanding to pay as gold its compensation from Germany and England. But, the gold stock was insufficient on Earth and the amount of stock in hand was under control of America. For this reason, Mentraned compensation and credit was tried to pay as property and service but this affected badly American own property and service sector. As a result, America couldn’t get credits which giving without financial record. (Armaoğlu, 1987) USA gave debt about to twenty goverments during war. England with 4.2 Dollars, France with 3.4 billion Dollars, Italy with 1.6 billion Dollars were in debt. The total debt lended by America was almost 10.3 billion Dollars. After war, these goverments didn’t want to pay their debts. Because they depended on the repair debt which would be gotten from Germany. America struggled to collect debts exactly. The other goverments didn’t pay on They paid as sembolic. (Armaoğlu, 1987) With the begining of crisis, USA exchange collapsed. These improvements in America affected Turkey which was founded justly and the term of new industry. In the same years, personal enterprise failed in progress and redounding capital done under difficult conditions. A lot of people lost their jobs with the company which went bankrupt. At last, in 1930s, Defending etetism politics were applied in all world countries. The Economic Politics of 1933–1950 and KIT’s Emergence in The Name of Industrialization In 1930s, the economic crisis which wrapped up the world also had influence on our country.(Hiç,1998). Consequently, in the same years a new approach named as ‘Statism’ was adopted. While 430 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo this approach was being adopted, it was declared that there would be a support for Private Enterprises but for the vulnerable condition that was in, the priority would be given to the Public Economical Organization about conducting improvements. Likewise, this understading entered into the People of Republic Party (CHP) programme. In this programme, Statism was defined in such words : “on condition that keeping the individual work and activity, as quickly as possible, making the community reach prosperity and improvement… making the community concerned with law in act…’’ As far as we understand from the developments, Statism appeared not because of a doctrine but the requirements in that period which had to have realistic approaches. During the years 1930–38 when the etatism principles was in use compulsorily, Atatürk was not in favor of strict etatism and was suspicious of the success of etatistic economic politics. Even the period’s Prime Minister Đsmet Đnönü declared that Atatürk was in favor of private enterprises and liberal economy. The failure of providing a successful improvement in the field of economy from the time of founding Republic made Atatürk think over the issue. Because the country had to develop fast and was aware of the fact that with slow down bureaucracy, unstable government mechanism, industrialization could not be fast and enterprising. In 1932, with the demand of Atatürk, the appointment of Celal Bayar who was the manager of Is Bank in place of Mustafa Seref, the Economics Deputy, was important from the perspective of Atatürk’s preferences in politics. Likewise in 1937, the seperation of Atatürk and Đsmet Đnönü might have been the leading result of this difference in opinions. But in the same period, the lack of investors entailed the government to be active in economics and the statistic economic model was to be adopted inevitably. (Koçak, 2007). Between 1933 and 1938, with the Statism practises, Five Years Development Plans were put into use. ( Boratav, 2007 ). Again, as a continution of applying of this program, between 1938–43 Second Development Plan For Five Years was applied. The basic feature of these plans is having proposed to carry the investments in such sectors as industry, banking and transportation by goverment. In this period, business enterprises which would be called as Public Economic Formations and as an abbreviation KIT (Public Economic Enterprise) started to increase rapidly. Government increased its investments such industrial branches as weaving, mine, celluase, ceramic and chemistry. From these branches, weaving industry in the construction of Sumerbank and mine enterprises in the construction of Etibank were collected. Conclusion The civil financial institutions started to be established in 1934 carried out the duty of being locomotive of economy until 1950s. With the death of Atatürk and Ismet Inonu’s being President, statism in economy was applied strictly until 1946. Even, some private enterprise attempts had to be closed at this period. (Primiership Republich Archive. 030.10-59.399.25). Transition into multi-partied era in 1946 and change of government with 1950 election caused return to liberal policies again.Parallel to these developments, KITs (Public Economic Enterprise), founded under the name of industrialization lost its importance. (BCA, 030. 10-174.202.6) There are so many reasons for KITs (Public Economic Enterprise) to lose their importance in industry. Some of them are like those: administration, production, investment and financial issues. In time, these institutions were closed as they could not renovate themselves or were left out of state’s industry production by privatizing. Reference Anonim, (2005). Atatürk’ün Bütün Eserleri, Đstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, XV, 141. Anonim, (1980). Cumhuriyet Dönemi Türkiye Ekonomisi 1923–1978, Đstanbul: Akbank Kültür Yayınları. Armaoğlu, F. (1987). 20. Yüzyıl Siyasi Tarihi 1914–1980, Ankara: Türkiye Đş Bankası Kültür Yayınları. Avcıoğlu, D. (1968). Türkiye’nin Düzeni: Dün-Bugün-Yarın, Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi. Başbakanlık Cumhuriyet Arşivi. (Primiership Republich Archive) .Fon Kodu, 030. 10–174.202.6 Başbakanlık Cumhuriyet Arşivi. (Primiership Republich Archive) . Fon Kodu, 030. 10–59.399.25 Boratav, K. “Đktisat Tarihi 1908–1980”, Sina Akşin (edt), Çağdaş Türkiye 1908–1980, IV, 326. Cem, Đ. (1970). Türkiye’de Geri Kalmışlığın Tarihi, Đstanbul: Cem Yayınevi 431 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Hiç, M. (1998). “Atatürk ve Ekonomik Rejim Devletçilikten Günümüzde Piyasa Ekonomisine”, Cumhuriyet 1923–1998 Dönemi Değerlendirmesi, Ankara: Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, V, 3286. Đnan, A. (1982). Đzmir Đktisat Kongresi 17 Şubat–4 Mart 1923, Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları. Kazgan, G. (2009). Tanzimat’tan 21. Yüzyıla Türkiye Ekonomisi, Đstanbul: Đstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları. Koçak, C.“Siyasal Tarih (1923–1950)”., Sina Akşin (edt), Çağdaş Türkiye 1908–1980, IV, 151–157. Niyazi Berkes, N. (2002). Türkiye’de Çağdaşlaşma, Đstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Özgüven, A. (1998). “Cumhuriyetimizin 75. Kuruluş Yılında Atatürk’ün Đktisadi Görüşleri ve Önerileri”, Cumhuriyet 1923–1998 Dönemi Değerlendirmesi, Ankara: Yeni Türkiye Yayınları, V, 3295. Pamuk, Ş.(1984). Osmanlı Ekonomisi ve Dünya Kapitalizmi., Ankara: Yurt Yayınları. Yaşa, M. (1966). Đktisadi Meselelerimiz, Đstanbul: Yerasimos, Y. Az gelişmişlik sürecinde Türkiye, 432 Đstanbul: C.II, C.III, Gözlem Yayınlan. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 730 Title A name given to the resource The Industrial Developments in Turkey during the Transition Period from Ottoman State to Republic Author Author Seker, Kadir Abstract A summary of the resource. The guild system in Ottoman State maintain its vitality as an economic and social system until nineteenth century. The masters and apprentices who construct guild system lost their chances of economic entegration to the new system brought by Industrial Revolution which first started in England and then spread all over Europe. Although the Ottoman State had taken some actions to keep up with the industrial revolution in Europe, it couldn’t have industrialized in all fields. Ottoman State was eliminated by First World War and Independence War and then Turkish Republic took Ottoman State’s place. But the industry taken over from Ottoman State was almost next to nothing. In this respect, founder of new goverment Mustafa Kemal, gathered economic congress in Đzmir with the purpose with arranging industrial investments and economic developments just after Independence War. Because according to him, military victories which are unsupported by economical developments is not possible to be permanent. For this purpose, some radical precautions had been taken to develop the industrial just after the foundation of Republic. In this study, it is emphasized on the applications for developing the industry in the late period of Ottoman State and the industrial developments in the new state from the end of Indepence War to 1940s. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b5d3c0807cd6dcbed9b4e1f1180eb16d.pdf 50ffe66ca0fbfd4efadbd9bf62fb5c3e PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Music and Language Emine Buket Sağlam School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey saglambuket@hotmail.com Asst. Prof. Mustafa Naci KAYAOĞLU Faculty of Letters Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: The argument for using music in educational context has been debated for years. The literature in this field is mostly based on anecdotal stories and the researchers mostly base their studies using the other disciplines such as psychology and philosophy. Under the umbrella term “Music and Language”, this paper discusses the relationship between music and language in a broader context even including its use in curing speech deficits in braindamaged people. More specifically, it addresses how both affect each other, the significance of music in teaching and learning languages as well. The paper is likely to suggest certain pedagogic implications to be utilized not only in language teaching but also in education in general. Introduction Although verbal language appeals to a restricted community of speakers, the language of music addresses to a diversity of speakers, either in the same language or in the other languages. This could be illustrated with an anecdote. When Franz Joseph Hydn, a famous composer, decided to visit some European countries at the age of fifty-eight, his friend Mozart reminded him that he might have difficulties due to the lack of a common language. Hydn appropriately responded: “My language is understood all over the world”. This anecdote might lead us to think that music is an international language, in other words the true lingua franca (Kivy, 2007). So far, some common characteristics of music and language have been noted by researchers. To begin with, Mithen (2006) describes both language and music as “combinatorial systems” which contain acoustic elements such as words and tunes. Words and tunes constitute utterances or melodies. Although there are obviously differences between music and language, the two domains share some commonalities such as symbols, grammar, and information transmission (Mithen, 2006). Although music and grammar are thought to be divergent in nature, there are times when music facilitates learning grammar. Chomsky finds it unbelievable that children can acquire a language in the same way they learn to draw, play a musical instrument or ride a bicycle. As the language they hear from their environment is not sufficient for comprehending the grammatical rules, they develop their own utterances. Among the researchers, this was named as “the poverty of the stimuli”. As a result, the idea of “Universal Grammar” emerged. Universal Grammar is described as an innate state of mind which provides a readiness for language acquisition, and it is universal for all Homo sapiens (cited in Mithen, 2006). Many language researchers who support the idea of Universal Grammar suppose that adult language learners have the same access to Universal Grammar (McLaughlin, 1991). As a result it might be possible to say that both children and adults might ease the way they acquire a language more quickly when they are exposed to it together with music since music has the same pattern in itself. Mithen (2006) proposes that “Universal Grammar” can be the musical equivalent of the musical competence. Although musical grammar does not provide the meaning in a similar way, many musicologists agree that the musical competence is equivalent to a grammar like that of language (p.20). Therefore, it can be assumed that music and language share similar structures which might ease learning one with the help of other. 208 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Secondly, Fitch (2005) proposes that music and language share another similarity in cognition. Music and language contain listening and production stages. The two domains share certain phonological (rhythm) and hierarchical phrase structures, and also both can be written and notated. These similarities are considered to help students develop their cognitive abilities in an easier way. Mott (2004) clarifies that music can enhance children’s self-expression, creativity, and cognitive development. His study revealed that implementing music into the school program besides traditional methods can aid the improvement of language skills in children. As music and language are naturally interrelated, it has been suggested that language teachers encourage their students to involve in language through music, because communicating through a musical medium is advantageous for language learners (Stansell, 2005). Arguably, the use of music might lead language learners to absorb the knowledge in an indirect way. According to the cognitive psychologists, music listening allows listeners to absorb and abstract the structural information unconsciously (Raffman, 1993). In a research study, it has been revealed that implementation of music into school curriculum had beneficial effects in terms of language learning. Results of the pre and post test scores indicated that 93% of the participants in the treatment group improved one or more language levels when compared to 23% in the control group. Moreover, the teachers who participated in the study were happy with using music in their classes (Ray, 1997). A similar longitudinal study was conducted to search for the effects of music experience on the vocabulary and verbal sequencing skills of primary grade students. Experimental group had piano lessons in their schedule for three years, and control group was not exposed to music either formally or as a private study. The results revealed that there was a significant difference between the scores of experimental and control group’s vocabulary and verbal sequencing scores in favor of the experimental group. It was observed that using music had a positive effect on cognitive skills of the students enhancing their knowledge in language and literacy (Piro & Ortiz, 2009). A further similarity between music and language is the comprehensible nature of the both. Due to the similarities between the properties of music and language combined with the universal nature in which music can be understood by people, Krashen helps us to understand that music is the essential comprehensible input. According to Krashen (1987), an effective language teacher is someone who teaches students first providing the input, second making the input comprehensible, and third doing the first and the second in a low anxiety context. When these three are provided, the Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is stimulated. LAD is a mental device in which a newly learned language is processed. There are various parts of Krashen’s theoretical framework of L2 acquisition that have been argued to provide support for why music is a useful tool in language teaching. To illustrate, while learning a language, comprehensible input plays a crucial role to maximize learning. For beginner learners, simplification of the input is necessary. In order to promote comprehension, high frequency words, simple structures, and short sentences are needed (Krashen, 1987). Songs are very advantageous in that they contain most commonly used vocabulary, and shorter sentences. Krashen, however, notes that the song must be at appropriate level to serve as an effective comprehensible input. There should not be difficult structures or vocabulary items for students and lyrics should be clear (Abbott, 2002). Krashen’s comprehensible input theory including i+1 (the level which is a bit beyond the learner’s current level) can be the starting point where songs can provide comprehensible input for language learners, primarily in promoting speaking. Krashen postulates that in order to start to speak in a language, one should obtain sufficient amount of comprehensible input. Speech occurs after building a language competence through comprehensible input (Krashen, 1987). Nussel and Cicogna (1991) agree that within Krashen’s theoretical framework of second-language acquisition, songs provide myriad examples of auditory and written sources as stimuli. In addition to promoting speaking abilities, music can be a facilitator to teach vocabulary. Songs have a repetitive nature which helps students learn vocabulary items more easily (Brown, 2006). Exposure to songs may enhance the knowledge of new vocabulary in context. While teaching the lyrics of the songs, finding the familiar words and playing vocabulary games might be some of the activities which help acquirers memorize words better (Abrate, 1983). In addition, songs might be a good regulator to keep not only children’s attention on the track but also adults’ when telling stories. Everybody can benefit from songs as they are both educatory and entertaining (Brown, 2006). In ELT context, music might be a potential device in order to promote language abilities. Music videos particularly might provide authentic teaching materials to increase students’ comprehension since they contain lexical, grammatical, and functional material. Also, they help learners use their imagination more effectively in order to put the target language in use (Garza, 1994). Moreover, it might be beneficial to mention about some qualities of music when teaching a foreign language. Maley (1987) describes these qualities in order by their usefulness in teaching a language. The qualities are memorability, performance/reciteabality, ambiguity, nontriavality, universality, playfulness, reactional language, and motivation/interaction. These qualities particularly help learners to improve their language skills when used in an authentic context. Songs authentically meet the need even providing a better retention (cited in Garza, 1994). Using songs in ELT context might ease teaching the language since processing of music and language both find a place to correlate in an area of the brain. This idea is also supported by Lake (2002-03) confirming 209 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo that both hemispheres of the brain digest music with words more effectively. In this sense, using music might ease learning more words in a language, stimulating the both hemispheric parts of the brain. The overlapping of the speech and singing is also mentioned in other studies by some researchers (Patel, 1998; Maess, Koelsch, Gunter, & Friederici, 2001). Another contribution of music to the activation of the hemispheric parts of the brain might be via auditory input. Auditory input is a considerable outcome of music while learning a language. In an article discussing musical and linguistic processing in song perception, Schön et al (2005) mention that songs posses two dimensional processing in the brain: linguistic and musical. Although previous studies reveal that music processing occurs in the right hemisphere and linguistic processing occurs in the left hemisphere, Schön et al confirm that because of its two dimensions, song perception occurs in both hemispheres. Further, they state that singing or auditory stimuli builds a bridge between language and music via the neural system in the brain. Thus, it can be useful to use songs in the learning process as listening to music might facilitate the functioning the both hemispheres of the brain. The interrelatedness between music and language in both hemispheric parts of the brain led scientists to search for the effect of music as a tool to repair speech deficits. From the earlier times, music is known to be a vehicle for curing some speech deficits. Thaut (2005) presents a few musical techniques for the improvement of speech impairments. These include Melodic Intonation Therapy, Musical Speech Stimulation, Rhythmic Speech Cuing, Vocal Intonation Therapy, Oral Motor and Respiratory Exercises, Developmental Speech and Language Training through Music, Symbolic Communication Training through Music, and many others. All these techniques use music as a medium to cure language impairments. Sessions range from using songs, rhymes, chants, musical phrases, and auditory rhythm to cue speech, singing, breathing exercises, and oral motor and respiratory exercises. All of these activities are used to develop speech and language through music in braindamaged people. In 1973, Albert and his colleagues used a music therapy called ‘melodic intonation therapy’ to cure aphasic patients. The patients got the music therapy for three months. In two weeks, a sixty-seven-year-old man developed a good amount of vocabulary, and at the end of the six weeks he was able to produce short, meaningful sentences. At the end of the melodic intonation therapy, the patient started to utter quite a lot amount of words again (cited in Sacks, 2007). Jourdain (2002) confirms that music has a great power to cure brain-related diseases. As an example he gives the case of a patient who had Parkinson’s disease, a malady in which the patient cannot move because of the failure of the neurons in the brain’s core. Unbelievably, the patient’s doctor found an effective cure for her, music. The patient responded to music and her brain waves turned to be normal. The doctor later discovered that Parkinson’s patients responded to music in a similar way. Jourdain (2002) concludes that music might serve as a regulator of the brain activities putting the anticipations into action. Another study showing the merits of using music examined the music and language abilities of a group of children with Williams syndromes (WS) in comparison to the normal children. The children with WS scored better on verbal tasks (receptive vocabulary and comprehension) and compared to normal children they enjoyed music more and had stronger feelings and liking towards music (Don et al, 1999). Since children with WS are known to be skilled at verbal expressions (Don et al, 1999), it can be inferred from the study that people with verbal skills might have a tendency towards music which may lead them to ease their learning on verbal tasks. Conclusion These theoretical and experimental findings might suggest that music and language are correlated and language can improve higher with the help of other resulting in the activation of the brain. Music might contain ample materials for improving speech and language in a holistic manner. From the very early age, people learn how to speak and sing at the same time. It is a well-known fact that communication is derived from speech and songs. Speaking and singing are embedded in music, and it might very facilitate verbal expression (Thaut, 2005). 210 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Abrate, J. H. (1983). Pedagogical Applications of the French Popular Song in the Foreign Language Classroom The Modern Language Journal, 67(1), 8-12. Brown, J. L. M. (2006). Rhymes, Stories and Songs in the ESL Classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, XII(4). Don, A. J., Schellenberg, E.G., & Pourke, B. P. (1999). Music and Language Skills of Children with Williams Syndrome. Children Neuropsychology, 5(3), 154-170. Fitch, T. W. (2005). The Evolution of Music in Comparative Perspective. New York Academy of Sciences, 1060(1), 1-21. Garza, J. T. (1994). Beyond MTV: Music Video as Foreign Language Test The Journal of the Imagination in Language Learning and Teaching, 12(2), 106- 110. Jourdain, R. (2002). Music, the Brain, and Ecstasy. New York: Quill. Kivy, P. (2007). Music Language, and Cognition. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Krashen, S. D. (1987). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. London: Prentice-Hall International. Lake, R. (2002-2003 ). Enhancing Acquisition through Music. The journal of the Imagination in Language Learning and Teaching, 7. Maess, B., Koelsch, S., Gunter, T. C.,& Friederici, A. D. (2001). Musical Syntax is Processed in Broca's Area: an MEG Study. Nature Neuroscience, 4(5), 540-545. McLaughlin, B. (1991). Theories of Second-Language Lerning. London: Edward Arnold. Mithen, S. (2006). The Singing Neanderthals the origins of Music, language, Mind, and Body. Cambridge: Harward University P ress. Mott, A. R. (2004). Teaching Language with the Enhancing Power of Music for the Young Moderate / Severe Population. California State University, Fullerton. Nuessel, F., & Cicogna C. (1991). The Integration of Song and Music into the Italian Curriculum Italica, 68(4), 473-486. Patel, A. D. (1998). Syntactic Processing in Language and Music: Different Cognitive Operations, Similar Neural Resources? Music Perception, 16(1), 27-42. Piro, J. M., & Ortiz, C. (2009). The Effect of Piano Lessons on the Vocabulary and Verbal Sequencing Skills of Primary Grade Students. Psychology of Music, 37(3), 325-347. Raffman, D. (1993). Language, Music, and Mind. London: The MIT press. Ray, J. J. (1997). For the love of Children: Using the Power of Music in 'English as a Second Language'' University California, Los Angeles. Sacks, O. (2007). Musicophilia Tales of Music and the Brain. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Schön, D., Gordon, R. L., & Besson, M. (2005). Musical and Linguistic Processing in Song Perception. New York Academy of Sciences, 1060 (1), 71-81. Stansell, J. W. (2005). The use of Music for Learning Languages: A Review http://www.mste.uiuc.edu/courses/ci407su02/students/stansell/Literature%20Review%201.htm Thaut, M. H. (2005). Rhythm, Music and the Brain. New York: Rotledge. 211 of the Literature. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 459 Title A name given to the resource Music and Language Author Author Sağlam, Emine Buket KAYAOĞLU, Mustafa Naci Abstract A summary of the resource. The argument for using music in educational context has been debated for years. The literature in this field is mostly based on anecdotal stories and the researchers mostly base their studies using the other disciplines such as psychology and philosophy. Under the umbrella term “Music and Language”, this paper discusses the relationship between music and language in a broader context even including its use in curing speech deficits in braindamaged people. More specifically, it addresses how both affect each other, the significance of music in teaching and learning languages as well. The paper is likely to suggest certain pedagogic implications to be utilized not only in language teaching but also in education in general. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f9b87a1b42ac107113d51ac97bdb1fb6.pdf 22d346dfefa9c31b48e9d2644d3546cc PDF Text Text A Content Based Scheduling Approach for Wireless Sensor Network MACs Nukhet Sazak Faculty Of Engineering Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey nazak@sakarya.edu.tr Ismail Erturk Faculty Of Technical Education Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey erturk@socaeli.edu.tr Murat Çakiroglu Faculty Of Technical Education Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey muratc@sakarya.edu.tr Etem Köklükaya Faculty Of Engineering Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey ekaya@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: MAC protocols have direct control over radio which is the most energy consuming part of a wireless sensor node. TDMA based WSN MAC protocols are more energy-efficient than contention based counterparts. However, classical TDMA based protocols are not appropriate for event driven WSN applications. There are some MAC protocols assigning time slots to only source nodes. Our proposed protocol assigns a time slot to one of the source nodes with same data. As a result it reduces data redundancy achieving energy savings. The analytical expressions are given for the proposed MAC and its performance is compared to the conventional E-TDMA protocol. Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, MAC, energy efficiency, event driven applications 1. Introduction A WSN consists of many low-power, low-cost and multi-functional sensor nodes which can be densely deployed either inside the phenomenon or very close to it (Akyildiz, 2002). The applications of WSNs are so diverse such that the application range is only limited by the imagination (Sohraby, 2007). In these applications, a number of sensor nodes are deployed in harsh networking environments. It is not easy and even impossible to recharge or replace the batteries of the nodes (Kredo, 2007). Thus energy efficiency becomes one of the most important design criteria for WSNs. There are many medium access control (MAC) protocols considering energy efficiency as the primary goal in the literature since MAC has direct control over the radio that is the most energy consuming part of a sensor node (Kredo, 2007). A WSN MAC protocol manages how and when its nodes access the wireless channel to be able to use the shared medium effectively and fairly. The sources of energy waste are idle listening, collision, overhearing and control packet overhead (Ye, 2003). A collision occurs if two or more nodes attempt to transmit data at the same time. Idle listening is another serious kind of energy waste, occurring when a sensor node listens the channel to check whether there is data related to it. Overhearing takes place when a node receives messages that are transmitted to other nodes. Transmitting control packets also causes energy waste since these packets do not carry useful data. In designing an energy-efficient MAC protocol, these subjects should be carefully taken into consideration. In event driven WSN applications, nodes are prompted to transmit the related measurement values when the specific conditions occur according to the application requirements (e.g. temperature threshold exceeds). The neighbor nodes close to the phenomenon may sense and also might have to transmit the same data. This data redundancy consequently results in energy waste. Then the slot assignment to only source nodes is not the desired solution. A more energy efficient protocol is achieved by allocating slots to the only one of the nodes 413 �with same data. The aim of this presented study is to propose a new idea for energy efficient TDMA-based MAC protocols by assigning slots to only the nodes that have different data in event driven WSN applications. 2. Related Work In energy-efficient TDMA (E-TDMA) protocol, the energy consumption in idle mode is reduced by letting the non-source nodes turn off their transceivers in their own slots (Li and Lazarou, 2004). Bit-map assisted (BMA) MAC (Li, 2004) (Li and Lazarou, 2004) is also schedule-based. BMA is designed for event driven WSN applications in which sensor nodes transmit data only when they sense significant/predefined events. The operation of BMA is also divided into rounds including a set-up and a steadystate phase. The steady-state phase is partitioned into sub sessions consisting of contention period, data transmission period and idle period (Figure 1). The size of the data transmission period is variable because every node does not always data to send. On the other hand, the sum of the data transmission and idle periods is equal to a constant value. All of the nodes turns their radios on during every contention period. The contention period follows a TDMA-like schedule. Each node is assigned a time slot and it transmits 1-bit control message if it has data. Otherwise, it leaves that slot empty. After contention period completed, the CH knows the source nodes, prepares a transmission schedule and broadcasts it. The system followed enters the data transmission period. If none of the member nodes has data to transmit, the system enters the idle period until the next session. Throughout data transmission period, source nodes turn on their radios in their allocated slots and transmit the data to the CH. The other member nodes keep their radios off during the data transmission. In idle period, the radios of all the member nodes are off. BMA is an appropriate protocol for low traffic conditions since it easily outperforms TDMA and E-TDMA in low and medium traffic loads. 3. The Basics of the Proposed Method The proposed idea for the MAC protocols consists of rounds including set-up and steady-state phases as in the other scheduled protocols. In set-up phase, cluster head is chosen and the cluster is formed according to a specific mechanism. There is a contention period as in BMA in steady state phase (Figure 2). However, source nodes transmit the difference data between the threshold and measurement values instead of declaring whether they have data or not by sending 1-bit in BMA. Therefore 4-bits slot is allocated to each node. When the nodes sense the values equal or bigger than the predefined threshold value, called as source nodes, they transmit the difference data between the threshold and measurement values in those 4-bits slots. Thanks to this, the CH not only knows the source nodes but also the nodes having same data and assigns data slots according to this knowledge. A large number of nodes with predetermined temperature threshold in an example application are deployed randomly and densely by plane over the forest. The nodes which measure at least the threshold value are called source nodes. The source nodes transmit the difference data during contention period. The non-source nodes are in idle mode in their own 4-bits slots. The CH compares the difference data from source nodes and assigns data slot to the only one of the nodes having same data. In this way, different measurements are transmitted in data transmission period after the contention period. Figure 2. Illustration of single round for BMA protocol (Li, 2004). 414 �Figure 2. Illustration of single round for our proposed protocol. P t: T d: Ein: P i: P r: T c: Tch: l: N: p: n: transmit mode power consumption time required to transmit/receive a data packet energy consumption of an idle node power consumption of an idle node receive mode power consumption time required to transmit/receive a control packet time required for the CH to transmit a control packet number of frames number of nodes probability number of source nodes n=Np 3.1. Our Proposed Method Used in a Simple MAC p' : probability m: number of source nodes which are assigned data slots (number of source nodes having different data) m= np' (1) Energy consumed by a source node in a frame Edn = Pt(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ (N-1) Pi Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PtTd + PrTch (2) Energy consumed by a non-source node in a frame Ein= NPi(Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PrTch (3) The CH consumes nPr (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + (N-n) Pi (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PtTch and mPrTd in the data transmission period (4) Ech = nPr (Tc+(3N/data rate))+ mPrTd + (N-n) Pi (Tc+(3N/data rate)) + PtTch Total energy consumed during a round in the proposed protocol EPROPOSED = l[n(Pt(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ (N-1) Pi (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PrTch)+ mPtTd + (N-n)( NPi(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ PrTch)+ nPr(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ mPrTd + (N-n) Pi (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PtTch] (5) 3.2. E-TDMA Protocol Energy consumed by a source node in a frame Edn= Pt Td (6) Energy consumed by the cluster head Ech= nPrTd + (N-n) PiTd (7) Energy consumed by the cluster head to transmit a control packet Ech= PtTc (8) Energy consumed by each node to receive a control packet En= PrTc In set-up phase, total energy consumption 415 (9) �EC= PtTc + NPrTc (10) Total energy consumed during a round in E-TDMA protocol EE-TDMA = PtTc + NPrTc + l [nPt Td + (N-n) Pi Td + nPrTd] (11) 4. Performance Analysis Rockwell’s WINS model (Raghunathan, 2002) is used for numerical analysis. Transmitting power is 462 mW, receiving power is 346 mW, idle listening power is 330 mW and data rate is 24 kbps for transceiver. Assume a data packet size of 250 bytes, a control packet size of 18 bytes and Pi=Pe, Tch=Tc. The graph of energy consumption versus p and p' probabilities are shown in Figure 3 for number of frames (l) 2 and number of nodes (N) 10. 2 energy consumption (Joule) E(E-TDMA) E(PROPOSED) p'=0.25 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 p Figure 3. Energy consumption versus probability. The energy consumed by the CH for comparing difference data from source nodes is ignored in energy computations. Transmitting 1 kb data over 100 meters is approximately the same as executing 3 million instructions (Pottie, 2000). Considering the energy consumption in communication is higher than the one in computation, it is clear that the proposed protocol will provide energy-efficient results even the energy consumption of computation is included. Although the source-to-cluster-head control message is only 1-bit long in BMA protocol, control packet includes other MAC level overhead information plus 1-bit control message (Lazarou, 2007). In computations, three times the number of nodes (3N) bits are added to the control packet length to allocate 4-bit slot for each node since the contents of the control packet is unknown and it has already N bits. The p' denotes the probability what fraction of the source nodes have the same data and hence the percentage of the source nodes assigned data slots. Since slot assignment is realized without considering the contents of the data in E-TDMA protocol, energy consumption values of E-TDMA does not vary with p'. The effect of the p' on our proposed protocol is seen in the graph. The more p', the more source nodes assigned data slots and the more source nodes having different data. The 25% of the source nodes transmits data, this protocol is more energy efficient than E-TDMA. 5. Final Remarks We present an idea for TDMA-based MAC protocols which offer data slot assignment by considering source nodes transmitting same data in event driven WSN applications in this paper. In this approach, contention period is increased because of transmitting difference data in 4-bits slots instead of 1-bit slot. On the other hand, number of assigned data slots is decreased, which results in energy saving. The energy efficiency of the proposed method is shown by comparing to the E-TDMA. References Akyildiz, I.F., Su, W., Sankarasubramaniam, Y., & Cayirci, E. (2002). A Survey on Sensor Networks, IEEE Communications Magazine. 416 �Kredo II, K., & Mohapatra, P. (2007). Medium Access Control in Wireless Sensor Networks, Comput. Networks, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 961–994. Lazarou, G.Y., Li, J., & Picone, J., (2007). A Cluster-based Power-efficient MAC Scheme for Event-driven Sensing Applications, Ad Hoc Networks, Elsevier, Vol.5, Issue 7, pp. 1017-1030. Li, J., Lazarou, & G. Y. (2004). Modeling the Energy Consumption of MAC Schemes in Wireless Cluster-Based Sensor Networks, Proceedings of the 15th IASTED International Conference on Modeling and Simulation (MSO), pp. 313-318, Marina del Rey, California, USA. Li, J., & Lazarou, G.Y. (2004). A Bit-map Assisted Energy-efficient MAC Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks, in Proceedings of 3rd International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN’04), pp. 55-60, Berkeley, California, USA. Li, J., (2004). A Bit-map Assisted Energy-efficient MAC Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks, M.Sc. Thesis, Electrical Engineering, Missippi State University. Pottie, G.J., & Kaiser, W.J. (2000). Wireless Integrated Network Sensors, Commun., ACM, 43(5), 51-58. Raghunathan, V., Schurgers, C., Park, S., & Srivastava, M.B. (2002). Energy-aware Wireless Microsensor Networks, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, pp. 40-50. Sohraby, K., Minoli, D., & Znati, T. (2007). Wireless Sensor Networks: Technology, Protocols, and Applications, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 75-229. Ye, W., & Heidemann, J. (2003). Medium Access Control in Wireless Sensor Networks, USC/ISI Technical Report ISI-TR580, http://www.isi.edu/~johnh/PAPERS/Ye03c.html. 417 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 537 Title A name given to the resource A Content Based Scheduling Approach for Wireless Sensor Network MACs Author Author Sazak, Nukhet Erturk, Ismail ÇAKIROGLU, Murat Köklükaya, Etem Abstract A summary of the resource. MAC protocols have direct control over radio which is the most energy consuming part of a wireless sensor node. TDMA based WSN MAC protocols are more energy-efficient than contention based counterparts. However, classical TDMA based protocols are not appropriate for event driven WSN applications. There are some MAC protocols assigning time slots to only source nodes. Our proposed protocol assigns a time slot to one of the source nodes with same data. As a result it reduces data redundancy achieving energy savings. The analytical expressions are given for the proposed MAC and its performance is compared to the conventional E-TDMA protocol. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0df24249a725b600676d30c3439ba2d6.pdf c4f75ce346be62b48f20758eb43203e5 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Examining Peer Bullying on the Basis of Different Variables Through the Perceptions of the Sports and Physical Education Teachers Mustafa Şahin Department of Educational Sciences Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey mustafa61@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the Sports and Physical Education teachers’ perceptions of student bullying in the city of Trabzon, Turkey. The study also attempted to investigate the role of “school atmosphere”, “gender” and “role model” factors on student bullying in school environments. The study was carried out in the first semester of the 2007-2008 academic year with the participation of ten Sports and PE teachers working in various high schools in Trabzon. The study employed a qualitative approach and case study method. A semi-structured interview was administered as the data collection instrument. In data analysis, “constant comparison method” was used. The study found that there was no agreement among teachers on the role of school atmosphere and on their role models in bullying, and that their perceptions of bullying were problematic. Another finding was that the teachers believed male students were more involved in peer bullying. Key Words: Peer bullying, perceptions of PE teachers Introduction It is claimed that peer bullying forms the most common type of aggressive behaviors in class and school atmosphere. Bullying affects not only emotional, social, and psychological development of students’ school and class environment but also their learning activities (Ayas, 2008; Bauman and Del Rio, 2005; Kartal and Bilgin, 2008; Woods et al., 2007). Bullying includes physical, verbal, and psychological attacks, exercising unbalanced power over other students, especially weak ones, which cause victims to fear (Nansel et al., 2001). Bullying is not limited to the use of physical power. Getting others’ feelings hurt, verbal or physical humiliation, and destroying their self-esteem by getting them exposed to social discrimination can also be included in bullying behaviors (Hazler, 1996). Research shows that bully students have lower academic achievement, have difficulty in establishing social relationships and are not easily accepted by other members of the society (Hazler, Hoover and Oliver, 1992). It has also been observed that bully students carry their inability to develop empathy, social interactions to their adult age and they still get difficulty in develop and sustain positive relationships even when they are grown up people. Research also reveals that bully students, continuing their negative behaviors, may have some legal problems in their adulthood (Bridge, 2003; Farrington, 1993; Huesman and Malamuyh, 1986). According to a research, 60 percent of the 6th and 9th grader bully students commit at least one crime and the rest 35-40 percent of the rest are taken to the court three times as suspects of illegal crimes until the age of 24 (Pişkin, 2002). In secondary schools, 60 percent of bully students are involved in at least a crime until they are at the age of 23. 35-40 percent of these students are sentenced because of three or four crimes. An eight-year-old bully person is more likely to be punished at the age of thirty because of bullying (Bridge, 2003). Huesman and Malamuyh (1986) have concluded that students performing bullying behaviours at the age of 8 are more likely commit crimes, disobey traffic rules, drive when drunken and exercise verbal and physical attacks over their wives when they are at their thirties than other normal people. Research on victims of bullying behaviors have shown that they suffer from such problems as being upset, sorrowful, restless, coward, unsuccessful, lack of confidence, unable to establish social relationships. These students may develop depressive and psychological symptoms (Fekkes, Pijpers and Verlove-Vonherick, 2005), they tend to have psychological disorders (Kumpulainen, Rasanen and Puura, 2001), they may suffer from post-traumatic disorders (Mynard, Josepf and Alexandera, 2000). Moreover, it is revealed that they may suffer from such physical problems as getting dizzy, heart disorders, vomiting, stomachache, sight problems, discriminations by their peers and inability to develop social interactions (Rigby, 2003). In a research conducted in Australia on 353 secondary school students at the average age of 10, it is found that students subjected to peer bullying are more likely to have clinic depression when compared to others (Dake, 2003). It is also shown in a research conducted in Finland and Australia that students subjected to bullying have suicidal attitudes more than normal students (Rigby, 2003). Just as bully students behave problems 188 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo in their adulthood, their victims may have problems in their adult caused by the bullying behaviors they are subjected at earlier ages. That is to say, victims of bullying cannot get on well with other people and they do not have self-confidence when they reach adulthood (Olweus, 2003). According to studies conducted on the effects of bully behaviors, all parties including the bully and the victims show psychological, physical, social and academic failures. These negative effects of bullying can be observed both in short period and in the long one (Ayas, 2008; Şahin, 2007). These negative effects can cause many problems in social and individual life. When dealing with bullying in school environments, we cannot leave teachers out. Attitudes of teachers, their interactions with students, their model behaviors, being aware of bully behaviors and their reaction towards their behaviors are crucial in terms of decreasing the number of bullying. Especially, the position of Sports and PE teachers, due to their positions in school environments, may play a significant role in decreasing and preventing bullying since they have the opportunity to deal with students in groups or individually. Furthermore, physical education courses and sports activities are important in developing students self-esteem and self-confidence (Gün and Koç, 2006). The aim of this study is to analyze Sports and PE teachers’ perceptions of bullying in school environments and to make them aware of the fact that they can play a crucial role in decreasing preventing and bullying due to their positions. Method of the Study This study is designed in qualitative research approach in which case study method has been chosen. The main reason why this method has been chosen is that the views and perceptions of the participants have been tried to be explored in detail. In other ways, research questions of the study attempt to reveal teachers’ views and perceptions and investigate the research topic in-depth. When in-depth investigations of inner views of people are needed, it is recommended that qualitative approaches are most suitable to employ (Bogdan and Biklen, 1992; Cohen and Manion, 1994). As Maykut and Morehouse (1994) argue, qualitative researchers are interested in investigating and responding to exploratory and descriptive questions and such is the case in this study. Moreover, this study does not attempt to generalize the results but aims to obtain deeper understanding of experience from the perspectives of the teachers. Sampling 10 Sports and PE teachers working at ten different high schools in the city of Trabzon were selected as the participants of the study with a random selection. The teaching experiences of teachers differed from 5 to 20 years. Five of the participant teachers were female and the others were male, but their genders were not considered as a variable in this study. Data Analysis Processes The data have been gathered through a “semi- structured interview form”. Teacher interviews were recorded into a tape recorder then recorded conversations were transcribed on to papers. “Constant comparative method” (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) has been used in the process of data analysis. For this, instead of analyzing the data according to previously organized categories, the data have been divided into categories after the data have been collected. In this process, similar data have been classified and categories have been formed by making continuous comparisons in the context of grounded theory approach. These categories have been presented in tables so that the findings could be understood more easily and the data in the tables have been supported with the direct quotations from the teacher conversations. Findings and Discussion School as Encouraging Environment for Bullying In this part of the study, questions concerning whether psycho-social conditions of schools stimulate students to get involved in bullying have been asked to participants. Findings illustrate that teachers have two different views: Half of the teachers think that school stimulates bullying of students whereas, the other half claims that it does not. Some of the views of teachers who think that the psycho-social environment of school is connected to bullying are as follows: 189 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo “Such things are not permitted but wrong attitudes of teachers or managers can set an example for them” (T2) T3 has indicated the connection between school management and bullying as follows: “I think that the problem gets more serious especially when such behaviors are tolerated and the management and teachers do not act consciously enough about this issue. But the main responsibility lies with the management of school. This is all about the students’ ambitions of applying pressure on each other and their opinions of being privileged in the eyes of the management. Everything stems from it, otherwise I can say that: When the management of school acts reasonably, the problems that I have been talking about do not exist. Students cannot do it.”(T3) T10 indicated that the negative attitudes of teachers at school can cause bullying: “The conditions that support bullying at school do not exist at our school but sometimes they may. What supports bullying? For example, teachers’ use of physical violence is a cause of bullying, I think.” (T7) Some views of teachers that think that conditions do not support bullying are as follows: “No. I do not believe it. I have never witnessed such a thing. There are often necessary controls and checks at our school. I think the main causes of bullying are the visual media and the internet.”(T8) “I have not witnessed it at our school. I believe that conditions are fine at most schools. However, I think that socio-economic factors have greater impact on students’ bullying.” (T6) Teachers who claim that the environment of school stimulates bullying and those who do not have focused on the attitudes and behaviors of managers and their colleagues concerning this issue. It has been seen that participant teachers do not mention whether general purposes, physical and social conditions, cultural activities of the school, and students’ expectations, needs and values could be connected to bullying or not. This may stem from the fact that the insufficiency of economic conditions, indifference and pressures of central and local administrators could make them feel apathetic towards psycho-social issues. The fact that teachers’ salaries are not high enough to meet their basic needs negatively motivate them to make researches and develop themselves personally and professionally. Besides, the pressures of both central and local administrators on teachers to gain cognitive success are one of the most important elements that make teachers apathetic towards psycho-social environments and problems. Hence, the teachers’ views regarding this issue have provided limited amount of data. The reason for this might be that they may get scared of telling the truth or being responsible for bullying. It is always easy to ignore the problem and put the blame on other things. Being a Role Model In this part of the research, teachers have been asked whether they could be role models that are good enough for their students. According to the data obtained, teachers have similar views with regard to being a model for students. Out of the group that comprises 10 people, half of them has indicated that “they try to be good role models” whereas the other half has said that “they could be both good and bad models”. For example, T1: When students see that bullying is not allowed and when they understand that intolerance to bullying is for humanity, they can take us as idols. Students can take their teachers as models. People do not have to like each other. But they need to show respect.” Participant T5 has mentioned that teachers are generally good models as in the following: “ 80 percent of the teachers are good. Yet, we have two teachers who are about to retire and we also have problems with a new teacher. The others are very good.” Similarly, T7 has mentioned they try to be good models as “We try to be good models. We make the students get along with each other. We make them think.” On the other hand, T9 has made a different but detailed explanation as to the fact that teachers could be both good and bad models: “Now, to be honest, I need to take all teachers into consideration to answer your question. There are teachers who can be taken as models and those who cannot. Not all people are the same. I can give a certain answer on my behalf but when I take other teachers into account, I guess that the amount is 40 percent. The child can copy negative qualities as well. If you shout and beat the child, s/he will take it as an model. The teacher is a more important model than the parent when it comes to copying negative behaviors. They could not take their parents seriously as they are always near them but they imitate the teachers that they regard as ideal. When teachers are dominant in anything, the students imitate them right away. Students consider them important” 190 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo It is seen that both the teachers that say they try to be good models and those who say they can be good and bad models refer to the attitudes and behaviors of other teachers instead of their own attitudes. That is, they do not evaluate their own behaviors with regard to being good and bad models and they emphasize and comment on teachers who have just started the profession, those who have worked as a teacher for long years and who apply physical violence. Instead of mentioning their own behaviors to be good models, they talk about ideal behaviors that have to be conducted. Thus, there can be difference between the teachers’ views concerning being good models and their behaviors and attitudes at school. Gender issue in bullying Most of the teachers in the group (7 teachers) have indicated that boys bully others more than girls do. Only three teachers in the group have said that the gender of the students is not a factor of bullying. About this issue T2 has said: “In past years, it was seen that boys were involved in bullying more than girls were. But recently girls bully others, too. We are not used to girls bullying. Boys are involved in fights but girls have almost the same problems as well.” T3: Girls did not use to bully other students before but now it is very common. A few weeks ago, a girl broke the finger of another student. They fight so harshly. The environment is a very bad example especially for girls. The press and media also have an impact. They teach what you can do if you are exposed to violence and students learn it. “ T7: Boys are the leading actors in every kind of event at school. They are always involved in brawls in the school garden, corridors, classrooms. They are very irresponsible and inattentive. They harm each other very much. Sometimes even the parents are involved in violence and terrible events happen.” T9: Boys try to imitate mafia members so much. They act in groups and gangs. The most influential model they have is the actor “Memati” in the TV series “The Valley of Wolves”. Actually, this is very serious. Boys at our school play a game of mafia.” When we look at the teachers’ perceptions of the relation between bullying and gender of the students, we see that they mention physical attacks since they view bullying mostly as physical bullying or they do not distinguish between bullying and violence. Hence, they notice physical fights and brawls in the behaviors of both girls and boys. From this aspect, it is seen that boys bully others more than girls do. The reason is that teachers do not take verbal, sexual, indirect bullying and harming the possessions of others into account when they evaluate the case of bullying. There is a similarity between the teachers’ perceptions of sexuality and bullying and their perceptions of bullying which is the first finding of the research. Nine teachers out of the group have defined bullying as “brute force and demanding one’s rights through violence”. Therefore, it is a natural outcome that teachers think boys bully others more than girls do. Conclusions and Recommendations In this study, a clear result is not reached on whether there is a link between school settings and bullying. While half of teachers participated in the study think that school setting is a factor that causes bullying, the other half expressed that there is no such kind of relation. When looking at the literature about the relation between school settings and bullying, it is seen that some features of schools physical settings causes bullying at different levels. Stephenson and Smith found in their studies in English schools in 1987 and 1989 that bullying actions took place more in some schools than others. Roland and Munthe (1989) found in their study that there are differences in between private schools and public schools in terms of bullying. Pişkin and Ayas (2006) concluded in their study that bullying actions take more place in male-only vocational schools than female-only vocational schools. In another study carried out by Pişkin and Ayas (2008), it was found that rate of bullying in Anatolian high schools are lower than other high schools in Turkey. Therefore, on the basis of these studies we can say that there is a link between school settings and bullying. While five of the ten teachers studied think that the behaviors and attitudes of teachers in class and school environment do not make models and may cause bullying, the others argue that teachers’ attitudes and behaviors have no relations with bullying. Research studying the relationship between the attitudes and behaviors of teachers and bullying has revealed that teachers’ interactions with students in school environment, their authoritative attitudes, their indifference towards courses and students’ problems, their narcissism personalities contribute to bullying either directly or indirectly. Olweus (1993; 1995) asserts that the attitudes and behaviors of teachers in school environments play a significant role in dealing with bullying behaviors and their victims. He also puts it 191 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo that teachers’ negative attitudes and behaviors can, in some cases, make a role model for bullying. Sullivan et al. (2004) claim that teachers may contribute to bullying in school environment. He especially places rude and authoritative teachers into this category. In Cullingford’ study (2002) a female subject student said one of her teachers behaved her badly and insulted her in front of the class. It can clearly be concluded that that teachers cannot be left out of the bullying problem and even that some of the responsibility for the emergence of this problem can be put on teachers. In this study it was found that according to teachers’ views male students perform bullying much more than the female students. Due to teachers’ comprehension of bullying as physical attack and violence, they may also perceive that male students have more tendencies towards violence than female students. When literature on bullying is investigated in terms of gender variable, in most of the studies it is concluded that male students perform physical bullying actions more than female students and female students perform bullying indirectly in most cases. (Delfabro, et al, 2006; Pateraki and Houndoumadi, 2001; Espelage, Bosworth and Simon, 2000; Olweus, 1994a; Olweus,1995; Eslea and Smith, 1994; Roland and Munthe,1989; Archer, Pearson and Westeman,1988; Elliot,1992). From this perspective, it can be said that teachers’ views in this study about gender and bullying support previous study findings reviewed above. It is seen that the teachers are not very aware of indirect bullying so therefore they might not focus on girly bullying which can be equally disturbing even more. Besides, TV series you have been talking about are generally about men. Gender roles in the society can also be influential here. It seems to be impossible to consider teachers out of the bullying problem when school bullying is in question. Hence, teachers and prospective teachers should be informed of peer-bullying. This study suggests that especially Sports and PE teachers, who are in a position to develop one to one interactions with their students both in natural and non-natural settings and to contribute a lot their students’ social, personal and psychological developments, should be informed of and trained on their roles in decreasing and preventing bullying among students. These teachers should be encouraged to take part in projects that aim to decrease and prevent bullying. Researchers should share their findings with Sports and PE teachers and other related parties (school headmasters and other teachers). 192 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Archer, J., Pearson, N. A. & Westeman, K. E. (1988). Aggressive behaviour of children aged 6-11: gender differences and their magnitude. British Journal of Social Psychology, No:27, 371-384. Ayas, T. (2008). 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Bullying: who does what, when and where? ınvolvement of children, teachers and parents in bullying behavior. Health Education Research, 20, 81-91. Gün, N. & Koç, S. (2006). What is your rating among the priorities, self-esteem?, Đstanbul: Kuraldışı Yayınları. Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (1967). Discovery of grounded theory, Chicago: Adline. Hazler, R. J. (1996). Breaking the cycle of violence: Interventions for bullying and victimization. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. Hazler, R. J., Hoover, J. H., & Oliver, R. (1992). What kids say about bullying. The Executive Educator, 14(11), 20–22. Huesmann, R. I & Malamuth, N. M. (1986). Media violence and antisocial behavior: An overwiew. Journal of Social Issues, 42 (3), 1–6. Kartal, H. & Bilgin, A. (2008). Bullying in the emenentary schools: From the aspects of the students, the teachers and the parents. Elementary Education Online, 7(2), 485-495. Kumpulainen, K., Rasanen, E. & Puura, K. (2001). Psychiatric disorders and the use of mental health services among children ınvolved in bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 27, 102-110. Maykut, P. & Morehouse, R. (1994). Beginning qualitative research: A philosophical and practical guide, London & Bristol: The Falmer Pres. 193 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Mynard, H., Joseph, S. & Alexandrera, J. (2000). Peer-victimisation and posttraumatic stres in adolescents. Personality and Individual Differrences, 29, 815–821. Nansel, R. T., Overpeck, M., Pilla, R. S., et. al. (2001). Bullying behaviors among us youth: Prevalence and association with psychosocial adjustment. Journal of The American Medical Association, 285(16), 2094-2100. Olweus, D. (2003). A profile of bullying at school. Educational Leaderships, Vol. 60 Issue 6, EBSCO host. Olweus, D. (1995). Bulying at school, Oxford: Blackwell. Olweus, D. (1994a). Bullying at school: Long-term outcomes for the victims and an effective school based intervention program L. Rowell Huesmann (Ed.). Aggressive Behavior: Current Perspectives, Plenum Pres, New York. 97–130 Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do malden, MA Blacwell Publishers Ltd. Pişkin, M. (2002). School bullying: Desription, types, related factors and possible precations, Journal of Educational Sciences in Theory and Practice, 2(2), pp. 531–562. Pişkin, M. & Ayas, T. (2006). Comparing the fact of peer bullying in between high school students in terms of school type. 8th National Congress on Psychological Counseling and Guidance, (21-23 September), Marmara University, Đstanbul. Pişkin, M. & Ayas, T. (2008). Investigation of bullying among high schools students with regard to school type, sex & grade level. international congress of counseling. Bahçeşehir University. 25- 27 Nisan 2008. Istanbul. Pateraki, L. & Houndoumadi, A. (2001). bullying among primary school children in athens, greece. Educational Psychology, 21 (2), 167-173. Roland, S. & Munthe, H. (1989). Bullying: An international perspective. David Fulton Publishers, London. Rigby, K. (2003). Consepuences of bullying in schools. Canadian Journal of Psychiatri, 48 (9), 584-590. Roland, S. & Munthe, H. (1989). Bullying: An international perspective. David Fulton Publishers, London. Solak, A. (2007). An analysis of a city in terms of crime and violence A. Solak (ed.). Media and Violence in the Process of Globalization, Ankara: Detay Publications, (pp. 163-194). Sullivan, K., Cleary, M. & Sullivan, G. (2004). Bullying in seccondary schools what it lokks like and how to manage it. London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Şahin, M. (2007). Researching the efficiency of empathy training to prevent bullying behaviors in primary schools. (phD Thesis), Atatürk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Woods, S., Hall, L., & Wolke, D. (2007). Implications of gender differences fort he development of animated characters for the study of bullying behavior. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(1): 770-786. 194 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 455 Title A name given to the resource Examining Peer Bullying on the Basis of Different Variables Through the Perceptions of the Sports and Physical Education Teachers Author Author Sahin, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study was to investigate the Sports and Physical Education teachers’ perceptions of student bullying in the city of Trabzon, Turkey. The study also attempted to investigate the role of “school atmosphere”, “gender” and “role model” factors on student bullying in school environments. The study was carried out in the first semester of the 2007-2008 academic year with the participation of ten Sports and PE teachers working in various high schools in Trabzon. The study employed a qualitative approach and case study method. A semi-structured interview was administered as the data collection instrument. In data analysis, “constant comparison method” was used. The study found that there was no agreement among teachers on the role of school atmosphere and on their role models in bullying, and that their perceptions of bullying were problematic. Another finding was that the teachers believed male students were more involved in peer bullying. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bee2a52e03e58b8438fc386d0cb3c7b6.pdf 40cacc10a6261e6fd59c9ef24f46db6a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Seasonality of Turkish Arrivals to Municipality Licensed Thermal Hotels: A Case of Afyonkarahisar, Turkey Hasan Hüseyin SOYBALI Afyon Kocatepe University School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey hsoybali@aku.edu.tr Ahmet BAYTOK Afyon Kocatepe University School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Veysel AĞCA Afyon Kocatepe University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey agca@aku.edu.tr Abstract: Seasonality is a common problem and affects all stakeholders of in tourism industry. As a promising tourism type with its great potential, despite common beliefs, thermal tourism demand also indicates seasonal trend with peaks in high seasons and troughs in low seasons. This study identifies seasonal patterns of domestic guest arrivals to and nights spent in Municipality registered thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey between 2000 and 2008 by using ARIMA method. Findings indicate that there is a strong seasonality in Turkish guest arrivals to Municipality licensed thermal hotels which is closely related with official holiday calendar and school holidays in Turkey. These thermal hotels should realise the effects seasonality and take immediate action to improve seasonal patterns for more evenly distributed seasonal domestic tourism demand and better future for all. Keywords: Seasonality, Thermal Tourism, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey Introduction Many industries have faced seasonality problem throughout the world. Tourism industry, in particular, is badly affected by seasonal tourism supply and demand and as Butler, 2001, states it is one of the main defining characteristics of global tourism. As Baum and Lundtorp, 2001, emphasize seasonality impacts on all aspects of supply-side behaviour in tourism, including marketing, the labour market, business finance, stakeholder management and all aspects of operations. While seasonality leaves many resources unutilized and employees unemployed during the low season, heavy demand during the peak season, on the other hand, also cause some serious problems such as crowdedness, congestion, poor air quality, lower service quality. Therefore, it is a serious problem to tackle and a well documented subject in tourism literature. BarOn, 1975, Sutcliffe and Sinclair, 1980, Yacoumis, 1980, Wanhill, 1980, ETAG, 1984, O‘Driscoll, 1985, Hartmann, 1986, Soesilo & Mings, 1987, Allcock, 1989, Ball, 1988, Snepenger & Houser, 1990, Furr et. al., 1992, Butler, 1994, Baum & Hagen, 1999, Baum & Lundtorp, 2001, Koc & Altinay, 2007, Palang et. al., 2007 and many other authors evaluated the seasonality and related issues from different perspectives through the years. BarOn (1975) whose study has been a starting point for many other studies on seasonality stated that there are two types of seasonality; ―natural seasonality‖ and ―institutionalised seasonality‖. While he accepted climate and weather conditions as primary causes of natural seasonality, he stressed that, holidays and other events at specific times of each year like religious vacations, school vacations and festivals are also to be blamed for institutionalised seasonal fluctuations in supply and demand levels. One of the oldest ways to benefit from geothermal resources is using them in spas (jeotermaldernegi.org.tr, 2010) for bathing and treatment purposes. The use of geothermal waters for tourism purposes is expressed as thermal tourism in today‘s world. Thermal tourism can be defined as using mineralized thermal waters for health, recreation and relaxation aims and it displays different characteristics from other types of tourism. Thermal tourism provides an 548 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo opportunity to serve continuously 12-month a year. Occupancy rates are generally high in thermal enterprises. It can easily be integrated with other types of tourism such as cultural and convention tourism. Health is the main purpose of existence of Thermal tourism. Thermal tourism is thought to be less seasonal than other types of tourism because it usually does not depend on weather conditions and climate. However, the demand for thermal tourism is affected by the same factors which affect the demand for other tourism types and this causes fluctuations and creates high and low seasons. Turkish tourism has developed greatly since early 1980s. 27.3 million foreign visitors and 4.6 million Turkish expatriates visited Turkey in 2009 and spent around 21.2 billion US Dollar (Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2010a). As a strategy, Turkey is trying to diversify its product range, attract more visitors to all regions of Turkey and earn more foreign currency. In this respect, thermal tourism is one of the encouraged tourism types in Turkey as it has great thermal water potential and there is an increasing demand potential from aging European countries. However, thermal facilities in Turkey have still been utilized largely by Turkish citizens and thermal tourism plays an important role in Turkish domestic tourism. This is supported by Ministry of Culture and Tourism‘s statistics. While only 5% of the number of nights spent by foreign visitors in municipality licensed thermal hotels in 2008, Turkish citizens overwhelmingly spent 95% of 703486 nights in these facilities (Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2009). Afyonkarahisar is a province of Turkey located in the West part of Anatolia on the conjunction of IstanbulAntalya, Ankara-Izmir Highways and connects Eastern and Northern provinces to Western and Southern provinces. Afyonkarahisar is one of the richest provinces of Turkey in terms of natural hot springs and quality thermal accommodation facilities. It is in one the thermal tourism regions, declared by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, ―Phrygian Culture and Thermal Tourism Development Region‖ (Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2006). There are four distinct thermal tourism centres within Afyonkarahisar; Omer-Gecek in the city centre, Ihsaniye Gazligol, Sandikli Hudai and Bolvadin Heybeli (Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2006). While Ministry of Culture and Tourism licensed thermal hotels prefer Omer-Gecek mainly because of its closeness to the city centre and Sandikli Hudai partly, many municipality licensed thermal hotels and thermal timeshare facilities are located in Ihsaniye Gazligol and Bolvadin Heybeli thermal regions. Afyonkarahisar currently has four Ministry of Tourism registered 5-Star thermal hotels in city centre and 8 Municipality Licensed thermal hotels scattered throughout the province. In 2008, all hotels in Afyonkarahisar entertained around 303,000 guests who spent 778,000 nights of which nearly 99% belong to Turkish Citizens. From this point of view, it should be stressed that 96.5% of nights spent in Afyonkarahisar realized in Ministry and Municipality registered thermal hotels. While 53% of the nights spent in thermal hotels was recorded in Municipality licensed thermal hotels (397731), the remaining 47% was recorded in Ministry registered thermal hotels (353598). In other words, the main market for the Afyonkarahisar hotels is domestic market and despite rapidly increasing number of Ministry of Culture and Tourism registered thermal hotels and bed capacity, Municipality registered hotels still play an important role in accommodating thermal tourism guests. The Study Hotels and similar accommodation facilities are licensed either by Ministry of Culture and Tourism or local Municipalities according to their conformity to set standards. This study investigates the seasonal patterns of domestic guest arrivals to Municipality registered thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey between 2000 and 2008 to help these hotels to see the overall seasonality of guest arrivals and take action to improve seasonality in guest arrivals. In this respect, it focuses on the monthly Turkish guest arrivals and time-series analysis by employing ARIMA (Autoregressive integrated Moving Average) method. This method defines a univariate time series as a function of its past values and other significant independent variables and has been used in many analogous studies to test for seasonality and environmental effects (Lin & Xiraxagar, 2006:797). Through the study, seasonal indices for monthly guest arrivals are computed by using SPSS statistics package software. Findings Although guest arrivals to Municipality licensed Thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar Omer-Gecek thermal tourism region between 2000 and 2008 indicate an increasing trend through the years (88677 and 122747 respectively), number of nights spent showed a dramatic decrease between 2000 and 2002 from 470257 to 269796 because of the financial crises in Turkey. Despite the increase in number of nights spent since then, it still well behind the 2000 figures. The reason for this decrease may be the opening of new qualified 4 and five star hotels in this period of time. 549 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The computed monthly indices indicate the degree of seasonal fluctuations and 100 represents the point where there is no seasonal fluctuation. If the indices exceed 100, it represents the existence of concentration. In this respect, seasonal indices of arrival statistics to Municipality licensed thermal hotels indicate that the high season is between May and September and between September and April is the low season for these hotels (Table 1, Figure 1). Turkish Arrivals Turkish Nights Spent Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 61,1 52,2 59,2 79,8 114,0 140,3 168,9 170,1 134,7 89,6 64,9 65,3 67,6 64,5 55,9 78,2 99,7 142,1 165,1 172,2 131,8 94,4 65,0 63,9 2009 Arrivals Forecast 2009 Nights Forecast 63,2 53,3 65,2 87,9 114,4 133,9 174,4 176,2 117,4 74,8 68,4 70,0 67,9 70,2 58,4 81,5 105,0 129,7 161,6 175,9 120,7 84,2 74,5 69,9 Table 1: Seasonal Indices for Turkish Arrivals to and Nights Spent in Municipality Licensed Thermal Hotels Figure 1: Seasonal Indices for Turkish Arrivals to and Nights Spent in Municipality Licensed Thermal Hotels Figure 2. Forecasted Seasonal Indices for Turkish Arrivals to and Nights Spent in Municipality Licensed Thermal Hotels While arrivals reach its peak point in August, it bottoms out in February. Although the peak month is also August for the number of nights spent by Turkish guests, March has the lowest season indices for it. In other words, although arrivals reach its lowest level in March, because of the mid-term school holidays, which usually take place at the beginning of February, people stay longer in these thermal hotels and after schools open again the number of nights spent falls dramatically to its lowest level, more guests arrive but stay shorter. This means that thermal hotels 550 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo in Afyonkarahisar are highly vulnerable as to a large extent it is dependent on largely institutionalised seasonality factors mentioned by BarOn (1975). In addition fasting month of Ramadan has a decreasing effect in demand for thermal hotels. For example, although the August is the peak month for these hotels, because Ramadan of which its timing changes every year coincides with the peak month, August, it is expected that thermal hotels will experience decreases in their demand. However, thermal hotels usually experience greater demand in feasts after Ramadan and during the feast of sacrifice and reach 100% occupancy rates. All these institutionalised and partly natural factors shape the seasonal trends of these thermal hotels. Conclusions This study has analysed seasonal fluctuations in monthly Turkish arrivals to and nights spent in Municipality licensed thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey by employing ARIMA (Autoregressive integrated Moving Average) method. The study indicates that unlike the common beliefs and despite it is not climate and weather dependent, thermal tourism has also a strong seasonal pattern as other types of tourism. According the results of the study, the demand for thermal hotels concentrates between May and September which is defined as high season and the period between October and April when there is less demand, except for religious feasts and school holidays, represents the low season. When BarOn‘s classification is taken into account, institutional factors cause this seasonality. However, strong seasonal patterns of guest arrivals affect thermal hotels in a negative way and push some of them to close down in low season months which cause several chain problems such as unutilized capacity and resources and unemployment. Therefore, as well as checking the overall provincial seasonality patterns closely, they should also know their own seasonal patterns so that they can take effective actions to improve seasonal patterns. In contrast to seaside resort hotels, thermal hotels and thermal resources can be utilized twelve-month whatever the weather conditions and this requires serious marketing and management strategies and plans. To overcome this problem, Municipality licensed thermal hotels should integrate their products with other types of tourism such as cultural, convention and third-age tourism to be able increase demand in low season months. This study has some limitations. It comprises only Afyonkarahisar, Omer-Gecek thermal tourism region. The other limitation is that the study was conducted only in Municipality licensed thermal hotels. The seasonality of thermal hotels in different regions and countries can be computed and compared with each other. Seasonality in Ministry of Culture and Tourism licensed thermal hotels should also be computed. After all, generalization can be made that thermal hotels have seasonal characteristics. References Allcock, J. B. (1989) Seasonality, In: Witt, S. F. and Mountinho, L. (eds) Tourism Management Handbook, UK., Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd., pp 387-392. Ball, R. M. (1988) Seasonality: A problem for workers in the labour market?, The Service Industries Journal, 8(4), pp 501-513. BarOn R. R. V. (1975) Seasonality in tourism; a guide to the analysis of seasonality and trends for policy making, London, UK., Economic Intelligence Unit Ltd. Baum, T. & Lundtorp, S. (2001), Introduction, In: Baum T. and Lundtorp, S. (eds), Seasonality in Tourism, Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 1-4. Butler, R. W. (2001.) Seasonality in Tourism: Issues and Implications, In: Baum T. and Lundtorp, S. (eds), Seasonality in Tourism, Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 5-20. ETAG (1984), Action to combat the effects of seasonality in Europe, Appendix 5, In: Changing face of European Tourism, the proceedings of the third European Tourism Conference, 28 February, Zurich, pp 23-24. Hartmann, R. (1986). Tourism, seasonality and social change, Leisure Studies, 5 (1), 25-33. http://www.jeotermaldernegi.org.tr/ (01.04.2010) Koc, E. and Altinay, G. (2007) An analysis of seasonality in monthly per person tourist spending in Turkish inbound tourism from a market segmentation perspective, Tourism Management, 28, 227–237 551 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Lin, H.C. & Xiraxagar, S. (2006). Seasonality of hip fractures and estimates of season-attributable effects: a multivariate ARIMA analysis of population-based data, Osteoporos Int. 17 (6), 795-806. O'Driscoll, T. J. (1984). Seasonality: The case for co-operation, In: the Changing face of European Tourism, the proceedings of the third European Tourism Conference, 28 February, Zurich, pp. 13 Palang, H., Printsmann, A. Soovali H. (2007). Seasonality and Landscapes, In Palang, H., Soovali H. Printsmann, A. (eds), Seasonal Landscapes, Springer Netherlands, 1-16 Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, (2010a). GiriĢ - ÇıkıĢ Yapan Yabancı ve VatandaĢlar Mart 2010, Sayı:03, 26.04.2010, Yatırım ve ĠĢletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü AraĢtırma ve Değerlendirme Daire BaĢkanlığı, Ankara, Turkey Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism , (2009). Accommodation Statistics (Municipality Licensed, November, Yatırım ve ĠĢletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü AraĢtırma ve Değerlendirme Daire BaĢkanlığı, Ankara, Turkey Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism , (2006). Turizm GeliĢimi Eylem Planı, Turkiye Turizm Stratejisi, 8. Bölüm, pp. 180-262. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, (2009). Accommodation Statistics (Licensed by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism) 2008, November, General Directorate of Investment and Enterprises Department of Research and Evaluation, Ankara, Turkey. Soesilo, J., and Mings, R.C. (1987) Assessing the seasonality of tourism, Visions in Leisure and Business, 6 (2), 25-38. Snepenger, D., Houser,B. (1990) Seasonality of demand, Annals of Tourism Research, 17, 628-630 Sutcliffe, C.M.S., Sinclair, M.T. (1978). Seasonality in Spanish tourism, Studies in economics, No: 29, University of Kent at Canterbury. Wanhill, S. R. C. (1980). Tackling seasonality: a technical note, International Journal of Tourism Management, 1 (4). 243-245. Yacoumis, J. (1980) Tackling seasonality; The case of Sri Lanka, International Journal of Tourism Management, June, 84-98. 552 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 273 Title A name given to the resource Seasonality of Turkish Arrivals to Municipality Licensed Thermal Hotels: A Case of Afyonkarahisar, Turkey Author Author SOYBALI, Hasan Hüseyin BAYTOK, Ahmet AĞCA, Veysel Abstract A summary of the resource. Seasonality is a common problem and affects all stakeholders of in tourism industry. As a promising tourism type with its great potential, despite common beliefs, thermal tourism demand also indicates seasonal trend with peaks in high seasons and troughs in low seasons. This study identifies seasonal patterns of domestic guest arrivals to and nights spent in Municipality registered thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar, Turkey between 2000 and 2008 by using ARIMA method. Findings indicate that there is a strong seasonality in Turkish guest arrivals to Municipality licensed thermal hotels which is closely related with official holiday calendar and school holidays in Turkey. These thermal hotels should realise the effects seasonality and take immediate action to improve seasonal patterns for more evenly distributed seasonal domestic tourism demand and better future for all. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9dd0abe29dddfb846d40cbdffe577fd7.pdf 7a3fad884309468c7967afd97e0264f3 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Sharing and Managing Risks in Islamic Finance Ahmet SEKRETER Bosnian Turkish College ahmetsekreter@hotmail.com Mehmet CAN Prof. Dr., International University of Sarajevo mcan@ius.edu.ba Abstract: For most of the people the prohibition on interest is the well known part of Islamic finance however the rest is considered as an unknown finance system that is based on the rules which are written thousands years ago. Indeed, the concept of Islamic finance is not be discussed enough till financial crisis, after crisis it started to be seen as an alternative financial system. However some new approaches are needed to demonstrate Islamic finance as an alternative of conventional finance. Sharing the risks is main concept in investments but question is what the investments are. In the new approach of risk management the idea is consumers can follow their money and investments and banks have to inform the consumers. Introduction Islamic finance is any finance that is compliant with the principles of Islamic law (Shari‘ah). In terms of finance, Shari‗ah explains in details the ethical concepts of money and capital, the relationship between risk and profit and the social responsibilities of financial institutions. [1] This definition may tell us that Islamic finance gives us limited opportunities to make profit and people can think there are many strict rules which are written thousands years ago. So because of this Islamic finance is not applicable in today‘s modern world. However the last crisis shows that conventional finance is not perfect. So Islamic finance is started to be searched and seen that Islamic finance can be an alternative for conventional finance and there are financial instruments in Islamic finance like in conventional finance. These instruments can easily adopt to our modern world. Major instruments of Islamic finance Murabahah This concept refers to the sale of goods at a price, which includes a profit margin agreed to by both parties. The purchase and selling price, other costs, and the profit margin must be clearly stated at the time of the sale agreement. The bank is compensated for the time value of its money in the form of the profit margin. This is a fixedincome loan for the purchase of a real asset (such as real estate or a vehicle), with a fixed rate of profit determined by the profit margin. The bank is not compensated for the time value of money outside of the contracted term (i.e., the bank cannot charge additional profit on late payments); however, the asset remains as a mortgage with the bank until the default is settled.[2] Istisna Istisna is the second kind of sale where a commodity is transacted before it comes into existence. It means to order a manufacturer to manufacture a specific commodity for the purchaser. If the manufacturer undertakes to manufacture the goods for him, the transaction of Istisna comes into existence. But it is necessary for the validity of Istisna that the price is fixed with the consent of the parties and that necessary specification of the commodity (intended to be manufactured) is fully settled between them. [1] Islamic Finance: An Ethical Alternative to Conventional Finance,(2008), Aziz Tayyebi Wikipedia.org 55 [2] �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The contract of Istisna creates a moral obligation on the manufacturer to manufacture the goods, but before he starts the work, any one of the parties may cancel the contract after giving notice to the other. But after the manufacturer has started the work, the contract cannot be cancelled unilaterally. However, the party placing the order has the right to retract if the commodity does not conform to the specifications demanded.[3] Ijara Ijarah means lease, rent or wage. Generally, Ijarah concept means selling the benefit of use or service for a fixed price or wage. Under this concept, the Bank makes available to the customer the use of service of assets / equipments such as plant, office automation, motor vehicle for a fixed period and price. [4] Musharakah Musharakah is a relationship between two parties or more, of whom contribute capital to a business, and divide the net profit and loss pro rata. This is often used in investment projects, letters of credit, and the purchase or real estate or property. In the case of real estate or property, the bank assess an imputed rent and will share it as agreed in advance. All providers of capital are entitled to participate in management, but not necessarily required to do so. The profit is distributed among the partners in pre-agreed ratios, while the loss is borne by each partner strictly in proportion to respective capital contributions. This concept is distinct from fixed-income investing (i.e. issuance of loans). Sukuk Sukuk is the Arabic name for a financial certificate but can be seen as an Islamic equivalent of bond. However, fixed-income, interest-bearing bonds are not permissible in Islam. Hence, Sukuk are securities that comply with the Islamic law and its investment principles, which prohibit the charging or paying of interest. Financial assets that comply with the Islamic law can be classified in accordance with their tradability and non-tradability in the secondary markets.[5] Takaful Takaful is an alternative form of cover that a Muslim can avail himself against the risk of loss due to misfortunes. Takaful is based on the idea that what is uncertain with respect to an individual may cease to be uncertain with respect to a very large number of similar individuals. [6] Muqarada This technique allows a bank to float what are effectively Islamic bonds to finance a specific project. Investors who buy muqarada bonds take a share of the profits of the project being financed, but also share the risk of unexpectedly low profits, or even losses. They have no say in the management of the project, but act as non-voting shareholders.[3] Salam Salam literally means ‗futures‘. A buyer pays in advance for a designated quantity and quality of a certain commodity to be delivered at a certain agreed date and price. It is limited to fungible commodities and is mostly used for the purpose of agricultural products by providing needed capital prior to delivery. Generally, Islamic banks use a salam contract to buy a commodity and pay the supplier in advance for it, specifying the chosen date for delivery. The bank then sells this commodity to a third party on a salam or instalment basis.With two salam contracts, the second should entail delivery of the same quantity and description as the first contract and is concluded after the first contract (El-Gamal, 2000).[7] Total assets of Islamic banking worldwide estimated at about $250 billion, and are expected to grow by about per a year.[8] In these days customers are going to an Islamic bank and putting their money and sharing profit or loss. However customers are all the time getting some money from profit by a percent that is pre-agreed before. This percentage is all the time very close to the interest rate of conventional banks. How it can be possible that an Islamic bank invests money to many different areas but makes a profit at a level of interest rate. If Islamic finance wants to be seen as an alternative of conventional finance it should be characteristic and different from conventional banks. So there must be some new approaches in Islamic finance and especially in Islamic banking systems. These new approaches can be established in two main topics, transparency and asymmetric information. Transparency There must be some standards for transparency which should be agreed, widespread and easy to establish. Of course these standards must provide ―Shariah‖. This would be in the interests of consumers. Some services can be established to protect consumers in Islamic finance. So these services can check the implementation of standards. The implementation of Islamic finance products should be supported by documentation and consumers should be aware of that greater transparency will be in the interests of them. [3],[5] Instrument of Islamic Finance and Banking Mohammed Ali Elgari, Mufti Taqi Usmani, Yusuf Talal Delorenzo, M. Umar Chapra. [4],[6] Wikipedia.org 56 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The main issue is who will standardize the standards. Indeed standards are already exist in Shariah, so the process will be standardized. After deciding who will standardize then it must be known that only the process will be standardized. These standards will bring extra responsibilities Islamic finance services. Islamic finance services should comply with these standards. There should be some partners who work with these services and consumers. So partners can feedback on the decided standards. These partners can help Islamic financial institutions explaining the support for the standards and its requirements. These partners can evaluate whether an Islamic financial institution seeking to comply with the standards actually met the standards‘ requirements. If partners have reasonable opinions, determines that the institution complies the standards. A number of service providers will already comply with the suggested standard. Preliminary research has suggested that some service providers will not – which indicates that they are acting contrary to market practice. However, if such a standard is agreed by the main industry players, market forces may force the other product providers to comply with the standard. This would be in the interests of consumers. [9] The success of the implementation of decided standards depends on financial institutions. These institutions have to be fair, clear and not misleading. The wide-spread adoption of decided standards will be a very important support for establishing these standards. Islamic financial institutions, consumers and their partners should prepare some consultation papers so that the implementation of standards will be easier.If there is a sufficient support then these standards can be settled by institutions and partners. The success is based on the responses to the consultation papers. To promote the acceptance of the standards, it can be entered into informal associations with public organizations. A logo can be used so that Islamic financial institutions can assert compliance with the standards. Press conferences, media briefings can be organized. A website which is a bespoke can be created for the standards and in this website Islamic financial institutions that comply with the standards can be mentioned with Asymmetric Information Asymmetric information is an information that differs between parties to transaction situation in which consumers, suppliers, and producers do not all have the same information on which to base their decisions. [10] Since in Islamic finance profit and loss are shared it motivates to assess risks more carefully and monitor the use of the funds by borrowers. Because of this reason, Islamic financial institutions, consumers and partners should be interested in the outcome of the underlying transaction. Norashikin Mohd Kassim says ―One of the most important lessons to be learnt from the present crisis is that the financial sector became too removed from the real world economy. Asymmetric information should be provided by only Islamic institutions and partners to consumers. Consumers should act according to supplied information when doing the business. Consumers should decide the investments. Partners will give help consumers to decide the investments. Islamic financial institutions have to inform consumers about the investments and supply documents and give opportunity consumers to see profit or loss. Consumers should decide several type of different investments with different percentage. According to Mohsin a brief profile and a link to their website. Islamic financial institutions, consumers and partners have to answer some questions. (a) Would there be support for the creation of an independent institution which can decide the standards, follow the process of the implementation of the standards, check Islamic financial institutions that comply with the standards, and feedback both partners and consumers? (b) Who will be included in that independent institution? (c) Should there be disclosures for the institutions that do not comply with the standards? (d) Would product providers be amenable to the partners taking steps to verify compliance with the standards?Khan(2000), the Islamic banks have to develop a contract to keep the monitoring costs for projects at a reasonable level and eliminate the moral hazards, a concept that originated in the insurance industry, issues arising when the lender and the investors have asymmetric information on the profits from the investment. In Islamic finance the major funds are obtained from the short-term mark-up deals. The limitation of financial instruments is the main problem of Islamic finance. Mark-up deals are low risk investments instruments so since there is no real profit or loss sharing system in Islamic finance nowadays mark-up deals are used very commonly. [7] Hand of Islamic Banking,(2007), M. Kabir Hassan and Mervyn K. Lewis [8] Choong and Liu, 2006; Ainley and others, 2007 [9] Business & Economics Committee, The Muslim Council of Britain,(6 October 2008) 57 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusion Islamic finance has actually many financial instruments but because of imitation of conventional finance causes to be seen Islamic finance a system that has only with limited instruments. Establishing real profit or loss sharing system will bring many different alternatives for investors and lenders. In the new approach transparency and asymmetric information are very important issues. For the real profit-loss sharing system documentation must be supplied by institutions, there must be partners work with lenders and investors, for transparency standards must be decided, and institutions that comply with these standards must be certificated by independent institutions including public institutions. By using media and organizing conferences, symposiums, settling independent websites these standards can be wide-spread. [10] www.qfinance.com/dictionary/asymmetric-information Aziz Tayyebi. (2008). Islamic Finance: An ethical alternative to conventional finance. Humayon A.Dar and John R.Presley. (2009). Islamic Finance: A Western Perspective. Kabir Hassan and Mervyn K. Lewis. (2007). Hand of Islamic Banking. Norashikin Mohd Kassim. (24 may 2009). Sunday‘s Zaman. References The Muslim Council of Britain. (6 October 2008). Business & Economics Committee. Zahida Aslam . (13 July 2006). Key Center for Islamic Finance. 58 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 173 Title A name given to the resource Sharing and Managing Risks in Islamic Finance Author Author SEKRETER, Ahmet CAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. For most of the people the prohibition on interest is the well known part of Islamic finance however the rest is considered as an unknown finance system that is based on the rules which are written thousands years ago. Indeed, the concept of Islamic finance is not be discussed enough till financial crisis, after crisis it started to be seen as an alternative financial system. However some new approaches are needed to demonstrate Islamic finance as an alternative of conventional finance. Sharing the risks is main concept in investments but question is what the investments are. In the new approach of risk management the idea is consumers can follow their money and investments and banks have to inform the consumers. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory