47 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6478236935dd024e4098349a51fc7b1e.pdf f60abb6706c32ad7d1abd2315844c60a PDF Text Text Discrete Event Modeling Study of AODV Routing Protocol Sinan Tuncel Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY stuncel@sakarya.edu.tr Ahmet Zengin Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY azengin@sakarya.edu.tr Hüseyin Ekiz Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY ekiz@sakarya.edu.tr Bülent Çobanoğlu Department of Computer Science Education Sakarya University / TURKEY bcobanoglu@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for researching the complex dynamics of wireless computer networks. The generalpurpose DEVS-Suite Simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of wireless computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2, Omnet++ and OPNET. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of wireless network topologies and the logics of wireless communication protocols. Large scale wireless network models can be simulated and evaluated to show the benefits of DEVS formalism performance. Keywords: AODV, Modeling and Simulation, DEVS, DEVS- Suite 1. Introduction The Ad-Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol is a widely used routing protocol for mobile ad-hoc networking (URL 4, 2009). In order to test and evaluate an ad hoc routing protocol in a real world environment and mostly in a large scale simulation scenario, utilization of modeling and simulation tools is inevitable. Today’s most famous simulators from commercial vendors such as OPNET (URL 3, 2009) and from academic area as such ns-2 (URL 2, 2009) and OMNET++(URL 6, 2009) are commonly used by network research community. But, commerciality, lacks of system theoretic background, need for modular and hierarchical design, parallelism and scalability issues lead network researchers to develop new modeling strategies and high performance simulators. In order to meet current network systems’ demands, a new discrete event model of AODV routing protocol is developed based on DEVS formalism. DEVS formalism renders possible to establish proper and high performance simulation systems (Zeigler, 2000). In this study, an AODV routing protocol for wireless ad hoc network systems is implemented based on DEVS-Suite, especially for large scale simulation scenarios and main features of developed simulation summarized. DEVS-Suite is a general-purpose, discrete event simulation environment which supports visualization and tracking capabilities (Kim, 2009). This is the new generation of the DEVSJAVA simulator (URL 1, 2009) based 381 �on DEVS formalism (Zeigler, 2000). This simulator also supports variable structure modeling (Hu at all, 2005). The DEVS-Suite user-interface provides a consistent, efficient, integrated hierarchical component-based representation of models with run-time I/O and state trajectories and tabular data visualization. The AODV models developed on top of DEVS-Suite is the result of using networking theory as well as software engineering principles. Particular attention is paid to reliability and maintainability in view of the ns-2 simulator. With the developed AODV simulator, users can create arbitrary network topologies, experiment with the models, and in particular track the dynamics of the network related to routing. DEVS-Suite simulator can be run on a personal computer as well as online via DEVS-Suite Web Start (URL 5, 2009) which enables e-learning using Java Web Start technology. In the remainder of this paper, starting in Section 2, presents the State of Art and description of the modeling concepts of DEVS and DEVS-Suite network simulator. In Section 3, the techniques and ideas behind DEVSSuite AODV simulator is given together with some features of it. In Section 4, ongoing research is summarized and we summarize our work and present some future research directions in Section 5. 2.Background 2.1. DEVS Formalism Network systems exhibit very high level complex, dynamic and parallel characteristics. Due to this fact, its complex yet distributed behavior makes modeling effort of the networks difficult. However, discrete event modeling bringing abstraction and simplification mechanisms to modeling and simulation discipline facilitates modeling and simulation study systems such as computer networks demonstrating complex, dynamic, distributed and unpredicted behavior. The dynamics of network systems can be described using discrete event modeling. This is because the dynamics of the network systems can be characterized in terms of components that can process and generate events. Among discrete event modeling approaches, the Discrete Event Systems Specification (DEVS) (Zeigler, 2000). is well suited for formally describing concurrent processing and the event-driven nature of arbitrary configuration of nodes and links forming network systems. This modeling approach supports hierarchical modular model construction, distributed execution, and therefore characterizing complex, large-scale systems with atomic and coupled models. Atomic models represent the structure and behavior of individual components via inputs (X), outputs (Y), states (S), and functions. An atomic model can be described with, Atomic model= (X, S, Y, δext, δint, δconf, λ, ta). The external (δext), internal (δint), confluent (δconf), output (λ), and time advance functions (ta) define a component’s behavior over time. Internal and external transition functions describe autonomous behavior and response to external stimuli, respectively. The time advance function represents the passage of time. Output function is used to generate output messages sent through the output ports of atomic models. Atomic models receive messages which may cause a series of state transitions and output messages generated for consumption by other atomic or coupled models. Atomic models can be coupled together in a strict hierarchy to form more complex models. Parallel DEVS, which extends the classical DEVS, is capable of processing multiple input events and concurrent occurrences of internal and external transition functions. The Parallel DEVS confluent transition function provides local control by handling simultaneous internal and external transition functions. A coupled model can be constructed by composing models into hierarchical tree structures. A coupled model is defined in terms of its constituent atomic and/or coupled models. A coupled model can be constructed by composing models into hierarchical tree structures, and is defined in terms of its constituent (atomic and/or coupled) models. Connections between different atomic models can be performed by a coupled model (CM) (Chow, 1996), (Zeigler, 2000). Coupled model (CM) = < X,Y,D,Md|dϵD,EIC,EOC,IC > The input and output sets X and Y have the same specification as those of the atomic model. D is a set of component names and Md is set of atomic and/or coupled components, and EIC, EOC, and IC are external input, external output, and internal couplings, respectively. The closure under coupling feature allows a coupled model 382 �to be used as an atomic model when constructing other coupled models. Coupled models can be constructed systematically using the concepts of ports and couplings between them. When a component sends messages, the (external input, external output, and internal) couplings between input and output ports immediately relay the messages from the sender to receiver components. Upon receipt of messages by atomic models, the messages are processed, which may result in new states and generation of new outputs for other models. Parallel DEVS is capable of processing multiple input events and provides control for handling simultaneous internal and external events. Mathematical DEVS atomic and coupled models can be concretized in terms of UML. There exist other implementations of the DEVS specification approach based on single and multiprocessor environments. Parallel and distributed environments have been developed using technologies such as HLA (Kim at all, 2003). The formal foundation of DEVS, its efficient execution, and the availability of sequential, parallel, or distributed simulation engines using alternative computational environments such as CORBA, HLA, and Web-services are important considerations. Furthermore, the DEVS models are extended with other kinds of models such as fuzzy logic (Sarjoughian, Cellier, 2003). 2.2. DEVS-Suite DEVS-Suite (Kim, 2009) is the discrete event general purpose simulation environment based on DEVS formalism and also is new version of the DEVSJAVA simulator (URL 1, 2009). In addition of single visualization function of DEVSJAVA, it adds additional functionality in the form of more tracking capabilities. DEVS-Suite has some constituent modules such as Simview, Timeview, DEVS Tracking Environment (Sarjoughian, Singh, 2004). DEVS-Suite can simulate to models specified using the DEVS formalism (Zeigler, 2000). The center piece of the simulator environment is Model Facade View Control (MFVC) by which simulation data can be displayed with its animation and viewing of time trajectories separated from the parallel DEVS abstract simulator. In DEVS-Suite, execution of the models can be tracked as both the animation of the input/output messages for coupled models and the state changes of the atomic models, as well as log files. Simulation experiments can be triggered with test input which are can be selected via a dialogue box at the beginning of the simulation and time-based trajectories generated during simulation. At the end of the simulation, statistical outputs and trajectories can also be obtained for pre-defined phase and sigma state variables. Simulator has also an option window when loading the model which includes Simview and tracking options. As already mentioned, Simview is inherited from DEVSJAVA that provides visualization of DEVS models. However, it is clear that visualization usually decrease of the performance of a software system due fact of high resource demands of visual components and animation schemes. In DEVS-Suite simulation modeler, one can toggle the visualization or tracking capability of the package in case of need for high performance in large-scale experiments. 2.3. AODV Summary AODV routing protocol provides unicast, broadcast, and multicast communication in ad hoc mobile networks (URL 4, 2009). AODV starts a route discovery when a route is needed by a source node or a node needs to join a multicast node group. Much of the complexity of the AODV protocol is to decrease the number of messages to conserve the capacity of the network. The routes are always loop-free through the use of sequence numbers. Nodes use this sequence number so that they do not repeat route requests that they have already passed on. Another such feature is that the route requests have a ”time to live” number that limits how many times they can be retransmitted. If a route request fails, another route request may not be sent until twice as much time has passed as the timeout of the previous route request. The nodes running AODV maintain a routing table in which next hop routing information for destination nodes is stored. In order to model AODV routing protocol and wireless networks, many research have done including DEVSbased approaches such as (Sarjoughian, Shaukat, 2009), (Farooq at all,2007) and (Santoni, 2008). In addition to DEVS based approaches, some modeling effort of AODV protocol has been done as such (Weber, 2007) for power aware wireless networks,(Singh et al. ,2006) using ω calculus approach and (Chiyangwa, Kwiatkowska, 2002) using timed automata. 383 �3. DEVS-Suite-AODV Framework In order to model a wireless network system accommodating routing protocols, architecture can be split into three categories: topology, communication and the mobility. Topology has done with DEVS coupled models including nodes and radio channels, communication is held by network packets stretched from DEVS entities and finally mobility is overcome by initial and final coordinates (m,m) and speed (m/s) fields of every atomic model. AODV simulation framework is based on the DEVS-Suite simulator and written in Java programming language (see Figure 1). Discrete event simulation system processes the consecutive events to change the system’s state. In our implementation, events are defined in terms of packet transmission, mobility and topological errors (see node atomic model definition in Appendix A). Events in developed system are processed by DEVS Engine. DEVS Engine serves as an operating system for events in system under observation. DEVS can process the events in a parallel manner. Due to framework is developed purely in Java, all configurations, environmental and setup parameters and network layout are specified in Java code files, but configuration files can be used. In the following sections, we summarize the basic components of developed system. 3.1. Nodes and radio channels model descriptions In a wireless network, nodes and communication channels are modeled basic processing units (i.e. routing intelligence in the network is done by these components). These models in the form of network coupled model conform to the Parallel DEVS atomic and coupled model specification and are implemented in the DEVS-Suite environment as seen in Figure 3. Figure 1: DEVS-Suite AODV System Structure Wireless node model is typically composed of several modules as depicted in Figure 2. These modules are routing, media access and topography modules. Routing modules provide basic functionality for implementation of routing protocols such as AODV. Its architecture is ultimately generic so that every kind of routing protocols can be readily implemented. Module has different data structures such as routing tables and buffers to keep track of routing packets historically (see Figure 2). Also, each node stores own sequential number and the number of RREQ attempts. One of the main features of DEVS formalism is to establish modular and hierarchical construction (Zeigler, 2000). In this study, this feature is highly utilized in designing network components. Components design and selection is based on design and simulation objectives. Due for scalability, we selected high level abstractions and assumptions on designing the components. Lower memory and CPU utilize is preferable in large-scale experiments. Rather routing module, media access module is designed making several assumptions such as simplification of MAC protocol, implementing basic FIFO queue and 2D topography. In the media access 384 �component, physical channel model simulates the connection of devices, data storage in the buffers and link delays. Location of a node that effect neighborhood and communication is determined by x and y values in the fixed size topography. Speed value defines node’s mobility variance and every node is instantiated by start point (x0,y0) and final point(xn,yn) where movement is completed. 3.2. Modeling AODV with DEVS Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol belonging to distance vector routing algorithms family is a reactive behavioral protocol in which routes is calculated just only when a new data packet to be sent. In other words, it discovers the routes in the wireless network only when required. In this system, every nodes maintain own routing tables in which discovered routes is kept with time stamp or version. In the background section, detailed information of AODV is presented. Full behavior of the AODV protocol specified in (URL 4, 2009) is applied using DEVS modeling and simulation formalism (see Appendix A). By extracting event based behavior of AODV from (URL 4, 2009), some rules can be ordered and implemented in event based manner. Main event is sending and receiving packets in such a distributed system. However, channel down, battery exhaust, mobility change, and node congestions should be taken into considerations to mimic full behavior of a wireless system. As being in inner structure of a node, event abstraction is needed in modeling a highly complex, distributed system. In this work, some abstractions are made including physical layer and antennas simplifications and two dimensional topography. These all abstractions may not actually reflect any real network operation, but highly needed yet because it is impossible to build exact virtual worlds in today’s limited computing environments without making assumptions. A network running AODV is modeled as interconnecting nodes in parallel composition of DEVS atomic models in DEVS-Suite. The states and interfaces of the nodes are initialized so that they mimic conditions of the real nodes placed at the beginning, after than nodes can get information from neighbors and begin to learn about the network. The most important characteristic of the AODV is route discovery in the presence of mobility on taken a data packet. Figure 2: A DEVS-based wireless node is connected to other nodes via medium and emergent network is stimulated by an experimental frame to create applications. In AODV protocol life, a network node that needs a connection to specific destination creates a request for connection as RREQ messages. After receiving RREQ, remaining AODV nodes forward RREQ message, and update their routing table entry of that node that they receive it from. When a node receives such a message and already has a route to the desired node, it sends a message back to originating nodes named RREP message. The requesting node then begins transmitting the data using discovered route that it is shortest path and has least 385 �number of hops through other nodes. When a link fails, a routing error message RRER is passed back to a transmitting node, and the process repeats. The main benefit of AODV routing protocol is that it causes no traffic for communication over links. Communication is set up on demand when two or more nodes need to data exchange. Besides distance vector routing approach is light weight algorithm and needs less computation resources. But AODV causes more time delay in establishing a connection, and this is done heavier that other protocols. 3.3. AODV messages To implement the behavior of AODV protocol, some messages are modeled as DEVS entities such as Data, Hello, Route Request (RREQ), Route Reply (RREP), Route Error (RRER) and acknowledgement. These messages are exchanging between nodes and derived from entity class in DEVS models library. Data can embedded as an object to Data packets to be routed and remaining packets are all control packets. 3.4. Visualization The four complementary views – component and message animation, time-based trajectories, SensorView animating wireless systems dynamism and tree listing of the model – provide a rich basis for researchers as well as students and teachers to view the structural and behavioral aspects of models. The routing protocol can be analyzed step-by-step through animation of nodes and transmission of messages. User selected inputs, outputs, and pre-defined state variables can be plotted as time trajectories. In Figure 3, five wireless nodes communicating via channels are shown. Models and their states, input and output ports (Network Interface Cards – NIC), and couplings, as well as traveling packets can be seen. Also, users can examine the composition hierarchy structure of models. Using DEVS-Suite, its possible to track and view the logic behind the routing protocol as well as the discrete event-based run of the wireless network system. Capabilities of the developed simulator can be extend to cover the protocols of the other layers in the OSI network reference model. Figure 3: AODV network on DEVS-Suite Simview 4. Conclusions We have presented a DEVS model for AODV routing protocol and implementing it as a shell on top of DEVSSuite kernel. DEVS-Suite has emerged to be a good discrete event simulator enables modeler to build models in system theoretic manner and provides more tracking capability and visualization. The DEVS simulation 386 �framework has been proven to be sufficient enough to meet the wireless systems requirements. Since framework’s components are developed generic, it can be used for modeling MANETs as well as wireless sensor networks. Developed models will be publicly available on Sourceforge DEVS-Suite project site. Our AODV implementation will be continued to be refined. Acknowledgments This work has been funded by the Sakarya University Scientific Research Projects Agency under contract 2009-5002-018. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied, of the Sakarya University. References Chiyangwa ,S. & Kwiatkowska,M. (2003). Modeling ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) protocol with timed automata. In Proc. 3rd Workshop on Automated Verification of Critical Systems (AVoCS’03), University of Southampton. Chow, A. (1996). Parallel DEVS: A parallel, hierarchical, modular modeling formalism and its distributed simulator. Transactions of the Society for Computer Simulation International, 13(2): (pp.55–67). Farooq, U., Wainer, G. , and Balya, B. (2007). Devs modeling of mobile wireless ad hoc networks. Simulation Modeling Practice and Theory, 15(3): (pp. 285–314). Hu, C., Zeigler, B. P. and Mittal, S. (2005). Variable structure in DEVS component-based modeling and simulation. SIMULATION: Transactions of The Society for Modeling and Simulation International, 81(2): (pp. 91–102). Kim, S., Sarjoughian, H. and Elamvazhuthi, V. (2009). Devs-suite: A simulator supporting visual experimentation design and behavior monitoring. In Proceedings of the Spring Simulation Conference, (pp 29–36). San Diego, CA. Kim, Y. J., Kim, J. H. and Kim, T. G. (2003). Heterogeneous simulation framework using DEVS BUS. Simulation, 79: (pp. 3–18). Santoni, A. T., Santucci, J. F., De Gentili, E., and Costa.,B. (2008). 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(2007) Discrete event simulation framework for power aware wireless sensor networks. In Industrial Informatics, 5th IEEE International Conference on, volume 1, (pp. 335–340). Zeigler, B. P., Praehofer, H. and Kim, T. G. (2000). Theory of Modeling and Simulation. Academic Press, New York. URL 1 http://www.acims.arizona.edu/SOFTWARE, (2009). DEVSJAVA modeling and simulation tool. URL 2 http://www.isis.edu/nsnam/ns/, (2009). NS-2. Network simulator. URL 3 http://www.opnet.com, (2009). OPNET. Opnet network simulator. URL 4 http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3561.txt, (2009). Perkins, C., Royer, E. and S. Das. Ad hoc on-demand distance vector (aodv) routing. Internet Engineering Task Force, URL 5 http://acims1.eas.asu.edu/WebStarts/. ( 2009). Sarjoughian, H . Devs-suite webstart. URL 6 http://www.omnetpp.org/, (2009). Varga, A. The omnet++ discrete event simulation system. 387 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 532 Title A name given to the resource Discrete Event Modeling Study of AODV Routing Protocol Author Author Tuncel, Sinan Zengin, Ahmet Ekiz, Hüseyin Çobanoğlu, Bülent Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for researching the complex dynamics of wireless computer networks. The generalpurpose DEVS-Suite Simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of wireless computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2, Omnet++ and OPNET. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of wireless network topologies and the logics of wireless communication protocols. Large scale wireless network models can be simulated and evaluated to show the benefits of DEVS formalism performance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/09c7901b588d1cb9a10bd7847ec28ae6.pdf e8e4890977c0a631c7fda47f28e0b3b0 PDF Text Text Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti6Al4V Substrate by Biomimetic Method Mustafa Toparli Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Turkey mustafa.toparli@deu.edu.tr Ahmet Pasinli Ege University, Technical Vocational School of Higher Education, Turkey ahmet.pasinli@ege.edu.tr Hasan Yıldız Ege University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Turkey hasan.yildiz@ege.edu.tr Erdal Celik Dokuz Eylul University,Faculty of Engineering, Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Turkey erdal.celik@deu.edu.tr Rıfat Sami Aksoy Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Turkey, sami.aksoy@deu.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings on Ti6Al4V substrates by biomimetic technique was investigated. In this context, thin and continuous HA coatings were first deposited onto Ti6Al4V implant plates by immersion in 1, 1.5 and 3 times concentrated simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37 °C for different times at pH=7.4. The HA layers were formed in the range of 6 and 19 µm thick. The obtained coatings were characterized by XRD, optical microscope, SEM, surface roughness and microhardness machines. The experimental results clearly show that the biomimetic approach has coated them with HA globular crystals having various diameters. It was found that the coating structure was affected by solution concentration. Introduction Biomaterials have been used to replace or support the human organs or tissues in many years. These materials are classified into four groups as metals, ceramics, polymers and composites (Gumusderelioglu, 2002). Biocompatibility is considered as the most important feature in biomaterials, allowing the surrounding tissue to differentiate normally and preventing undesired reactions such as infection and blood clot (Wintermantel et al., 1996; Bajpai et al., in Yamamuro et al., 1980). Titanium (Ti) and its alloys are the materials of choice for most dental and orthopaedic applications. The many advantages of these materials include high compatibility with the surrounding tissue, good resistance to corrosion, and excellent mechanical properties. However, bone response and implant success depend on the chemical and physical properties of the surface. The integration with bone tissue can be improved and accelerated by the presence of a calcium phosphate (HA) coating onto the metal implant surface (Van Noort, 1987; Bigi et al., 2005). Hydroxyapatite (HA: Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) is a calcium phosphate based bioceramic material and widely applied to the biomaterials for bone tissue implantation due to its good biocompatibility, osteoconductivity and bioactivity as well as the similarity to the inorganic component of the hard tissues in natural bones, and the HA coatings have been extensively applied with the aim of improving fixation between hard tissue and metal implants (Browne & Gregson, 1994; Bayraktar & Tas, 1999; Bigi et al., 2005). In addition, synthetic HA is a biocompatible prosthetic material, bonding strongly to the bone and promoting the formation of bone tissue on 275 �its surface. The HA is mostly used in clinics for making artificial bone due to its biocompatibility (to be used in various prostheses), treating cracks and fractures in the bone and coating of metallic biomaterials (Abe et al., 1990; Tas, 2000; Miao et al., 2005). For these applications, different methods such as plasma spray (Tong et al., 1995), high velocity oxy fuel spray (Li et al., 2002), sol-gel (Milella et al., 2001; Hsieh et al., 2002), electrochemical (Ban & Maruno, 1993), laser ablation (Katto et al., 2002), electrophoretic (Zhitomirsky, 1998), dip coating (Mavis & Tas, 200) and biomimetic are used to coat implant materials with HA. Nonetheless, there have been some problems in the application. The major problem is the gradual weakening of the bond between coating and metal surface. This problem occurs due to the low bonding strength of the coating material (Ishikawa et al., 1997; Nishio et al., 200; Yang & Chang, 2001). Of these methods, one of the most promising techniques for producing HA coatings is the biomimetic approach, which mimics the mineralisation process of bone. The biomimetic route utilises supersaturated aqueous solutions with ionic composition similar to that of human plasma, it allows to coat complex-shaped materials, and to co-precipitate biologically active molecules with apatite crystals onto metal implants (Abe et al., 1990;Browne & Gregson, 1994; Bayraktar & Tas, 1999; Bigi et al., 2005). This situation sometimes necessitates a second operation on patients with implant, which is not desired because of health and financial concerns (Demircioglu et al., 2004). Strengthening and stabilizing the bond between metal surface and HA coating could prevent this from occurring. In addition to the one above, there are some inherent problems associated with these methods. These problems are (a) complex preparation procedures, (b) application of high temperatures which cause structural damages either on host (Ti6Al4V) or coating material, (c) getting unwanted phases in coatings, (d) employing complex equipment, (e) high cost, and (f) bonding strength that depends upon coating thickness (Weng & Baptista, 1999). Because of the difficulties listed above, biomimetic method is chosen. In this method, HA coating is realized in a simple biocompatible environment (under the conditions of human body temperature of 37 ºC and pH=7.4) with chemical in-situ sedimentation method, where no high temperature is applied (Kokubo, 1998). The aim of the present study was to deposit the HA coatings on Ti6Al4V implant substrates by biomimetic technique. The obtained coatings were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and microhardness tester. Experimental procedure Commercial Ti6Al4V alloy substrates (sample size Ø 19.05×1 mm and 3×5×15 mm) were used in the study. The samples were abraded by SiC sandpaper numbers such as 400, 800 and 1200, then washed with acetone and distilled water in an ultrasonic cleaner. The HA coatings were prepared by subjecting the metal to a chemical surface treatment to provide a surface layer conducive to apatite formation in a body environment. The HA layers were formed by soaking in a simulated body fluid (SBF) with pH and ion concentrations (pH 7.40, Na+ 142.0, K+ 5.0, Ca2+ 2.5, Mg2+ 1.5, Cl− 125.0, HCO3− 27.0, HPO42− 1.0, SO42− 0.5 mM) nearly equal to those of human blood plasma. Chemical compositions of SBF solutions were listed in Table 1. Commercially available Ti6Al4V alloy was subjected to 5.0 M NaOH treatment at 60°C for 24 h and subsequently to thermal treatment at 600°C for 1 h, and then soaked in SBF, see [Figure 1]. Chemical precursors g/l 1 SBF mg / 250 1.5 SBF mg/ 250 3 SBF mg / 250 ml ml ml NaCl 6.547 1.6368 2.455 4.910 NaHCO3 2.268 0.5670 0.851 1.701 KCl 0.378 0.0933 0.140 0.280 Na2HPO4.2H2O 0.178 0.0445 0.067 0.134 MgCl2.6H2O 0.305 0.0763 0.114 0.229 CaCl2.2H2O 0.368 0.0920 0.138 0.276 276 �Na2SO4 0.071 0.0178 0.027 0.053 (CH2OH)3CNH2 6.057 1.5143 2.271 4.543 Table 1: Chemical compositions of SBF Figure 1: Coating stages for the HA formation The film structures were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD; Philips X’pert pro) with CuKα radiation 40 kV 200 mA at a scanning speed of 4.00°/min with a scanning range (2θ) from 25° to 45°. The microstructure of sample surface was observed under scanning electron microscopes (SEM-Philips XL 30S FEG), Cross-sections of the films were observed and thickness was measured by optical microscopy (Nickon Eclipse ME600) with image analyzer Lucia 4.1 programme. The surface roughness of the coating was measured using a standard surface roughness machine. The microhardness of the coatings was measured by using a standard microhardness tester with Vickers indenter. The load applied on the samples was 0.98 N and the indentation was applied for 15 s. Five readings were taken for each sample. Results and Discussion Figure 2 shows XRD patterns of HA coatings on Ti6Al4V alloy substrate by using biomimetic method. Small and broad HA peaks were obtained at 2θ of 25.70, 29.32, 32.14 and 40.34 corresponding to (002), (210), (211), 277 �(310) and (113) orientations for the samples that were immersed for 30 days in the 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions. These peak locations were validated and appeared much sharper when the SBF solution was changed from 1.5 SBF to 3 SBF. Similar results can be found in Reference (Baker et al., 2006). It is also clear from Fig. 2 that Ti peaks were obtained at 2θ of 40.26, 35.25, 38.47 and 53.20 corresponding to (001), (010), (002) and (012) orientations respectively. After chemical and heat treatment processes, Na-titanate and TiO2 peaks having rutile and anatase phases were determined from XRD patterns. Rutile TiO2 peaks were determined at 2θ of 27.40, 35.98 and 48.10. It is believed that the TiO2 phases were formed between HA coating and the substrate after heat treatment process as reported (Kukobo, 1998; Li et al., 2002; Baker et al., 2006). In as much as NaOH was chemically treated with HA coatings on Ti6Al4V substrate and the SBF solutions had Na+ ions, NaTiO2, Na2Ti5O11 and Na2TiO3 phases were formed in the coatings. We have a good agreement with research of Takadama’s team. Takadama et al. (2001) commented that the peak values of 2θ=23.31° and 48° in addition to Ti peaks occurred as a result of sodium titanate (Na2Ti5O11) and rutile (TiO2) crystals during their XRD investigation of biomimetic study. In addition to these, Kim at al. (1997) investigated the effects of heat treatment performed at different temperatures (400-800oC) on the apatite formation on chemically treated metal surfaces. Because peak point around 23°, 29° and 48° after the heat treatment at 600 oC were found to be related to sodium titanate hydrogel layer, gel layer was started to turn into Na2Ti5O11 and rutile TiO2 at 600 °C. After 7 days of soaking, the apatite phase was formed at all temperatures. As a result, the apatite coating of titanium implants after chemical and heat treatments increased the bone-implant interface bonding strength, and thus this method was found to be advantageous for load bearing implants. Figure 2: XRD pattern of the HA coatings prepared on Ti6Al4V alloy substrate from (a) 1.5 (top pattern) and (b) 3 SBF (bottom pattern) solutions by using biomimetic method. Characteristic peaks are found at approximately 25.70, 29.32, 32.14, and 40.34 2θ. The most intense peaks correspond to titanium Figure 3 demonstrates cross-sectional optical micrograph of the HA coating on the Ti6Al4V substrate. Thickness of the coatings was measured by using optical microscope for different SBF concentrations. As listed in Table 2, the thicknesses of coatings were in the range of 6.50 µm and 18 µm. It is obvious from Fig. 3 that the structure with sodium titanate was formed on the substrate and the HA started to nucleate and grow in SBF solutions after periods of 4, 12 and 19 days. After obtaining homogeneous HA coatings, the thicknesses of coatings prepared from 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions were found to be as 6.78, 8.93 and 18.25 µm respectively. From these results, it can be concluded that coating thickness increased with increasing the solution concentration. When Ti alloy substrate which had been polished to remove its surface oxide layer was soaked in 3 SBF solutions with ion concentrations 3 times those of SBF, a dense layer of apatite was formed on its surface. The apatite nuclei grew spontaneously by consuming the calcium and phosphate ions from SBF solution. 278 �Figure 3: The cross-sectional optical micrograph of HA coating on the Ti6Al4V substrate The resultant apatite layer was tightly bonded to Ti-based substrate, since it is integrated to the Ti alloy substrate through the hydrated titita and titanium oxide which are gradually changed in their concentration (Kokubo, 1998). Furthermore, surface roughness values of the coatings prepared from 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF solutions were found to be 1.9, 2.2 and 2.6 respectively. In this context, it is said that surface roughness of the HA coatings increased as solution concentration and coating thickness increased as shown in Table 2. Solution concentration Coating thickness (µ µm) Surface roughness (µ µm) 1 SBF 6.50 1.8-2.0 1.5 SBF 10.50 2.0-2.4 3 SBF 18.25 2.0-2.8 Table 2: Thicknesses and surface roughness of the HA coatings Figure 4 depicts surface morphologies of the HA coatings with different concentrations such as 1, 1.5 and 3 SBF concentrations. When the coating thickness increased, cracks were observed from SEM studies. The layers were dense and uniform in thickness, showing some cracks of several tens of microns in length as shown in Fig. 3. The homogeneous HA coatings were formed from diluted SBF solutions. Spherical particles having diameters between 1-5 µm and porous structure of HA crystals are shown in coating with 1.5 SBF at different magnifications in Figure 4.a. However, the structures having cracks were coated from viscous SBF solutions, see [Figure 4.b]. The cracks were formed as a function of solution concentration and coating thickness as explained elsewhere (Barrere et al., 2002; Tas & Bhaduri, 2004). 279 �(a) (b) Figure 4: Surface morphologies of the HA coatings with different concentrations such as (a) 1.5 and (b) 3.0 SBF concentrations. The cracks in SEM micrographs were formed during heat-treatment owing to thermal expansion and thick coating. It is also obvious from SEM observations that the HA coatings have some spherical grain and porosity. Since the coating on the surface is thin, the metal surface is visible through the coating and the apatite nuclei were started to deposit at the peak points of the rough surface. The coating was uniform and contained small particles having diameters about 1-2 µm. It is concluded that the small particles on the surface were found to be important for adhesion and bigger particles affected coating homogeneity. Microhardness values of surface of coating, HA coating and substrate amounted about 343, 445 and 230 HV, respectively (Table 3). The surface microhardness of HA coating is lower than that of coating layer because some inhomogeneities such as open porosity, cracks and so on. In the future, in in-vivo studies, minimum coating thickness can be determined for metal implant surface thus the SBF concentration and soaking time can be optimized. Also, coating adhesion strength can be modeled numerically; effects of coating thickness, coating surface area on the adhesion can be investigated. Conclusion The HA coatings were deposited on Ti6Al4V implant substrates from SBF solutions by biomimetic technique. HA, Ti, TiO2, NaTiO2, Na2Ti5O11 and Na2TiO3 phases were found from XRD study. The thickness of coatings was ranged from 6.50 µm to 18 µm. As the solution concentration is increased the coating thickness increased. The homogeneous HA coating was formed in diluted SBF solutions. The cracks were formed as a function of solution concentration and coating thickness. The HA coatings have some spherical grain and porosity. Microhardness values of surface of coating, HA coating and substrate were measured about 343, 445 and 230 HV, respectively. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Mustafa Demircioglu at Ege University, Izmir for the technical help and Dr. I. Cevdet Alptekin at HIPOKRAT Company, Izmir for some chemical precursors and Ti6Al4V substrates. Also, we specially would like to thank Dr. A. Cuneyt Tas at University of Clemson for his experiences and bright ideas. 280 �References Abe, Y., Kokubo, T., Yamamuro, T. (1990). Apatit Coating on Ceramics, Metals and Polymers. Journal of Material ScienceMaterials in Medicine 1, 233-238. Bajpai, P.K. (1980). Ceramic Amino Acid Composites for Repairing Traumatized Hard Tissues In: Yamamuro, T., Hench, L.L., Wilson-Hench, J. (Eds.), Handbook of Bioactive Ceramics (pp. 255-270) Bato Raton: CRC Press. 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Influence of Residual Stress on Bonding Strength and Fracture of Plasma-Sprayed Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti-6Al-4V Substrate. Biomaterials 22, 1827-1836. Van Noort, R. (1987). Titanium-The Implant Material of Today. Journal of Material Science 22, 3801-3811. Weng, W. & Baptista, J.L. (1999) Preparation and Characterisation of HA Coatings on Ti6Al4V Alloy by a Sol-Gel Method. Journal of the American Ceramic Society 82, 27-32. Wintermantel, E., Mayer, J. et al. (1996). Tissue Engineering Scaffolds using Superstructures. Biomaterials 17, 83-91. Zhitomirsky, I. (1998). Electrophoretic and Electrolytic Deposition of Ceramic Coatings on Carbon Fibers. Journal of the European Ceramic Society 18, 849-856. 282 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 441 Title A name given to the resource Synthesis of Hydroxyapatite Coatings on Ti6Al4V Substrate by Biomimetic Method Author Author Toparli, Mustafa Pasinli, Ahmet Yıldız, Hasan Celik, Erdal Aksoy, Rıfat Sami Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, synthesis of hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings on Ti6Al4V substrates by biomimetic technique was investigated. In this context, thin and continuous HA coatings were first deposited onto Ti6Al4V implant plates by immersion in 1, 1.5 and 3 times concentrated simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37 °C for different times at pH=7.4. The HA layers were formed in the range of 6 and 19 μm thick. The obtained coatings were characterized by XRD, optical microscope, SEM, surface roughness and microhardness machines. The experimental results clearly show that the biomimetic approach has coated them with HA globular crystals having various diameters. It was found that the coating structure was affected by solution concentration. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6be136695b21ea2f49d727045dd590be.pdf 8f3e1bf45f199291444751e5836e855c PDF Text Text Konya Basin Agriculture-Environment Relationships and Sustainability Ramazan Topak Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Farm Buildings and Irrigation Department, Konya-Turkey rtopak@selcuk.edu.tr Bilal Acar Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Farm Buildings and Irrigation Department, Konya-Turkey biacar@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Soil and water resources have to be used efficiently due to the having agricultural potential in Konya Basin. In this study, soil and water potential of Konya Basin, its use in agriculture and problems resulted from the agriculture and sustainability were analyzed with detail. Nowadays in such basin, some problems have observed about the sustainable agriculture, water resources and environmental sustainability issues. The reason is excess water uses in agriculture. Agriculture performed in the present form has led to the excess water uses in agriculture. The most important cause of excess water use is increase of the planting areas of highly water consumption crops and adding highly water consumption new crops to the crop pattern. In this study, it has estimated that irrigation areas in basin have increased by unplanned and senseless, available water potential of basin is insufficient for these areas and unavailable ground water potential of 1.4 billion m3 has extracted. In the other word, for irrigation areas, usable water resources are not enough. To solve the problems related to water and sustainable water resources; excess water uses from the basin resources should be stopped and only consumable water potential must be used. In addition, use of waste water and drainage water, developing crop varieties resisted to the drought and salinity conditions, establishment of new irrigation techniques and use of irrigation technologies that are highly efficient are necessarily prerequisite. Keywords: Agricultural Production, Water Use, Irrigation-Environment Relationships, Sustainability, Konya Basin. Introduction Arid and semi-arid climates are more dominated in the world and consist of 26.3% of the total continents. The arid and semi-arid climates account of 12.1% and 14.2%, respectively (Akman 1992). Drought is one of the most common environmental stresses that may limit agricultural production worldwide. However, in many countries as a consequence of global climate changes and environmental pollution, water use for agriculture is reduced. Water resources are limited for irrigation worldwide; therefore, there is a need for water-saving irrigation practices to be explored. Agriculture is the largest single user of water with 70% of freshwater being currently used for irrigation worldwide (Gerbens-Leenes & Nonhebel 2004). In some cases, it draws up to 90% of the total water available (Allan 1998). Water resources are declining worldwide (Shahnazari et al. 2007) and are already scarce in nearly 80 countries with more than 40% population of the world (Qadir et al. 2003). Projections for 2030 indicate that water withdrawal for irrigation will increase by about 14% because of the increase in the irrigated area from 18% to 34% worldwide (Anonymous 2006). Planning and management for an accurate estimation of irrigation demand by agriculture at a large scale have thus become a main issue worldwide (Maton et al. 2005). Increasing the efficiency of water use within agricultural systems could, therefore, be a necessity for sustainable agricultural development on the global, regional and national level. 204 �Annual rainfall is almost 672 mm in Turkey and semi-arid climate region is presence. Annual available water potential of Turkey is 1540 m3 per capita and according to this, Turkey is a water poor country. Konya closed basin, average annual 378 mm rainfall, has almost arid climate. Therefore, total semi-arid lands of the world are 14.2% and land potential of Konya basin is within semi-arid lands of the world. In the near past (10-15 year before), the water potential of basin was 900 m3, but it has reduced from this value in recently. Under present conditions, 88% available water potential has allocated for agriculture (Anonymous 2007) and currently agriculture has 90% of total water consumption in basin. However, present irrigated agriculture has resulted excess uses of basin water resources (Topak et al. 2008; Anonymous 2007; Göçmez et al. 2008). In this study, soil and water resources potentials of Konya basin, irrigation and water use status in agriculture were analyzed with detail by considering present problems and some projections about sustainability were discussed. The Konya Basin Location There are 25 main river basins in Turkey (Figure 1). Konya Closed Basin is 4th biggest basin according to its precipitation area which is 53850 km2 (approximately 7% of Turkey’s area) (Figure 2). Some characteristics of the basin have been given below. Konya Closed Basin consists of two closed subbasins that known as Tuz Lake Basin and Konya Basin (Figure 2). These are two of several drainless areas of the Central Anatolian Plateau, which is itself also a closed basin (De Meester 1971). Each of the basins is characterized by the presence of a large lake, respectively Tuz Lake and Beyşehir Lake (see Figure 2). Tuz Lake is fed by three major rivers, several ephemeral streams, one manmade drain channel (Camur & Mutlu 1995) and groundwater. Konya basin is fed by rivers and groundwater coming mainly from the south and by melt water and rainfall from the mountain range bordering the basin in the south (Fontunge et al. 1999). Besides the two large lakes, numerous smaller fresh water bodies, wetlands and salt steppes are present. Figure 1. Basin in Turkey and position of Konya Closed Basin 205 �Figure 2. Konya Closed Basin (Schipper & Schot, 2004) Climate and Drought LONG TERMS The annual precipitation varies from 280 mm to 350 mm in most parts of the Konya Basin and is the second grade drought region of Turkey according to the rainfall amount. This area is in Southern part of Middle Anatolia Region within curve of Konya, Karaman and Ulukışla provinces. Rainfall amounts in some important agricultural locations within this curve are given in Table 1. MONTHS 6 7 Stations 1 2 3 4 5 Seydişehi r Beyşehir 125. 0 68.6 45.1 Cihanbey li Ereğli 31.2 Çumra 36.8 Karapına r Konya 29.0 Karaman 36.0 62. 7 50. 4 51. 0 43. 1 44. 0 44. 0 36. 5 39. 5 34. 6 25.5 42.8 73. 9 46. 4 36. 1 32. 4 30. 3 32. 9 26. 5 26. 5 33. 9 46.4 Kulu 91. 1 49. 2 33. 4 30. 8 25. 8 28. 5 23. 5 24. 1 36. 2 30.0 34.8 8 9 10 11 12 10.2 11.5 14.7 55.3 23.5 8.6 8.8 15.1 42.3 101. 1 60.9 142. 4 76.0 48.6 28.9 12.9 6.9 12.5 28.7 40.8 51.4 37.4 23.7 7.6 5.1 9.9 27.1 36.1 37.1 38.2 23.9 5.3 3.9 6.6 22.6 28.7 35.2 39.2 19.0 5.9 3.3 7.5 31.6 35.3 42.5 36.1 26.2 5.6 3.1 7.1 20.5 29.2 36.5 43.5 21.9 7.9 5.5 10.0 32.4 36.1 41.4 37.8 25.3 3.3 7.2 7.3 22.1 24.8 42.5 206 Tota l 759. 8 494. 9 394. 0 321. 0 294. 5 326. 5 278. 8 323. 6 311. 0 �Niğde 32.8 Evaporati on - 33. 2 - 38. 6 - 47. 8 94. 9 40.8 24.6 4.1 6.0 10.8 28.7 25.2 39.2 161. 0 216. 0 277. 0 255. 0 184. 0 107. 0 24.4 3.1 330. 0 1322 .4 Table 1. Long Term Rainfall in Some Important Locations in Second Drought Lands at Konya Basin (mm) (Topak et al. 2008). Following results may be obtained by considering the rainfall records in basin: • Semi-arid climate is dominated. • Annual rainfall distribution is not uniform in different seasons. • In general, rainfall reduces at the end of the spring and almost none precipitation is observed in summers. • The rainfall is insufficient and not uniformly distributed during the crop growth period. • In Konya Closed Basin, severe agricultural drought may be seen for all agricultural crops. • Irrigation is a necessarily prerequisite for agricultural production under these conditions. Konya basin has the arid climate due to the geographical position, rainfall amount and not uniform distribution. It is the special region due to having agricultural drought. As we all know that agricultural drought is not recently occurred in such basin. In recently, the increase of the cultivated land used for high water consumption in Konya plain, transition to the new crop cultivation such as maize and senseless water uses have accelerated the excess water uses. This situation has resulted water level depletion in groundwater so that hydrological drought has observed in Konya basin. Agricultural Potential of Basin Soil and Water Potential Most parts of Konya, Karaman, Niğde and Aksaray cities belong to the Konya basin. Total arable land potential of those cities is 3.158 million hectare and accounts of 12.2% of total arable land of Turkey. The 72.5% of total amount is Konya plain. On the other hand, it has the 2.5% of total available water potential of Turkey (Table 2). Water resources of basin are mostly groundwater and very scant. Agricultural Land Available Water Potential (million ha) % (million ha) % Basin (Konya, Karaman, Aksaray, Niğde) 3.158* 12.2 2.74** 2.5 TURKEY 26.0* 100 110 100 Table 2. Arable and Available Water Potential in Both Konya Basin and Turkey *:Anonymous 2008 **:Anonymous 2007 Annual available water potential is 1540 m3/person in Turkey and almost 900 m3/person in Konya basin. The water potential, available water for irrigation and drinking-residential usage, allocated amount for usage and estimated usage in present condition are presented in Table 3. Water Resources Surface Annual Potential General Basin 5.949 Available Water Potential Finally Available Open for Usage Agriculture Residential Agriculture Residential 1.000 0.069 0.900 0.047 207 �Groundwater Total 1.671 7.620 1.360 2.360 0.311 0.380 1.408 2.308 0.263 0.311 Table 3. Water potential and Available Water potential in Konya Basin (billion m3 /year ) (Topak et al. 2008) It is possible to make some evaluations by analyzing the Table 3. These are as follows; • Available water potential of basin is 2.74 billion m3 and 2.36 billion m3 (86.1%) of it is allocated for agriculture, • Available groundwater potential of Basin is 1.671 billion m3 and 81.4% of this is allocated for agriculture, Crop Patterns of Basin According to the Turkish Statistical Organization (TUIK) records, in general of basin, the fallowing and field crops cultivated lands are 40% and 60%, respectively. Cereals are mostly dominated. The most common cereals are wheat (57%) and barley (33%). The 17.2% of the agricultural land of basin was opened to the irrigation but, dry farming has been performed in other parts. In dry areas, winter sowing cereals, chickpea and lentil crops etc. have growth. Although agricultural drought is very serious in basin, 10% of the total wheat production is obtained from such basin. The sugar beet cultivation land and production in basin are 21% and 35% of Turkey, respectively. Therefore, industry fed by agricultural production is common in such basin. For instance, there are 6 sugar beet factories in basin and 4 of them are in Konya province. The crops types and patterns of Konya basin are presented in Table 4. Area Cereals ha % 1567910 79.1 Field crops Grain Oil crops Legumes StarchSugar crops 154000 7.8 160000 8.0 15000 0.8 Forage crops Vegetable 41000 2.0 45000 2.3 Table 4. The Fallowing Lands and Crop Patterns in Konya Basin *(% ) (Topak et al. 2008) *:2000-2006 (7 years mean) Irrigation and Structure of Irrigated Agriculture The irrigated land with project or without project of basin is almost 542118 ha. The irrigated land with project of 370000 ha is in Konya plain. According to the TUIK records of 7 years means (2001-2007), crop patterns in irrigated lands of basin are given in Table 5. Crops Area Winter wheat Sugar beet Beans ha 203,836 111,130 % 37.6 20.5 Maize (grain+silage) Potato Sunflower Vegetable Alfalfa Others 33,174 28,413 42,541 14,920 43,739 31,448 33,677 6.1 5.2 7.8 2.7 8.1 5.8 6.2 Table 5. Crop Patterns in Irrigated Lands of Konya Basin, % (Topak et al. 2008) According to the Table 5; • The 85% of the winter cereals are not irrigated (production is performed under rainfed conditions). • The winter cereals production area is 37.5% of the irrigated lands of Basin. 208 �• In irrigated lands, the major crop is sugar beet (20.5%) and the percentages of production of vegetable, potato, dry bean, maize, alfalfa-sainfoin and others are 8.1%, 7.8%, 6.1%, 5.2%, 5.8%, 8.9%, respectively with a total of 62.5%. Irrigation Water Requirement and Water Use In a study conducted by Topak et al. (2008), crop patterns in irrigated conditions, net water requirement and water amounts used in irrigation are present in Table 6. Crops grown in irrigated-area Area Winter wheat Sugar beet ha 203,836 111,130a % 37.6 20.5 Net water 499 783 requirement 1167 Water used 815 (Billion m3/year Total water use(Billion m3/year) Basin General Irrigation Efficiency Beans Maize (grain+silage) Potato Sunflower Vegetable Alfalfa Others 33,174 6.1 158.8 28,413 5.2 177.8 42,541 7.8 228.2 14,920 2.7 73.2 43,739 8.1 309.5 31,448 5.8 314.4 33,677 6.2 168.0 158.8 177.8 228.2 73.2 309.5 314.4 168.0 3.69 73% Table 6. Crop Pattern, Crop Water Consumption, Net Water Requirement and Total Water Use in Konya Basin (Topak et al. 2008) According to the Table 6, in basin general (Topak et al. 2008); • In the exception of winter cereals, it is impossible to growth crops without irrigation. • The largest cultivated lands of high evapotranspiration crops in basin are 33% (sugar beet) and vegetable (13%), respectively • Sugar beet is the most water consumption with a value of 1.167 billion m3. • In basin irrigated lands, net irrigation water requirements of crops are 2.707 billion m3. • In present estimation, annual consumed water in agriculture for basin is almost 3.690 billion m3. • In basin, irrigation efficiency is 73% and this value is quite good. The reason of high irrigation efficiency is that irrigation water is mainly obtained from groundwater and sprinkler irrigation system has been intensely used. • A remarkable example is that only water consumption of maize crop (227 million m3) is 1.5 fold of water that will be obtained from Bağbaşı Dam. Evaluation of Present Case In order to evaluate the water uses in arable lands of basin, water potential allocated for use, amounts of potential according to resources, net water requirement for present irrigated areas, amount of water uses in present irrigated area and distribution of water used according to resources should be known. These are presented in Table 7. Resources Surface Finally Available Water Potential * (billion m3) Total Agriculture 1.509 1.390 Present Available Water Potential* (billion m3) Total Agriculture 0.947 0.900 209 Net Water Requirement in Present Irrigated Area ** (billion m3) Present Water Uses in Agriculture** (billionm3) 0.900 �Groundwater Total 1.671 3.180 1.360 2.750 1.671 2.618 1.408 2.308 2.707 2.790 3.690 Table 7. Available Water Potential of Basin, Net Water Requirement of Irrigated Lands and Water Uses in Irrigated Areas. *: Anonymous 2007 **:Topak et al. 2008 According to Table 7, net irrigation water requirement of crops in basin is almost 2.707 billion m3 for present open the irrigation area of 542000 ha. This is 0.4 (2.707-2.308= 0.4) billion m3 higher than present water potential allocated for irrigation (2.308 billion m3). Irrigation water used basin agriculture is estimated as 3.690 billion m3. However, according to DSI 4th Central Directorate records, the water allocated for agriculture and residential uses are 2.308 billion m3 and 0.263 billion m3, respectively. According to the data, annual 1.382 billion m3 (3.690-2.308=1.382) more basin water resources have been used in agriculture. A total of 3.690 billion m3 water is used in basin agriculture and 2.790 billion m3 of groundwater and 0.9 billion m3 of surface water resources. To use the water from the surface resources, planned water conveyance and distribution networks are necessary. In currently, available water potential of surface water resources conveyed by irrigation networks is almost 0.9 billion m3 in basin (Anonymous 2007). It is obviously seen that the used excess water of 1.382 billion m3 (3.690-2.308=1.382) in basin agriculture is obtained from groundwater resources. However, groundwater potential allocated for agriculture is limited as 1.408 billion m3 but ground water potential used in basin agriculture is 2.790 billion m3 in present condition and is two fold of water potential allocated for utilization. Reasons of excess water use Crop Patterns and Size of The Irrigation Area Although the safely available water potential of basin is 2.308 billion m3, net irrigation water requirement of irrigated area is 2.707 billion m3 under present condition. This is the main and maybe the most important reason of excess water uses in basin. It means that net water requirement of irrigated area is notably greater than the available water potential of basin. There are two reasons; firstly maize crop having high water consuming has added to present crop patterns of basin so that irrigated land of those crops has increased. Second is the most important reason that the cultivated land of high water consuming crops has increased by two fold. In summary, land of high water consuming crops has increased in last 5-6 years. Irrigation Efficiency The low irrigation efficiency is an indicator of excess water utilization. In present study, general irrigation efficiency is almost 73% (Table 7) and can be acceptable as good value. This 73% irrigation efficiency shows that farmers in basin do not apply excess water and the effect of farmer’s irrigation on excess groundwater uses is very little. The high irrigation efficiency may be resulted from two main reasons. The first, sprinkler irrigation systems are very common in Konya plain and others or second, the farmers have applied irrigation water with required amounts. By using the groundwater in sprinkler systems, irrigation efficiency may be reached up to the 85% under well planned and operated systems (Keller& Bliesner 1990; Clemmens &Dedrick 1994; Topak 1996; Topak et al. 2005). There are 200780 sprinkler systems in Turkey and 46589 (23.2%) of them are in Konya basin (Anonymous 2008). However there are 95000 open wells in basin and this shows that the number of the sprinkler systems are higher than 46589 (75000-8000). Thus, irrigation efficiency may be increased up to 83-85% and 10% water saving in groundwater potential will be realized under such conditions. In previous study conducted in Konya Plain results also showed that irrigation efficiency could be increased from 73% to 85%. According to a research carried out in Konya-Çumra Plain, water application efficiency and evaporation losses were found as 80% and 10%, respectively in sprinkler systems (Topak 1996; Topak et al. 2005). It is possible to increase the irrigation efficiency by organizing the education program for farmers related to the irrigation program and 210 �proper design and operation of sprinkler systems. Nowadays, the effect of farmer irrigation applications on excess groundwater uses in basin irrigation is very low (10%). Importance of water in Society People especially in rural areas and other whole society are senseless about the importance of water resources and dangers of drought. The main reason is poor organization of the civil society organization (CSO). Reliable projections in basin: sustainability Total safely available water potential of basin agriculture for current conditions has allocated as 2.308 billion m3 (Anonymous 2007). In respect to the sustainability of water resources, water use in agriculture has to be limited by available safely water potential of 2.308 billion m3/ year. On the other hand, new solutions about the more efficient available water use in water allocated to the agriculture must be studied. Projections about solutions are summarized as follows. Present Crop Pattern and Remain of Current Irrigation Applications In this condition, allowed water in agriculture for basin is 2.308 billion m3/ year and this can irrigate 340 000 ha land. Under this condition, 200 000 ha of total 542 000 ha, opened the irrigation, will be reduced. This projection can not be accepted as a solution. Thus, some alternative solutions must be developed for irrigation land size of 542 000 ha. Improvement of Irrigation Efficiency in Accordance of Current Crop Patterns It possible to increase irrigation efficiency from 0.73 to 0.85. Especially in sprinkler irrigation water is directly obtained from groundwater and irrigation efficiency can be as 85% in well design and managed systems ( Keller & Bliesner 1990; Clemmens & Dedrick 1994; Topak 1996; Topak et al. 2005 ). Under same conditions, efficiency will be also over 85% in drip irrigation. In such case, 384 000 ha land size will be irrigated by 2.308 billion m3 available water potential. This means that current irrigation land size is reduces as 30%. This shows that obtaining target irrigation efficiency is not only solution for improvement of current situation. Changes in Crop Patterns Changes of crop patterns in irrigated areas of basin is necessary prerequisite for sustainability. Land size of high water consuming crops can be reduced and land size of low water consuming crops may be increased or alternative crops can be included to the patterns. However, it is necessary rigid radical decisions to change the crop patterns for preventing the excess water uses in basin under present conditions. High water consuming crops in basin are sugar beet, potato and maize. It can be overcome this problem by 50% land size reduction of such crops even grain maize completely can be count out from the pattern. New Irrigation Techniques Use Result More Low Water Use and Improvement in Irrigation Efficiency Under Present Crop Patterns Beside use of conventional irrigation techniques, application of full crop water requirement, new deficit irrigation techniques, not resulted significant yield reduction, must be applied. These techniques are prerequisite in water shortage and large land size conditions and some studies show that these are suitable for mainly sugar beet and then potato, maize, wheat, sunflower, bean and some vegetables. For instance, if we make a 25% deficit in present consuming water of basin, water amount will be 2.75 billion m3 instead of 3.69 billion m3 and it means that there is a 0.925 billion m3 more low water use from ground water resources. Irrigated land will still remain as 542 000 ha. 211 �Conclusion In summary, irrigated agriculture results in two fold more irrigation water uses than amount of groundwater potential allocated safely uses under present conditions. The main reason of excess water uses is that crop patterns in basin are high water consuming crops and the cultivated lands of those crops have increased. The utilization of water in agriculture is 92.2% under present conditions at basin. If this trend continues, groundwater potential of basin will be wiped out in near future. Thus, irrigated agriculture in basin accelerates the wipe out of the groundwater resources in current conditions. In basin, irrigation agriculture should be performed by allocated water amount and this is necessary prerequisite for sustainability. References Akman, Y. (1992). Đklim ve Bioiklim. Palme Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara (in Turkish). Allan, J.A. (1998). Virtual water: a strategic resource, global solutions to regional deficits. Ground Water 36, 545–546. Anonymous. (2006). Water: A Shared Responsibility. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001444/144409E.pdf (accessed 19 January 2010). Anonymous. (2007). Present Water Resources of Konya Basin, Facing problems, Preferential Projects and Turn out Solution Proposals. General Directotare of State Hydraulic Works, 4 th Reginal Directorship, Konya. Anonymous. (2008). htttp://www.tuik.gov.tr Camur M.Z. & Mutlu H. (1995). Major-ion geochemistry and mineralogy of the salt lake (Tuz Gölü) basin,Turkey. Chemical Geology, 127, 313-329. Clemmens, A.J & Dedrick, A. R. (1994). Irrigation Techniques and Evaluation, Tanji, K. K., Yanon, B (Eds.), Advances in Series in Agricltural Sciences, Springer, Berlin, 64-103. Fontunge M., Kuzucuoğlu M., Karabiyikoğlu, C., Hatté C & Pastre J.F. (1999). From Pleniglacial to Holocene: a 14C chronostratigraphy of environmental changes in the Konya Plain, Turkey. Quaternary Science Reviews 18, 573 – 591. Gerbens-Leenes, P.W & Nonhebel, S. (2004) Critical water requirements for food, methodology and policy consequences for food security. Food Policy, 29, 547–564. Göçmez, G., Dıvrak, B.B & Đş, G. (2008). A Research Summary Report on Determination of Groundwate Changes in Konya Closed Basin. WWF- Turkey (in Turkish). Keller, j & Bliesner, R. D. (1990). Sprinkle and Trickle Irrigation. AVI Book. Van Nostrand Reinhold. Ne York. Maton L., Leenhardt D., Goulard M., & Bergez J.-E. (2005) Assessing the irrigation strategies over a wide geographical area from structural data about farming systems. Agricultural Systems, 86, 293–311. De Meester, T. (1971). Highly Calcareous Lacustrine Soils in the Great Konya Basin, Turkey. Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, Wageningen. Qadir, M., Boers Th.M., Schubert S., Ghafoor, A & Murtaza, G. (2003) Agricultural water management in waterstarved countries: challenges and opportunities. Agricultural Water Management, 62, 165–185. Schipper, AM & Schot, PP. (2004). A Water Balance Model for Konya Closed Basin (Turkey). http://www.ru.nl/contents/pages/34390/websitemk-reportaschipper.pdf Shahnazari, A., Liu, F., Andersen, M.N., Jacobsen, S.E & Jensen C.R. (2007) Effects of partial root-zone drying on yield, tuber size and water use efficiency in potato under field conditions. Field Crops Research, 100, 117–124. 212 �Topak, R., Süheri, S., Çiftçi, N & Acar, B. (2005). Performance evaluation of sprinkler irrigation in a semi-arid area. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 8 (1), 97-103. Topak, R. (1996). Application Problems in Konya-Çumra Plain Sprinkler Irrigated Lands. PhD Thesis Konya (Unpublished). Topak, R., Süheri, S., & Acar, B. (2008). Đklim-Tarımsal Kuraklık-Sulama ve Çevre Etkileşimi Yönünden Konya Havzası. Konya Kapalı Havzası Yer altı Suyu ve Kuraklık Konferansı, 11-12 Eylül 2008, Bildiri Kitabı, Konya, 67-76 (in Turkish). 213 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 388 Title A name given to the resource Konya Basin Agriculture-Environment Relationships and Sustainability Author Author Topak, Ramazan Acar, Bilal Abstract A summary of the resource. Soil and water resources have to be used efficiently due to the having agricultural potential in Konya Basin. In this study, soil and water potential of Konya Basin, its use in agriculture and problems resulted from the agriculture and sustainability were analyzed with detail. Nowadays in such basin, some problems have observed about the sustainable agriculture, water resources and environmental sustainability issues. The reason is excess water uses in agriculture. Agriculture performed in the present form has led to the excess water uses in agriculture. The most important cause of excess water use is increase of the planting areas of highly water consumption crops and adding highly water consumption new crops to the crop pattern. In this study, it has estimated that irrigation areas in basin have increased by unplanned and senseless, available water potential of basin is insufficient for these areas and unavailable ground water potential of 1.4 billion m3 has extracted. In the other word, for irrigation areas, usable water resources are not enough. To solve the problems related to water and sustainable water resources; excess water uses from the basin resources should be stopped and only consumable water potential must be used. In addition, use of waste water and drainage water, developing crop varieties resisted to the drought and salinity conditions, establishment of new irrigation techniques and use of irrigation technologies that are highly efficient are necessarily prerequisite. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/11fc1e8fda1938b21e3a1bb7e37ecae8.pdf cc7ba7650433ed1cd25acf03ba9d2ea2 PDF Text Text Effects of Different Irrigation Programs on Growth, Yield, and Fruit Quality of Drip-Irrigated Melon in Dardanelles (Çanakkale) Troia region Murat Tekiner 1Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Irrigation and Farm Structure, Turkey mtekiner@yahoo.com Canan Öztokat Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture, Turkey cananoztokat@yahoo.com Đsmail Taş Harran University Agriculture Faculty, Department of Irrigation and Farm Structure, Turkey tas_ismail@yahoo.com Abstract : This research was carried out under field conditions to determine the best proper irrigation interval and amount of irrigation water for pineapple type melon. Evaporations from class-A pan were taken into consideration to determine the amounts of irrigation water to be applied. Three different irrigation intervals (I1= 4 days, I2=8 days and I3=12 days) and four different pan coefficients (Kcp1= 0.50, Kcp2= 1.00, Kcp3= 1.50, Kcp4= 2.00) were used to calculate the amounts of irrigation water. Total amounts of irrigation water varied between 168 – 871 mm and yields varied between 14.20-49.04 Mg.ha-1. The highest yield was obtained from the largest irrigation interval with the lowest pan coefficient (I3Kcp1). Introduction Province of Çanakkale is located over the Biga peninsula in northwest of Turkey. Total surface area of the province is 993 300 ha and 330 337 ha of this area is allocated for agricultural purposes and 111.047 ha (34%) of this agricultural lands is irrigable. However, 73 643 ha of irrigable portion is now under irrigation and 37 404 ha (33.7%) is used under dry conditions. Drip and sprinkler irrigation systems are used over 90% of irrigated lands (ÇTĐM, 2010). Melon (Cucumis melo L.) is an annual fruit with hairy body and superior aroma. Since it has summer and winter varieties, it is consumed all around the year. Turkey with proper climate conditions has a significant role in melon production (Sakaldaş et al. 2009). World melon production is 20 million tons and China meets 6.6 million tons (34.5%) of this world production and Turkey has the second place in production with 1.8 million ton (9.4%) (BATEM, 2010). Melon has the 4th place after tomato, pepper and watermelon among the vegetables produced in Çanakkale and total melon production of the year 2008 was 19 000 tons from 10 855 da land area (ÇTĐM, 2010). Irrigation at proper time with the proper amounts of water is a critical issue to provide optimum yield and quality in plant production. Srinivas et. al. (1989) indicated melon yields of 12-15 Mg.ha-1 under dry conditions and 25-30 Mg.ha-1 under irrigated conditions (Dogan et al. 2008). Sousa et. al. (1999) carried out drip irrigation research for melon over sandy soils of Brazil and applied irrigation intervals of 0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 days. Researchers observed that 0.5 and 1 day intervals yielded the highest marketable yields. In another study carried out in Iran, Alizadeh Khazai et al. (1999) used furrow and drip irrigation systems and 25, 50% water deficits for melon over silty soils. Researchers obtained the highest yield from drip irrigation with full irrigation (Yıldırım et al. 2009). Faberio et al. (2002) applied water deficits at flowering, fruit formation and ripening periods of melon and investigated impacts of water deficit on fruit 144 �yield and quality and observed that melon had the highest sensitivity against water deficit at fruit formation period. Barros et al. (2002) applied different amounts of irrigation water (233.8, 222.4, 204.4, 183.5, 158.9 ve 132.2 mm) and nitrogenous fertilizer (0, 75, 150 ve 300 kg.ha-1) and received the highest yield with 222.4 mm irrigation water and 209.2 kg ha-1 application (Şengül 2009). Researchers also indicated that increased amounts of irrigation water instead of nitrogen fertilization didn’t increase the yield. In another research, 6 different amount of irrigation water (0-25-50-75-100 and 125%) determined by using Class-A Pan evaporation data and applied by using surface and subsurface drip irrigation system was studied and the highest yield was obtained from 83% of pan coefficient for subsurface system and 92% of pan coefficient for surface system (Dogan et al. 2008). Cabello et al. (2009) studied the effects of different irrigations and nitrogen fertilization on melon yield and indicated that yield didn’t decrease at 90% irrigation with 90 kg.ha-1 nitrogen fertilization. As it was seen all above literature and researches, irrigation interval and amounts of irrigation water are significant issue for melon yield and quality. In this study, proper irrigation interval and amount of irrigation water providing the optimum yield and quality were tried to be determined for pineapple type (Carna F1) melon. This variety is preferred among the producers of the region. Materials and Methods Field experiments were carried out over the fields of a farmer in Çıplak village at Troia Region of central town of Canakkale Province. Research field is located at 39° 57’ north latitudes and 26° 16’ east longitudes. Pineapple type Carna F1 variety melon was used as the material of the study. Climate of the region is Mediterranean and Black Sea transition climate. According to long-term averages of the nearest meteorological station, annual average temperature of the region is 14.9°C, average total precipitation is 599 mm, average relative humidity is 76%, average wind speed is 3.9 m.s-1 (Anonymous, 2005). Climate data for the year 2009 were presented in Table 1. Mounts 1 2 3 4 Wind Speed 5.5 3.9 3.7 5.0 (m/s) Relative 78.0 78.0 76.1 Humidity 83.2 (%) Temperature 7.8 7.2 8.8 12.2 (°C) Precipitation 22.6 175.2 169.2 119.8 (mm) Source: Turkish State Meteorological Service 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3.1 3.1 3.5 4.6 3.8 3.6 2.6 5.8 61.8 64.4 58.5 62.8 71.5 81.6 81.7 72.0 18.4 22.7 26.4 25.3 20.6 17.6 12.5 11.0 10.8 11.4 0.0 0.0 88.2 39.2 65.8 237.1 Table 1. Data of Canakkale Meteorological station for the year 2009 Soils of experimental fields have medium texture with 23.2% field capacity, 13.5% permanent wilting point and 1.35 g.cm-3 unit weight. Ground water table and impervious barrier were not observed within or around the plots; there were not any drainage problems over the experimental fields. Topography was smooth or close to smooth with maximum 2% slope. Readily available pressurized pipe system was used to receive water and drip irrigation system was applied for irrigations. Three different irrigation intervals (I1= 4 days, I2= 8 days and I3= 12 days) and four different pan coefficients (Kcp1= 0.50, Kcp2= 1.00, Kcp3= 1.50, Kcp4= 2.00) were used as the treatments of the study. All the treatments were irrigated at amounts calculated by the equation given in Doorenbos and Pruitt (1992) until the date of harvest. I = Epan. A.Kcp.P where I irrigation water amounts (mm), Epan evaporation from a standard class A pan (mm), A plot area (m2), Kcp crop pan coefficients (0.50, 1.00, 1.50, 2.00), and P crop coverage (%). Evapotranspiration (ET ) was calculated in accordance with Allen et al. (1998); 145 �ET = I + P ± ∆s where P is precipitation (mm) and ∆s is the change in soil profile water content (mm). Experiments were performed in splitted randomized block design with 3 replications. Seed were planted at 1.20 x 0.60 spacing (row spacing x inner row seed spacing) on 29th of May 2009. There were 4 rows in each plot and 6 plants on each row; therefore there were a total of 24 plants in each plot. A row from each side and top and bottom plants of each row were separated for side effect and 8 plants were observed in each plot. Two hoeing and fungicide applications were performed during the growing period. Fertilization was performed before the plantation with 10 kg.da-1 NH4NO3, 25 kg.da-1 super phosphate and 12 kg.da-1 potassium sulphate. Remaining nitrogenous fertilizer was applied as urea and ammonium sulphate at the rate of 8 kg.da-1. Three harvests were performed on 20th of August, 25th of August and 2nd of September. Yield (Mg.ha–1), single fruit weight (g), fruit width (mm), fruit length (mm), length of seed cavity (mm), flesh thickness (mm), flesh firmness (kg.cm-2), amount of water-soluble dry matter (Brix) (%) and taste analysis were carried out to determine the yield and quality parameters. For flesh firmness determination, 1cm2 area of 3 different point from each fruit for the penetration force measurements were individually recorded using a 5/16 (8 mm) diameter probe on a penetrometer (Bishop, Italy). TSS concentration was determined in each fruit with a digital refractometer Atago PAL-1 (Atago Co. Ltd., Japan) at 20°C. Fruit taste was graded by 10 experienced panelists using a 1 to 5 scale (1: very bad, 2: bad, 3: acceptable, 4: good, 5: very good) for each replicate. Data were subjected to ANOVA test for statistical analysis and “Minitab 15” statistical software was used for statistical analysis. Differences among the averages were tested according to LSD test at P=0.05 significance levels. Results and Conclusions The best irrigation program was tried to be determined for Carna F1 melon cultivar over the farmer fields during the year 2009. The variety was found to be highly resistant to drought and fruits were large. Statistical analyses for yield and quality parameters were carried out and results were given in Table 2. Yield Mean fruit Irrigation ET Width Treatmen amounts weight (Mg.ha– (mm) (mm) t 1 ) (mm) (g) I1 I2 I3 Kcp 1 Kcp 2 Kcp 3 Kcp 4 Kcp 1 Kcp 2 Kcp 3 Kcp 4 Kcp 1 182 336.5 20.65e 3166bcd 528 388 673.0 21.55e 2519g 478 2978def 534 3406bc 533 622 856 1009. 17.66f 5 1346. 16.72f 0 176 327.5 34.35b 3444b 525 380 655.0 29.65c 2776efg 493 611 982.5 24.04d 3045cde 519 871 1310. 14.20g 0 3423b 524 168 303.5 69.04a 3851a 540 146 Lengt Flesh Flesh Lengt h of Thicknes Firmnes h Seed °Brix Taste s s(kg.cm (mm) House -2 ) (mm) (mm) bcd b 634 500 631a 0.623d 11.60de 2.7a 569e 422f 662abc 445def 644bcd 486bc 670abc 498b 617d 453de 641bcd 470cd 677ab 537a 692a 499b 549h 0.643cd 11.83cde 4.3ab 615ab 0.567de 13.62a 605bcd 0.589d 11.66de 2.7e 587def 0.582d 11.68de 4.3ab 558gh 0.604d 12.66bc 4.7a 591ede 0.698bcd 12.33bcd 3.9bcd 566fgh 0.786bc 12.65bc 4.2abc 609bc 0.431e 11.43e 3.5d 3.6cd �Kcp 370 607.0 28.96c 2970def 496 2 Kcp 603 910.5 26.28d 2629fg 494 3 1214. Kcp 869 508 15.66fg 3283bcd 0 4 2.297 361.8 NS LSD (0.05)* * LSD (0.05) irrigation interval x pan coefficient (IxKcp) 635bcd 452de 605de 430ef 631cd 437ef 43.75 26.12 562gh 0.788bc 12.57bc 4.3ab 572efg 0.814b 12.32bcd 4.7a 593bcde 0.999a 13.00ab 4.3ab 22.05 0.1499 0.833 0.6003 Table 2. Statistical analysis results for yield and quality parameters Yield per hectare was found to be significant at p<0.05 level and the highest yield was obtained from the treatment I3-Kcp1 with 49.04 Mg.ha-1 and the lowest was observed in I2-Kcp4 treatment with 14.20 Mg.ha-1. Irrigation intervals and pan coefficients were found to be significant among themselves at p<0.05 level, the best irrigation interval was determined as I3 (12 days) with pan coefficient of Kcp1 (0.5). On the contrary to other melon varieties, yield increases in Carna F1 variety with increased irrigation interval and reduced amount of irrigation water. This can be seen clearly from water-yield relation graphs in Figure 1. With regard to regression analysis, the highest water-yield relationship was observed in I3 treatment with 12 days irrigation interval (R2=0.99). Şalk et.al. (2008) stated that some Thracian farmers were making melon production under dry conditions without any irrigation and they had well yields. With regard to single fruit weight, IxKcp interaction was found to be significant and as it was in the yield per hectare I3-Kcp1 treatment had the highest fruit weight with 3851 g. Fruit weight of I2-Kcp4 was also high (3423 g) but the yield of this treatment was low since fruit per plant was low in this treatment. The lowest fruit weight was observed in I1-Kcp2 treatment with 2519 g. With regard to fruit width, interaction of treatments was not found to be significant but pan coefficients were found to be significant. The lowest fruit width was observed in Kcp2 treatment. Treatment I3-Kcp1 was in front of the group with regard to fruit length (692mm). Pew and Gardner (1983) mentioned about lower size fruit production of local producers with irrigation practices (Şengül, 2009). The highest seed house size was observed in I2Kcp4 treatment (537 mm), the lowest was observed in I1-Kcp2 treatment (422 mm). With regard to flesh thickness, the highest value was observed in I2-Kcp4 treatment (692 mm) and the lowest in I1-Kcp2 treatment (549 mm) and IxKcp interaction was found to be significant for both parameters at p<0.05 levels. I1 (4 days) 23 22 2 y = -0,00001x + 0,00075x + 21,19907 -1 Yield (Mg ha ) 21 2 R = 0,81633 20 19 18 17 FY= -0,00001W2 + 0,00075W + 21,19 16 15 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 -1 Irrigation Water (mm season ) 147 700 800 900 �38 I2 (8 days) Yield (Mg ha-1) 34 2 y = -0,00002x - 0,01078x + 36,62020 30 2 R = 0,99849 26 22 18 FY= 0.00002W2 – 0.01078W + 36.62 14 10 0 200 400 600 Irrigation Water (mm season-1) 50 -1 1000 I3 (12 days) 60 Yield (Mg ha ) 800 y = 1294,63x 40 -0,64 2 R = 0,93 30 20 FY= 1294.63W-0,64 R2 = 0.93 10 0 0 200 400 600 -1 Irrigation Water (mm season ) 800 1000 Fig. 1. Relationship between seasonal applied irrigation water (W) and plant fruit yield (FY) for irrigation interval Flesh firmness is among the most significant parameters determining fruit quality and post-harvest physiology. The highest flesh firmness value was observed in I1-Kcp2 treatment with 0.99 kg.cm-2 and lowest in I3-Kcp1 treatment with 0.43 kg.cm-2. Flesh firmness increased with increased irrigation interval and pan coefficient. Sakaldaş et.al. (2009) stated longer shelf lives for pineapple type melons with higher flesh firmness. Water-soluble dry matter amounts were also found to be significant (p<0.05) like flesh firmness and increased with increasing irrigation interval. The treatment I1-Kcp3 has the highest value with 13.62% and I3-Kcp1 had the lowest with 11.43%. Brix is one of the easiest way to determine the harvest time and this value can reach to 13-17% under high temperatures (Şalk et.al. 2008). Faberio et al. (2002) indicated that water deficit applied at flowering period might negatively affect the fruit quality but increase the rate of sugar in fruits. The lowest Brix value was observed in I3-Kcp1 treatment and the lowest flesh firmness was also observed in this treatment. The taste value of the same group was 3.6 (above average). In other words, although the aforesaid treatment had lower Brix and flesh firmness values than the other treatments, it had allowable shelf life and taste value. Results of taste evaluations were found to be significant (p<0.05) and lowest value was observed in I1-Kcp1 and I1-Kcp4 treatments with 2.7. Based on the results obtained from this study, I3-Kcp2 treatment was found to be the best alternative for regional producers with regard to yield and quality. However, in case of possible water deficiencies in the future, I3-Kcp1 or I2-Kcp2 treatments may be selected. Further researches can be carried 148 �out for the same melon variety with pan coefficients ranging between 0.0 -1.00 and irrigation intervals between 8-12 days and outcomes of these researches should be delivered to local producers. On the other hand bigger melon fruits have some disadvantages in terms of marketing demands but fruits obtained from best irrigation treatment can be used in the point of its harmony according to the changing needs in terms of different consuming types like fresh cut etc. References Alizadeh, K.A., J.M. Baghani, and G.M. Haghnia (1999). Effect of deficit irrigation by drip and furrow systems on the yield and quality of melon at Mashad, Iran. In: 17th ICID Int. Congress on Irrig. and Drain., 1(C), Granada-Spain, 263269. Allen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D., Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Water Requirements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No: 56. Food and Agr. Organization, Rome. Anonymous (2005). DMĐ Genel Müdürlüğü 1975-2005 Meteoroloji Bülteni, Ankara. Barros, V. da S., Costa, R.N.T., Aguiar, J.V. de, da S. Barros, V., de Aguiar, J.V. (2002). Irrigation and nitrogen fertilization effect on melon crop yield. IRRIGA. 7 (2), 98-105. Batem (2010). http://www.batem.gov.tr/urunler/sebzelerimiz/kavun/kavun.htm. (Access date: 16.04.2010) Cabello, M.J., Castellanos, M.T., Romojaro, F., Martínez-Madrid, C. and F. Ribas. 2009. Yield and quality of melon grown under different irrigation and nitrogen rates. Agricultural Water Management. 96 (5). 866-874. Çtim (2010). http://www.canakkale-tarim.gov.tr/index.php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=72 (Access date: 15.04.2010) Dogan, E., Kirnak, H., Berekatoglu K., Bilgel, L. and A. Surucu (2008). Water Stress Imposed on Muskmelon (Cucumis Melo L.) with Subsurface and Surface Drip Irrigation Systems under Semi-Arid Climatic Conditions. Irrigation science, 26. 131-138. Doorenbos J. and Pruitt W.O. (1992). Guidelines for predicting crop water requirements. FAO. irrigation and drainage. No: 24, Rome. Faberio, C., Martin Santa Olalla F. and J.A. de Juan (2002). Production of muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) under controlled deficit irrigation in a semi-arid climate. Agricultural Water Management. 54 (2). 93-105. Pew, W.D. and Gardner, B.R., (1983). Effects of irrigation practices on vine growth, yield and quality of muskmelons. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 108, 134-137. Sakaldaş M., Öztakat C. ve K. Kaynaş (2009). Hasat Sonrası 1-Methylcyclopropane Uygulamalarının Farklı Sıcaklık Derecelerinde Depolanan Kavunlarda (Cucumis Melo L. Cv. Dellteks F1) Meyve Kalitesi Üzerine Olan Etkileri. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Zirat Fakültesi Dergisi. 4 (1). 1-9. Şalk, A., Arın, L., Deveci, M., Bolat, S. (2008). Özel Sebzecilik. Onur Grafik matbaacılık ve Reklam Hizmetleri. Đstanbul. ISBN:978-9944-0786-0-3 Sousa, V.F. de, Coelho E.F. and V.A.B. de Sousa (1999). Irrigation frequency in melon cultivated in sandy soil. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira 34 (4) 659-664. Srinivas K, Hegde DM, Havanagi GV (1989). Plant water relations, canopy temperature, yield and water-use efficiency of atermelon (Citrullus Lanatus (Thunb.)) under drip and furrow irrigation. Aust J Agric Res 6 (1).115-124. Şengül N. (2008). Damla Yöntemiyle Sulanan Kavunda Farklı Sulama Programlarının Meyve Verimi ve Kalitesi Üzerine Etkileri. Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bil. Enst. Doktora Tezi. 111 s. Yıldırım O., Halloran N., Çavuşoğlu, Ş. Şengül., N. (2009). Effects of different irrigation programs on the growth, yield, and fruit quality of drip-irrigated melon. Turk. J. Agric. For., 33. 243-255. 149 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 344 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Different Irrigation Programs on Growth, Yield, and Fruit Quality of Drip-Irrigated Melon in Dardanelles (Çanakkale) Troia region Author Author Tekiner, Murat Öztokat, Canan Tas, İsmail Abstract A summary of the resource. This research was carried out under field conditions to determine the best proper irrigation interval and amount of irrigation water for pineapple type melon. Evaporations from class-A pan were taken into consideration to determine the amounts of irrigation water to be applied. Three different irrigation intervals (I1= 4 days, I2=8 days and I3=12 days) and four different pan coefficients (Kcp1= 0.50, Kcp2= 1.00, Kcp3= 1.50, Kcp4= 2.00) were used to calculate the amounts of irrigation water. Total amounts of irrigation water varied between 168 – 871 mm and yields varied between 14.20-49.04 Mg.ha-1. The highest yield was obtained from the largest irrigation interval with the lowest pan coefficient (I3Kcp1). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e60a4c35112f3f9ae89cb8d488687c7.pdf 9423d6d78194b2cfc76bed87613bb112 PDF Text Text Production of Organic Essential Oils from Conifers Nezir Tanovic Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina nezir_tanovic@yahoo.com Ahmed Dzubur Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina ahmed.dzubur@unmo.ba Semina Hadziabulic Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina semina.hadziabulic@unmo.ba Elma Temim Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina adnan023@bih.net.ba Alma Leto Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina alma.leto@unmo.ba Alisa Hadziabulic Agro Mediterranean Faculty “Dzemal Bijedic” University of Mostar Bosnia and Herzegovina alisa.hadziabulic@unmo.ba Abstract: The aim of this project is dissemination of innovative technologies and knowledge related to the technologies of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs with the goal of production of essential oils. Production of essential oils in rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina is done in the conditions, which are not, at this moment, at the level of sophisticated techniques and technologies. Essential oils are produced partly from widely grown medicinal and aromatic herbs and mostly from plantation-grown herbs. The aspects of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs into distillates and all the measures, which follow the processing, should go through the transfer of technologies, so we could meet quality requirements as well as the European standards. Therefore, the intention is to certify the products as organic and according to HACCP system. Concerning the distillation of medicinal and aromatic herbs grown in natural population, we want to become a part of sustainable and rational exploitation in the way that we will identify economically important, rare, endangered and protected plants and to take care about the total biodiversity. Introduction Bosnia and Herzegovina has a significant amount of resources in the form of evergreen forest trees, especially fir, spruce, and pine trees, for the organic production of essential oil. In comparison with other medicinal plant 319 �species, the production of essential oil from fir, spruce, and pine trees is significantly simpler and more profitable. Especially favorable conditions are the availability of raw materials throughout the whole year and the simplicity of the procedure of essential oil production. The number of processing facilities that have adjusted their production concept to the process of separation of essential oils from the aforementioned forest woods and that are particularly certified on organic principles is small. Production of essential oils from conifers is labor-intensive, export-oriented, and highly profitable. The interest in a greater number of producers of essential oil, particularly conifer oil, is constantly growing. Steam distillation is mostly used for production of essential oil. Water distillation has not yielded good results in broader production practice, because, using this procedure, it is not possible to ensure a vapor pressure necessary for efficient separation of essential oil. Conifer essential oil is used in medicine and pharmaceutical industry. Those are aromatic, readily evaporable substances, compounds of terpenic hydrocarbons and their derivatives. They are transparent and usually colourless. When exposed to air, they get dark and evaporate quickly. They are dissolved in organic solvents, fats, and oils. Essential oils do not have a specific and constant structure. Their structure often depends on different agroecological conditions. Sometimes the structure of conifer essential oil differs in content depending on the stage of the raw materials used for distillation. Essential oils of different organs of the same plant have different compositions, sometimes of the same organ in different stages of development, and sometimes the differences are significant depending on the procedure used for distillation. In principle, forest plant species that grow in conditions with more sun have a greater content of essential oil in relation to temperate areas. Extraction of essential oils from medicinal plant species and conifers is done by means of “extractors”. This concept implies all devices in which isolation, i.e. extraction, of contained active substances from drugs is done regardless of the specific features and physicochemical characteristics of the extraction itself. For more precise definition of the procedure, the terms used are: extraction with organic solvents, water extraction, liquid gas extraction, water vapour extraction (often called hydro distillation), oil extraction, etc. In a part of the scientific community, there is a division into extraction and hydro distillation. It is common to call every isolation of active substances from drugs “extraction”, and differentiate them only based on the kind of extractant and not by the state of matter of the extractant and manner of separation of the extract. The term “extractors” encompasses all devices in which diffusion of active substances from drugs into extractant is directly performed. The basic classification of extractors by the manner of operation is into continuous and discontinuous. It is not necessary to particularly explain that the continuous devices have a much greater capacity than the discontinuous and that is why they are applied only in the cases when the processing of greater quantities of one or at most a few drugs is planned. Material and Methodology The raw material for the production of essential oil is needles of fir, spruce, and pine trees, with the presence of twigs of a diameter of one centimetre. Those are mostly one-year growths of green and wood mass. For our analysis, the raw material in two production areas, primarily the area of Olovo and the area of Mostar, was distilled. The distillation was done in the production plant Vogosca on a test distiller. Before the distillation, the conifer needles with wood mass were cut to the length of one centimetre. The cutting was done on an electric cutter intended for the cutting of conifer materials. Extraction of essential oil was done in two parallel procedures, by hydro distillation and steam distillation. The source of energy for hydro distillation was the gas on the test distiller with the construction for determination of precise analyses and steam distillation with the usual distillation procedure. The chemical composition of essential oil was examined on the gas chromatograph of the Federation Institute of Agriculture in Sarajevo. The chromatographic method allows for quick and accurate extraction of numerous compounds that compose essential oil. Certain constituents of essential oil appear in the form of peaks. Each peak corresponds to a certain component from which the quantitative value of the component of essential oil is determined. 320 �In the production of essential oil, both hydro and steam distillation was performed on two distillers of different construction and operation. With hydro distillation, water vapor required for the distillation developed in the same part of the distiller in which the plant mass was located. A characteristic of this principle of distillation is the inability of creation of higher pressure. With steam distillation, the vapor under greater pressure comes from the boiler and has the ability of a greater effect in relation to hydro distillation. Results The constants that were determined in the determination of essential oil are primarily the acid and ester content. The acid content is the KOH quantity expressed in milligrams, which is required to neutralize the acid located in one gram of essential oil. The ester content EN is the KOH quantity expressed in milligrams, which is required to saponify the ester located in one gram of essential oil. Ester content is calculated on bornyl acetate and is expressed in percents. The most important components used in evaluation of essential oils are the specific gravity, optical activity and refractive index. On the bases of these values, evaluation of quality of the essential oil is made. According to Gildemeister, the average values of essential oil in the region of Tyrol (P. Miletic and associates) are within the ranges stated in Table no. 1, and the results of our research are in the same range. Constants Specific gravity Optical activity Refractive index Acid content Esters (bornyl acetate) Fir Pine Olovo Spruce Mostar Olovo Mostar Olovo Mostar 0.78 0.81 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.88 - 33.8 - 40.2 6.2 7.8 -28.5 -31.5 1.46 1.48 1.50 1.55 1.46 1.46 2.2 2.2 2.6 2.8 0.5 0.7 5.5 -9% 6.2 – 10.5% 1.3 – 1.9% 1.5 – 1.8% 6.5 – 8.5% 7.2 – 9.5% Table. 1 Constant of essential oils at the locality of Mostar and Olovo obtained by steam distillation It is important to note that conifer essential oil contains other extracts as well, but bronyl acetate is predominant, and that is why it is the basis for calculation (S. Kapetanovic, 1988). The main component used in evaluation of essential oil are specific gravity, optical activity and refractive index. Specific gravity is determined by means of pycnometer and analytical scales; optical activity by means of polarimeter, and refractive index by means of refractometer. On the basis of such analysis, conclusion can be made about the value of individual essential oils. Constants Olovo Specific gravity Optical activity Refractive index Acid content Esters (bornyl acetate) Fir Mostar Pine Olovo Mostar Olovo Spruce Mostar 0.43 0.49 0.42 0.53 0.58 0.58 - 32.0 - 38.2 5.2 4.8 -17.0 -21.8 1.32 1.34 1.40 1.46 1.50 1.39 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.5 0.4 0.6 5.2 – 9% 1.1 – 1.6% 1.5 – 1.6% 5.5 – 8.0% 7.0 – 9.2% 5.2 -8% Table . 2 Constant of essential oils at the locality of Mostar and Olovo obtained by hudro distillation 321 �In relation to steam distillation, the values obtained by hydro distillation are significantly lower, and primarily: the specific gravity, optical activity and refractive index. Therefore, the very principle and procedure of distillation on different types of distillers affects not only the quantity of essential oil but its quality as well. Raw material Fir White pine Spruce Olovo 0.24 0.27 0.16 Mostar 0.29 0.32 0.17 Average 0.27 0.29 0.16 Table. 3 Yield of conifer essential oil (% of essential oil fir, pine and spruce) obtained by steam distillation Essential oil yields in different localities differ significantly, although they range within the limits of average values of 0.1 – 0.5 (Miletic and associates). In different periods of vegetation, the differences in the content of essential oil are significant. In all species of evergreen trees, the percentage is significantly greater during vegetation (spring and summer) in relation to fall and winter. Raw material Fir White pine Spruce Olovo 0.14 0.22 0.11 Mostar 0.22 0.24 0.13 Prosjek 0.18 0.23 0.12 Table. 4 Yield of conifer essential oil (% of essential oil fir, pine and spruce) obtained by hydro distillation Essential oil yields obtained from the same mass on a distiller for hydro distillation are significantly lower in relation to the results for all the coniferous trees obtained by steam distillation. Conclusion Coniferous tress (fir, pine and spruce) are a good raw material for production of high-quality essential oil certified as organic raw material. The distillation of conifers is optimal by using the system of introduction of steam into the distillation apparatus with the lowest pressure of 0.5 bars. Prior to that, it is necessary to cut the raw material with the wood mass to the thickness of up to 1 cm. By their chemical structure, essential oils are a compound composed of a greater number of different compounds, primarily of terpenic character. The main components of essential oil are hydrocarbons, different alcohols and esters. The yield (%) of essential oil of all analyzed coniferous trees is greater in the Mediterranean region in relation to the continental region, i.e. the oil content is greater at the locality of Mostar in comparison with the locality of Olovo. The yield and quality of essential oil is greater when it is obtained by steam distillation in relation to hydro distillation. From the economic point of view, the production of essential oil from coniferous trees is justified and significantly more profitable in relation to the majority of medicinal plan species. References Ašić Simon (1989): Pomoć iz domaće lekarne, Mohorjeva družba, Celje, Burger Guy, Claude (1999) : Die Rohkosttherapie , Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Eiden, Annette (1992): Praxis der Naturheilkunde, Südwest Verlag, Steier, Rihter, Isolde (1994): Atlas für Heilpraktiker, Anatomie, Physologie Urband und Schwanzerberger Verlag, Münhen – Wein – Baltimore,. Siegmund, Ferdinand (1995): Omas Lexikon der Krauter und heinphlanzen Behtemünz Verlag, Ausburg,. 322 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 447 Title A name given to the resource Production of Organic Essential Oils from Conifers Author Author Tanovic, Nezir Dzubur, Ahmed Hadziabulic, Semina Temim, Elma Leto, Alma Hadziabulic, Alisa Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this project is dissemination of innovative technologies and knowledge related to the technologies of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs with the goal of production of essential oils. Production of essential oils in rural areas of Bosnia and Herzegovina is done in the conditions, which are not, at this moment, at the level of sophisticated techniques and technologies. Essential oils are produced partly from widely grown medicinal and aromatic herbs and mostly from plantation-grown herbs. The aspects of processing of medicinal and aromatic herbs into distillates and all the measures, which follow the processing, should go through the transfer of technologies, so we could meet quality requirements as well as the European standards. Therefore, the intention is to certify the products as organic and according to HACCP system. Concerning the distillation of medicinal and aromatic herbs grown in natural population, we want to become a part of sustainable and rational exploitation in the way that we will identify economically important, rare, endangered and protected plants and to take care about the total biodiversity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8e5b8fce26441670935754343636962.pdf defbce2a3e6e8f84e62d16622e3f208d PDF Text Text Ecological Importance of Birds Mehmet Ali Tabur Suleyman Demirel University, Science and Art Faculty, Biology Department, 32260 Isparta Turkey Yusuf Ayvaz Suleyman Demirel University, Science and Art Faculty, Biology Department, 32260 Isparta Turkey Abstract:There are about 10000 bird species in the world. From the poles to the equatorial forests, from the deserts to the centres of the oceans, from the highest mountains to the hearts of our cities, everywhere birds are amongst the most conspicuous forms of animal life. Of all the animals, birds have been the most well-known classis because human beings have used them for feeding, communication, pollinating plants, and decorate the home, etc. Also, birds are important to some animals for biological control, for example Rodentia. Birds are important to continue ecologic circle, specially in food chain. For the last three centuries, industrial developments and anthropological effects have degraded habitats and caused the natural balance to deteriorate. Approximately 200 bird species had been affected directly or indirectly from these negative changes. Key Words: Birds, Ecological importance, Aves, Ornithology. Introduction Ornithological research has always a central role in the development of certain aspects of our science. In other words, birds have attracted more than their fair share of our zoological attention. Reasons for this are: 1. most species are diurnal and conspicuous. 2. they can be trapped and marked with leg rings or other tags. 3. because in most species individuals raise their young in discrete nests, their individual reproductive rates can be measured accurately in a way not possible for most other organisms which lack parental care. 4. the huge popular interest that birds engender has given rise to an extensive network of skilled amateur observers (Newton 1995). Given the significance of birds for conservation planning and environmental assessments, there is a need for a better ecological understanding of the role of avian community structure in conservation decision-making. Thus, they are widely used in conservation and population trends in farmland are one of the 15 ‘Quality of Life’ indicators. In additon, small landbirds in particular have often been proposed as potential indicators for the presence of other unrelated taxa or as environmental change indicators to be integrated into broader monitoring schemes. Furthermore, they are frequently included in evaluation studies for overall biodiversity conservation (Gregory et al. 2004; Kati and Şekercioğlu 2006). Although bird species have an important mission to continue for ecological balance, 1,012 species are being threatened by threats that habitat loss, human persecution and introduced predators. For example, habitat loss was cited as a source of risk for over 70% of threatened species, whereas human persecution and/or introduced predators were cited in 35% of cases. Overall, twice as many species (54%) were classified as being threatened by either habitat loss alone or human persecution/introduced predators alone than being threatened by both sources together (27%) (Owens and Bennett 2000). 560 �The Role of Birds in Plant Distribution Birds have a good system for spreading seeds. They eat berries and then when they dispose of their waste, the berry seeds are disposed along with it. Bird feces provide good fertilization for the seeds with which they are dropped, giving seeds very good conditions with which to grow. In addition, a lot of bird species may have been significant browsers of forest vegetation. For example, McEwen (1978) stated a large proportion of forest tree and shrub species had fleshy fruits which were attractive to birds. And also, Godley (1979) stated that birds performed a relatively minor role as pollinators in New Zealand forests and that foliage of all kinds was eaten mainly in late winter, spring and early summer, when fruit was least available. Because of extensive dietary overlap between different herbivorous birds and the turnover of both bird and plant species through evolutionary time, it is unlikely that particular plant species have evolved adaptations to browsing by particular birds, although evolutionary responses to bird browsing in general are possible. With the extinction of moas and the recent decline of other birds such as kokako and kakapo, browsing by birds no longer has a great impact on forest plants (Clouth and Hay 1989). The habitat heterogeneity hypothesis is one of the cornerstones of ecology. It assumes that structurally complex habitats may provide more niches and diverse ways of exploiting the environmental resources and thus increase species diversity (Bazzaz 1975). In most habitats, plant communities determine the physical structure of the environment, and therefore, have a considerable influence on the distributions and interactions of animal species. For example, for bird species diversity in forests, MacArthur & MacArthur (1961) evidenced that the physical structure of a plant community, how the foliage was distributed vertically, might be more important than the actual composition of plant species. Depending on the taxonomic group, the structural parameter of the vegetation and the spatial scale, species diversity might also decrease with increase in habitat heterogeneity. Moreover, effects of habitat heterogeneity might vary considerably depending on what was perceived as a habitat by the species group studied. Structural attributes of the vegetation that constitute habitat heterogeneity for one group might be perceived as habitat fragmentation by another taxonomic group (Tews et all 2004). Bird Extinction in Habitats Ecosystem has biotic and abiotic compenents. There is constant interaction between. But, recently, this relationship has been changed negatively. For example, habitat loss is the major factor affecting directly or indirectly the global decline of biodiversity. Being complex to measure directly, biodiversity trends are often monitored as the extent and rate of species extinctions. Therefore, species’ responses to habitat loss are a central issue of contemporary conservation biology (Mikusiński and Angelstam 2004). Critical thresholds for habitat loss have been demonstrated in a wide range of studies using theoretical models. Two kinds of thresholds have been addressed: 1) the fragmentation threshold, which is the amount of habitat below which habitat fragmentation (spatial pattern) may affect population persistence and 2) the extinction threshold, which is the minimum amount of habitat which the population goes extinct (Mikusiński and Per Angelstam 2004). Owens and Bennett (2000) suggested that different lineages are vulnerable to different mechanisms of extinction, with lineages that are highly threatened by one source usually being relatively secure with respect to the other source. Such results point strongly to the possibility that different ecological factors will be associated with different sources of extinction risk. Whereas extinction risk via habitat loss was positively correlated with the degree of habitat specialization and small body size but not significantly associated with residual generation time, extinction risk incurred via human persecution and/or introduced predators was correlated with large body size and slow life history but was not significantly associated with variation in ecological specialization. These results confirm the prediction that different ecological factors are responsible for making a lineage vulnerable to different sources of extinction (Owens and Bennett 2000). 561 �The Role of Birds in Agriculture Agricultural land currently occupies approximately 38% of the planet’s land surface, or around half its habitable area (Clay 2004). The modification and management of landscapes to produce food or other agricultural commodities for human consumption represents one of the most severe and widespread threats to global biodiversity (BirdLife International 2004; Foley et al 2005). The distribution of agricultural land is a beter predictor of wildlife threat status than the distribution of people (Scharlemann, Balmford & Green 2005). Agriculture affects natural ecosystems in more diverse ways, including modifications of landscape, soils, and water supply through deforestation, erosion, channeling, flooding, draining, etc., as well as the elimination or propagation of selected species of plants and animals (Steadman 1996). Agriculture impacts on biodiversity in two main ways. The first is through the clearance of pristine habitats for new planting, with the accompanying pressures of fragmentation of remaining habitats, pollution and disturbance. The second driver of biodiversity decline is the intensification of existing agricultural systems, aimed at increasing crop yields per unit area. This has contributed more to increasing overall productivity of most commodities over the last 30 years than the planting of new land (Donald and Evans 2006). Birds patterns of behaviour, distribution, seasonal phenology and demography track closely onto the spatial and temporal scales of agricultural change. Foraging, nest-site selection or breeding performance reflect features within the patchwork of agricultural habitats. The pattern of events in the annual farming calendar interact with key events in their own lives such as breeding or migration. Their populations or communities vary in ways that reflect local, regional or international variations in land use or management. The effects of year-to-year drift in their demography means that their population trends match the march of agricultural change. Perhaps most importantly of all, the availability of well-organized and geographically extensive data on bird populations over time has drawn our attention to the major environmental changes that have occurred on agricultural land. When coupled with equally valuable long-term monitoring of land use, these data have special importance in illustrating how ecological trends and agricultural practices are so closely linked (Ormerod & Watkinson, 2000). The possible ecological effects of changing agricultural practice or land conversion are many. Some arise as a direct consequence of structural or composition changes to vegetation and the associated faunal communities. Others are mediated more subtly, for example through the changing phenology of crops. In addition, a wide array of indirect influences arise, for example through changing predator-prey dynamics or the chemical influences of agro-chemicals on species composition. There are also knock-on effects on other ecosystems, for example downstream or in adjacent bordering areas. Moreover, the major restructuring of land surfaces that accompanies agriculture is one of the principal ways through which the remaining semi-natural habitats are fragmented, with consequences for species' populations and dispersal (Ormerod and Watkinson 2000). Negative effects of habitat heterogeneity may occur as a consequence of fragmentation, causing the disruption of key biological processes such as dispersal and resource acquisition. However, there is general consensus that not all species in an ecosystem are equally affected by spatial structures, depending on whether they cause heterogeneity or fragmentation (Tews et all 2004). Birds have been widely used as indicators of agricultural environments, and increases in agricultural intensity have been linked with severe declines in farmland bird populations in Europe, North America, Africa and Asia (Donald & Evans 2006). Kati and Sekercioglu (2006) determined that there are 10 specialist species that are highly characteristic and strongly dependent on the habitat types they are found in, as they are found in almost all sites of that habitat type and rarely in others. When distinct ecosystems, such as forests or wetlands, are destroyed, the ecological roles of birds often disappear with them. In many cases, however, bird declines occur independent of habitat loss; exploitation, introduced species, pathogens, fragmentation, and other factors eliminate birds and their services from ecosystems. In fact, half of threatened species are threatened by a factor besides habitat loss. This result is particularly the case for scavengers (100%), piscivores (80%), herbivores (78%), omnivores (76%), granivores (56%), frugivores (53%), and birds that weigh 100 g (73%), all of which, except granivores, are groups significantly more threatened than average. Given the momentum of climate change, widespread habitat loss, and increasing numbers of invasive species, avian declines and extinctions are predicted to continue unabated in the nearfuture. By 2100, we expect 6–14% of all historic bird species to be extinct, 7–25% to be functionally extinct, and 13–52% to be functionally deficient (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). 562 �The Importance of Birds for Biological Conservation The resulting effect of habitat heterogeneity/diversity on species diversity is subject to the measurement of species diversity. In general, species diversity is a measure of the number of component species and their abundance at a defined point in space and time. On the smallest spatial scale the diversity of animal species measured is the result of individual behaviour, i.e. habitat selection, and of course sampling chance. On larger spatial scales species diversity depends on, e.g. the size of the regional species pool and evolutionary history. Considering these aspects, the measurement of species diversity is always a snapshot and results may vary even for similar habitats. Furthermore, correlations between species diversity and habitat heterogeneity in different locations are subject to equilibrium and nonequilibrium dynamics. For example, if species diversity patterns show year-to-year variations this will have great implications for across-study comparison (Tews et all 2004). The ‘structural extent’ can be used when the gradient is characterized by a single variable, whereas ‘structural gradients’ apply to multivariate gradients. For instance, the structural complexity of the vegetation depends on a variety of parameters like height, coverage and vegetation types. While correlating carabid beetle diversity in a field study to gradients of any one of these variables did not yield significant results, the correlation with the multivariate structural gradient was highly significant (Tews et all 2004). The ecosystem approach is also the only way to conserve organisms and processes in poorly known or unknown habitats and ecological subsystems. There are many examples from ecological science of the richness of previously unappreciated habitats, such as forest canopies, belowground subsystems, and the hyporheic zones (Franklin 1993). Habitat reserves are an essential element in any comprehensive program to conserve biological diversity for the foreseeable future. The objective in designing a reserve system is to try to ensure that the reserves are sufficient in number and size and appropriately distributed over the landscape in terms of geography and ecosystem type. Much of the emphasis on reserves for maintenance of biological diversity is appropriate. Native habitats are disappearing at a rapid rate. Saving some pieces has a high priority if we are to retain the species and the processes dependent upon them. In the Pacific Northwest it is highly probable that there are species and processes that depend upon old-growth forest as habitat. Over the short term, existing old-growth forests are our only source of reserves. Hence, decisions about the amount and distribution of late successional forest habitats have high priority (Franklin 1993). Conclusion Based on the criteria used by the IUCN, 21% of 9,916 historic bird species are extinction-prone, a category that includes species that are extinct (1.3%), threatened with extinction in the next 10–100 years (12%), and close to qualifying or likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future (7.4%, near threatened). Extinctionprone birds are not randomly distributed across different functional groups (based on primary diet) or guilds (based on diet and order of food preference). Even though primary diet is not a good predictor of threat status, some functional groups have more extinction-prone species than average: frugivores, herbivores (consumers of nonreproductive plant parts), omnivores, piscivores, and scavengers. Insectivores have slightly fewer extinction-prone species than average. Increased specialization is highly correlated with increased likelihood of extinction, and 41% of bird species limited to one habitat type are extinction-prone (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Higher concentrations of extinction-prone birds in certain groups may lead to community disassembly and to more pronounced ecological consequences than one would expect from global aggregated extinction probabilities. There are significant differences in the distribution of extinction-prone species among categories other than diet, such as habitat, region, altitudinal distribution, body mass, clutch size, and evolutionary uniqueness. Island birds are particularly at risk, although this is due to their small global ranges rather than an ‘‘island effect’’; in our stepwise regression model with forward selection (4,515 species), compared with ‘‘range size’’ alone, addition of ‘‘island status’’ was a negligible improvement (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Bird extinctions and population reductions in the 21st century may disrupt ecosystem processes and services of potential importance to society. Declines in bird species that are important for a particular ecosystem process service may not necessarily mean a decline in that process service if the populations of other functionally equivalent species increase in response. In addition, avian dispersers and pollinators for some plant communities 563 �have low equivalence, resulting in a high risk of plant extinctions from lost mutualisms. Because highly specialized and evolutionarily unique species are more likely to go extinct, the probability of others taking their place is reduced (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Among the bird functional groups that are expected to have more extinctions than average, nectarivores pollinate many plant species and frugivores are important seed dispersers, both of which have important consequences for plant populations and community dynamics. Declines in pollination and seed dispersal as a result of bird extinctions may lead to extinctions of dependent plant species. The former is particularly important in the Austral, New Zealand, and Oceanic regions, where the proportion of bird-pollinated plants is higher than other parts of the world, and, in the case of the latter two regions, most of the presettlement avifauna is already extinct (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Little is known about the potential consequences of widespread disappearance of fish eating and scavenging bird species. There is an urgent need to investigate whether ongoing declines in seabird populations may have unanticipated top-down or bottom-up consequences as a result of trophic cascades or significant reductions in nutrient deposition. Because most scavenging birds are highly specialized to rapidly dispose of the bodies of large animals, these birds are important in the recycling of nutrients, leading other scavengers to dead animals, and limiting the spread of diseases to human communities as a result of slowly decomposing carcasses. In South Asia, the combination of extremely rapid crash of vulture populations, highly virulent diseases, and high human population density may cause increases in incidences of anthrax, bubonic plague, and rabies, but this potentially crucial interaction has not been studied. In 1997, 30,000 of the world’s 35,000–50,000 rabies deaths took place in India where feral dog and rat populations have exploded after the decline of vultures. Although less threatened than average, insectivorous birds include more extinction-prone species than any other group (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Because of their high ecological specialization, many tropical forest insectivores are highly sensitive to habitat fragmentation , and 26% of these species are extinction-prone. Exclusions of insectivorous birds from apple trees, coffee shrubs, oak trees, and other plants have resulted in significant increases in insect pests and consequent plant damage. Natural pest-control services are increasing in importance as invertebrate pests develop resistance to chemicals, and pesticide use is curbed by environmental regulations and consumer trends (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Overall, 21% of bird species are currently extinction-prone and 6.5% are functionally extinct, contributing negligibly to ecosystem processes. A quarter or more of frugivorous and omnivorous species and one-third or more of herbivorous, piscivorous, and scavenger species are extinctionprone. Furthermore, by 2100, 6–14% of all bird species will be extinct, and 7–25% (28–56% on oceanic islands) will be functionally extinct. Important ecosystem processes, particularly decomposition, pollination, and seed dispersal, will likely decline as a result (Şekercioğlu et all 2004). Although much research has been carried out in the field of habitat heterogeneity and species diversity patterns, empirical support is almost restricted to studies of vertebrate communities and habitats under anthropogenic influence. In addition, the measurement of habitat heterogeneity is very inconsistent making across-study comparisons difficult. For example, across-study comparison may include the relative effect of habitat heterogeneity between species groups. Furthermore, there is a significant lack of studies that consider multiple spatial scales and species groups within one ecosystem. This approach, however, is particularly important, as it enables detection of keystone structures that are crucial for maintaining species diversity. Examples from temporary wetlands in agricultural fields and solitary trees in South African savannas have demonstrated that keystone structures may simplify biodiversity conservation by protecting a wide array of species and functional mechanisms at the same time(Tews et all 2004). References Bazzaz, F.A. (1975). Plant species diversity in old-field successional ecosystems in southern Illinois. Ecology, 56, 485–488. BirdLife International, 2004. State of the World’s Birds 2004: Indicators for Our Changing World (BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.) Clay, J. (2004). World Agriculture and the Environment: A Commodity-by-Commodity Guide to Impacts and Practices. Island Press, Washington, DC. 564 �Clouth, M.N. & Hay, J.R. (1989). The Importance of Birds as Browsers, Pollinators and Seed Dispers in New Zealand Forest. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, Vol 12 (Supplement), 27-33. Donald, P.F. & Evans, A.D. (2006). Habitat connectivity and matrix restoration: the wider implications of agri-environment schemes. Journal of Applied Ecology 43, 209–218. Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P. et al. (2005). Global consequences of land use. Science, 309, 570–574. Franklin, J.F. (1993). Preserving Biodiversity: Species, Ecosystems, or Landscapes? Ecological Applications, 3 (2), 202-205. Godley, E.J. (1979). Flower biology in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 17: 441-446. Gregory, R.D., Noble, D.G., Custance, J. (2004). The state of play of farmland birds: population trends and conservation status of lowland farmland birds in the United Kingdom. Ibis, 146 (Suppl. 2), 1–13 Kati, V.I. & Şekercioğlu, Ç.H. (2006). Diversity, ecological structure, and conservation of the landbird community of Dadia reserve, Greece. Diversity and Distributions, 12, 620-629. McEwan, W.M. (1978). The food of the New Zealand pigeon (Hemiphaga novaseelandiae novaeseelandiae). New Zealand Journal of Ecology 1: 99-108. MacArthur, R.H. & MacArthur, J.W. (1961). On bird species diversity. Ecology, 42, 594–598. in Tews J. , Brose, U. et all (2004). Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. Journal of Biogeography 31, 79–92. Mikusiński, G. & Angelstam, P., (2004). Occurrence of mammals and birds with different ecological characteristics in relation to forest cover in Europe – do macroecological data make sense? – Ecol. Bull. 51: 265–275. Newton, I. (1995). The contribution of some recent research on birds to ecological understanding. Journal of Animal Ecology 1995, 64, 675-696. Ormerod, S.J. & Watkinson, A.R. (2000). Special Profile: Birds and Agriculture. Journal of Applied Ecology, 37, 699-705. Owens, I. P. F. & Bennett, P. M. (2000). Ecological basis of extinction risk in birds: Habitat loss versus human persecution and introduced predators. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.200223397. Scharlemann, J.P.W., Green, R.E. & Balmford, A. (2004). Land-use trends in endemic bird areas: global expansion of agriculture in areas of high conservation value. Global Change Biology, 10, 2046–2051. Steadman, D.W. (1996). Human-Caused Extinction of Birds. Biodiversity II: Understanding and Protecting Our Biological Resources, http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309052270/html/139.html. Şekercioğlu, Ç.H, Daily, G.C., Ehrlich, Pnas.org/cgl/dol/10.1073/pnas.0408049101. P.R. (2004). Ecosystem consequences of bird declines. www. Tews J. , Brose, U., Grimm, V., Tielbörger, K., et al (2004). Animal species diversity driven by habitat heterogeneity/diversity: the importance of keystone structures. Journal of Biogeography 31, 79–92. 565 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 601 Title A name given to the resource Ecological Importance of Birds Author Author Tabur, Mehmet Ali Ayvaz, Yusuf Abstract A summary of the resource. There are about 10000 bird species in the world. From the poles to the equatorial forests, from the deserts to the centres of the oceans, from the highest mountains to the hearts of our cities, everywhere birds are amongst the most conspicuous forms of animal life. Of all the animals, birds have been the most well-known classis because human beings have used them for feeding, communication, pollinating plants, and decorate the home, etc. Also, birds are important to some animals for biological control, for example Rodentia. Birds are important to continue ecologic circle, specially in food chain. For the last three centuries, industrial developments and anthropological effects have degraded habitats and caused the natural balance to deteriorate. Approximately 200 bird species had been affected directly or indirectly from these negative changes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/89fea734b952ac399024e1d519d932ec.pdf 84795b2118291da49f1fb9f3b1c50a61 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Relevance of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II to 21st Century Ethnocentrism and Islamophobia Evren TUÇ Department of English Language and Literature Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey evrentuc@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: The obscure and often make-believe portraits of the Turks, coupled with preconceptions and prejudices against Islamic nations of the East always occupied a significant place in English dramatic literature, particularly during the Elizabethan England. In fact, stereotypical portrayal of the Turkish characters was never absent from the Renaissance drama in Europe. Christopher Marlowe was undoubtedly one of those English dramatists who extensively employed Turkish characters and the images pertinent to Islamic cultures and geographies. Among those images are Turkish slave, frequently identified with the Jews, fearful Janissary Army, Turkish Pashas, or Sultans, and other unfamiliar characters that always captivated the imagination of the Elizabethan audience. The aim of this study is to make an in-depth analysis of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II, as a typical example of Elizabethan drama that gives a biased and prejudiced portrayal of Turks and Islamic nations, and to find out how these biased and pejorative images related to this particular geography prevailed throughout the centuries and, finally to seek an answer to the reason why these images remained virtually unchanged even in the 21st century, referring to his above mentioned work. Key Words: Islamophobia, Ethnocentrism, Muslims, Tamburlaine the Great, Elizabethan Period. Turks, Christopher Marlowe, Throughout the history prevailing prejudices have always caused a miscommunication between the East and the West. Though the studies on the reasons of that miscommunication are limitless, very few of them have focused on the literature based reasons. Despite the orientalist images attracted the attention of the western researchers and scholars, and Muslim or Turkish images have an extensive coverage in English Literature, studies on the political and social implications of these misconceptions are very rare. In this study, sixteenth century English points of view towards the Turks and Islam are going to be analysed in order to find out how these biased and pejorative images related to this particular geography prevailed throughout the centuries and, finally to seek an answer to the reason why these images remained virtually unchanged even in the 21st century, referring to Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine the Great Part II. Following the very significant events like the discovery of the continent of America, ‘the Act of Supremacy’, the defeat of The Spanish Armada, “explorations, trade, and the first steps of colonization …, England was truly finding its own national identity and it was a time of great cultural development” (Levin, 2002, p. 1). In this period, dramatic literature reached its peak and covered such a long distance that the era was named the ‘Golden Age of English Drama’. The age was a milestone not only for the dramatic literature and other branches of art but also for the development and future of England. The first political and economic relations between England and Turks were inaugurated and “there was a fashion for plays about Turks (and other Islamic nations) in late Elizabethan drama” (Shepherd, 1986, p. 142). And major themes of these plays were ‘brutal’ Janissary Army, arrogant Turkish Sultans, disdained pashas, ‘infidel’ Muslims and Islam. This fashion was the consequence of the publications about Turks all around Europe, because, “in the 16th century about 2500 publications about Turks … were spread around Europe and in these too the image of the ‘bloodthirsty’ Turk was imprinted. In the period 1480 to 1610, twice as many books were published about the Turkish threat, [which are directly related to besieges of the Eastern Europe by the Ottoman Empire and the conquest of Istanbul by the Conqueror, Mehmed II], as about the discovery of the continent of America” (Karlsson, 2006, p. 6). And The Elizabethans, like all the rest of Europe, were the enthusiastic readers of these books (Wann, 1915, p. 445). The reason for literature based text analyses within the context of historical or political studies on Elizabethan Period Turks or Muslims is a frequently asked question. This is not a choice or an inclination to cite the plays or playwrights because, “if one searches for non-literary evidence of an English ‘colonial discourse’ about [Turks], Islam and the Muslims, one would come up with very little (Matar, 1999, p. 8), so it imposes a necessity to analyse, comprehend and have a grasp of the dramatic literature of the era to have an insight into this colonial discourse. Consequently, “in regard to the source material, critics and historians who have examined Renaissance ‘Islam’ and [Turks] have relied predominantly on works by playwrights such as Peele, Kyd, 348 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Marlowe [and] Shakespeare … as there were dozens of plays about Turks and Moors from the 1580s until 1630s” (Matar, 1999, p. 6). Before an in-depth analysis of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II within the context of Islamophobia and ethnocentrism, the definitions of the terms, their contents should be made in order not to cause confusions and to indicate what is meant by these terms. Islamophobia is a neologism, in fact, “a new word for an old fear” (Stone, 2004, p. vii). Among the numerous definitions, the Runnymede Trust, the UK's leading race equality think tank, identifies the perceptions of Islamophobia in the report on British Muslims and Islamophobia entitled “Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All” as follows: • • • • • • • • Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change. It is seen as separate and "other," it does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them. It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist. It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a clash of civilizations. It is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage. Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal (Richardson, 1996, p. 5). And the second term, ethnocentrism, has numerous components, and as it contains lots of notions as to human being, different approaches and definitions cause confusions. However, Sullivan summarizes the term clearly in his comprehensive study as: Ethnocentrism [is] a perspective on the relationship between one’s own culture and that of others. An ethnocentric perspective evaluates anything from another culture using one’s own values and beliefs, filtering everything seen in that culture with a bias that promotes the superiority of one’s own culture. Under ethnocentrism, any cultural entity of another culture−its religion, dress, language, behavior, religion, political system−is automatically inferior or suspect, [moreover] … difference is viewed as problematic and something that should be ignored, eliminated, or assimilated (2009, p. 186). “Christopher Marlowe holds a most important place in English literature through his brilliant poetic gift and also as Shakespeare’s exact contemporary … and his forerunner in the creation of poetic drama. He died a violent death, stabbed under curious circumstances, in 1593, a time when Shakespeare was beginning to emerge in his full stature” (Yates, 1979, p. 135). Marlowe, who is also known as a spy for the Queen Elizabeth I, “is particularly prone to provocative juxtapositions of allegedly opposed religious systems [and nations], particularly in Tamburlaine Part Two, where religious affiliation first starts to emerge as a serious issue in Marlovian drama” (Hopkins, 2008, p. 114). Like most of the works of Elizabethan Period, Marlowe’s approach to Turks and Islam was nefarious, pejorative, farcical, barbarous insulting, unenlightened and preconceived, and all these images constituted the basis of his drama and these works always captivated the imagination of the Elizabethan audience who were claiming a share on the glorious East against the expanding Ottoman Empire. The second part of Tamburlaine the Great begins with the conversation between Orcanes, king of Natolia and Gazelleus, viceroy of Byron. Ottoman Janissary Army is on the banks of Danubius, and Gazellus and Orcanes express an opinion about a truce between Turks and Sigismund, the king of Hungary. When Orcanes asks about Gazelleus’ idea, his short but significant answer evokes a ‘bloodthirsty’ Turkish image to the audience even in the first scene of the first part via the lines: “King of Natolia, let us treat of peace: / We all are glutted with the Christians' blood …” (I,i,13-4). Just after Gazelleus, Uribassa adds and warns Orcanes about the huge army of Hungary. Orcanes’ reply reflects them as a tyrannical nation: … Millions of soldiers cut the arctic line, Bringing the strength of Europe to these arms, Our Turkey blades shall glide through all their throats, 349 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo And make this champion mead a bloody fen: … (I,i,29-32) Towards the end of the first act, Tamburlaine is seen with his wife and sons while trying to train his sons about how to be a real, courageous and fearless soldier. Though Zenocrate is not pleased with the atmosphere and anxious about his sons, Amyras and Calyphas antagonise and pass their opinions in their trial conversation with Tamburlaine as follows: AMYRAS: And I would strive to swim through pools of blood, Or make a bridge of murder'd carcasses, Whose arches should be fram'd with bones of Turks, Ere I would lose the title of a king. TAMBURLAINE: … And, sirrah, if you mean to wear a crown, When we shall meet the Turkish deputy And all his viceroys, snatch it from his head, And cleave his pericranion with thy sword. CALYPHAS: If any man will hold him, I will strike, And cleave him to the channel with my sword. (I,iv,92-101) Marlowe achieves his goal with these lines most probably to incite the Turkish hatred and to show the Turks as a nation who deserves death and sorrow. Tamburlaine the Great’s hate is boundless and “Marlowe does not attempt to find an answer to the paradox of Tamburlaine's having used vice to achieve greatness and this is left conveniently unresolved” (Burnett, 1987, p. 322). Major provocative attacks of Marlowe towards the Turks and Islam can be analysed under three subtitles. The first is ‘debasement of women’ which is put into stage by the raped and debased Turk/Muslim women figures. And the discourse referring to the Turk and Muslim women should be detected attentively to gain insight into implications, definitions and adjectives. Of these implications, the first one belongs to Calyphas. Though Calyphas hates the wars, though he never resembles his father, and though he is slaughtered by Tamburlaine towards the end of the play because of his anti-war and feminine inclinations, he dreams of the Turkish women as a sexual fantasy. This fantasy is reflected in his conversation with Perdicas to play cards for kissing the captive Turkish women first, and the word chosen for the women is ‘concubines”: CALYPHAS: Come, thou and I will go to cards to drive away the time. PERDICAS: Content, my lord: but what shall we play for? CALYPHAS: Who shall kiss the fairest of the Turks' concubines first, when my father hath conquered them. (IV,i,61-5) Having won the war and captured the Ottoman Sultans, Tamburlaine boasts for his victory and asks his companies to ransack the tents of the Turks and take the Turkish women to bring them to his own tent to celebrate the victory. His command echoes with the following lines; “Ransack the tents and the pavilions / Of these proud Turks, and take their concubines” (IV,i,162-63). His intention is beyond question, because his discourse clarifies everything. Marlowe’s choice of words is over humiliating, amazingly insolent, and outstandingly derogatory. All these approaches are summed up in Tamburlaine’s words: “Then bring those Turkish harlots to my tent, / And I'll dispose them as it likes me best” (IV,i,167-68). The rapes, cuss words and abuses continue in Act Four and despite the words of Orcanes and the women’s begging and crying, no change is seen in Tamburlaine’s decision and he replies Orcanes: “Live 350 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo continent, then, ye slaves, and meet not me / With troops of harlots at your slothful heels (IV,iii,81-2). And just before few lines of his reply, Tamburlaine calls his soldiers: TAMBURLAINE: Hold ye, tall soldiers, take ye queens a-piece,-I mean such queens as were kings' concubines; Take them; divide them, and their jewels too, And let them equally serve all your turns. SOLDIERS: We thank your majesty. (IV,iii,70-73) Before marching to Babylon, Theridamas explains the reason of the Turkish women being with their sultans on the battlefield: “It seems they meant to conquer us, my lord, / And make us jesting pageants for their trulls” (IV,iii,88-9). The words Marlowe uses for the women such as ‘spoil, trull’ are still very pejorative, and affront. Muslim and Turkish women are all reduced to sexual objects and they are exposed to verbal and sexual torture by Tamburlaine. This torture is observed in lines below: TAMBURLAINE: And now themselves shall make our pageant, And common soldiers jest with all their trulls. Let them take pleasure soundly in their spoils, Till we prepare our march to Babylon, Whither we next make expedition. (IV,iii,90-4) The second subtitle can be ‘the humiliation of the Turks as a nation’. The obscurity and abstruseness mixed with preconception on Turks and Islam continue to be seen with the same figures, biases and debates with no change throughout the play. In addition to all the above mentioned scenes, several others which are full of negative identifications and definitions of Turks are directly delivered via Tamburlaine by Marlowe. The level of the hatred is absolutely obvious in these lines: TAMBURLAINE: … Usumcasane, now come, let us march Towards Techelles and Theridamas, That we have sent before to fire the towns, The towers and cities of these hateful Turks (III,ii,144-47) And now, ye canker'd curs of Asia, (IV,i,134) Well, bark, ye dogs: I'll bridle all your tongues, And bind them close with bits of burnish'd steel, Down to the channels of your hateful throats; And, with the pains my rigour shall inflict, I'll make ye roar, that earth may echo forth The far-resounding torments ye sustain; … I will, with engines never exercis'd, Conquer, sack, and utterly consume Your cities and your golden palaces, And, with the flames that beat against the clouds, Incense the heavens, and make the stars to melt, As if they were the tears of Mahomet For hot consumption of his country's pride; (IV,i,184-89/194-200) 351 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo These provocative lines towards the Turks are fairly enough to cause tough prejudices and provoke the Elizabethan audience. The message of ‘cruel, barbaric, atrocious Turks’ is conveyed directly and insistently. As a consequence of these repetitions about the images of Turks, Elizabethan society begins to “apply the word … ‘Turk’ to anyone guilty of infidelity or greed” (Honan, 2005, 41). Third and the last but the most radical subtitle is surely the debasement of Islam and Prophet of Islam. The first attack begins in the Act Three when Theridamas tries to persuade Olympia to go with him to Tamburlaine. Before Theridamas declares his love to Olympia, Theridamas tries to convince her: “But, lady, go with us to Tamburlaine, / And thou shalt see a man greater than Mahomet” (III,iv,45-6). Here, Theridamas compares the prophet with Tamburlaine and identifies him with godlike characteristics. Not only does he underestimate the prophet but also he exalts Tamburlaine. On the other hand, the religion of Tamburlaine or his theism or atheism is one of the most important puzzling issues in the play. As “the details of his life are scarcely known in the West” (qtd. In Marozzi, 2006, Back Cover), many know the historical character Tamerlane as an anti-Muslim. So most critics allege that Marlowe’s Tamburlaine was an atheist and lots of critics assert that the Tamburlaine character was a Christian. In fact, the Tamburlaine character was neither a Christian nor an atheist. Like the historical character Tamerlane, he was a Muslim but towards the end of the play he refuses his own religion. When one reads between the lines, this later refusal is seen clear. For instance, when Calyphas tries to prove his courage to his father, he begins to tell what he would do if they met the Turkish Sultan. Tamburlaine’s reply to his son reveals the entire questions about the religion of him. TAMBURLAINE: Hold him, and cleave him too, or I'll cleave thee; For we will march against them presently. Theridamas, Techelles, and Casane Promis'd to meet me on Larissa-plains, With hosts a-piece against this Turkish crew; For I have sworn by sacred Mahomet To make it parcel of my empery. … (I,iv,104-10) Here, the last two lines divulge all the confusions, because if Tamburlaine were an atheist or a Christian, or if he were not a Muslim, he would not swear by the Prophet of Islam. Moreover, he would not say ‘sacred Mahomet’, because only the Muslims use the word ‘sacred’ for the Islam prophet. Throughout play, we come across the adjective ‘sacred’ in various scenes, but all of them are uttered by the Muslim characters like Orcanes, Callapine and Olympia. One may put forward an antithesis about the religion of Tamburlaine because of two reasons. The first one is the words of Frederick as follows: FREDERICK: Your majesty remembers, I am sure, What cruel slaughter of our Christian bloods These heathenish Turks and pagans lately made Betwixt the city Zula and Danubius; … (II,i,4-7) Here, Marlowe either commits a logical error as Frederick says “…our Christian bloods” (II,i,5) or excludes Tamburlaine from the society of Frederick. And the second reason which may prompt one to think that Tamburlaine was not a Muslim is the first scene of the last act which is the most pejorative, shameful and hideous of the whole play about the Turks and Muslims. “Having ordered the massacre of every citizen of Babylon, Tamburlaine now turns on ‘Mahomet’ (or Mohammed). He calls on Usumcasane to present him with the ‘Alcoran’ (the Koran) and other religious books and orders them to be burnt” (Simkin, 2001, p. 82). This provocation is verbalised as follows: TAMBURLAINE: Now, Casane, where's the Turkish Alcoran, And all the heaps of superstitious books Found in the temples of that Mahomet 352 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Whom I have thought a god? They shall be burnt. (V,ii,171-74) However that never means that Tamburlaine is a Muslim, as “we know from Marlowe’s sources that the historical Timur the Lame was a devout follower of Mohammed, and the poetic licence Marlowe allows himself should alert us at once to the significance of this moment at the climax of the play. He speaks of ‘that Mahomet / Whom I have thought a god?’ (V,ii,173-74) implying a conscious rejection of beliefs previously held” (Simkin, 2001, p. 82). Following lighting a fire, Tamburlaine continues his words as: … In vain, I see, men worship Mahomet. My sword hath sent millions of Turks to hell, Slew all his priests, his kinsmen, and his friends, And yet I live untouch'd by Mahomet. (V,ii,177-80) The point of view of Stevie Simkin to the lines “Now, Mahomet, if thou have any power, / Come down thyself and work a miracle:” (V,ii,185-86) is quite a change and interesting: “The challenge may actually be a sly (and, if detected, deeply shocking) reference to the crucifixion, when Christ was mocked by those standing around and told to save himself and come down from the cross” (Simkin, 2001, p. 84). And finally, Tamburlaine finishes his words: … Well, soldiers, Mahomet remains in hell; He cannot hear the voice of Tamburlaine. Seek out another godhead to adore: The God that sits in heaven, if any god, For he is God alone, and none but he. (V,ii,196-200) Just about five hundred years, scholars, men of letters and critics have talked comprehensively of this scene, Tamburlaine’s burning the Koran, and Tamburlaine’s religious confusions, but Simkin’s words are enlightening and significant enough to be quoted at length: Tamburlaine was a monstrous figure in the annals of history and, as a follower of Islam, a heathen. Marlowe evokes the Islamic prophet Mohammed only to have Tamburlaine blaspheme against him; in so doing, Marlowe was simultaneously raising a spectre that an Elizabethan audience would have instinctively reacted against (Mohammed) and depicting Tamburlaine as a heretic to his own religion. As so often, Marlowe seems to be playing a double game: it is likely that the Elizabethans may have enjoyed hearing a heathen religion attacked, but at the same time it is likely that many would have been shocked by Tamburlaine’s godlessness. Tamburlaine offers another challenge: for him, Mahomet’s failure to respond to the outrages he has committed against Islam is proof of his non-existence, or at least of his powerlessness (2001, p. 83). This provocative scene, which cannot be more depreciatory and degrading for any religion, had already rung the bells of Islamophobia and ethnocentric approaches towards the Turks and Muslims centuries ago. Hence, literary and historical scholars like Honan accept that “Tamburlaine’s three worst acts of cruelty and impious pride occur in Act V, when he destroys Babylon, breaks his oath with its governor, whom he kills in cold blood, and mocks Islam while burning copies of the Koran” (2005, ps. 179-180). Wilson quotes Edward Said as having stated that “Marlowe's ‘oriental stage’ helped fabricate the stereotype of Islam as Christendom's other …” (1995, p. 56), but this argument would be much more proper with the words ‘constituted the basic stereotype’ than ‘helped fabricate’. And although “several explanations for Marlowe's radical debasement of the Turk … character[s] have been proposed” (Brown, 1971, p. 38), they generally can not go forward than an assumption. Of these explanations, Marlowe’s being patronized by the Queen Elizabeth to protect and spread her policies causing these debasements can never be accepted, because according to historical sources, it is surely known that Marlowe wrote the first part of Tamburlaine the Great when he was in Cambridge and after a short time of his graduation, he wrote the second part. 353 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo After all, “In the absence of a translation of the Qur’an or of documents from Arabic, Turkish or other Islamic civilizations, Britons saw Islam exclusively through the prism of Muslims attacking, enslaving, converting (as with the Janissaries especially) and killing Christians” (Matar, 2009, p. 217). But despite the centuries, communication technologies, mobilized interreligious and intercultural studies, businessmen’s and politicians’ co-operations, the negative approaches towards the Turks and Muslim still remain unchanged and “the images that had been constructed in Britain about Muslims over the centuries still dictated both the perception and the treatment of the Mahometan” (Matar, 2009, ps. 230-31). Among the numerous examples which may clarify this unchanged status-quo, two quotations are enough to summarize. First, Charles Issawi, who was a scholar on history of Ottoman at Princeton and Columbia Universities, defines the 15th and 16th centuries’ Europe in that subjective touch: A new act in the Christian-Muslim drama opened with the coming of the Turks, who captured Constantinople, subjugated the Balkans and converted many of their inhabitants, invaded Italy, and twice besieged Vienna. They inspired terror all over Europe, as may be seen from the contemporary literature and also from the prayers offered in churches for deliverance from the Turks (Issawi, 1998, p. 147). Second, a few years ago, Tamburlaine the Great Part II was performed in Barbican which is known as the most popular and the largest arts centre in England and in the Continent. The book burning scene, of course, was omitted and on this omission Dalya Alberge, commented that “Marlowe's Koran-burning hero is censored to avoid Muslim anger” (the Times, 24 Nov 2005). However, it is interesting that the reason of the censorship is not to be respectful to the followers of a religion or to the religion itself but to avoid Muslim anger. Consequently, “the exercise of placing Marlowe within the political, social, cultural, and literary controversies of his age, and occasionally within those of later periods, makes us aware of the degree to which the ideological debates that so intrigued Marlowe continue to be relevant to our own troubled times” (Deats and Logan, 2008, p. 9). And although Derek McGhee says “in the early twenty-first century, hatred, prejudice, intolerance and antagonism between groups are commonplace in the UK, just as they are throughout the world” (2005, p. 1), it is absolutely clear that the background of this history is based on an old story. The examples demonstrated throughout the analysis suggest that those prejudices, misconceptions, misrepresentations, ethnocentric approaches, misunderstandings, bigotries, cultural and religious intolerance are primary reasons for wars and conflicts horror and terror all over the world as in Bosnia, Iraq, Afghanistan, Chechnya, North Ossetia, Ireland, Catalonia and so on, and “the world is not a safer place as a result of the war on terrorism (Lyon, 2005, p. 78). References Alberge, D. (2005). Marlowe's Koran-Burning Hero is Censored to Avoid Muslim Anger. The Times. 24 November 2005. Brown, W. J. (1971). Marlowe’s Debasement of Bajazet: Foxe’s Actes and Monuments and Tamburlaine, Part I. Renaissance Quarterly, 24(1), 28-48. Burnett, M. T. (1987). Tamburlaine: An Elizabeth Vagabond. Studies in Philology, 84 (3), 308-323. Deats, S. M. and Logan, R. A. (2008). Placing the Plays of Christopher Marlowe: Fresh Cultural Contexts. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Honan, P. (2005). Christopher Marlowe: Poet & Spy. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Hopkins, L. (2008). Christopher Marlowe: Renaissance Dramatist. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Issawi, C. (1998). Cross-Cultural Encounters and Conflicts. Cary, NC, USA: Oxford University Press, Inc. Karlsson, I. (2006). The Turk as a Threat and Europe’s “Other”. Turkey Sweden and the European Union Experiences and Expectations. Stockholm: EO-print AB. Levin, C. (2002). The Reign of Elizabeth I. Hong Kong: Palgrave Macmillian. 354 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Lyon, S. (2005). “In the Shadow of September 11: Multiculturalism and Identity Politics.” Muslim Britain: Communities under Pressure. Ed. Tahir Abbas. London: Zed Books Ltd. Marlowe, C. (1978). Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays. Ed. J. B. Steane. Great Britain: Penguin Books Limited. Marozzi, J. (2006). Tamerlane: Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the World. USA: Da Capo Press. Matar, N. (1999). Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery. New York: Columbia University Press. Matar, N. (2009). Britons and Muslims in the Early Modern Period: From Prejudice to (a Theory of) Toleration. Patterns of Prejudice, 43(3), 213-231. McGhee, D. (2005). Intolerant Britain? Glasgow: Bell & Bain Limited. Richardson, R. (1997). Ed. The Report of The Runnymede Trust Commision on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All. England: The Runnymede Trust. Shepherd, S. (1986). Marlowe and Politics of Elizabethan Theatre. Sussex: The Harvester Press Limited. Simkin, S. (2001). Marlowe: The Plays. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Stone, Richard. (2004). Foreward Part of A report by the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia. Islamophobia Issues, Challenges and Action. Wiltshire: Cromwell Press Ltd. Sullivan, L. E. (2009). The Sage Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences. California, USA: Sage Publications, Inc. Wann, L. (1915). The Oriental in Elizabethan Drama. Modern Philology, 12 (7), 423-447. Wilson, R. (1995). Visible Bullets: Tamburlaine the Great and Ivan the Terrible. The Johns Hopkins University ELH, 62 (1), 47-68. Yates, F. A. (1979). The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age. London: Routledge 355 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 717 Title A name given to the resource Relevance of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II to 21st Century Ethnocentrism and Islamophobia Author Author TUÇ, Evren Abstract A summary of the resource. The obscure and often make-believe portraits of the Turks, coupled with preconceptions and prejudices against Islamic nations of the East always occupied a significant place in English dramatic literature, particularly during the Elizabethan England. In fact, stereotypical portrayal of the Turkish characters was never absent from the Renaissance drama in Europe. Christopher Marlowe was undoubtedly one of those English dramatists who extensively employed Turkish characters and the images pertinent to Islamic cultures and geographies. Among those images are Turkish slave, frequently identified with the Jews, fearful Janissary Army, Turkish Pashas, or Sultans, and other unfamiliar characters that always captivated the imagination of the Elizabethan audience. The aim of this study is to make an in-depth analysis of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great Part II, as a typical example of Elizabethan drama that gives a biased and prejudiced portrayal of Turks and Islamic nations, and to find out how these biased and pejorative images related to this particular geography prevailed throughout the centuries and, finally to seek an answer to the reason why these images remained virtually unchanged even in the 21st century, referring to his above mentioned work. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc0631ee1fa9fc7518671d046252d26f.pdf 2507cebbc83a3d00013856740966b6af PDF Text Text Treatment Trials Of Parasites Of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and Sea Bream (Sparus Aurata) in Turkey Erol TOKŞEN Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 Đzmir, TURKEY erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr T. Tansel TANRIKUL Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 Đzmir, TURKEY tansel.tanrikul@ege.edu.tr Fikri BALTA Rize University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, 53100 Rize, TURKEY fikribalta@hotmail.com Erkin KOYUNCU Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin, TURKEY ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr Abstract: With over 8300 km of coastline and 25 million square hectares of useably sea, Turkey has particularly bright future in aquaculture. Interest has centred on two major species sea bream, sea bass, Those are most favourable have been the Aegean and Western Mediterranean coasts. Sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 75,000 tons in Turkey. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Thus, focus has been placed on fish diseases in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Especially, parasitical diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. In this study, various studies were carried out in different time about parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Turkey and their treatment were investigated. Different species such as Trichodina spp., Costia spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Ceratothoa oestroides were reported on the gills of sea bream and sea bass in these studies. In this review, the parasites observed on sea bass and sea bream, and their epizootiology, clinical signs, pathogenicity of the parasites and their treatment were given, separately. Keywords: Sea bass, sea bream, parasite, diagnosis, control, treatment Introduction Turkey is a country of which three sides have been surrounded by the seas. Its coastline is 8333 km and 25 million square hectares of useable sea. There is a great aquaculture potential in Turkey. Therefore, Turkey is a most important aquaculture producer in the Mediterranean. The Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) are the main cultured fish specieses in the Mediterranean area. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 80,940 tons in Turkey (TUIK, 2009). The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Vibriosis, pasteurellosis and tenacibaculosis are serious threatening bacterial infections of sea bass and sea bream. The most important parasites for cultured sea bass and/or sea bream are Trichodina spp., Ichthyobodo spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus 667 �minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Meinertia oestroides. This research presents the individual parasies types producing probles in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4. symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled. Type of fish Inland water Trout Carp Marine water Trout Sea bream Sea bass Mussel Prawn Other Total 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 43 432 683 48 033 571 56 026 668 58 433 600 65 928 629 1 650 20 435 26 297 1 513 - 1 249 27 634 37 290 1 500 2 000 1 633 28 463 38 408 1 545 2 200 2 740 33 500 41 900 1 100 1 600 2 721 31 670 49 270 1 772 196 94 010 118 277 128 943 139 873 152 186 Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (TUIK, 2009) 1. Trichodina Spp. Trichodinid protozoans are cosmopolitan aquatic parasites, common on gills and skin of fish in both the freshwater and marine environments. Trichodinids are peritrich ciliates (order Mobilina, family Trichodinidae) that glide on the surface of the fish. They normally feed on bacteria and mucus and are often considered as ectocommensal nuisances rather than true parasites. 1.1. Aethiology: Trichodina spp. are a group of dorsal-ventrally flattened oval ciliated protozoan parasites of marine and freshwater species of finfish. The diameter of the ciliate is mostly about 50 to 100 µm. A readily distinguishable characteristic of these organisms is the presence of a prominent denticular or “tooth-like” internal cytoskeleton ring. There are four additional genera of trichodinids (Trichodina, Trichodinella, Paratrichodina, Tripartiellea, Hemitrichodina) which are similar in description and life cycle. 1.2. Epizootiology: Trichodinids reproduce by simple binary fission under conditions that are usually optimal for the host fish. Most species are host specific and presumably spread from fish to fish by incidental contact between susceptible host fish, as well as through contact with the organism in the water column. Transmission is direct, from fish to fish. Within 8 to 10 h’s of the host’s death, trichodinids leave the host but, depending on the temperature, may survive for several days in the water (Lom, 1995). 1.3. Patogenicity: While small numbers of these organisms on a fish generally do not cause much of a health problem, large numbers can cause moderate to serious pathology and ultimately, death of fish. Small fish and fry are especially susceptible, and mortality can occur quickly if undiagnosed (Toksen, 2004). Trichodina spp. cause irritation by feeding on the epithelial layer of cells covering the surface of the gills and skin of the fish. This can result in hyperplasia (proliferation) of the epithelial cells, clubbing of the gill filaments and even fussion of the gill filaments. This affects the ability of the gills to maintain optimal respiratory and excretory activities, and the ability of the skin to maintain proper homeostatic osmoregulatory properties. Massive infestations of these parasites on fish can also directly result in superficial to deep ulcerative skin lesions which then allow for secondary bacterial and fungal infections to develop at the affected site (Lom 1995). Trichodina spp can cause extensive fish mortality in an aquaculture system. The ability of this parasite to quickly multiply under certain environmental conditions or when the fish are stressed by other factors makes early detection of this parasite a high priority in an aquaculture facility. Once diagnosed, an appropriate treatment or management response is essential to prevent rapid loss of fish stocks (Samartin-Duran et al., 1991). 668 �1.4. Symptoms: Heavily infected fish may have a greyish-blue coat, which is formed by excessively secreted mucus and peeled epithelia. The fins may be frayed (Lom, 1995). 1.5. Diagnose : The following measurements and counts are of primary diagnostic value; diameter of the adhesiv disc, diameter of the denticulate ring, number and size of denticles. The diameter of the horseshape macronucleus and position of the micronucleus in relation to the macronucleus is also of diagnostic value. 1.6. Treatment: There are several methods by which Trichodina spp. may be controlled in the aquaculture of foodfish. These include chemical treatments, freshwater baths, and flushing. UV is generally considered ineffective due to the high dosage rates required to kill the organism. A formalin bath of 170-250 ppm for 60 minutes is applied effectively (Toksen, 2004). However, experience has shown that a single formalin bath may not completely remove all of the parasites from fish, especially marine fish, and long term or periodic treatments may be needed to keep this parasite under control. Therefore a continuous bath of 25 ppm formalin is also approved for use on foodfish. Another common method for controlling Trichodina spp. on marine finfish is to utilize periodic fresh water dips. Though stressful on fish due to increased handling and the osmotic stress, this method can be very effective in reducing the overall number of parasites on fish. This is an effective method for treating individual fish such as broodstock, but may not be a viable option in a production facility due to the logistics associated with handling and treating large numbers of fish (Brown and Markus, 1998). Flushing of production systems (i.e., the removal of system water prior to treatment) is another means of reducing infestation levels of Trichodina spp. This method may be effective by physically removing any dislodged parasites in the water column from the system. 2. Ichthyobodo Spp. Ichthyobodo necator (former Costia necator) is a common parasite that infects a wide range of freshwater fish species. The parasite is found on the skin and gills of fish, most commonly attaching to the edges of the gills. Infected fish have a disease called ichthyobodosis. The first observation of Ichthyobodo spp. infection in cultured seabream in Turkey carried out by Toksen. Fifty to sixty percent of mortality was observed in a farm of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) (1g) which were trasferred from Yumurtalık, South-East Mediterranean Sea to Kokar Bay, Western Coast of Aegean Sea (Toksen, 2000). 2.1. Aetiyoloy: Free swimming form is ovoid to spherical and measures 5-18 µm. It has two flagella, one of them longer than the other. It uses flagella for motility and to attach to the host fish (Lom, 1995; Toksen, 2000). 2.2. Epizootiology: Both free swimming and parasitic stages multiply by longitudinal binary fission. The parasit is not host spesific. Malnourished and young fish are more secerely affected then healthy adults (Robertson, 1985; Toksen, 2000). 2.3. Pathogenicitiy: These parasites do not cause distinctive lesions on the fish but do block the flow of oxygen when heavily loaded on the gills. As with most protozoa, environmental degradation and crowded conditions cause them to become more damaging. However, prevention measures such as reducing stocking densities and lowering feeding rates may make fish production unprofitable. But stocking and feeding rates should be kept reasonable. Contact a qualified aquaculture or fisheries scientist for advice on proper stocking densities for the fish species you are raising skin and fins. The base of the stalk attaches to a hard, calcified surface such as scales and fin rays or spines. Ichthyobodo occurs on the skin and gills (Lom, 1995). . 2.4. Symptoms: Ichthyobodosis causes damage to the gills and skin of fish. Infected fish can lose condition, become emaciated and be very lethargic. These symptoms can be seen in fish with only a light infection. The attachment and feeding of Ichthyobodo necator causes severe damage to skin and gill cells. Hyperplasia can occur within the gills, reducing respiratory efficiency. The gills may also swell with fluid, and fish often die as they are unable to control the movement of water in and out of their bodies. The parasite also causes irritation and infected fish produce excess mucus (Lom, 1995). 2.5. Treatments: Formalin is used against to Ichthyobodo spp. effectiveliy (Toksen, 2000). Bithionol (25 ppm for 3 h or 2 consecutive days) is very effective in eliminating the paraiste from rainbow trout (Tojo et al., 1994). 669 �3. Amyloodinium Ocellatum 3.1. Amyloodinium ocellatum is an important and the most common dinoflagellate that infects the gills and skin of both marine and brackish water fishes (Lauckner, 1984). A similar organism, Oodinium spp., is found in freshwater fish. The disease caused by these organisms has been referred to as "velvet," "rust" and "gold dust disease" because of the shiny sheen the parasite imparts to heavily infected fish. 3.2. Amyloodinium spp. can cause great losses of aquarium fish or fish held in high-density culture systems and has caused serious problems in public aquaria, aquaculture facilities and home aquaria (Montgomery-Brock et al, 2001). If allowed to become established in high-density recirculating systems, it can be difficult to control. For example, cultured red drum have been shown to be extremely susceptible to this infection. Amyloodinium infects a wide variety of fish and has been reported to occur in more than 100 species in North America. In Turkey, first Amyloodinium enfestation was observed on cultured 15-20 g of sea bass in pond with 100% mortality (Cagirgan and Toksen, 1996). 3.3. Aetiyology: The trophont is pear-shaped to ovoid and up to 350 um long. An osmophilic ring encircle the basal region, and an attachment plate bearing numerous filiform rhizoids exista through the break in the theca. Divisions withina common cyst wall produce up to 256 dinosporea. Dinospores are 8-13.5 µm long by 10-12.5 µm wide (Lom, 1995). 3.4. Symptoms: Often, the first indication of an amyloodinium infection is dead or dying fish. Amyloodinium should always be considered as a possible cause of mortality when a disease outbreak involving marine or brackish water fish occurs. Behavioral signs may include a decrease in or complete lack of feeding activity, flashing (rubbing against objects in the tank or on the bottom substrate) and coughing (backflushing water across the gills). The skin of heavily infected fish may have a dull gold or brown sheen. Closer examination of the skin may reveal scale loss and patchy accumulation of mucus (Reed and Francis-Floyd, 1994). Diseased fish shows sluggishness and asphyxia symptoms with darkened pigmentation of the skin and V shaped loss by the reason of necrosis of tail. The gill is pale and haemorrhagic in infected fish. Extensive necrotic areas are observed in macroscopycally on the gill (Cagirgan and Toksen, 1996). 3.5. Epizootiology: Amyloodiniosis is limited to warm waters. The optimal temperature for tomont division and sporulation ranges from 23-27 ºC. Completion of tomont division is limited to 16-30 ºC (Paperna, 1984). Infections do not occur at less than 17 ºC. The minimum effective salinity varied from 1 to 20 ppt, depending upon the isolate (Paperna, 1984). Tomonts or infective dinospores can be introduced directly with incoming seawater, becoming a source of infection for fish in the system. Obviously, introducing fish infected with trophonts into a culture system will serve as a source of infection as soon as the throphonts detach and begin the reproductive process. 3.6. Diagnosis: The only sure way to diagnose an amyloodinium infestation is by identification of the parasite in infected tissue. Preparations of gill, fin and skin (scrapings of mucus and scales) can be examined with a light microscope. The trophont attaches to the tissue of the fish by means of an attachment plate, which may be visible with a light microscope. Trophonts are removed brushing the fish gently, followed by microscopic examination of the sediment, which contains detached parasites (Noga, 2000). 3.7. Treatment: The most commonly applied treatment for control of amyloodinium is copper. In marine recirculating systems, which do not contain invertebrates, copper is added to the system gradually over a period of several days until the free copper ion (Cu2+) is at a concentration of 0.12-0.15 mg/l; this level is then maintained for up to 3 weeks (Cardeilhac and Whitaker, 1988). This standard procedure, observed for many years, is moderately effective but requires repeated testing of the copper concentration to ensure that amyloodinium is being controlled without killing fish. This treatment will kill all invertebrates present in the system and certain groups of fish. Freshwater dips are effective in killing free-swimming stages of amyloodinium; however, since encysted stages are protected, a single freshwater dip is not an effective treatment. Decreasing the salinity in a system has been suggested as a method for controlling amyloodinium epizootics, but because the organism flourishes in brackish water, the effectiveness of this strategy is doubtful. Given the lack of a safe, effective therapeutant for the control of amyloodinium, avoidance is an extremely important means of preventing outbreaks of this parasite. All incoming fish should be quarantined for a minimum of 3 weeks before being introduced into an existing system. Do not feed live or frozen food items 670 �that may be infected with amyloodinium. Do not introduce water into a system that may be contaminated with amyloodinium dinospores without using effective filtration or sanitation procedures (Reed and Francis-Floyd, 1994). 4. Furnestinia Echeneis The monogenean was found on the gill of sea bream Chrysophrys aurata by Wagener in 1857 and formerly named as Dactylogyrus echeneis Euzet ve Audouin (1959) renamed as F. echeneis (Oliver, 1969). 4.1. Aetiyology: F. echeneis is 560-890 µm in length, 140-230 µm in width in ovary level. Parasite has a haptor 190-270 µm in diameter and lamellar shaped squamodisc 180-220 µm in diameter in haptor. 4.2. Epizootiology: Infestation is successfully transmitted to naïve gilthead seabream by egg exposure. Parasite occure in all seasons of year but the number of parasite increase in spring (Revarsat et al., 1992). Furnestia echeneis caused high mortality in Siganus auratus (Paperna, 1978). 4.3. Symptoms: Infested fish showing severe signs of asphyxia due to necrosis on the gill and mass mucuos secretion. Myxobacterium spp. is found in necrotic lessions on the gill (Paperna et al., 1977). 4.4. Pathogenicity: No pathological signs are referred to F. echeneis infections, also with 50 specimens/gill arch infection intensity (Quaglio et al., 2007). But in heavily infestation shows hyperplasia of gill epithelium with thickening of lamellae up to fusion.The gills show diffused degeneration and necrosis in the filament epithelial tissue (Reversat et al., 1992). It has been reported to cause mortalities in natural sea bream in Red Sea and Acabe Bay (Paperna and Baudin Laurencin, 1979). 4.5. Treatment: Formalin bath 200 ppm 1 h is effective (Paperna et al., 1977; Toksen, 1999). 5. Microcotyle Chrysophrii S. chrysophrii Euzet and Noisy 1981, originally called Microcotyle chrysophrii (van Beneden and Hesse 1863) (Microcotylidae: Polyopisthocotylea), is a common parasite of cultured Gilthead sea bream which has caused lethal epizootics in sea cages (Alvarez-Pellitero 2004). 5.1. Aetiyology: The parasite belong to genus Microcotyle (Microcotylidae, Polyopisthocotylea) comprising 17 recognized species in European waters. Monogenean is 3-5 mm in length, 0.5-0.7 mm in width in ovary level (Euzet et Noisy, 1979). 5.2. Epizootiology: Sparicotyle chrysophrii is successfully transmitted to naïve gilthead seabream by egg exposure and cohabitation with parasitized fish (Sitjà-Bobadilla and Alvarez-Pellitero, 2009). Parasite occure in all seasons of year (Reversat et al., 1992). 5.3. Pathogenicity: S. chrysophrii shows a high pathogenicity at low infection intensity (8 parasites/gill arch) with gross lesions such as gill and systemic anaemia already noticeable at necropsy. In this case histology shows severe hyperplasia of gill epithelium with thickening of lamellae up to fusion, and heavy sloughing off of the epithelial cells. Moreover the gills show diffused degeneration and necrosis in the residual epithelial tissue. The hematophagous attitude of S. chrysophrii is evident for the presence of several erythrocytes in the parasite gut (Quaglio et al., 2007; Reversat et al., 1992). It has been reported to produce mortalities in farmed fish (AlvarezPellitero, 2004), and it is frequently found in mixed infections with other parasites and bacterial infections (Padros and Crespo, 1995). 5.4. Symptoms: Infested fish swim near the water surface, showing severe signs of anemia as lethargy, emaciation, anoreksi and excessive mucus production (Padros and Crespo, 1995). 5.5. Treatment: Formalin bath of 250 ppm for 60 minutes is applied effectively (Toksen, 1999). 671 �6. Diplectanum Aequans Diplectanum aequans (Wagener, 1857) Diesing, 1858 is a common parasite of both wild and cultured European sea bass D. aequans is considered to be potentially harmful in intensive sea bass farming (GonzalezLanza et al., 1991; Toksen, 1999). 6.1. Aetiyology: Monogenean parasite is 650-1.700 µm. in length and 260-500 µm. in width in ovary level. There is a haptor in the posterior end of body. The diameter of haptor is 0.11-0.30 µm. and has a squamodisc (180 µm. in diameter), two pairs of hamuli and 14 marginal hooks (Oliver, 1980; Toksen, 1999). The adult of D. aeqauans is observed on the gills of sea bass (Cecchini et al., 1991; Toksen, 1999) but larval stages of parasites can be also observed on the skin. parazitin genç evrelerine deride de rastlanılmaktadır (Cognetti, et al., 1992; Gonzales et al., 1991). 6.2. Epizootiology: The life span of D. aequans at 20°C is estimated to be 30 days. The parasites are oviparous and produce the eggs on the gill of sea bass. The diameter of egg is 59.14±6.96 µm. The parasite has 5 stages in ith life cycle; larval stage (oncomiracidium), post larval stage, 2. post larval stage, intermedier stage and adult stage (Silan and Maillard, 1989). The adult parasite is exhibiting hermaphroditism. The contamination is occured bye means of eggs between hosts. 6.3. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: D. aequans attaches to the gill lamellae and cause hyperplasia of the epithelium and mucuos cells, with resulting deformation and fusion of the secondary lamellae. Heavily infected fish exibit lethargy, anorexia and asphyxia symptoms (Oliver, 1977; Toksen, 1999). 6.4. Diagnosis: D. aequans is easiliy distinguished on the basis of the shape and size of the haptor, hamuli and hooks on the haptor, and male copulatory organ of adult parasite (Silan and Maillard, 1989; Lambert et Maillard, 1974). 6.5. Treatment: Rafoxanid bath of 6 ppm for 48 hours is applied effectively (Cognetti et al., 1992), trichlorfon bath in dose 0.15 ppm for 2 days is effective (Cognetti et al, 1991). Formalin has not good effect against D. aequans affect the parasite (Toksen, 1999). 7. Caligus Minimus Caligus sp. or ‘sea lice’ are common copepod parasites in the family Caligidae, infesting a wide range of fish species in the coastal zones and cultured fish. 7.1. Aetiyology: Caligus minimus is seen in the mouth cavity and on the gill of sea bass in Mediterranean Sea, Adriyatic Sea and Atlantic ocean. Adult parasites show sexual dimorphism, the female is larger then the male. The female 3-5.5 mm in length, the male parasite is 8 mm in length with 4. legs (Radujkovic and Raibaut, 1989). 7.2. Epizootiology: Caligid copepods have direct life cycle, consisting of a free-living planktonic I. nauplii stage, II. nauplii stage, copepodid stage, I-VI chalimus stages, pre-adult stage and adult stage, and last 17 days at 2224°C after hatchig (Hallett and Rroubal, 1995). The intensity of copepod infestation generally increases after rainfall and late spring and decline in winter and summer due to the lack of recruitment and parasite death. This is a major problem in cage cultured fishes (Jithendran et al., 2008). 7.3. Clinical Sings and Pathogenicity: The main lesions are observed on the skin of the head region, the buccal cavity, the palate, the tongue and the base of the gill arch (Ragiasa et al., 2004). The integument where parasites are located showed ulceration of the epidermis with marked inflammatory of the dermis as a result of the attachment and feeding activity of the parasites. The attachment is achieved by means of second pair of the antennae which were inserted into the host epidermal tissue. A marked reactive epidermal hyperplasia is observed at those areas as well as at the periphery of ulcerated lesions. Many epidermal cells around the damaged area show signs of necrosis, the vacuolar degeneration of basal cells was prominent and epidermis is also characterized by diffuse areas of spongiosis. In many cases, increased fibroplasia and spongiosis is noticed within dermal collagenous connective tissue (Ragiasa et al., 2004). 7.4. Treatment: Trichlorfon bath of 300 ppm at 20 minutes (Pike, 1989), dichlorvos 1 ppm 1 h (Branson, 1996), hydrogen peroxide 1500 ppm 20 minutes (Branson, 1996; Hodneland et al, 1993) and freshwater bath (Landsberg et al., 1991) are effective. 672 �8. Ceratothoa Oestroides Ceratothoa oestroides (Cymothoidae) is a ubiquitous fish parasite. It has been reported in 6 different fish families, Sparidae, Carangidae, Clupeidae, Maenidae, Scorpaenidea and Mugilidae, and has been most frequently isolated from the bogue bream Boops boops and sea bream Sparus aurata (Sparidae) (CharfiCheikhrouha et al., 2000; Toksen, 1999). 8.1. Aetiyology: The body of parasite is dorso ventrally flattened and is lacking a carapace. The isopod thorax consists of 7 free segments with 7 pairs of thoracic legs. As a result of the well-sheltered environment of the buccal cavity, species that establish there have evolved a thinner cuticular mineralisation and the pleopods of the three last pairs have transformed into respiratory organs. Paired eyes consist of numerous eyelets. On its ventral side, between the swimming legs, the female bears a brood pouch or "marsupium", shielded by special plates, called "oostegites", to carry the eggs and the larvae for some time after hatching. 8.2. Epizootiology: Female C. oestroides bear embryonated eggs in the brood pouch that develop first into stage I pullus, and then into pulli II and III (with rudimentary periopods of VII pairs), and finally into pullus IV, at which stage postlarval evolution begins (Mladineo, 2002). As a protandric hermaphrodite, the parasite passes through different developmental stages: male puberty, prolonged male puberty, transitory stage, female puberty and finally prolonged female puberty (Trilles 1969). During the male puberty stage, the parasite loses its swimming capacity and, once settled in the buccal cavity of a fish, it is incapable of active migration to another host. This fact is important in the epizootic evaluation of the route of infection. After settlement in the host, the parasite begins hematophagic nourishment, which comprises alternating cyclic periods of blood-sucking and blood absorption by the intestine (Trilles, 1969). As a consequence of its sedentary life in the wellsheltered buccal cavity, the parasite has evolved some structural changes, e.g. a thinner cuticle, the last 3 pairs of pleopods transformed into respiratory organs and a thinner-walled incubation chamber (Trilles, 1969). 8.3 Symptoms and Pathogenicity: Heavy infestations of parasitic larvae may kill smaller fish when they first infect them seeking permanent attachment. Pulli II larvae and juveniles attack relatively younger fish, about 5g20g of weight and cause considerable damage to the skin around the head, the eyes and the gill epithelium by injuring the gill lamellae. Their voracious haematophagy and the mechanical damage of their hooks lead to severe inflammation and necrosis of head, eye and gill tissues. The infested fish are usually apathetic and anorexic and may show respiratory distress. The haemorrhagic and necrotic head tissues are evident when observing the fish in their cage. When the sick fish are removed from the water, several isopod larvae may be seen in their buccal and gill cavities and/or on the skin near the opercula (Varvarigos, 2003; Mladineo, 2002; Toksen, 1999). Injured tissues are frequently invaded by secondary bacterial pathogens, such as Aeromonas spp., Tenacibaculum spp., Vibrio spp. and this may lead to severe escalation of mortality. In young stocks, the cumulative mortality due to parasitism by the pulli II larvae may run as high as 15% even without any bacterial implications (Varvarigos, 2003). The adult isopods are haematophagus and cause anaemia. The parasitised fish have significantly lower erythrocyte counts as well as haematocrit and haemoglobin values. The leukocyte counts are increased, obviating the host's immune response to the presence of the isopods. In addition, the established adult isopods can cause considerable damage to the mouth tissues with their biting and sucking mouth parts, or their copulation activity. Their large size (up to 6 cm in length) may cause atrophy of the tongue, dysplasia of teeth and slackening of the cartilagenous tissues leading to a "bag-shaped" lower jaw. Invariably, the presence of large adult parasites in the buccal cavity interferes with feeding, causes chronic stress and results in growth retardation and a predisposition to bacterial and/or endo-parasitic invasions (Varvarigos, 2003). Isopod infestation is confirmed by gross observation of the parasites on the skin, mouth, or in the gill chamber of the fish. In addition, they often produce the lesions described above that characterise 8.4. Treatment: Cypermethrin and deltamethrin are effective in dose of 10 ppb for 60 minutes (Martinsen et al., 2001) 9. Lernanthropus Kroyeri Lernanthropus is the most common genus of parasitic copepods. So far, more than 100 species isolated from gills of different marine teleosts have been described. Some species of Lernanthropus are strictly host specific, but many are parasitic on several species of fish within one or several genera (Sharp et al., 2003). 673 �9.1. Aetiyology: Female parasite body is elongate, 2,9 mm including fourth legs 3.7 mm in length (Toksen et al., 2008). 9.2. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: Fish infected with L. kroyeri spp. show signs of respiratory distress, enhanced mucus secretion, congestion, haemorrhages associated with the feeding activity of the parasite, primary gill lamella erosions and lethargy, dark coloured skin and surface swimming (Toksen, 2007). Histologically, erosion, desquamation and vacuolar degeneration occurred near the site of attachment. Lamellar fusion in the distal ends of the filaments was observed. Compression of gill tissue by the head and second antennae of female parasite resulted in erosion of the branchial lamellar epithelium and lacerate tissue. Second antennae and maxilliped of parasite has caused partial occlusion and ruptures in capillary (Toksen, 2007) . 9.3. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate of 100 µg kg-1 in feed is effective (Toksen, et al., 2006). Conclusion The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Toksen (2000; 2004) reported that Ichthbodosis and trichodiniasis caused fifty to sixty percent of mortality in different two farm of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.). Recently, almost 400,000 gilt head bream died in a single night on fish farms located in the southwestern province of Muğla's Güllük Gulf this week. But the reason of death could not determine. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. In summary, parasitic diseases are economically important parasites in marine aquaculture. Disease outbreaks and subsequent mortalities caused by parasite are now rare due to the development of a variety of effective treatments. However, large economic losses still occur as the result of reduced feed conversion and growth, indirect mortality, loss of product value, and treatment costs. Although it is well understood that parasites have a major impact on sea bream and sea bass aquaculture, there are relatively few published reports of disease and/or disease treatments. There are no reports of economic costs associated with these infections. Husbandry practices as well as a variety of engineering, environmental, and biological factors can have an impact on the level of infection by parasitic copepods. However, the relative importance of these factors in controlling parasite abundance varies between sites. 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Incidence of an intense Caligus minimus Otto 1821, C. pageti Russel, 1925, C. mugilis Brian, 1935 and C. apodus Brian, 1924 infection in lagoon cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Greece, Aquaculture, 242, 727–733. Reed, P.A. and Francis-Floyd, R.T. (1994). Amyloodinium Infections of Marine Fish, Fact Sheet VM-90, a series of the College of Veterinary Medicine, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611. Reversat, J., Silan, P., Maillard, C. (1992). Structure Of Monogenean Populations, Ectoparasites Of The Gilthead Sea Bream Sparus aurata. Marine Biology, 112, 43-47. Robertson, D.A. (1985). A review of Ichthyobodo necator (Henneguy, 1883) an important and damaging parasite. In: L.F. Muir and R.J. Roberts, Editors, Recent Advances in Aquaculture (2), Croom Helm, London, 1–30. Sanmartin Duran, M.L., Fernandez Casal, J., Tojo, J.L., Santamarina, M.T., Estevez, J. and Ubera, F. (1991). Trichodina sp. effect on the growth of farmed turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 11:89. Sharp, N.J., Poortenear, C.W., Diggles, B.K. and Willis, T.J. (2003). Metazoan parasites of yellowtail kingfish, Seriola lalandi lalandi in New Zealand: prevalence, intensity and site preference, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 37 (2), 273-282. Silan, P. and Maillard, C. (1989). Biologie comparee du developement et discrimination des Diplectanidae ectoparasites du Bar (Teleostei). Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie, Paris, 13 (10), 31-45. Sitjà-Bobadilla, A. and Alvarez-Pellitero, P. (2009). Experimental transmission of Sparicotyle chrysophrii (Monogenea: Polyopisthocotylea) to gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) and histopathology of the infection, Folia Parasitologica, 56(2): 143–151. Tojo, J.L., Santamarina, M.T., Leiro, J., Ubeira, F.M. and Sanmartin, M.L. (1994). Pharmacological treatments against Ichthyobodo necator (Henneguy, 1883) in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), Journal of Fish Diseases, 17, 135–143. Toksen, E. (2004). The effect of formaldehyde baths on Trichodiniasis of juvenile Sea Bream (Sparus aurata L., 1758). E.U. Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences, 21,(1-2): 31 – 33. Toksen, E. (1999). Metazoan gill parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Aegean Sea coast and their treatment. PhD Thesis, 10.7777.10000.000, Ege University, Institute of Science and Tecnology, Đzmir, Turkey. Toksen, E. (2000). The first observation of Ichthyobodo spp. ınfection in a farm of Sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) in Izmir and Its Therapy, Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 24 (3), 321-325. 676 �Toksen, E. (2007). Lernanthropus kroyeri van Beneden, 1851 (Crustacea: Copepoda) infections of cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.), Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 27, 49-53. Toksen, E., Çağırgan, H., Tanrıkul, T. and Saygı, H. (2006). The Effect of Emamectin Benzoate in the Control of Lernanthropus kroyeri (van Beneden, 1851) (Lernanthropidae) Infestations in Cultured Sea Bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758)”, TUBĐTAK, Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science, 30, 405-409. Toksen, E., Nemli, E. and Değirmenci, U. (2008). The Morphology of Lernanthropus kroyeri van Beneden, 1851 (Copepoda: Lernanthropidae) Parasitic on Sea Bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L., 1758), from the Aegean Sea, Turkey, Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 32 (4), 386-389. Trilles, J.P. (1969). Recherches sur les Isopodes Cymothoidae’ des cotes fracaises. Apercu general et comparatif sur la bionomie et la sexualite de ces Crustaces. Bulletin de la Société zoologique de France, 94 (3),433. TUIK (2009). Fisheries Statistics, Ankara, Turkey. Varvarigos, P. (2003). Parasitic Isopods (Suborder Flabellifera) Affecting The Farmed Marine Fish In Greece, With Special Reference To Ceratothoa Oestroides (Family Cymothoidae), Vetcare, Veterinary Services To Aquaculture And Distribution Of Fish Health Products, http://www.vetcare.gr/Pathogenic_isopoda.htm. 677 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 615 Title A name given to the resource Treatment Trials Of Parasites Of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and Sea Bream (Sparus Aurata) in Turkey Author Author TOKSEN, Erol TANRIKUL, T. Tansel BALTA, Fikri KOYUNCU, Erkin Abstract A summary of the resource. With over 8300 km of coastline and 25 million square hectares of useably sea, Turkey has particularly bright future in aquaculture. Interest has centred on two major species sea bream, sea bass, Those are most favourable have been the Aegean and Western Mediterranean coasts. Sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 75,000 tons in Turkey. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Thus, focus has been placed on fish diseases in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Especially, parasitical diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. In this study, various studies were carried out in different time about parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Turkey and their treatment were investigated. Different species such as Trichodina spp., Costia spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Ceratothoa oestroides were reported on the gills of sea bream and sea bass in these studies. In this review, the parasites observed on sea bass and sea bream, and their epizootiology, clinical signs, pathogenicity of the parasites and their treatment were given, separately. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/da2d5c18446084740443447b0c620514.pdf 7955c2837ca681c1420b6d04e9f82493 PDF Text Text Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustaınable Development of Aquculture: Crustaceans Erol TOKŞEN Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr Egemen NEMLĐ Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr Uğur DEĞĐRMENCĐ Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr Ulviye KARACALAR Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 Đzmir, TURKEY ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Fin fish the primary source of production for humans in many part of world and this is especially true in most developing countries. Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is now the main problem in cage-cultured salmon in the marine environment in Scandinavian countries. In recent years however, Argulus spp. have been reported to cause problems in UK stillwater trout fisheries. A survey of such fisheries found 29% of them suffered from problem infections by the parasite in the year 2000. Argulus spp. were perceived to cause economic losses in infected fisheries through a reduction in the number of anglers due to reduced aesthetic appeal and catchability of fish. Lernaea spp. in the eyes of trout cause blindness. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Keywords: Trout, disease, parasite, diagnosis, control, treatment Introduction Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips. Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 152 186 tonnes in 2008. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that trout pruducts have reached to 68,649 tons in Turkey (TUIK, 2009). The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Parasites in fish have become increasingly visible 256 �during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries in the world. Thus, focus has been placed on parasitic infections in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Type of fish Inland water Trout Marine water Trout Total 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 43 432 48 033 56 026 58 433 65 928 1 650 1 249 1 633 2 740 2 721 45 082 49 282 57 659 61 173 68 649 Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (TUIK, 2009) Diseases problem caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. There are various parasites caused the diseases on the trout. This study consist of crustaceans parasites. This research presents the individual parasites types producing problems in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4. symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled. 1. Lernaea spp. Lernaeosis is caused by parasitic copepods (Lernaea spp.) that infect many freshwater fish important to aquacutture and recreation. Lernaea spp or anchor worms are common pests in cyprinids and to a lesse extent of salmonids and other fish. Epizootics in cultured fish are often associated with high mortality. The paraistes also cause problems in man-made lakes (Anon, 1980; Berry et al., 1991) and in commercial aquaria (Shariff et al., 1986; Dempster et al., 1988). The parasite particularly pathogenic to small fish because of their relatively large size. 1.1. Aetiyology: In the genus of Lernae of Lernaeidae family, there are over 40 species. The taxonomy is based on the shape of the anchors. L. cyprinacea is specific to Carassius species. L. cruciata, a parasite of Lepomis, Ambloplites, Micropterus and Morone spp. in North America (Kabata, 1988). L. elegans is found on a range of fishes. L. cyprinacea was found on rainbow tout (Berry et al., 1991). The adult female L. cyprinacea has a small semispherical cephalothorax which contains the mouth. Behind it is a well-developed holdfast normally consisting of a birfurcate dorsal process and a simple ventral process. The elongate neck and trunk carrythe four pairs of legs of the premetamorphosed female. The abdomen is short (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 1.2. Epizootiology: L. cyprinacea requires only one host to complete its life cycle. It has three free-living naupliar stages and five copepodid stages which are usally on the gill and are relatively immobile although they are not permanently attached. The male is fre-moving and the post-metamorphosed female attached. At 27 ºC the larval stages take 12 to 17 days to develop into adult male or premetamorphosed females. Adult male die within 24 hours. Females are fertilized and either attack the same host or swim to another host short (Lester and Roubal, 1995). Trout in the United States are infected by L. cyprinacea, whereas L. esocina and L. minima are of concern in salmonid fisheries in Europe (Kabata, 1970; Hoffman, 1973). The disease is enzootic in several Utah reservoirs (USA) where fingerling rainbow trout (7 cm long) are stocked, and the fisheryis managed to maximize the return of stocked fish to the angler. On the premise that stocking the best-performing rainbow trout strain might be an economical means of improving the fishery, Anchorworms were first detected in midsummer each year and were most abundant in the fall. The mean parasite intensity was highest in October 1982 (19 anchorworms per fish); in other years, maximum density was 7 to 9. The dorsal and caudal areas of the fish were the most heavily parasitized. 1.3. Pathogenicity: Fish less than 20 mm long may be killed by the parasites if vital organs are penetrated by the anchors (Khalifa and Post, 1976). Uzmann and Rayner (1958) reported that “heavy” infections of L. cyprinacea caused death of yearling rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Copepods may open routes for secondary infection; however, quantitative data on these secondary effects are scant (Hoffman, 1976; Dempster et at., 1988). 257 �Moreover, the attached copepods may make the fish undesirable to anglers, thus affecting fishery management goals. The histological response to parasite attachment included an infectious granuloma similar to that reported in other fish hosts. Bacteria were not found in the kidneys of fish before stocking, but afterward bacteria that were presumptively identified as belonging to the genus Aeromonas, were found in the kidneys of up to 45% of the parasitized fish. Most (94%) anglers noticed the anchorworms, but few (8%) discarded parasitized fish. Some 28% used special cleaning techniques to prepare fish but 49% did nothing special to clean them. Lernaeosis probably had little effect on the fishery management goals for the reservoir. fishing, Oncorhynchus mykiss, copepoda. The mechanical destruction of epidermis and dermis caused by grazing copepodids stimulates inflammation (Shields and Tidd, 1974). When tha parasites abundant on the gills, this presumably precipitates distress trough oedema and slowed blood circulation in the lamellae. Host mortality caused by adult females is generally the result of the physical destruction of tissues. They also induce prssure necrosis and may secrete a histolytic and digestive anzyme (Shields and Goode, 1978). Small fish (4-6 cm) suffer more than large fish because the head of the parasite often enters the body cavity and penetrates the liver, or brain, spinal cord, or other vital organs. 1.4. Symptoms: The bases of the dorsal and anal fins were common attachment sites. Ulcers are commonly observed with and without an attached parasite. The loss of scales and skin resulted in circular ulcers that averaged about 1.4 mm (diameter). Sometimes ulcerations are not observed around some parasites. The parasite cause disruption and necrosis of gill epithelium and large numbers of larvae on the gills cause the death of fish. The embedded anchors are surrounded by fibrous granulation tissue, and there are considerable leucocytic response below the dermis. Myofibril degeneration and hemorrhage are noted in most sections, but these reactions were not extensive. Bacteria were occasionally seen in histological sections. Fish were initially free of bacteria in the kidney but bacteria appeared in the kidney when parasites appeared on the skin. Bacteria were presumptively identified as a species of the genus Aeromonas. The number of ulcers declined and the number of scars increased in the fall. Scars were whitish, scaleless pockets that could not be penetrated by gentle probing with a blunt instrument. Microscopic examination revealed epidermal regeneration. Dermal collagen bridged the wound below the basal epidermal tissue, but was thinner than that in the adjacent stratum compactum layer. The amount of granulation tissue under scars was less than that observed in lesions. Melanocytes were scattered throughout the fibrotic tissue but were not abundant. Muscle bundles under most scars appeared normal (Berry et al., 1991). 1.5. Diagnosis: Adult female can be seen macroscopically; copepodids require the use of a dissecting microscope. 1.6. Treatment: To eliminate of the parasite requires treatment over several weeks to break the life cycle at the larval stage because embedded females are difficult to kill. To treatment, Organophosphate insecticides, particularly trichlorfon are commonly employed. Trichlorphon at 0.25 ppm will kill the copepodid stage but not the nauplii or adults. Bromexs at 0.12-0.15 ppm kils both nauplii and copepodids (Sarig, 1971). NaCl at 20-40 ppm eradicate L. cyprinacea. Dimilin at 0.03 ppm eradicate parasite (Hoffman and Lester, 1987). 2. Caligus rogercressyi Caligus Müller, 1785 is the largest genus of parasitic copepods, containing more than 250 species. In recent years, epizootics of sea lice Caligus elongatus and Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a common marine ectoparasitic copepod of salmonids, have resulted in heavy losses and millions of dollars worth of damage to aquaculture throughout the northern hemisphere (Pike, 1989). L. salmonis feed on mucus, skin and blood of salmonids causing osmoregulatory stress and death in extreme cases (Grimnes & Jakobsen 1996, Björn & Finstad 1997). 2.1. Aetiyology: Caligus rogercressyi (originally identified as C. flexispina) is the most common species and Caligus teres is occasionally found on farmed trout in Chile. Adult caligids usally show sexual dimorphisim; the female is usally larger then thr male. The average length of adult females is 4.96 mm, (range: 4.46–5.49 mm) (Boxshall and Bravo, 2000). 2.2. Epizootiology: The parasite was transmitted to the farmed fish by the native rock cod Eleginops maclovinus and Odonthestes regia (Carvajal et al. 1998). Caligus flexispina have a life cycle consisting of the following stages: two nauplius, one infectious copepodid, four attached chalimus stages, one pre-adult and the adult. The life cycle of C. rogercresseyi has eight development stages, three planktonic and five parasitic. The planktonic stages comprise two nauplius and a copepodid, the infective stage. The copepodid settles on the host, holding on with its hooked pair of antennae. During moulting, the copepodid extrudes its frontal filament to 258 �attach itself permanently to the fish. The parasite moults into the four different chalimus stages always attached by a frontal filament. The size of the parasite increases at each stage. The planktonic stage begins with the first nauplius whose average length was 425 µm that moults in the second nauplius with an average length of 463 µm and then to the copepodid of 658 µm in average length. The parasitic stage begins with first chalimus up to fourth chalimus ending in the adult females and males (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 2003). 2.3. Pathogenicity: Caligus rogercresseyi Boxshall and Bravo (2000) is the dominant sea lice parasite affecting the salmon and trout industry in Southern Chile. At the beginning of salmon production in the country, Reyes and Bravo (1983) reported the presence of Caligus teres Wilson (1905) in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch Walbaum). Another species, initially identified as Caligus flexispina, but now identified as a new species, C. rogercresseyi by Boxshall and Bravo (2000) was also reported in 1992 (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994) on rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum). In Chile, Caligus has become a threat for the farmers, producing economic losses of US$ 0.30/kg due to the costs of delousing the fish in the processing plant and the slower growth of the fish, because of the presence of the copepods which stress them (Sievers et al., 1996). The excessive use of expensive drugs as bath or oral treatments to control the parasite is producing economic impact as well as pollution in coastal areas. Because this parasite causes less impact in farmed fish than microbial diseases (BKD), few studies on this Chilean parasitosis exist (Reyes and Bravo, 1983; Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994). With the exception of the naupliar stages, sea lice feed on host mucus, skin and blood. Sea lice have been reported to reduced productivity and cause disease outbreaks in a variety of farmed fish species (Pike, 1989; Berland, 1993; Grimnes and Jakobsen, 1996). 2.4. Symptoms: Salmon lice are caligid parasitic copepod species that have been reported to cause skin lesions in fish and losses in productivity in several farmed species in different parts of the world (Boxshall and Defaye, 1993). 2.5. Diagnosis: Tee large female parasites are usally visible to the dicerning eye on the gill, fins or body of fish or in the buccal and opercular cavities. The main characteristics used to identify the first chalimus of Caligus rogercresseyi is the cephalothorax with rounded posterior margins and frontal filament with a rounded base as defined by Kim (1993) and Piasecki and MacKinnon (1993) for other species of Caligus. The average length was 830 µm (range: 700–900) based on 21 specimens. The cephalothorax of the second chalimus has posterolateral corners. The frontal filament has two bases: a distal one corresponding to the first chalimus and a proximal one, newly formed and bilobed (Gonzalez and Carvajal, 1994). . 2.6. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate 50 mg/kg a day, for seven day (Stone et al., 1999). Ivermectin in feed, dosage of 0.05 mg kg-l, every third day for either 3 or 6 doses (Johnson and Margolis, 1993). 3. Ergasilus spp. Ergasilid copepods damage the gills and cause commercially significant epizootics in cultured and wild fish. Ergasilus sieboldi affects tench, pike, whitefish, ell, flounder (Woo, 1995) and trout (Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). Recenly, E. labracis killed large numbers of Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar, parr (85-125 mm long) over a 4 day period in New Brunswick, Canada (Hogans, 1989). 3.1. Aetiyology: Ergasilids copepods are less modified than fish-parasitic copepods and resemble free-living copepods in segmentation. Only fertilized females are parasitic; males and developmental stages live in the water column. The mature female of Ergasilus sieboldi is 1.5 mm long, Body, cyclopiform, has a cephalothorax formed from the cephalosome and the firt leg-bearing segment (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 3.2. Epizootiology: Adult females are external parasites, infesting the gills of a wide range of freshwater fishes and attaching to the gill filaments. Developmental stages are planktonic and occur in the water column of freshwater bodies. Parasites have unique lifecycle: eggs hatch into free-swimming naupliar phase. Only adult female is parasitic, seeking and attaching to a wide variety of freshwater fishes. Female attaches to gill filament of host, using clawed antennae that penetrate host gill epithelium. The life cycle of E. sieboldiconsist of six nauplii and five copepodid stages and adultr stage. It takes 22 days forth eggs of E. sieboldi to develop into freeliving males and females at 17-20 ºC. After fertilization, the female attaches to a fish (Lester and Roubal, 1995). 3.3. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: There is extensive gill damage and severe haemorrhage with inflammation and exsanguination associated with the attachment and feeding of the parasite. Blood vessels in the gill filaments are blocked and this leads to atrophy of gill tips (Paperna and Zwerner, 1981). Gill damage resulted in loss of gill 259 �surface area for respiration and led to suffocatio, particularly at high water temperatures. Heavy infections cause death (Grabda, 1991; Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 3.4. Diagnosis: Detection of parasites attached to the fish gill. 3.5. Treatment: Trichlorfon bath of 0.15 ppm 6 h. , malathion at 0.2 ppm 6 h. are suggested (Kabata, 1985). 4. Argulus spp Argulids have been recognized as pest of cultured trout in Europe (Kabata, 1985). They cause mortalities of fish in aquaria (Toksen, 2006), in lakes and estuarines and occasionally cause problem in sea caged salmonids (Stuart, 1990). The three best known species are Argulus foliaceus, A. coregoni, A. japonicus. 4.1. Aetiyology: The genus Argulus spp (Crustacea: Branchiura), or fish louse, are 5-10 mm in size. The general body-form of Argulus is a dorso-ventrally flattened and covered by a large chitinous carapace. The body can be divided into 3 distinct regions: cephalothorax; thorax and abdomen (Soulsby 1982; Fryer, 1982; Lester and Roubal, 1995). 4.2. Epizootiology: Argulus spp. have direct life cycle (Mikheev et al., 2001). The female is clasped by the smaller male and his genital opening is brougth into contact with the female spermatheca where the female deposits the sperm. The female then lay eggs on different objects in the water and they are fertilized at the time of deposition. Just after hatching the larva isable to parasitize the host. The first stage larvae which has a resemblance to adults but without suckers. Following 5-8 moults the adult stage is reached. The development is highly temperature dependent. The parasite feeds by puncturing host cells with its ventral stylet and susbsequently suckink up extracellulary digested cell debris (Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 4.3. Pathogenicity: The direct effects of this parasite on its host depend on the number of parasites and the size of the host. One or two parasites on a small fish cause the local damage on the epithelia. Several parasites have a very significant effect. 4.4. Clinical Signs: Fish with heavy infestations become lethargic, can cease feeding and show a general deterioration in their condition as reduced pigmentation, fins drooping (Lester and Roubal 1995). As well as the damage and stress caused by Argulus itself, one of the main worries for fish producers is the associated secondary infestations that can result from infestations with parasite. Several studies have examined the role of parasites as vectors for other diseases such as Aeromoniasis or Pseudomoniasis (Bauer 1991, Richards 1977). 4.5. Diagnosis: Argulus spp. can be seen scuttling over the surface of the fish with the naked eye. 4.6. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate 50 µg/kg for a period of 7 d. (Hakalahti et al., 2004), potassium permanganate (2-5 mg/lt, bath) or dimilin (0.01 mg/lt, bath) (Öge 2002), pyrethrum (20-100 ppm for 10-20 minutes); malathion (0.25 ppm for 6 hours); dipterex (100 ppm for 1 hour); trichlorfon (0.25 ppm for several hours); quinine hydrochloride (13.5 ppm for several days); atebrine (10 ppm for sevaral days) (Kabata 1985); DTHP (2.5 ppm 1 hour) (Puffer and Beal 1981), DDVP (1 ppm 1 h.) (Toksen, 2006) are effective againt to Argulus spp. 5. Salmincola spp. Members of genus Salmincola, especially, Salmincola californiensis are potential threat to salmonids farmed freshwater (Woo, 1995). Salmincola edwardsii is found mainly in cold northern climates. It has a holarctic distribution and infects only fish of the genis Salvelinus. Salmincola edwardsii is limited to the locations that Salvelinus exists. A few places in which Salmincola edwardsii have been reported are northern North America, Britain, and Scandinavia. Common places for Salmincola edwardsii to exist are in rivers with free access to the sea (Black, 1982; Black et al., 1983). 5.1. Aetiyology: Salmincola edwardsii is a relatively small organism. The average length of an adult male is 718.6 µm. The females are considerably larger averaging around 2055.8 µm. Size of the organism may be directly related to the site of attachment on the host fish. The gills of the fish offer protection and a more nutritious food supply; this location may support larger and more rapid development. The larvae are smaller than the adults approximately 512.4 µm. The adult female has an impermeable cuticle. Salmincola edwardsii body structure is modified away from the ancestral copepod. In the adult all external signs of segmentation have disappeared. Adult females are permanently anchored to the host's flesh. They are attached by a structure called a "bulla". The bulla is nonliving. It is formed from head and maxillary gland secretions. This structure is the 260 �anchor that holds the female onto the host. The females of this family, Lernaeopodidae, are attached almost completely outside the host, which is different than most other parasitic copepod families. Salmincola edwardsii have huge maxillae that are fused to the bulla. Located and functioning anteriorly Salmincola edwardsii has modified maxillipeds for a grasping structure. The swimming legs and abdomen that is seen in most copepods is absent or vestigial in adult female Salmincola edwardsii (Conley and Curtis, 1992; Conley and Curtis, 1994; Roberts and Janovy, 2000). 5.2. Epizootiyology: Salmincola edwardsii is found in aquatic habitats. The first larval stage of S. edwardsii swims in the water to find a host. Salmincola edwardsii need to be where its host genus Salvelinus lives, which is in lakes, and rivers that usually have outlets to the sea. Salmincola edwardsii spends most of its time near the bottom of the water column prior to attaching to a host. (Poulin et al., 1990). 5.3. Pathogenicity: Salmonid fish, such as trout that are raised in commercial hatcheries are at high risk for heavy infestations of S. edwardsii. Salmincola edwardsii can cause infections and create serious health problems for fish in cage culture. Larger fish circulate more water over their gills and thus bring more S. edwardsii (also other copepodids) in contact with them. Ironically, in natural fish populations the occurrence and intensity of the infection of S. edwardsii are usually low and have little impact of the fish. The fish is only vulnerable for the period of time when S. edwardsii is in its infective, free-living stage looking for a host. If the timing of egg hatching and the release of the free-living stage can be timed, hatcheries will know when the fish can become infected and hopefully in the future control S. edwardsii infection. In times of high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen, fish with many S. edwardsii attached to their gills have an especially difficult time. Also as a result of high infestation, growth and sexual maturation is stunted. (Amundsen et al., 1997; Conley and Curtis, 1992; Poulin et al., 1989). 5.4. Clinical Signs: The parasitized fish were found to develop anemia, expressed by the reduction in red cell counts, hemoglobin concentrations and hematocrit values. This anemic condition is attributed to hemodilution of the blood, resulting from damage to the gill and skin epithelia, and, in turn, leading to an osmotic imbalance between the water and the internal fluids. In addition, the progressive reduction of the red cells in the circulating blood may be a result of the absorption of parasite metabolic secretions through the gills or the bulla. Such absorption seems likely because of the observed variations of the cells in the leucocytic system and the significant increase in lymphocytes, neutrophils and "granulocyte cells" in relation to infection time. Furthermore, the blood of the infected fish clotted faster than that of the non-infected fish. During the course of infection a marked increase was also observed in the number of thrombocytes. Parasitized fish were less able to cope with environmental stresses. A water temperature of 21°C was found to be the median lethal temperature o infected fish. The swimming ability of infected fish was also reduced. The parasitized fish reached 50% fatigue when they swam in water of a velocity of 65 cm/sec for only 250 min. The chance of survival for the infected fish in this high water velocity is only 6.6% over the period of 600 min. The ability of the infected fish to transfer from fresh water to salt water was also affected. Mortality of the infected fish increased during this transition and these fish, as indicated by the salinity preference test, also avoided high salinity, suggesting that they may not have been ready to migrate. The critical period of infection where marked differences were found in all the parameters was that period when the parasites reached maximum size and a second infection took place with copepodids hatched from the original group (Pawaputanon, 1980; Buchmann and Bresciani, 2001). 5.5. Treatment: Ivermectin is intubated with 0.2 mg/kg fish, orally. A second treatment is administered after a further 14 days (Roberts et al., 2004). Conclusion: Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. In summary, parasitic diseases are economically important parasites in frehwater aquaculture. Disease outbreaks and subsequent mortalities caused by parasite are now rare due to the development of a variety of effective treatments. However, large economic losses still occur as the result of reduced feed conversion and growth, indirect mortality, loss of product value, and treatment costs. Although it is well understood that parasites have a major impact on trout aquaculture, there are relatively few published reports of disease and/or disease treatments. There are no reports of economic costs associated with these infections. 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Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, University Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. Journal of Fish Diseases, 9: 393–401. Shields R. J., Tidd, W.M. (1974). Effect of temperature on the development of larval and transformed females of Lernaea cyprinacea L. (Lernaeidae). Crustaceana, 15 (Suppl 1): 87.95. Shields, R.J. and Goode, R.P. (1978). Host rejection of Lernaea cyprinacea L. (Copepoda). Crustaceana, 35: 301-307. Sievers, G., Lobos, C., Inostroza, R. anf Erns, S. (1996). The effect of the isopod parasite Ceratothoa gaudichaudii on the body weight of farmed Salmo salar in southern Chile. Aquaculture, 143: 1–6. Soulsby, E.J.L. (1982). Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals. 7th Ed. Baillière Tindall, London, U.K. Stone, J., Sutherland, I.H., Sommerville, C.S., Richards, R.H., Varma, K.J. (1999). The efficacy of emamectin benzoate as an oral treatment of sea lice, Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Kroyer), infestations in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Journal of Fish Diseases, 22: 261-270. Stuart, (1990). Sea lice, a maritime perspective. Bulletin of the Aquaculture Association of Canada, 1:18-24. Toksen, E. (2006). Argulus foliacesus (Crustacea: Branchiura) Infestation on Oscar, Astronotus ocellatus (Cuvier, 1829) and Its Treatment, E.U. Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences , 23(1-2): 177–179 Uzmann, J.R. and Rayner, H.J. (1958). Record of the parasitic copepod Lernaea cyprinacea L. in Oregon and Washington fishes. Journal of Parasitology 44, 452–453 Woo, P.T.K. (1995). Fish Diseases and Disorders, CAB International, 808 p. 264 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 438 Title A name given to the resource Parasitic Diseases of Trout and Their Controls in Sustaınable Development of Aquculture: Crustaceans Author Author TOKSEN, Erol NEMLİ, Egemen DEĞİRMENCİ, Uğur KARACALAR, Ulviye Abstract A summary of the resource. Fin fish the primary source of production for humans in many part of world and this is especially true in most developing countries. Aquaculture is one of the increasingly developing industry. But fish diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. The salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis is now the main problem in cage-cultured salmon in the marine environment in Scandinavian countries. In recent years however, Argulus spp. have been reported to cause problems in UK stillwater trout fisheries. A survey of such fisheries found 29% of them suffered from problem infections by the parasite in the year 2000. Argulus spp. were perceived to cause economic losses in infected fisheries through a reduction in the number of anglers due to reduced aesthetic appeal and catchability of fish. Lernaea spp. in the eyes of trout cause blindness. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater trout, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on trouts, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/12c1452d7137914159c7eb96fd17ee3f.pdf 9e6575f056806b29069817a8e82e145a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Who Supports the Eu-Led Reforms for Democratization ın Turkey? Evidence from the Turkish University Youths Yusuf TEKĠN Police Academy, Ankara, Turkey yusuftekin@yahoo.com Muhsin KAR Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey mkar@cu.edu.tr Birol AKGÜN Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey bakgun@selcuk.edu.tr Hüseyin AĞIR K. Maras Sutcu Imam University, K.Maras, Turkey huseyinagir@ksu.edu.tr Bülent ÖZ Osmaniye Korkutata University, Osmaniye, Turkey ozb1@hotmail.com Abstract:It is generally argued that Turkey seems to be different geographically, culturally, politically and economically from the EU. Transformation of Turkey towards the Europe in these terms requires overcoming a broad range of the obstacles and maintaining reforms process without losing public support. This situation exposes the importance of internal dynamics in the accession process in terms of carrying out necessary reforms for the full membership. However, Turkey recently experienced an unprecedented reform process as a result of the synergy between external and internal factors, particularly the EU. This research tries to empirically examine the youth support for the EU-led reform process by utilizing a novel data set obtained from the questionnaire carried out in 26 different universities about 2000 students, during November and December 2009, in Turkey. The empirical findings show that partisanship, both political and religious attachments and national identity are the important factors which explain differences of individual support for the EU-led reform process for democratization in Turkey. Keywords: Democratization, Public Support, European Integration, Partisanship, Religious attachment, National Identity, Turkey. Introduction The integration of Turkey with the EU constitutes an interesting case for several reasons. It is generally argued that Turkey seems to be different geographically, culturally, politically and economically from the EU. Transformation of Turkey towards the Europe in these terms requires overcoming a broad range of the obstacles, changes and maintaining reforms process without losing public support. In other words, the Turkish governments, on the one hand, try to fulfill the EU accession conditionality and, on the other hand, they face with an increasing opposition from the status quo or various segment of the society. This dichotomy exposes the importance of internal dynamics in the accession process in terms of carrying out necessary reforms for the full membership. However, Turkey recently experienced a rapid transformation as a result of the synergy between external and internal factors. The EU particularly has played an anchor role in this period. Especially, Turkey has carried out important political reforms to democratize the political structure after acceptance of an official candidate at the Helsinki summit in 1999. In addition, as the newly elected government in 2002 forced 347 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo aggressively for a date for the start of membership negotiations, it demonstrated an unprecedented performance in both the economic and political realms. However, it is argued that the dynamism of the reform was replaced by the stagnation in the recent years, starting roughly after Turkey secured the launch of the accession process in 2005. Confronted with the opposition and demands of increasingly irritating nationalist voices in the country, as well as adverse international conditions, the ruling AK Party lost the momentum of its reformist path, also leading to a stalemate in Turkish-EU relations. As far as the dynamics of reform process is concerned, one of the important questions is whether there was/has been a sufficient motivation for both reforms in the past and potential transformation in future within the Turkish public and civil society. Although there is a limited literature on why Turkish decision makers are pursuing integration with the Europe (McLaren and Müftüler-Baç, 2003) and why the Turkish citizens would vote for Turkey‘s accession to the EU in a possible membership referendum (Çarkoğlu, 2003; Kentmen, 2008), existing research on the EU-Turkey interactions lacks empirical analyses of whether and to what extent Turkish people support to the reform process in Turkey. In order to sustain the reforms, the public support is well needed for further reforms in the future in Turkey. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to investigate the determinants of individual support for the EU-led reforms on democratization in Turkey. In particular, this research tries to empirically examine the youth support for the EU-led reform process by utilizing a novel data set obtained from the questionnaire carried out in 26 different universities about 2000 students, during November and December 2009, in Turkey. The EU-led Reform Process in Turkey The ruling elite have long seen the economic and political integration into Europe a cherished goal for Turkey. However, Turkey‘s integration process reveals unprecedented challenges and opportunities for both sides in terms of economic and political gains. In particular, Turkey would differentiate from the previous enlargements in the context of its population, size, geographical location, economic, security and military potential, as well as cultural and religious characteristics. These features make Turkey special and interesting not only for the EU but also for researchers in many fields in the social sciences. This subject is still undoubtedly one of the Turkey‘s most important foreign policy problems and also an extremely powerful domestic issue as well. Turkey has been a member in many organizations in the Western Europe since the post war period (the Council of Europe in 1949, the European Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in 1954, the NATO in 1952, the Organization of Security and Cooperation in Europe in 1975). Turkey was officially recognized as a candidate for the European Union in Helsinki in 1999, given a date for the beginning of the accession negotiations in December 2004 at which this meeting decided to start the negotiations in October 2005. The negotiations for full membership came four decades after the Ankara Agreement signed between Turkey and the EEC in 1963. In addition, Turkey signed a Customs Union Agreement with the EU in 1995. This brief history states that Turkey qualifies as the longest standing associate partner of the EU. Although the Ankara Agreement was one of the critical turning in Turkey‘s relations with Europe in 1963, this relationship has not followed a smooth process. In particular, this relationship was interrupted by the intervention of the military into the politics in 1980. The EU proved to be an extremely active and vocal source of criticism of the military regime at a time when the US was relatively passive and indifferent actor for strategic and geopolitical objectives (ÖniĢ, 1999b:128). The EU‘s constant pressure clearly was very crucial and encouraged Turkey‘s early transition to democracy in 1983 and the relations were finally normalized in 1986. Turkey surprisingly made an application for membership in 1987 and was rejected mostly on economic grounds. The Commission‘s advisory report at that time makes a very short reference to the poor democracy in Turkey. However gross violations of human rights in Turkey in the 1980s and 1990s overshadowed the normalized relations. The European Parliament played a leading role to draw the attention of the European states and public to the situation of minorities in Turkey, large limitations over political and civil rights, the fate of political prisoners, disappearances and anonymous killings (Dağı, 2001). In particular, the European Parliament declared in 1995, it would vote against the custom union on the grounds of gross human rights in Turkey and this caused the Turkish government to make certain democratic reforms immediately. However, developments after the agreement for the Customs Union with the EU showed that this agreement per se failed to provide an appropriate mix of conditions and incentives to induce a major transformation in domestic politics and economy in Turkey (ÖniĢ, 2003:9). The declaration of the Copenhagen criteria in 1993 opened a new era both in the EU history of enlargement and in Turkey. These criteria indicated that the membership was not only an issue of economic or political integration, but also an integration of democratic values and norms that are usually immaterial and intangible. Due to the terrorist movement in the southern Turkey, security was prioritized and the Turkish government was not ready for such a change and did not prepare a serious plan for democratization which was constantly postponed (Erdogan, 2006). In addition, Turkey‘s relations with the EU had its worst moment in 1997 348 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo at the Luxemburg summit which did not give Turkey as a candidacy status for full membership. This decision created a reaction in the Turkish side which decided to reject all conditions and not to discuss any issue with the EU. Turkey had to wait until the acceptance of an official candidate in 1999 at the Helsinki summit with the same conditions as the other candidates. This candidacy status represented a fundamental turning point in Turkey-EU relations and triggered the democratization in Turkey. Although significant constitutional and legal reforms have been adopted under the influence of the globalization of democratic norms and the encouraging effect of the prospect of the EU membership to strengthen and deepen the democratic values in Turkey ever since 1983, they are not sufficient to complete the transformation of its political system into a liberal or consolidated democracy. In particular, the 1995, 1999, 2001 and 2004 reforms are more important in terms of democratization and liberalization and modified the authoritarian nature of the 1982 constitution (Yazıcı, 2004; Özbudun, 2007). The authoritarian legacy was eliminated not only by these constitutional reforms, but also by several legal reforms, called as ‗harmonization packages‘, which adopted between February 2002 and August 2003. These packages enlarged the scope of certain fundamental rights and liberties such as the freedom of thought, freedom of expression, freedom of press, freedom of association (Yazıcı, 2004:99). In addition, role of the military over the politics substantially reduced by amending the structure of the National Security Council (NSC) which is a decision-making in the course of last two decades. Clearly, a change of this magnitude would have been impossible in the absence of a powerful and highly institutionalized EU anchor in the direction of full membership (ÖniĢ, 2003:13). It is generally argued that the dynamism of this first democratization period was replaced by the stagnation after Turkey secured the launch of the accession process in 2005. Confronted with the opposition and demands of increasingly irritating nationalist voices in the country, as well as adverse international conditions, the ruling AK Party lost the momentum of its reformist path, also leading to a stalemate in Turkish-EU relations. In particular, nature of the negotiation as being ‗open-ended‘, uncertainty about the future of the negotiations, existence of explicit opposition of some member states (i.e. France, Austria and to some extent Germany), internal opposition from the political parties, hard line Republicans and Nationalists and the government‘s reform fatigue seems to slow down the reform process. At this point, it is very important who has supported /supports the EU-led reform process in Turkey, since it is very difficult to continue this process without the internal support. Source of Public Support for the EU-led Reform Process There is a large literature to examine the differences among the public on the support for the EU integration. Several previous studies have identified systematic differences in individual-level support for integration related to partisanship (Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Franklin, Marsh, and McLaren, 1994; Franklin, Marsh, Wlezien, 1994; Franklin, Van der Eijk, and Marsh, 1995; Cichowski, 2000, Tverdova and Anderson, 2004), age, gender (Carey, 2002), income (Anderson and Reichert, 1996; Gabel and Palmer, 1995; Gabel, 1998; Gabel and Whitten, 1997), occupation (McLaren, 2004; Venables, 2003; Jolly and Brinegar, 2003; Hooghe and Marks, 2004; Kentmen, 2008), cognitive skills (Inglehart, 1970a; Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Janssen, 1991), political values (Inglehart, 1970b, 1990; Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Anderson and Reichert, 1996), support for government (Franklin, Marsh, and McLaren, 1994; Franklin, Marsh, Wlezien, 1994; Tanasoiu and Colonescu, 2008), identity (Smith, 1992; Carey, 2002; Hooghe and Marks, 2004; Kentmen, 2008) and religious attachment (Nelsen et al., 2001; Çarkoğlu, 2003; Nelsen and Guth, 2003, Kentmen, 2008) Based on this vast literature, this paper tries to empirically investigate the support for the EU-led reform process in terms of partisanship and political self-description (ideology), religious attachment and national identity in Turkey. Partisanship and Political Attachment With the establishment of the Republic in 1923, the founders of the State clearly stated declared that their objectives were to catch up with and become part of ―contemporary civilization‖ which constituted the fundamentals of the Turkish modernization. The Turkish modernization effort in nature was elite and state driven and these bureaucratic elite controlled the course for the development (Mehmet, 1983:57; ÖniĢ, 1999; Barkey, 2000:88-90). The main characteristic of the Turkish modernization as argued by Black (1967) is that socio-economic developments were formed by this political elite whom play a central role in almost all affairs in a manner of traditional strong state which has acting capacity almost completely independent from civil society (Heper, 1985). Based on this background, a close relationship with the West and especially with the European integration has always been one of the important foreign policy objectives for Turkey. With the full membership perspective for Turkey in the early 2000, Turkey has experienced an increasing reform process and the EU has 349 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo played as an important external anchor in Turkey. The public support for the reform is very essential to push the democratization further. Inglehart, Rabier and Reif (1991:152) put it that the EU represents a vehicle for social, political, and economic reforms. However, every segment of the public may not be affected equally and in the same way by these reforms and therefore while the winners in this process may support the reforms, the losers may oppose the new reforms. In a democratic society, the power of the public is very important and, citizens may halt the reform process by withdrawing their support. Following the literature on the link between partisanship, political attachment and support for the EU integration (Inglehart, Rabier and Reif, 1991; Franklin, Marsh, and McLaren, 1994; Franklin, Marsh, Wlezien, 1994; Franklin, Van der Eijk, and Marsh, 1995; Cichowski, 2000, Tverdova and Anderson, 2004), this paper proposes that citizens adopt attitudes toward the reform process that reflect the position of the party they support. In other words, the party shapes its supporters' attitudes toward reform independent of their personal characteristics (e.g., occupation, income, and values) that might influence both their choice of party and support for integration. In addition, when the public make up their decision on something that there is not enough knowledge about it, they look at the behavior of the political figures (leaders) or political institutions (parties) they support or vote for. In addition, as Inglehart (1970b, 1990) posited that support for European integration, and therefore for the reform process in Turkey, is associated with value orientations regarding economic and political issues (Gabel 1998). According to the theory, citizens' political behaviors are structured by the socioeconomic conditions surrounding their formative, or preadult, years. These conditions are expected to shape certain values and attitudes that tend to persist over an adult's lifetime. To this end, political attachment of citizens in terms of self-description (social democrat, Turkish nationalist, democrat, Islamist, nationalist (ulusalcı) and Atatürkist (Atatürkçü) etc.) may explain variation in individual attitudes toward the reform process. In Turkey, the harmonization packages changed the military backed 1982 Constitution in the 2000s are more associated with the human rights, freedom of expression, democratic standards. It can be argued that these reforms are directly related with not only the physical security (materialist value) but also intellectual fulfillment and self-actualization (post-materialistic value). Consequently, one might expect that political attachment with the materialist and post-materialist values in terms of political self-description may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform process. In other words, those who support a less nationalistic and a more egalitarian society would be more likely to be supportive for the reform process. Along the conventional leftright ideological divide those who consider themselves to be leftists are significantly more inclined to support the EU-led reforms. Specifically, individuals identifying with conservative parties are found to be more supportive of membership than left-oriented respondents (Shepherd 1975; Inglehart, Rabier & Reif 1991) As far as the attitudes of the main political parties in Turkey toward the EU are concerned, the Republican People Party (RPP) as a founder of the Republic is generally accepted to support the EU membership on the basis of the legacy of Kemalism, westernization, from the beginning (Ahmad, 1993; Özdemir, 2008). The RPP as an opposition party was usually positive in the reform process in 2000s and support the EU Harmonization Packages. Recently, the RPP has been very critical to go further reform on democratization in terms of solution for the Kurdish issue. Therefore the reluctance of the RPP is characterized to be a soft euroskepticism and to resist to reform process (Verney, 2007). ÖniĢ (2007) argues that a conservative, religious based party may play structurally a limited role in promoting Europeanization agenda and highlights the need of a major European-style social democratic party which promotes domestically democratization and supports Turkey‘s bid for full membership externally through the European social democrat parties. The National Action Party (NAP) as a Turkish nationalist party is generally against the reform process, although first two important harmonization packages passed the Parliament during a coalition government including itself. The NAP is against the democratization on the grounds that the reform process may encourage the separatist feelings and actions in the southeast of Turkey and would split the country in two separate entities. The Justice and Development Party (JDP) coming from a pro-Islamic political tradition, namely the National Outlook Movement (Milli GörüĢ Hareketi) (National Order Party (Milli Nizam Partisi) in the late 1960s, National Salvation Party in the 1970s, Welfare Party (WP) (Refah Partisi) from the early 1980s to 1997, Virtue Party (VP) (Fazilet Partisi) from 1997 to 199 and currently Felicity Party (Saadet Partisi)), established, after the closure of the Virtue Party, by ―the reformers‖ of this party in 2002 (Dağı, 2005; Toprak, 2005) and has been ruling the country for the last 8 years (2002-?). The JDP puts forward pro-western external relations in economic and political terms, aimed at being a full member of the EU at the end and has been very enthusiastic for the democratization in Turkey. The JDP‘s impressive politics of reform paved the way to EU accession negotiations and furthered the democratization of Turkey (Karakas, 2007). In particular, after the Copenhagen Summit in 2002 stated that if Turkey meets the Copenhagen Political Criteria until the EU Summit in December 2004, the accession negotiations will start ―without delay‖. Therefore, the JDP started a wave of reform period by amending the constitution and other legal documents to meet the Copenhagen Political Criteria. 350 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The ruling JDP‘s enthusiastic efforts for Turkey‘s EU membership, in contrast to the hesitations of the Kemalists, is indicative of the changing positions of political forces in Turkish politics. As the Kemalists seemed to have abandoned the idea and ideal of westernization, the Islamists have moved towards advocating further westernization, which entails deeper democracy, broader human rights, closer integration with the EU and a lesser (Kemalist) state (Dağı, 2005). Verney (2007) argues that the moderate Islamists of the JDP have become the most vigorous elements of the globalizing pro-reform coalition, being transformed in the process into selfprocessed ‗Muslim democrats‘. With the entrance of the JDP to the political arena, the Turkish politics cannot be evaluated in the traditional left-right axis. While the JDP pushes for reform, the RPP resists to it. Normally it is expected that reluctance of the RPP as agent for westernization for a long time and central left for asking further democratization is not well understood in Turkey. Therefore, in order to emphasize the complexity in the political arena, ÖniĢ (2007) states that the political struggle currently goes on between ‗conservative globalists‘, promoting the domestic reform process, and ‗defensive nationalists‘, resisting it. Many of the secular elites which have traditionally supported Westernization, including the military, are uncomfortable with the political reforms promoted through EU conditionality. There is also a shift on the attitudes of the Felicity Party (FP) toward the EU. In the past, Coming from the National Outlook Movement tradition, the parties (the WP and the VP) before the FP was against the EU and openly declared this discourse in the 1980s and 1990s. The 28 February Process seems to be an important element and has resulted in a change in the attitudes of the party towards the EU (Taniyici, 2003). Since then the FP emphasizes the democratic principles and human rights and seems to be in favor of the EU membership. It is expected that the supporters of the FP would approve the EU-led reform process. On the other hand, the Democratic Society Party (DSP) as a Kurdish nationalist party (banned by the constitutional court and re-structured under the Peace and Democracy Party recently) pushed for further reform in terms of minority rights, cultural right, asking the military to stop the military actions against the Kurdish separatist in the southeast of Turkey. The DSP was supportive in the Parliament in these harmonization packages. Based upon these ideological backgrounds and political practices, one might argue that the central left (RPP) and central right (JDP) parties, in addition to the pro-Kurdish one (DSP), favor for reform which proposes further democratization in the country. On the other hand, the Turkish nationalist party (NAP) is against for the reform process. Following this discussion, it is claimed that: H1: The supporters of the mainstream political parties (central-left and central-right) are more likely to be in favor of the EU-led reforms. H2: The supporters of the Kurdish nationalist party are more likely to be in favor of the EU-led reforms. H3: The supporters of the Turkish nationalist party are more likely to be skeptical about the EU-led reforms. H4: Type of political attachment (ideological self-description) may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform process. Religious Attachment Recently, there is a growing literature whether social norms and religious beliefs are predictors of individual opinion about European integration. In order to evaluate complex and relatively new social issues, individual attachment to a religion might be very important. In particular, Seul (1999) argues that religious beliefs may have implications for evaluating political and social life and therefore may propose specific rules to provide sense stability for individuals in a changing world. New and relatively unknown developments in the social, economic and political areas may bring about insecurity and ambiguity for the future and may result in resistance for these new formations. The topic is covered in the researches whether a Protestant or a Catholic behaves differently towards the European integration (Hagevi, 2002; Nelsen and Guth, 2003; Nelsen et al., 2001; Vollaard, 2006). In addition, this literature emphasizes that the degree of attachment to religious norms and values might be matter. In particular, the effect of religion on the behaviors may change with the religiosity of the individual (Nelsen et al., 2001; Nelsen and Guth, 2003, Kentmen, 2008) However empirical research on how Islamic beliefs shape attitudes toward the EU is very limited (Çarkoğlu, 2003; Kentmen, 2008). A popular perception is that Islamist fundamentalists disapprove of Western values and the West‘s cultural, political and economic hegemony. This link between Islam and the West has long been one of the hotly debated issues on two grounds (Kentmen, 2008). First one is about a popular perception on whether Islam is anti-western, following the attacks of 11 September 2001 (Dagi, 2005). If this argument is valid, alienation of Muslim from Europe would lead Muslim individuals with strong religious beliefs to be less supportive for the EU. In this case, Muslims are more likely to be reluctant for supporting main principles of the western ideals. Second one is whether the religiosity plays any role in supporting the Western ideas. To what extent, greater attachment to Islamic norms and values may influence the individual approaches toward the West. 351 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In order to truly evaluate Turkish Islamic attitudes towards the West, one should go back to the period of Ottoman Empire. Especially when the Empire lagged behind the West in terms of political and economic developments and technological achievements, some Islamic elites mainly directed their criticism to the West and did not look for the roots of the collapse in the Empire. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, many Islamists continued to criticize Western influences because they believed that the secular reforms achieved by the Turkish Republic had originated in the West and therefore did not have any place in Islamic teaching (Kentmen, 2008). The Islamic elite in the 1970s and the 1980s generally saw the European Community as a Christian Club, further secularism, and new form of westernization and opposed to Turkey‘s attempt to join in it (Canefe and Bora, 2003). This perception radically changed after indirect military intervention into the politics in 1997, known as ―the 28 February Process‖. This intervention was the result of accepting the political Islam as a threat to the Republic and tried to control ―all forms of Islamist expression in the public sphere‖ (Dağı, 2004:138). This move from the secular forces of the Republic increased the fear among the Islamic elite who evaluate that a more radical and oppressive form of implementation of secularism is unbearable. As a result, many Islamists have become supporters of ‗Western ideals‘ and loud advocates of Western values such as liberalism, democracy, freedom of thought and freedom of religion in recent years as a response to state control over religious expression in Turkey (Dağı, 2004). Canefe and Uğur (2004) specifically revealed that compared with the past, the state elite had become relatively cautious about accession, whereas antiestablishment groups, such as Islamists and ethnic minorities, had become more supportive in Turkey. Given this very brief historical background, it seems plausible to expect many Muslim individuals in Turkey at the present time to have a positive view of the EU, which is seen as promoting and guaranteeing liberal rights (Kentmen, 2008). Following this discussion, it is claimed that: H5: Level of attachment to religion may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the EU-led reforms. H6: Level of attachment to Islam may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the EU-led reforms. National Identity Recently there is a growing literature which points to national identity as an important explanation of (lack of) support for European integration (Carey 2002, Marks and Hooghe 2003, Hooghe and Marks 2004, Netjes and Edwards 2004). The discussion on identity draws on psychology of group membership to consider how national identity affects support for European integration (De Vries and van Kersbergen, 2007). Urry (2000) argues that individuals rely on their national identity to frame their needs and to differentiate themselves from others. The literature developed by Smith (1992), Shore (1993), Christin and Trechsel (2002) and Hooghe and Marks (2005) emphasizes that individuals who have strong attachments to their national identity might perceive the integration of member states as a threat causing to lose their national identity, because it dissolves the differences among the national communities. Carey (2002:393) highlights that individuals may prefer the ―protection of the in-group (the nation), and the group identity at stake, from the out-group (the EU)‖. However Hooghe and Marks (2004) points to the multi-layered and flexible nature of social identity and suggest that some individual can prefer two identities (national and European identities) simultaneously. This preference imply that these individuals do not see their national identity as their only reference point and are happy with weakening of national identity in the process of the unification (Kentmen, 2008). At this point, Marks and Hooghe (2003) make an important classification which argues that one needs to distinguish between several types of national identity, by evaluating the extent to which national identity is exclusive or inclusive. Individuals who consider their national identity as exclusive will see supranational governance as a threat, whereas those with multiple identities will be favorably disposed to governance beyond the nation-state (Kentmen, 2008). As far as empirical research on this issue is concerned, the link between national identity and support for the European integration is ambiguous. On the one hand, Marks (1999) and Haesly (2001) argue that national identity is consistent with European identity and support for European integration and, on the other hand, Carey (2002) and Ketmen (2008) reveal that attachment to national identity have a significant negative impact on support for European integration. In other words, the literature states that individuals who attach themselves more closely with their nation than with the EU to be less supportive of European unification (Hooghe and Marks, 2004).Based on the discussion above, one might argue that there is a direct link between national identity and support for the EU-led reforms. As far as the political discussion recently taking place in Turkey on further democratization is concerned, especially the Turkish nationalist considers that democratization in the way to the EU membership and attempts to build the unity and peace in the country may result in breaking away of Turkey. Following this discussion, it is claimed that: 352 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo H7: Level of attachment to national identity may explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the EU-led reforms. Empirical Analysis Data In order to test the hypotheses about the micro-level determinants of support for the EU, a novel data set, collected through the questionnaires which were applied to 2047 university youths in 26 universities in November and December 2009 throughout Turkey, is utilized. Distribution of the universities in 7 regions is as follows: Ġstanbul, Uludağ (Bursa), Kocaeli and Beykent Universities in the Marmara Region; Dokuz Eylül University (Ġzmir), Ġzmir Economics and Ege Universities in the Agean Region; Akdeniz Bölgesinden Akdeniz (Antalya), Çukurova (Adana) and KahramanmaraĢ Sütçü Ġmam Universities in the Mediteranean Region; Selçuk (Konya), Ankara, Erciyes (Akyseri) and Afyon Kocatepe Universities in the Central Anatolia Region; Zonguldak Karaelmas, Ondokuz Mayıs (Samsun), GaziosmanpaĢa (Tokat) ve Karadeniz Teknik Universities in the Black Sea Region; Kafkas (Kars), Ġnönü (Malatya), Atatürk (Erzurum) and Van Yüzüncü Yıl Universities in the East Anatolia Region and Dicle (Diyarbakır), Fırat (Elazığ), Gaziantep and Harran (ġanlıurfa) Universities in the South East Anatolia Region. Distribution of the student in each university is presented in the Appendix A. Initially, the base line date for the registered student in each university is obtained from the Educational Statistics of the Higher Educational Council of Turkey. The number of target student for the questionnaire in each university is determined by weighing the registered students in each university. During the application of the questionnaire to target students, the number of students in each department in each faculty in each university and gender are carefully designed to get random information to represent the full sample, the university youths. The distribution of the sample in terms of gender is 52,6 percent man and %47,4 percent female. The logistic regression is employed in the empirical analysis. The use logistic regression is commonly utilized statistical tool for the analysis which uses the binary dependent variable (approval or disapproval of the EU-led reforms in Turkey). Logistic regression results provide probabilities that an individual will support for the EU-led reforms, given a certain combination of values on the independent variables. It proves to be a useful tool as it allows us to differentiate between groups of respondents and compare the likelihoods that they will support for the EU-led reforms. Operationalization of Variables Support for the EU-led reforms, the dependent variable is operationalized using the question: ―The reforms carried out in the framework of the EU membership in Turkey is necessary‖ The answer for this question is constructed in terms of a 5-item Likert- Scale (1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= undecided, 4== agree and 5= strongly agree). The final distribution of the dependent variable is 51,2 percent in favor (agree plus strongly agree) and 25,4 percent opposed (strongly disagree plus disagree) or 23,4 percent undecided as presented in Table 1. It is very interesting that about 23 percent of the student did not provide any information and stated as ―undecided‖. ―The reforms carried out in the framework of the EU membership in Turkey is necessary” Valid Missing Total strongly disagree disagree undecided agree strongly agree Total System Frequency 177 324 462 680 332 1975 72 2047 Percent 8,6 15,8 22,6 33,2 16,2 96,5 3,5 100,0 Valid Percent 9,0 16,4 23,4 34,4 16,8 100,0 Cumulative Percent 9,0 25,4 48,8 83,2 100,0 Table 1: Distribution of the Answers for the Necessity of Reforms For the purposes of this study, support for the EU-led reforms is operationalized as a binary variable, coded 1 when the respondent (agree plus strongly agree) believes in necessity of the reforms, and 0 when the respondent (strongly disagree plus disagree plus undecided) do not support the reforms or when s/he is undecided. This sort of coding has significant methodological advantages, in terms of larger sample size and more equal distribution, compared to a ‗clean‘ dichotomy of ‗in favor‘ and ‗against‘ answers (Ehin, 2001). Also, 353 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the theoretically interesting question is not what distinguishes firm supporters of reforms from firm opponents but what distinguishes firm supporters from everybody else (Ehin, 2001:43). The proposed hypotheses require the introduction of five concepts that need to be operationalized: Partisanship, political attachment (ideological self-description), religious attachment, Islamic attachment, national identity. Partisanship, the first set of the independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―If there is a general election tomorrow, which party would vote for?‖ The answer for this question constitutes of the mainstream political parties in Turkey. In addition, the respondent is free to write down any other party which is not in the answer. The JDP, the RPP, the NAP, the FP and the DSP denotes the Justice and Development Party, the Republican People Party, National Action Party, Felicity Party and Democratic Society Party (recently banned by the Constitutional Court and re-established currently under the Peace and Democracy Party). Distribution of possible vote for the political parties is presented in Table 2. The other parties are DP, Democrat Party; DLP, Democratic Left Party; GUP, Great Unity Party. These small parties are not included in the analysis. As can be seen from Table 2, the biggest party student would vote for is ―none of the established party‖. This information is very interesting and implies that the university youths are not happy with the existing parties. Five dummy variables for mainstream political parties (JDP, RPP, NAP, FP, DSP) are created. This dummy is obtained in the binary form, coded 1 when the respondent would vote one of the political parties and 0 when the respondent would vote for the other parties or when s/he is undecided. In addition, one more dummy as ―None‖ created as the same methodology to represent the biggest group who would not vote for ―none of the existing parties‖. If there is a general election tomorrow, which party would vote for? Valid Missing Total JDP RPP NAP FP DP DLP DSP GUP Other None Not Classified Total System Frequency 420 425 256 36 18 22 92 47 99 524 Percent 20,5 20,8 12,5 1,8 ,9 1,1 4,5 2,3 4,8 25,6 1966 81 2047 96,0 4,0 100,0 Valid Percent 21,4 21,6 13,0 1,8 ,9 1,1 4,7 2,4 5,0 26,7 1,4 100,0 Cumulative Percent 21,4 43,0 56,0 57,8 58,7 59,9 64,5 66,9 72,0 98,6 100,0 Table 2: Distribution of Possible Vote for the Political Parties Political attachment (ideological self-description), this independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―Which of the following identities commonly used in Turkey describes you best?‖ The answer for this question includes ―Turkish Nationalist, Atatürkist, Kemalist, Nationalist (Ulusalcı), Feminist, Social Democrat, Socialist/Marxist, Islamist, Other (please state:…..)‖. For the purpose of this study, five dummies for each mainstream self-description (Atatürkist, 27,9 percent; Turkish nationalist, 21,7 percent; Social democrat, 14,3 percent; nationalist (ulusalcı), 9,9 percent; Islamist, 7,8) is created in a binary form as coded 1 if the respondent describes himself as one of the above identities, and 0 if the respondent describes himself as the others of the above identities. Religious attachment, this independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―How would you define yourself in terms of your approach towards religion?‖ There is a ten-item scale in the questionnaire, and the answers 1 to 10 means that zero if the respondent is disinterested in religion in extreme case (atheist) and 10 if the respondent is interested in religion in the other extreme case (radical). Distribution of the students‘ answers is presented in Table 3. 354 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo How would you define yourself in terms of your approach towards religion? Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1,00 57 2,8 2,9 2,00 51 2,5 2,6 3,00 94 4,6 4,7 4,00 72 3,5 3,6 5,00 320 15,6 16,0 6,00 291 14,2 14,6 7,00 366 17,9 18,3 8,00 458 22,4 22,9 9,00 175 8,5 8,8 10,00 116 5,7 5,8 Total 2000 97,7 100,0 Missing System 47 2,3 Total 2047 100,0 Cumulative Percent 2,9 5,4 10,1 13,7 29,7 44,3 62,6 85,5 94,2 100,0 Table 3: Approaches of Students towards Religion As seen in Table 3, the answers are unevenly distributed and focus on 5-8 range. Two binary variables are created from these answers. First one is ―Moderately Religious‖, accounted for 48,9 percent, coded 1 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as 5-7, and 0 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as others. Second one is ―Religious‖, accounted for 22,9 percent, coded 1 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as 8, and 0 if the respondent describes himself (herself) as others. Islamic attachment, this variable is operationalized using the question: ―How would you describe yourself in terms of adherence to Islamic values?‖ There is a ten-item scale in the questionnaire, and the answers 1 to 10 means that zero if the respondent does not adhere to Islamic values at all and 10 if the respondent completely adheres to Islamic values. Distribution of the students‘ answers is presented in Table 4. How would you describe yourself in terms of adherence to Islamic values? Frequency Percent Valid Percent Valid 1,00 54 2,6 2,7 2,00 66 3,2 3,3 3,00 93 4,5 4,6 4,00 79 3,9 3,9 5,00 270 13,2 13,5 6,00 257 12,6 12,8 7,00 345 16,9 17,2 8,00 442 21,6 22,1 9,00 212 10,4 10,6 10,00 183 8,9 9,1 Total 2001 97,8 100,0 Missing System 46 2,2 Total 2047 100,0 Cumulative Percent 2,7 6,0 10,6 14,6 28,1 40,9 58,2 80,3 90,9 100,0 Table 4: Adherence of Students to Islamic values National identity, this independent variable is operationalized using the question: ―How would you feel/define yourself whether you are European or not?‖ The answer for this question is ―European, European and Turkish, Turkish and European, Turkish, European and Other (please write down:…..), Other (please write down:…..) and European, Other (please write down:…….)‖. Distribution of the answers is presented in Table 5. As can be seen from Table 4, 56,6 percent of the students feel themselves as ―Turkish‖, 21,2 percent of them feel as ―Turkish and European‖ and 4,3 percent feels as ―European and Turkish‖ and 1,3 percent feel as ―Kurdish‖. As far as ―European and Other‖, ―Other and European‖ and ―Other‖ together account for 12,1 percent which might also include some Kurdish, albeit uncertain. Four binary dummies are structured from this information. ―European‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as European and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. ―European and Turkish‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as European and Turkish (simultaneously) and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other 355 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo identities. ―Turkish and European‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as Turkish and European (simultaneously) and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. ―Turkish‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as Turkish and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. ―Kurdish‖ coded 1 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as Kurdish and 0 if the respondent feels himself (herself) as the other identities. How would you feel/define yourself whether you are European or not? Valid Missing Total European European and Turkish Turkish and European Turkish European and Other Other and European Other Kurdish Not Classified Total System Frequency 36 84 416 1110 20 43 174 25 Percent 1,8 4,1 20,3 54,2 1,0 2,1 8,5 1,2 1961 86 2047 95,8 4,2 100,0 Valid Percent 1,8 4,3 21,2 56,6 1,0 2,2 8,9 1,3 2,7 100,0 Cumulative Percent 1,8 6,1 27,3 83,9 85,0 87,1 96,0 97,3 100 Table 5: National Identity Other variables, Gender: 1 if the respondent is a man, and zero otherwise. Urban: 1 if parents of the respondent live in city center and zero otherwise. Residence: 1 if the respondent lives at least 3 months in any EU countries and zero otherwise. Statistical Findings The logistic regression is employed to empirically investigate the determinants of ―support for the EUled reforms‖ in the empirical analysis because the dependent variable is dichotomous and the results are presented in Table 6. In order to test the above proposed hypothesis, a model for each category is developed. In particular, Model I provides evidence how and to what extent the partisanship contributes to determine the support for the reform in Turkey. Model II deals with the issue whether the political attachment (self-description) is an important factor to explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform. Model III and IV look at the role of religion and the adherence to Islam whether they play any role in this issue respectively. Model V examines whether the national identity explains the variation in individual attitudes towards the reform. Model VI includes all the variables in the previous models (I-V). Finally Model VII shows the most important factors which contribute to explain the determinants of the EU-led reforms in Turkey. Table 1 show that the empirical findings are robust. In particular, Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test indicates that the utilized models in the analysis are well-fit with the data set at hand. In addition, the predicted powers of the estimated models are at statistically acceptable level. Model I reveals that whereas the supporters of the JDP and the DSP approve the EU-led reforms, those of both the NAP and the FP disapprove this process. Interestingly the coefficient for the RPP, albeit negative, is statistically insignificant. These findings show that supporters of the RPP as a mainstream party are skeptical about the reforms. Model II indicates that political attachment may be important to explain the variation in individual attitudes towards the reforms. While those who describe themselves as Atatürkist are against the reforms, social democrats are in favor of the reforms. The self-description of the university students in terms of Turkish nationalist, Nationalist (Ulusalcı) and Islamist does not contribute to explain the variations in individual attitudes. Model III and IV provide evidence on the attachment to religion and adherence to Islam. The findings show that whereas attachment to religion has a statistically significant impact on the individual attitudes toward the reform, adherence to Islam does not indicate a significant influence on this issue. Model V examines the effect of national identity on the individual attitudes toward the reforms. The results indicate that while those who feel as European are in favor of reforms, those who feel as Turkish are against the reforms. 356 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Explanatory Variables Model I Model II Model III Model IV Model V JDP 0,57 (0,18)*** RPP -0,21 (0,17) NAP -0,76 (0,19)*** DSP 0,84 (0,30)*** FP -0,85 (0,38)** None -0,14 (0,17) Political Atatürkist -0,30 (0,14)** Attachment Turkish Nationalist -0,05 (0,15) Social Democrat 0,92 (0,18)*** Nationalist 0,14 (0,18) Islamist 0,14 (0,20) Religious Moderately Religious 0,26 (0,11)** Attachment Religious 0,36 (0,13)*** Islamic Moderately Muslim 0,06 (0,14) Attachment Devoted Muslim 0,08 (0,11) National European 0,75 (0,42)* identity European and Turkish 0,38 (0,27) Turkish and European 0,02 (0,16) Turkish -0,60 (0,13)*** Kurdish 0,69 (0,49) Other Residence 0,36 (0,25) 0,48 (0,26)* 0,37 (0,25) 0,37 (0,24) 0,20 (0,25) variables Urban 0,09 (0,09) 0,00 (0,09) 0,03 (0,09) 0,04 (0,09) 0,04 (0,09) Gender 0,50 (0,09)*** 0,45 (0,10)*** 0,51 (0,09)*** 0,52 (0,09)*** 0,47 (0,09)*** Constant -0,19 (0,16) -0,26 (0,14)* -0,44 (0,12)*** -0,27 (0,09)*** 0,09 (0,15) N 1851 1787 1877 1881 1866 Predicted Correctly (%) 62,4 57,3 56,7 56,8 59,2 Hosmer Lemeshow Test 8,15 9,64 2,46 1,57 1,59 2 Nagelkerke R 0,08 0,06 0,03 0,02 0,07 Note: Values in the parenthesis are the standard error. ***, ** and * denotes significance at 1, 5 and 10 percent level respectively. Partisanship Table 6. Results of Logistic Regression on Determinants of the Support for the EU-Led Reforms in Turkey 357 Model VI 0,62 (0,20)*** -0,06 (0,20) -0,6 (0,21)*** 0,39 (0,34) -0,53 (0,40) -0,08 (0,18) -0,08 (0,17) 0,25 (0,18) 0,75 (0,19)*** 0,16 (0,21) 0,004 (0,23) 0,23 (0,13)* 0,33 (0,16)** 0,13 (0,16) 0,02 (0,14) 0,85 (0,47)* 0,57 (0,30)* 0,20 (0,19) -0,36 (0,17)** 0,82 (0,59) 0,51 (0,27)* 0,05 (0,10) 0,46 (0,11)*** -0,50 (0,24)** 1712 63,1 6,89 0,14 Model VII 0,73 (0,14)*** -0,39 (0,15)** 0,78 (0,16)*** 0,28 (0,12)** 0,37 (0,14)*** 0,74 (0,45)* -0,57 (0,11)*** 0,50 (0,26)* 0,44 (0,10)*** -0,31 (0,13)** 1728 62,3 2,99 0,13 �In the econometrical analysis, adding the model may change the significance of the independent variables. Considering the multi-facet nature of the reform process, one should take into account these factors. Model VII provides an overall picture on this issue as a final model. In particular, statistical findings show that signs and significance of the variables for the NAP and Turkish (proxy for the national identity) states that supporters of the NAP and those who feel Turkish does not approve the reform process. On the other hand, the variables for the JDP, Social Democrat (proxy for the political attachment), both Moderately Religious and Religious (proxies for the religious attachment), European (proxy for the national identity), Residence (proxy for social learning) and Gender are positive and statistically significant. These findings show that these variables explain the variation in individual attitudes toward the reform. In particular, the supporters of the JDP, social democrats, religious people, feeling to be European, living in the member countries and finally man approve the EU-led reforms in Turkey. Interestingly while supporters of the RPP disapprove the reforms, the Social Democrats approve the reforms. Similarly the coefficients of the DSP (pro-Kurdish party) and Kurdish (as a national identity) are not significant in final model (VII). Conclusion It is usually argued among the academics and policy makers that the Turkey‘s EU perspective is very important because it plays as an external anchor to push further the democratization of the country. On the hand, reforms process for the democratization needs to be designed very carefully because the internal support are very vital for the sustainability of the reforms in every society. The approval of the reforms are especially very important for Turkey as a divided society in terms of secular and conservative, Turks and Kurds, center and periphery. Turkey has experiencing a reform process with the support and conditionality of the EU since 2000. The reforms for democratization show a cycle process which is very closely associated with the EU‘s perspectives for Turkey. In other words, when the EU send a clear signs for the possible full membership, democratization has increased in Turkey or vice versa. It is generally argued that reform process has been slowed especially after 2005 when Turkey got the negotiation for the full membership. One of the reasons might be the lack of support for further reform on democratization in Turkey because the recent reform attempts has started to exacerbate the decades-old political problems such as the Kurdish issue in the country. This paper, therefore, tries to examine the youth support for the EU-led reforms in Turkey. In order to test the possible source of the support for the EU-led reforms in Turkey, a novel data set is collected from the university students in Turkey and utilized by the logistic regression. The Empirical findings reveal that the partisanship, political attachment, religious attachment and national identity contribute to explanation of the variations in individual attitudes. 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Margulies, (1988), ―Austery Packages and Beyond: Turkey since 1980‖, Capital and Class, 36. 361 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Appendix A Distribution of the Student in Each University University Frequency Valid Ġstanbul 216 Uludağ 107 Beykent 25 Kocaeli 97 Dokuz Eylül 120 Ege 128 Ġzmir 27 Akdeniz 35 Çukurova 98 Sütçü Ġmam 33 Selçuk 182 Ankara 136 Erciyes 75 Afyon Kocatepe 52 Zonguldak Karaelmas 34 Ondokuz Mayıs 104 GaziosmanpaĢa 29 Karadeniz 126 Kafkas 30 Ġnönü 53 Atatürk 111 Yüzüncü Yıl 42 Dicle 66 Harran 21 Fırat 64 Gaziantep 36 Total 2047 Percent 10,6 5,2 1,2 4,7 5,9 6,3 1,3 1,7 4,8 1,6 8,9 6,6 3,7 2,5 1,7 5,1 1,4 6,2 1,5 2,6 5,4 2,1 3,2 1,0 3,1 1,8 100,0 362 Valid Percent 10,6 5,2 1,2 4,7 5,9 6,3 1,3 1,7 4,8 1,6 8,9 6,6 3,7 2,5 1,7 5,1 1,4 6,2 1,5 2,6 5,4 2,1 3,2 1,0 3,1 1,8 100,0 Cumulative Percent 10,6 15,8 17,0 21,7 27,6 33,9 35,2 36,9 41,7 43,3 52,2 58,8 62,5 65,0 66,7 71,8 73,2 79,3 80,8 83,4 88,8 90,9 94,1 95,1 98,2 100,0 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 194 Title A name given to the resource Who Supports the Eu-Led Reforms for Democratization ın Turkey? Evidence from the Turkish University Youths Author Author TEKİN, Yusuf KAR, Muhsin AKGÜN, Birol AĞIR, Hüseyin ÖZ, Bülent Abstract A summary of the resource. It is generally argued that Turkey seems to be different geographically, culturally, politically and economically from the EU. Transformation of Turkey towards the Europe in these terms requires overcoming a broad range of the obstacles and maintaining reforms process without losing public support. This situation exposes the importance of internal dynamics in the accession process in terms of carrying out necessary reforms for the full membership. However, Turkey recently experienced an unprecedented reform process as a result of the synergy between external and internal factors, particularly the EU. This research tries to empirically examine the youth support for the EU-led reform process by utilizing a novel data set obtained from the questionnaire carried out in 26 different universities about 2000 students, during November and December 2009, in Turkey. The empirical findings show that partisanship, both political and religious attachments and national identity are the important factors which explain differences of individual support for the EU-led reform process for democratization in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory