46 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/db58a459e5c251f37bc14d31ca52bcf4.pdf 4fbedd29ae014a88a661d66fbfcdfcd4 PDF Text Text Laboratory Animals and Experimental Research in a Sustainable Scientific Development Metehan UZUN University of Onsekiz Mart, School of Health Science, ÇANAKKALE, TURKEY, e-mail: metehanuzun@hotmail.com Birkan TOPÇU University of Kafkas, Atatürk Vocational School of Health Services, Kars, TURKEY e-mail: birkantopcu_23@hotmail.com Abstract: Laboratory animals are used and the experimental research is run in various scientific fields such as human and animal health, disease control, sustainable environmental health, health industry and product innovation, and biosafety planning. The experimental research includes those studies that are not yet proven to be completely safe or those not possible to be run on humans. Rats, mice and rabbits are commonly used in these studies. Based on the kind of the study, cats, dogs, guinea pigs, hamsters, sheep, cattle, chicken, sparrows, goats, horses, nonhuman primates, invertebrates, fish and fly species can be used. Though labaratory animals provide significant contributions to the humans and development in science, they require protection by humans and require to be protected from unfair use. Ethical boards and rules are formed to accomplish those goals prohibited the use of the laboratory animals in experimental research under unethical conditions and ruled that any research shall use methods that require the least amount of pain and suffering. The boards ruled not only on research methods but also on feeding and management practices to uphold the main principles of animal welfare. It is obvious that these rulings are the already late responsibility of human kind. Introduction Millions of animals have been used in the identification and treatment of disease, biomedicine and health industry and product innovation. Laboratory animals used as models in biomedicine research should have biological, anatomical and physiological similarities to humans. Various laboratory animals have been used in biomedical research and toxicity tests aimed that developing new methods for human diseases. Laboratory animal usage has been increasing in worldwide. When an experimental model is chosen, the genetic definition has to be taken into account. Mice and rats are the best-studied mammalian species in terms of their biology, physiology and genetics after humans. Taylor et al (2008) estimated that 58.2 million animals in 179 countries were used in experiments or for educational purposes in 2005. In England, 3.7 million scientific experimental procedures were started in 2008. Mice, rats and all other rodents together accounted for the seventy-seven percent (77%) of the total (Figure 1). The number of animals used in experimental studies has been increasing exponentially and the species used in these experiments are changing. There were increases in usage of some species (Figure 2). On the other hand, a decrease in some species was recorded in 2008 (Figure 3). For example, rat (8%), domestic fowl (4%), guinea pig (8%), rabbit (13%) and beagle (17%) usage decreased (Figure 3; Home Office, 2008). 283 �Figure 1. Usage of the species of animals in 2008. 120 100 Fish 140 Turkey Pigs Amphibians 160 Ferret increase % 80 mic e Sheep 60 40 20 0 animals Figure 2. The increasing rate in usage of some species in 2008. decrease 0% -12% -14% -16% -18% Beagle -8% -10% Rabbit % Rats -6% Guinea pig -4% Domestic fowl -2% Figure 3. The decreasing rate in usage of some species in 2008. 284 �Animal in published research others 20% rats 36% pigs 4% dogs 7% rabbits 9% mice 24% Figure 4. The percentage of laboratory animals in published research in 1995-2005 (Zhao et al, 2007). Zhao et al (2007) retrieved the Pub Med biomedicine database and searched for publications related to laboratory animals and reported that rat and mice have majority of species used in biomedical research. The research was done in 1995-2005 Pub Med records and was carried out on mice (24 %), rat (36 %) and rabbit (9 %) adding up to a total of 69 per cent. The research carried out on pig, dog and other animals have only % 31 rate (Figure 4; Zhao et al., 2007). In the year 2010, marine species have been started to be used in experimental studies in significant numbers. Additionally, animals such as the C. elegans and Drosophila melanogaster have been increasingly used as a screening tool. These organisms have advantages of having genetic amenability, low cost and culture conditions that are compatible with large-scale screens in addition to allowing high-throughput screening in a whole-animal context (Giacomotto and Segelati, 2010). Mice biology and genetics allow these animals to be the best-studied mammalian species. Mice and rats have been used extensively in experimental research and are valuable model organisms thanks to their small size, short lifespan and fast reproduction. 3Rs Principles Though laboratory animals provide significant contributions to the humans and development in science, they require protection by humans and require to be protected from unfair use. To accomplish this, 3Rs were developed. The principle of the 3Rs was developed and was considered essential to good laboratory animal practice in scientific experiments and product testing. The 3Rs includes; 1. Replacement: Replacement of animal use with non-animal alternatives. The use of non-sentient organisms rather than higher animals for experiments is recommended. Microorganisms, metazoan parasites, and higher plants can be suggested as possible alternatives to laboratory animals. 2. Reduction: Reduction of the number of animals used should be kept at minimum. Reduction can be considered as obtaining the best quality and most precise information with the smallest possible number of animals. 3. Refinement: Refinement of animal use, in order to avoid or minimize animal pain, distress, or other adverse effects. Refinement referred to all changes in protocols that reduced the severity of stress experienced by animals used in experiments (Russell and Burch, 1959). 285 �Replacement alternatives Knight (2008) reviewed that non-animal methodologies is available within biomedical research and toxicity testing. For example, physicochemical evaluation and computerized modeling, including the use of structure-activity relationships and expert systems, minimally-sentient animals from lower phylogenetic orders or early developmental vertebral stages may be used, in addition to a variety of tissue cultures, including immortalized cell lines, embryonic and adult stem cells, microorganisms and higher plants, and organotypic cultures, in vitro assays utilizing protozoal, bacterial, yeast, mammalian or human cell cultures exist for a wide range of toxic endpoints. Reduction Alternatives De Boo and Hendriksen (2005) reviewed intra and extra experimental reduction strategies for animal use in experimental research. Intra-experimental reduction may be achieved by the design and statistical analysis of individual experiments. Purpose of the supra-experimental reduction is to reduce the number of animals by a change in the setting in which a series of experiments take place. These include reduction of breeding surpluses, improved education and training, critical analysis of test specifications, and re-use of animals. Refinement Alternatives Some of the refinements techniques include the use of analgesic and anesthetic techniques to avoid unnecessary pain and suffering (De Boo and Knight, 2008). In addition, Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals states that laboratory animals used in research, teaching, or testing must assume responsibility for their health and general well-being. Laboratory animals include any vertebrate animal that are involved in the guide and some principles are provided below: • Using the suitable animal species, quality, and the number of animals • Avoiding or minimizing discomfort, stress, and pain. • Using suitable sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. • Establishing experimental end points. • Provision of appropriate animal husbandry directed and performed by qualified people • Conducting the experiments on living animals only under the close supervision of qualified and experienced people. Today, these suggestions have become very important and have been accepted in many countries around the World. Many scientists have tried to decrease usage of the animals in their experiments. However, humans still require animals in their experimental procedures. Many significant knowledge is based on animal experiments. Using animals in experiments can only be fair, ethical and successful if they make use of the 3Rs. Year Researcher Experimental animal mouse Research subject odorant receptors and the organization of the olfactory system 2004 Axel R and Buck LB 2002 Brenner S, Horwitz HR, and Sulston J worm genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death 2001 Hartwell LH, Hunt RT and Nurse PM Different animal species key regulators of the cell cycle 2000 Carlsson A, Greengard P and Kandel ER Mouse concerning signal transduction in the nervous system 1999 Blobel G proteins have intrinsic signals that govern their transport and localization in the cell 1998 Furchgott RF, Ignarro LJ and Murad F Different animals and their cells rabbit 1997 Prusiner SB Hamster & mouse Prions - a new biological principle of infection and guinea pig 286 concerning nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system �1996 DohertyPC and Zinkernagel RM mouse specificity of the cell mediated immune defense 1995 Lewis EB, Wieschaus EF and NussleinVolhard C Drosophila Melanogaster genetic control of early embryonic development" 1992 Fischer EH and Krebs EG. Rabbit reversible protein phosphorylation as a biological regulatory mechanism 1991 Neher E and Frog the function of single ion channels in cells Sakmann B 1990 Murray JE and Thomas ED Dog organ and cell transplantation in the treatment of human disease 1989 Varmus JM and Bishop HE Chicken the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes 1987 Tonegawa S mouse genetic principle for generation of antibody diversity 1984 Milstein C, Köhler KJF and Jerne NK mouse specificity in development and control of the immune system and the discovery of the principle for production of monoclonal antibodies" 1982 Bergström SK, Samuelsson BI and Vane JR Sheep, rabbit, guinea pig prostaglandins and related biologically active substances 1981 Sperry RW, Hubel TH and Wiesel TN Cat and monkey functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres, information processing in the visual system 1980 Benacerraf B, Dausset J and Snell GD Mouse and guinea pig genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions Table 1. Animal experiments which resulted in Nobel Prizes between the years 1980-2004 (http://nobelprize.org). Animal Rabbit Rat Rabbit Mouse Zebra Fish Zebra Fish Rat Rabbit Rat Cynomolgus macaques Rabbit Mice and rat Rat Rat Zebra Fish Rabbit Model Osteoarthritis Renal impairment Epstein-Barr virus infection endometriosis Polycystic kidney disease Fetal alcohol exposure and cardiovascular abnormalities Hypertension and associated metabolic disturbances Venous thrombosis Acute asthma Chikungunya virus infection Atherosclerosis Rheumatoid arthritis Double-hemorrhage Choroidal neovascularization Cancer Vaccinia keratitis 287 Reference Kim et al, 2010 Salman et al, 2010 Okuno et al, 2010 Altan et al, 2010 Bouvrette et al, 2010 Dlugos and Rabin, 2010 Pravenec and Kurtz, 2010 Konishi et al, 2010 Sun et al, 2010 Labadie et al, 2010 Chen et al, 2010 Güresir et al, 2010 Baba et al, 2010 Mione and Trede, 2010 Altman et al, 2010 �Mouse Rat Rat Rat Rat Rat Rat mice Mouse Mouse Mouse Mouse Mouse Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila melanogaster Drosophila melanogaster Guinea pig Guinea pig Guinea pig Guinea pig cynomolgus macaques cynomolgus monkey cynomolgus monkey Neurodegeneration Acute pancreatitis Spinal cord compression injury Nerve injuries Chronic mild stres and depression Aging, stress and stroke Gastric carcinogenesis Ulcerative colitis associated Carcinogenesis T Lymphotropic Virus Type-1Associated Adult T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma Down Syndrome Human cancer Central nervous system embryonal Tumors Chronic lymphocytic leukemia Neurodegenerative disease Neuroscience. Epilepsy Acute nerve injury and peripheral nerve regeneration Dermatophytosis Asthma Osteoarthritis Shigella dysenteriae type 1 infection Peripheral nervous system injury Hepatitis A virus Dawson et al, 2010 Qian et al, 2010. Schültke et al, 2010 Ma et al, 2010 Wu and Wang, 2010 Merrett et al, 2010 Manikandan et al, 2010 Chromik et al, 2010 Zimmerman et al, 2010 Yu et al, 2010 Walrath et al, 2010 Momota and Holland, 2010 Hamblin, 2010 Berg et al, 2010 Bellen et al, 2010 Kliman et al, 2010 Cho et al, 2010 Ghannoum et al, 2010 Kloek et al, 2010 Gurkan et al, 2010 Shipley et al, 2010 Wakao et al, 2010 Amado et al, 2010 Table 2. Examples of studies in which animals were used as a model . References Altan, Z.M, Denis, D., Kagan, D., Grund, E.M., Palmer, S.S., Nataraja, S. (2010). A Long Acting TNF{alpha.} Binding Protein Demonstrates Activity in both in vitro and in vivo Models of Endometriosis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 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Improvement of experimental accelerated atherosclerosis by chondroitin sulphate. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. Merrett, D.L., Kirkland, S.W., Metz, G.A. (2010). Synergistic Effects of Age and Stress in a Rodent Model of Stroke. Behav Brain Res. Mione, M.C., Trede, N.S. (2010). The zebrafish as a model for cancer. Dis Model Mech. Momota, H., Holland, E.C. (2009). Mouse models of CNS embryonal tumors. Brain Tumor Pathol. 26 (2), 43-50. Okuno, K., Takashima, K., Kanai, K., Ohashi, M., Hyuga, R., Sugihara, H., Kuwamoto, S., Kato, M., Sano, H., Sairenji, T., Kanzaki, S., Hayashi, K. (2010). Epstein-Barr virus can infect rabbits by the intranasal or peroral route: an animal model for natural primary EBV infection in humans. J Med Virol. 82 (6), 977-86. Pravenec, M., Kurtz, T.W. (2010). Recent advances in genetics of the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Curr Hypertens Rep. 12 (1), 5-9. Qian, M., Fang, L., Cui, Y. (2010). Expression of NOD2 in a Rat Model of Acute Pancreatitis. Pancreas. 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Behav Brain Res. 290 �Yu, T., Li, Z., Jia, Z., Clapcote, S.J., Liu, C., Li, S., Asrar, S., Pao, A., Chen, R., Fan, N., Carattini-Rivera, S., Bechard, A.R., Spring, S., Henkelman, R.M., Stoica, G., Matsui, S.I., Nowak, N.J., Roder. J.C., Chen, C., Bradley, A., Yu, Y.E. (2010). A Mouse Model of Down Syndrome Trisomic For All Human Chromosome 21 Syntenic Regions. Hum Mol Genet. Zhao, S., Liu, E., Chu, Y., Zheng, H., Kitajima, S., Morimoto, M. (2007). Numbers of puplications related to laboratory animals. Scand J Lab Aninm Sci. 34 (2), 81-86. Zimmerman, B., Niewiesk, S., Lairmore, M.D. (2010). Mouse Models of Human T Lymphotropic Virus Type-1-Associated Adult T-Cell Leukemia/Lymphoma. Vet Pathol. 291 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 442 Title A name given to the resource Laboratory Animals and Experimental Research in a Sustainable Scientific Development Author Author UZUN, Metehan TOPÇU, Birkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Laboratory animals are used and the experimental research is run in various scientific fields such as human and animal health, disease control, sustainable environmental health, health industry and product innovation, and biosafety planning. The experimental research includes those studies that are not yet proven to be completely safe or those not possible to be run on humans. Rats, mice and rabbits are commonly used in these studies. Based on the kind of the study, cats, dogs, guinea pigs, hamsters, sheep, cattle, chicken, sparrows, goats, horses, nonhuman primates, invertebrates, fish and fly species can be used. Though labaratory animals provide significant contributions to the humans and development in science, they require protection by humans and require to be protected from unfair use. Ethical boards and rules are formed to accomplish those goals prohibited the use of the laboratory animals in experimental research under unethical conditions and ruled that any research shall use methods that require the least amount of pain and suffering. The boards ruled not only on research methods but also on feeding and management practices to uphold the main principles of animal welfare. It is obvious that these rulings are the already late responsibility of human kind. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c7b49bbbc669b807449e3267c1d6f01.pdf ff31acaeb94e6a228f5f94e40e95305e PDF Text Text Friction Welding And Its Applications In Today’s World Mehmet UZKUT Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Turgutlu MYO, Makine Bölümü, Turgutlu, Manisa, Turkey Bekir Sadık ÜNLÜ Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Turgutlu MYO, Makine Bölümü, Turgutlu, Manisa, Turkey Selim Sarper YILMAZ Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Turgutlu MYO, Makine Bölümü, Turgutlu, Manisa, Turkey Mustafa AKDAĞ Gediz Üniversitesi, Đzmir, Turkey Abstract :By developing technology of today, the necessity of using different materials by joining came out. The most suitable method in joining two different alloyed steel is to weld. The fact that the properties of welding zone are naturally different from the properties of steels in different alloyed at post welding process has came up and these differences occur some important problems. Among many kinds of welding methods, using the melting welding methods has also increased the number of these problems. However, in the connecting zone, many different zones come out by depending on composition and properties of the connecting materials. Deposite remain of the melting welding methods, welding faults of porosity and inside tightens of cooling are the important disadvantages of these methods and they decreases the strength of welding. For this reason, solid state welding methods are more suitable due to these melting welding faults. The most important and applicability of these methods are friction welding. For these reasons, in this study importance and application areas of friction welding were explained. 1. Introduction The ideas of using heat obtained by friction in welding and forming of materials are not new. Friction welding obtained by frictional heat is a commercial process, which has found several applications in different parts of the world with the advancement in technology. First, simple devices having lathe machine type and metal rods have been used in butt welding trials. However, these studies can onl be regarded as preliminary technical trials with little practical importance. The firts trial of friction welding goes back to the 15th century and the first patent was granted to J.H. Bevington, who then was a machinist. Bevington first applied friction welding in elding of metal pipes. Friction welding which was first applied to cutting tools in metal processing industry has found several applications. W. Richter patented the friction welding process in 1924 (in England) and 1929 (in Germany) and H.Klopstock patented the same proces in the USSR (1924). H. Klopstock and A.R. Neelands obtained a patent for friction welding of cylindrical parts. Studies on welding of plastic materials were carried out in the 1940s in the USA and Germany [1, 2]. A Russian machinist named A. J. Chdikov has realized scientific studies and suggested the use of this welding method as a commercial process. He has successfully done a welding process between two metal rods and patented this process in 1956. Vill and his colleagues have further investigated the process with a number of studies. Researchers of American Machine and Foundry Corporation named Holland and Cheng have worked on thermal and parametrical analysis of friction welding [3]. By the way, the first studies of fricton welding in England were carried out by the Welding Institute in 1961. By modifying the friction welding, the Caterpillar Tractor Co. in the USA developed the method of inertia welding in 1962. After this study, conventional friction welding has been regarded as the Russian type process and inertia welding as the Caterpillar type process. With these advances, applications of friction welding have found several applications throughout the world. Friction welding is one of the most widely used welding methods in the industry after electron beam welding [4]. This study addresses friction welding, its significance and types, welding capability, welding parameters and their applications. 710 �2. Friction Welding All welding methods can be investigated in one of the two main categories; melt and pressure welding. Friction welding is a type of pressurized welding method. Friction welding is a solid state process, where no electric or other power sources are used, mechanical energy produced by friction in the interface of parts to be welded are utilized. Using heat efficiently in the welding region is only possible by efficiently distributing heat on surfaces, to which welding will be applied. During the welding process, surfaces are under pressure and this period called the heating phase continues until plastic forming temperature is achieved. The temperature in the welding region for steels is between 900 and 1300 oC. Heated metal at the interface accumulates by incerasing pressure after heating phase. Thus, a type of thermomechanical treatment occurs in the welding region and this region has stable particle structure. Metals and alloys, which cannot be welded by other welding methods, can be welded using friction welding. In order to obtain welding connection between parts, untreated surfaces need to be contacted to one another. This contact is efficient because friction corrects contacting problems. The melting process does not normaly occur on contacted surfaces. Even though, a small amount of melting may occur, accumulation caused by post-welding process makes it invisible. Figure 1 gives the stages of friction welding. One of the parts is stationary while the other one rotates (Figure 11). When the roational speed rises to a certain value, axial pressure is applied and locational heating occurs in parts at the interface. Then, rotation is stopped, heated material at the interface accumulates (Figure 13) [5, 6]. The stages of friction welding during the welding process are given in Figure 2 [7]. Figure 1. The schematic stages of friction welding [7]. 711 �Figure 2. Actual look of friction welding process [11]. Applications of friction welding are generally used in the welding of pipes and circular rods. The basic movement in this kind of application is the rotational movement causing friction [8]. Figure 3 shows conventional friction welding methods in joining of certain size rods and pipes. 712 �Figure 3. Applications of friction welding [9, 10]. Figure 3-a shows the most simple and used application. In this application, the axes of parts to be welded are the same and rotate around other axes. Under the rotational pressure, friction forces occur on cotact surfaces. Figure 3.b suits best to the small size samples requiring higher rotational speed. It is used in applications where higher relative rotational speeds are required. Figure 3.c is for the applications where parts being very long are efficiently joined. Even though it could not find widespread applications, Figure 3.d is mainly used in welding of pipes rotating under radial forces [9, 10]. It needs to be known that a high quality welding connection can only occur in parts having claen and smooth surfaces. Several inclusions, oxides formed on the surface, films absorbed by the surface are always present and negatively affects bond formation and welding quality. These problems are removed from welding connections by wearing off surfaces during friction [8]. In friction welding, orbital movement as well as rotational movement, linear vibration movement and angular vibration movement can be applied. Orbital movement is fr the welding of non-cylindrical parts. Application shown in Figure 4 is between a stable part and a part rotating circularly [5]. Figure 4. Friction welding including orbital movement [5]. One of the parts in figure 5 moves forward and backward in linear vibration movement. This method has firs been suggested by Vill. In angular vibration movement, one of the parts makes an orbital movement under applied pressure [3]. Figure 5. Friction welding including linear rotation movement [3]. 713 �2. 1. Types of Friction Welding Friction welding can be applied by using one of the two methods depending on the source of mechanical energy. With current advances, a combined welding method including both of the methods aforementioned has been developed. These are continuous driven friction welding, flywheel driven friction welding and a combination of the two [1, 5]. 2.1.1. Continuously Induced Friction Welding A inducement driven group provides the necessary energy for rotation. Mechanical energy is converted to heat by applying pressure from rotating part to non-rotating part. This method is generally mentioned in the literature for friction welding. One of the parts is connected to the engine inducement unit and rotates at a constant velocity; a constant axial force is applied to parts. Working parts interact with each other during welding or until axial shortening occurs. Then, braking system stops the process. Pressure applied during welding is increased and stays at a certain value until weld cools down. The essential welding parameters are rpm, friction force on the surface, the length of friction period, forging force and forging time [1, 5]. A schematic of continuous inducement friction welding machine is given in Figure 6 and process parameters in Figure 7. Figure 6. A schematic of continuous inducement friction welding machine [1, 5]. (1.Inducement engine, 2. Brake 3 a. Spindle of rotating working part, 3 b. Spindle of stationary working part, 4 a. Rotating working part, 4 b. Stationary working part, 5. Accumulation cylinder) Figure 7. Process Parameters versus time in friction welding [1, 5]. 714 �2.1.1. Flywheel Induced Friction Welding In this welding method, flywheel induced system constantly rotates and is joined to flywheel shaft system to achieve a certain speed. After reaching a certain speed, engine flywheel is separated from shaft flywheel. Shaft flywheel having a low moment of inertia stops without braking. Therefore, this welding method is known as welding of inertia in the literature. One of the parts is connected to the flywheel and accelerates at a certain speed and thus mechanical energy is stored in the flywheel. Then, the two parts are contacted and a certain welding pressure is applied. Parts under this pressure interact with each other and energy stored in the flywheel is spent for friction. The speed of flywheel decreases as welding region heats up. In some circumstances, pressure is increased before flywheel completely stop and the effect continues for some time. Flywheel induced friction welding has better seam, narrower ITAB region, better serial production, lower power need and more simple apparatus than continuous induced friction welding. The essential welding parameters are rpm, forging force on the surface, the mass of flywheel, and forging time [1, 5]. A schematic of flywheel induced friction welding machine is given in Figure 8 and process parameters in Figure 9. Figure 8. A schematic of flywheel induced friction welding machine [1, 5]. (1.Inducement engine, 2. Changeable Flywhell, 3 a. Spindle of rotating working part, 3 b. Spindle of stationary working part, 4 a. Rotating working part, 4 b. Stationary working part, 5. Accumulation cylinder) Figure 9. Process Parameters versus time in flywheel induced friction welding [1, 5]. 715 �2.1.3. Combined (Hybrid) Friction Welding This method is a combination of aforementioned the two methods of friction welding. It has advantages in joining parts with high capacity. This method is also sometimes termed as flywheel induced friction welding. The essential welding parameters are rpm, friction force on the surface, the length of friction time, and forging time on the surface, forging time and time of brake [1, 5]. Process parameters for the combined friction welding is given in Figure 10. Figure 10. Process Parameters versus time in combined friction welding [1, 5]. The process of welding includes friction and accumulation stages as given in Figures 7, 9, and 10. Moment curves are essential to understanding of process parameters in all the welding methods studied. Dry friction between parts exists in the beginning of process and moment curve stabilizes after reaching the maxima. Naked surface interactions increase due to disintegration of oxide layers among contacted surfaces and strong atomic bonding occurs as a result of these interactions. These bonds are forced to be broken due to friction. However, strong adhesion forces occur, moment increases and temperature reaches to the desired level. Velocity decreases quickly due to braking and moment becomes zero [1, 5]. 2.2. Expected Properties of Friction Welding Machine Friction welding machines are generally similar to lathe and drill. The first friction welding machines are modified forms of these machine tools. The schematic of friction welding machine is given in Figure 6 or Figure 8. As can be seen from the figures, a friction melding machine has the main body, joining parts, rotate and accumulate mechanisms, brake system, power supply, control unit and control panel. Fricton welding machines are all-mechanized machines. Joining and releasing of parts, turning of capaklar produced due to accumulation after welding are automatically accomplished. The main functions in friction welding are joining, compressing and releasing of parts, rotation and friction under pressure, braking, accumulation and meticulous adjustments of required processing times. Sample joining apparatus needs to have a certain rigidity, must resist increased moments, must eliminate vibrations and leaks. Especially, possible vibrations during welding process need to be taken into account while designing the friction welding machine. In addition to vibrations, other radial and axial forces have to be accounted for. Therefore, joining apparatus has to have a design which will counter compressing forces. For this process, V type two chaps or special chaps are used [6]. 716 �All stopping apparatus used to hold friction equipment must be highly dependable. A slight deformation in parts to be joined may result in a low quality welding and may also damage brake system. Brake systems automatically centerd are used in most of the applications. Friction welding machines have certain particle size and material limitations. For example, a machine having 120KN compressed force and 15KW electric engine can be used in the welding of stells with cross-sectional areas of 130-800mm2. All machines can be adjusted to meet certain specifications and can automatically be controlled. This process is sometimes done by just manually turning off the switch or protectors [11]. 2.3. The Suitability of Friction Welding and Friction Welding Capability of Materials Knowledge on material properties and applicability of metallic materials and material combinations for friction welding is not completely clear. Experimental studies and practical applications have been giben to address this problem. Preliminary trilas have been carried out in order to determine optimum parameters of welding, the applicability of welding process for every new material or material combinations. The results of these studies are not concrete since they are experimental. They can be modified or redefines as new facts come out [12, 13]. The citeria needed for other welding methods are not valid for friction welding because friction welding is applied to materials which can not be processed with other welding methods [10]. The strength of a material and its deformation capacity under heat are the two parameters needed for the test of suitability of a material to welding. The strength of material has to be high enough to resist axial pressure and torque, which may occur due to excessive deformation. Morover, the material to be joined needs to exhibit enough heat treatment deformation behavior for the quality of joining process [12]. Materials and their combinations can be categorized into two groups depending upon the characteristics of materials to be joined. The first group of materials are the ones showing the same type of heating behavior and the second group includes materials having different hor material strength and melting temperatures. The direct welding process is applied to the first group of materials. But, preliminary trials are carried out for the second group of materials before applying welding process [10]. Several iron based and non-iron materials can be joined using the friction welding. In addition, friction welding can be used in joining of metals exhibiting different thermal and mechanical properties. Most of the time, these materials can not be processed using conventional welding methods. Friction welding method is more preferred than any other conventional welding method because metals can be joined at temperatures lower than their melting point and welding time is a lot shorter. Friction welding of metals having different thermal amd mechanical properties causes asymmetrical deformations. A higher welding strength is generally achieved for the materials giving symmetrical deformations. To achive this, Vill suggested a 15 to 25% increase in ductile parts during the welding process [11]. Any material not having good friction properties but forgable with friction welding can easily be welded. Alloy elements supplying dry oiling prevent the joining section from reaching welding temperature. Ferrous based material from soft steel to high alloyed steels can be processed using friction welding. Steels with lower strength can be more easily joined with a large parameter range. High alloyed steels, on the other hand, requires critical processing parameter range and higer axial forces. Heat-treated stainless steels can be welded in a more sensitive parameter range just as in high alloyed steels. For high alloyed steels, higher forces on the surface and long friction time are needed due to their lower deformation capability. Especially for “air watered steels”, a suitable ITAB region is required to minimize cooling rate of welding region. Since crack formation is very fast in high strength materials, joined surfaces have to be rid of crack effects [11]. Sintered materials, Al, Cu, Ti, tr, Mg alloys, heat resistant Ni and Co alloys and refractory materials such as Ta and Mo alloys can successfully be joined by friction welding [13]. - Austentistics steels due to their higher ductility and heat deformation capability need lower friction time and pressure, - Higher stregh alloys due to their lower heat conductivity and higher heat strength capability need higher friction time and lower friction pressure, 717 �- Cu, Al, Ti and their alloys are subjected to friction welding at higher rpm and lower friction pressures. A successful friction welding can not be achived in some metals and alloys due to their inherent metallurgical properties. These are as follows: - All pig iron due to its friction temperature limitation caused by free graphite, - bronze and grass having Pb concentration of more than 0.3% and automat steels having S or Pb concentrations more than 0.13%, -highly anisotropic materials due to their high fractureability in the transtition region -materials having graphite, Mn, S and free Pb in their structure [10, 13]. 2.4. Preparation of Materials for Friction Welding and the Design Parts to be processed using griction welding method have different design considerations from those processed with conventional welding methods. Paint, oil and other impurities do not pose a problem in friction welding. Though not preferred, surfaces cut by oxygen can be welded. Moreover, additional layer on the surface such as corrosion layer does not affect welding process. However, thick oxide layers, pin sand needles on the surfaces, deep cuts and holes habe to be avoided. A poor heat distribution may occur if too many indent and bulge are present. Bulges behave as bracket beam when surface roughness is very high. Inner layers occur and addition layers occur even with deformation because root (base) structure is cold. Deformation in welding region must remove these structures. In addition, surface pre-teratment of different metals and alloys is significant. A special form of a material on surfaces to be weld is not needed as in the case of traditional welding processes. However, spherical or conical mouth may be necessary in high diameter parts to assit in friction. Mininum axial loss is required in parts to be welded. The tolerance of welding depens on not only defects in working parts but also the welding machine itself [12, 14]. The tolerance value for lenth is given as 0.203 mm. Begg and Humpreys have reported 0.2mm axial KACIKLIK tolerance and 0.001 rad angular tolerance [15]. Basic design of friction welding includes rod-rod, pipe-pipe, pipe-sheet, rod-sheet and pipe-disc combinations. Based on friction welding theory, at least one of the parts has to be able to rotate. Mixed type parts and difficult to be forged parts can be joined using more than one friction welding machine. The angular range in friction welding is given to be between 30 and 45 or 45 anf 600. D. L. Kuruzar suggested an angle more than 30°. In some of the designs, welding joints are specifically designed to account for problems in removing metal parts after welding [14]. 2.5. Parameters of Friction Welding Apart from traditional welding methods, several welding parameters can be controlled in friction welding. These parameters include diameter of experimental rod, rpm of the part, rpm of parts in to lathe, friction contact time, forging delay time, forging time, time of increased friction pressure, friction pressure. Moreover, other parameters such as geometry of parts and material properties are also significant. The rpm of rotating parts, friction time, friction pressure, forging pressure and time are the parameters needed to be take into account while optimizing the welding process. A successful welding process can occur if parameters are optimized [8]. The lower rpm of roating parts causes enormous moments and nonuniform heating results in. On the other hand, lower rpm values minimize formation of intermetallic compounds. With higher rpm of rotating parts, ITAB widens, and power supply is not affected. To prevent overheating in the welding region, friction pressure and friction time have to be carefully controlled. Pressure values applied in welding is very significant bcause it controls temperature gradient and affects rotoational torque as well as power. Friction and forging pressure are directly related to geometry and material properties of parts to be welded and have a wide range. Over applied pressure values increase power needs accordingly. Due to increased energy input, higher pressures decrease the width of ITAB, accelerate metal displacement ratio and reduces welding time resulting in heat band on the boundary. The variable of pressure can be controlled by the temperature in welding region and decrease in 718 �axial length. Optimum pressure must be applied to materials in order to get uniform deformations throughout [13]. Friction pressure has to be high enough to allow the removal of oxides, to get uniform heating throughout and to interrupt the affinity between surfaces and the air. The application of forging pressure especially during friction process improves welding properties. Forging pressure depends on the heat yield stress of the material. It should neither be high enough to cause welding accumulation nor is it low enough to cause under welding. Forging pressure in some materials are determined depending on the lower strength material. The diffusion of macro particles from surfaces to surfaces occur during forging. Bonds continuously form and break down during friction at interface locations. In the beginning of forging maximum bonding have to occur on the surface because permanent bonds are these lastly formed bonds. Parts need to interact with each other under pressure and this pressure should not be reduced until welding heat cools down. [11]. Friction and forging times are directly related to material properties. The friction time should allow plastic deformation to occur or remove possible residuals and particles. For a high quality welding joint, minimum friction time needs to be exceeded. Lower friction times as well as nonuniform heating result in nonjoined areas at the interface and inadequate plastic deformation. This brings the problem of low quality weld. Higher friction times, on the other hand, causes rough structure and wide ITAB region formation. This is especially important to the welding of different materials because poor mechanical properties may be obtained due to formation of undesirable substances. Moreover, overheating and material loss are also possible [13]. 2.6. Applications of Friction Welding This method is especially useful for the serial production. Relatively high overhead cost is balanced with higher production rate and lower labor requirement. Process has several dimensions and hardware could easily be adjusted. Thus, the method also becomes useful for the production of relatively smaller parts. With these advantages, friction welding has found widespread application in the industry. Friction welding can generally be applied in the following industries with listed applications: -Machine production and spare part industry: cogwheels, piston rods, hydraulic cylinders, radial pomp pistons, shaft with worm screw , crankshafts, drill bits, valves. -Automative industry : valves, clack valve, drive shafts, gear levers, axle fasteners, break spindles, transmission mechanisms, preheat rooms, pipe spindles, banjo axles. - Aviation and space industry: repulsion jets, combustion chambers, spindles, turbines, rotors, pipes, fittings, flanges. - Work set industry: Spiral drills, milling cutters , borers, reamers, cutting tools. - Electrical, electronics, and chemical industry: receiver camera for gas analysis, segregation columns forchromatograph, Electrical connectors, continuous solder top, swing contacts, pipe fittings [16]. 719 �2.7. Some Examples of Applications of Friction Welding Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1: Low temp interface heat cycle by spinning one component against another stationary component. Phase 2: Solid forging cycle showing displaced plastic state material when final axial forging force is applied. Phase 3: Plastic state flashing is removed easily, even for hardenable materials that would otherwise require grinding [17]. Electrical connectors Air bag canisters Airbag component Gear levers Stanley tools Drill bits Engine valves 720 �Pump shafts Piston rods Drive shafts Track roller Bent axle API drill pipe Truck banjo axle Gear cluster 721 �Blisk Large piston rod Hydraulic cylinders [18]. 2.8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Friction Welding Friction welding has better technical and economical properties than conventional welding methods. Friction weldinfg is generally compared to electrical resistance welding. However it can also be compared to other welding methods such as electron beam welding and electrical arc welding. [11]. - One of the main advantages of friction welding is lower energy requirement. The process has unusual high yield and lower energy requirement and power supply. Moreover, power requirement of friction welding is about one tenth of electrical resistance welding (Figure 11). Friction welding causes triphase in the engine and the power factor is Cos ϕ = 0.80-0.85. However, electrical resistance welding is one phase process and the power factor is Cos ϕ = 0.40- 0.60. Figure 11. The power requirement during welding for different welding methods (1. Friction welding 2. Electrical resistance welding). 722 �3. Results - Cooling time is very short because the amount of heated metal during friction welding is very small. The timeframe ranges from several seconds to several minutes. This allows us to achieve friction welding at very high speeds (only comparable to electrical resistance welding). - Heat in friction welding occurs in welding region and is distributed to the surfaces of parts to be welded. However, heat loss is very high in other conventional welding methods because heating is applied to the all material in a nondiscrimating manner. - Material loss during friction and forging is minimum making the friction welding a viable economic alternative. - Surface preparation is minimum and the process does not produce vast amount of waste and a high quality seam is obtained. - Friction welding can be considered a serial method since the process is very fast. - The control of parameters affecting welding quality is very easy and is easily accomplished. - Friction welding system can also bea automated easily. - Since friction welding is a solid state welding method, no slack and waste are present. - The efficiency of the process is very high because several parameters including axial load, speed of rotation and YIGMA amount can easily be controlled. -The disadvantages include geometrical limitations of parts, excessive material accumulation and the need for its removal, and higher capital cost. Table 1 lists the comparison of several welding methods in terms of material and process variables. Property Friction Welding Electron Beam Welding a a a - Electrical Resistance Welding a - Material to be welded a Crossectional area a Welding geometry Preparation of parts a Accretion of Weld Materials Additive ofMaterials Compatibility Cross Section to a Welded Joint Process Control a Accounting Rate of Return a Table 1. Comparison of Different Welding Methods (13) Electrical Arc Magnetic Active Welding a - 4. References 1. Bahrani, A. S., Crossland, B., 1976, Friction welding, CME, 61-66. 2. Duffin, F. D., Crossland, B., 1971, Friction welding with sudden relase of the fixed component, Advances in welding processes, Solid phase joining processes, proceeding of the conference, The welding Institute, Abington Hall, Cambridge, 25-33. 3. Vill, V. I., 1962, Friction Welding of Metals, AWS, Newyork 4. Wang, K. K., Lin, W., 1974, Flywheel friction welding research, Welding Journal, 233-241. 5. Welding Handbook, 1980, Resistance and solid state welding and other joining processes, AWS, Miami, 5876, 239-262. 723 �6. Nicholas, E.D., 1983, Radial friction welding, Welding Journal, 17-29. 7. KUKA kaynak makinasi ürün kataloğu,1990. 8. Anık, S., 1983, Kaynak Teknolojisi El Kitabı, Ergör Matbaası, Đstanbul, 259-269. 9. Tylecote, R. Y., 1968, The solid phase welding of metals, Edward Arnold (Publisher) Ltd., London, 1-150. 10. Yılmaz, M., 1993, Farklı takım çeliklerinin sürtünme kaynağında kaynak bölgesinin incelenmesi, Doktora Tezi, Y.T.Ü., 1-55, Đstanbul. 11. Uzkut, M., “Yüksek Alaşımlı Đki Farklı Çeliğin Sürtünme Kaynağı Đle Birleştirilmesinde Optimum Kaynak Parametrelerinin Tesbiti ve Birleşme Bölgesinin Đncelenmesi”, Doktora Tezi, C. B. Ü. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 1999, Manisa 12. Ganowski, F. N., 1973, Practical considerations for friction welding, Welding Engineering, 40-44. 13. Metals Handbook, 1983, Welding and brazing, ASM, Metals Park, Ohio, 557-580, 719-728. 14. Kuruzar, D. L., 1979, Joint design for the friction welding process, Welding Journal, 31-35. 15. Begg, G. H. C.,Humphreys, B.A., 1981, Rotational – friction welding, Engineering, Tech. File no 91, 1-4. 16. Ellis, C., R., G., 1976, Friction welding: where industry uses it, Welding Design and fab., 78-81 17. http://www.nctfrictionwelding.com/process.php 18. http://www.thompson-friction-welding.co.uk 724 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 621 Title A name given to the resource Friction Welding And Its Applications In Today’s World Author Author UZKUT, Mehmet ÜNLÜ, Bekir Sadık YILMAZ, Selim Sarper AKDAĞ, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. By developing technology of today, the necessity of using different materials by joining came out. The most suitable method in joining two different alloyed steel is to weld. The fact that the properties of welding zone are naturally different from the properties of steels in different alloyed at post welding process has came up and these differences occur some important problems. Among many kinds of welding methods, using the melting welding methods has also increased the number of these problems. However, in the connecting zone, many different zones come out by depending on composition and properties of the connecting materials. Deposite remain of the melting welding methods, welding faults of porosity and inside tightens of cooling are the important disadvantages of these methods and they decreases the strength of welding. For this reason, solid state welding methods are more suitable due to these melting welding faults. The most important and applicability of these methods are friction welding. For these reasons, in this study importance and application areas of friction welding were explained. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0464993bafc7c43374efba86c1df4353.pdf 111e7e4cda00222b044271af5cfe9e98 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Study on Development of Sensitivity Scale for Teaching Profession Assoc. Prof. Dr. Selçuk UYGUN Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Faculty of Education Assistant Prof. Dr. Çavuş ŞAHĐN Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Faculty of Education Research Assistant Emel OKUR Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Faculty of Education Abstract: The purpose of this study is to develop a sensitivity scale intended for teaching profession. It is assumed that those who pick teaching as profession should have an inherent tendency for this job. The research is developed based on five stages including detection of the views on sensitivity with regard to teaching profession, determination of the scale items, preparation of the trial scale, implementation of the scale and measurement of the validity and reliability. In the end, a scale involving 17 items has been developed. The items factors value are between .30 and .79. It is found that KMO value is 0.906, Bartlett test is 0.000 and items factor values are 0.30 and upper at the end of the exploratory factor analysis. t values of upper and lower groups is found significant. These findings confirm that this scale has validity. Cronbach Alpha coefficient is found 0.884, which means that this scale is reliable. Key words: Teaching job, professional sensitivity, sensitivity scale Introduction In general, a profession may be defined as a set of activities acquired via education and carried out by the individuals on a regular and planned basis to make a living (Çoban, 2003). Teaching profession is an educational job with a professional status inclusive of individual, social, cultural, scientific and technological dimensions. Kuzgun (1996b) stresses that there are visible distinctions between professions. These distinctions bring differences to the fore. Those who pick teaching as their profession should be aware that they have to display the necessary qualifications for this particular job. Whether the satisfaction the teaching profession provides and the professional value emphasized by the individuals who pick this profession actually overlap should be considered before making a selection and pick. Wise decisions and picks are made if the satisfaction that the profession supplies and the expectations of the picker are effectively compared. Those who have monetary and material expectations out of teaching profession should be well aware that the teaching profession falls short to meet such anticipations (Akbaba, 2000). It is possible to argue that the following three factors are determinative in professional achievements and successes (Uygun, 2008): the qualities of the individual, the characteristics of the professional education and performance. Professional education and performance are characteristics that may be enhanced after deciding on the professional direction. The qualities of the individual, however, are important to the process by which the profession is picked. Both emotional and psychic factors and aspects are important. Emotional features can be explained by the notions of interest, attitude and academic selfness. Above all, the individuals should be ambitious, volunteer and eager for the profession; they should also hold positive attitudes with regard to the image of the profession. Their academic selfness should also be complete so that they uphold clear tendency towards the profession. Academic selfness is a style by which the individual concludes as to whether he or she will be able to perform the profession successfully (Kuzgun, 1996). Academic selfness is related to cognitive and psycho-motor aspects. For instance, a teacher may be visually-impaired. If that teacher does not view this handicap as an obstacle before the performance of the profession and he is well aware of this, it could be said his or her academic selfness is adequate for the profession (Uygun, 2008). Cognitive aspects, however, can be explained by the notions of knowledge, skill and competence. These aspects may be acquired via education and they enhance professional sensitivity. Expertise in the relevant field, professional adequacy and cultural competence constitute the set of fundamental knowledge for the teacher education. The teacher should be able to convert the information he or she has received from other sources during professional education into skill and be competent enough. 95 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The role of the teachers as well as the status and image of the profession is closely related to cognitive features. The awareness of those who pick this profession and their perception on the status of the profession determine their professional sensitivity. Whether these are positive or negative does not matter at all; what matters is whether they have been properly informed. For instance, if, despite the information that ‘teacher salary is small,’ the individual is still eager to pick this profession, he could be said to have professional sensitivity (Uygun, 2008). Individuals sensitive to the profession may become successful despite small amount of salaries. Individual expectations and interests as well as professional characteristics have a determinative impact in business life. The individuals become more successful in their profession if they had picked the most appropriate line of business for themselves in terms of professional satisfaction and individual improvement. Those who fail to achieve professional satisfaction may suffer from a syndrome of exhaustion (Cemaloglu and Erdemoglu, 2007). Teaching is one of the professions that require inherent motivation. The teacher motivation is particularly important to make sure that the students are motivated in the class and that effective reforms in advanced forms are introduced. Motivated teachers play key roles in (1) implementation of educational reforms, (2) application of the emergent changes and (3) attainment of success and satisfaction (Yazici, 2009). The sources of the professional motivation of the teachers may vary (Yazici, 2009). This is nothing but natural. What matters most is whether the individuals are aware of the sources of motivation during the selection of the profession. For such awareness, the individuals have to be aware of their skills and informed about the features of the profession. If the individuals who properly recognize themselves and the profession become decisive in the selection of a profession, it could be argued that they have professional sensitivity. Sensitivity is an emotional and sensory feature that can be learned. Professional sensitivity, on the other hand, refers to aptitude to the profession. Aptitude can be explained by such notions as interest in the profession, eagerness and professional prestige. The level of sensitivity held by the individuals vis-à-vis their profession may provide insights with regard to professional success and satisfaction considering that it is more likely to witness that they have developed positive or negative attitudes depending on their level of sensitivity. For this reason, it is important to encourage people with high level of sensitivity for teaching profession to pick this profession as their job. Professional sensitivity is also associated with the self-sensitivity of the individuals. Self-sensitivity refers to openness to the emotions, being meticulous and affectionate, state of understanding and reason in case of incompetence and failures and acknowledgement of negative experiences as natural parts of the life. Researches prove relation of the self-sensitivity to a number of notions including self-acknowledgement, satisfaction, social interest, awareness, autonomy, personal development, happiness and optimism (Akin et al., 2007). Sensitivity is also related to attitude. Attitude can be defined as a factor directing the actions of the individual and preparing him for being guided (Semerci, 1999). Perceptions over teaching profession may change depending on the status and image of the profession whereas they may also vary based on the individual attitudes. The decisiveness in picking the profession despite the difficulties involved points to self-sensitivity as well as positive attitude towards the profession. All these aspects may considered within the context of professional sensitivity. Researchers find a positive correlation between the attitudes of the teachers towards their profession and the level of self-sensitivity and the qualifications enhancing the quality of the training at the school including performance, professional motivation, satisfaction, efficiency of teaching activities in the class and the nature of the relations between the students and the teachers in the class (Semerci, 2004; Akin et al., 2007; Uygun, 2008). The basic sensitivity indicators for teaching profession include interest in teaching, eagerness and inherent motivation towards acquisition of the attitudes necessary for the profession. The indicators for inherent and innate motivation are determination to pick the teaching profession and awareness of the professional features. It should be admitted despite this basic assumption that selection of a profession is not that easy. To do this, a number of different theories and approaches referring to professional psychological consultation and guidance have been offered (Akbaba 2000; Kuzgun, 2000). This study which puts emphasis upon professional sensitivity seeks to develop independently of these theories a scale that will measure the level of sensitivity of the individuals ready to pick teaching as their profession. This work will fill the void with respect to the selection of a profession by individuals with high level of sensitivity. It is hard to define the individual and professional features sensitive to the teaching profession as the role of the teacher, the status of the profession or its image may change over the time and they may vary depending on the different perspectives held. The teachers may take a look at their profession from different points of view including idealism, ideology, material satisfaction and criticality (Akyuz, 1978). The value attributed to the teaching profession may become different depending on each point of view. For instance, teaching is a sacred profession for idealists. This and other similar approaches diversify the factors leading to sensitivity towards teaching profession. These factors are closely related to the professional perception of values. 96 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The professional values are connected to the satisfactions deriving from the results including the environment where the professional duties are carried out, the income and rewards (Kuzgun, 2000). A review of the findings of the researches focusing on the factors influential in the selection of teaching by the candidate teachers as their profession confirms that the candidates view teaching as a sacred, prestigious, decent and influential profession that requires a sense of responsibility and sacrifice. However, the majority of the candidate teachers stated that they would perform this job in the presence of extraordinary conditions because the circumstances are not found adequate by the students (Ozbek et al., 2007). However, those who will pick teaching as their profession should display positive attitudes despite all defects and shortcomings of the profession, have a visible self-sensitivity and professional sensitivity. Selection of the individuals sensitive to the teaching profession will improve the quality of teachertraining institutions and make sure that more qualified teachers will be recruited. By doing so, the quality of the educational facilities will be improved as well considering that the teacher factor is an important determinant in the educational system (Kavcar, 1999; Gok, 2003). This study seeks to develop a scale that could be used in the selection of individuals sensitive to the profession. This scale is designed as a tool to serve as a reliable and valid instrument in the picking of teaching profession along with the ‘scale for the notion of academic selfness’ (1996a), ‘scale for self-evaluation inventory’ (199b) developed by Kuzgun as well as ‘scale for attitudes in relation to teaching profession’ (Semerci, 1999) and ‘scale for self-sensitivity’ (Akin et al., 2007). Methodology The study consists of five stages including detection of the views on the teaching profession, determination of the scale entries and items, preparation of the trial scale, implementation of the scale and measurement of the reliability and validity. The researchers first reviewed the literature and surveyed 180 college students at the Faculty of Education of Canakkale 18 Mart University; the participants were asked an open-ended question. The question reads as follows: ‘Would you briefly write down what you understand from sensitivity towards teaching profession?’ The responses were analyzed and subsequently, the entries were determined for a trial scale based on the responses and the literature review. The opinions of two experts in the fields of educational philosophy and educational psychology were received during the process where these entries were determined. Subsequent to this process, a trial scale of 59 entries was drafted. The entries in the scale were arranged in 5-degree scale. The affirmative question items were graded as 1- I never agree, 2- I do not agree, 3- I am undecided, 4- I agree, and 5- I strongly agree. A complete reverse grading was applied to the negative set of questions. The entries no 15, 26, 28, 38, 47, 49, 50, 54 and 56 include adverse statements in this research. Sencan (2005) notes that the size of the sample is acceptable if it is sizeable enough to make sure that there are at least five events per entry. For this reason, the trial scale was applied to 254 students studying at the Faculty of Education of Canakkale 18 Mart University from different departments in the Spring semester of 2008-2009. For the analysis of the scale, the verified correlation value between the Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient and the entries was reviewed by relying on the SPSS 13 software. The entries with a correlation value below 0.30 were taken out of the analysis. To locate the validity of the scale and to dimension the entries included in the scale after determination of their factor loads, a factor analysis was run. Buyukozturk (2007) and Sencan (2005) stressed that the factor load value should be 0.40 or higher for the sorting out of the entries. It was noted that when the principal axis factoring and direct oblimin analysis are used together, they would facilitate formation of factors in the presence of an assumption of correlation within the factor (Hill, 1987; Creed and Machin, 2003). Principal axis factoring and direct oblimin were preferred in this study considering that this is the first work to develop a scale. In the explanatory factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient and Bartlett test were analyzed together. It was noted that a KMO value over 0.60 and a significant Bartlett test (p<0.05) means that a factor may be derived from the data (Buyukozturk, 2007; Sencan, 2005). Subsequent to the explanatory factor analysis, a corroborant factor analysis was run by using LISREL 8.0 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1993; cited at Simsek, 2007) statistics software. In the review of the corroborant factor analysis, diagram and harmony level criteria and correction recommendations were considered. In the diagram evaluation, the standardized values and the t value were taken into account. In the standardized values, the ability of each entry to represent its variable was reviewed; in the t value, whether the relevant entry is significant in 0.05 level was investigated. With respect to the goodness of fit, the harmony between the relations in the model and the data is considered (Simsek, 2007). Here the ratio between the Chi square and the degree of freedom was evaluated. This ratio is expected to be 3-4 at most. The other criteria include RMSEA (Root Mean Square of Approximation), 97 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo CFI (Comparative fit index), IFI (Incremental fit index) and standardized RMR(SRMR). Some researches (Simsek, 2007; Fossati et al., 2003) note that the RMSEA and SRMR may fall below 0.08; they even argue that a value below 0.05 may indicate a better fitness. Simsek (2007) notes that CFI and IFI values above 0.90 refer to a better fitness. In the correction recommendations, the ratio between the Chi-square and the degree of freedom is considered. The impact of the correction on the decrease of the Chi-square value refers to an improved model. However, excessive amount or degree of correction points to existence of a problem with the model (Simsek, 2007). To determine whether each entry in the scale is competent to distinguish the individuals and to measure the internal validity, the scale grades were divided into 27 pct up and bottom groups. Independent groups t-test was applied to determine the degree of significance between the group entry grades. The factor loads of the dimensioned entries were evaluated to develop a three-dimensional scale inclusive of 17 entries. At the last stage, the dimensions were named. Findings The trial scale consisting of 59 entries was applied to 254 respondents; subsequently, a reliability analysis was run. All entry correlation values falling below 0.30 in the reliability analysis (3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 19, 25, 36, 28, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56) were taken out. The remaining entries were subjected to explanatory factor analysis. As a result of the analysis, the entries were taken out of the analysis since the factor loads were intertwined with other dimensions and the factor loads were below 0.30. In the second run of the factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value was found 0.906 whereas the degree of significance of the Bartlett dimensionality test became 0.000. It was assumed that the number of working group was adequate considering that the KMO value was close to 1. The data could be said to be consistent with the factor analysis based on the KMO value and the significance of the Bartlett dimensionality test. To determine the factor number, the scree testing graphic and the total variance figure were considered together (Figure 1). As the figure indicates, a steep decline was observed in the curve and two consecutive declines in its aftermath. It was assumed that the scale would be three-dimensional and an SPSS parallel analysis was run to test this assumption. The results of egienvalue obtained in the parallel analysis as well as the explanatory factor analysis eigenvalues are provided in Table 1. 98 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 10 Özdeğerlik 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Faktör sayısı Grafik 1. Özdeğerlik-Faktör grafiği __ As Table 1 indicates, the three-dimensional factor analysis eigenvalue results are higher when compared to the parallel analysis results. In addition to these evaluations, a review of the total variance table reveals that the first dimension explains the 37.309 pct of the total variance whereas the second refers to the 48.468 pct and the third to 54.364 pct of the total variance. These values indicate that the scale may be three-dimensional. Table 1. Comparison between factor analysis-parallel analysis eigenvalues Factor analysis eigenvalue results Parallel analysis eigenvalue results Decision Dim. 1 9.418 1.613 Approved Dim. 2 2.518 1.522 Approved Dim. 3 1.666 1.440 Approved A three-dimensional scale inclusive of 17 entries was obtained at the end of the explanatory factor analysis. The factor loads of the entries and the breakdown of the entries by dimension are provided in Table 2. Table 2. Factor loads of the entries by dimension Entries I. Dim. 13Teacher should be observant and eager to do research .704 16. Learning something excites me .659 11. It is profession requiring social responsibility .649 17. I am sensitive with respect to social issues .612 99 II. Dim. III. �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 23. It is a profession requiring sacrifice 24. Teaching is a profession open to change and innovation 29. I can make sacrifices for teaching profession 6.I am happy to teach new things to the students 7 I feel responsible when I do not fulfill the requirements of the profession 1. Teaching is a profession of love 37. Teaching is my first choice 27. Teaching is the profession that I find most suitable for me 34. My biggest ideal is to become a teacher 31. The idea that I would become a teacher makes me happy 30.Learning new things excites me 48. Teaching requires sacrifice 33. Teaching should be the most prestigious profession in the society Eigenvalue Explained % variance Cronbach alpha .587 .571 .553 .540 .532 .502 .799 .787 .692 .534 6.342 37.309 .858 1,897 11.159 .860 .781 .415 .307 1.002 5.896 .609 As Table 2 indicates, entries 13, 16, 11, 17, 23, 24, 29, 6, 7 and 1 constituted the first dimension whereas entries 37, 27, 34 and 31 the second and entries 30, 48 and 33 the third dimension. Independent groups t test was run in the SPSS software to determine the internal validity of the scale. The test results were first sequenced from low values to the highest and the upper 27 pct and bottom 27 pct of the group was calculated. The total grades of the 68 participants in the 27 pct part (Table 3) were compared. Groups Bottom Upper p<.05 N 68 68 Table 3. Detection of internal validity of the scale X ss sd 18.00 1.55 134 36.41 4.42 t -32.343 p 0.000 In the total entry grades, the average of the upper group is higher (X: 36.41); there is significant difference in favor of the upper group (p<.05). This shows that the questions are visibly distinct and distinguishable and hold internal validity. To measure the reliability of the scale, Cronbach Alpha Reliability Coefficient was considered; the coefficient was found 0.884 which points to availability of high reliability. The dimensions were considered and they were subsequently named. The first dimension was named as “Interest and Eagerness,” whereas the second was called “Determination” and the third “Awareness.” Subsequent to the running of the explanatory factor analysis, a corroborant factor analysis was run by relying on LISREL software. Entries 22, 2, 59, 36, 52, 44, 42 and 32 were taken out of the analysis as they negatively affected the goodness of fit values and displayed too many warnings of correction in the corroborant factor analysis. The explanatory factor analysis was rerun after these entries were taken out and the values specified above were obtained. 100 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Figure 2. Diagram of the model The diagram displays the standardized values. None of the values between the latent variables and observed variables is above 1. Therefore, it was concluded that the correlation values between the observed values are appropriate. No red arrow sign was encountered in the t values. This shows that the entries are significant at 0.05 level. Goodness of fit and correction recommendations were considered in the output file. Corrections were made to entries 6, 27-23, 23-24, 37-24 and 48-17. The diagram created after the correction is presented in Figure 2. The ratio between the Chi-square and the degree of freedom is 2.80 and Chi-square has a significance of 0.00000. RMSEA was found 0.084, the SRMR 0.052, CFI 0.91 and IFI 0.91 in goodness of fit values. Conclusion The KMO value 0.906, Bartlett dimensionality test value (0.000), entry factor loadings (0.30 and above) and significance at t value between the upper and bottom groups in the explanatory factor analysis prove that the scale has validity (Büyüköztürk, 2007; Şencan, 2005); the Cronbach Alpha coefficient (0884) in the reliability analysis confirms that the scale is also reliable (Büyüköztürk, 2007). Retrieval of appropriate values out of the corroborative factor analysis of this scale formed as three-dimensional (X2 /sd: 2.80, RMSEA: 0.084, SRMR: 0.052, CFI:0.91, IFI:0.91) shows that the scale has a strong and solid theoretical base (Şimşek, 2007). A review of the meanings presented by the 10 entries gathered at the first factor shows that the individuals who have a prior appreciation and knowledge of the profession are more eager and interested in picking teaching as their lifelong profession. The four entries gathered at the second factor underline that the individuals consider their desires, wishes and characteristics in addition to the features and nature of the profession when making a selection. In the third part, on the other hand, the individuals are aware of the individual and professional characteristics required for the profession. It could be argued that the “interest and eagerness,” “determination” and “awareness” handled in these three dimensions point to the sensitivity towards teaching profession. 101 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo This sensitivity scale towards teaching profession supports the “academic selfness” and “professional maturity” scales developed by Kuzgun (1996). An analysis of the entry statements in the scale also shows that it shares similarities with the “attitude scale for the teaching profession” offered by Semerci (1999). However, this is not a study of attitude scale, though it points to the attitudes towards the teaching profession. Even though it refers to professional sensitivity as well as positive attitudes and perceptions towards teaching profession, the study also encompasses self-sensitivity. The self-sensitivity statements spelled out among the entries referring to the professional sensitivity including statements that indicate the participants were aware of the characteristics of the profession and of their strengths and weaknesses and that they are aware and optimistic in regards to satisfaction despite some defects of the profession are consistent with the “self-sensitivity scale” developed by Akın et al. (2007). The status of teaching profession will be elevated and improved and the overall quality of the education provided at the schools will be significantly enhanced if individuals with higher sensitivity pick teaching as their lifelong profession. To make sure that individuals with higher sensitivity towards teaching profession are recruited as teachers, this scale may be used for candidate teachers; this will ensure employment of individuals with higher sensitivity towards teaching profession in the teacher education institutions. 102 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Akbaba, S. (2000). “Ögretmen Yetistirmede Mesleki Rehberligin yeri ve Önemi.” (Importance and place of professional guidance in training teachers) 2nd National Symposium on training teachers (May 10-12, 2000) Papers. Çanakkale: Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education. 332-336. Akin Ü.& Akin, A& Abaci, R. (2007). “Öz-duyarlilik Ölçegi: Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalismasi.” (A study on Self-sensitivity scale and reliability) Hacettepe Üniversitesi Egitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 33, 1-10. Akyüz, Y. (1978). “Türkiye’de Ögretmenin “Ögretmen” ve Meslek Imaji.” (The Teacher and Profession image of the Teachers in Turkey) Ankara Üniversitesi Egitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Vol. 11, No. 1-2, 115-121. Büyüköztürk, S. (2007). Sosyal Bilimler Için Veri Analizi El Kitabi. (Handbook of Data Analysis for Social Scientists) Ankara: Pegem A Yayincilik. Cemaloglu, N& Erdemoglu, D. (2007). “Ögretmenlerin Meslekî Tükenmislik Düzeylerinin Farkli Degiskenlere Göre Incelenmesi.” (Analysis of the professional exhaustion of the teachers based on different variables) Kastamonu Egitim Dergisi, 15, 465-484. Çoban, A. (2003) “Bireylerin Mesleklere Iliskin Yaklasimlari ve Etkili Olan Faktörlerin Degerlendirmesi”. (Evaluation of The approaches of individuals towards professions and the influential factors) VII Ulusal Psikolojik Danisma ve Rehberlik Kongresi Bildiri Özetleri (9- 11 Temmuz 2003) (7th national congress on psychological consulting and guidance (July 9-11, 2003) Book of abstracts. Malatya: PDR Dernegi. Creed, P. A. & Machin, M. A. (2003) “Multidimensional Properties of the Access to Categories of Experience Scale.” European Journal of Psychological Assessment, Vol. 19, Issue 2, pp. 85–91. Fossati, A., Maffei, C., Acquarini, E.& Di Ceglie, A. (2003) “Multigroup Confirmatory Component and Factor Analyses of the Italian Version of the Aggression Questionnaire.” European Journal of Psychological Assessment, Vol. 19, Issue 1, pp. 54–65. Gök, F. (2003). “Hizmet-öncesi ve Hizmet-içi Ögretmen Yetistirme.” (Teacher training before service and during service) Ögretmen Yetistirme ve Istihdami Sempozyumu (26-27 Nisan 2003)Symposium on teacher training and employment (April 26-27, 2003). Ankara: Egitim Sen Yayinlari, 13-35. Hill, C. A. (1987). “Affiliation Motivation: People Who Need People…But in Different Ways.” Journal of Personality and Social Penology, Vol. 52, No. 5, 1008-1018. Kavcar, C. (1999) “Nitelikli Ögretmen Sorunu” (The question of qualified teacher). Egitimde Yansimalar V 21. Yüzyilin Esiginde Türk Egitim Sistemi Ulusal Sempozyumu (25-27 Kasim 1999)(National Symposium on Turkish educational system at the threshold of the 21st century: reflections on education (November 25-27, 1999). Ankara: Ögretmen Hüseyin Hüsnü Tekisik Arastirma-Gelistirme Merkezi. Kuzgun, Y. (1996a). Akademik Benlik Kavrami Ölçegi El Kitabi (Handbook on the scale for The notion of academic selfness). Ankara: Millî Egitim Bakanligi Yayinlari. Kuzgun, Y. (1996b). Meslekî Olgunluk Ölçegi El Kitabi (Handbook on the scale for professional maturity). Ankara: Millî Egitim Bakanligi Yayinlari. Kuzgun, Y. (2000). Meslek Danismanligi Kuramlar ve Uygulamalar (Professional counseling: theory and practice). Ankara: Nobel Dagitim. Özbek, R.& Kahyaoglu, M.&Özgen N. (2007). “Ögretmen Adaylarinin Ögretmenlik Meslegine Yönelik Görüslerinin Degerlendirilmesi.” (Evaluation of teacher candidates’ views on teaching profession) Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi. Vol. IX, no. 2, 221-232. Semerci, Ç. (1999). “Ögrencilerin Ögretmenlige Iliskin Tutum Ölçegi.” (Attitude scale of the students on teaching profession) Egitim ve Bilim, 23 (111), 51-55. 103 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Sencan, H. (2005) Sosyal ve Davranissal Ölçümlerde Güvenilirlik ve Geçerlilik.(Reliability and validity in social and behavioral measurements) Ankara: Seçkin Yayincilik. Simsek, Ö. F. (2007) Yapisal Esitlik Modellemesine Giris, Temel Ilkeler ve LISREL Uygulamalari. Ekinoks Egitim ve Danismanlik Hizmetleri. (Introduction to structural equality modeling: basic princples and LISREL applications: Ekinoks Education and counseling services ). Ankara: Siyasal Basin ve Dagitim. Uygun, S. (2008). “Ortaögretim Sosyal Alanlar Bölümünde Okuyan Ögretmen Adaylarinin Meslege Yönelik Duyarliliklari.” (The sensitivities of the candidate teachers studying at the department of elementary school social sciences towards the profession) Ulusal Sosyal Bilimler Egitimi Sempozyumu (14-16 Mayis 2008). (National Social Sciences Education Symposium- May 14-1, 2008). Çanakkale: Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Yayini, 187-192. Yazici, H. (2009). “Ögretmenlik Meslegi, Motivsyon Kaynaklari ve Temel Tutumlar: Kuramsal Bir Bakis.”(Teaching profession, sources of motivation and basic attitudes: a theoretical approach). Kastamonu Egitim Dergisi, 17 (1), 33-46. Annex 1. Sensitivity scale towards teaching profession Dear Candidate Teacher, This scale has been drafted to measure your sensitivity towards teaching profession. Below are 17 entries seeking to determine your sensitivity towards the profession. Please read each entry very carefully and indicate your degree of agreement with the statement by marking an (X). Thank you for your sensitivity for this study. 1. Teacher should be observant and eager to do research 2. Teaching something excites me 3. Teaching is profession that requires social responsibility 4. I am sensitive about social issues 5. Teaching is a profession that requires sacrifices 6. Teaching is a profession open to changes and innovations 7. I can make sacrifices for teaching profession 8. I’d be happy with teaching new things to the students 9. I feel responsible when I fail to fulfill the requirements of the profession 10. Teaching is a profession of love 11. Teaching is the profession that preferred most 12. Teaching is the profession that I find most suitable for me 13. My biggest ideal is to become a teacher 14. The idea that I’d become a teacher makes me happy 15. Learning new things excites me 16. Teaching requires being idealist 17. Teaching should be the most respectable and prestigious profession in the community 104 Totally agreed Agreed Undecided Not agreed Statements of sensitivity towards teaching profession Never agreed Assoc. Prof. Dr. Selçuk UYGUN Assistant Prof. Dr. Çavuş ŞAHĐN Research Assistant Emel OKUR � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 408 Title A name given to the resource Study on Development of Sensitivity Scale for Teaching Profession Author Author UYGUN, Selçuk SAHİN, Çavus OKUR, Emel Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to develop a sensitivity scale intended for teaching profession. It is assumed that those who pick teaching as profession should have an inherent tendency for this job. The research is developed based on five stages including detection of the views on sensitivity with regard to teaching profession, determination of the scale items, preparation of the trial scale, implementation of the scale and measurement of the validity and reliability. In the end, a scale involving 17 items has been developed. The items factors value are between .30 and .79. It is found that KMO value is 0.906, Bartlett test is 0.000 and items factor values are 0.30 and upper at the end of the exploratory factor analysis. t values of upper and lower groups is found significant. These findings confirm that this scale has validity. Cronbach Alpha coefficient is found 0.884, which means that this scale is reliable. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/34526ee4960b3ca3f837d85ef7f47aa6.pdf fd2a5c1e13364f5abddc6a6060add964 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Activity Based Costing System and Model Application in a Marble Business Ġsmet TĠTĠZ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University,Turkey titiz@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Harun ÖZTÜRK Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University,Turkey hazrunozt@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Davut KARAMAN Alanya Vocatıonal Hıgh School Akdeniz University,Turkey davutkaraman07@hotmail.com Abstract : As well as being the key of economic developement, the growth of national economies is the most important factor that pollutes environment, because it increases the consumption. Companies are the biggest producer and consumer in economy. Businesses manifacture their products in multiple countries and remove borders because of today‘s economic and competitive conditions. Protection and development of resources is the basis of sustainable development. Today, most businesses face difficulties about rival businesses‘ competitive power and price politics. But,for well established firms ―crises are temporary, competitiveness is permanent‖, so the target of businesses is to obtain this competitive power and sustain it. ABC system is a more accurate cost calculation method. ABC system focuses on activities instead of traditional volume based costing. ABC system focuses on what causes the formation of costs and how to make contact with costs and products. Application is made by taking a marble company as an example, and results have been evaluated. Keywords : Activity based costing system, Marble Industry, Cost Introduction The technological advences experienced in our day is not only affected the production systems but also these advences have necessitated changes in accounting structures. Because of these interactions, businesses were forced to move to the new costing system in order to adapt economic development. Companies had to use new production technologies because of the acceleration of communication and international competition (Kaygusuz & Dokur, 2009). With 1980s completely aggravated new environment and global computitive conditions, were the reasons why companies tried to develop management. The other reasons fort his efforts were (Öker, 2003): - Rapid transformation of computer use in the production process - Innovations in production technology and quality control. - Developments in the field of communication and logistics In accordance with the above-mentioned reasons, new methods and approachs that applied in production management, provided the companies to improve quality, to reduce the level of stock and losses (Hacırüstemoğlu & ġakrak, 2002) 637 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study, the concepts of cost and accounting are analysed seperately. The advantages and disadvantages of activity-based costing system are revealed. It is tried to be understood wheter this design is appropriate for the companies by an application for marble companies. The concept of Cost The goal of all companies is to create a new value at the end of their activities. General meaning of cost is the monetary expression of sacrifices incurred for reaching the goal (Uragun, 1993). Activity-Based Cost System Activity-Based Cost System has emerged as a result of inadequacy of traditional methods . Cost elements, make distribution costs , moving from the fact that activity uses resources. Cooper and Kaplan (1988) first introduced the activity-based cost system and increased its popularity. According to Cooper and Kaplan, Activitybased cost is a strategy aimed tool not a formal accounting method. In todays increasingly competitive conditions, cost factors which used for production has to be determined exactly . Besides determining the production costs, ABC makes a database about activities and gives important information about the functions of the company. Here the concept of activity, is defined as work made in an organization (ġakrak, 1997). ABC method is based on certain assumptions. These are (Holmen, 1995): - Activities use resources, - Product/services use activities - In the method of ABC, using approach is dominant instead of spending. These assumptions reveals the structure of the model and gives the direction for operation. There is a cost pool for each activity. Process value analysis Process value analysis is a systematical analysis that is required for service fulfillment. This analysis determines all the activities that consumes the sources for producing or serving. It defines activities as creating add value and not (Arzova, 2001). The selection of distribution key ABC system provides more reliable information about cost by using multiple distribution switches instead of traditional cost methods while loading costs to products;/ services. According to this there have to be a distribution key for all activities made by the company. The key of ABC system which represents the activity best must be determined and overall production costs of the organization should be distributed with this key. Inappropriate selection of keywords can lead all efforts in vain. Therefore keys have to be determined completely. ABC system focuses on activities instead of chapters. While loading costs on products, the activities are undertaken. Products are manufactured as a result of activities. Activities consists of several subactivities. Production preparation activities can be shown as an example for sub-activities. Monitoring costs for activity headquarters ABC first installs resource costs to activity centers. Also it performs a two stage action by loading these costs to products/services. Cost carriers reflect the causation relations between activities and cost group. To avoid any distortion in product costs, they should be distributed directly to cost centers (Erdoğan, 1995). Cost Carrier Selection One of the most important stage in the design process is the selection of carrier operations. According to Cooper the selection of activitiy carriers requires two important decisions that are seperated but related (Cooper, 638 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 1993: 34). How many activity carriers will be used? Which activity carriers will be used? These two decisiosare related because the quality of selected activity carrier affects the number of required activity carrier. The limits of Activity Based Cost There are certain issues that must be emphasized about activity based costing method. The following two conditions must be considered to avoid false results. First, excess capacity costs must not be loaded to product costs, because this situation causes the reduction of demand. Secondly, all research and development costs related to new products and product lines. The companies which prepare a wide R & D program for short life circled products , have to measure costs and incomes, according to the life time of the products. Marble Supply and Usage in Turkey Rock formations which can be used as marble are found in many parts of our country., Different organizations and their studies indicate that Turkey‘s marble reserves are around 14 billion tonnes. There are about 550 marble quarries. The working field is about %8. In other words, 92% of known fields are not operational. Uses of marble is construction industry, cemeteries, sculpture, jewelry making and decoration. The correct choice of marble is possible by complying with qualification standards of marble. Many factors influence to determine using places of marble. Cost Calculation of Marble At the end of each production process, production loss should be estimated and its impact on costs should be measured. While making the process of calculating, production cost is accepted for production cut. The costs of products and semi products are calculated seperately. Costs which are created in help service locations, should be loaded to products which are produced at appropriate measures. It is important to calculate the costs, correctly, in time and reliable. Therefore it is necessary to be careful about determining methods. Information about the company which ABCS application will be applied to X marble industry and Trade Company operates since 1984 in Afyon district. Its subsidiary, X Marble Industry Trade LĠmited company operates since 1998. Business manager and his assistant undertakes the administrative staff and some jobs in the department of production. There are 28 staff workers, 9 administrative staff in total 37 staff in may 2009. They produce 12000 cubic meters of marble per year. X marble industry and Trade Company exports to United States,Canada ,Germany,Italy,Middle East and Gulf Countries such as Israel,Saudi Arabia,United Arab Emirates where its a large part of exports. Existing Cost Analysis Method Businesses have a wide range of production.Production quantities and production techniques of these products differ. These differences, hardens to calculate the product costs exactly. Direct first material and tool costs are loaded directly to products and labour and general production costs are loaded indirectly. Activity Based Costing Application Activity Based Costing System based on activities in which the costs of activities consists of the resources consumed. These informations are measured from the balance of three months , january-march 2009. Direct labour costs 90.944,25 TL Business material costs 7.533,545 TL Spare parts costs 8.143,336 TL Other indirect material costs 1.403,690 TL Meal expenses 4.856,647 TL 639 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Electricity expenses 2.537,226 TL Water expenses 3.870.433 TL Fuel expenses 13.230,575 TL Repair and maintenance labor costs 8.000,000 TL Vehicles expenses 1.104,267 TL Communication expenses 874,359 TL Depreciation of fixed asset management 122,152 TL departmend Stationery expenses 125,901 TL Cleaning materials expenses 432,863 TL Photocopying costs 27,669 TL Computer equipment expenses 223,933 TL Photocopying material costs 55,203 TL Fax material costs 42,000 TL Drinking water expenses 487,500 TL Comprehensive business insurance 1,895 TL Above expenses are given from balance of business. Traditional Costing System 1) Lilac Beige Marble Unit Cost = 20,14 TL Unit Sales Price = 27 TL Unit Profit = 6,86TL 2) Afyon White Marble Unit Cost = 18,97 TL Unit Sales Price = 24,5 TL Unit Profit = 5,53TL %25,4 %22,5 Activity Based costing System 1) Lilac Beige Marble Unit Cost = 14,804 TL Unit Sales Price = 27 TL Unit Profit = 12,196TL 2) Afyon White Marble Unit Cost = 12,207 TL Unit Sales Price = 24,5 TL Unit Profit = 12,293 %45,7 %50,17 Conclusions According to the results of the traditional cost system, unit cost of lilac beige marble is 20.14TL and the unit cost of Afyon marble is 18.97TL. According to the result of this method,the price of lilac beige marble is 27 TL/M2 and Afyon white marble is 24.5 TL/M2 . According to results of activity based costing system, unit cost of lilac beige marble is 14.804TL and Afyon marble is 12.207 TL. Unit sales price of lilac beige marble is 27 TL/M2 and afyon white marble is 24.5 TL/M2. The unit profit in traditional method is 5.53 TL. In activity based costing system unit profit is 12.293 TL. According to ABC system unit profit rate is 50.17% and in traditional costing system unit profit rate is 22.5%. ABC system gives more accurate and reliable information than traditional costing system. Besides all well designed and developed an activity based costing system gives positive results in both production business and service business. References ARZOVA, B.S., Faaliyet Tabanlı Maliyet Yönetimi ve Muhasebe Sistemi, Doktora Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ġstanbul, 2001. COOPER, R.,R. S. KAPLAN, "How Cost Accounting Distorts Product Cost", Management Accounting, April, 1988. COOPER, R. , Activity Based Costing For Improved Product Costing, Hand Boook of Cost Management, Edited by Barry Brinker, New York, 1993. HACIRÜSTEMOĞLU, R. ve M ġAKRAK,. , Maliyet Muhasebesinde Güncel YaklaĢımlar, Ġstanbul: Türkmen Kitapevi, 2002. HOLMEN, J. S., ―ABC vs. TOC: It‘s A Matter of Time‖, Management Accounting, Vol: 76, No: 7, 1995. 640 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ERDOĞAN, N. , Faaliyete Dayalı Maliyetleme, Anadolu Üniv. Yayınları, EskiĢehir, 1995 KAYGUSUZ, Sait Y., ġükrü Dokur; Maliyet Muhasebesi, Dora Yay:31, Bursa-2009 ÖKER F., ―Faaliyet Tabanlı Maliyetleme‖, Literatür Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 2003., s.17. ġAKRAK, M. , Maliyet Yönetimi, Yasa Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1997. URAGUN, M. Maliyet Muhasebesi ve Mali Tablolar, Yetkin Basımevi, Ankara, 1993. 641 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 302 Title A name given to the resource Activity Based Costing System and Model Application in a Marble Business Author Author TİTİZ, İsmet ÖZTÜRK, Harun KARAMAN, Davut Abstract A summary of the resource. As well as being the key of economic developement, the growth of national economies is the most important factor that pollutes environment, because it increases the consumption. Companies are the biggest producer and consumer in economy. Businesses manifacture their products in multiple countries and remove borders because of today‘s economic and competitive conditions. Protection and development of resources is the basis of sustainable development. Today, most businesses face difficulties about rival businesses‘ competitive power and price politics. But,for well established firms ―crises are temporary, competitiveness is permanent‖, so the target of businesses is to obtain this competitive power and sustain it. ABC system is a more accurate cost calculation method. ABC system focuses on activities instead of traditional volume based costing. ABC system focuses on what causes the formation of costs and how to make contact with costs and products. Application is made by taking a marble company as an example, and results have been evaluated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/caf71428da4a4b317a0a3c24c4138697.pdf fd2a5c1e13364f5abddc6a6060add964 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Activity Based Costing System and Model Application in a Marble Business Ġsmet TĠTĠZ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University,Turkey titiz@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Harun ÖZTÜRK Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Suleyman Demirel University,Turkey hazrunozt@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Davut KARAMAN Alanya Vocatıonal Hıgh School Akdeniz University,Turkey davutkaraman07@hotmail.com Abstract : As well as being the key of economic developement, the growth of national economies is the most important factor that pollutes environment, because it increases the consumption. Companies are the biggest producer and consumer in economy. Businesses manifacture their products in multiple countries and remove borders because of today‘s economic and competitive conditions. Protection and development of resources is the basis of sustainable development. Today, most businesses face difficulties about rival businesses‘ competitive power and price politics. But,for well established firms ―crises are temporary, competitiveness is permanent‖, so the target of businesses is to obtain this competitive power and sustain it. ABC system is a more accurate cost calculation method. ABC system focuses on activities instead of traditional volume based costing. ABC system focuses on what causes the formation of costs and how to make contact with costs and products. Application is made by taking a marble company as an example, and results have been evaluated. Keywords : Activity based costing system, Marble Industry, Cost Introduction The technological advences experienced in our day is not only affected the production systems but also these advences have necessitated changes in accounting structures. Because of these interactions, businesses were forced to move to the new costing system in order to adapt economic development. Companies had to use new production technologies because of the acceleration of communication and international competition (Kaygusuz & Dokur, 2009). With 1980s completely aggravated new environment and global computitive conditions, were the reasons why companies tried to develop management. The other reasons fort his efforts were (Öker, 2003): - Rapid transformation of computer use in the production process - Innovations in production technology and quality control. - Developments in the field of communication and logistics In accordance with the above-mentioned reasons, new methods and approachs that applied in production management, provided the companies to improve quality, to reduce the level of stock and losses (Hacırüstemoğlu & ġakrak, 2002) 637 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study, the concepts of cost and accounting are analysed seperately. The advantages and disadvantages of activity-based costing system are revealed. It is tried to be understood wheter this design is appropriate for the companies by an application for marble companies. The concept of Cost The goal of all companies is to create a new value at the end of their activities. General meaning of cost is the monetary expression of sacrifices incurred for reaching the goal (Uragun, 1993). Activity-Based Cost System Activity-Based Cost System has emerged as a result of inadequacy of traditional methods . Cost elements, make distribution costs , moving from the fact that activity uses resources. Cooper and Kaplan (1988) first introduced the activity-based cost system and increased its popularity. According to Cooper and Kaplan, Activitybased cost is a strategy aimed tool not a formal accounting method. In todays increasingly competitive conditions, cost factors which used for production has to be determined exactly . Besides determining the production costs, ABC makes a database about activities and gives important information about the functions of the company. Here the concept of activity, is defined as work made in an organization (ġakrak, 1997). ABC method is based on certain assumptions. These are (Holmen, 1995): - Activities use resources, - Product/services use activities - In the method of ABC, using approach is dominant instead of spending. These assumptions reveals the structure of the model and gives the direction for operation. There is a cost pool for each activity. Process value analysis Process value analysis is a systematical analysis that is required for service fulfillment. This analysis determines all the activities that consumes the sources for producing or serving. It defines activities as creating add value and not (Arzova, 2001). The selection of distribution key ABC system provides more reliable information about cost by using multiple distribution switches instead of traditional cost methods while loading costs to products;/ services. According to this there have to be a distribution key for all activities made by the company. The key of ABC system which represents the activity best must be determined and overall production costs of the organization should be distributed with this key. Inappropriate selection of keywords can lead all efforts in vain. Therefore keys have to be determined completely. ABC system focuses on activities instead of chapters. While loading costs on products, the activities are undertaken. Products are manufactured as a result of activities. Activities consists of several subactivities. Production preparation activities can be shown as an example for sub-activities. Monitoring costs for activity headquarters ABC first installs resource costs to activity centers. Also it performs a two stage action by loading these costs to products/services. Cost carriers reflect the causation relations between activities and cost group. To avoid any distortion in product costs, they should be distributed directly to cost centers (Erdoğan, 1995). Cost Carrier Selection One of the most important stage in the design process is the selection of carrier operations. According to Cooper the selection of activitiy carriers requires two important decisions that are seperated but related (Cooper, 638 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 1993: 34). How many activity carriers will be used? Which activity carriers will be used? These two decisiosare related because the quality of selected activity carrier affects the number of required activity carrier. The limits of Activity Based Cost There are certain issues that must be emphasized about activity based costing method. The following two conditions must be considered to avoid false results. First, excess capacity costs must not be loaded to product costs, because this situation causes the reduction of demand. Secondly, all research and development costs related to new products and product lines. The companies which prepare a wide R & D program for short life circled products , have to measure costs and incomes, according to the life time of the products. Marble Supply and Usage in Turkey Rock formations which can be used as marble are found in many parts of our country., Different organizations and their studies indicate that Turkey‘s marble reserves are around 14 billion tonnes. There are about 550 marble quarries. The working field is about %8. In other words, 92% of known fields are not operational. Uses of marble is construction industry, cemeteries, sculpture, jewelry making and decoration. The correct choice of marble is possible by complying with qualification standards of marble. Many factors influence to determine using places of marble. Cost Calculation of Marble At the end of each production process, production loss should be estimated and its impact on costs should be measured. While making the process of calculating, production cost is accepted for production cut. The costs of products and semi products are calculated seperately. Costs which are created in help service locations, should be loaded to products which are produced at appropriate measures. It is important to calculate the costs, correctly, in time and reliable. Therefore it is necessary to be careful about determining methods. Information about the company which ABCS application will be applied to X marble industry and Trade Company operates since 1984 in Afyon district. Its subsidiary, X Marble Industry Trade LĠmited company operates since 1998. Business manager and his assistant undertakes the administrative staff and some jobs in the department of production. There are 28 staff workers, 9 administrative staff in total 37 staff in may 2009. They produce 12000 cubic meters of marble per year. X marble industry and Trade Company exports to United States,Canada ,Germany,Italy,Middle East and Gulf Countries such as Israel,Saudi Arabia,United Arab Emirates where its a large part of exports. Existing Cost Analysis Method Businesses have a wide range of production.Production quantities and production techniques of these products differ. These differences, hardens to calculate the product costs exactly. Direct first material and tool costs are loaded directly to products and labour and general production costs are loaded indirectly. Activity Based Costing Application Activity Based Costing System based on activities in which the costs of activities consists of the resources consumed. These informations are measured from the balance of three months , january-march 2009. Direct labour costs 90.944,25 TL Business material costs 7.533,545 TL Spare parts costs 8.143,336 TL Other indirect material costs 1.403,690 TL Meal expenses 4.856,647 TL 639 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Electricity expenses 2.537,226 TL Water expenses 3.870.433 TL Fuel expenses 13.230,575 TL Repair and maintenance labor costs 8.000,000 TL Vehicles expenses 1.104,267 TL Communication expenses 874,359 TL Depreciation of fixed asset management 122,152 TL departmend Stationery expenses 125,901 TL Cleaning materials expenses 432,863 TL Photocopying costs 27,669 TL Computer equipment expenses 223,933 TL Photocopying material costs 55,203 TL Fax material costs 42,000 TL Drinking water expenses 487,500 TL Comprehensive business insurance 1,895 TL Above expenses are given from balance of business. Traditional Costing System 1) Lilac Beige Marble Unit Cost = 20,14 TL Unit Sales Price = 27 TL Unit Profit = 6,86TL 2) Afyon White Marble Unit Cost = 18,97 TL Unit Sales Price = 24,5 TL Unit Profit = 5,53TL %25,4 %22,5 Activity Based costing System 1) Lilac Beige Marble Unit Cost = 14,804 TL Unit Sales Price = 27 TL Unit Profit = 12,196TL 2) Afyon White Marble Unit Cost = 12,207 TL Unit Sales Price = 24,5 TL Unit Profit = 12,293 %45,7 %50,17 Conclusions According to the results of the traditional cost system, unit cost of lilac beige marble is 20.14TL and the unit cost of Afyon marble is 18.97TL. According to the result of this method,the price of lilac beige marble is 27 TL/M2 and Afyon white marble is 24.5 TL/M2 . According to results of activity based costing system, unit cost of lilac beige marble is 14.804TL and Afyon marble is 12.207 TL. Unit sales price of lilac beige marble is 27 TL/M2 and afyon white marble is 24.5 TL/M2. The unit profit in traditional method is 5.53 TL. In activity based costing system unit profit is 12.293 TL. According to ABC system unit profit rate is 50.17% and in traditional costing system unit profit rate is 22.5%. ABC system gives more accurate and reliable information than traditional costing system. Besides all well designed and developed an activity based costing system gives positive results in both production business and service business. References ARZOVA, B.S., Faaliyet Tabanlı Maliyet Yönetimi ve Muhasebe Sistemi, Doktora Tezi, Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ġstanbul, 2001. COOPER, R.,R. S. KAPLAN, "How Cost Accounting Distorts Product Cost", Management Accounting, April, 1988. COOPER, R. , Activity Based Costing For Improved Product Costing, Hand Boook of Cost Management, Edited by Barry Brinker, New York, 1993. HACIRÜSTEMOĞLU, R. ve M ġAKRAK,. , Maliyet Muhasebesinde Güncel YaklaĢımlar, Ġstanbul: Türkmen Kitapevi, 2002. HOLMEN, J. S., ―ABC vs. TOC: It‘s A Matter of Time‖, Management Accounting, Vol: 76, No: 7, 1995. 640 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ERDOĞAN, N. , Faaliyete Dayalı Maliyetleme, Anadolu Üniv. Yayınları, EskiĢehir, 1995 KAYGUSUZ, Sait Y., ġükrü Dokur; Maliyet Muhasebesi, Dora Yay:31, Bursa-2009 ÖKER F., ―Faaliyet Tabanlı Maliyetleme‖, Literatür Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 2003., s.17. ġAKRAK, M. , Maliyet Yönetimi, Yasa Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1997. URAGUN, M. Maliyet Muhasebesi ve Mali Tablolar, Yetkin Basımevi, Ankara, 1993. 641 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 248 Title A name given to the resource Activity Based Costing System and Model Application in a Marble Business Author Author TİTİZ, İsmet ÖZTÜRK, Harun KARAMAN, Davut Abstract A summary of the resource. As well as being the key of economic developement, the growth of national economies is the most important factor that pollutes environment, because it increases the consumption. Companies are the biggest producer and consumer in economy. Businesses manifacture their products in multiple countries and remove borders because of today‘s economic and competitive conditions. Protection and development of resources is the basis of sustainable development. Today, most businesses face difficulties about rival businesses‘ competitive power and price politics. But,for well established firms ―crises are temporary, competitiveness is permanent‖, so the target of businesses is to obtain this competitive power and sustain it. ABC system is a more accurate cost calculation method. ABC system focuses on activities instead of traditional volume based costing. ABC system focuses on what causes the formation of costs and how to make contact with costs and products. Application is made by taking a marble company as an example, and results have been evaluated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e1c6b40d5a4bc82d770256377d943f11.pdf 4218c0c79f043641b5e816fd552e8ee5 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo A Perspective on the Foundations of Democratic Governance in American Public Schools M. Uğur Türkyılmaz International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina uturkyilmaz@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: In this paper I will try to lay out how I define and implement the most valued concept of our time at the school I have been working in for two years. I will analyze the questions below that I see critical in terms of “realizing” the democratic goals in a school environment. As the principal of a public school, what are difficulties that I face when I fight to incorporate the principles of democracy into governing bodies of our school? Where do I get the most challenge? What are the real benefits of having a school, which is “as democratic as possible”? Is there a dead end where you cannot further democratize the school? More tangibly, how do I democratically reestablish the relation between the school administration and students? How do I organize teacher and administration relations to make sure that their voices are heard and their votes are counted? What is the principal’s position within the community regarding getting all parties involved in the decision-making process? What is a Democratic School? Dewey defines democracy as “A democracy is more than a form of a government; it is primarily a mode of associated living, of joint communicate experience.” (Dewey, 1916) I define democracy as the practice of the freedom that every human being has when s/he is born. Democratic education is the implementation of how we make ways to have students internalizes the very basic life requirement to be a human. “Life is a self-renewing process.” (Dewey, 1916) So do the democratic schools. A democratic school is a living organism that grows everyday toward the goal of having a totally democratic world. “We have seen that a community or social group sustains itself through continuous self-renewal, and that this renewal takes place by means of the educational growth of the immature members of the group ” (Dewey, 1916). Those schools are the enterprises committing to the world peace beyond our imagination. Those students will some day turn this world a place that everybody takes the pleasure of “having a say.” If you want to talk about a democratic school, you should start with the question of where the decisions are made at that school. Is it at the discretion of an individual? Do the committees make it? Who is making the decision on what and how to teach? Who defines the goal of the school? Understanding the Framework of Democratic Governance At a democratic school, decisions should be made at where the majority wants them to be made. More clearly, before you make a decision, you ask who should make it. Just minutes ago, a social studies teacher asked me what she should do about the students who are suspended and their parents ask for the homework that they missed. I asked if you think it is me who should and can answer that. She puzzled a little. I said we have to make the policy at our staff meeting. I cannot tell you how you should proceed. There are several cases new to almost everyone. Teachers think they should be just instructed of what to do. That feeling is one of the enemies of the democratic thinking ability. “Effective principals value dialogue that encourages teachers to reflect on their learning and practice. The study revealed five primary talking strategies: make suggestions, give feedback, model, use inquiry and solicit advice/ opinions, and praise.” (Joseph, 2001) My duty is to encourage all teachers to regard themselves as a part of decision making. My position might be just to vote at the meeting just like one of them. At one of the department head meetings last year, I suggested that we should set up some committees. Those committees will function like the think tank groups of the school and advice on their mission to several entities. One of them will be a group who would solely reflect on how democratic the school is. At first sight, this might be regarded as an easy task. But when you start taking a look around and see how many holes there are, you just get overwhelmed. They came with tons of suggestions and criticism varying from election systems to the 205 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo positions of the school. They came to the conclusion that the school is not democratic at all! I am not offended with that, though. What I am trying to say is if democratizing our schools is just in the hands of some individuals, the process is already doomed to fail. What those individuals should first do is to encourage the entire community to get on board. It is critical that everybody should be accountable and feel accountable to democratize the school at the same level. “Democratic schools need to be based on a broad definition of “WE”.” (Apple, Beane, 1995) Students, teachers, parents, administrators, paraprofessionals and all other elements of community must be on the same page. That is the only way to avoid looking for scapegoats. If we succeed, it is all our success. If we fail, that is the sin of all of us. The Role of Principals The principal should be the advocate of democratization at every aspect of the school program. “A trained person is one who can do the chief things…” (Dewey, 1916) Therefore, he/she should regard the institutionalization of democracy as his primary job description. The more the school democratized the more functional and efficient the school becomes. Here at this point the challenge might seem like to be losing the authority to rule. Actually sharing responsibility just saves the principal in the future if anything goes wrong. Don’t you think so? Another difficulty is getting the staff members to believe that they are the ones who should make decisions. Most people are used to the routine and do not want to take responsibility. “The leaders’ ability to keep and maintain engaging personal relations with teacher, students and staff members enhanced the flow of information they received and increased their chances of encouraging experimenters at just the right time.” (Gross, 1998) That’s where we need the talents of the administrators. Teachers are the ones actually realizing the reasons of being in a school. “Methods of instruction and administration need to be modified to allow and to secure direct and continuous occupations with things.” (Dewey, 1916) Hence, it is absurd to ignore their roles in the decisionmaking policy. However, it is even harder to draw students into the system, as they are the most neglected ones. What good is education if we are making people out of those students who do not even have the self-confidence to raise his/her voice? “If teachers are to succeed, they must meet students where they are…” (Hammond, 1997). What good is a school if interaction between the all others and students is not democratic? One of the best ways students might actualize themselves is helping out to democratize the school. They should consider themselves right at the center of this process. “Children, if they could express themselves articulate and sincerely, would tell a different tale…” (Dewey, 1916) When they have that freedom, they would be the ones who would change. Curriculum, discipline policy and all the other major plans of the school governance should be made considering their point of views. They might be able to change if some things go wrong. “Learners often bring with them very firm expectations of how their problems should be addressed.” (Farquharson, 1995) Therefore, at every step of the decision making process, their voices should be heard. If you have the least idea about leadership, it is to get things done through others. If you know anything about sorting problems out in the school, it is all about getting the community in the game, especially parents. “Our action is socially controlled because we endeavor to refer what we are to do the same situation in which he is acting.” (Dewey, 1916) Therefore, school and education is not and cannot be isolated from the society. Actually what we are doing is just enforcing what is happening at home or in the street or in the society. If we have discipline problems, that is just the extension of whatever is out there. If the students have a lack of an interest in learning, it is safe to say they lack motivation out there. “The presence of authentic instructional leadership can be witnessed in the everyday acts of people who take the responsibility for improving the teaching and learning in the entire school community, and its effectiveness revealed in a variety of measures of student achievement. (King, 2002) In essence, life out of the school is somewhat shaping up the schools. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the principal to make sure everyone who has a touch on what is going on at the school should be at the school, too. Parents should not just show up at the PTAs or PACs. They have to make a habit of making themselves visible for everything that might affect the future of their kids. “An education which should unify the disposition of the members of society would do much to unify the society itself.” (Dewey, 1916) Having such fancy ideas about parental involvement, I cannot forget my disappointment at the day I attended the first PAC meeting. Out of three hundred parents, only a handful showed up. I took the issue up with the PAC president and told her how disappointed I was. What might be turning off those parents to join at least one meeting? I wrote a letter to all parents and did not try to hide my disappointment at all. They have to understand that without their support we are nothing. 206 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo I will take further steps to make sure they feel more pressure from me to get them more democratized and care for their children. I provided them my direct phone line number. I have an open door policy. I asked them to take advantage of it. I booked a hotel conference room downtown to eliminate the distance problem. It is also clear that there are some other factors outside of the school that really have an effect on education. “In what is termed politics, democratic social organization makes provision for this direct participation in control: in the economic region, control remains external and autocratic.”(Dewey, 1916) I am sure most politicians would not like that! However I do agree with Dewey on that! Politicians and all other policy makers who are not in daily operation of the schools should also be involved in reality. Conclusion As a conclusion, I will go with what Dewey says almost a century ago. “But we are doubtless far from realizing the potential efficacy of education as a constructive agency of improving society, from realizing that it represents not only a development of children and youth, but also of the future of the society of which they will be the constituents. ” (Dewey, 1916) We have to see that school and society are two sides of the same coin. We cannot solve the problems of one component if one is just feeding each other. We have to develop policies that will not just be enforced at the school but also in the society, as well. “Administrators, teachers, parents, parents and community members work hard to make education especially valuable for students in these schools.” (Gross, 1998) “In many ways unequal access to education threatens the foundation of democratic society” (Hammond, 1997) Therefore, parents, politicians and the other agents of the society should be equally accountable. It is not enough to fail the child and the school! References: Apple, M., & Beane, A. J. (1995). Democratic Schools. Alexandria, Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Blasé, J., & Blasé J. (2001). The teacher’s principal. National Staff Development Council (22,25). Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. NY: The Free Press Farquharson, A. (1995). Teaching in Practice. (1st Ed) California: Jossey Bass Hammond, D. L. (1998). The Right to Learn (1st Ed). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Gross, S. (1998) Staying Centered Curriculum Leadership in Turbulent Era. Virginia: ASCD King, D. (2002). The Changing Shape of Leadership. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (61,63). 207 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 457 Title A name given to the resource A Perspective on the Foundations of Democratic Governance in American Public Schools Author Author Türkyılmaz, M. Uğur Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper I will try to lay out how I define and implement the most valued concept of our time at the school I have been working in for two years. I will analyze the questions below that I see critical in terms of “realizing” the democratic goals in a school environment. As the principal of a public school, what are difficulties that I face when I fight to incorporate the principles of democracy into governing bodies of our school? Where do I get the most challenge? What are the real benefits of having a school, which is “as democratic as possible”? Is there a dead end where you cannot further democratize the school? More tangibly, how do I democratically reestablish the relation between the school administration and students? How do I organize teacher and administration relations to make sure that their voices are heard and their votes are counted? What is the principal’s position within the community regarding getting all parties involved in the decision-making process? Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/aa99e904aba28b57be82df43d6ba272e.pdf bc83e460816c3d9ddfd3719fa6d1b157 PDF Text Text Effects of Different AMF Species on Some Bean Cultivars Grown in Salty Conditions Önder Türkmen Department of Horticulture Agricultural Faculty Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey turkmen@selcuk.edu.tr Vahdettin Çiftçi Department of Field Crops Agricultural Faculty Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey Çeknas Erdinç Department of Horticulture Agricultural Faculty Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey Suat Şensoy Department of Horticulture Agricultural Faculty Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey Abstract: This study was carried out to determine the effects of three different Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) species (Glomus mosseae, G. intraradices and G. fasciculatum ) on the growth and nutrient contents of four bean cultivars (Onceler, Seker, Terzibaba and Sehirali) grown under salt stress. The constant amount of NaCl (50 ppm) was added the autoclaved growth medium containing 1:1:1: ratios of soil, sand, and manure. The five g (25 spores g-1) of inoculum was placed in the seedling growth medium before the seeds were sown. At the end of the study, some nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and plant growth parameters such as shoot height, stem diameter, root length, leaf number, leaf area, and dry and fresh weights of shoots and roots were investigated. Moreover, the plant colonization rates of AMF species were determined. The AMF species had positive effects on the plant growth and nutrient intake. Among the bean cultivars, Onceler and Terzibaba, and among the AMF species, G. mosseae, had the best results for plant growth. Introduction Bean is the most widely produced legumes in the world, especially in Asia and South America (Ozdemir, 2002). Fresh bean productions of the world and Turkey (the second biggest producer) are 6.37 and 0.49 million tons, respectively (Anonymous, 2007). Bean is easily produced in all parts of Turkey and has an important place in human consumption. Soil salinity is one of the limiting environmental factors for agricultural productivity in the world and Turkey and more than one third of the world’s agricultural land faces with this problem (Greenway & Munns, 2000, Kaynak et al. 2000). Turkey faces with salinity problem in 32.5 % of its irrigated land (1.5 millions ha). Especially seed emergence and seedling growth are adversely affected in salt accumulated soil. Salinity may occur when there is irregular irrigation, inadequate drainage, wrong fertilizer application, and it extremely increases especially in protected cultivation. Some physiological disorders and even plant dies might be observed due to high osmotic pressure and toxic effects of Na+ and Cl- ions (Franca Dantas et al. 2007; Greenway & Munns, 1980; Ekmekçi et al. 2005; Kaynak et al. 2000). In soils having salinity problems, there are accumulations of Na+ and Cl- ions, increase in Na+:Ca2+, Na+:K+, Ca2+:Mg2+ and Cl-: NO-3 ratios; consequently, there are ion toxicity and imbalance (Hu & Schmidhalted, 2005). Increase in Na+ inhibits K+ uptake, and Increase in Cl- reduces NO-3 uptake (Turkmen et al. 2005). Higher amounts of salty substances in soil hinder water uptake and destroy soil structure (Ekmekci et al. 2005). 117 �Plant species are called salt intolerant if they can only survive in EC values ranged from 0 to 4 ds m-1 (Ekmekci et al. 2005). Bean is a salt intolerant plant species. The significant yield losses are observed in bean even at below 2 ds m-1 (Gama et al. 2007). The yield loss migth be 50 % above2 ds m-1 EC values (Ekmekci et al. 2005). The harmful effects of salinity can be lessened with the use of tolerant cultivars beside several cultural practices. Moreover, the humic substances in the soil (Türkmen et al., 2005) and some useful microorganisms such as arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can give encouraging results in salt tolerance (Türkmen et al., 2005; Gosling et al. 2006; Aroca et al., 2007; Türkmen et al., 2008). AM Fungi are the most widespread root fungal symbionts and are associated with the vast majority of higher plants (Selvaraj & Chellappan, 2006). AMF enable plants to cope with detrimental environmental conditions; therefore, AMF increase plant growth and yield (Bolandnazar et al., 2007). Approximately 96 % of the plants in the world is dependent and associated with AMF (Quilambo, 2003;Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). The degree of this dependence varies among the plant species. Bean is one of the species having high mycorrhizal dependency (Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). While plants provide carbohydrates to AMF, AMF alleviate certain nutrient deficiencies by increasing nutrient uptake (Ortas & Akpınar, 2004; Selvaraj & Chellappan, 2006). AMF’s hyphae improve the uptake of some water insoluble nutrients by the help of their enzymatic activities and by the alteration of physical and chemical properties in the soil (Abdelhafez & Abdel-Monsief, 2006). Beside improving soil properties, AMF also enable plants to cope with both biotic and abiotic stresses (Aroca et al., 2007; Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). Salinity is among these troubles (Juniper & Abbott, 2004). It was observed that AMF could be effective for salt tolerance in bean (Rabie, 2005; Trujillo, 2006). Therefore, this study was carried out to determine the effects of different AMF species on the seedling growth and nutrient contents of some bean cultivars grown under salt stress. Material and Methods Four bean cultivars were examined, as follows: (1) Onceler; (2) Seker; (3) Terzibaba; (4) Sehirali. Three AMF inoculums were tested in the study -Glomus intraradices (Gi) and G. mosseae (Gm), and G. fasciculatum (Gf). Inocula consisted of spores, extraradical mycelium and mycorrhizal roots Growth medium was comprised of an autoclaved mixture of sand, manure and soil with a pH of 8.70 and a composition of 3.19% organic matter, 0.0032% salt (Kacar, 1994). The experiment used an 4x4 factorial design (four bean genotypes, three AMF plus one control) with four random replications of ten pots (no drainage) each, for a total of 640 pots. One bean seed was sown per pot, each of which contained 250 cm3 of sterilized growth medium. In the AMF inoculated samples, 5 g (25 spores g-1) of inoculum was placed in the growth medium before the seeds were sown (Demir & Onogur, 1999). The constant rate of 50 ppm NaCl was added to the growth medium after seed sowing. Seedlings were thinned to one per pot shortly after seed emergence, placed in a growth chamber at a temperature of 22 ± 10C with 12 h fluorescent illumination (8000 lx light intensity), and irrigated with distilled water. Plants were harvested 6 weeks after seed sowing and inoculation. At the end of the study, some nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and plant growth parameters such as shoot height, stem diameter, root length, leaf number, leaf area, and dry and fresh weights of shoots and roots were investigated. Moreover, the plant colonization rates of AMF species were determined after harvesting. Samples were then oven-dried at 68 0C for 48 h, ground, and nitrogenous (N) content was analyzed with Kjeldahl method; phosphorous (P) content was measured with spectrophotometer (Kacar, 1984). K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn contents were analyzed using the Association of Official Analytical Chemists’ method with atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AOAC, 1990). Bean roots were dyed to detect AMF presence, which was determined using a modification of Phillips and Hayman’s (1970) method, and the percentage and intensity of mycorrhizal colonization was estimated using the Grid Line Intersect Method (Giovanetti & Mosse, 1980). Data were analyzed using the SAS statistical program, with variance analysis conducted for all data. Differences between treatments were determined using Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (SAS Software, 1997). 118 �Results Plant Growth Parameters At the end of the study, the significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for fresh shoot weight [Table 1]. While Onceler cv had the highest fresh shoot weight (5.08 g plant-1), Sehirali cv had the lowest fresh shoot weight (3.72 g plant-1). While Gm had the highest fresh shoot weight (5.10 g plant-1), Gf had the lowest fresh shoot weight (3.96 g plant-1). The Terzibaba cv x Gm had the highest fresh shoot weight (5.72 g plant-1) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among only bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for dry shoot weight [Table 2]. The Terzibaba cv x control AMF had the highest dry shoot weight (0.55 g plant-1), while Sehirali cv x Gi had the lowest dry shoot weight (0.32 g plant-1). Similar to the fresh shoot weight, the significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for fresh root weight [Table 1]. While Seker cv had the highest fresh root weight (1.43 g plant-1), Sehirali cv had the lowest fresh root weight (0.67 g plant-1). While Gm had the highest fresh root weight (1.45 g plant-1), Gf had the lowest fresh root weight (0.95 g plant-1). Seker cv x Gm had the highest fresh root weight (1.93 g plant-1) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivar and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for dry root weight [Table 1]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest dry root weight (0.13 g plant-1), Sehirali cv had the lowest dry root weight (0.08 g plant-1). Similar to the dry shoot weight data, Terzibaba cv x control AMF had the highest dry root weight (0.16 g plant-1), while Sehirali cv x Gi had the lowest dry root weight (0.06 g plant-1). The significant differences were observed among bean cultivars (P<0.01), AMF species(P<0.05) for shoot height [Table 2]. While Onceler cv had the highest shoot height (16.95 cm), Sehirali cv had the lowest shoot height (13.25 cm). While Gi had the highest shoot height (16.34 cm), Gm had the lowest shoot height (14.45 cm). The significant differences were observed among bean cultivars (P<0.01), AMF species (P<0.05) for root length [Table 2]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest root length (13.44 cm), Sehirali cv had the lowest root length (11.31 cm). While the control AMF treatment had the highest root length (12.84 cm), Gf had the lowest root length (11.86 cm). The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for shoot diameter [Table 3]. While Onceler cv had the highest shoot diameter (4.31 mm), Terzibaba cv had the lowest shoot diameter (3.49 mm). While Gi had the highest shoot diameter (3.97 mm), Gm had the lowest shoot diameter (3.73 mm). The Onceler cv x Gi had the highest shoot diameter (4.91 mm) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars, AMF species and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for leaf number [Table 3]. While Seker cv had the highest leaf number (8.08), Onceler cv had the lowest leaf number (5.52). While Gm had the highest leaf number (7.30), Gi had the lowest leaf number (6.70). The Seker cv x Gi had the highest leaf number (9.03) when compared to all of the other interactions. The significant (P<0.01) differences were observed among bean cultivars and bean cultivar x AMF species interaction for leaf area [Table 3]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest leaf area (157.74 cm2), Seker cv had the lowest leaf area (121.73 cm2). The Terzibaba cv x Gf had the highest leaf area (185.53 cm2) when compared to all of the other interactions. Plant Nutrient Contents Cultivars, AMF species and cultivar x AMF species interaction had significant (P<0.01) effects on N contents of bean shoots [Table 4]. While Sehirali cv had the highest shoot N content (5.41 %), Seker cv had the lowest shoot N content (4.62 %). While Gm had the highest shoot N content (5.59 %), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot N content (4.48 %). The Sehirali cv x Gm had the highest shoot N content (7.61 %) when compared to all of the other interactions. Due to the insufficient sample amounts root N contents were not determined. The shoot P contents of bean seedlings were significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species and cultivar x AMF species interaction [Table 5]. While Gm had the highest shoot P content (0.99 %), the 119 �control AMF application had the lowest shoot P content (0.77 %). The Terzibaba cv x Gm had the highest shoot P content (1.11 %) when compared to all of the other interactions. There were only significant differences (P<0.01) among AMF species for the root P contents [Table 5]. While Gi had the highest root P content (1.11 %), the control AMF application had the lowest root P content (0.84 %). There were only significant differences (P<0.01) among AMF species for the shoot K contents [Table 6]. While Gi had the highest shoot K content (10.05 %), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot K content (7.43 %). Cultivars and AMF species had significant (P<0.01) effects on K contents of bean roots [Table 6]. While Terzibaba cv had the highest root K content (5.27 %), Onceler cv had the lowest root K content (4.27 %). While Gf had the highest root K content (5.24 %), Gi had the lowest root K content (4.36 %). There were only significant differences (P<0.05) among AMF species for the root Ca contents [Table 7]. While Terzibab cv had the highest root Ca content (3.01 %), Onceler cv had the lowest root Ca content (2.35 %). There were no significant differences among the treatments for the root and shoot Mg contents [Table 8]. There were no significant differences among the treatments for the shoot Fe contents, but the root Fe contents of bean seedlings were significantly affected from AMF species (P<0.01), bean cultivars (P<0.05), and cultivar x AMF species interaction (P<0.01) [Table 9]. While Gi had the highest root Fe content (6.71 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Fe content (5.50 mg-1kg). While Onceler cv had the highest root Fe content (6.20 mg-1kg), Sehirali cv had the lowest root Fe content (5.52 mg-1kg). The Sehirali cv x Gi had the highest root Fe content (7.27 mg-1kg) when compared to all of the other interactions. The shoot Cu contents of bean seedlings were significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species and bean cultivars [Table 10]. While Gm had the highest shoot Cu content (14.65 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot Cu content (10.40 mg-1kg). While Onceler cv had the highest shoot Cu content (13.96 mg-1kg), Sehirali cv had the lowest shoot Cu content (11.08 mg-1kg). The root Cu contents of bean seedlings were also significantly affected from AMF species (P<0.01) and bean cultivars (P<0.05) [Table 10]. While Gf had the highest root Cu content (32.28 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Cu content (26.17 mg-1kg). While Sehirali cv had the highest root Cu content (32.08 mg-1kg), Seker cv had the lowest root Cu content (28.05 mg-1kg). TheTerzibaba cv x Gm and Sehirali cv x Gf had the highest root Cu contents (35.88 and 35.70 mg-1kg, respectively) when compared to all of the other interactions. The shoot Mn contents of bean seedlings were only significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species [Table 11]. While Gi had the highest shoot Mn content (65.46 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest shoot Mn content (52.55 mg-1kg). The root Mn contents of bean seedlings were significantly affected from AMF species (P<0.01) and bean cultivars (P<0.05) [Table 11]. While Gi had the highest root Mn content (174.08 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Cu content (138.41 mg-1kg). While Sehirali cv had the highest root Mn content (168.00 mg-1kg), Terzibaba cv had the lowest root Mn content (147.38 mg-1kg). The Sehirali cv x Gi had the highest root Mn content (221.47 mg1 kg) when compared to all of the other interactions. There were no significant differences among the treatments for the shoot Zn contents, but the root Zn contents of bean seedlings were significantly (P<0.01) affected from AMF species and bean cultivars [Table 12]. While Gf had the highest root Zn content (37.20 mg-1kg), the control AMF application had the lowest root Zn content (30.41 mg-1kg). While Seker cv had the highest root Zn content (38.90 mg-1kg), Terzibaba cv had the lowest root Zn content (30.48 mg-1kg). AMF Colonization The extent of root colonization varied significantly (P<0.01) among the bean cultivars, AMF species and cultivar-AMF combinations tested [Table 13]. The colonization rates (33%) of Gm and Gf were higher than that of Gi (24 %). The colonization rates of Seker (35%) and Sehirali (33%) bean cultivars and Gf were the highest, while the colonization rates of Onceler bean cultivar was the lowest (23 %). The Sehirali cv x Gf, the Seker cv x Gf and the Seker cv x Gm combinations had the highest colonization rates. 120 �Conclusions AMF are well known to have significant positive effects on bean and many other crops grown under various a/biotic stress conditions. However, several studies have been demonstrating that genetic differences in plant responses to AMF are widespread, regardless of crop (Declerck et al., 1995; Parke & Kaeppler, 2000; Linderman & Davis, 2004; Sensoy et al. 2007). The present study aimed to evaluate the responsiveness of four different bean cultivars to inoculation by three different AMF under salty seedling growing conditions. There were generally positive effects of AMF on the development of bean seedlings. Among the bean cultivars, Onceler and Terzibaba, and among the AMF species, G. mosseae, had the best results for plant growth. G. mosseae was followed by G. intraradices. On the other hand, there were significant variation among the results of cultivar-AMF combinations tested for most of the traits. Mycorrhizal dependency varies among plant species and cultivars; and this dependency was influenced by the genetic structure (Ortas & Akpınar, 2004). In the symbiotic relation, AMF alleviate certain nutrient deficiencies in plants by increasing nutrient uptake (Demir, 2004;Ortas & Akpınar 2006; Sensoy et al., 2007; Sharifi et al., 2007; Turkmen et al., 2008). The results of the presents study are in line with the literature. AMF especially supply P and Zn to the plants (Ortas & Akpınar, 2006). In the present study, P and Zn contents obtained from these three AMF species were generally higher than those of the control treatment. Moreover, Cu and Mn contents obtained from these three AMF species were also in general higher than those of the control treatment. The potassium (K) is an important mineral in salt tolerance mechanism (Gama at al., 2007); the more K/Na ratio, the higher tolerance to salt in the plants (Erdal et al., 2000; Türkmen et al., 2000). In the present study, the shoot K contents obtained from these three AMF species were significantly higher than that of the control treatment. In overall, it can be said that the AMF applications had generally positive effects on the plant growth and nutrient intake in the bean seedlings. In conclusion, as seen in the example of bean demonstrated in the present study, AMF might improve plant growth traits in vegetable species. 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African Journal of Biotechnology, 7: 4, 392-396. 123 �Cultivar/AMF Onceler Terzibaba Sehirali Seker Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler Terzibaba Sehirali Seker Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler Terzibaba Sehirali Seker Mean Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 0.80 de** 0.93 bc 1.00 b 0.96 bc 0.92 Terzibaba 0.71 e 1.11 a 0.93 bc 1.00 b 0.93 Sehirali 0.79 de 0.91 bc 0.87 cd 0.99 b 0.89 Seker 0.78 de 1.01 b 0.91 bc 0.93 bc 0.91 Mean 0.77 C** 0.99 A 0.93 B 0.97 AB **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Tablo 5: Shoot and root P contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Shoot N contents (%) Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 4.66 c-e** 5.08 bc 5.08 bc 5.09 bc 4.97 B** Terzibaba 4.35 de 4.75 cd 4.77 cd 4.81 cd 4.66 BC Sehirali 4.37 de 7.61 a 4.63 c-e 5.65 b 5.41 A Seker 4.60 c-e 5.22 bc 4.06 e 4.60 c-e 4.62 C Mean 4.48 C** 5.59 A 4.63 C 5.02 B **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 4: Shoot N content of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Control 4.29 b** 3.52 f-h 3.79 c-g 3.45 gh 3.76 B** Gf 5.44 f 7.35 b-d 7.12 cd 7.67 bc 6.89 AB 124 Control 0.78 1.00 0.71 0.81 0.84 B** Leaf Number Gi 4.26 g 7.10 cd 6.41 de 9.03 a 6.70 B P (%) Stem Diameter, mm Gm Gi Gf Mean Control Gm 3.98 bc 4.91 a 4.04 bc 4.31 A** 6.43 de** 5.94 ef 3.53 e-h 3.40 h 3.50f-h 3.49 C 7.66 bc 7.63 bc 3.95 b-d 3.90 c-e 3.86 c-f 3.87 B 7.50 bc 7.47 bc 3.47 gh 3.68 c-h 3.58 d-h 3.55 C 7.46 bc 8.16 b 3.73 B 3.97 A 3.74 B 7.26 A** 7.30 A **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 3: Stem diameter, leaf number and leaf area of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Mean 1.28 A** 1.40 A 0.67 B 1.43 A Control 12.95 a-c** 14.09 a 12.80 a-c 11.53 cd 12.84 A* Control 0.10 b-e** 0.16 a 0.10 b-e 0.09 c-e 0.11 Root Gi 1.07 1.23 1.25 1.00 1.11 A Control 166.22 ab** 126.59 c-f 153.28 a-d 135.31 b-f 145.35 Mean 16.95 A** 13.25 B 15.76 A 16.28 A Mean 5.52 C** 7.43 B 7.12 B 8.08 A Gm 1.04 1.09 1.10 1.16 1.09 A Shoot Heigth, cm Shoot Dry Weigth, g plant-1 Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Control Gm Gi Gf 0.46 a-c** 0.49 ab 0.50 ab 0.41 b-d 0.46 16.66** 15.84 17.17 18.15 0.55 a 0.50 ab 0.40 b-d 0.43 a-d 0.47 13.22 13.15 14.55 12.07 0.50 ab 0.44 a-d 0.32 d 0.46 a-c 0.43 15.13 15.81 17.32 14.79 0.35 cd 0.45 a-c 0.50 ab 0.40 b-d 0.43 18.32 13.01 16.34 17.47 0.47 0.47 0.43 0.43 15.83 AB* 14.45 B 16.34 A 15.62 AB *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 2: Dry shoot weigth and shoot and root lengths of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species Shoot Fresh Weigth, g plant-1 Root Fresh Weigth, g plant-1 Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Control Gm Gi Gf 4.63 b-d** 5.47 ab 5.55 ab 4.67 b-d 5.08 A** 1.15 cd** 1.31 cd 1.45 cd 1.22 cd 5.02 a-c 5.72 a 4.36 cd 4.34 cd 4.86 A 1.37 cd 1.86 ab 1.22 cd 1.13 cd 4.72 a-c 4.11 cd 2.93 e 3.15 e 3.72 B 1.05 de 0.70 ef 0.35 f 0.57 f 5.13 a-c 5.13 a-c 4.94 de 3.71 de 4.70 A 1.52 bc 1.93 a 1.56 a-c 0.73 ef 4.86 AB** 5.10 A 4.44 B 3.96 C 1.25 B** 1.45 A 1.14 B 0.91 C **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 1: Fresh shoot, fresh and dry root weigths of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Gf 0.80 0.99 0.81 0.89 0.88 B Gm 145.31 b-e 157.37 a-d 131.13 b-f 104.55 f 134.59 Gm 12.18 b-d 13.74 ab 11.68 cd 11.68 cd 12.32 AB Gm 0.11 b-d 0.14 ab 0.08 de 0.13 a-c 0.12 Mean 0.92 1.07 0.95 0.96 Leaf Area, cm2 Gi 136.80 b-f 161.48 a-c 123.47 d-f 125.93 c-f 136.92 Root Length, cm Gi 13.46 ab 12.94 a-c 9.75 e 13.51 ab 12.41 AB Gf 112.80 ef 185.53 a 135.89 b-f 121.13d-f 138.84 Gf 12.28 b-d 13.00 a-c 10.99 de 11.18 de 11.86 B Root Dry Weigth, g plant-1 Gi Gf 0.10 b-e 0.09 c-e 0.11 b-d 0.11 b-d 0.06 e 0.10 b-e 0.14 ab 0.09 c-e 0.10 0.10 Mean 140.28 B** 157.74 A 135.94 BC 121.73 C Mean 12.72 B** 13.44 A 11.31 C 11.97 C Mean 0.10 BC** 0.13 A 0.08 C 0.11 AB �Ca (%) K (%) Control 2.38 3.57 2.15 2.45 2.63 Control 4.37 cd** 5.10 c 4.45 cd 4.42 cd 4.59 BC** 125 Control 5.76 c-e** 6.90 a-c 4.14 fg 5.20 ef 5.50 B** Fe (mg-1kg) Control 1.35 1.77 1.52 1.48 1.53 Mg (mg-1kg) Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 1.61 2.09 2.29 1.88 1.92 Terzibaba 2.04 1.61 2.04 1.61 1.84 Sehirali 1.81 1.78 1.83 1.83 1.81 Seker 1.68 1.35 1.69 1.84 1.64 Mean 1.79 1.74 1.93 1.79 *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 9: Shoot and root Fe contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 1.29 1.76 1.63 1.63 1.57 Terzibaba 1.42 1.34 1.55 1.51 1.46 Sehirali 1.60 1.53 1.50 1.46 1.52 Seker 1.38 1.68 1.33 1.48 1.47 Mena 1.43 1.59 1.49 1.52 Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Tablo 8: Shoot and root Mg contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 2.61 3.67 3.57 4.40 3.56 Terzibaba 3.85 3.35 3.57 3.97 3.71 Sehirali 4.88 4.00 3.74 3.14 3.93 Seker 3.08 4.34 2.27 3.45 3.29 Mean 3.64 3.82 3.32 3.76 *P < 0.05; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 7: Shoot and root Ca contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 6.78 9.01 10.46 7.36 8.11 Terzibaba 8.89 8.61 11.52 8.64 9.47 Sehirali 7.40 8.62 8.86 10.58 8.88 Seker 6.39 11.02 9.41 10.22 9.26 Mean 7.43 B** 9.29 A 10.05 A 9.13 A **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Tablo 6: Shoot and root K contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Gm 6.60 a-d 6.61 a-d 5.49 de 5.48 de 6.00 B Gm 1.48 1.44 1.53 1.44 1.47 Gm 2.39 3.55 2.62 2.34 2.67 Gm 4.28 cd 5.99 b 4.82 cd 4.77 cd 4.90 AB Root Root Root Gi 6.54 a-d 7.17 ab 7.27 a 6.14 a-e 6.71 A Gi 1.56 1.26 1.19 1.51 1.40 Gi 2.35 2.45 2.73 2.44 2.46 Root Gi 3.86 de 3.12 e 3.92 dc 6.32 ab 4.36 C Gf 5.90 b-e 3.56 g 6.25 a-e 6.87 a-c 5.60 B Gf 1.37 1.61 1.34 1.56 1.48 Gf 2.26 2.60 3.18 2.73 2.66 Gf 4.56 cd 7.04 a 4.60 cd 4.61 cd 5.24 A Mean 6.20 A* 6.02 AB 5.52 B 5.92 AB Mean 1.44 1.52 1.43 1.49 Mean 2.35 B* 3.01 A 2.62 AB 2.49 AB Mean 4.27 B** 5.27 A 4.52 B 5.03 A �Table 13: AMF colonisation of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species AMF colonisation rate (%) Cultivar/AMF Gm Gi Onceler 35 b** 15 d Terzibaba 31 b 29 bc Sehirali 29 bc 28 bc Seker 40 a 25 bc Mean 33 A** 24 B **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) . 126 Control 34.21 24.79 26.90 35.75 30.41 B** Zn (mg-1kg) Gf 22 c 26 bc 43 a 40 a 33 A Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 21.88 28.19 20.76 24.47 24.26 Terzibaba 23.91 20.09 26.21 22.31 23.33 Sehirali 23.95 25.01 23.84 23.62 24.05 Seker 23.67 20.27 20.10 22.03 21.52 Mean 23.33 23.76 23.23 23.18 **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 12: Shoot and root Zn contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control 154.67 cd** 133.57 de 116.25 e 149.17 c-e 138.41 C** Mn (mg-1kg) Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Cultivar/AMF Onceler 50.20 61.57 63.91 60.72 58.41 Terzibaba 53.56 63.86 68.53 57.88 60.76 Sehirali 54.97 60.14 66.65 52.45 58.74 Seker 49.60 61.46 60.84 64.71 59.08 Mean 52.55 C** 61.74 AB 65.46 A 58.49 B *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 11: Shoot and root Mn contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Control 25.58 de** 24.21 e 27.23 c-e 27.69 b-e 26.17 C** Cu (mg-1kg) Cultivar/AMF Control Gm Gi Gf Mean Onceler 10.24 18.73 17.45 11.17 13.96 A** Terzibaba 13.29 15.55 13.25 12.67 13.57 A Sehirali 9.06 10.76 12.35 12.07 11.08 B Seker 8.55 12.19 11.86 12.21 11.20 B Mean 10.40 C** 14.65 A 13.30 AB 12.02 BC *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; Glomus mosseae (Gm), G. intraradices (Gi) and G. fasciculatum (Gf) Table 10: Shoot and root Cu contents of bean seedlings inoculated with diffirent AMF species. Shoot Mean 23 C** 29 B 33 A 35 A Gm 38.17 36.02 35.31 38.37 37.03 A Gm 166.72 cd 178.67 bc 159.74 cd 156.63 cd 164.56 A Gm 24.40 e 35.88 a 34.79 ab 26.73 de 30.09 AB Root Gi 34.51 29.23 36.45 45.58 36.65 A Root Gi 168.54 cd 172.92 cd 221.47 a 157.07 cd 174.08 A Root Gi 32.13 a-d 17.56 f 30.96 a-e 29.34 a-e 27.00 BC Gf 40.58 32.53 40.63 35.91 37.20 A Gf 161.89 cd 112.18 e 212.36 ab 179.80 bc 163.50 A Gf 34.32 a-c 31.54 a-e 35.70 a 28.43 a-e 32.28 A Mean 36.87 A** 30.48 B 34.13 AB 38.90 A Mean 162.95 AB* 147.38 B 168.00 A 160.67 AB Mean 29.11 AB* 26.72 B 32.08 A 28.05 B � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 341 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Different AMF Species on Some Bean Cultivars Grown in Salty Conditions Author Author Türkmen, Önder Çiftçi, Vahdettin Erdinç, Çeknas Sensoy, Suat Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was carried out to determine the effects of three different Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) species (Glomus mosseae, G. intraradices and G. fasciculatum ) on the growth and nutrient contents of four bean cultivars (Onceler, Seker, Terzibaba and Sehirali) grown under salt stress. The constant amount of NaCl (50 ppm) was added the autoclaved growth medium containing 1:1:1: ratios of soil, sand, and manure. The five g (25 spores g-1) of inoculum was placed in the seedling growth medium before the seeds were sown. At the end of the study, some nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and plant growth parameters such as shoot height, stem diameter, root length, leaf number, leaf area, and dry and fresh weights of shoots and roots were investigated. Moreover, the plant colonization rates of AMF species were determined. The AMF species had positive effects on the plant growth and nutrient intake. Among the bean cultivars, Onceler and Terzibaba, and among the AMF species, G. mosseae, had the best results for plant growth. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6a021d5b952e453ea45688ddb9d5aeca.pdf 5e68e537da16e051d84d3703963e05da PDF Text Text Biosecurity and Major Diseases in Shrimp Culture Gurel Turkmen Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Erol Toksen Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: The global shrimp aquaculture has passed its 30th year as a significant and rapidly growing and now represents a multi-billion dollar a year industry. More than half of the global shrimp supply now comes from farms. Recent statistics show that in 2008, 3,399,105 metric tons (MT) of the total world supply of 6,519,671 MT of shrimp (or 52%) were produced from aquaculture. However, shrimp farmers have suffered significant economic losses over the last decade, largely from viral diseases that have plagued the industry. In Asia, mortalities of cultured shrimp due to White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Yellow Head Virus (YHV) have resulted in significant economic losses, and Taura syndrome virus (TSV) is now spreading throughout this region. Similarly, in the Western Hemisphere, both WSSV and TSV have caused catastrophic losses on shrimp farms. In Ecuador alone, WSSV was responsible for an estimated 53% decline in shrimp production from 1998 to 2000, resulting in a loss of export revenue in excess of $516 million. It is believed that these diseases are transferred between regions through the importation of hatchery broodstock, postlarvae and shrimp products. Once new pathogens are imported to an area, infection of wild stock appears to be inevitable, eliminating future possibilities of using uncontaminated wild stock to culture. Good biosecurity measures are vital to maintaining healthy animals, to reducing the risk of acquiring diseases in aquaculture facilities and to harvest high quality good yield. Thus, biosecurity measurements for a shrimp farming facility includes; disease prevention, disease monitoring, effectively managing disease outbreaks, cleaning and disinfection between production cycles and general security precautions. Key words: Shrimp, Culture, Biosecurity, Disease, Prevention, 1. Introduction The global shrimp farming industry has passed its 30th year as a significant and rapidly growing industry. More than half of the global penaeid shrimp supply now comes from farms. Recent statistics (FAO, 2010) show that in 2008, 3,399,105 metric tons (MT) of the total world supply of 6,519,671 MT of shrimp (or 52%) were produced from aquaculture. The huge scale of the shrimp farming industry represents fourteen of billions of dollars of physical assets and hundreds of thousands of jobs. Two species are dominant in the global shrimp farming industry. These are the black tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon and the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. In Asia, the dominant species of choice was the Giant Tiger shrimp P. monodon native to tropical, coastal regions of the Indo-Pacific basin. In the West, the principal farmed species was P. vannamei, the Pacific White shrimp which is native to the tropical Pacific coast of Latin America. In the early 1990s, Asian shrimp farmers contributed more than 90% of total world production while farmers in the West contributed less than 10% of the total. Development of specific pathogen-free SPF stocks of P. vannamei in the U.S. in the early 1990s and their industry-wide use caused a doubling of U.S. industry production. Subsequent introduction of the domesticated non-native SPF P. vannamei to Asia in the late 90s, produced dramatic increases in shrimp production and rapid spread through Southeast Asia. Rapid and sustained increases in Asian shrimp production resulted from P. vannamei’s widespread adoption and these drove global shrimp production to double since 2000. By 2004, P. vannamei emerged as the leading shrimp species in worldwide production contributing more than 50% of total world farmed-shrimp production. In 2008, P. vannamei production accounted for more than 70% of total world production and was the dominant species farmed in China, Thailand, and Indonesia the world’s three leading production countries. 606 �The vast majority of shrimp culture in the world is conducted in outdoor earthen ponds that are typically located in coastal zones and exposed to a variety of pathogens. The worldwide experience of the shrimp farming industry is that pathogens, especially viruses, are a serious threat to the productivity and even survival of the industry. Although farmed shrimp now represent more than 50% of the global penaeid shrimp supply, farmers have suffered significant economic losses over the last decade, largely from viral diseases that have plagued the industry (Table 1. Lightner, 2005 ). In Asia, mortalities of cultured shrimp due to White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) and Yellow head virus (YHV) have resulted in significant economic losses (Flegel and Alday-Sanz 1998), and Taura syndrome virus (TSV) is now spreading throughout this region. Similarly, in the Western Hemisphere, both WSSV and TSV have caused catastrophic losses on shrimp farms (Lightner, 2003). In Ecuador alone, WSSV was responsible for an estimated 53% decline in shrimp production from 1998 to 2000, resulting in a loss of export revenue in excess of $516 million (Rosenberry, 2000). Virus WSSV - Asia WSSV - Americas TSV YHV IHHNV Year of emergence to 2001 1992 1999 1991-1992 1991 1981 Product loss (US dollars) 4-6 billion > 1 billion 1-2 billion 0.1-0.5 billion 0.5-1.0 billion Table 1. Estimated Economic Losses Since The Emergence of Certain Diseases in Penaeid Shrimp Aquaculture The pandemics due to the penaeid viruses WSSV and TSV, and to a lesser extent to IHHNV and Yellow Head Virus (YHV), have cost the penaeid shrimp industry billions of dollars in lost crops, jobs, and export revenue. In response to these viral pathogens, the global shrimp farming industry is changing the way shrimp aquaculture is practiced. The social and economic impacts of the pandemics caused by these pathogens in countries in which shrimp farming constitutes a significant industry have been profound. In the wake of the viral pandemics the shrimp culture industry has sought ways to restore the industry’s levels of production to the “previrus” years. The application of biosecurity to shrimp farming is central to those efforts (Lightner 2005). At the shrimp farm level, biosecurity refers to producing healthy shrimp in a well-controlled environment that excludes the introduction or propagation of unwanted organisms and includes the prevention or escape of organisms back into the natural environment. The primary goal of a biosecurity program in shrimp farming is to prevent the introduction of any infectious organism into a shrimp farming system. In this study a brief review was given of basic farm management strategies to improve the outlook for more biosecure production and control of disease in shrimp culture. A series of standard operating procedure recommendations was presented including farm location and design, pond preparation, stocking strategies, water exchange, feed management, health monitoring, and disease exclusion. 2. Biosecurity in Shrimp Farming Biosecurity, as it is being applied to shrimp aquaculture, may be defined as the practice of exclusion of specific pathogens from cultured aquatic stocks in broodstock facilities, hatcheries, and farms, or from entire regions or countries for the purpose of disease prevention (Lightner 2003). Lightner (2003), discussed ways of excluding pathogens from stock (i.e., post larvae and broodstock), especially through the use of quarantine and specific pathogen-free (SPF) certified stocks, and restricting imports of live and frozen shrimp. Excluding vectors and external sources of contamination and preventing internal cross contamination were suggested methods for excluding pathogens from hatcheries and farms. In the poultry industry, biosecurity has been defined as an essential group of tools for the prevention, control, and eradication of economically important infectious diseases. While biosecurity in this context may have many facets, central to its application in shrimp farming are the concepts of stock control and pathogen exclusion. This has been accomplished through the practice of stocking farms only with shrimp that are free of the diseases of concern into farms with controlled water sources. The latter issue of controlled water sources is being accomplished through better farm siting, farm design and water management through the use of such strategies as inland shrimp farming, “zero” water exchange, and the use of water treatment devices that remove potential vectors from the source water (Browdy et al. 2001). Horowitz and Horowitz (2003) described physical, chemical, and biological precautionary measures to be taken as well as a second line of defense against potential disease outbreaks. Physical measures are those that aim at preventing the intrusion of disease-carrying vectors to the farm site, and include physical barriers, water treatment, and quarantine. Chemical measures are those used to treat materials before they enter the facility. 607 �Chlorination and ozonization are often used to treat incoming water, and iodine and chlorine are used to treat other potential vectors such as tools, footwear, and clothing. Biological measures include the use of SPF shrimp, which are readily available commercially. A second line of defense for the shrimp industry is to use specific pathogen-resistant shrimp, which, in addition to being disease-free, are resistant to specific diseases. Since shrimp do not develop a specific immune response, common immunostimulants, such as β-1-3 glucan, lipopolysaccharides, and peptidoglycans are used to improve the ability of the shrimp to prevent infection. The pathogens WSSV and IHHNV are considered to have been introduced into the Americas from Asia with live shrimp or with frozen infected commodity shrimp (FAO 2003; Tang et al. 2003). Both WSSV and IHHNV have been demonstrated in wild penaeid shrimp in the Americas (Motte et al. 2003) and Asia (Fegan and Clifford 2001). The establishment of these and other pathogens in wild shrimp stocks in the Americas has changed the way shrimp are farmed. Gone are the days when broodstock and postlarvae could be collected from the wild without concern that they might be carrying disease. Also gone are the days when shrimp farms, in all but the most geographically isolated locations, could be designed and operated without a biosecurity program. In the decade following the emergence and spread of WSSV throughout Asia and into the Americas and the emergence and spread of TSV throughout the Americas and into Asia, the industry has begun to adopt a variety of biosecurity measures and programs as its best defense against these and other diseases. In some shrimp farming regions, the application of the principles of biosecurity has helped farms in those regions to reduce losses due to disease and to improve production (Fegan and Clifford 2001). If a disease presents itself at a particular pond, effective biosecurity measures should prevent the complete loss of the crop and the spread of disease to other ponds. Lightner (2003) recommended an approach to eliminating pathogens at the stock level and partial disinfection at the facility level. To eliminate pathogens in post-larvae and broodstock, affected tanks and ponds should be depopulated, disinfected, and restocked with SPF shrimp. It may, however, be necessary to depopulate the entire stock and to fallow the entire facility if partial disinfection (using lime, chlorine, or drying) is not successful. Horowitz and Horowitz (2003) suggested providing better environmental and biological conditions to the infected population to increase its ability to resist diseases. They discussed the following steps: a) effect physical measures (increase aeration, control temperature, improve the feeding regime, remove sludge and organic matter, and treat wastewater) to improve the environmental conditions, b) effect chemical measures, including control of pH and salinity, reduction of ammonia and nitrite, and application of antibiotics, and c) to use effective biological measures, consisting mainly of the use of probiotics containing a mix of bacterial species to establish beneficial microbial communities under culture conditions. 2.1. Control of Shrimp Stocks The single most important principle of biosecurity is stock control, which may be simply defined as the use of captive or domesticated stocks, cultured under controlled conditions, and which have been the subject of an active disease surveillance and control program (Lightner 2003). While numerous methods have been incorporated into the operational design and management of shrimp farms previously affected by TSV and WSSV to eradicate them and to insure that they are not reintroduced, none can be expected to provide much protection against crop losses in farms that use seed stock derived from wild stock sources. The use of only domesticated shrimp stocks that have a known history of being free of pathogens of concern can help to mitigate this risk. However, an SPF history comes only from a long-term captive breeding and disease surveillance program at a facility that has a fully functional and effective biosecurity plan (Fegan and Clifford 2001). The successful application of the SPF concept is dependent upon the absence of the pathogen(s) of concern in the stocks being reared (or that are present), on the availability of sensitive and accurate detection and diagnostic methods for the pathogen(s), and the presence of an effective barrier (i.e., facility design and geographic location, government mandated import restrictions, etc.) to prevent the introduction of the specific pathogen(s) intended to be excluded. The International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Guidelines (Code of Practice to Reduce the Risks of Adverse Effects Arising from the Introduction on Nonindigenous Marine Species, 1973, as reviewed in Sindermann (1988, 1990) was followed for the development of these stocks (Table 2). Original ICES Guidelines 1. Conduct comprehensive disease study in native habitat 2. Transfer {founder stock} system in recipient area 3. Maintain and study closed system population 4. Develop broodstock in closed system Adapted to SPF Shrimp Development 1. Identify stock of interest (i.e., cultured or wild) 2. Evaluate stock's healtlddisease history. 3. Acquire and test samples for specific listed pathogens (SLPs) and pests. 4. Import and quarantine founder (F0) population; 608 �5. Grow isolated F1 individuals; destroyoriginal introductions 6. Introduce small lots to natural waters - continue disease study. monitor F0 stock. 5. Produce F1 generation from F0 stock. 6. Culture F1 stock through criticmonitor general health and test for SLPs. al stage(s); 7. If SLPs, pests, other significant pathologies are not detected, F-1 stock may be defined as SPF and released from quarantine. Table 2. Recommended Steps in The ICES Guidelines for Risk Reduction in Aquatic Species Introductions 2.2. SPF and SPR Shrimp Stocks Stock control requirements are being addressed in at least three ways. Where the industry has remained dependent upon wild (adult or postlarval = PL) stocks as its source of “seed,” routine polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of broodstock and PLs for important pathogens like WSSV, TSV, YHV, and IHHNV has been adopted. Other components of the industry have chosen to attempt to develop and use specific pathogen resistant stocks (SPR) when pathogen exclusion from other sources such as the water supply is not a practical option (Lightner and Redman 1998). Nonetheless, the development and use of “specific pathogen free” (SPF) stocks is emerging as perhaps the best management strategy for stock control in farms, regions or countries with biosecurity programs. Although marketers commonly use the term “disease-free” to describe the live shrimp products in commerce, they are in reality marketing shrimp that are free of specific disease causing agents. Because nothing that is living is completely free of some sort of disease, such “disease free shrimp” are more correctly referred to as being free of certain specific pathogens or SPF. The term SPF implies that the stock of interest is free of one or more specific pathogens (Fegan and Clifford 2001). To the USMSFP, SPF means the stock of interest has at least 2 yr of documented historical freedom of the disease agents listed on its working list of specific pathogens, that the stock has been cultured in biosecure facilities, and that the stock was either cultured under conditions where the listed disease agents would have produced recognizable disease if any were present and/or that the stock has been subjected to routine surveillance and testing for the listed pathogens. Those pathogens on the USMSFP SPF list have also met certain criteria including: 1) the pathogen(s) must be excludable; 2) adequate diagnostic and pathogen detection methods are available; and 3) the pathogen(s) poses significant threat of disease and production losses (Lotz et al. 1995; Lightner 2003), which are also among the criteria required for disease listing by the Office International des Epizooties, OIE (OIE 2003a, 2003b) Secondary Quarantine Facility Primary Quarantine of F0: test for pathogens/pests negative nenegati + = no nenegati Produce Produce negative adult F Generation nenegati 1 broodstock + = no (SPF/SPR) negative Breeding nenegati Center(s)& + = no hatcheries + = no nenegati nenegati negative nenegati FARMS Figure 2. Schematic of The Steps in Developing Specific Pathogen Free Breeding Lines. Specific pathogen free stocks developed by the USMSFP were developed in the spirit of the ICES Guidelines (Table 2; Fig. 1). To begin the process, each “SPF candidate population” of wild or cultured shrimpstocks of interest was identified. Samples of the stock were taken and tested using appropriate diagnostic and pathogen detection methods for the specific pathogens of concern. If none were found, a founder population (F,) of the “candidate SPF” stock was acquired and reared in primary quarantine. During primary quarantine, the F, stock was monitored for signs of disease, sampled, and tested periodically for specific pathogens. If any pathogens of concern were detected, the stock was destroyed. Those stocks that tested negative for pathogens of concern through primary quarantine (which ran from 30 d to as much as 1 yr for some stocks) were moved to a separate secondary quarantine facility for maturation, selection, mating, and production of a second (F,) 609 �generation. The F, stocks were maintained in quarantine for further testing for specific pathogens of concern. Those that tested negative were designated as SPF, and used to produce domesticated lines of SPF and “high health” shrimp (Wyban et al. 1992; Brock and Main 1994; Pruder et al. 1995; Lotz et al. 1995) 3. Major Diseases in Shrimp Culture Farmed shrimp are infected by a range of disease agents including bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. This overview focuses mainly on viral and bacterial diseases that have had a significant impact on the shrimp farming industry. There are a number of viruses that infect shrimp, but not all of them cause fatal diseases. Infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) has been observed in most commercially farmed shrimp species. It appears to be harmless in some species such as the Asian tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, but malicious in others causing mortality and growth retardation. There are a number of other viruses such as the monodon baculovirus (MBV), hepatopancreatic parvo-like virus (HPV), and baculovirus penaei (BP) that damage the cells of the hepatopancreas and make the shrimp susceptible to other disease agents. It is believed that infection by these viruses causes a reduction in growth rates. As noted earlier, the three viruses that cause acutely fatal diseases in shrimp farming are the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), yellow head virus (YHV) and Taura syndrome virus (TSV). All three viruses can cause extensive mortality within a few days of the first clinical signs of the disease. As discussed below, the severity of a viral disease typically subsides in about two years after the first incidence of the given disease. This apparently indicates some type of an adaptive response to the disease agent. However, the viruses are never completely eliminated. They resurface periodically, particularly at times of stress, to cause large-scale mortalities. Furthermore, growth retardation often coincides with viral infections resulting in economic losses. The most important diseases of cultured penaeid shrimp, in terms of economic impact, in Asia, the Indo-Pacific, and the Americas have infectious agents as their cause (Tables 3, 4). Among the infectious diseases of cultured shrimp, certain viruscaused diseases stand out as the most significant. The impact of White Spot Disease (WSD) due to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) has been particularly noteworthy. Rosenberry (2001) estimated that disease due to WSSV “robbed the industry” of approximately 200,000 MT of production in 2000 worth more than $1 billion. The viral disease pandemics caused by WSSV and Taura Syndrome Virus (TSV) that began in 1992 and caused billions in lost revenue have forever changed the shrimp farming industry (Table 1; Lightner 2005). The social and economic impacts of the pandemics caused by these pathogens in countries in which shrimp farming constitutes a significant industry have been profound. In the wake of the viral pandemics the shrimp culture industry has sought ways to restore the industry’s levels of production to the “pre-virus” years. The application of biosecurity to shrimp farming is central to those efforts. Some of the most important diseases (and their etiological agents) were once limited in distribution to either the Western or Eastern Hemisphere and many of the most significant shrimp pathogens were moved from the regions where they initially appeared to new regions even before the “new” pathogen had been recognized, named, proven to cause the disease, and before reliable diagnostic methods were developed. The diseases, due to the shrimp viruses IHHNV (infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus), TSV, and WSSV, were all transferred with live shrimp stocks from country to country and from one continent to another well before their etiology was understood (Lightner 2003). Viral diseases White Spot Syndrome Virus Yellow head Virus group Taura Syndrome Virus MBV group IHHNV HPV group RE0 group Bacterial and fungal diseases Vibriosis: -septic HP necrosis -hatchery vibriosis -luminescent vibrio Other bacteria: -Rickettsia Fungal: -Larval mycosis -Fusariosis Other diseases Epicommensals and parasites: -Leucothrix mucor -peritrich protozoans -gregarines -microsporidians Nutritional imbalances Toxic syndromes and environmental extremes Table 3. Major Diseases of IndoPacific and East Asian Penaeid Shrimp (Lightner, 2005) 610 �Viral diseases White Spot Syndrome Virus Taura Syndrome Virus IHHNV BP group HPV group IMNV RE0 III LOVV RPS Bacterial and fungal diseases Vibriosis: -Sindrome Gaviota” -hatchery vibriosis -luminescent vibrio -shell disease -septic HP necrosis Other bacteria: -NHP bacterium Fungal: -Larval Mycosis -Fusariosis Other diseases Epicommensals and parasites: -Leucothrix mucor -peritrich protozoans -gregarines -microsporidians Nutritional imbalances Toxic syndromes and environmental extremes Zoea II syndrome Table 4. Major Diseases of The American Penaeids (Lightner, 2005) 3.1. Yellow Head Virus Yellow head virus was first reported in Thailand in 1991. A related virus called Gill Associated Virus (GAV) was reported from Australia in 1996. Yellow head virus caused severe disease outbreaks in Thailand until 1994. The disease typically occurs in juveniles or sub-adults. A spurt in feed consumption followed by loss in appetite, lethargy and erratic swimming are the gross signs first observed. Pale yellow coloration of the gills and cephalothorax is often noted. Mortalities start within a few days and can reach as high as 100% in 3-5 days after the gross signs are observed. Sporadic disease outbreaks still occur, mainly in Asia, but the mortalities are less severe than past (Lightner, 2005). 3.2. White Spot Syndrome Virus White spot syndrome virus was first reported in Japan in 1993, although it might have originated in China. This virus has caused the most damage to the shrimp farming industry. It spread to almost all shrimp farming countries of Asia in a span of three years. It was reported in the United States in 1995, and spread to Central and South American countries in a span of four years. Almost all shrimp species have been affected. Further, most crustaceans can be infected with the virus and become carriers. The characteristic feature of WSSV infection is the presence of white spots or patches under the carapace, although this may not be present in all diseased shrimp. Soon after showing general signs of ill-health such as reduced feed intake and erratic swimming, mortalities occur. Mortality up to 100% may occur within seven days after the first sign of problems. The infection may occur at any stage in the life cycle of the shrimp. Stressful conditions such as sudden changes in environmental conditions, particularly lowered temperatures, trigger disease. Frequent WSSV disease outbreaks still occur worldwide, but there are more and more cases of shrimp populations escaping severe mortality in spite of WSSV infections (Lightner, 2005; Wyaban, 2009). 3.3. Taura Syndrome Virus Taura syndrome was reported first in 1992 in Ecuador. Presence of TSV was reported in 1995. TSV spread throughout the Pacific coast of Central and South America and mainly affected the Pacifc White Shrimp, P. vannamei. Distinguishable gross signs of TSV are pale reddish coloration of the body, red tail fans, necrosis of the cuticular epithelium, and soft shells. Mortality during molting is common. Sometimes, the shrimp are affected only transitionally: gross signs of the disease may occur, but the shrimp may behave and feed normally. While TSV still occurs, the catastrophic losses suffered in the early years of TSV infection are less common now. 3.4. Vibriosis Infection by Vibrio spp. is the most common bacterial disease problem in shrimp culture. Vibrio spp. are ubiquitous and naturally present in most aquatic ecosystems. Infections occur when shrimp are stressed or unhealthy. Infections may also occur as a result of high concentrations of Vibrio spp. in the culture system. Some species and strains, particularly V. harveyi, are more infectious than others. Shell lesions, black coloration of gills and discoloration of shells occur as a result of vibriosis. Severe mortalities may follow acute infections. 611 �Chronic infections may result in erratic swimming behavior, abnormal coloration, external fouling and less severe, but sustained mortalities (Lightner 2003, 2005). 4. Biosecurity Protocol for Shrimp Farming Biosecurity protocol for shrimp farming included three main management strategies focusing on: (a) pond bottom preparation and water management prior to stocking, (b) seed selection and stocking, and (c) poststocking management (Clifford and Cook, 2002; Wyaban 2009). 4.1. Pond Bottom Preparation and Water Management Prior to Stocking - Removal of bottom sludge, Particularly in ponds stocking higher densities (up to 8 PL/m2). - Plowing on wet soil if the sludge has not been removed completely. - Use of lime in pond preparation. - Disinfection of pond water - Fertilization reduces the risk of disease outbreak in lower stocking density farms. - Water filtration using twin bag filters of 250 µm mesh size. - Water conditioning for 10–15 days before stocking. 4.2. Seed Selection and Stocking - Uniform size and color post-larvae (PLs), actively swimming against the water current. Stocking of poor quality of seed (less active, more mortality during transportation and size of less than 16 mm in case of nursery reared juveniles increases the risk of shrimp disease outbreak. - Stocking Pathogen Free (SPF) Larvae (SPF shrimp stocks are avaible in some countries) - Longer transport time (>6 hours) of the seed from hatchery or nursery to the pond also increases the likelihood of a subsequent disease outbreak. - Weak PL elimination before stocking using formalin (100 ppm) stress for 15–20 minutes in continuously aerated water. - On-farm nursery rearing of PLs for 15–20 days. - Stocking into green water and avoiding transparent water during stocking. 4.3. Post Stocking Management - Perform a visual inspection of the pond on a daily basis. - Sampling for growth and survival - Monitor shrimp health and the appearance of disease using animals collected in the weekly growth and population samples - Gut content and their color. In general, 80% or more of the shrimp randomly sampled from a healthy, well nourished, recently fed pond should display the intestinal tract (mid-gut) running the length of the tail to be full of food. In addition to quantifying gut fullness and using it to detect under-feeding or predict the onset of disease, the color of the shrimp’s gut contents can also be very informative (Table 5). Gut Content Color Black, dark brown Light or golden brown Red, pinkish Green Pale, whitish Probable Food Item Benthic detritus, sediment Manufactured feed Cannibalized body parts from shrimp Benthic algae None (disease condition) Probable Cause(S) Under-feeding; inadequate feeding Normal dead Disease event in pond Under-feeding Gregarines, or some other disease Table 5. The Color of The Shrimp’s Gut Contents and Predict The Onset of Disease - Use of water reservoirs, and 10–15 days aging before use in grow out ponds. 612 �- Water filtration-ponds using water filter nets of fine mesh have better production. - Aeration-ponds using aeration tend to have higher shrimp production. - High salinity and pH (>8.5) have an affect on risk of disease outbreaks - Green water (pond color) ponds have better production and lower risk of disease outbreak. - Clear water with bentic and filamentous algae lead to lower production. - Regular use of agricultural lime, especially after water exchange and rain. - No use of any harmful/banned chemicals. - Use of feed check trays to ensure feeding based on shrimp demand. - Feeding across the pond using boat/floating device to avoid local waste accumulation. - Regular removal of benthic algae. - Water exchanges only during critical periods. - Weekly checking of pond bottom mud for blackish organic waste accumulation and unpleasant odor. - Regular shrimp health checks, and weekly health and growth monitoring using a cast net. - Removal and safe disposal of sick or dead shrimp. - Emergency harvesting after proper decision-making. - No draining or abandoning of disease-affected stock 4.4. A Biosecure Farm Model A drawing showing a 100-ha farm comprised of fifty 2.0-ha ponds with a centralized pumping and ozone contact facility is presented in Fig. 2. The gross farm area of 182 ha includes 18 ha of pond surface area committed to a series of sedimentation, aeration, and retention ponds (Schuur, 2003). The mechanical area includes a forebay or pumping basin that is accessed by gates for selecting water supply from either the treatment pond in a recirculation mode, or the raw water source in an exchange replenishment mode. From the forebay the water is pumped through an ozone injection device and then through a contact channel with sufficient volume to allow a minimum of 10 min retention time in a maximum flow situation. The effluent from the contact chamber is discharged into the primary supply channel that encircles the entire perimeter of the farm. The pump lift from the forebay is about 3 m in order to provide a sufficient hydraulic gradient for gravity distribution by the supply channel network to all of the ponds. The supply channel has cross-sectional area sufficient to carry peak flows to the furthermost ponds with only a minor loss of head. The nearly square configuration is optimal for reducing the farm perimeter to a minimum for biosecurity purposes. There is an all-weather dike-top roadway outside the supply channel encircling the farm perimeter of roughly 5.4 km. For security purposes the farm perimeter can be circuited in about 10 min at a modest vehicle speed. The external roadway traffic naturally inhibits plant growth and cover for terrestrial crabs that might seek access. A further barrier to intrusion inside the roadway is a short fence constructed with metal or plastic sheet material embedded in the ground and suspended by stakes. This barrier is a common feature of many intensive farms in combination with lime and pesticide application. The roadway also provides a ‘killing zone’ before the barrier where any potential carriers can be detected and eliminated. About 18% of the production pond surface is allocated to serial treatment ponds that provide sedimentation, aeration, and retention in order to improve water quality within the farm. The two sedimentation areas can be used in series or parallel flow, or in some cases one at time while the other is being dried and reconditioned. Additional retention time improves the water quality by providing additional area for autotrophic and/or heterotrophic processes to absorb and digest ammonia and organic matter. Mechanical aeration applied in the series provides more efficient oxygen transfer efficiency to the farm as a whole. This is due to the additional driving force provided by the difference between oxygen-depleted water from sedimentation ponds and the effluent concentration at the discharge of the aeration lagoon. References Brock, J. A., Main, K. (1994). A guide to the common problems and diseases of cultured Penaeus vannamei. The Oceanic Institute, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. Browdy, C. L., D. Bratvold, A. D. Stokes, Mclntosh, R. P. (2001). Perspectives on the application of closed shrimp culture systems. p. 2-34 in C. L. Browdy and D. E. Jory, editors. The new wave, Proceedings of the Special Session on Sustainable Shrimp Culture. Aquaculture 2001. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Clifford, H.C., Cook, H.L. (2002). Disease Management in Shrimp Culture Ponds. Aquaculture Magazine: 28(4): 18-26 613 �FAO (2003). Health management and biosecurity maintance in white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) hatcheries in Latin America. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 450. FAO, Rome. 62p. FAO (2010). Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. http://www.fao.org/crop/statistics/en/ Fegan, D. F. Clifford III., H. C. (2001). Health management for viral diseases in shrimp farms. p. 168-198 in C. L. Browdy and D. E. Jory, editors. The new wave, Proceedings of the Special Session on Sustainable Shrimp Culture. Aquaculture 2001. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Flegel, T.W. Alday-Sanz, V. (1998). The crisis in Asian shrimp aquaculture: current status and future needs. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 14: 269-273. Horowitz, A. Horowitz, S. (2003). Alleviation and prevention of disease in shrimp farms in Central and South America: A microbiological approach. p. 117-138 in C.-S. Lee and P.J. O’Bryen, editors. Biosecurity in Aquaculture Production Systems: Exclusion of Pathogens and Other Undesirables. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Lightner, D. V. (2003). Exclusion of specific pathogens for disease control in a penaeid shrimp biosecurity program. p. 81116 in C. -S. Lee and P. J. O’Bryen, editors. Biosecurity in aquaculture production systems: Exclusion of pathogens and other undesirables. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Lightner, D.V. (2005). Biosecurity in Shrimp Farming: Pathogen Exclusion through Use of SPF Stock and Routine Surveillance. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 36(3): 229-248. Lightner, D. V., Redman, R. M. (1998). Strategies for the control of viral diseases of shrimp in the Americas. Fish Pathology, 33: 165-180. Lotz, J. M., C. L Browdy, W. H. Carr, P. F. Frelier, Lightner, D. V. (1995). USMSFP suggested procedures and guidelines for assuring the specific pathogen status of shrimp broodstock and seed. p. 66-75 in C. L. Browdy and J. S. Hopkins, editors. Swimming through troubled water, Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Aquaculture ‘95. San Diego, California, 1 4 February 1995. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Motte, E., E. Yagcha, J. Luzardo, F. Castro, G. Leclercq, J. Rodriguez, P. Miranda, 0. Borja, J. Serrano, M. Terrems, K. Montalvo, A. Namaez, N. Tenorio, V. Cedeno, E. Mialhe, Boulo, V. (2003). Prevention of IHHNV vertical transmission in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Aquaculture, 219: 57-70. OIE (Office International des Epizooties) (2003a). Manual of diagnostic tests for aquatic animal diseases, 4th edition. Office International des Epizooties, Paris, France. OIE (Office International des Epizooties) (2003b). Aquatic animal diseases health code, 6th edition. Office International des Epizooties, Paris, France. Pruder G. D., C. L. Brown, J. N. Sweeney, Carr, W. H. (1995). High health shrimp systems: seed supply - theory and practice. p. 40-52 in C. L. Browdy and J. S. Hopkins, editors. Swimming through troubled water, Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Aquaculture ‘95, San Diego, California, 14 February 1995. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Rosenberry, B. (2000). World Shrimp Farming 2000. San Diego, California, Shrimp News International. Rosenberry, B. (2001). World shrimp farming 2000, number 13. Shrimp News International, San Diego, California, USA. Schuur, A.M. (2003). Evaluation of biosecurity applications for intensive shrimp farming. Aquacultural Engineering, 28: 320. Sindermann, C. J. (1988). Disease problems created by introduced species. p. 394-398 in C. J. Sindermann and D. V. Lightner, editors. Disease diagnosis and control in North American marine Aaquaculture. Developments in aquaculture and fisheries science, volume 17. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Sindermann C. J. (1990). Principal diseases of marine fish and shellfish, volume 2, 2nd Edition. Academic Press, New York, USA. Tang, K. F. J., B. T. Poulos, J. Wang, R. M. Redman, H. -H. Shih, Lightner, D. V. (2003). Geographic variations among infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHNV) isolates and characteristics of their infection. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 53:91-99. 614 �Wyaban, J. (2009). World Shrimp Farming Revolution: Industry Impact of Domestication, Breeding and Widespread Use of Specific Pathogen Free Penaeus vannamei. Craig L. Browdy and Darryl E. Jory, editors. The Rising Tide, Proceedings of the Special Session on Sustainable Shrimp Farming, World Aquaculture 2009. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge Louisiana USA. 12-21p. Wyban J. A., J. Swingle, J. N. Sweeney, Pruder, G. D. (1992). Development and commercial performance of high health shrimp from SPF broodstock Penaeus vannamei. p. 254-260 in J. Wyban, editor. Proceedings of the Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Orlando, Florida, 22-25 May 1992. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. 615 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 608 Title A name given to the resource Biosecurity and Major Diseases in Shrimp Culture Author Author Turkmen, Gurel Toksen, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. The global shrimp aquaculture has passed its 30th year as a significant and rapidly growing and now represents a multi-billion dollar a year industry. More than half of the global shrimp supply now comes from farms. Recent statistics show that in 2008, 3,399,105 metric tons (MT) of the total world supply of 6,519,671 MT of shrimp (or 52%) were produced from aquaculture. However, shrimp farmers have suffered significant economic losses over the last decade, largely from viral diseases that have plagued the industry. In Asia, mortalities of cultured shrimp due to White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) and Yellow Head Virus (YHV) have resulted in significant economic losses, and Taura syndrome virus (TSV) is now spreading throughout this region. Similarly, in the Western Hemisphere, both WSSV and TSV have caused catastrophic losses on shrimp farms. In Ecuador alone, WSSV was responsible for an estimated 53% decline in shrimp production from 1998 to 2000, resulting in a loss of export revenue in excess of $516 million. It is believed that these diseases are transferred between regions through the importation of hatchery broodstock, postlarvae and shrimp products. Once new pathogens are imported to an area, infection of wild stock appears to be inevitable, eliminating future possibilities of using uncontaminated wild stock to culture. Good biosecurity measures are vital to maintaining healthy animals, to reducing the risk of acquiring diseases in aquaculture facilities and to harvest high quality good yield. Thus, biosecurity measurements for a shrimp farming facility includes; disease prevention, disease monitoring, effectively managing disease outbreaks, cleaning and disinfection between production cycles and general security precautions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bf2b7703fee4496646533051368c083b.pdf 7cfdf3a9a12c2ae9ec16e026b49c66c4 PDF Text Text Aquaponic (Integrating Fish and Plant Culture) Systems Gurel Turkmen Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Yusuf Guner Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey yusuf.guner@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Aquaponic is the combined culture of fish and plants in recirculation systems, has become increasingly popular. Nutrients, which are excreted directly by the fish or generated by the microbial breakdown of organic wastes, are absorbed by plants cultured hydroponically (without soil). Fish feed provides most of the nutrients required for plant growth. As the aquaculture effluent flows through the hydroponic component of the recirculation system, fish waste metabolites are removed by nitrification and direct uptake by the plants, thereby treating the water, which flows back to the fish-rearing component for reuse. Aquaponic has several advantages over other recirculation aquaculture systems and hydroponic systems that use inorganic nutrient solutions. The hydroponic component serves as a biofilter, and therefore a separate biofilter is not needed as in other recirculating systems. Aquaponic systems have the only biofilter that generates income, which is obtained from the sale of hydroponic produce such as vegetables, herbs and flowers. In the UVI system, which employs raft hydroponics, only calcium, potassium and iron are supplemented. The nutrients provided by the fish would normally be discharged and could contribute to pollution. Removal of nutrients by plants prolongs water use and minimizes discharge. Aquaponic systems require less water quality monitoring than individual recirculation systems for fish or hydroponic plant production. Aquaponic increases profit potential due to free nutrients for plants, lower water requirements, elimination of a separate biofilter, less water quality monitoring and shared costs for operation and infrastructure. Keywords: Aquaponic, Aquaculture, Agriculture 1. Introduction Aquaponic, also known as the integration of hydroponics with aquaculture, is gaining increased attention as a bio-integrated food production system. In aquaponics, nutrient-rich effluent from fish tanks is used to fertigate hydroponic production beds. This is good for the fish because plant roots and rhizobacteria remove nutrients from the water. These nutrients generated from fish manure, algae, and decomposing fish feed are contaminants that would otherwise build up to toxic levels in the fish tanks, but instead serve as liquid fertilizer to hydroponically grown plants. In turn, the hydroponic beds function as a biofilter stripping off ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, and phosphorus so the freshly cleansed water can then be recirculated back into the fish tanks. The nitrifying bacteria living in the gravel and plant roots play a critical role in nutrient cycling. In hydroponics applications, the nutrient solution needs to be prepared measured, mixed, and then added to the reservoir. In aquaponic, there's no mixing fertilizer involved, making it a great way for beginners to cultivate plants. Only the fish needs to be fed. In closed recirculation systems with very little daily water exchange (less than 2%); dissolved nutrients accumulate in concentrations similar to those in hydroponic nutrient solutions. Dissolved nitrogen, in particular, can occur at very high levels in recirculation systems. Fish excrete waste nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, directly into the water through their gills. Bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate Ammonia and nitrite are toxic to fish, but nitrate is relatively harmless and is the preferred form of nitrogen for growing higher plants such as fruiting vegetables. Aquaponic systems offer several benefits. Dissolved waste nutrients are recovered by the plants, reducing discharge to the environment and extending water. Minimizing water exchange reduces the costs of operating aquaponic systems in arid climates and heated greenhouses where water or heated water is a significant expense. Having a secondary plant crop that receives most of its required nutrients at no cost improves a system’s profit potential. The plants remove nutrients from the culture water and eliminate the need for separate and expensive biofilters. Aquaponic systems require substantially less water quality monitoring than separate hydroponic or recirculation aquaculture systems. Savings are also realized by sharing operational and 657 �infrastructural costs such as pumps, reservoirs, heaters and alarm systems. In addition, the intensive, integrated production of fish and plants requires less land than ponds and gardens. Aquaponic systems do require a large capital investment, moderate energy inputs and skilled management. Niche markets may be required for profitability. A number of universities globally are currently exploring the science of aquaponics to advance this extreme cultivation technique (Dunning et al. 1998, Edwards, 2003, Diver 2006, Rakocy et al. 2004, 2006). 2. Aquaponic Systems 2.1. System Design The design of aquaponic systems closely mirrors that of recirculation systems in general, with the addition of a hydroponic component and the possible elimination of a separate biofilter and devices (foam fractionators) for removing fine and dissolved solids. Fine solids and dissolved organic matter generally do not reach levels that require foam fractionation if aquaponic systems have the recommended design ratio. The essential elements of an aquaponic system are the fish-rearing tank, a settleable and suspended solids removal component, a biofilter, a hydroponic component, and a sump (Fig. 1). Figure 1: Optimum Arrangement of Aquaponic System Components (Rakocy et al. 2006). Effluent from the fish-rearing tank is treated first to reduce organic matter in the form of settleable and suspended solids. Next, the culture water is treated to remove ammonia and nitrate in a biofilter. Then, water flows through the hydroponic unit where some dissolved nutrients are taken up by plants and additional ammonia and nitrite are removed by bacteria growing on the sides of the tank and the underside of the polystyrene sheets (i.e., fixed-film nitrification). Finally, water collects in a reservoir (sump) and is returned to the rearing tank. The location of the sump may vary. If elevated hydroponic troughs are used, the sump can be located after the biofilter and water would be pumped up to the troughs and returned by gravity to the fishrearing tank. The system can be configured that a small side-stream flow may go to a hydroponic component after solids are removed, while most of the water passes through a biofilter and returns to the rearing tank. The biofilter and hydroponic components can be combined by using plant support media such as gravel or sand that also functions as biofilter media. Raft hydroponics, which consists of floating sheets of polystyrene and net pots for plant support, can also provide sufficient biofiltration if the plant production area is large enough. Combining biofiltration with hydroponics is a desirable goal because eliminating the expense of a separate biofilter is one of the main advantages of aquaponic. An alternative design combines solids removal, biofiltration and hydroponics in one unit. The hydroponic support media (pea gravel or coarse sand) captures solids and provides surface area for fixedfilm nitrification, although with this design it is important not to overload the unit with suspended solids. As an example, Fig. 2 shows the commercial-scale aquaponic system that has been developed at the University of the Virgin Islands (UVI). It employs raft hydroponics (Rakocy et al. 2004, 2006). 2.2. Fish Production Tilapia is the fish species most commonly cultured in aquaponic systems. Although some aquaponic systems have used channel catfish, Clarias spp., largemouth bass, crappies, rainbow trout, sturgeon pacu, common carp, koi carp, silver carp, grass carp, goldfish, Asian sea bass (barramundi) and Murray cod, most commercial systems are used to raise tilapia. Most freshwater species, which can tolerate crowding, will do well 658 �in aquaponic systems (including ornamental fish). One species reported to perform poorly is hybrid striped bass. They cannot tolerate high levels of potassium, which is often supplemented to promote plant growth. To recover the high capital cost and operating expenses of aquaponic systems and earn a profit, both the fish rearing and the hydroponic vegetable components must be operated continuously near maximum production capacity. The maximum biomass of fish a system can support without restricting fish growth is called the critical standing crop. Operating a system near its critical standing crop uses space efficiently, maximizes production and reduces variation in the daily feed input to the system, an important factor in sizing the hydroponic component. There are three stocking methods that can maintain fish biomass near the critical standing crop: sequential rearing, stock splitting and multiple rearing units (Szyper 1989, Rakocy et al. 2006, Lorena et al. 2008). Figure 2. Layout of UVI Aquaponic System (Rakocy et al. 2006). 2.2.1. Sequential Rearing Sequential rearing involves the culture of several age groups (multiple cohorts) of fish in the same rearing tank. When one age group reaches marketable size, it is selectively harvested with nets and a grading system, and an equal number of fingerlings are immediately restocked in the same tank. There are three problems with this system: 1) the periodic harvests stress the remaining fish and could trigger disease outbreaks; 2) stunted fish avoid capture and accumulate in the system, wasting space and feed; and 3) it is difficult to maintain accurate stock records over time, which leads to a high degree of management uncertainty and unpredictable harvests. 2.2.2. Stock Splitting Stock splitting involves stocking very high densities of fingerlings and periodically splitting the population in half as the critical standing crop of the rearing tank is reached. This method avoids the carryover problem of stunted fish and improves stock inventory. However, the moves can be very stressful on the fish unless some sort of “swimway” is installed to connect all the rearing tanks. The fish can be herded into the swimway through a hatch in the wall of a rearing tank and manoeuvred into another rearing tank by movable screens. With swimways, dividing the populations in half involves some guesswork because the fish cannot be weighed or counted. An alternative method is to crowd the fish with screens and pump them to another tank with a fish pump. 2.2.3. Multiple Rearing Units With multiple rearing units, the entire population is moved to larger rearing tanks when the critical stand-ing crop of the initial rearing tank is reached. The fish are either herded through a hatch between adjoining tanks or into “swimways” connecting distant tanks. Multiple rearing units usually come in modules of two to four tanks and are connected to a common filtration system. After the largest tank is harvested, all of the remaining groups of fish are moved to the next largest tank and the smallest tank is restocked with fingerlings. A variation of the multiple rearing unit concepts is the division of a long raceway into compartments with movable 659 �screens. As the fish grow, their compartment is increased in size and moved closer to one end of the raceway where they will eventually be harvested. These should be cross-flow raceways, with influent water entering the raceway through a series of ports down one side of the raceway and effluent water leaving the raceway through a series of drains down the other side. This system ensures that water is uniformly high quality throughout the length of the raceway. Another variation is the use of several tanks of the same size. Each rearing tank contains a different age group of fish, but they are not moved during the production cycle. This system does not use space efficiently in the early stages of growth, but the fish are never disturbed and the labour involved in moving the fish is eliminated. A system of four multiple rearing tanks has been used successfully with tilapia in the UVI commercial scale aquaponic system (Fig 2). Production is staggered so one of the rearing tanks is harvested every 6 weeks. At harvest, the rearing tank is drained and all of the fish are removed. The rearing tank is then refilled with the same water and immediately restocked with fingerlings for a 24-week production cycle. Each circular rearing tank has a water volume of 7,800 litters and is heavily aerated with 22 air diffusers. The flow rate to all four tanks is 375 litters/minute, but the flow rate to individual tanks is apportioned so that tanks receive a higher flow rate as the fish grow. The average rearing tank retention time is 82 minutes. Nile tilapia are stocked at 77 fish/m3 and red tilapia are stocked at 154 fish/m3. Annual production has been 4.16 mt. for Nile tilapia and 4.78 mt for red tilapia (Tab. 1). However, production can be increased to 5 mt. with close observation of the ad libitum feeding response (Rakocy et al. 2006). Tilapia Nile Red Harvest weight per tank (kg) 480 551 Harvest weight per unit volume (kg/m3) 61.5 70.7 Initial Weight (g/fish) 79.2 58.8 Final Weight (g/fish) 813.8 512.5 Growth Rate (g/day) 4.4 2.7 Survival (%) FCR 98.3 89.9 1.7 1.8 Table 1: Average Production Values for Male Mono-Sex Nile and Red Tilapia in the UVI Aquaponic System. The logistics of working with both fish and plants can be challenging. In the UVI system, one rearing tank is stocked every 6 weeks. Therefore, it takes 18 weeks to fully stock the system. If multiple units are used, fish may be stocked and harvested as frequently as once a week. Similarly, staggered crop production requires frequent seeding, transplanting, harvesting and marketing. Therefore, the goal of the design process is to reduce labour wherever possible and make operations as simple as possible. For example, purchasing four fish-rearing tanks adds extra expense. One larger tank could be purchased instead and partially harvested and partially restocked every 6 weeks. However, this operation requires additional labour, which is a recurring cost and makes management more complex. In the long run, having several smaller tanks in which the fish are not disturbed until harvest (hence, less mortality and better growth) will be more cost effective (Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.3. Solids Most of the fecal waste fish generate should be removed from the waste stream before it enters the hydroponic tanks. Other sources of particulate waste are uneaten feed and organisms (e.g., bacteria, fungi and algae) that grow in the system. If this organic matter accumulates in the system, it will depress dissolved oxygen (DO) levels as it decays and produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. If deep deposits of sludge form, they will decompose anaerobically (without oxygen) and produce methane and hydrogen sulphide, which are very toxic to fish. Suspended solids have special significance in aquaponic systems. Suspended solids entering the hydroponic component may accumulate on plant roots and create anaerobic zones that prevent nutrient uptake by active transport, a process that requires oxygen. However, some accumulation of solids may be beneficial. As solids are decomposed by microorganisms, inorganic nutrients essential to plant growth are released to the water, a process known as mineralization. Mineralization supplies several essential nutrients. Without sufficient solids for mineralization, more nutrient supplementation is required, which increases the operating expense and management complexity of the system. However, it may be possible to minimize or eliminate the need for nutrient supplementation if fish stocking and feeding rates are increased relative to plants. Another benefit of solids is that the microorganisms that decompose them are antagonistic to plant root pathogens and help maintain healthy root growth. Sand and gravel hydroponic substrates can remove solid waste from system water. Solids remain in the system to provide nutrients to plants through mineralization. With the high potential of sand and gravel media to clog, bed tillage or periodic media replacement may be required. The use of sand is becoming less common, but one popular aquaponic system uses small beds (250 cm by 125 cm) containing pea gravel 660 �ranging from 0.31 to 0.63 cm in diameter. The hydroponic beds are flooded several times daily with system water and then allowed to drain completely, and the water returned to the rearing tank. During the draining phase, air is brought into the gravel. The high oxygen content of air (com- pared to water) speeds the decomposition of organic matter in the gravel. The beds are inoculated with red worms (Eisenia foetida), which improve bed aeration and assimilate organic matter (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.3.1. Solids Removal The most appropriate device for solids removal in a particular system depends primarily on the organic loading rate (daily feed input and feces production) and secondarily on the plant growing area. For example, if large numbers of fish (high organic loading) are raised relative to the plant growing area, a highly efficient solids removal device, such as a microscreen drum filter, is desirable. Microscreen drum filters capture fine organic particles, which are retained by the screen for only a few minutes before backwashing removes them from the system. In this system, the dissolved nutrients excreted directly by the fish or produced by mineralization of very fine particles and dissolved organic matter may be sufficient for the size of the plant growing area. If small amounts of fish (low organic loading) are raised relative to the plant growing area, then solids removal may be unnecessary, as more mineralization is needed to produce sufficient nutrients for the plants. However, unstabilized solids (solids that have not undergone microbial decomposition) should not be allowed to accumulate on the tank bottom and form anaerobic zones. A reciprocating pea gravel filter (subject to flood and drain cycles), in which incoming water is spread evenly over the entire bed surface, may be the most appropriate device in this situation because solids are evenly distributed in the gravel and exposed to high oxygen levels (21 percent in air as compared to 0.0005 to 0.0007 percent in fish culture water) on the drain cycle. This enhances microbial activity and increases the mineralization rate. With clarification as the sole method of solids removal, large quantities of solids would be discharged to the hydroponic component. Therefore, another treatment stage is needed to remove re-suspended and fine solids. In the UVI system, two rectangular tanks, each with a volume of 700 litres, are filled with orchard/bird netting and installed after each of the two clarifiers (Fig. 2). Effluent from each clarifier flows through a set of two filter tanks in series. Orchard netting is effective in removing fine solids. The filter tanks remove the remaining 50 percent of total particulate solids. The orchard netting is cleaned once or twice each week. Before cleaning, a small sump pump is used to carefully return the filter tank water to the rearing tanks without dislodging the solids. This process conserves water and nutrients. The netting is cleaned with a highpressure water spray and the sludge is discharged to line holding ponds. The organic matter that accumulates on the orchard netting between cleanings forms a thick sludge. Anaerobic conditions develop in the sludge, which leads to the formation of gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane and nitrogen. Therefore, a degassing tank is used in the UVI system to receive the effluent from the filter tanks (Fig. 2). A number of air diffusers vent the gasses into the atmosphere before the culture water reaches the hydroponic plants. The degassing tank has an internal standpipe well that splits the water flow into three sets of hydroponic tanks. Solids discharged from aquaponic systems must be disposed of appropriately. There are several methods for effluent treatment and disposal. Effluent can be stored in aerated ponds and applied as relatively dilute sludge to land after the organic matter in it has stabilized. This method is advantageous in dry areas where sludge can be used to irrigate and fertilize field crops. The solid fraction of sludge can be separated from water and used with other waste products from the system (vegetable matter) to form compost. Urban facilities might have to discharge solid waste into sewer lines for treatment and disposal at the municipal wastewater treatment plant (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.4. Biofiltration A major concern in aquaponic systems is the removal of ammonia, a metabolic waste product excreted through the gills of fish. Ammonia will accumulate and reach toxic levels unless it is removed by the process of nitrification (referred to more generally as biofiltration), in which ammonia is oxidized first to nitrite, which is toxic, and then to nitrate, which is relatively non-toxic. Two groups of naturally occurring bacteria (Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter) mediate this two-step process (Fig 3) (Cacchione 2007). Nitrifying bacteria grow as a film (referred to as biofilm) on the surface of inert material or they adhere to organic particles. Biofilters contain media with large surface areas for the growth of nitrifying bacteria. Aquaponic systems have used biofilters with sand, gravel, shells or various plastic media as substrate. Biofilters perform optimally at a temperature range of 25 to 30 °C, a pH range of 7.0 to 9.0, saturated DO, low BOD (<20 mg/liter) and total alkalinity of 100 mg/liter or more. Nitrification is an acid-producing process. Therefore, an alkaline base must be added frequently, depending on feeding rate, to maintain relatively stable pH values. Some method of removing dead biofilm is necessary to prevent media clogging, short circuiting of water flow, decreasing DO values and declining biofilter performance (Hutchinson et al. 2004). 661 �If a separate biofilter is required or if a combined biofilter (biofiltration and hydroponic substrate) is used, the standard equations used to size biofilters may not apply to aquaponic systems, as additional surface area is provided by plant roots and a considerable amount of ammonia is taken up by plants. However, the contribution of various hydroponic subsystem designs and plant species to water treatment in aquaponic systems has not been studied. Therefore, aquaponic system biofilters should be sized fairly close to the recommendations for recirculation systems. Nitrification efficiency is affected by pH. The optimum pH range for nitrification is 7.0 to 9.0, although most studies indicate that nitrification efficiency is greater at the higher end of this range (high 8s). Recommended pH ranges for hydroponic systems are between 5.5 and 6.5 and for aquaculture systems are between 6.5 and 8.5 (Tyson et al. 2004). The pH of a solution affects the solubility of nutrients, especially trace metals. Essential nutrients such as iron, manganese, copper, zinc and boron are less available to plants at a pH higher than 7.0, while the solubility of phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and molybdenum sharply decreases at a pH lower than 6.0. Compromise between nitrification and nutrient availability is reached in aquaponic systems by maintaining pH close to 7.0. Nitrification is most efficient when water is saturated with DO. The UVI commercial-scale system maintains DO levels near 80 percent saturation (6 to 7 mg/L) by aerating the hydroponic tanks with numerous small air diffusers (one every 4 feet) distributed along the long axis of the tanks. Reciprocating (ebb and flow) gravel systems expose nitrifying bacteria to high atmospheric oxygen levels during the dewatering phase. The thin film of water that flows through NFT (nutrient film technique) channels absorbs oxygen by diffusion, but dense plant roots and associated organic matter can block water flow and create anaerobic zones, which precludes the growth of nitrifying bacteria and further necessitates the installation of a separate biofilter. Ideally, aquaponic systems should be designed so that the hydroponic subsystem also serves as the biofilter, which eliminates the capital cost and operational expense of a separate biofilter. Granular hydroponic media such as gravel, sand and perlite provide sufficient substrate for nitrifying bacteria and generally serve as the sole biofilter in some aquaponic systems, although the media has a tendency to clog. If serious clogging occurs from organic matter overloading, gravel and sand filters can actually produce ammonia as organic matter decays, rather than remove it. If this occurs, the gravel or sand must be washed and the system design must be modified by installing a solids removal device before the media, or else the organic loading rate must be decreased by stocking fewer fish and reducing feeding rates. Raft hydroponics, which consists of channels (with 30 cm of water depth) covered by floating sheets of polystyrene for plant support, also provides sufficient nitrification if solids are removed from the flow before it reaches the hydroponic component. The waste treatment capacity of raft hydroponics is equivalent to a feeding ratio of 180 g of fish feed/m2 of plant growing area/day. This is equivalent to about 4.5 kg of feed for each 250 cm x 125 cm sheet of polystyrene foam. After an initial acclimation period of 1 month, it is not necessary to monitor ammonia and nitrite values in the UVI raft system A significant amount of nitrification occurs on the undersides of the polystyrene sheets, especially in the areas exposed to strong currents above air diffusers where the biofilm is noticeably thicker (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). Figure 3: The Nitrogen Cycle in Aquaponic Systems (Cacchione 2007). 662 �2.5. Hydroponic Subsystems A number of hydroponic subsystems have been used in aquaponic. Gravel hydroponic subsystems are common in small operations. To ensure adequate aeration of plant roots, gravel beds have been operated in a reciprocating (ebb and flow) mode, where the beds are alternately flooded and drained, or in a non flooded state, where culture water is applied continuously to the base of the individual plants through small diameter plastic tubing. Depending on its composition, gravel can provide some nutrients for plant growth (e.g., calcium is slowly released as the gravel reacts with acid produced during nitrification). One popular gravel-based aquaponic system uses pea gravel in small beds that are irrigated through a distribution system of PVC pipes over the gravel surface. Numerous small holes in the pipes distribute culture water on the flood cycle. The beds are allowed to drain completely between flood cycles. Solids are not removed from the culture water and organic matter accumulates, but the beds are tilled between planting cycles so that some organic matter can be dislodged and discharged. Sand has been used as hydroponic media in aquaponic systems and is an excellent substrate for plant growth. In an experimental system, sand beds (7.5 m long by 1.5 m wide by 15 cm deep) were constructed on slightly sloped ground covered by polyethylene sheets adjacent to in-ground rearing tanks, with the tank floors sloping to one side. A pump in the deep end of the rearing tank was activated for 30 minutes five times daily to furrow irrigate the adjacent sand bed. The culture water percolated through the sand and returned to the rearing tank. A coarse grade of sand is needed to reduce the potential for clogging over time and some solids should be removed before irrigation. Perlite is another media that has been used in aquaponic systems. Perlite is placed in shallow aluminium trays (7.5 cm deep) with a baked enamel finish. The trays vary from 20 cm to 10 cm wide and can be fabricated to any length; with 50 cm the maximum recommended length. At intervals of 50 cm, adjoining trays should be separated by 7.5 cm or more in elevation so that water drops to the lower tray and becomes re-aerated. A slope of 2.5 cm in 30 cm is needed for water flow. A small trickle of water enters at the top of the tray, flows through the perlite and keeps it moist, and discharges into a trough at the lower end. Solids must be removed from the water before it enters the perlite tray. Full solids loading will clog the perlite, form short-circuiting channels, create anaerobic zones and lead to non-uniform plant growth. Shallow perlite trays provide minimal area for root growth and are better for smaller plants such as lettuce and herbs. A floating or raft hydroponic subsystem is ideal for the cultivation of leafy green and other types of vegetables. The UVI system uses three sets of two raft hydroponic tanks that are 30 m long by 125 cm wide by 4 m deep and contain 3 m of water. The channels are lined with low-density polyethylene liners (20 mil thick) and covered by expanded polystyrene sheets (rafts) that are 250 cm long by 125 cm wide by 3.8 cm thick. Net pots are placed in holes in the raft and just touch the water surface. Two-inch net pots are generally used for leafy green plants, while 7.5 cm net pots are used for larger plants such as tomatoes or okra. Holes of the same size are cut into the polystyrene sheet. A lip at the top of the net pot secures it and keeps it from falling through the hole into the water. Seedlings are nursed in a greenhouse and then placed into net pots. Their roots grow into the culture water while their canopy grows above the raft surface. The system provides maximum exposure of roots to the culture water and avoids clogging. The sheets shield the water from direct sunlight and maintain lower than ambient water temperature, which is a beneficial feature in tropical systems. A disruption in pumping does not affect the plant’s water supply as in gravel, sand and NFT subsystems. The sheets are easily moved along the channel to a harvesting point where they can be lifted out of the water and placed on supports at an elevation that is comfortable for workers (Alka et al. 2000, Racoky et al. 2006). 2.6. Sump Water flows by gravity from gravel, sand and raft hydroponic subsystems to a sump, which is the lowest point in the system. The sump contains a pump or pump inlet that returns the treated culture water to the rearing tanks. There should be only one pump to circulate water in an aquaponic system. The sump should be the only tank in the system where the water level decreases as a result of overall water loss from evaporation, transpiration, sludge removal and splashing. The sump is a good location for the addition of base to the system. Soluble base such as potassium hydroxide causes high and toxic pH levels in the sump. However, as water is pumped into the rearing tank, it is diluted and pH decreases to acceptable levels (Hutchinson et al. 2004, Racoky et al. 2006). 2.7. Construction Materials Many materials can be used to construct aquaponic systems. Budget limitations often lead to the selection of inexpensive and questionable materials such as vinyl-lined, steel walled swimming pools. Fibreglass is the best construction material for rearing tanks, sumps and filter tanks. Fibreglass tanks are sturdy, durable, non-toxic, movable and easy to plumb. Polyethylene tanks are also very popular for fish rearing and gravel hydroponics because of their low cost. NFT troughs made from extruded polyethylene are specifically designed 663 �to prevent the pudding and water stagnation that lead to root death and are preferable to makeshift structures such as PVC pipes. Plastic troughs are commercially available for floating hydroponic subsystems, but they are expensive. A good alternative is the 20-mil polyethylene liners that are placed inside concrete block or pouredconcrete side walls. They are easy to install, relatively inexpensive and durable, with an expected life of 12 to 15 years. A soil floor covered with fine sand will prevent sharp objects from puncturing the liners. Lined hydroponic tanks can be constructed to very large sizes hundreds of feet long and up to 9 m wide (Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.8. Component Ratios Aquaponic systems are generally designed to meet the size requirements for solids removal (for those systems requiring solids removal) and biofiltration (if a separate biofilter is used) for the quantity of fish being raised. After the size requirements are calculated, it is prudent to add excess capacity as a safety margin. However, if a separate biofilter is used, the hydroponic component is the safety factor because a significant amount of ammonia uptake and nitrification will occur regardless of hydroponic technique. The optimum ratio of daily fish feed input to plant growing area will maximize plant production while maintaining relatively stable levels of dissolved nutrients. A volume ratio of 30 litter of fish-rearing tank to 220 litter of pea gravel hydroponic media (0.31 cm to 0.63 cm in diameter ) is recommended for reciprocating (flood and drain) gravel aquaponic systems. This ratio requires that tilapia be raised to a final density of 250 g/4 l and fed appropriately. With the recommended ratio, no solids are removed from the system. The hydroponic beds should be cultivated (stirred up) between crops and inoculated with red worms to help break down and assimilate the organic matter. With this system, nutrient supplementation may not be necessary. As a general guide for raft aquaponics, a ratio in the range of 60 to 100 g of fish feed/m2 of plant growing area per day should be used. Ratios within this range have been used successfully in the UVI system for the production of tilapia, lettuce, basil and several other plants. In the UVI system all solids are removed, with a residence time of <1 day for settleable solids (>100 micrometers) removed by a clarifier, and 3 to 7 days for suspended solids removed by an orchard netting filter. The system uses rainwater and requires supplementation for potassium, calcium and iron (Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.9. Plant Growth Requirements For maximum growth, plants in aquaponic systems require 16 essential nutrients. These are listed below in the order of their concentrations in plant tissue, with carbon and oxygen being the highest. The essential elements are arbitrarily divided into macronutrients, those required in relatively large quantities, and micronutrients, those required in considerably smaller amounts. Three of the macronutrients carbon (C), oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H) are supplied by water (H2O) and carbon dioxide gas (CO2). The remaining nutrients are absorbed from the culture water. Other macronutrients include nitrogen (N), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). The seven micronutrients include chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), and boron (B), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and molybdenum (Mo). These nutrients must be balanced for optimum plant growth. High levels of one nutrient can influence the bioavailability of others. For example, excessive amounts of potassium may interfere with the uptake of magnesium or calcium, while excessive amounts of either of the latter nutrients may interfere with the uptake of the other two nutrients. Water temperature is far more important than air temperature for hydroponic plant production. The best water temperature for most hydroponic crops is about 24 °C. However, water temperature can go as low as the mid-60s for most common garden crops and slightly lower for winter crops such as cabbage, brussel sprouts and broccoli (Alka et al. 2000, Racoky et al. 2004, 2006). 2.10. Vegetable Selection Many types of vegetables have been grown in aquaponic systems. However, the goal is to culture a vegetable that will generate the highest level of income per unit area per unit time. With this criterion, culinary herbs are the best choice. They grow very rapidly and command high market prices. The income from herbs such as basil, cilantro, chives, parsley, portulaca and mint is much higher than that from fruiting crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplant and okra. For example, in experiments in UVI’s commercial scale system, basil production was 5,000 kg annually at a value of $110,000, compared to okra production of 2,900 kg annually at a value of $ 6,400. Fruiting crops also require longer culture periods (90 days or more) and have more pest problems and diseases. Lettuce is another good crop for aquaponic systems because it can be produced in a short period (3 to 4 weeks in the system) and, as a consequence, has relatively few pest problems. Unlike fruiting crops, a large portion of the harvested biomass is edible. Other suitable crops are Swiss chard, pak choi, Chinese cabbage, collard and watercress. The cultivation of flowers has potential in aquaponic systems. Good results 664 �have been obtained with marigold and zinnia in UVI’s aquaponic system. Traditional medicinal plants and plants used for the extraction of modern pharmaceuticals have not been cultivated in aquaponic systems, but there may be potential for growing some of these plants. All plant production has to be coupled to the producer’s ability to market the final product (Rakocy et al. 2006). In Canada, greenhouse tomato and cucumber production in aquaponic system in 2004/2005 reached 20.7 kg/plant/year and 33.4 kg/plant/year respectively exceeding average yields of these crops in greenhouse sector in Alberta for the first time. The average yield of basil increased in from 8.7 kg/m2 of greenhouse area to 11.9 kg/m2 in 2005 compared to 2005 (Savidow 2005). 2.11. Pest and Disease Control Pesticides should not be used to control insects on aquaponic plant crops. Even pesticides that are registered would pose a threat to fish and would not be permitted in a fish culture system. Similarly, therapeutants for treating fish parasites and diseases should not be used because vegetables may absorb and concentrate them. The common practice of adding salt to treat fish diseases or reduce nitrite toxicity is detrimental to plant crops. Nonchemical methods of integrated pest management must be used. These include biological control (resistant cultivars, predators, pathogens, antagonistic organisms), physical barriers, traps, and manipulation of the physical environment. There are more opportunities to use biological control methods in enclosed greenhouse environments than in exterior installations. Parasitic wasps and ladybugs can be used to control white flies and aphids. In UVI’s systems, caterpillars are effectively controlled by twice weekly spraying with Bacillus thuringiensis, a bacterial pathogen that is specific to caterpillars. Fungal root pathogens (Pythium), which are encountered in summer at UVI and reduce production, dissipate in winter in response to lower water temperature. The prohibition on the use of pesticides makes crop production in aquaponic systems more difficult. However, this restriction ensures that crops from aquaponic systems will be raised in an environmentally sound manner and be free of pesticide residues. A major advantage of aquaponic systems is that crops are less susceptible to attack from soil borne diseases. Plants grown in aquaponic systems may be more resistant to diseases that affect plants grown in standard hydroponics. This resistance may be due to the presence of some organic matter in the culture water that creates a stable growing environment with a wide diversity of microorganisms, some of which may be antagonistic to plant root pathogens (Racoky et 2006). 2.12. Economics The economics of aquaponic systems depends on specific site conditions and markets. It would be inaccurate to make sweeping generalizations because material costs, construction costs, operating costs and market prices vary by location. The UVI system is capable of producing approximately 5,000 kg of tilapia and 630 cases of lettuce or 5,000 kg of basil annually based on studies in the Virgin Islands. Enterprise budgets for tilapia production combined with either lettuce or basil have been developed. The U.S. Virgin Islands represent a small niche market with very high prices for fresh tilapia, lettuce and basil, as more than 95 percent of vegetable supplies and nearly 80 percent of fish supplies are imported. The budgets were prepared to show revenues, costs and profits from six production units. A commercial enterprise consisting of six production units is recommended because one fish-rearing tank (out of 24) could be harvested weekly, thereby providing a continuous supply of fish for market development (Rakocy et al. 2006). In Canada, water use efficiency in mixed basil/tilapia operation was 394.3 liters per $100 of output, which is for 65.7% more efficient than in the best hydroponics system (600 liters per $100 of output) (Savidow, 2005). 3. Conclusion Aquaponic systems retain water for long periods of time, require less monitoring, and provide free nutrients. Aquaponic system encounters fewer pest and disease problems than traditional hydroponic systems due to the amount of organic material in the water. In contrast to the sought after sterile environment of hydroponics, the aquaponic system thrives on a diversity of bacteria – bacteria that can be antagonistic to pathogens and bacteria that boost plants’ immune systems. In fact, the aquaponic system has operated for several years without changing the water. Unlike traditional hydroponic solutions that require a complete nutrient mix, the UVI system’s tilapia provides adequate amounts of 10 of the 13 nutrients essential to plants. Only potassium, calcium and iron must be supplemented. And to maintain the proper pH level the operators add either calcium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, which provide the missing potassium and calcium nutrients. Iron is added separately Normal recirculation aquaculture systems discharge an estimated five to ten percent of system water daily due to excess nitrate accumulation. UVI’s system uses nitrates and other nutrients for plant growth, so it discharges less than one percent of system water daily, alleviating the potential for pollution related to water 665 �discharge. Aquaponic is the only system in the world that has a biofilter that makes money (Sherrill 2008). New technologies take time to be accepted and implemented. However, global water shortages have created a more urgent interest in aquaponic, one of the most water-efficient systems in the world. References Alka, G., Muali, G., & Tilak, K.V.B.R. (2000). Mechanism of Plant Growth Promotion by Rhizobacteria. Indian Journal of Experiment Biology, 38, 856-862. Cacchione, S. (2007). The Nitrogen Cycle. Backyard Aquaponics, 1, 6-8. Diver, S. (2006). Aquaponics-Integration of Hydroponics with Aquaculture. Natioanal Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. ATTRA Publication. 28pp. Dunning, R.D., Losordo, T.M., & Hobbs, A.O. (1998). The Economics of Recirculating Tank Systems: A Spreadsheet for Individual Analysis SRAC Publication No:456, Southern Regional Aquaculture Center, USA, 8p. Edwards, P. (2003). Philosophy Principles and Concepts of Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Systems, 6-13. In (eds, Gooley, G.J. & Gavine, F.M.) Integrated Agri-Aquaculture Systems. A Resource Handbook for Australian Industry Devepoment, RIRD Publication, 183pp. Hutchinson, W., Jeffry, M, O’Sullivan, D., Casement, D., & Clarke, S. (2004). Recirculating Aquaculture Systems Minimum Standards For Design, Costraction and Management. Inland Aquaculture Association of South Australia Inc.70pp. Lorena, S., Cristea, V., & Oprea, L. (2008). Nutrents Dynimic in an Aquaponic Recirculating System For Sturgeon And Lettuce (Lactuca Satıva) Productıon. Zootehnie si Biotehnologii, 41 (2), 137-143. Rakocy, J.E., Bailey, D.S.R., Shultz, C., & Thoman, E.S. (2004). Update on tilapia and vegetable production in the UVI aquaponic system. p. 676-690. In: New Dimensions on Farmed Tilapia: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, Held September 12-16, 2004 in Manila, Philippines. Rakocy, J.E., Massor, M.P., & Losordo, T.M. (2006). Recirculating Aquaculture Tank Production Systems: Aquaponics— Integrating Fish and Plant Culture. SRAC Publication No. 454, 16pp. Savidow, N. (2005). Evaluation and Development of Aquaponics Production and Product Market Cababilities in Alberta Phase II. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 57pp. Sherrill, G. (2008).Working Together. The Growing Edge, March/April, 24-26. Szyper, J. (1989). Backyard Aquaculture in Hawaii A Practical Manual. Windward Community College, Aquaculture Development Program, Dept. of Land and Natural Resources, State of Hawaii.87pp. Tyson, R.V., Simonne, E.H., White, J.M., & Lamb, E.M. (2004). Reconciling Water Quality Parameters Impacting Nitrification in Aquaponics: The pH Levels. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc., 117, 79-83. 666 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 614 Title A name given to the resource Aquaponic (Integrating Fish and Plant Culture) Systems Author Author Turkmen, Gurel Guner, Yusuf Abstract A summary of the resource. Aquaponic is the combined culture of fish and plants in recirculation systems, has become increasingly popular. Nutrients, which are excreted directly by the fish or generated by the microbial breakdown of organic wastes, are absorbed by plants cultured hydroponically (without soil). Fish feed provides most of the nutrients required for plant growth. As the aquaculture effluent flows through the hydroponic component of the recirculation system, fish waste metabolites are removed by nitrification and direct uptake by the plants, thereby treating the water, which flows back to the fish-rearing component for reuse. Aquaponic has several advantages over other recirculation aquaculture systems and hydroponic systems that use inorganic nutrient solutions. The hydroponic component serves as a biofilter, and therefore a separate biofilter is not needed as in other recirculating systems. Aquaponic systems have the only biofilter that generates income, which is obtained from the sale of hydroponic produce such as vegetables, herbs and flowers. In the UVI system, which employs raft hydroponics, only calcium, potassium and iron are supplemented. The nutrients provided by the fish would normally be discharged and could contribute to pollution. Removal of nutrients by plants prolongs water use and minimizes discharge. Aquaponic systems require less water quality monitoring than individual recirculation systems for fish or hydroponic plant production. Aquaponic increases profit potential due to free nutrients for plants, lower water requirements, elimination of a separate biofilter, less water quality monitoring and shared costs for operation and infrastructure. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cb2d99d07d1f01fd1628b6b4f52d16b2.pdf 417250bd362b5db88d0bf21f89b4e645 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Unbearable Burden of Being A Woman: A Comparative Analysis of the Female Characters in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen and in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği by Ülker Köksal Fehmi Turgut Department of English Language and Literature Karadeniz Technical University, TURKEY feturgut@yahoo.com Abstract: Literature creates its own universal language. This language has always become the voice of mankind at large. Henrik Ibsen, a Scandinavian author living in the 19th century and Ülker Köksal, a Turkish playwright living in the 20th century depicted women characters confronted with social pressures and patriarchal conformity. Despite the fact that Ibsen and Ülker belong to different traditions, different cultures and different periods, there are striking parallels between these writers in their approach to the treatment of statues of women in a patriarchal society. This study aims at comparing female characters as represented in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House and Ülker’s Ademin Kaburga Kemiği and disclosing important points of contact between these two plays concentrating exclusively on the issue of the unbearable pressure and burden of being a woman in a man-dominated world. Key Words: Ibsen, A Doll’s House, Women, Köksal, Ademin Kaburga Kemiği That literature is alive shows itself in the fact that it puts problems under debate. Any problem which remains untouched in literary circles is also bound to remain unsolvable. By doing so, literature takes on some responsibilities such as exploring the make up and meaning of human experience, creating some alternative worlds in which problems of any kind are portrayed in compelling and complex way, one that people feel them. Therefore, literature has become the most influential medium throughout history. Regardless of where and when it is made, whichever language it uses, and whichever cultural, social, economic, political and historical sources it feeds itself from, literature displays the most realistic, unchangeable and timeless nature of human being. Though men of letters attach to it such nationalities as English, American, Turkish or any other, literature creates its own universal language. This language has become the voice of mankind at large. Henrik Ibsen, a Scandinavian author living in the 19th century and Ülker Köksal, a Turkish playwright living in the 20th century depicted women characters confronted with social pressures and patriarchal conformity. Despite the fact that Ibsen and Ülker belong to different traditions, different cultures and different periods, there are striking parallels between these writers in their approach to the treatment of statues of women in a patriarchal society. Literature is said to be feminine, for it incessantly is fertile, and fertility is a characteristic of the woman; thus literature searches for the woman, and the woman finds herself in literature. Both Ibsen and Köksal look for woman, the lost, non-existing woman humiliated, exploited, abused by man or by the society controlled, organized and governed by man. Ibsen’s Nora in A Doll’s House and Köksal’s Güzin in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği experience the same problems in different ways. The first point of contact between the two plays is their titles. Both are very loaded terms in terms of how women are perceived in society. The title A Doll’s House implies that the house belongs to women. Nora steps into a comfortable and tastefully furnished room. She seems to be happy. The house seems to be a playground, which later in the play Nora will complain about this concept of ‘home as a playground’. Then Helmer gets in greeting her affectionately using endearments such as "little lark," and "squirrel" - terms one might use with a child or a household pet rather than a partner or friend. Whether consciously or unconsciously, Helmer is denying her identity as a human being or member of the society with equal rights. Thus, the play creates a ‘stereotype of woman: doll, docile, reverential, obedient, sexy, with a tendency toward disloyalty, irresponsibility and opportunism, helpless, needy- especially in need of man’s assistance and control. As for Köksal’s play, Ademin Kaburga Kemiği (Adam’s Rib) implies ‘women’s dependence on men from birth’. To justfy this misconception, people refer to Biblical documents: ... for Adam there was not found a help meet for him. And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof; And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man, made he a woman, and brought her to the man. And Adam said, This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh: she shall be called Woman, because she was taken 340 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo out of Man. Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh. (Gen. 2:20-24 ) By this, patriarchs get the idea that the Bible clearly refers to a definite role in the home: a place for the wife and the mother, a very honored place, and a very particular place that she has in the home, and that it determines and designs her relationship to her husband and to her family, and her children. So ought men to love their wives as their own bodies. He that loveth his wife loveth himself. For no man ever yet hated his own flesh; but nourisheth and cherisheth it, even as the Lord, the church: For we are members of his body, of his flesh, and of his bones. For this cause shall a man leave his father and mother, and shall be joined unto his wife, and they two shall be one flesh. This is a great mystery: but I speak concerning Christ and the church. Nevertheless let every one of you in particular so love his wife even as himself; and the wife see that she reverence her husband. (St. Paul's epistle:2833) Both plays reveal such a patriarchal attitude towards the woman’s role in the family and in the outside world: HELMER: … No, no; only lean on me; I will advise you and direct you. I should not be a man if this womanly helplessness did not just give you a double attractiveness in my eyes. (64) HELMER: … Be at rest, and feel secure; I have broad wings to shelter you under… How warm and cosy our home is, Nora. Here is shelter for you; here I will protect you like a hunted dove that I have saved from a hawk's claws… (65) HELMER: ... You talk like a child. You don't understand the conditions of the world in which you live. HELMER: … no man would sacrifice his honour for the one he loves… (70) HELMER: … Now, you must go and play through the Tarantella and practise with your tambourine. I shall go into the inner office and shut the door, and I shall hear nothing; you can make as much noise as you please. (38) (Güzin and Fazıl are home... Güzin walks hastily between the kitchen and the bedroom with the baby’s bottle and diapers in her hands) GÜZĐN: The baby’s bottles are ready… the glass grater, the colander, the muslins… FAZIL: (reading a newspaper) Look at this… Another wild fire… GÜZĐN: The baby food is ready… But why hasn’t this woman come yet? She ought to have come earlier. Fazıl, this woman still hasn’t come. FAZIL: (still reads the paper) She will come soon…Don’t worry… Coal prices are up again... No good news in the paper. (134) FAZIL: Do as you wish to do, darling…. You are free… GÜZĐN: So you say… Is that right? Thank you. FAZIL: Look, honey… You don’t have to work… Just sit at home… GÜZĐN: (Angrily) No… I have to work. Though I do not know whether I will be freer when I work or not. Maybe one day I will have a better job. There must be other meanings of life. Other than the kitchen and diapers. I should do something for human beings. Just to change the world a bit. (137) In the very opening scene, both plays get their women characters exposed to a ‘patriarchal siege’. HELMER: When did my squirrel come home? NORA: Just now. Come in here, Torvald, and see what I have bought. HELMER: Don't disturb me. Bought, did you say? All these things? Has my little spendthrift been wasting money again? NORA: Yes but, Torvald, this year we really can let ourselves go a little. This is the first Christmas that we have not needed to economise. HELMER: Still, you know, we can't spend money recklessly. NORA: Yes, Torvald, we may be a wee bit more reckless now, mayn't we? Just a tiny wee bit! You are going to have a big salary and earn lots and lots of money. 341 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo HELMER: Yes, after the New Year; but then it will be a whole quarter before the salary is due. NORA: Pooh! we can borrow till then. HELMER: Nora! The same little featherhead! Suppose, now, that I borrowed fifty pounds to-day, and you spent it all in the Christmas week, and then on New Year's Eve a slate fell on my head and killed me, and— … (Ibsen 1879:1) This is way of alienation and rejection of the woman who steps into an economic life in some way or another, even if she is dependent on her husband. Güzin’s case is a little different. First, she is exposed to ‘a cultural patriarchal siege’. That in her childhood she is reminded of her gender roles as a grown up woman by her mother, another woman, is significant. This means women should play not achieved roles but ascribed ones (Stark 2007). GÜZĐN: Mother! I have a lot to study MOTHER: Don’t tell me anything. You have to finish it first. You have had four days off and done nothing. Now you say you have to study. No! You have to do the ironing. When you are married, you will not be responsible for your lessons but the ironing. Get it? GÜZĐN: I wish I were a boy MOTHER: ‘Tis a pity that you are a girl. I wish I had born you all boys. GÜZĐN: I will be a celebrity person when I am grown up, Mum! MOTHER: Of course… If you get married to a celebrity man. GÜZĐN: I will never do it. MOTHER: You have to. You should have a home. An unmarried woman is nothing in the society. At all events, the best is your husband’s bread. GÜZĐN: No… The best is one’s own bread. (Köksal 1994: 130) In Ademin Kaburga Kemiği, Köksal argues that conventional limitations on women, which are regarded as the foundations of a ‘masculine society’, start at the very beginning of the childhood period. In a sense, this is a struggle for keeping ‘conventional patriarchal wisdom’ in society just by ascribing gender roles to girls and educating them with an understanding of ‘as the twig is bent so is the tree inclined’. In Köksal, this cultural infamily education tries to make grown-up women out of little girls. Therefore, Köksal brings us face to face with an ‘oppressed little girl’ who is forced to give up her childhood dreams, ideals and goals. Güzin carries the traces of this oppression up to her old age. Nora is by no means different from Güzin as a child. As a child, she is treated by her father as a doll, which also serves as another way of isolating the woman from the real world. NORA: In all these eight years--longer than that--from the very beginning of our acquaintance, we have never exchanged a word on any serious subject. HELMER: Was it likely that I would be continually and forever telling you about worries that you could no help me to bear? NORA: I am not speaking about business matters. I say that we have never sat down in earnest together to try and get at the bottom of anything. HELMER: But, dearest Nora, would it have been any good to you? NORA: That is just it; you have never understood me. I have been greatly wronged, Torvald--first by papa and then by you. HELMER: What! By us two--by us two, who have loved you better than anyone else in the world? NORA: You have never loved me. You have only thought it pleasant to be in love with me. HELMER: Nora, what do I hear you saying? NORA: It is perfectly true, Torvald. When I was at home with papa, he told me his opinion about everything, and so I had the same opinions; and if I differed from him I concealed the fact, because he would not have liked it. He called me his doll-child, and he played with me just as I used to play with my dolls. And when I came to live with you-HELMER: What sort of an expression is that to use about our marriage? NORA: I mean that I was simply transferred from papa's hands into yours. You arranged everything according to your own taste, and so I got the same tastes as your else I pretended to, I am really not quite sure which--I think sometimes the one and 342 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo sometimes the other. When I look back on it, it seems to me as if I had been living here like a poor woman--just from hand to mouth. I have existed merely to perform tricks for you, Torvald. But you would have it so. You and papa have committed a great sin against me. It is your fault that I have made nothing of my life. (Ibsen 1879, 66-67) MOTHER: What have you done to your hair, Güzin? You are no longer a baby. You are a young girl. Come on. I will teach you how to spin yarn. GÜZĐN: (She is twelve. She doesn’t want to drop the book she is reading.) I don’t want, Mum. MOTHER: I haven’t asked about your idea. You have to learn. (Köksal 1994:129) GÜZĐN: I hate knitting. MOTHER: … This is not knitting but embroidery. It teaches you how to be patient. A woman must be patient. (Köksal 1994:130) GÜZĐN: (She is eighteen) … I will go to university… MOTHER: What will happen? You can’t get married then… GÜZĐN: I am going to be an engineer. MOTHER: Engineer? Are you crazy? Have you seen any woman engineer? GÜZĐN: I have. MOTHER: Who put this into your head? GÜZĐN: My teachers. They say I have an engineer’s mind. MOTHER: Do they say anything about how we can afford to send you to school? GÜZĐN: But you send my brother… MOTHER: He is male. We have to send him to school. He must have a job. (Köksal 1994:132) Both characters are shaped in their childhood, Nora by her father and Güzin by her mother, and transferred into the arms of a patriarchal society, their husbands and other masculine members of that society, as a doll, as a caring mother, an obedient wife, forced to be inured to their gender roles in the early periods of their lives. Both plays shed light on the concept of marriage. Lord (1882) asserts that it is Ibsen who has so far shed some of the clearest light on marriage based on the character of Nora. She goes on to claim that the working of marriage between Nora and Helmer is hindered by some unfavorable circumstances. She attributes their failure to a false view of life. This view of life deprives women of reality (Lord 1882). How can we define the term ‘realities of life’? Economic affairs, social affairs, professional affairs, intellectual affairs, career-making, decision making, freedom, and sharing responsibilities with man (husbands) can be included in the list of realities of ‘modern’ life. In both plays, Nora and Güzin are denied getting involved in such realities. Therefore, both of them question their marriages towards the end of the plays. This questioning then turns into a settling old scores with life, husbands and society: HELMER: How unreasonable and how ungrateful you are, Nora! Have you not been happy here? NORA: No, I have never been happy. I thought I was, but it has never really been so. HELMER: Not--not happy! NORA: No, only merry. And you have always been so kind to me. But our home has been nothing but a playroom. I have been your doll-wife, just as at home I was papa's doll-child; and here the children have been my dolls. I thought it great fun when you played with me, just as they thought it great fun when I played with them. That is what our marriage has been, Torvald. (Ibsen 1879: 67) … GÜZĐN: Do I look so ridiculous? If a housewife is interested in literature, it is only a matter of fool. Is that so? I have the right to read sentimental novels and cry. But when I want to write, it becomes an object of derision. Funny, isn’t it? A woman whose main job is to do the ironing and washing up wants to write! How foolish! Besides, you think she cannot succeed, don’t you? You can’t imagine her fingers touching on the keys of a typewriter because they are for cleaning vegetables and mending a rip. Funny, isn’t it? All accomplishments are for you… To have a master degree… To study in a laboratory… To become a giant business person… All for you… You can have dreams… But I can only become a part of your dreams… I can’t have dreams… The ideal present for a woman is a pair of dish-gloves or a kitchen 343 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo apron…Those presents just suitable for my actual jobs… Or a brilliant ring… For you want your servant ornamented… And all these are not funny… But a typewriter? It is funny. I do not seem funny when I am doing the cleaning; but I do when I am writing… (Köksal, 1994, p. 175) Nora’s story is one which tells us her struggle to survive against her husband’s ego-centerism. Whenever he judges Nora, he puts himself in the center and brings his ideas, feelings and realities, which are also the realities of the dominant patriarchal culture, to the fore. This egocentrism determines Nora’s role in the family, and naturally in society, as the minor. He has a conservative theory on women’s role in the family and thus in the society. Also he shows his real ides in the guise of some ‘pregnant words’ like ‘extravagant’, ‘spendthrift’, ‘That’s like a woman’, ‘reckless’, ‘odd little soul’, ‘skylark’, ‘featherbrained’ etc. Of course, the discourse Helmer uses when talking to Nora should not be excluded from what we call ‘pressures upon women exerted by man’. Both Güzin and Nora get exposed to a humiliating, reductionist, sexist, mocking, authoritative, destructive, dictating, dehumanizing, intolerant, hypocritic, oppressive, fatalist and a discriminative language: HELMER: Nora!... The same little featherhead! Suppose, now, that I borrowed fifty pounds today, and you spent it all in the Christmas week, and then on New Year's Eve a slate fell on my head and killed me, and--Nora. Oh! don't say such horrid things. (4) HELMER: Don't disturb me… Bought, did you say? All these things? Has my little spendthrift been wasting money again? (4) HELMER: What are little people called that are always wasting money? (5) HELMER: You are an odd little soul. Very like your father. You always find some new way of wheedling money out of me, and, as soon as you have got it, it seems to melt in your hands. You never know where it has gone. Still, one must take you as you are. It is in the blood; for indeed it is true that you can inherit these things, Nora. (7) HELMER: Nice?--because you do as your husband wishes? (35) HELMER: Have you really the courage to open up that question again? (35) HELMER: My little Nora, there is an important difference between your father and me. Your father's reputation as a public official was not above suspicion. Mine is, and I hope it will continue to be so, as long as I hold my office. (36) HELMER: My dear Nora, I can forgive the anxiety you are in, although really it is an insult to me. It is, indeed. Isn't it an insult to think that I should be afraid of a starving quill-driver's vengeance? But I forgive you nevertheless, because it is such eloquent witness to your great love for me… And that is as it should be, my own darling Nora. Come what will, you may be sure I shall have both courage and strength if they be needed. You will see I am man enough to take everything upon myself. (37) HELMER: Doesn't she look remarkably pretty? Everyone thought so at the dance. But she is terribly self-willed, this sweet little person. What are we to do with her? You will hardly believe that I had almost to bring her away by force. (56) HELMER: Why shouldn't I look at my dearest treasure?--at all the beauty that is mine, all my very own? HELMER: Just listen!--little Nora talking about scientific investigations! (59) HELMER: Little featherbrain!--are you thinking of the next already? (59) HELMER: Miserable creature--what have you done? NORA: Let me go. You shall not suffer for my sake. You shall not take it upon yourself. HELMER: No tragic airs, please. (Locks the hall door.) Here you shall stay and give me an explanation. Do you understand what you have done? Answer me! Do you understand what you have done? (62) HELMER: What a horrible awakening! All these eight years--she who was my joy and pride--a hypocrite, a liar--worse, worse--a criminal! The unutterable ugliness of it all!--For shame! For shame! (NORA is silent and looks steadily at him. He stops in front of her.) I ought to have suspected that something of the sort would happen. I ought to have foreseen it. All your father's want of principle--be silent!--all your father's want of principle has come out in you. No religion, no morality, no sense of duty--. How I am punished for having winked at what he did! I did it for your sake, and this is how you repay me. (62-63) 344 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo HELMER: … And I must sink to such miserable depths because of a thoughtless woman! (63) HELMER. You have loved me as a wife ought to love her husband. Only you had not sufficient knowledge to judge of the means you used. But do you suppose you are any the less dear to me, because you don't understand how to act on your own responsibility? No, no; only lean on me; I will advise you and direct you. I should not be a man if this womanly helplessness did not just give you a double attractiveness in my eyes. You must not think anymore about the hard things I said in my first moment of consternation, when I thought everything was going to overwhelm me. I have forgiven you, Nora; I swear to you I have forgiven you. (64-65) NORA. No, that is just it. You don't understand me, and I have never understood you either--before tonight. No, you mustn't interrupt me. You must simply listen to what I say. Torvald, this is a settling of accounts. HELMER: What do you mean by that? NORA: Isn't there one thing that strikes you as strange in our sitting here like this? HELMER: What is that? NORA: We have been married now eight years. Does it not occur to you that this is the first time we two, you and I, husband and wife, have had a serious conversation? HELMER: What do you mean by serious? NORA: In all these eight years--longer than that--from the very beginning of our acquaintance, we have never exchanged a word on any serious subject. HELMER: Was it likely that I would be continually and forever telling you about worries that you could not help me to bear? NORA: I am not speaking about business matters. I say that we have never sat down in earnest together to try and get at the bottom of anything. (66) HELMER: Playtime shall be over, and lesson-time shall begin. NORA: Whose lessons? Mine, or the children's? HELMER: Both yours and the children's, my darling Nora. NORA: Alas, Torvald, you are not the man to educate me into being a proper wife for you. HELMER: And you can say that! NORA: And I--how am I fitted to bring up the children? HELMER: Nora! NORA: Didn't you say so yourself a little while ago--that you dare not trust me to bring them up? (67) … FAZIL: Never mind. All your sufferings will vanish soon. We will have a lot of money, and you will not have to work then. You will cast your resignation in the director’s teeth then. Get it? Then you will sit home and look after your children…(Köksal 1994:135) FAZIL: That’s the natural order. I can’t do anything. You have to do what other women do. (Köksal, 1994, p. 178) In Nora, Ibsen depicts the full glory of a woman who finally finds herself in opposition to all social norms. Leaving behind what she has collected and saved until that time, Nora walks away from the security of her household and from all traditionally sacred values of marriage and motherhood to face an uncertain but compelling future of self-becoming (Schwarez 1975). Nora escapes to an unknown and unknowable future from a sterilized doll’s house where she is not allowed to grow up as a woman and individual. This escape, in a sense, is a silent criticism of the society as well: Nora wants to see which idea is right: her idea or the society’s and naturally the man’s idea. She is blamed for being unaware of the burden and troubles of life and of being irresponsible. HELMER: You talk like a child. You don't understand the conditions of the world in which you live. NORA: No, I don't. But now I am going to try. I am going to see if I can make out who is right, the world or I. HELMER: You are ill, Nora; you are delirious; I almost think you are out of your mind. 345 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo NORA: I have never felt my mind so clear and certain as tonight. Nevertheless, she is fully aware of the heavy burden of being a woman in a man’s dominated world. The roles attached her by this society evaporate her natural identity. In Güzün’s case, one can say that she is too matured to have an identity of her own. She does not live her own life rather is forced to live her husband, her daughter and her son’s lives. Unlike Nora, Güzin surrenders herself to the oppressions: GÜZĐN: (to her daughter) Günseli, I thought… well... You should accept that job in that laboratory… GÜNSELĐ: No, mum. I can’t carry on with it after I have born my baby in any case… It requires a great deal of responsibility to work there… GÜZĐN: But you have to… If you are to promote in your profession… Just accept it… You are much more talented than others… I will look after the baby… GÜNSELĐ: No, mum… We have already hired a baby-sitter… we will get along with it… GÜZĐN: No…I want you to go to the whole length in your job… Don’t give in… I don’t want you to cut short your career. GÜNSELĐ: But mum… GÜZĐN: Accept it… I will look after my grand baby… I will get retired any way… The vast difference between appearance and reality in Nora’s life drives us to the idea that women have two worlds: one is the world imposed on them by their husbands, if they are married, or by the society, the other is their inner world which is a constant conflict with the first one. They are suspended between these two worlds. The same oppressive and evaporating impact can be said to be implemented on Güzin. She has to give up many of her dreams and expectations from life. At the beginning of the play she says she is going to become an engineer, not get married and lead a free life. Soon we see her as a married woman with two children and a boring job getting drowned in routines. Our heroines are not allowed to hold tight onto their dreams. The two women characters strongly feel ‘time strain’ throughout the plays as well. Nora’s case comes from her past involvements. Her past, which hangs above her head like the sword of Democles, deeply shapes her present. As for Güzin, she is also a product of her past and present. The roles imposed on her even at an early age, harsh working conditions for women, social constraints, then familial duties and responsibilities make Güzin appear as a desperate woman just at the beginning of the play. The present time also puts pressure on Güzün in the form of her colleagues, her husband and children’s expectations of her retirement. Güzin can be considered to be a little luckier when compared to Nora: both have deferred their dreams, but Güzin, with the help of an old friend, has the ability and opportunity to fulfill her most ambitious dream; to be a writer. Unfortunately, Nora looses all her dreams and expectations. From here, a burning question awaits its answer: is there an after-life for these women? (Ondul 2007) The answer is not clear; but for Nora, it seems impossible or very difficult to lead an afterlife. Similarly, for Güzin, it seems to be difficult but not impossible for she keeps at least one of her ambitions still warm and alive: to be a writer. In A Doll’s House , Ibsen guides and haunts for the emancipation of women (Schwarez 1975). Koksal tries to do the same in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği. Güzin’s arduous struggle to exist as a woman in an environment surrounded by patriarchal principles is no less striking than Nora’s. For some time, both Nora and Güzin think principles or orders might bring happiness. When Güzin says “I know principles do not make us happy”, she has already understood that the society or the world needs reorganizing. This might come as a counter-attack, perhaps not launched directly; but at least Güzin reorganizes her inner world. Similarly, Ibsen’s Nora realizes or individualizes herself just by opposing the social rules. For some, this is a glory because of Nora’s slamming the door to the face of her husband and, in the name of her husband, to the society. Güzin’s final decision can also be considered to be a glory, for she says enough is enough, which can be called an uprising. Both writers, just because of the societies into which they were born, in which they grew, just because of their interests and sensitivities, dealt with the oppressed, isolated members of the society, those who did not live in easy circumstance. Actually, to bring such characters to the stage and to show other people that somewhere in the world some are suffering is the responsibility of literature. Both Ibsen and Köksal felt this responsibility in the depths of their hearts. 346 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Ibsen, H. (1879) A Doll’s House. Translated by Sharp and Aveling, Adline Pres, London 1958 Köksal, Ü. (1994) Toplu Oyunları 2; Kadın Dörtlemesi. Mitos Boyut Yayınları, Đstanbul. Lord, H.F. (1882) The Life of Henrik Ibsen. Cited in Egan (1972). Henrik Ibsen: The Critical Heritage, Routledge, NY. (p. 59) New American Standard Bible 1995, The Lockman Foundation, La Habra, California, USA Öndül, S. (2007) Is There An Afterlife For Ibsen’s Women? Tiyatro Araştırmaları Dergisi, 23:2007 • ISSN: 1300-1523 Schwarez V. (1975) Ibsen's Nora: the Promise and the Trap Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 7, 1975. (p.3) Stark, R. (2007). Sociology, Tenth Edition. Baylor University. Thomson Wadsworth, California. The Holy Bible: Containing the Old and New Testaments with the Apocryphal / Deuterocanonical books. New York: Collins, 1989. Print. New Revised Standard Vers. 347 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 716 Title A name given to the resource The Unbearable Burden of Being A Woman: A Comparative Analysis of the Female Characters in A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen and in Ademin Kaburga Kemiği by Ülker Köksal Author Author Turgut, Fehmi Abstract A summary of the resource. Literature creates its own universal language. This language has always become the voice of mankind at large. Henrik Ibsen, a Scandinavian author living in the 19th century and Ülker Köksal, a Turkish playwright living in the 20th century depicted women characters confronted with social pressures and patriarchal conformity. Despite the fact that Ibsen and Ülker belong to different traditions, different cultures and different periods, there are striking parallels between these writers in their approach to the treatment of statues of women in a patriarchal society. This study aims at comparing female characters as represented in Ibsen’s A Doll’s House and Ülker’s Ademin Kaburga Kemiği and disclosing important points of contact between these two plays concentrating exclusively on the issue of the unbearable pressure and burden of being a woman in a man-dominated world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)