45 10 3494 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 792 Title A name given to the resource Benefits of Rubrics in Oral Assessment Author Author Piric, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. What is the purpose of evaluation? Do we only grade our students because they have to have a grade at the end of the term, or does evaluation reflect other aspects of our jobs? How do we remain objective while we grade out students’ performances? Is the grading transparent? This paper will draw a parallel between the purpose of assessment, objective and transparent grading, as well as meeting the learning outcomes, and the use of rubrics to show the benefits of this authentic assessment tool. First, the paper will address the purpose of evaluation and explain how the evaluation of the students’ performances can reflect our success as teachers. It will look into the validity and reliability of tests, touching upon norm- and criterion- referenced tests, and provide the readers with some tips on how to use the learning outcomes and standards set by the school or the Ministry of Education to write the lesson objectives. Then, the paper will point out the importance of fair grading and how rubrics can serve not only as tools for objective evaluation of oral exams, but also as proof of transparency for stakeholders such as parents, school administration, or the Ministry of Education. Finally, in a step-by-step process, the paper will instruct teachers on how to create their own rubrics and how to use them to grade the students’ performances in an oral exam. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3556 Title A name given to the resource BENEFITS OF USING COMPUTERS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL CLASSROOMS AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS ARISING FROM IT Author Author Daşdemir, Yavuz Abstract A summary of the resource. There are many sources that may prove to be beneficial for primary school students learning English and certainly technology may be considered as one of the most important sources. While mentioning about using technology in ELT, computer is the first product that comes to mind. In this paper, we will talk about the good sides of using computers during the lessons of English and the potential “bad sides” of that may arise at the time of teaching. Our concern in this work is whether computers as technological devices really help students learn English well. Along with this point the question whether there are any problems students face and teachers are unaware of in computer assisted language teching is dealt with. For achieving this, the comparison of two different classrooms in two different schools is given. Of these two classrooms one is devoid of even the simplest technological devices and the other fully equipped with all technological devices available. Both schools are located at the same city in different districts in the city of Erzurum, a town in Eastern Turkey. The results of this comparison will be discussed in detail. Keywords: Teaching, Computer Technology in ELT, ELT Technological Devices, Primary School ELT, Benefits of Using Computers in ELT. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3fc105aea12131d845ad22987b837106.docx 6e74f0209730a0fd28eb2ec8640bb11e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6ff972d52451456efd430eb2e8e215d3.pdf 1f7147b6bf4e122308ede420a80acdb2 PDF Text Text BERDİ KERBABAYEV’İN “ÖTEN GÜNLER” ROMANINDA TÜRKMEN TOPLUMUNA YÖNELİK SOSYOLOJİK BİR ÇÖZÜMLEME Ahmet GÖKÇİMEN Atatürk Üniversitesi, Edebiyat Fakültesi, Çağdaş Türk Lehçeleri ve Edebiyatları Bölümü, Erzurum / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Berdi Kerbabayev, Öten Günler, Türkmen Toplumu, Sosyolojik Çözümleme. ÖZET Berdi Kerbabayev (1984-1974), sosyalist dönem Türkmen edebiyatında nazım ve nesir türlerinde eserler kaleme alan önemli isimlerden biridir. O; şiir, hikâye, inceleme ve roman türlerinde birçok eser verir ve eserlerinden bazıları yaşadığı dönem için ilk numuneler kabul edilir. Örneğin yazar, 1940’ta “Aygıtlı Edim” adlı yapıtıyla ilk sosyalist gerçekçi eseri, 1974’te “Öten Günler” ile de ilk otobiyografik romanı vücuda getirmiştir. Öten Günler, yazarın yaşlılık devrinde kaleme aldığı bir eseri olmasının yanı sıra son romanı ve yapıtıdır. Bu eserde Kerbabayev, doğumu 1894’ten diğer bir deyişle çocukluğundan 1924 yılına kadar yaşadığı devri konu edinir. 1894-1924 yılları arasında yazarın başından geçen hadiseler (mesela doğduğu coğrafya, ailesi ve eğitimi) ve tanık olduğu vakalar, ustaca bir anlatımla başkahraman Mırat üzerinden aktarılır. Öten Günler, 1884-1924 yılları arasında özellikle eğitim, bozulan dinî müesseseler, siyasal yapı ve toplumda yaşanan kültürel değişimi beyan eden bir edebî vesikadır. Bu incelemede, Kerbabayev’in gözünden Öten Günler romanında verilen Türkmen halkına ait bilgiler, sosyolojik olarak 1. Kültürel Yapı, 2. Dinsel Yapı, 3. Ekonomik Yapı ve 4. Siyasal Yapı başlıkları altında incelenmiş, büyük değişimlerin yaşandığı devre ayna tutan ve çağın tanığı eserin toplumsal arka planı ortaya konmuştur. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1852 Title A name given to the resource BERDİ KERBABAYEV’İN “ÖTEN GÜNLER” ROMANINDA TÜRKMEN TOPLUMUNA YÖNELİK SOSYOLOJİK BİR ÇÖZÜMLEME Author Author GOKCIMEN, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Berdi Kerbabayev, Öten Günler, Türkmen Toplumu, Sosyolojik Çözümleme. ÖZET Berdi Kerbabayev (1984-1974), sosyalist dönem Türkmen edebiyatında nazım ve nesir türlerinde eserler kaleme alan önemli isimlerden biridir. O; şiir, hikâye, inceleme ve roman türlerinde birçok eser verir ve eserlerinden bazıları yaşadığı dönem için ilk numuneler kabul edilir. Örneğin yazar, 1940’ta “Aygıtlı Edim” adlı yapıtıyla ilk sosyalist gerçekçi eseri, 1974’te “Öten Günler” ile de ilk otobiyografik romanı vücuda getirmiştir. Öten Günler, yazarın yaşlılık devrinde kaleme aldığı bir eseri olmasının yanı sıra son romanı ve yapıtıdır. Bu eserde Kerbabayev, doğumu 1894’ten diğer bir deyişle çocukluğundan 1924 yılına kadar yaşadığı devri konu edinir. 1894-1924 yılları arasında yazarın başından geçen hadiseler (mesela doğduğu coğrafya, ailesi ve eğitimi) ve tanık olduğu vakalar, ustaca bir anlatımla başkahraman Mırat üzerinden aktarılır. Öten Günler, 1884-1924 yılları arasında özellikle eğitim, bozulan dinî müesseseler, siyasal yapı ve toplumda yaşanan kültürel değişimi beyan eden bir edebî vesikadır. Bu incelemede, Kerbabayev’in gözünden Öten Günler romanında verilen Türkmen halkına ait bilgiler, sosyolojik olarak 1. Kültürel Yapı, 2. Dinsel Yapı, 3. Ekonomik Yapı ve 4. Siyasal Yapı başlıkları altında incelenmiş, büyük değişimlerin yaşandığı devre ayna tutan ve çağın tanığı eserin toplumsal arka planı ortaya konmuştur. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/925f4c0af85a2c7bcd3373fd6ba5b2df.docx 116bb534fc3c8ebc37bb79f806a3da6f https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/171b1e9c79569e406ab40cd30d3cd5e5.pdf 61963ffd28a227c14263a09ffe5fdaad PDF Text Text Pregledni nauĉni rad Doc. dr. Alena Huseinbegović Pravni fakultet Univerziteta „Dţemal Bijedić“ u Mostaru BESPLATNA PRAVNA POMOĆ U GRAĐANSKIM STVARIMA U PRAVNOM SISTEMU BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE Sažetak: Besplatna pravna pomoć je zakonskim odredbama ureĊen naĉin ostvarivanja prava fiziĉkog lica na jednak pristup pravdi pred sudom i drugim organima, ĉije troškove u cijelosti ili djelimiĉno snosi organ za pruţanje besplatne pravne pomoći. U demokratskim društvima mogućnost efikasne zaštite ugroţenih i povrijeĊenih prava osoba jedan je od osnovnih uslova za ostvarivanje principa vladavine prava i prava na praviĉno suĊenje, koje je garantovano mnogim meĊunarodnim instrumentima o ljudskim pravima. Autorica u radu, primjenom komparativne metode, obraĊuje institut besplatne pravne pomoći, te istiĉe odgovarajuće prijedloge de lege ferenda. Ključne riječi: besplatna pravna pomoć, praviĉno suĊenje, meĊunarodni izvori 1. Uvodna razmatranja Pravna pomoć podrazumijeva efikasnu pravnu zaštitu, odnosno jednak pristup sudovima i drugim drţavnim organima bez diskriminacije. Ostvarivanje prava na pristup pravosuĊu (engl. access to justice), kao temeljnog ljudskog prava, zavisi od dostupnosti pravne pomoći svim graĊanima, bez obzira na njihov materijalni i socijalni status.1 S toga je postojanje efikasnog sistema besplatne pravne pomoći jedan od naĉina realizacije prava na pristup sudu, te jedan od osnovnih jemaca ostvarivanja ljudskih prava.2 Niko ne smije finansijskim preprekama biti sprijeĉen u svom nastojanju da ostvari ili odbrani svoje pravo pred bilo kojim sudom koji postupa u graĊanskim, trgovaĉkim, 1 U komentarima i izvodima iz prakse Evropskog suda za ljudska prava (dalje: Sud), te u pravnoj literaturi, kao elementi prava na praviĉno suĊenje navode se sljedeći: pravo na pristup sudu (access to court), pravo na suĊenje u razumnom roku (reasonable time), pravo na pravnu pomoć (legal aid and advice), pravo na procesnu ravnopravnost (equality of arms, „jednakost oruţja“), pravo na javno i kontradiktorno suĊenje (public hearing), pravo na saslušanja (fair hearing), pravo na dokaz (right to proof), pravo na javno objavljivanje presude (public pronouncement of judgments), pravo na sud ustanovljen zakonom (tribunal established by law), pravo na nezavisnost i nepristrasnost u suĊenju (impartiality and independence), pravo na efikasno izvršenje presuda (effective enforcement), te zabrana arbitrarnog postupanja (arbitrariness). Detaljnije: Bubić, S., Neki aspekti prava na pošteno suđenje u građanskim predmetima, Pristup pravdi u Bosni i Hercegovini, besplatna pravna pomoć, poseban osvrt na Hercegovaĉko-neretvanski kanton, Centar za ljudska prava, Mostar, 2011, str. 86. 2 Boţić Krstanović, Lj. et al., Koliko jednakosti, Praćenje provedbe Zakona o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći i Zakona o suzbijanju diskriminacije, Izvještaj za 2012. godinu, Centar za mir, nenasilje i ljudska prava – Osijek, Osijek, 2013, str. 15. 201 �upravnim, socijalnim ili poreznim stvarima. Propuštanje reguliranja besplatne pravne pomoći za posljedicu bi imalo evidentno kršenje ljudskih prava, jer bi odreĊenom krugu osoba, lošeg finansijskog statusa, bilo uskraćeno pravo na praviĉno suĊenje, odnosno pravo na pristup sudu.3 Besplatna pravna pomoć, osim snošenja ili participiranja u predujmljivanju i snošenju troškova pravnog zastupanja, obuhvaća i pravo na pravnu pomoć u vezi s drugim troškovima (sudske takse, troškove fiziĉkog dolaska stranaka i svjedoka na sud, troškovi izvoĊenja dokaza, troškovi prijevoda i sl).4 U Bosni i Hercegovini (dalje: BiH) veliki broj ljudi ne mogu ostvariti pravo na slobodan pristup sudovima (ali i drugim organima) zbog lošeg imovnog stanja, posebno ako se ima u vidu da se stranke ĉesto suoĉavaju s kompliciranim, neizvjesnim, dugotrajnim i materijalno iscrpljujućim sudskim postupcima.5 U tom smislu, uvaţavajući zahtjev jednakosti svih graĊana u ostvarivanju pravne zaštite, uviĊa se nuţnost uvoĊenja instituta za pruţanje besplatne pravne pomoći dijelu stanovništva kojima je subjektivno pravo povrijeĊeno ili ugroţeno, a koji nisu u mogućnosti snositi troškove voĊenja postupka.6 2. Međunarodni pravni izvori u oblasti besplatne pravne pomoći Pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć zajamĉeno je razliĉitim meĊunarodnim dokumentima, od kojih je najvaţniji Evropska konvencija za zaštitu ljudskih prava i temeljnih sloboda i njeni protokoli (dalje: Konvencija).7 Odredba ĉl. 6. st. 3. taĉ. c. Konvencije propisuje minimalna prava u postupku, tj. osoba optuţena za kriviĉno djelo ima pravo da se brani sama ili uz pomoć branitelja kojeg sama izabere, kao i da dobije besplatnu pravnu pomoć ukoliko ne 3 Vidjeti presudu Golder protiv Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva, presuda Europskog suda od 21. 2. 1975., Serija A, br. 18., str. 36. HARLAND, Ch; ROCHE, R; STRAUSS, E., Komentar Evropske konvencije o ljudskim pravima prema praksi u Bosni i Hercegovini i Strasbourgu, Sarajevo, 2003., str. 128. (dalje: HARLAND). 4 Vidi: Ţ. Kauzlarić, „Naĉelo pruţanja pravne pomoći neukoj stranci“, Pravo i porezi, Zagreb, br. 9/2007, str. 54. 5 U Bosni i Hercegovini oko 41,5% stanovništva ţivi u siromaštvu, ĉime se polovina njenih graĊana suoĉava sa nekim oblikom socijalne iskljuĉenosti, s tim da se gotovo jedna ĉetvrtina stanovništva dodatno nalazi na ivici siromaštva. Vidi: UNDP Misija u BiH, Izvještaj o humanom razvoju za 2007. godinu: Socijalna ukljuĉenost u BiH i Strategija socijalne iskljuĉenosti za BiH, Vijeće ministara BiH, 2010. Navedeno prema: Demir, E., Po kojoj cijeni? Sudski troškovi, pristup pravdi i besplatna pravna pomoć u Bosni i Hercegovini, Ljudska prava i pravosuĊe u Bosni i Hercegovini, Izvještaj o provedni preporuka u sektoru pravosuĊa u BiH iz Univerzalnog periodiĉnog pregleda Vijeća za ljudska prava Ujedinjenih nacija, 2012-2013, Mreţa pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini, 2012-2013, str. 47. U Bosni i Hercegovini oko 170.000 djece ţivi u siromaštvu (romske zajednice, raseljena djeca, porodice s troje ili više djece). Vidi: Oko 170 hiljada djece u BiH ţivi u siromaštvu, http://slobodnadalmacija.hr/BiH/tabid/68/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/109432/Default.aspx (preuzeto: 1.4.2015. godine). 6 Imajući u vidu dopušteni opseg ĉlanka, u radu ćemo se osvrnuti samo na neke pravne propise kojima je ureĊen, odnosno kojima se planira urediti sistem beplatne pravne pomoći u graĊanskim stvarima. 7 Konvencija je objavljena u „Sluţbenom listu RBiH“, posebno izdanje – meĊunarodni ugovori 2, br. 5/96. 202 �raspolaţe sredstvima da plati branitelja, kako to nalaţu interesi pravde. S obzirom da Konvencija izriĉito ne odreĊuje pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć u graĊanskim stvarima, kao poseban izvor evropskog prava za graĊanske sporove primjenjuju se odluke Suda. U tom smislu, posebno istiĉemo sluĉaj Airey protiv Irske u kojem je Sud ustanovio da je odbijanjem pruţanja besplatne pravne pomoći siromašnoj ţeni koja je traţila razvod od nasilnog muţa prekršio njezino pravo pristupa sudu zajamĉeno ĉl. 6. st. 1. Konvencije.8 Sud je zakljuĉio da je u konkretnom sluĉaju povrijeĊeno pravo na pristup sudu jer stranka, bez struĉnog zastupnika kojeg nije mogla priuštiti, nije imala gotovo nikakvog izgleda u parnici. Na ovaj naĉin je pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć (za one koji pravnu pomoć ne mogu osigurati sami) u praksi Suda prošireno i na sporove graĊanske naravi, ako je zbog nedostatka pravne pomoći osoba bitno ograniĉena u sposobnosti da djelotvorno brani svoje pravo i interese.9 U skladu s tumaĉenjem prakse Suda drţave imaju konkretnu obavezu osigurati praktiĉan i efikasan pristup pravosuĊu ili pruţanjem besplatne pravne pomoći ili pojednostavljenjem postupka, kako bi osobe mogle same voditi svoje predmete, odnosno drţave moraju otkloniti sve ekonomske prepreke za osobe s ograniĉenim ekonomskim sredstvima u ostvarivanju ili odbrani njihovih prava.10 Prema odredbe ĉl. 6. st. 3. taĉ. c. Konvencije drţava moţe osigurati pomoć pravnika kada je takva pomoć neophodna za djelotvoran pristup sudu, bilo zbog toga što je pravno zastupanje obvezno, kao što je sluĉaj u domaćem zakonodavstvu odreĊenih drţava ugovorenica za razliĉite vrste parnica, bilo zbog sloţenosti procedure ili sluĉaja. Osim toga, drţava moţe ako to smatra odgovarajućim i opravdanim, izabrati ukidanje obaveznog pravnog predstavljanja i osigurati pojednostavljenu proceduru, tako da efikasan pristup sudu više ne zahtijeva pravnu pomoć.11 8 Presuda Suda Airey protiv Irske, od 9. 10. 1979. Izvod iz sudske prakse Europskog Suda za ljudska prava Vijeća Europe, Fond otvoreno društvo BiH, Sarajevo, 2001, str. 468 – 470. 9 Osim navedene odluke Suda, kao poseban meĊunarodni pravni izvor primijenjuju se i sljedeće sudske odluke: opća obaveza drţava potpisnica da osiguraju pravo jednakosti podnositelja pred zakonom – Artico v. Italy (od 13.5.1980., Serije A, br. 37); obaveza podnositelja zahtjeva za besplatnu pravnu pomoć da se samo pozove na nedostatak materijalnih sredstava bez obaveze dokazivanja izvan svake sumnje – Pakelli v. Federal Reublic of Germany (od 24.4.1983., Serije A, br. 64); postojanje povrede prava na besplatnu pravnu pomoć u sluĉaju kada advokatu koji je imenovan po sluţbenoj duţnosti nije osigurano dovoljno vremena za pripremu – Goddi v. Italy (od 9.4.1983., Serije A, br. 76); obaveza drţava potpisnica da osiguraju besplatnu pravnu pomoć u svim stepenima postupka – Granger v. U.K. (od 28.3.1990., Serije A, br. 174) i Boner v. U.K. ( 28.10.1994., Serije A, br. 300-B); zahtjev drţave za povrat već odobrenih sredstava, utrošenih za branitelja po sluţbenoj duţnosti ne predstavlja povredu prava na besplatnu pravnu pomoć – Croissant v. Germany (od 25.9.1992., Serije A, br. 237-B). Tako i detaljnije: Kauzlarić, Ţ., Besplatna pravna pomoć, Pravo u gospodarstvu, ĉasopis za gospodarsko-pravnu teoriju i praksu, Hrvatski savez udruge pravnika u gospodarstvu, Zagreb, 2006, str. 403; http://echr.coe.int/echr (preuzeto 6.4.2015. godine) 10 Šire o tome: Kotlo, R., Pravni okvir pristupa pravdi – Besplatne pravne pomoći u BiH, sa posebnim osvrtom na Hercegovačko-neretvanski kanton i evropske standarde , Pristup pravdi u Bosni i Hercegovini, besplatna pravna pomoć, poseban osvrt na Hercegovaĉko – neretvanski kanton, Centar za ljudska prava, Mostar, 2011., str. 33 – 43. 11 U jednoj neobjavljenoj odluci iz 1982. godine, Komisija je zakljuĉila da, mada je prihvaćeno da bi namjerna radnja zahtijevala pomoć advokata, odbijanje pravne pomoći nije predstavljalo onemogućavanje pristupa sudu, pošto argument švedskih vlasti za to odbijanje, da podnositeljica 203 �Haška konferencija za meĊunarodno privatno pravo12 besplatnu pravnu pomoć odreĊuje u kontekstu ujednaĉavanja prava na pristup pravosuĊu za domaće drţavljane i strance. Kao posebno znaĉajne konvencije, koje obavezuju BiH, istiĉu se: Konvencija o graĊanskom postupku (od 1.3.1954. godine),13 Konvencija o olakšanju meĊunarodnog pristupa sudovima (od 25.10.1980. godine).14 Prema ĉl. 20. Konvencije o graĊanskom postupku, drţavljanima svake od drţava ugovornica bit će pruţena besplatna sudska pomoć kao i domaćim drţavljanima, saobrazno zakonima drţave u kojoj se traţi besplatna sudska pomoć. Prema Konvenciji o olakšanju meĊunarodnog pristupa sudovima, pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć u graĊanskim i trgovaĉkim predmetima, osim drţavljana jedne od drţava ugovornica, imaju i osobe sa redovnim boravištem u nekoj od drţava ugovornica, pod istim uslovima kao da su i sami drţavljani te drţave. Konvencija o pravima djeteta iz 1989. godine15 promoviše pravo na posebnu zaštitu i pomoć drţave djetetu trajno lišenom porodiĉne sredine, kao i mjere koje treba da preduzme vlast radi zaštite djeteta u sudskim i drugim postupcima.16 Pravo na praviĉno suĊenje garantuje i MeĊunarodni pakt o graĊanskim i politiĉkim pravima, sa pripadajućim meĊunarodnim Opcionim protokolima, kojim je predviĊeno da su svi jednaki pred sudovima i da svako ima pravo da zakonom odreĊen nadleţan, nezavisan i nepristrasan sud odluĉi o osnovanosti svake kriviĉne optuţbe koja je protiv njega podignuta ili o sporu o njegovim pravima i obavezama graĊanske prirode.17 predstavke nije imala opravdan interes da se njen predmet obradi, nije bio proizvoljan. Tako: HARLAND, op. cit., str. 394-396. 12 Vidi: Akti i dokumenti 14 sesije (1980), tom IV, Sudska kooperacija (ISBN 90 12 04 344, 438 str.) 13 „Sluţbeni list FNRJ“- Dodatak, broj 6/62. 14 „Sluţbeni list SFRJ“- MeĊunarodni ugovori, broj 4/88. Pored prednje navedenih, postoje i sljedeće konvencije: Konvencija o nadleţnosti izabranog foruma kod meĊunarodne kupoprodaje robe (1958), Konvencija o priznanju i izvršenju odluka koje se odnose na obavezu izdrţavanja prema djeci (1958), Konvencija o ukidanju potrebe legalizacije stranih javnih isprava (1961), Konvencija o dostavljanju sudskih i vansudskih akata u graĊanskim i trgovaĉkim stvarima (1965), Konvencija o priznavanju odluka o razvodu i rastavi (1970), Konvencija o priznavanju i izvršenju stranih presuda u graĊanskoj i trgovaĉkoj materiji (1971), Konvencija o priznavanju i izvršenju odluka koje se odnose na izdrţavanje (1973), Konvencija o pristupu pravosuĊu na meĊunarodnom planu (1980), Konvencija o zaštiti djece i saradnji u materiji meĊunarodnog usvojenja (1993), Konvencija o nadleţnosti, mjerodavnom pravu, priznanju i izvršenju odluka koje se odnose na odgovornost roditelja i mjere zaštite djece (1996). Tako: Muminović, E., Procesno međunarodno privatno pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu, Sarajevo, str. 7. 15 Navedeni dokument ratificiran je u Bosni i Hercegovini i sastavni je dio Aneksa I Ustava BiH – Dodatni sporazumi o ljudskim pravima koji će se primjenjivati u BIH. 16 Konvencije znaĉajne za zaštitu djece, koje obavezuju Bosnu i Hercegovinu, su i: Konvencija o graĊanskopravnim aspektima meĊunarodne otmice djece (Hag, 25.10.1980. godine - „Sluţbeni list SFRJ“- ,meĊunarodni ugovori, broj 7/91), te Konvencija o ostvarivanju alimentacionih zahtjeva u inostranstvu (Njujork, 20.6.1956. godine – „Sluţbeni list FNRJ“ – Dodatak, br. 2/60. 17 Ĉl. 14. (1) MeĊunarodnog pakta o graĊanskim i politiĉkim pravima (Usvojen na skupštini Ujedinjenih naroda 16. 12. 1966. godine – rezolucija br. 2200 A/XXI, a stupio na snagu 23. 3. 1976. godine, dalje: Pakt ). SFRJ je ratifikovala Pakt zakonom od 30. 1. 1971. godine („Sluţbeni list SFRJ“, br. 7/1971). Uz Pakt su usvojena i dva protokola i to: Opcioni protokol uz MeĊunarodni pakt o graĊanskim i politiĉkim pravima koji je stupio na snagu 23. 3. 1976. godine i 204 �Ĉlan 47. Povelje o osnovnim pravima EU (Nica, 17. decembar 2000) propisuje da će pravna pomoć biti dostupna osobama kojima nedostaju materijalna sredstva, sve dok je ta pomoć neophodna kako bi se osigurao efektivan pristup pravdi. Ostali dokumenti Vijeća Evrope kojima se ureĊuje pitanje pruţanja pravne pomoći u EU su: Rezolucija (76) 5 o pruţanju pravne pomoći u graĊanskim, komercijalnim i administrativnim stvarima, Rezolucija (78) 8 o pruţanju pravne pomoći i savjeta, Preporuka (81) 7 Komiteta ministara drţavama ĉlanicama o mjerama koje omogućavaju pristup sudu, Preporuka (84) 5 Komiteta ministara drţavama ĉlanicama o naĉelima graĊanskog postupka za unaprijeĊenje ostvarivanja pravde, Preporuka (93) 1 Komiteta ministara drţavama ĉlanicama o efektivnom pristupu pravdi za siromašne, Preporuka (2000) 21 o slobodi obavljanja advokature.18 U Evropskoj uniji je prisutno i pravo na pravnu pomoć van zemlje boravišta, koje je utvrĊeno Evropskim sporazumom o dostavljanju molbi za pravnu pomoć.19 Ovaj sporazum propisuje da svaki pojedinac koji ima boravište na teritoriji jedne od zemalja potpisnica, a koji ţeli predati zahtjev za pravnu pomoć u graĊanskim, privrednim ili upravnim postupcima na teritoriji druge drţave potpisnice, moţe predati zahtjev u zemlji u kojoj boravi, a obaveza je te zemlje da zahtjev proslijedi onoj drţavi u kojoj se pravo ostvaruje. Pored navedenog sporazuma, Konvencija o meĊunarodnom pristupu pravdi,20 koja je potpisana u Hagu 1980. godine, predviĊa dostavu zahtjeva za pravnu pomoć izmeĊu potpisnica u formi koja je meĊu njima dogovorena, te da drţavljani i graĊani s boravištem u zemlji koja je potpisnica Konvencije imaju pravo na pravnu pomoć u drugoj drţavi potpisnici pod istim uvjetima kao da imaju boravište u toj zemlji. Ovu konvenciju nisu ratificirale sve ĉlanice Unije. Bosna i Hercegovina je preuzela ovu konvenciju 1993. godine.21 Kako se pristup sudu smatra osnovnim ljudskim pravom, Evropska komisija predviĊa dvije Direktive za pravnu pomoć, i to: 1. Direktiva 2000/43 (o provoĊenju naĉela jednakog postupanja prema svim osobama neovisno o rasnom i etniĉkom porijeklu) u kojoj se odreĊuje potreba dijaloga izmeĊu drţava ĉlanica i nevladinih organizacija, odnosno civilnog sektora, kada drţava zbog nedovoljnih finansijskih i ljudskih kapaciteta nije u mogućnosti zadovoljiti potrebe graĊana za besplatnom pravnom pomoći22 i Drugi opcioni protokol uz MeĊunarondi pakt o graĊanskim i politiĉkim pravima koji je stupio na snagu 11. 7. 1991. godine. SFRJ je oba protokola ratifkovala 2001. godine (“Sluţbeni list SRJ“MeĊunarodni ugovori, br. 4/2001). 18 http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/cepej/textes/ListeRecRes_en.asp 19 European Agreement on the Transmission of Applications for Legal Aid, Strazbourg 27.01.1977. godine, tekst objavljen u „Sluţbeni glasnik BiH“ – MeĊunarodni ugovori, broj: 1/09; u BiH stupio na snagu 31.05.2009. godine. http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/092.htm (preuzeto 1.4.2015. godine). 20 http://www.hcch.net/upload/conventions/txt29en.pdf (preuzeto 1.4.2015. godine). 21 Detaljnije: Kotlo, R., op. cit., str. 35. 22 Council Directive 2000/43 of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin) objavljena u Official Journal of the European Communities, L 180/22 od 19.7.2000. 205 �2. Direktiva 2002/8 (za olakšanje pristupa pravosuĊu u meĊudrţavnim sporovima uspostavljanjem minimalnih zajedniĉkih pravila za pravnu pomoć u takvim sporovima) koja se odnosi na sluĉajeve u kojima se pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć daje stranci koja ima prebivalište u jednoj drţavi ĉlanici, a parniĉni ili izvršni postupak vodi pred sudom u drugoj drţavi ĉlanici.23 Osim toga, više drugih meĊunarodnih pravnih dokumenata o ljudskim pravima, koji su sastavni dio ustavnog sistema BiH, odreĊuju obaveze pruţanja besplatne pravne pomoći od strane drţavnih organa osobama koja se naĊu na njenoj teritoriji (traţioci azila, izbjeglice, lica pod supsidijarnom ili privremenom zaštitom, apatridi, ţrtve trgovine ljudima i dr). 3. Pravni okvir sistema besplatne pravne pomoći u BiH Institut besplatne pravne pomoći u brojnim propisima. Tako je pravo na Ustavom BiH,24 zakonima o parniĉnom zakonima o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći,27 aktima. 23 graĊanskim stvarima BiH ureĊen je besplatnu pravnu pomoć zajamĉeno postupku,25 zakonima o advokaturi,26 te drugim zakonskim i podzakonskim Council Directive 2002/8 of 27 January 2003 to improve access to justice in cross-border disputes by establishing minimum common rules relating to legal aid for such disputes) objavljen u Official Journal of the European Communities, L 26/41 od 31.1.2003. Vidi: Maršić, M., Pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć u građanskim postupcima (de lege lata i de lege ferenda) http://hrcak.srce.hr/13279 (preuzeto: 4.4.2015. godine). 24 U BiH, radi njene drţavnopravne sloţenosti, postoji trinaest ustava, i to: Ustav BiH, ustavi entiteta (Federacije BiH i Republike Srpske) i ustavi deset kantona u okviru Federacije BiH. Ustav BiH donesen je kao aneks 4. Općeg okvirnog sporazuma za mir u Bosni i Hercegovini, koji je parafiran u Daytonu (SAD) 25. novembra 1995. godine, a potpisan 14. decembra 1995. godine u Parizu. Navedeno prema: Pobrić, N., Ustavno pravo, Mostar, 2000, str. 47. 25 U BiH primjenjuju se sljedeći zakoni o parniĉnom postupku.: Zakon o parniĉnom postupku Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine („Sluţbene novine Federacije BiH“, broj. 53/03, 75/05, 19/06 – dalje: ZPPFBiH), Zakon o parniĉnom postupku Republike Srpske („Sluţbene novine Republike Srpske“, broj 58/08, 85/03, 74/05, 63/07, 119/09 – dalje: ZPPRS), Zakon o parniĉnom postupku u Brĉko Distriktu BiH („Sluţbene novine Brĉko Distrikta BiH“, broj 8/09, 52/10 – dalje ZPPBDBiH) i Zakon o parniĉnom postupku red Sudom BiH („Sluţbene novine BIH“, broj 36/04, b4/07, 58/13). 26 Zakon o advokaturi Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine („Sluţbene novine Federacije BiH“, br. 40/02, 29/03 i 18/05 – dalje: ZAFBiH); Zakon o advokaturi Republike Srpske („Sluţbeni glasnik Republike Srpske“, br. 30/07 – dalje: ZARS). 27 U BiH u primjeni su sljedeći zakoni o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći: Republika Srpska - Zakon o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći Republike Srpske („Sluţbene novine Republike Srpske“, br. 120/08 ZoBPPRS); Brĉko Distrikt - Zakon o kancelariji za pravnu pomoć Brĉko Distrikta BiH („Sluţbeni glasnik Brĉko Distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine“, br. 19/07 - ZoBPPBDBiH); Kanton Sarajevo Zakon o pruţanju besplatne pravne pomoći („Sluţbene novine Kantona Sarajevo“, broj 1/12); Tuzlanski kanton - Zakon o pruţanju pravne pomoći („Sluţbene novine Tuzlanskog kantona“, broj 10/08); Zapadnohercegovaĉki kanton - Zakon o ţupanijskom Zavodu za pravnu pomoć („Sluţbene novine ŢZH, broj 14/08); Zeniĉko-dobojski kanton - Zakonom o kantonalnim ministarstvima i drugim tijelima kantonalne uprave („Sluţbene novine Zeniĉko-dobojskog kantona“, broj 13/08) uspostavljen je Zavod za pravnu pomoć kao samostalna kantonalna upravna organizacija koja obavlja poslove davanja usluga iskljuĉivo osobama lošeg imovnog stanja. Pravilnik o naĉinu i 206 �3.1. Ustav BiH Prema ĉl. II. Ustava BiH, BiH i njeni entiteti duţni su svim osobama na teritoriji BiH osigurati najviši stepen meĊunarodno priznatih ljudskih prava i osnovnih sloboda. U BiH direktno se primjenjuju prava i slobode predviĊeni u Konvenciji, pa tako i ĉl. 6. st. 3. taĉ. c. Konvencije, koji govori o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći, a ovi akti imaju prioritet nad svim ostalim zakonima. 28 Pravo na praviĉno suĊenje u graĊanskim stvarima, kao jedno od temeljnih prava i sloboda predviĊenih Konvencijom, zavisi od dopustivosti pravne pomoći svim graĊanima bez diskriminacije po bilo kojoj osnovi, ukljuĉujući i slabiji imovinski status, zbog kojeg graĊani ne bi mogli ostvariti pravo na slobodan pristup sudu. Dakle, osiguranje jednakosti svih graĊana pred sudom vrši se i uvoĊenjem sistema besplatne pravne pomoći. 3.2. Zakoni o parničnom postupku Odredbama ĉl. 400. ZPPFBiH propisano je da će sud osloboditi plaćanja troškova postupka stranku koja prema svom općem imovnom stanju ne moţe podmiriti te troškove bez štete po nuţno izdrţavanje svoje i svoje porodice.29 Pod „općim imovnim stanjem“ podrazumijeva se strankin izvor prihoda ostvaren iz radnog odnosa ili drugih djelatnosti kojima se bavi, kao i drugi izvori prihoda koje ostvaruje u duţem vremenskom periodu (npr. dopunskim radom), te isti ili sliĉni prihodi ĉlanova njezine porodice s kojima ţivi zajedno.30 uslovima pruţanja pravne pomoći („Sluţbene novine Zeniĉko-dobojskog Kantona“, broj 9/09); Posavski kanton - Zakon o pruţanju pravne pomoći Posavske Ţupanije (Narodne novine Ţupanije Posavske, broj 3/10); Unsko-sanski kanton - Zakon o pruţanju besplatne pravne pomoći („Sluţbeni glasnik Unsko-sanskog kantona“, broj 22/2012), Bosansko-podrinjski kanton - Zakon o pruţanju besplatne pravne pomoći („Sluţbene novine BPK Goraţde, broj 2/2013), Hercegovaĉkoneretvanski kanton - Zakona o pruţanju besplatne pravne pomoći („Sluţbene novine HNK“, broj 7/13 – dalje ZoBPPHNK). 28 Prema ĉl. II. st. 3. Ustava BiH sve osobe unutar teritorija BiH uţivat će prava i slobode predviĊene u Konvenciji: pravo na ţivot; pravo da ne budu podvrgnute muĉenju niti neĉovjeĉnom ili poniţavajućem tretmanu ili kazni; pravo da ne budu drţane u ropstvu ili potĉinjenosti, te obavljanju prisilnog ili obaveznog rada; pravo na slobodu i sigurnost; pravo na praviĉno suĊenje u graĊanskim i kriviĉnim stvarima i druga prava u vezi s kriviĉnim postupkom; pravo na privatan i porodiĉni ţivot, dom i prepisku; pravo na slobodu misli, savjesti i vjeroispovijesti; slobodu izraţavanja; slobodu mirnog okupljanja, slobodu udruţivanja s drugima; pravo na brak i zasnivanje porodice; pravo na imovinu; pravo na obrazovanje; pravo na slobodu kretanja i prebivališta. U ĉl. II. st. 6. Ustava BiH propisano je da će BiH i svi sudovi, ustanove, organi vlasti, te organi kojima posredno upravljaju entiteti ili koji djeluju unutar entiteta primjenjivati i pridrţavati se ljudskih prava i sloboda navedenih u ĉl. II. st. 2. Ustava BiH. 29 S obzirom da su odredbe o oslobaĊanju plaćanja troškova postupka identiĉne u zakonskim rješenjima u ZPPFBiH, ZPPRS i ZPPBDBiH, u ĉlanku ćemo analizirati samo rješenja u ZPPFBiH. 30 Tako: Janković, M; Janković, Ţ; Karamarković, H; Petrović, D., Komentar Zakona o parničnom postupku, Beograd, 1990, str. 213. 207 �OslobaĊanje od plaćanja troškova postupka je osobno pravo i vaţi samo za stranku kojoj je priznato i samo u parnici u kojoj je priznato,31 a odnosi se na oslobaĊanje od plaćanja taksa i oslobaĊanje od polaganja predujma za troškove svjedoka, vještaka, uviĊaja, prevoĊenja i sudskih oglasa. Sud je ovlašten da oslobodi stranke od plaćanja svih troškova ili jednog dijela troškova postupka (ZPPFBiH, ĉl. 400. st. 2).32 Prilikom donošenja odluke o oslobaĊanju od plaćanja troškova postupka sud će paţljivo ocijeniti sve okolnosti, a posebno će uzeti u obzir vrijednost predmeta spora, broj osoba koje stranka izdrţava, i prihode koje imaju stranka i ĉlanovi njene porodice (ZPPFBiH, ĉl. 401). Stranka je duţna da uz prijedlog podnese dokaz o imovnom stanju, a kad je to potrebno sud moţe po sluţbenoj duţnosti pribaviti potrebne podatke i obavještenja o imovnom stanju stranke koja traţi osloboĊenje, a moţe o tome saslušati i protivnu stranku (ZPPFBiH, ĉl. 402. st. 2. i 3). Prema ĉl. 403. ZPPFBiH predujam za troškove od ĉijeg je plaćanja stranka osloboĊenja isplatit će se iz sredstava suda. Prvostepeni sud, u toku postupka, moţe ukinuti rješenje o oslobaĊanju od plaćanja troškova postupka ako ustanovi da je stranka u stanju da snosi troškove postupka. U tom sluĉaju, sud treba odluĉiti da li će stranka potpuno ili djelimiĉno snositi i one troškove i takse od kojih je ranije bila osloboĊenja, a prvenstveno se trebaju nadoknaditi iznosi isplaćeni iz sredstava suda (ZPPFBiH, ĉl. 404). Takse i troškovi isplaćeni iz sredstava suda, odnosno troškovi kojih je stranka osloboĊenja, ĉine dio parniĉnih troškova (ZPPFBiH, ĉl. 405. st. 1). Ako stranka koja je osloboĊenja plaćanja troškova izgubi u parnici, uĉinjeni izdaci u toku postupka konaĉnu padaju na teret suda.33 Ako se parnica okonĉa uspjehom osloboĊene stranke, svi njeni troškovi koji su u toku parnice bili evidentirani na ime taksi, predujma ili stvarnih izdataka i nagrade zastupniku, naplaćuju se od njenog parniĉnog protivnika u korist sredstava suda. U sluĉaju kada protivnik stranke koja je osloboĊena troškova postupka, nije u stanju da parniĉne troškove plati, sud moţe naknadno odrediti da te troškove, u cjelini ili djelimiĉno, plati stranka koja je osloboĊena od plaćanja troškova postupka iz onoga što joj je dosuĊeno. Na ovaj naĉin se ne dira u pravo ove stranke da za ono što je platila traţi naknadu od protivnika (ZPPFBiH, ĉl. 405. st. 4). Prednje navedene odredbe 31 Ovo pravo nije nasljedno i sukcesori se njime ne mogu koristiti. Vidi: VSH, Gţ-1288/56, objavljena kod: Crnić, I., Parnični postupak u praksi – primjeri, sudska praksa, objašnjenja, Zagreb, 1987, str. 269. 32 Sud moţe osloboditi od plaćanja taksa samo fiziĉku osobu, a ne pravnu osobu, koja npr. obavlja privrednu djelatnost. Vidi: VTSH, Pţ-2959/96 od 3. 12. 1996. godine. Ĉizmić, J., Komentar Zakona o parničnom postupku Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine, Privredna štampa, Sarajevo, 2009, str. 840. 33 MeĊutim, stranka osloboĊena plaćanja troškova nije osloboĊena od konaĉnog snošenja troškova parniĉnom protivniku. Naime, ishod parnice je pokazao da njoj ne treba pruţiti pravnu zaštitu i zato ona duguje odreĊeni iznos na ime naknade troškova, odmjeren po pravilima procesnog prava i utvrĊen rješenjem o parniĉnim troškovima. Tako: Stanković, G., Građansko procesno pravo, prva sveska, Parnično procesno pravo, Pravni fakultet u Nišu, Niš, 2010, str. 319. 208 �odnose se na pravnu pomoć koja se obavlja na teret javnih sredstava, odnosno budţeta suda, tako da predstavlja oblik besplatne pravne pomoći.34 3.3. Zakoni o advokaturi Odredbom ĉl. 3. ZAFBiH/RS propisano je da advokatska djelatnost, izmeĊu ostalog, obuhvata: davanje pravnih savjeta, sastavljanje razliĉitih podnesaka (tuţbe, predstavke, zahtjevi, molbe, ţalbe i sl), sastavljanje raznih isprava (ugovori, testamenti i sl), zastupanje stranaka u svim parniĉnim, upravnim i ostalim postupcima pred svim redovnim i drugim sudovima, drugim drţavnim organima, arbitraţama te pravnim osobama, odbrana i zastupanje okrivljenog u kriviĉnom, prekršajnom i drugim postupcima u kojima se odluĉuje o odgovornosti fiziĉkih i pravnih osoba i pruţanje i drugih oblika pravne pomoći fiziĉkim i pravnim osobama kako bi se zaštitili njihova prava i interesi. Navedene oblike pravne pomoći mogu pruţati samo advokati ili advokatski pripravnici, ako drugim zakonom nije drugaĉije odreĊeno (ZAFBiH, ĉl. 8).35 Prema ĉl. 36. ZARS advokata moţe zamijeniti drugi advokat ili advokatski pripravnik iz njegove kancelarije u izvršavanju pojedinaĉnih radnji u poslu pruţanja pravne pomoći, osim ako se zastupana stranka tome izriĉito ne protivi. Iako su u zakonima o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći advokatske komore prepoznate kao pruţaoci pravne pomoći, ova vrsta djelatnosti nije zaţivjela u većem obimu. Kodeksi advokatske etike advokata u oba entiteta,36 navode da je advokat duţan pruţiti besplatnu pravnu pomoć socijano ugroţenim osobama i da ovu duţnost treba obaviti jednako savjesno i briţljivo, kao i kod pruţanja pravne pomoći drugim strankama. Advokat je, takoĊer, duţan preuzeti zastupanje socijalno ugroţenih osoba kada to odredi nadleţni organ Komore (u Republici Srpskoj na trošak Advokatske komore).37 Prema poglavlju XII. ĉl. 3. Kodeksa advokatske etike advokata u Federaciji BiH, u sluĉaju uspjeha u postupku advokat moţe od takve stranke traţiti nagradu za pruţanje usluga, u mjeri u kojoj to zastupanje neće izgubiti svoje humano i socijalno obiljeţje, ali u svakom sluĉaju advokat smije traţiti onu nagradu koju je zastupana stranka ostvarila po osnovu njegova zastupanja na teret protivne stranke. U literaturi se istiĉe da advokati u praksi uglavnom odbijaju zahtjeve za besplatnom pravnom pomoći, navodeći da su preopterećeni poslom, jer se radi o sporovima male materijalne vrijednosti, iako su u ovim predmetima ĉesto prisutna znaĉajna kršenja ljudskih prava. Advokat moţe uskratiti pruţanje 34 Ĉehajić, LJ., Besplatna pravna pomoć, Izvor prava na besplatnu pravnu pomoć, Pravni savjetnik, Društvo za istraţivanje i unapreĊenje lokalnog i regionalnog razvoja, Sarajevo, br. 1/2012, str. 112. 35 Prema ĉl. 301. ZPPFBiH punomoćnik moţe biti advokat, advokatsko društvo ili zaposlenik sluţbe za besplatnu pravnu pomoć, kao i, za pravne osobe, zaposlenik te pravne osobe, a za fiziĉke osobe braĉni, odnosno vanbraĉni drug stranke ili srodnik stranke po krvi ili po tazbini. 36 Kodeks advokatske etike advokata Federacije BiH je usvojen na Skupštini Advokatske komore Federacije BiH 17.9.2005. godine. Kodeks etike advokata Advokatske komore Republike Srpske („Sluţbeni glasnik Republike Srpske“, broj 68/05). 37 Poglavlje XII. ĉl. 1-2. Kodeksa advokatske etike advokata Federacije BiH i poglavlje II. ĉl. 2. st. 8. Kodeksa etike advokata Advokatske komore Republike Srpske. 209 �pravne pomoći kada vjeruje da takvu pomoć ne moţe sa uspjehom pruţiti u odgovarajućem postupku, ako zahtjevi stranaka nisu realni, ako stranka neopravdano odbija ispuniti svoje materijalne obaveze prema prethodnom advokatu, ako je advokat bolestan ili iz drugih opravdanih razloga.38 3.4. Zakoni o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći U BiH ne postoji harmonizirani sistem besplatne pravne pomoći. Usprkos vešegodišnjim preporukama proizašlim iz analiza, izvještaja i strategija39 pisanih s ciljem jaĉanja pravne drţave i borbe protiv siromaštva, u BiH još uvijek nije usvojen okvirni Zakon o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći, kao osnovni garant za jednak pristup sudu i pravdi svim njenim graĊanima, ĉiji je Nacrt predloţen u maju 2010 godine (dalje: Nacrt ZoBPP).40 MeĊutim, poštujući Ustav i meĊunarodne pravne standarde, te vodeći raĉuna o ugroţenim i socijalno iskljuĉenim graĊanima, u pojedinim dijelovima Bosne i Hercegovine usvojeni su posebni zakoni o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći: u Brĉko Distriktu – ZoBPPBDBiH, kojim je osnovana kancelarija za pravnu pomoć, u Republici Srpskoj – ZoBPPRS od 1. jula 2009. godine, kojim je formiran centar za besplatnu pravnu pomoć, dok na nivou Federaciji BiH nema jedinstvenog zakona koji regulira besplatnu pravnu pomoć, ali su u pojedinim kantonima doneseni posebni zakoni koji reguliraju pravnu pomoć (Tuzlanski, Zapadnohercegovaĉki, Zeniĉko-dobojski, Posavski, Unsko-sanski, Bosanskopodrinjski, Hercegovaĉko-neretvanski i Kanton Sarajevo), a formirane su i institucije za pruţanje besplatne pravne pomoći (zavodi ili kancelarije). MeĊutim, iako su zakoni doneseni radi istog cilja, a to je da se graĊanima slabijeg imovnog stanja omogući struĉna pravna pomoć za ostvarivanje odreĊenog prava, odnosno osigura ravnopravan pristup sudu i drugim tijelima drţavne vlasti, navedena zakonska rješenja nisu identiĉna. Neujednaĉenost prakse i zakonskih rješenja, koji uvijek vode neravnopravnosti graĊana, uglavnom se odnose na definiranje pojma „slabo imovno stanje“, na naĉin na koji se podnosi zahtjev za ostvarivanje prava na besplatnu pravnu pomoć, te na kriterije po kojima se ona odobrava.41 Osim toga, nepotpunost i razliĉitost pravnih propisa predstavlja potencijalni izvor diskriminacije graĊana koji ţive u razliĉitim jurisdikcijama u BiH. Vidimo da se BiH odluĉila za svojevrsno decentralizirano i partikularno pravno ureĊenje instituta pruţanja besplatne 38 Demir, E., op. cit., str. 51. Ministarstvo pravde Bosne i Hercegovine je usvojilo Strategiju za reformu sektora pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini ĉiji je osnovni cilj izgradnja djelotvornijeg i koordiniranog sistema pravde u BiH, odgovornog prema svim graĊanima BiH i potpuno usklaĊivanje s europskim standardima. Više o tome: Ćulanić, N; Kotlo, R; Stipanović, I., Pristup pravdi –Besplatna pravna pomoć u HNK: uloga i (moguća) suradnja pravosuđa, organa uprave, institucija ombudsmena i nevladinog sektora, Pristup pravdi u Bosni i Hercegovini, besplatna pravna pomoć, poseban osvrt na Hercegovaĉko – neretvanski kanton, Centar za ljudska prava, Mostar, 2011., str. 55. – 65. 40 http://www.pravobih.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=354&catid=1&Ite mid=53 (preuzeto 6.4.2015. godine) 41 Detaljnije: Bejtović, A., Besplatna pravna pomoć u Bosni i Hercegovini, Pravna misao, Sarajevo, br. 9-10/2010, str. 67. 39 210 �pravne pomoći, što nije najoptimalniji naĉin i oblik pruţanja pravne zaštite.42 Slijedom navedenog, usvajanje okvirnog Zakona o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći na drţavnom nivou, dovelo bi do usklaĊivanja navedenih kriterija, odnosno ostvarenja ustavnog naĉela jednakosti pred sudom, te naĉela zakonitosti koje zahtijeva da se na sve graĊane, na cijelom teritoriju BiH, zakoni primijenjuju na identiĉan naĉin. Prema ĉl. 25. Nacrta ZoBPP, pravnu pomoć u BiH mogu pruţati: advokatske komore u BiH,43 institucionalni organi koji mogu biti u obliku kancelarija, zavoda, odbora ili centara za pravnu pomoć koje formiraju nadleţni organi za pruţanje pravne pomoći i nevladine organizacije.44 Pravo zastupanja korisnika besplatne pravne pomoći u upravnom, prekršajnom, parniĉnom, vanparniĉnom i izvršnom postupku imaju: advokati – ĉlanovi advokatskih komora u Bosni i Hercegovini,45 zaposlenici institucionalnih organa i nevladinih organizacija pod uvjetom da su diplomirani pravnici koji imaju poloţen pravosudni ispit i najmanje tri godine radnog iskustva na pravnim poslovima nakon poloţenog pravosudnog ispita, što je cjelishodno zakonsko rješenje, imajući u vidu da zastupanje po kvalificiranom punomoćniku doprinosi kakvoći pravne usluge, ubrzava rad sudova, te smanjuje troškove postupka (Nacrt ZoBPP, ĉl. 26).46 42 Ćizmić, J., Pružanje besplatne pravne pomoći u Bosni i Hercegovini s osvrtom na iskustva Republike Hrvatske, Pristup pravdi u Bosni i Hercegovini, Besplatna pravna pomoć, Poseban osvrt na Hercegovaĉko-neretvanski kanton, Centar za ljudska prava u Mostaru, Mostar, 2011, str. 27. 43 U austrijskom pravu pruţanje usluga besplatne pravne pomoći pripada advokatima koje imenuje Advokatska komora, dok su Engleska i Wales razvile ĉitav niz općih i specijaliziranih jedinica za pruţanje pravne pomoći, a u cilju potpunog iskorištavanja kapaciteta oformile su Pravni servis koji objedinjuje, koordinira i usklaĊuje rad svih savjetodavnih ureda za graĊane, pravnih centara i lokalnih vijeća uspostavljenih za tu svrhu. Dealjnije: Bejtović, A., op. cit., str. 60. 44 U Bosni i Hercegovini postoji mreţa centara za besplatnu pravnu pomoć tj. Udruga Vaša prava koju financira UNHCR. Centri djeluju u slijedećim gradovima: Banja Luka, Bihać, Bijeljina, Bosanski Petrovac, Doboj, Goraţde, Livno, Mostar, Prijedor, Sarajevo, Srebrenica, Travnik, Trebinje, Tuzla, Zvornik. Ministarstvo sigurnosti BiH i udruţenje Vaša prava su 2004. godine potpisali Protokol o pruţanju besplatne pravne pomoći. Ovim dokumentom, kojim je definirana dalja saradnja Udruţenja i Ministarstva, regulirano je da Vaša prava pruţaju besplatnu pravnu pomoć. Udruţenje Vaša prava će, na osnovu potpisanog Protokola o pruţanju besplatne pravne pomoći, svim korisnicima usluga pruţati besplatnu pravnu pomoć, nezavisno od utjecaja ma kojeg drţavnog organa vlasti, dok ima financijskih sredstava za implementaciju Protokola 45 Prema ĉl. 26. st. 2. Nacrta ZoBPP, pravo zastupanja u kriviĉnom postupku, u dijelu kojim se pravo na odbranu obezbjeĊuje postavljanjem branioca, zbog slabog imovnog stanja osumnjiĉenog ili optuţenog, imaju advokati – ĉlanovi advokatskih komora u Bosni i Hercegovini. 46 Prema ĉl. 24. ZoBPPHNK besplatnu pravnu pomoć mogu pruţati advokati koji su ĉlanovi advokatskih komora u Bosni i Hercegovini, udruţenja i fondacije registrovane za pruţanje besplatne pravne pomoći i drugi subjekti u skladu sa drugim zakonima. Prema ĉl. 25. ZoBPPHNK, pravo zastupanja korisnika besplatne pravne pomoći imaju: sluţbenici nadleţnog organa, pod uslovima propisanim Zakonom, sluţbenici udruţenja i fondacija registrovanih za pruţanje besplatne pravne pomoći i drugih subjekata u skladu s uvjetima propisanim procesnim zakonima koji se odnosi na punomoćnike stranke, te odvjetnici – ĉlanovi odvjetniĉkih komora u Bosni i Hercegovini. Pravni zastupnik nadleţnog organa ovlašten je samostalno pruţati besplatnu pravnu pomoć. Pored općih i posebnih uslova propisanih za drţavne sluţbenike, pravni zastupnik mora 211 �Kriteriji koje fiziĉko lice treba ispuniti da bi steklo status korisnika besplatne pravne pomoći su: finansijski kriterij, kriterij oĉigledne osnovanosti i kriterij obaveznosti po zakonima i meĊunarodnim konvencijama (Nacrt ZoBPP, ĉl. 10).47 Pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć po finansijskom kriteriju ostvaruju sljedeća lica: primaoci socijalne pomoći; nezaposleni, bez drugih redovnih primanja ili prihoda; osobe lošeg imovnog stanja; djeca bez roditeljskog staranja;48 osobe kojima je u drugom predmetu utvrĊeno pravo na dodjelu pravne pomoći; osobe kojima je oduzeta poslovna sposobnost i duševno oboljele osobe smještene u zdravstvenu ustanovu; te korisnici prava na starosnu i invalidsku penziju.49 Prema kriteriju oĉigledne neosnovanosti pravna pomoć neće se odobriti podnositelju zahtjeva: ako se iz dokaza i ĉinjenica na kojima se temelji zahtjev moţe zakljuĉiti da je takav zahtjev neosnovan, ako se radi o neopravdanom voĊenju postupka i ako se radi o zloupotrebi prava na pravnu pomoć. Pravna pomoć pruţa se i licima koji na nju imaju pravo po zakonima les specialis ili po meĊunarodnim konvencijama koje obavezuju BiH, a kojima se ispunjavati i posebne uvjete propisane Zakonom – poloţen pravosudni ispit i najmanje tri godine radnog iskustva nakon poloţenog pravosudnog ispita. 47 Prema izvještaju o aktivnostima Helsinškog komiteta za ljudska prava, najveći broj novozaprimljenih zahtjeva za pravnu pomoć odnosi se na predmete pokrenute zbog kršenje prava iz radnih odnosa (otkazi ugovora o radu, neisplaćivanje zaraĊenih plaća, uplata doprinosa, neisplata otpremnina i sl). Tu su još siromašni, dugotrajno nezaposleni graĊani koji nakon što dobiju odbijenicu aplikacije za posao, ţele da preispitaju pravilnost provedenog postupka u kojem posao uvijek dobije neko drugi, te samohrane majke, penzioneri, lica sa posebnim potrebama, invalidi, ţrtve nasilja u porodici itd. Tako: Bejtović, A., op. cit., str. 70. 48 U Bosni i Hercegovini postoji preko 3000 djece bez roditeljskog staranja. 49 Odredbom ĉl. 11. st. 2. Nacrta ZoBPP odreĊeno je da Federacija BiH, kantoni u Federaciji BiH, Republika Srpska i Brĉko Distrikt BiH, svojim zakonima ureĊuju šta se smatra minimumom socijalnog statusa kandidata za pravnu pomoć, s tim da taj minimum ne moţe biti veći od najniţe prosjeĉne neto plaće ostvarene na nivou BiH u prethodnoj fiskalnoj godini. Osnov za utvrĊivanje prava kandidata za pravnu pomoć zbog lošeg imovnog stanja kandidata su svi prihodi i primanja koja se ne smatraju prihodom, primanja na koja podnosilac zahtjeva i ĉlanovi njegovog porodiĉnog domaćinstva ne plaćaju porez i imovina koja je u vlasništvu podnosioca zahtjeva i ĉlanova njegovog porodiĉnog domaćinstva, ako ovim zakonskim odredbama nije drugaĉije odreĊeno (Nacrt ZoBPP, ĉl. 12). Prema ĉl. 13. Nacrta ZoBPP primanja koja se smatraju prihodom su: primanja po osnovu plate, samostalne djelatnosti, imovine i imovinskih prava i prometa imovine i imovinskih prava, kapitala, osiguranja i drugih primitaka propisanih zakonima o porezu na dohodak i dohodak koje podnositelj zahtjeva i ĉlanovi njegovog porodiĉnog domaćinstva primaju u periodu od šest mjesecfi prije mjeseca u kojem je zahtjev podnesen, kao i vanredni prihodi i imovina (nasljedstvo, pokloni, otpremnina, nagrade i drugi prihodi koje je primio podnositelj zahtjeva ili ĉlan njegovog porodiĉnog domaćinstva makar jednom u periodu od šest mjeseci prije podnošenja zahtjeva). Prilikom utvrĊivanja osnova za ostvarivanje prava na pravnu pomoć od ukupnog obraĉunskog prihoda oduzimaju se izdaci i obaveze (mjeseĉna zakupnina za stan u kojem ţivi podnosilac zahtjeva sa ĉlanovima svog porodiĉnog domaćinstva i ostali nuţni troškovi za stanovanje, kreditne rate odobrene za rješavanje stambenog pitanja, izdaci za poljoprivredno dobro od kojeg se izdrţava podnosilac zahtjeva sa ĉlanovima svog porodiĉnog domaćinstva, te nuţni troškovi ţivota podnosioca zahtjeva i njegovog porodiĉnog domaćinstva – hrana, ogrijev, školovanje, komunalne usluge, zdravstvene usluge i dr). Ako se utvrdi da obaveze podnosioca zahtjeva premašuju ukupne prihode ili prihodi neznatno premašuju obaveze, smatra se da je osoba lošeg imovnog stanja i da njenom zahtjevu za besplatnu pravnu pomoć treba udovoljiti (v. ĉl. 14. i 15. st. 2. Nacrta ZoBPP). 212 �obezbjeĊuje efikasna pravna zaštita najranjivijim socijalno ugroţenim grupama stanovništva. Pod pruţanjem besplatne pravne pomoći u graĊanskim stvarima podrazumijeva se: davanje opštih informacija u vezi s pravima i obavezama korisnika usluga, davanje pravnih savjeta, pomoć u popunjavanju obrazaca (zahtjevi, molbe, ţalbe, predstavke, tuţbe, itd.), pravno zastupanje korisnika usluga u svim upravnim, parniĉnim i drugim postupcima pred svim drţavnim organima, redovnim i drugim sudovima, saĉinjavanje apelacija, pravo u postupcima mirnog rješavanja spora (Nacrt ZoBPP, ĉl. 5).50 Za razliku od našeg prava, praksa u pojedinim zemljama Evrope51 i regiona,52 i postojeći trendovi ukazuju na podjelu besplatne pravne pomoći na primarnu i sekundarnu, na naĉin da su detaljno odreĊeni oblici primarne i sekundarne pravne zaštite, pretpostavke za njihovo ostvarenje, kao i pruţaoci pravne zaštite. Primarna pravna pomoć, u pravilu, obuhvata davanja opštih pravnih informacija, pravnih savjeta, sastavljanja isprave i podneska, kao i pravnu pomoć u vansudskom mirnom rješavanju sporova. Dakle, postupak primarne pravne pomoći ima za cilj da se 50 Kantonalni zavodi za besplatnu pravnu pomoć kao samostalne upravne organizacije pruţaju sljedeće usluge iskljuĉivo osobama slabog imovnog stanja:davanje pravnih savjeta, pruţanje pomoći kod ispunjavanja obrazaca, sastavljanje podnesaka (tuţbe, molbe, zahtjevi, predstavke, prigovori, ţalbe i sl), zastupanje stranaka pred općinskim i kantonalnim sudovima, tuţilaštvima, kao i drugim institucijama sa podruĉja njihovih kantona, a samo izuzetno i pred institucijama u drugim dijelovima Bosne i Hercegovine. Vidi: A. Bejtović: op. cit., str. 67. 51 U pravnom sistemu Holandije predviĊen je mješoviti sistem besplatne pravne pomoći (primarna i sekundarna pravna pomoć). Primarnu pravnu pomoć pruţaju tzv. šalteri za pravnu pomoć, dok sekundarnu pravnu pomoć u komplikovanijim predmetima pruţaju advokati. Da bi mogao pruţiti pravnu pomoć klijentu, registrovani advokat, u ime svog klijenta, mora podnijeti aplikaciju Odboru za pravnu pomoć, radi dobijanja certifikata kojom se klijentu odobrava pravna pomoć. Tako: Slijepĉević, T., op. cit., str. 26. U Belgiji, takoĊer, pravna pomoć je podijeljena na primarnu i sekundarnu, a moţe biti potpuno ili djelimiĉno besplatna i uţivaju je svi graĊani koji mogu dokazati slab imovinski status. Primarna pomoć podrazumijeva informisanje, upućivanje i davanje pravnih savjeta fiziĉkim i pravnim licima, a sekundarna pravna pomoć ukljuĉuje detaljno analiziranje predmeta i pravno zastupanje pred sudovima i drugim institucijama. www.ptla.org/international (preuzeto 6.4.2015. godine). Prema ĉl. 2. Zakona o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći Litve, koji je Sabor donio 28.3.2000 godine, besplatna pravna pomoć se dijeli na primarnu i sekundarnu. Primarna pravna pomoć obuhvata pravne informacije, pravne savjete, pomoć pri sastavljanju dokumenata, te mjere za postizanje poravnanja (nagodbe), dok sekundarna pravna pomoć ukljuĉuje još i sastavljanje podnesaka, odbranu i zastupanje pred sudovima i upravnim tijelima, ukljuĉujući i postupke izvršenja, te pokriće sudskih taksi. Vidi: Maršić, M. op. cit., str. 139. 52 Prema ĉl. 6. Zakona o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći Hrvatske („Narodne novine“, broj 143/13dalje ZoBPPH) primarnu pravnu pomoć, koja se sastoji u davanju općih pravnih informacija, pravnih savjeta i sastavljanja podnesaka, pruţaju uredi, ovlaštene udruge i pravne klinike. Sekundarnu pravnu pomoć (pravni savjet, sastavljanje podnesaka u postupku zaštite prava radnika pred poslodavcem, sastavljanje podnesaka u sudskim postupcima, zastupanje u sudskim postupcima i pravnu pomoć u mirnom rješenju spora) pruţaju advokati (v. ĉl. 6. i 12. st. 1. ZoBPPH). Prema ĉl. 6. Nacrta o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći Srbije, besplatna pravna pomoć se pruţa kao primarna i sekundarna pravna pomoć. Primarna pravna pomoć obuhvata davanje opštih pravnih informacija, poĉetnog pravnog savjeta i pravng savjeta, kao i sastavljanje isprave i podnesaka, dok sekundarna pravna pomoć obuhvata zastupanje,odbranu i provoĊenje postupka medijacije. 213 �utvrdi koja vrsta pravne pomoći je najprikladnija, postoje li mogućnost uspjeha u konkretnom sluĉaju, vrijeme koje je potrebno za njegovo rješavanje, troškovi naknadnih procedura i eventualno troškovi koje bi sam klijent trebao da snosi (ograniĉeno oslobaĊanje od plaćanja troškova postupka). Na osnovu ovih informacija klijent bi trebao odluĉiti da li da nastavi sa postupkom zaštite svojih prava. Ukoliko se utvrdi da su problemi i zahtjevi klijenata komplikovaniji i zahtjevaju više vremena, te da sluţbe za primarnu pravnu pomoć na njih ne mogu adekvatno odgovoriti, klijeniti bi bili upućeni na sekundarnu pravnu pomoć, koja obuhvaća zastupanje pred sudovima, sastavljanje podnesaka u sudskim postupcima i sprovoĊenje postupka medijacije. Sekundarnu pravnu pomoć mogu pruţati advokati, medijatori i eventualno pravnici sa poloţenim pravosudnim ispitom i najmanje dvije godine radnog iskustva nakon poloţenog ispita.53 UvoĊenjem mješovitnog sistema besplatne pravne pomoći, odnosno podjele na primarnu i sekundarnu pravnu pomoć reducirali bi se troškovi koji iziskuje pruţanje sekundarne pravne pomoći, jer bi se rješavanje jednostavnijih zahtjeva i pruţanje osnovnih informacija klijentima moglo obaviti u primarnoj pravnoj pomoći, koja ima svojevrsnu selektivnu ulogu i na taj naĉin rasterećuje sudove i druge drţavne organe.54 Kriteriji imovinskog cenzusa koje treba ispuniti za odobravanje primarne pravne pomoći trebaju biti blaţi od uvjeta za odobravanje sekundarne pravne pomoći. Pravna pomoć trebala bi se odobriti u svim sluĉajevima kada korisnici traţe samo pravni savjet, bez provoĊenja sloţene procedure, utvrĊivanja imovinskog stanja korisnika i prirode pravnih problema.55 Pruţanjem pravnih savjeta graĊanima prije poĉetka postupka trebao bi se smanjiti broj sluĉajeva koji se pokreću zbog neukosti graĊana o njihovim pravima, obavezama i mogućnostima uspjeha u odreĊenoj stvari. Postupak za ostvarivanje besplatne pravne pomoći potrebno je znaĉajno pojednostaviti kako bi pravna pomoć bila dostupna većem broju korisnika slabog imovnog stanja.56 4. Zaključna razmatranja U Bosni i Hercegovini sistem pruţanja besplatne pravne pomoći nije harmoniziran, usklaĊen i funkcionalan. U cilju uvoĊenja kvalitetnog i sveobuhvatnog sistema besplatne pravne pomoći, koji će na najbolji naĉin odgovoriti na potrebe i zahtjeve ciljne populacije u BiH, potrebno je osigurati sljedeće: 53 Slijepĉević, T., Komparativna analiza sistema besplatne pravne pomoći: opcije za Bosnu i Hercegovinu, Reforma sektora pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini, Preporuke civilnog društva, Informatizacija pravosuĊa, Besplatna pravna pomoć, Alternativno rješavanje sporova, EU integracije, Asocijacija za demokratske inicijative Sarajevo, Sarajevo, 2011, str. 34. 54 Prema podacima Eurostata, stopa rizika od siromaštva za zemlje EU-27 u 2011 godini iznosi 16,9%. Najniţa stopa siromaštva zabiljeţena je u Ĉeškoj - 9,8% i Nizozemskoj - 11%, dok su najveće stope siromaštva, preko 20%, zabiljeţene u Grĉkoj, Bugarskoj, Španjolskoj, Rumunjskoj i Hrvatskoj. Tako: Eurostat, 2013-02-26 55 Prema ĉl. 5. st. 2. ZoBPPHNK prava na opće informacije o pravima i obavezama i pomoć u popunjavanju obrazaca za ostvarivanje prava na besplatnu pravnu pomoć imaju sva lica bez obzira na ispunjavanje uslova propisanih ovim Zakonom. 56 Boţić Krstanović, LJ. et.al, op. cit, str. 26. 214 �1. donošenje Okvirnog Zakona o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći u skladu s kojim će Federacija BiH, kantoni Federacije BiH, Republika Srpska i Brĉko Distrikt BiH donijeti, odnosno uskladiti vaţeća zakonska rješenja; 2. sistem besplatne pravne pomoći podijeliti na primarnu i sekundarnu pravnu zaštitu; 3. povećati efikasnost pravosuĊa kroz pravno savjetovanje i struĉno i zakonito zastupanje siromašnih graĊana, te razmatranje vansudskih metoda rješevanja graĊanskih sporova; 4. jednak pristup pravdi za sve graĊane u skladu sa domaćim i meĊunarodnim pravnim standardima (potrebno je slijediti i koristiti praksu zemalja EU, koje imaju najrazvijeniju kulturu poticanja pravne pomoći).57 5. minimum prostornih kapaciteta; 6. finansijske resursa za organe koje pruţaju usluge besplatne pravne pomoći, uzimajući u obzir broj potrebnih pruţaoca besplatne pravne pomoći u odnosu na broj stanovnika; 7. kontrolu i unapreĊivanje kvaliteta pruţanja besplatne pravne pomoći;58 8. podsticanje koordinacije u radu pruţalaca usluga; 9. kontinuirano djelovanje u polju jaĉanja svjesti graĊana o njihovim pravima i mogućnostima koje propisuju zakoni o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći (putem medija koji su dostupni većini potencijalnih korisnika nacionalne i lokalne televizije, radio stanice s nacionalnim i lokalnim 57 U Evropskoj uniji svaka osoba moţe aplicirati za pravnu pomoć ukoliko se nalazi u sporu sa drugom osobom, bilo u svojoj zemlji ili inostranstvu, a nije u mogućnosti da sebi priušti pravni savjet ili zastupanje na sudu. Kriteriji za dodjeljivanje pravne pomoći razlikuju se od zemlje do zemlje, a najzanimljiviji je primjer Letonije, koja nastoji da obezbjedi pravnu pomoć što većem broju ljudi. Zakon o drţavno-garantovanoj pomoći koji je na snazi od 2005. godine propisuje da svaka osoba ima pravo na pravnu pomoć u postupku pred sudom, bez obzira na materijalna primanja, drţavljanstvo, mjesto boravka, vjeroispovjest, rasu, pol i drugo. To bi u praksi znaĉilo da pravnu pomoć u Letoniji mogu koristiti sve osobe koje legalno borave u toj zemlji, bez obzira odakle dolaze. Jedini uvjet za odobravanje pravne pomoći jeste da je ona stvarno potrebna. Ovako široko postavljen krug korisnika pravne pomoći, prije svega, zavisi od finansijskih sredstava kojima jedna drţava raspolaţe, tako da navedena praksa u Letoniji ne bi bila primjenjiva u mnogim drugim zemljama, pa ni u BiH. Ipak, pretpostavka je da će ovakvom sistemu pravne pomoći vremenom teţiti sve više zemalja. Vidjeti: Slijepĉević, T., op. cit., str. 25. O preporukama za unaprijeĊenje sistema besplatne pravne pomoći vidjeti: Boţić Krstanović, LJ. et al, op. cit., str. 46-49. 58 Vlada Bosne i Hercegovine se ĉesto susreće sa problemom kako da ravnomjerno rasporedi budţetska sredstva na sve programe, usluge i aktivnosti koje je u obavezi da ispuni. U tom smislu, potrebno je da pronaĊe alternativne naĉine finansiranja i povećanja budţetskih sredstava. Kao potencijalni kandidat za ĉlanstvo u EU, Bosna i Hercegovina ima na raspolaganju dvije komponente IPA finansiranja. Prva komponenta pod nazivom „Podrška u tranziciji i institucionalna izgradnja“ namijenjena je unaprijeĊenju drţavnih institucija u procesu ispunjenja zahtjeva koje postavlja EU. Naime, novĉana sredstva koja su dostupna na ovaj naĉin mogu se koristiti kao alternativni izvor finansiranja sistema besplatne pravne pomoći. Osim toga, udruţivanje drţavnih sredstava i sredstava koje nevladine organizacije primaju putem donacija u svrhu pruţanja pravne pomoći omogućilo bi da se ukupna novĉana sredstva za besplatnu pravnu pomoć povećaju i da se pravni savjeti i usluge na adekvatan naĉin pruţe što većem broju osoba. Slijepĉević, T., op. cit., str. 33. 215 �koncesijama, štampa, postavljanje informacija na web stranicama ministarstava, nevladinih organizacija, advokatskih komora i ostalih drţavnih institucija koje su od znaĉaja za pruţanje besplatne pravne pomoći i sl); 10. uspostaviti bazu podataka u cilju kontinuirane analize potreba, stanja i trendova u oblasti besplatne pravne pomoći i time stvoriti uvjete za efikasnije kreiranje politika djelovanja u ovoj oblasti.59 11. informatiĉki povezati urede za odobravanje pravne pomoći s drţavnim organima radi lakše i brţe provjere propisanih uvjeta za odobravanje pravne pomoći. Kvalitetan i transparentan sistem besplatne pravne pomoći, bez odugovlaĉenja i sa što manje roškova, trebao bi doprinijeti povjerenju graĊana u pravnu drţavu i vladavinu zakona, odnosno efikasnije pravosuĊe uopšte. 59 Potrebno je propisati uvoĊenje centralne evidencije ili registra o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći koji će sadrţavati podatke o broju datih pravnih savjeta, primljenih zahtjeva, odobrenih zahtjeva, rješenih i neriješenih predmeta po vrstama postupka, o utrošku sredstava, broju pruţala pravne pomoći i sl. Tako: Slijepĉević, T., op. cit., str. 32. 216 �Assistant professor Alena Huseinbegovic Faculty of law of Dzemal Bijedic University of Mostar FREE LEGAL AID IN CIVIL MATTERS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA LEGAL SYSTEM Summary: Free legal aid represents by legal provisions stipulated way natural persons can exercise their right to equal access to justice before the courts and other authorities, where their costs in total or in part are borne by the authority in charge of provision of free legal aid. The possibility to protect the jeopardized and violated rights in democratic societies is one of the main conditions to exercise principle of the rule of law and right to fair trail, guaranteed by many international instruments on human rights. The author in her paper by using the comparative method analyses the institute of free legal aid and emphasizes certain de lege ferenda suggestions. Key words: free legal aid, fair trial, international sources 217 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2997 Title A name given to the resource BESPLATNA PRAVNA POMOĆ U GRAĐANSKIM STVARIMA U PRAVNOM SISTEMU BOSNE I HERCEGOVINE Author Author HUSEINBEGOVIĆ, Alena Abstract A summary of the resource. Besplatna pravna pomoć je zakonskim odredbama uređen način ostvarivanja prava fizičkog lica na jednak pristup pravdi pred sudom i drugim organima, čije troškove u cijelosti ili djelimično snosi organ za pružanje besplatne pravne pomoći. U demokratskim društvima mogućnost efikasne zaštite ugroženih i povrijeđenih prava osoba jedan je od osnovnih uslova za ostvarivanje principa vladavine prava i prava na pravično suđenje, koje je garantovano mnogim međunarodnim instrumentima o ljudskim pravima. Autorica u radu, primjenom komparativne metode, obrađuje institut besplatne pravne pomoći, te ističe odgovarajuće prijedloge de lege ferenda. Ključne riječi: besplatna pravna pomoć, pravično suđenje, međunarodni izvori Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ad8874e64a83df4f793cdffbd68bce82.docx e27c04311452c65f0619c113e2cac06c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/34d1351b27457fa602e8aad50bdde23c.pdf 67286098198df1a1914b351b7f8216ee PDF Text Text Autori: (1) Prof. dr. Dragan Jovašević, redovni profesor; (2) Doc. dr.. Marina M. Simović, docent Institucija: (1) Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Nišu; (2) Fakultet pravnih nauka, Univerzitet “Apeiron”, Banja Luka BEZBJEDNOST RAČUNARSKIH SISTEMA U SRBIJI I EVROPSKI STANDARDI Sažetak U novom krivičnom zakonodavstvu Republike Srbije od 2005. godine propisana je krivična odgovornost i kaţnjivost za više krivičnih djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka. To su računarska ili kompjuterska krivična djela koja učinilac vrši zloupotrebom računara čime prouzrokuje imovinsku ili neimovinsku štetu drugim fizičkim ili pravnim licima. U osnovi ovih inkriminacija se nalaze evropski standardi utvrđeni u Konvenciji o kibernetičkom (sajber) kriminalu i Dodatnom protokolu uz ovu konvenciju, kao i nizu drugih evropskih dokumenata. U radu se analiziraju osnovne karakteristike računarskih krivičnih djela u Srbiji i stepen njihove usaglašenosti sa evropskim standardima. Ključne riječi: zloupotreba računara, evropski standardi, kriminal, odgovornost, sankcija. �1. Uvod Savjet Evrope je donošenjem Konvencije o kibernetičkom (sajber) kriminalu (Convention on Cybercrime, ETS 185), od 23. novembra 2001. godinei, pokušao da postavi osnove jedinstvenog evropskog sistema materijalnog i procesnog krivičnog prava u oblasti neophodne saradnje drţava članica u suzbijanju različitih oblika i vidova računarskog (kibernetičkog) kriminala. Pri tome je sama Konvencija (čl. 2-13) propisala pet krivičnih djela ove vrste koja su upravljena protiv tajnosti, cjelovitosti i dostupnosti računarskih podataka i sistema. Ovim su postavljene osnove za pojedina nacionalna zakonodavstva da preciznije odrede obiljeţja i karakteristike pojedinih računarskih krivičnih djela, njihove osnovne, lakše ili teţe oblike, te da propišu krivične sankcije za njihove učinioce (fizička ili pravna lica). Uz ovu konvenciju je usvojen i Dopunski protokol o kriminaliziranju akata rasističke i ksenofobične prirode koja su učinjena posredstvom računarskih sistema. I ovaj protokol u čl. 3-7 propisuje takođe krivičnu odgovornost i kaţnjivost za zloupotrebu računara u vršenju krivičnih djela iz rasističkih i ksenofobičnih pobuda (motiva). Osim pomenute konvencije, veliki značaj ima i Direktiva 2013/40/EU Evropskog parlamenta i Vijeća Evropske unije od 12. avgusta 2013. godine o napadima na informacijske sisteme i o zamjeni Okvirne odluke Vijeća 2005/222/PUP.ii Imajući u vidu utvrđene obaveze za drţave članice Savjeta Evrope, bilo je logično očekivati da će i u krivičnom zakonodavstvu Republike Srbije (tada Drţavnoj zajednici Srbija i Crna Gora) uslijediti, prvo, na zakonodavnom planu, pa potom i u praksi efikasna, kvalitetna i zakonita borba sa računarskim kriminalitetom i njihovim izvršiocima. Prihvatajući navedenu konvenciju, izmjenama i dopunama Krivičnog zakona Republike Srbije iz aprila 2003. godine u krivičnopravni sistem je uvedeno više računarskih krivičnih djela (u glavi 16a), pod nazivom „Krivična djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka“iii. Identična krivična djela su uvedena i u Krivičnom zakoniku Crne Gore od 2003. godine (u glavi 28 pod istim nazivomiv). 2. Evropski standardi zaštite računarskih sistema U osnovi Konvencije o kibernetičkom kriminalu, kao obavezujućem međunarodnom dokumentu koji je donijet od strane najznačajnije i najmasovnije evropske regionalne organizacije, nalazi se više prethodno donijetih preporuka kao što su: (1) Preporuka broj R (85) 10 o praktičnoj primjeni Evropske konvencije o uzajamnoj pomoći u krivičnim predmetima u pogledu pruţanja međunarodne krivičnopravne pomoći pri presretanju komunikacija, (2) Preporuka broj R (88) 2 o piratstvu na polju autorskih i srodnih prava, (3) Preporuka broj R (87) 15 koja propisuje upotrebu ličnih podataka u oblasti djelatnosti policije, (4) Preporuka broj R (95) 4 o zaštiti ličnih podataka na području telekomunikacionih usluga sa posebnim osvrtom na ulogu telefonije, (5) Preporuka broj R (89) 9 o računarskom kriminalu koja daje smjernice nacionalnim organima u pogledu definisanja pojedinih računarskih krivičnih djela i (6) Preporuka broj R (95) 13 o problemima krivičnog procesnog prava koji su vezani za informatičku tehnologiju. Konvencija o kibernetičkom kriminalu predviđa niz pravnih sredstava, mjera i postupaka koji su nuţni radi odvraćanja lica od radnji koje su usmjerene protiv tajnosti, cjelovitosti i dostupnosti računarskih, sistema, mreţa i računarskih podataka, kao i za odvraćanje od njihove zloupotrebe u bilo kom vidu. Na taj način se olakašava otkrivanje, istraţivanje i krivični progon tih djela i njihovih učinilaca na domaćem i međunarodnom nivou i osigurava efikasna i brza međunarodna saradnja. U članu 1 Konvencije se definišu osnovni pojmovi računarskog (kibernetičkog, sajber) kriminaliteta, kao što su: računarski sistem, računarski Vidi Pavišić, 261-265. Directive 2013/40/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union, of 12 August 2013 on attacks against information systems and replacing Council Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA. iii Vidi Jovašević, 2003, 351-361. iv Zakonik je objavljen u “Sluţbenom listu RCG” br. 70/03, 13/04 i 47/06 i “Sluţbenom listu CG” br. 40/08, 25/10, 32/11, 40/03 i 56/13. Vidi Lazarević, Vučković, Vučković, 816-824. i ii �podatak, davalac usluga ili podaci o prometu. Ovim je dato uputstvo nacionalnom zakonodascu da u ovom duhu tretira ove zaštićene vrijednosti kao objekte krivičnopravne zaštite.v U drugom poglavlju Konvencije, pod nazivom “Kazneno materijalno pravo” u više odredbi su dati pojam i karakteristike pojedinih krivičnih djela koje treba inkriminisati u nacionalnim pravnim sistemima drţava članica Savjeta Evrope. To su sljedeća krivična djela: (1) krivična djela protiv tajnosti, cjelovitosti i dostupnosti računarskih podataka i sistema (čl. 2-6): nezakoniti pristup, nezakonito presretanje, ometanje podataka, ometanje sistema i zloupotreba uređaja, (2) računarska krivična djela (čl.7 i 8): računarsko falsifikovanje i računarska prevara, (3) krivična djela u vezi sa sadrţajem (član 9) – krivična djela vezana za dečju pornografiju i (4) krivična djela povrede autorskih i srodnih prava (član 10). Od posebnog značaja su odredbe Konvencije koje izričito zahtijevaju od drţava članica da se kazni i za pokušaj ovih krivičnih djela, kao i za oblike saučesništva u vidu podstrekavanja i pomaganja, te da se, pored odgovornosti fizičkih lica, za ova djela predvidi i krivična odgovornost pravnih lica. Sve navedene standarde je novo krivično zakonodavstvo Srbije u potpunosti implementiralo u svoj pravni sistem obezbjeđujući vrstu i mjeru kazne za pojedina krivična djela, kao i formirajući u okviru policije, javnog tuţilaštva i Višeg suda u Beogradu posebne organizacione jedinice za borbu protiv visokotehnološkog kriminala. 3. Opšte karakteristike krivičnopravne zaštite računarskih podataka Objekt zaštite ovih krivičnih djela jeste bezbjednost računarskih (kompjuterskih) podataka i sistema, odnosno računarske mreţe.vi Iako je danas uobičajeno da se ova krivična djela obuhvataju pojmom kompjuterski kriminalitet, zakonodavac Republike Srbije za njih je ipak upotrijebio termin računarski kriminalitet. Međutim, pored ovog naziva za krivična djela sistematizovana na ovom mjestu, zakonodavstvo Republike Srbije upotrebljava i pojam visokotehnološki kriminal.vii Pod ovim se pojmom podrazumijeva vršenje krivičnih djela kod kojih se kao objekat ili kao sredstvo izvršenja krivičnih djela javljaju računari, računarske mreţe, računarski podaci, računarski sistemi, kao i njihovi proizvodi u materijalnom ili elektronskom obliku.viii Pri tome je Krivični zakonik Republike Srbijeix (KZ) od 2005. godine u članu 112 odredio pojam i karakteristike: računarskog podatka, računarske mreţe, računarskog programa, računarskog virusa, računara i računarskog sistema u smislu objekta napada kod ovih krivičnih djela. Računarski podatak je svako predstavljanje činjenica, informacija ili koncepta u obliku koji je podesan za njihovu obradu u računarskom sistemu, uključujući i odgovarajući program na osnovu koga računarski sistem obavlja svoju funkciju (stav 17). Računarska mreţa predstavlja skup međusobno povezanih računara, odnosno računarskih sistema koji komuniciraju, razmjenjujući podatke (stav 18). Računarski program je uređeni skup naredbi koji sluţi za upravljanje radom računara, kao i za rješavanje određenog zadatka pomoću računara (stav 19). Računarski virus je računarski program ili drugi skup naredbi koji je unijet u računar ili računarsku mreţu, koji je napravljen da sam sebe umnoţava i djeluje na druge programe ili podatke u računaru ili računarskoj mreţi dodavanjem tog programa ili skupa naredbi jednom ili više računarskih programa ili podataka (stav 20). Računar je svaki elektronski uređaj koji na osnovu programa automatski obrađuje i razmjenjuje podatke (stav 33). I konačno, računarski sistem je svaki uređaj ili grupa međusobno povezanih ili zavisnih uređaja od kojih jedan ili više njih, na osnovu programa, vrši automatsku obradu podataka (stav 34). Kompjuter (računar) predstavlja jednu od najznačajnijih i najrevolucionarnijih tekovina tehničkotehnološkog razvoja na kraju 20. vijeka. Međutim, pored prednosti koje računar nosi sa sobom i ogromne koristi za čovječanstvo, on je ubrzo postao i sredstvo zloupotrebe nesavjesnih pojedinaca ili grupa. Tako Vidi Kareklas, 94-97. Vidi Brvar, B. (1982). Pojavne oblike zlorabe računalnika. Ljubljana: Revija za kriminalistiko in kriminologijo, (2), 27-32 i Vodinelić, V. (1990). Metodika otkrivanja, razjašnjenja i dokazivanja računarskog kriminaliteta. Zagreb: Priručnik, (4), 330-337. vii Pojam, karakteristike, organi krivičnog gonjenja i postupak za krivična djela visokotehnološkog kriminala uređeni su odredbama Zakona o organizaciji i nadleţnosti drţavnih organa za borbu protiv visokotehnološkog kriminala („Sluţbeni glasnik Republike Srbije“ broj 61/05). viii Vidi Jovašević, D. (2003). Krivičnopravna zaštita bezbjednosti računarskih podataka. Beograd: Pravni informator, (6), 53-58. ix “Sluţbeni glasnik Republike Srbije“ br. 85/05, 88/05, 107/05, 72/09, 111/09, 121/12, 104/13 i 108/14. v vi �nastaje računarski kriminalitet, kao poseban i specifičan oblik savremenog kriminaliteta. Zahvaljujući ogromnoj moći računara u memorisanju i brzoj obradi velikog broja podataka, automatizovani informacioni sistemi postaju sve brojniji i nezamjenjivi pratilac cjelokupnog ljudskog i društvenog ţivota fizičkih i pravnih lica. Različite forme primjene računara u svim oblastima ţivota, privrede i drugih društvenih djelatnosti nisu ostale nezapaţene od strane nesavjesnih i zlonamjernih pojedinaca ili grupa koji (ne birajući sredstva i načine) pokušavaju da pribave za sebe ili drugog protivpravnu imovinsku korist ili da drugome nanesu kakvu štetu.x Tako računar postaje sredstvo, oruđe za izvršenje krivičnih djela. Za različite oblike i vidove zloupotrebe računara u teoriji se upotrebljavaju različiti nazivi: zloupotreba računara, delikti uz pomoć računara, informatički kriminalitet, računarski kriminalitet, sajber kriminalitet, tehno kriminalitet itd. Pod pojmom računarskog kriminaliteta podrazumijeva se sveukupnost različitih oblika, vidova i formi ispoljavanja protivpravnih ponašanja upravljenih protiv bezbjednosti računarskih, informacionih i kompjuterskih sistema u cjelini ili njihovih pojedinih dijelova na različite načine i različitim sredstvima u namjeri da se sebi ili drugom pribavi korist (imovinske ili neimovinske prirode) ili da se drugome nanese šteta. Iz ovako određenog pojma računarskog kriminaliteta proizilaze njegove karakteristike: (1) objekt zaštite je bezbjednost računarskih podataka ili informacionog sistema u cjelini ili njegovog pojedinog dijela (segmenta), (2) poseban, specifičan karakter i priroda protivpravnih djelatnosti pojedinaca, (3) posebna znanja i specijalizacija na strani učinioca ovih krivičnih djela koja isključuje mogućnost da se svako, bilo koje lice nađe u ovoj ulozi, (4) poseban način i sredstvo preduzimanja radnje izvršenja – uz pomoć ili upotrebom (zloupotrebom) računara i (5) namjera učinioca kao subjektivni elemenat u vrijeme preduzimanja radnje koja se ogleda u namjeri pribavljanja za sebe ili drugog koristi ili nanošenja štete drugom fizičkom ili pravnom licu.xi Računarski kriminalitet karakteriše velika dinamika i izuzetna šarolikost pojavnih oblika, formi i vidova ispoljavanja.xii To je i razumljivo jer se radi o novoj tehnologiji, sa velikim mogućnostima primjene u širokoj sferi ljudske, društvene i privredne djelatnosti, te su i mogućnosti zloupotrebe računara svaki dan sve veće. Pored novih pojavnih oblika, ranije već poznatih krivičnih djela koja pod uticajem zloupotrebe kompjutera mijenjaju tradicionalni, klasični način i modus ispoljavanja, javljaju se i novi oblici protivpravnog ponašanja koji ne poznaju granice između drţava. Štetne posljedice računarskih krivičnih djela su velike i ispoljavaju se u nastupanju imovinske štete za fizička ili pravna lica (ponekad i za cijelu drţavu), u gubitku poslovnog ugleda, gubitku povjerenja u sigurnost i istinitost računarskog poslovanja i uopšte računarskih podataka, opasnosti od zloupotrebe za slobode i prava čovjeka, na razne načine odavanje lične, poslovne i drugih vidova tajni i sl. Izvršioci ovih krivičnih djela predstavljaju specifičnu kategoriju lica. Radi se, uglavnom, o nedelinkventnim i socijalno prilagodljivim, nenasilnim ličnostima. Oni za vršenje krivičnih djela putem računara moraju da posjeduju određena specijalna, stručna i praktična znanja i vještine u domenu informatičke i računarske tehnike i tehnologije. Pored toga, radi se o licima kojima su ovakva tehnološka sredstva dostupna u fizičkom smislu. Ova se krivična djela vrše prikriveno, često bez vidljive prostorne i vremenski bliske povezanosti između učinioca djela i oštećenog (pasivnog subjekta). U praksi postoji veća ili manja vremenska razlika između preduzete radnje izvršenja i trenutka nastupanja posljedice. Ova se djela teško otkrivaju, a još teţe dokazuju, dugo ostaju praktično neotkrivena, sve dok oštećeni ne pretrpi štetu u domenu informatičkih i računarskih podataka ili sistema. Radi se o kriminalitetu koji brzo i lako mijenja forme i oblike ispoljavanja, granice među drţavama, kao i vrstu oštećenog. U pogledu krivice, ova se djela vrše isključivo sa umišljajem. 4. Pojedina računarska krivična djela KZ je u verlikoj mjeri preuzeo niz utvrđenih evropskih standarda koji predviđa navedena evropska konvencija kako bi u potpunosti stvorio osnove za efikasnu, kvalitetnu, zakonitu i blagovremenu Vidi Petrović, S. (1994). Kompjuterski kriminalitet. Beograd: Bezbjednost, (1), 32-40. Vidi Đokić, Z., Ţivanović, S. (2005). Kompjuterski kriminal kao obilježje progresivnog kriminaliteta. Zbornik radova „Kazneno zakonodavstvo – progresivna ili regresivna rješenja. Beograd, 305-318. xii Vidi Kitarović, N. (1998). Kompjuterski kriminalitet. Beograd: Bilten sudske praske Vrhovnog suda Srbije, (2-3), 52-56. x xi �krivičnopravnu zaštitu računarskih podataka, sistema i drugih zaštićenih vrijednosti. U odnosu na prvobitna rješenja, u septembru 2009. godine je dodato novo krivično djelo propisano u članu 304a KZ. Tako, danas sistem krivičnih djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka čine sljedeća krivična djelaxiii: (1) Oštećenje računarskih podataka i programa (član 298 KZ), (2) Računarska sabotaţa (član 299 KZ), (3) Pravljenje i unošenje računarskih virusa (član 300 KZ), (4) Računarska prevara (član 301 KZ), (5) Neovlašćeni pristup zaštićenom računaru, računarskoj mreţi i elektronskoj obradi podataka (član 302 KZ), (6) Sprečavanje i ograničavanje pristupa javnoj računarskoj mreţi (član 303 KZ), (7) Neovlašćeno korišćenje računara ili računarske mreţe (član 304 KZ) i (8) Pravljenje, nabavljanje i davanje drugom sredstava za izvršenje krivičnih djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka (član 304a KZ). 4.1. Oštećenje računarskih podataka i programa Krivično delo iz člana 298 se sastoji u neovlašćenom brisanju, izmjeni, oštećenju, prikrivanju ili na drugi način činjenju neupotrebljivim računarskog podatka ili programa. Objekt zaštite je bezbjednost računarskih podataka ili računarskih programa, a objekt napada je računarski podatak ili program. Računarski podatak je svako predstavljanje činjenica, informacija ili koncepta u obliku koji je podesan za njihovu obradu u računarskom sistemu, uključujući i odgovarajući program na osnovu koga računarski sistem obavlja svoju funkciju. Računarski program je uređeni skup naredbi koji sluţi za upravljanje radom računara, kao i za rješavanje određenog zadatka pomoću računara. Radnja izvršenja je alternativno određenaxiv i sastoji se u preduzimanju sljedećih djelatnosti: 1) brisanju, 2) izmjeni, 3) oštećenju, 4) prikrivanju i 5) činjenju neupotrebljivim računarskog podatka ili programa. Za postojanje ovog djela je bitno da se radnja preduzima neovlašćeno, dakle od strane neovlašćenog lica, na način i u postupku koji nisu dozvoljeni i u skladu sa zakonom. Brisanje je uklanjanje računarskih podataka u cjelini ili djelimično ili računarskog programa. Izmjena je delimična promjena postojećih podataka ili unošenje novih podataka na način, od strane lica i u postupku koji nije predviđen odgovarajućim propisima ili po odgovarajućoj proceduri. Oštećenje je privremeno, djelimično ili kratkotrajno onesposobljenje korišćenja računarskog podatka ili programa izazivanjem kvarova ili kidanjem pojedinih dijelova, veza ili sklopova, tako da se računarski podatak ili program ne mogu koristiti za određeno vrijeme za svrhu za koju su namijenjeni. Prikrivanje je premještanje podatka ili programa sa mjesta na kome je bio pohranjen ili sadrţan i sklanjanje na drugo, najčešće nepoznato mjesto. Činjenje neupotrebljivim na drugi način je svako drugo onesposobljenje za kraće ili duţe vrijeme ili onemogućavanje u većoj ili manjoj mjeri korišćenja računarskog podatka ili programa. Posljedica djela je povreda zaštićenog dobra – računarskog podatka ili programa koji pripada fizičkom ili pravnom licu u smislu njegove upotrebljivosti, korisnosti uopšte ili za određeno vrijeme, na određenom mjestu ili za određenu namjenu. Izvršilac djela moţe da bude svako lice, a u pogledu krivice potreban je umišljaj. Za ovo je djelo propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do jedne godine. Sud učiniocu djela obavezno izriče mjeru bezbjednosti oduzimanja uređaja i sredstava ako su ispunjena dva uslova: 1) da se radi o sredstvima i uređajima kojima je krivično djelo učinjeno i 2) da su sredstva i uređaji u svojini učinioca djela. Ovo djelo ima dva teţa oblika. Prvi teţi oblik djela postoji ako je preduzetom radnjom izvršenja osnovnog djela prouzrokovana šteta u iznosu preko 450.000 dinara. Visina pričinjene imovinske štete (u vrijeme izvršenja djela u zakonom utvrđenom iznosu) predstavlja kvalifikatornu okolnost. Za ovo je djelo propisana kazna zatvora od tri mjeseca do tri godine. Drugi teţi oblik djela, za koji je propisana kazna zatvora od tri mjeseci do pet godina, postoji ako je preduzetom radnjom osnovnog djela prouzrokovana imovinska šteta u iznosu preko 1.500.000 dinara. xiii xiv Vidi Đurđić, Jovašević, 215-217. Vidi Lazarević, Vučković, Vučković, 816 i 817. �4.2. Računarska sabotaža Ovo djelo iz člana 299 KZ čini lice koje unese, uništi, izbriše, izmijeni, ošteti, prikrije ili na drugi način učini neupotrebljivim računarski podatak ili program ili uništi ili ošteti računar ili drugi uređaj za elektronsku obradu i prenos podataka u namjeri da onemogući ili znatno omete postupak elektronske obrade i prenosa podataka koji su od značaja za drţavni organ, javnu sluţbu, ustanovu, preduzeće ili druge subjekte.xv Objekt zaštite je dvojako određen kao: 1) računarski podatak ili program i 2) računar i drugi uređaj za elektronsku obradu i prenos podataka. Bitno je da ovi uređaji i sredstva pripadaju, odnosno da su od značaja za drţavni organ, javnu sluţbu, ustanovu, preduzeće ili drugog subjekta. Radnja izvršenjaxvi je alternativno određena kao: 1) unos, 2) uništenje, 3) brisanje, 4) izmjena, 5) oštećenje, 6) prikrivanje i 7) činjenje neupotrebljivim na drugi način računarskog podatka ili programa, odnosno uništenje ili oštećenje računara ili drugog uređaja za elektronsku obradu i prenos podataka. Unos je upisivanje ili pohranjivanje novog do tada nepostojećeg podatka ili izmjena već postojećeg računarskog ili drugog podatka u računarskom programu. Uništenje je potpuno i trajno razaranje supstance ili oblika određenog predmeta tako da više uopšte ne moţe da se koristi za svrhu, namjenu za koju je ranije korišćen. Brisanje je uklanjanje, najčešće mehaničkim ili drugim putem, u cjelini ili djelimično, računarskog podatka ili programa. Izmjena je djelimično mijenjanje postojećih podataka u smislu njihove sadrţine, mjesta gdje se nalaze ili njihove prirode ili unošenje drugih neistinitih podataka u računarski sistem. Oštećenje je privremeno, djelimično ili kratkotrajno onesposobljenje računarskog podatka, programa, računara ili drugog uređaja za svrhu za koju su inače namijenjeni. Prikrivanje je sklanjanje podatka ili predmeta sa mjesta na kome se do tada nalazio i koje je svima bilo poznato i premještanje na drugo, najčešće skriveno mjesto, tako da se sa njihovom sadrţinom ne mogu upoznati druga lica uopšte ili za određeno vrijeme. Činjenje neupotrebljivim računarskog podatka ili programa predstavlja svaku djelatnost kojom se u većoj ili manjoj mjeri utiče na upotrebljivost računarskih podataka ili programa. Zavisno od objekta napada prema kome je upravljena radnja izvršenja ovog krivičnog djela, razlikuju se dva njegova oblika. To su: 1) uništenje ili oštećenje računarskog podatka ili programa i 2) uništenje i oštećenje računara ili drugog uređaja za elektronsku obradu i prenos podataka. Ono što je bitno za postojanje oba oblika djela jeste: a) da se radnja izvršenja preduzima u odnosu na objekte koji pripadaju drţavnom organu, javnoj sluţbi, ustanovi, preduzeću ili drugom subjektu (pravnom licu sa posebnim ovlašćenjima)xvii; b) da na strani učinioca u vrijeme preduzimanja radnje postoji određena namjera - da se onemogući (u potpunosti i trajno) ili znatno omete (oteţa) postupak elektronske obrade i prenosa podataka. Nije od značaja da li je ova namjera u konkretnom slučaju i ostvarena. Posljedica djela je povreda računarskog podatka, programa, računara ili uređaja za automatski prenos ili obradu podataka u smislu njihove upotrebljivosti i korisnosti. Izvršilac djela moţe da bude svako lice, a u pogledu krivice potreban je direktni umišljaj koji karakteriše navedena namjera. Za ovo je djelo propisana kazna zatvora od šest mjeseci do pet godina. 4.3. Pravljenje i unošenje računarskih virusa Specifično krivično djelo iz člana 300 KZ se sastoji u pravljenju računarskog virusa u namjeri njegovog unošenja ili njegovom unošenju u tuđi računar ili računarsku mreţu. Objekt zaštite je bezbjednost računara i računarske mreţe od virusa različite vrste i prirode, a objekt napada je računarski virus. To je računarski program ili neki drugi skup naredbi unijet u računar ili računarsku mreţu koji je napravljen da sam sebe umnoţava i djeluje na druge programe ili podatke u računaru ili računarskoj mreţi -dodavanjem tog programa ili skupa naredbi jednom ili više računarskih programa ili podataka. Vidi Kitarović, Kompjuterski kriminalitet, op. cit., 52-56. Vidi Jovašević, 2003, 354 i 355. xvii Dakle, svojstvo oštećenog predstavlja elemenat bića ovog krivičnog djela. xv xvi �Radnja izvršenja se sastoji u: (1) pravljenju - stvaranju računarskog virusa koji je podoban, dovoljan, u mogućnosti da prouzrokuje određene promjene, oštećenja u korišćenju ili upotrebljivosti računara ili računarske mreţe u (cjelini ili djelimično). Za postojanje ove radnje izvršenja je potrebno da učinilac postupa sa namjerom (kao subjektivnim elementom) da tako stvoreni računarski virus unese u tuđi računar ili računarsku mreţu. Namjera mora da postoji na strani učinioca u vrijeme preduzimanja radnje, bez obzira na to da li je u konkretnom slučaju ona i ostvarena; (2) unošenju računarskog virusa, neposredno ili posredno, u tuđi računar ili računarsku mreţu, bez obzira na to ko je ovaj virus napravio. Izvršilac djela moţe da bude svako lice, a u praksi su to lica koja posjeduju posebna, specijalna znanja iz oblasti računarstva i informatike. U pogledu krivice potreban je direktni umišljaj koji karakteriše navedena namjera. Za ovo je djelo propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do šest mjeseci. Uređaji i sredstva kojima je učinjeno djelo se obavezno oduzimaju - primjenom mjere bezbjednosti oduzimanja predmeta. Teţi oblik djela, za koji je propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do dvije godine, postoji ako je ovako stvoreni virus unijet u tuđi računar ili računarsku mreţu čime je prouzrokovana šteta. Za postojanje djela je bitno da je učinilac svjestan, da zna u vrijeme preduzimanja radnje – rada na računaru, da na takav način upravo unosi računarski virus u tuđi računar ili računarsku mreţu. Šteta koja je na ovaj način prouzrokovana, moţe biti imovinskog ili neimovinskog karaktera. Bitno je da ovako prouzorokovana šteta predstavlja rezultat preduzete radnje osnovnog djela i da u odnosu na nju učinilac postupa sa nehatom. 4.4. Računarska prevara Računarska prevara iz člana 301 KZ se sastoji u unošenju netačnog podatka, propuštanju unošenja tačnog podatka ili na drugi način prikrivanju ili laţnom prikazivanju podatka čime se utiče na rezultat elektronske obrade i prenosa podataka u namjeri da se sebi ili drugom pribavi protivpravna imovinska korist i time prouzrokuje imovinska šteta drugom licu.xviii Objekt zaštite je bezbjednost računarskih sistema od unošenja netačnih, neistinitih podataka i povjerenje u ove sisteme. Radnja izvršenjaxix se sastoji iz dvije alternativno predviđene djelatnosti. To su: (1) prikrivanje i (2) laţno prikazivanje računarskog podatka. Prikrivanje je neunošenje nekog podatka od strane lica koje je obavezno da taj podatak unese u računar ili računarsku meţu. Moţe se raditi o bilo kakvom podatku. Laţno prikazivanje računarskog podatka postoji kada se u računarskoj mreţi prikazuje, objavljuje, unosi ili koristi neistiniti podatak (bilo da je u potpunosti ili djelimično neistinit). Obje djelatnosti moraju biti preduzete u odnosu na podatak koji je po svom značaju, prirodi, karakteru, vremenu unošenja ili upotrebe takav da je podoban da utiče na rezultat (tok i postupak) elektronske obrade i prenosa podataka u računarskom sistemu. Bilo koja od ovih djelatnosti, u smislu krivičnog djela, mora biti preduzeta na zakonom određeni način: (1) unošenjem netačnog (neistinitog) podatka u cjelini ili djelimično, (2) propuštanjem da se unese, neunošenjem, neupisivanjem kakvog vaţnog podatka (znači ne bilo kakvog podatka, već samo onog koji je u konkretnom slučaju vaţan) ili (3) na drugi način. Sve djelatnosti, u smislu radnje izvršenja ovog krivičnog djela, moraju biti preduzete u određenoj namjeri – namjeri da učinilac za sebe ili drugog pribavi protivpravnu imovinsku korist. Ta namjera mora da postoji na strani učinioca u vrijeme preduzimanja radnje, ali ona u konkretnom slučaju ne mora biti i ostvarena. Posljedica djela je povreda koja se ogleda u prouzrokovanju imovinske štete za drugog. Moţe se raditi o šteti u bilo kom iznosu koja je u uzročnoposledičnoj vezi sa preduzetom radnjom izvršenja, bez obzira na to da li je oštećeni vlasnik ili korisnik računarske mreţe. Vidi Turković et al., 345 i 346. Vidi Jovašević, Obiljeţja kompjuterskog kriminaliteta, op. cit., 56-62. xviii xix �Izvršilac djela moţe da bude svako lice, a u pogledu krivice je potreban direktni umišljaj koji kvalifikuje navedena namjera. Za ovo djelo je propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do tri godine. Lakši oblik djela postoji kada je učinilac preduzeo radnju izvršenja – prikrivanje ili laţno prikazivanje podatka u računaru ili računarskoj mreţi na zakonom predviđeni način sa namjerom da se drugome nanese šteta, dakle, da se drugo fizičko ili pravno lice ošteti. Maliciozna namjera učinioca da se drugome nanese imovinska ili neimovinska šteta - predstavlja privilegujuću okolnost za koju je zakon propisao novčanu kaznu ili kaznu zatvora do šest mjeseci. Ovo djelo ima dva teţa oblika. Prvi teţi oblik djela, za koji je propisana kazna zatvora od jedne do osam godina, postoji ako je usljed preduzete radnje izvršenja osnovnog djela pribavljena imovinska korist (za učinioca ili drugo lice) u iznosu preko 450.000 dinara. Visina pribavljene imovinske koristi predstavlja kvalifikatornu okolnost. Ona se mora nalaziti u uzročno-posljedičnoj vezi sa preduzetom radnjom izvršenja. Drugi teţi oblik djela postoji ako je preduzetom radnjom izvršenja učinilac za sebe ili drugog pribavio protivpravnu imovinsku korist u iznosu preko 1.500.000 dinara. Za ovo je djelo propisana kazna zatvora od dvije do deset godina. 4.5. Neovlašćeni pristup zaštićenom računaru, računarskoj mreži i elektronskoj obradi podataka Sljedeće računarsko djelo iz člana 302 KZ se sastoji u neovlašćenom uključivanju u računar ili računarsku mreţu ili u neovlašćenom pristupu elektronskoj obradi podataka kršenjem mjera zaštite.xx Objekt zaštite je bezbjednost računara ili računarske mreţe, odnosno sistema elektronske obrade podataka koji su zaštićeni posebnim tehničkim i drugim mjerama zaštite. Radnja izvršenja je neovlašćeno uključivanje u računar ili računarsku mreţu ili pristup elektronskoj obradi podataka.xxi To je ulazak, prodiranje, pristup u zaštićeni sistem računarskih podataka, u sistem elektronske obrade ili prenosa podataka, kao i u računarsku mreţu u cjelini ili njen pojedini dio. Bitno je da se radi o računaru, računarskom sistemu ili sistemu elektronske obrade podataka koji su zaštićeni posebnim mjerama zaštite. Stoga se radnja izvršenja preduzima na određeni zakonom predviđeni način: 1) neovlašćeno i 2) kršenjem mjera zaštite (postupanjem protivno svim propisanim mjerama ili samo pojedinim mjerama, i to činjenjem ili nečinjenjem). Izvršilac dela moţe da bude svako lice koje posjeduje određena znanja iz oblasti zaštite računara ili računarskih sistema. U pogledu krivice potreban je umišljaj. Za ovo je djelo propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do šest mjeseci. Djelo ima dva teţa oblika. Prvi teţi oblik djela postoji u slučaju snimanja ili upotrebe računarskog podatka koji je dobijen neovlašćenim uključivanjem u tuđi računar ili računarsku mreţu ili tuđi sistem elektronske obrade podataka pod uslovom da je to učinjeno kršenjem mjera zaštite. Za ovo je djelo propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do dvije godine. Bez značaja je u kom cilju ili u kojoj namjeri je upotrijebljen na ovaj način pribavljen (snimljen) računarski podatak. Drugi teţi oblik djela, za koji je propisana kazna zatvora do tri godine, postoji ako je neovlašćenim uključivanjem u tuđi računar ili računarsku mreţu ili tuđi sistem elektronske obrade podataka (kršenjem mjera zaštite) pribavljen računarski podatak (jedan ili više njih) koji je potom upotrijebljen usljed čega je došlo do zastoja ili ozbiljnog poremećaja funkcionisanja elektronske obrade i prenosa podataka ili mreţe ili su nastupile druge teške posljedice za drugo (fizičko ili pravno) lice. Teţe posljedice mogu biti imovinske ili neimovinske prirode, ali moraju biti u uzročno-posljedičnoj vezi sa upotrebom podatka do koga se došlo neovlašćenim uključivanjem ili pristupom. Za postojanje ovog teţeg djela je bitno da je došlo do nastupanja teţe posljedice povrede u vidu zastoja ili ozbiljnog poremećaja funkcionisanja elektronske xx xxi Vidi Jovašević, 2003, 359 i 360. Vidi Turković et al., 341 i 342. �obrade i prenosa podataka ili mreţe ili da su nastupile druge teške posljedice. Koje su to teške posljedice, predstavlja faktičko pitanje koje sud rješava u konkretnom slučaju. 4.6. Sprečavanje i ograničavanje pristupa javnoj računarskoj mreži Krivično delo iz člana 303 KZ se sastoji u neovlašćenom sprečavanju ili ometanju pristupa javnoj računarskoj mreţi.xxii Objekt zaštite je javna računarska mreţa i slobodan pristup toj mreţi od strane individualno neodređenog broja lica. Motiv ove inkriminacije je sprečavanje monopola u korišćenju javne računarske mreţe. Radnja izvršenja je sprečavanje ili ometanje slobodnog pristupa javnoj računarskoj mreţi.xxiii Sprečavanje je onemogućavanje u potpunosti, trajno ili za određeno kraće vrijeme, pristupa drugom licu javnoj računarskoj mreţi. To moţe biti učinjeno fizičkim sprečavanjem, postavljanjem određenih uslova ili prepreka, odnosno zahtijevanjem ispunjenja određenih pretpostavki. Ometanje je djelimično usloţavanje, oteţavanje, činjenje nedostupnim ili uslovljavanje drugom licu da nesmetano, slobodno, po svom nahođenju pristupi ili koristi javnu računarsku mreţu. Bitno je da se radi o radnji izvršenja koja je preduzeta neovlašćeno (od neovlašćenog lica, mimo uslova i pretpostavki i van postupka koji su zakonom ili drugim propisima iz ove oblasti predviđeni) u odnosu na javnu računarsku mreţu. Izvršilac djela moţe da bude svako lice, a u pogledu krivice potreban je umišljaj. Za ovo je djelo propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do jedne godine. Teţi oblik djela, za koji je propisana kazna zatvora do tri godine, postoji ako je radnju izvršenja preduzelo sluţbeno lice u vršenju sluţbe. Svojstvo učinioca djela i način preduzimanja radnje izvršenja - kršenjem ili zloupotrebom sluţbene duţnosti, predstavljaju kvalifikatorne okolnosti za koje zakon propisuje stroţije kaţnjavanje. 4.7. Neovlašćeno korišćenje računara ili računarske mreže Krivično djelo iz člana 304 KZ se sastoji u neovlašćenom korišćenju računarske usluge ili računarske mreţe u namjeri da se sebi ili drugom licu pribavi protivpravna imovinska korist.xxiv Objekt zaštite je zakonitost i savjesnost u korišćenju računarskih sistema - usluga ili mreţe od svih oblika zloupotrebe i nesavjesnosti. Radnja izvršenja je neovlašćeno korišćenje, dakle upotreba, iskorišćavanje podataka koji su pribavljeni ili pohranjeni u računaru ili računarskoj mreţi u koristoljubivoj namjeri – namjeri da na ovaj način učinilac za sebe ili drugo fizičko ili pravno lice pribavi protivpravnu (ne bilo kakvu) korist. Ova namjera mora da postoji na strani učinioca u vrijeme preduzimanja radnje izvršenja, ali ona ne mora u konkretnom slučaju da bude i ostvarena. Izvršilac djela moţe da bude svako lice, a u pogledu krivice potreban je direktni umišljaj koji karakteriše navedena namjera. Za ovo je djelo propisana novčana kazna ili kazna zatvora do tri mjeseca. 4.8. Pravljenje, nabavljanje i davanje drugom sredstava za izvršenje krivičnih djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka Ovo je novo računarsko krivično djelo (član 304a KZ) koje je uvedeno novelom KZ iz 2009. godine. Zapravo, ovdje se radi o kaţnjivim pripremnim radnjama za izvršenje nekog od računarskih krivičnih djela. Samo djelo se sastoji u posjedovanju, pravljenju, nabavljanju, prodaji ili davanju drugome na upotrebu računara, računarskog sistema, računarskog podatka ili programa za izvršenje nekog od krivičnih djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka.xxv Za ovo je djelo propisana kazna zatvora od šest mjeseci do tri godine, pri čemu se obavezno od učinioca oduzimaju predmeti izvršenja djela - primjenom posebne mjere bezbjednosti oduzimanja premeta. Vidi Jovašević, Obiljeţja kompjuterskog kriminaliteta, op. cit., 56-62. Vidi Kitarović, Kompjuterski kriminalitet, op. cit., 52-56. xxiv Vidi Jovašević, 2003, 360 i 361. xxv Vidi Simić, Trešnjev, 213 i 214. xxii xxiii �Objekt zaštite je i u ovom slučaju bezbjednost računarskih sistema i podataka, ali koja se obezbjeđuje na specifičan način - prije neposrednog preduzimanja radnje krivičnog djela. Radnja izvršenja je višestruko alternativno određena. Ona se sastoji u: posjedovanju, pravljenju, nabavljanju, prodaji ili davanju drugome na upotrebu predmeta. Posjedovanje je sama drţavinska vlast izvršioca nad predmetima, neposredno ili posredno, što uključuje njegovu mogućnost njihovog korišćenja. Pravljenje je izrada novog ili prepravljanje, preinaka postojećeg predmeta. Nabavljanje je dolaţenje u posjed, u drţavinu predmeta. Prodaja je zamjena predmeta za domaći ili strani novac, a davanje na upotrebu drugome je radnja pomaganja kojom se stvaraju uslovi da drugo lice neposredno upotrijebi ove predmete. Bitno je da se radnja izvršenja preduzima: 1) u odnosu na zakonom tačno određene predmete kao što su: računar, računarski sistem, račnarski podatak ili program i 2) u određenoj namjeri - za izvršenje nekog od krivičnih djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka. 5. Zaključak Prihvatanjem odredbi niza relevantnih evropskih dokumenata, koji su konačno inaugurisani usvajanjem Konvencije o kibernetičkom kriminalu, u nacionalnim zakonodavstvima drţava članica Sav,eta Evrope je stvorena pravna osnova za uvođenje posebne vrste „računarskih, kompjuterskih“ krivičnih djela koja imaju za cilj da obezbijede efikasno, kvalitetno, zakonito, bezbjedno i uz povjerenje obavljanje različitih poslova i usluga putem računara. Zapravo, uvođenjem posebnih krivičnih djela obezbjeđuje se bezbjednost računarskih sistema i podataka u nacionalnim i međunarodnim razmerama. Tako je i u Republici Srbiji, počev od 2003. godine, u krivičnopravni sistem uvedeno više krivičnih djela ove vrste pri čemu je zakonodavac, poštujući utvrđene evropske standarde, obezbijedio krivične sankcije za pojedine oblike i vidove ispoljavanja propisanih računarskih krivičnih djela. Slična krivična djela su sastavni dio i novodonijetog KZ iz 2005. godine. Na taj način, uz odgovarajuće procesne pretpostavke (formiranje posebnih organa za suzbijanje visokotehnološkog kriminala u okviru policije, javnog tuţilaštva i suda) stvorene su pretpostavke za efikasnu borbu Republike Srbije sa ovim savremenim oblicima i vidovima kriminaliteta koji ne poznaje granice između drţava. 6. Literatura Đurđić, V., Jovašević, D. (2010). Krivično pravo, Posebni dio. Beograd: Nomos. Jovašević, D. (2003). Komentar Krivičnog zakona Republike Srbije sa sudskom praksom. Beograd: Nomos. Kareklas, S.E. (2009). Priručnik za krivično pravo Evropske unije. Beograd: Institut za uporedno pravo i Mladi pravnici. Lazarević, Lj., Vučković, B., Vučković, V. (2004). Komentar Krivičnog zakonika Crne Gore, Obod, Cetinje: Obod. Pavišić, B. (2006). Kazneno pravo Vijeća Evrope. Zagreb: Tehnička knjiga. Simić, I., Trešnjev, A. (2010). Krivični zakonik s kraćim komentarom. Beograd: Ing pro. Turković, K., et al. (2013). Komentar Kaznenog zakona. Zagreb: Narodne novine. �Authors: Dragan Jovašević, PhD; Marina M. Simović, PhD Institutions: (1) Facultfay of Law of University of Niš; (2) Faculty of Law, University „Apeiron“ of Banja Luka SAFETY OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS IN SERBIA AND EUROPEAN STANDARDS Abstract The Republic of Serbia, in its new criminal legislation passed in 2005, provides for criminal responsibility and punishment for several criminal offences against safety of computer data. Those are computer criminal offences done by the perpetrator by computer abuse, thereby causing material or nonmaterial damage to other natural or legal persons. The basis of those incriminations are European standards prescribed under the Convention on Cyber Criminal and Additional Protocol to this Convention, as well as many other European documents. The paper analyses basic characteristics of computer criminal offences in Serbia and the degree of their compatibility with European standards. Keywords: computer abuse, european standards, crime, responsibility, sanction. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3166 Title A name given to the resource BEZBJEDNOST RAČUNARSKIH SISTEMA U SRBIJI I EVROPSKI STANDARDI Author Author JOVAŠEVIĆ, Dragan SIMOVIĆ, Marina M. Abstract A summary of the resource. U novom krivičnom zakonodavstvu Republike Srbije od 2005. godine propisana je krivična odgovornost i kažnjivost za više krivičnih djela protiv bezbjednosti računarskih podataka. To su računarska ili kompjuterska krivična djela koja učinilac vrši zloupotrebom računara čime prouzrokuje imovinsku ili neimovinsku štetu drugim fizičkim ili pravnim licima. U osnovi ovih inkriminacija se nalaze evropski standardi utvrđeni u Konvenciji o kibernetičkom (sajber) kriminalu i Dodatnom protokolu uz ovu konvenciju, kao i nizu drugih evropskih dokumenata. U radu se analiziraju osnovne karakteristike računarskih krivičnih djela u Srbiji i stepen njihove usaglašenosti sa evropskim standardima. Ključne riječi: zloupotreba računara, evropski standardi, kriminal, odgovornost, sankcija. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-50-9 K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c39d4fcf4127d4c98fe50761be78b4e5.pdf f9a3edaf624ec2bf00cc0d37b8a9e78b PDF Text Text     Journal of Economic and Social Studies Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia Snježana Brkić School of Economics and Business University of Sarajevo snjezana.brkic@efsa.unsa.ba Abstract: The paper focuses primarily on intra-industry trade (IIT) which is researched in the context of country-specific characteristics. A three-decade-long academic research of IIT phenomena suggests that IIT is likely to be more intensive and mostly of horizontal type between countries that are at a similar stage of economic development, with the same level of trade openness and with intensive and significantly liberalized mutual trade. Geographical proximity of countries, especially their common border, as well as their similarities in some non-economic characteristics such as history, culture, language, also contribute to IIT intensity. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) and Croatia match most of Keywords:  : Intra-Industry Trade (IIT), Grubel-Lloyd Index (G-L Index), Country Characteristics, Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH), Croatia JEL Classification: F10, F14, F15 Article History Submitted: 11.9.2017 Resubmitted: 20.4.2018 Accepted: 26.7.2018 these criteria for intensive and increasing IIT. The aim of the research is to check aforementioned thesis on IIT on a case study of BH in its trade with Croatia over the period from 2003 till 2016. Research is focused http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECO SS17726 on IIT characteristics – intensity, trend and structure, both at aggregate level (based on calculating corrected and uncorrected Grubel-Lloyd indices) and at division level of Standard International Trade Classification – SITC (based on calculating standard Grubel-Lloyd index and relative unit values of export and import). The research findings indicate a continuously rising, although lower than expected, intensity of IIT, taking into account similarities between given countries in comparison with other important trading partners of BH and taking into account a high level of data aggregation. In BH trade with Croatia inter-industry trade still prevails while high intensive IIT appears in a very low number of product groups, coupled with the dominance of vertical IIT. However,at the same time a growing trend and a significant increase of IIT intensity in trade with Croatia have been identified. Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 100 �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   Introduction Empirical research into intra-industry trade (IIT) of a series of countries indicates the existence of a significant IIT share and a greater presence of the horizontal type of IIT in the mutual trade between countries with similar economic and non-economic characteristics. The dominant IIT, mostly of horizontal type, is more likely to develop between countries that are geographically close (particularly the neighboring ones), and that are similar by size, economic development, trade openness, culture and language, and have the common history, countries that intensively trade with each other and belong to the same economic integration. The aim of the paper is to establish whether the intensity and structure of IIT between Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) and Croatia develop in line with the theoretical hypotheses and empirical findings on IIT between countries of given characteristics. Upon comparing economic and other characteristics of the two countries, the research focuses on measuring the share of BH IIT at an aggregate level and determining the trend of IIT in BH trade with the world, Croatia and other significant trading partners. The last section of research pertains to measuring the IIT intensity in the BH trade with Croatia by industries, in order to determine the number of product groups where IIT prevails, and a more common IIT type having in mind the product differentiation (vertical or horizontal). The IIT analysis is based on the calculation of aggregate Grubel-Lloyd indices, both uncorrected and corrected for trade imbalance, and Grubel-Lloyd indices at the industry level. For the purpose of this research the industry, i.e. the product group has been defined at the level of divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) rev. 3, i.e. at a two-digit aggregation level 1 , and IIT was measured based on the data by industries which registered exports and /or imports in BH trade with Croatia over the observed period. The observed time period covers fourteen years, from 2003 to 2016. It is the longest period with available data at a two-digit SITC level for BH from an unique national source and with a satisfactory degree of reliability.2 This period can be divided into two parts: the period of free trade between the observed countries from 2003 to 2013, and the period from 2014 to 2016, when the degree of liberalization was taken back to a lower level due to Croatia’s accession to the European Union (EU). Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 101 �Snježana Brkić   Literature Review As opposed from the inter-industry trade which implies trade in products of different industries and which is still the prevailing trade type in the structure of international trade flows, intra-industry trade (IIT) is a kind of trade where products of the same classification are simultaneously found in the structure of exports and structure of imports of the trading countries. In simpler terms, IIT is the international trade of products within the same industry. Probably the shortest, although comprehensive enough definition says that IIT is a two-way trade in products related in demand and/or supply (Brkić, 2012). The explanation of the IIT phenomenon is based on a few theoretical concepts and models, primarily those included in the modern theory of international trade and based on imperfect competition, increasing returns and product differentiation. Germs of the contemporary explanation of IIT are already found in the first modern theories of international trade – Linder’s concept of demand similarity (1961) and Vernon’s theory of product life cycle (1966). The first “true” IIT models based on increasing returns and product differentiation were constructed by Krugman (1979) and Lancaster (1980). The development of IIT model has led to the differentiation between its horizontal and vertical component. The theoretical basis of horizontal IIT was developed in models by Lancaster (1980), Krugman (1981), Helpman (1981, 1987), Eaton and Kierzkowski (1984), and Bergstrand (1990), while the theoretical basis of vertical IIT type rests upon papers published by Falvey (1981), Shaked and Sutton (1984), Falvey and Kierzkowski (1987), and Flam and Helpman (1987). Research into the factors affecting IIT resulted in distinguishing IIT determinants related to country characteristics (general and specific) on the one hand, and IIT determinants related to industry characteristics on the other. The most common general country characteristics include: size, economic development level, geographic distance, trade barriers/degree of openness and trade intensity. Specific country characteristics may include: common border, membership in same economic integrations, similarity of culture and language, political ties, common history, etc. One of the first theoretical concepts to implicitly offer the explanation of IIT phenomenon based on country characteristics was developed by Linder (1961), who introduced the hypothesis of similarity of demand. Some twenty years later, Linder’s thesis was to be elaborated by Krugman (1980), and Helpman and Krugman (1985); their papers led to a few claims about the determining role of country characteristics. In a few papers of the 1980s3, Balassa highlighted the importance of countries’ size and their mutual geographical distance for all types of international trade. Falvey 102 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   (1981) and Falvey and Kierzkowski (1987), and then Davis (1995) as well developed concepts that relate IIT with factor endowment, which had previously been exclusively considered as an inter-industry trade determinant. Leamer (1988) and later Harrigan (1994, 1996) related IIT with policies, pointing to the significance of market openness for the growth of international trade in general, and IIT in particular. Numerous empirical studies also dealt with studying the correlation between IIT and trade policy such as Pagoulatos and Sorensen (1975), Loertscher and Wolter (1980), Caves, (1981), Bergstrand (1983, 1989, 1990), Havrylyshyn and Civan (1983), Balassa (1967, 1986c) Balassa and Bauwens (1987), Torstensson (1996), Sharma (2000, 2002, 2004), Lee and Sohn (2005), Veeramani (2009), and others. Most researchers reached the identical conclusion that IIT intensity inversely varies compared to the level of trade restrictions. Trade liberalization between trading countries in general, and particularly within higher degrees of economic integration, is a significant determinant of IIT. Experiences of developed economic integrations in the world, particularly of the EU point to the conclusion that economic integration leads to an increase in intra-, rather than interindustry trade. The reason includes greater possibilities for production and trade in differentiated products. The positive effect of regional economic integration on IIT was determined in a number of studies: Balassa (1966, 1979); Grubel and Lloyd (1975); Drabek and Greenaway (1984); Balassa and Bauwens (1987); Greenaway (1987); Havrylyshyn and Kunzel (1997); Matthews (1998); Manger (2015); and others. A special interest of IIT researchers, starting from the already mentioned Balassa, was aroused by the size and economic development of trading countries. According to Lancaster (1980) and Bergstrand (1990), the larger the market size, the more space there is for product differentiation and a greater import demand for differentiated products, and the market size is therefore expected to be in the positive correlation with IIT. Krugman (1979, 1980), and Helpman and Krugman (1985) find arguments in the fact that a larger market presents a greater possibility for achieving the economy of scale, which leads to a greater IIT. In empirical literature there are a number of confirmations of the hypothesis on the impact of average size of trading countries on IIT, starting from Balassa and Bauwens (1987), Bergstrand (1990), Guell and Richards (1998) to more recent research by Durkin and Krygier (2000), Kandogan (2003) and others. In the context of these considerations, one can expect a greater IIT between countries of similar economic size. Due to the similarity in the level of economic development between countries, which is typically expressed through the similarity in the level of income p/c, one can also expect a greater intensity of mutual IIT, which was established in the studies by Balassa and Bauwens Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 103 �Snježana Brkić   (1987), Bergstrand (1990), Stone and Lee (1995), Nilsson (1999), etc. Similarity in the level of economic development between countries indicates the similarity in their ability to manufacture differentiated products and similarity in the size and pattern of their demand for differentiated products. Certain studies focused on the correlation between geography and IIT showed that an increase in distance leads to a decrease in IIT far faster than in inter-industry trade since, besides transport costs, some other factors such as the availability of product information, which decreases as the distance increases, are also of a great significance for the former trade type.4 Strong empirical evidence of IIT dependence on geography can be found in literature – in papers by Loertscher and Wolter (1980), Bergstrand (1983), Balassa (1986b), Balassa and Bauwens (1987), Culem and Lundberg (1986), Hummels and Levinson (1995), Stone and Lee (1995), Amiti and Venables (2002), Venables, Rice and Stewart (2003), Jambor and Torok (2013), etc. Historical, political and cultural ties are also significant for a decrease in the so-called unfamiliarity costs in international trade, and thus for an increase in the IIT share. Rauch (1999) stressed the significance of ethnic ties in international trade, particularly in the trade in differentiated products, which are frequently subjects of greater IIT. Finally, IIT intensity is also affected by trade intensity which measures the volume of trading between countries. If two countries mutually trade to a significant degree, it is more likely that, due to the spurred specialization, the share of differentiated industrial products in the trade, and thus the trade overlap, will grow. Together with the development of theoretical explanation and modeling of IIT, ways of its measurement were developed. A number of authors proposed different measures of IIT intensity, change and structure: from static ones, such as the initial Grubel-Lloyd index (Grubel and Lloyd, 1971, 1975), which evolved further and reached its aggregate form and the form corrected for the impact of trade imbalance, alternative indices created by Aquino (1978), Loertscher and Wolter (1980), Glejser, Gossens and Eede (1982), to indices expressing change in IIT that can be considered dynamic, such as Hamilton-Kniest index (1991), and marginal IIT index (Brülhart, 1994). 104 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   Applied Methodology Values of the individual IIT indices were calculated, expressed and interpreted either for each year of the period and/or as an average for the entire observed period and/or for the selected years of the period. Measuring the IIT share by countries (for all industries in total and for manufacturing industry in particular) used the aggregate Grubel-Lloyd index (G-L index) first in its uncorrected form: ∑ (Χ + Μ ) − ∑ Χ − Μ = ∑ (Χ + Μ ) i Βj i i i i 0 ≤ Bj ≤ 1 i i i (1) i Bj – aggregate G-L index for a given country „j”, i.e. the IIT share; Xi – exports of industry „i” from a given country; Mi – imports of industry „i”from a given country; i = 1,..., n – the number of industries. Since IIT measurement using the aggregate G-L index is affected by the size of trade imbalance between partners (Grubel and Lloyd, 1975) in the direction of IIT underestimation, corrected G-L indices were calculated in the same time. Cj = ∑ (X i ∑ (X i i + Mi )− ∑ Xi − Mi i + Mi )− i ∑ X − ∑M i i 0 ≤ Cj ≤1 (2) i i Measurement and comparison of IIT share by industries used the standard GrubelLloyd index (Grubel and Lloyd, 1975). Bi = (X i + M i ) − Xi − Mi Xi + Mi 0 ≤ Bi ≤ 1 (3) (4) for X i = 0 ili M i = 0 ⇒ X i − M i = ( X i + M i ) ⇒ Bi = 0 (5) Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 105 �Snježana Brkić   for X i = M i ⇒ X i − M i = 0 ⇒ (X i + M i ) − 0 Xi + Mi = 1 ⇒ Bi = 1 (6) If the index value equals 1, it means that there is a total overlap between exports and imports of the given industry, and that the entire trade in industry “i” is of intraindustry type. If the value of index is 0, foreign trade of industry “i” is entirely the inter-industry trade. For most product groups, the value of G-L index is between the two extreme values. Values of IIT index can be classified into four categories, which facilitates the interpretation of research results (Brkić, 2012): - Bi ∈ [0.00; 0.25] – value of G-L index in this interval indicates strong interindustry tendencies; - Bi ∈ [0.26; 0.50] – value of G-L index in this interval means the existence of weak inter-industry tendencies; - Bi ∈ [0.51; 0.75] – value of G-L index in this interval reflects the dominant IIT, though relatively weaker intra-industry tendencies; - Bi ∈ [0.76; 1.00] – value of G-L index in this interval signifies the existence of prominent dominance of IIT. Industries where vertical or horizontal IIT respectively prevails were identified using the most frequently applied methodology in the empirical literature on IIT, which was developed by Greenaway, Hine and Milner (1995). The methodology is based on the assumption that the relative gap between unit values of exports and imports reflects the difference in the quality of products traded between two countries. UV X UV M HIIT : RUV ∈ [(1 − α ), (1 + α )] VIIT : RUV ∈ [(1 + α ),+∞] or RUV ∈ [0, (1 − α )] RUV = (7) (8) (9) UVX – unit value of exports; UVM – unit value of imports; α – arbitrarily fixed dispersion factor ( = 0.15). Horizontal IIT exists if the ratio between unit values of exports and imports (the relative unit value – RUV) ranges in the interval from 0.85 to 1.15. If the relative unit value is beyond this interval, the trade is identified as vertical IIT: vertical IIT in higher-quality products in case the ratio exceeds 1.15 (which means that quality of exports is higher than that of imports) or vertical IIT in lower-quality products in case the ratio is below 0.85 (which means that quality of exports is lower than that of imports). 106 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   Comparison of the size of observed countries used data on annual nominal GDP expressed by current prices in US dollars (USD), and the estimates of economic development used data on GDP per capita in US dollars, from a single source for the entire period – World Economic Outlook Database by the International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2017). The trade intensity was calculated as the share of partner country’s market in the overall foreign trade of the observed country. TI = X j +Mj ∑ X j + ∑M j (10) TI – trade intensity; Xj – exports of a given country to country „j”; Mj – imports of a given country from country „j”; ∑Xj – total exports of a given country; ∑Mj – total imports of a given country; In economic studies, geographical distance is very often expressed as a direct straightline distance in kilometers between capitals of the observed pair of countries, which was used in this research as well. The distance between the BH capital and capitals of its trading partners indirectly “measures” the effects of transport, transaction and information costs on trade, and on the IIT share. Data Analysis and Results Country Characteristics The analysis of geographic orientation and the volume of export and import flows of BH reveals that the trade between Croatia and BH is particularly intensive in the entire period. In the absolute expression, exports gradually grew, and in 2016 were twice as great as in the beginning of the observed period. Imports from Croatia grew until 2008, when it began to decrease gradually (Appendix Table 7). Croatia is the most significant BH trading partner, extremely important both as an export destination and as a country of import origin. The average share of Croatia in the foreign trade with BH, i.e. the average intensity of BH trade with Croatia in the observed period amounts to 15.34%. Almost over the whole period (until 2014) Croatia was ranked first by its significance for BH imports, although the share of Croatia began to decrease more significantly after 2009 (e.g. from 18.28% in 2009 to 14.44% in 2012, and 10.02% in 2016) (Appendix Table 3). Croatia is also very significant for BH as an export market. Over the first seven years of the observed period Croatia absorbed BH exports more than any other country, and from 2010 it Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 107 �Snježana Brkić   was mostly ranked second, after Germany. On the other hand, BH was a significant export destination for Croatia as well – the average share of BH in Croatian exports amounts to 13.5%, which ranks BH second, after Italy (Appendix Table 4). The significance of exports from BH for Croatia is far smaller – the average share of BH in Croatian imports is only about 3.1%; however, BH is still among the “top ten” countries of origin in Croatian imports over the most part of the analyzed period, and the first among CEFTA countries which Croatia imports from. Geographic proximity and common border of the observed countries undeniable contribute to mutual trade. For BH, Croatia is the second closest trading partner (after Serbia 5 ) – distance between Sarajevo and Zagreb equals 291 km (CEPII, 2013). Both countries have the longest shared land border compared to borders with other neighboring countries: the border between BH and Croatia is over a half (61%) length of the entire BH border – it is as much as 931 km long6 out of 1,537 km in total (Federal Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2017). The length of Croatian land border equals 2,374.9 km; the length of border with BH is almost twice as long as the border with the other Croatia’s neighbor, Slovenia (Croatian Bureau of Statistics, 2015). The common state in the past, special political ties and a similar language and culture are essential determinants of the overall economic, and therefore trade relations between BH and Croatia. The common state and the single market have existed in these regions for over 70 years – roots of the common state date back as early as to the First World War. Countries that used to be in the common state for a few decades inevitably share a number of economic, cultural, ethnic and other features and ties, significant for mutual trade in general, and for IIT in particular. Two decades ago they had the same official language (Serbocroatian), and the present Croatian language, which is the official language in the Republic of Croatia is also one of the official languages in BH, since Croats are one of the three constituent ethnic groups of BH. The described elements – common state in the past, geographic proximity and common border, and political and cultural ties between the two countries – are certainly significant for the mutual trade, as well as significant prerequisites for closer economic integration. The history of trade liberalization between BH and Croatia, as two sovereign states, is almost two decades long. The first free trade agreement signed by independent BH in March 1995 was an agreement with the Republic of Croatia. This agreement was valid for the following six years, when it was replaced by a new one, made under the auspices of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe, and within a network of bilateral free trade agreements in the region. The new 108 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   agreement which established a bilateral free trade area between BH and Croatia was in force from 1 January 2001 to the point when the two countries became members of the regional free trade area, the so-called CEFTA 2006 (The Central European Free Trade Agreement), which further improved free trade.7 The early trade liberalization in the relations between the two countries (from 1995, i.e. 2001), the two decades of the existence of a free trade area between the two countries, together with the significant unilateral opening of BH toward the world in general (over a few years, BH foreign trade coefficient ranged from 84 to 93%8) points to a potential for a high IIT share in their mutual trade. In the period from 2001 to mid-2013, when Croatia became the EU member-state, the two countries had the mutual duty-free trade, without quantitative restrictions and other measures of equivalent effect, which primarily resulted from the bilateral free trade agreement and, from 2007, from the creation of the regional free trade area. Since 2013, some trade restrictions in bilateral trade were re-introduced or increased due to Croatia’s withdrawal from CEFTA in 2006; however, the mutual trade is still liberal to a high degree. Measured by the nominal gross domestic product (GDP), Croatia is a three times economically larger country than BH.9 In the context of IIT analysis, this difference in the economic size could result in a lower intensity of BH IIT with Croatia than in the case of countries of approximately same size. However, it should be noted that the other significant BH trading partners, in economic terms, are countries far larger than BH – Slovenia and Serbia, same as Croatia, have two to three times larger economies than BH, while the differences in the size of BH and other trading partners are extremely great (Appendix Table 1). BH and Croatia also reveal a certain difference in the level of economic development, although not to the degree to which the two countries differ from their significant trading partners from the EU. Croatia had almost three times higher GDP per capita (p/c) than BH over the entire observed period.10 The average GDP p/c amounted to USD 3,970.6 for BH and USD 12,469.1 for Croatia while, for instance, the average GDP p/c of Germany and Austria amounted to USD 41,478.6 and USD 45,020.81 respectively. (Appendix, Table 2) If we compare gross national product (GNI), or GNP p/c calculated according to the World Bank Atlas method, we will see that both countries belong to the group of upper middle income countries11, although Croatia, as opposed to BH is on the upper limit of the interval in the group (World Bank, 2016). Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 109 �Snježana Brkić   Intensity and Trend of Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade The largest part of trade in goods between BH and Croatia is of the inter-industry character, while approximately 37% (0.37) on average is the IIT. The average share of IIT in the trade between BH and Croatia is lower than the average IIT share in the BH overall trade, which amounts to 45% (Appendix, Table 5). According to the average IIT intensity measured in the period 2003-2016, Croatia is ranked fourth among the most significant BH trading partners, after Serbia 12 (0.42), Slovenia (0.39) and Italy (0.38), and before Austria (0.34) and Germany (0.31) (Appendix, Table 6). IIT indices in BH trade with larger trading partners over the past few years were fairly uniform, except for a significant increase of IIT with Austria. Figure 1: Trend of Intra-Industry Trade of BH with Croatia (G-L Index) 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 IIT - all industries (SITC 0-9) IIT - manufacturing (SITC 5-8) Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) However, over the entire observed period, IIT index in the trade with Croatia showed a moderately increasing trend (except in 2011, when a sharp decrease of a few percentage points was registered), and significantly increased compared to the beginning of the period. (Figure 1) From the level of 0.25 in 2003, IIT index reached the level of 0.45 in the last three years, and thus surpassed all the other trading partners except Austria (Appendix, Table 6). IIT indices in the manufacturing industry products show even more prominent rising trend, particularly after 2011. The analysis of the manufacturing industry only (sectors SITC 5-8) reveals that the share of BH IIT with Croatia is by 10 percentage points higher – 0.47 on average 110 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   over the observed period, which is expected due to a few times empirically proven claim that IIT is larger in the trade of manufacturing industry products than in the products of resource-based industries or in agricultural products. Both in the case of the index of BH IIT with Croatia by years and as an average for a given period, both for all industries and for manufacturing industry only, the prevalence of inter-industry trade is always evident. The situation changes only if the standard aggregate G-L index is replaced with the index corrected for trade imbalance – the IIT index value then enters the zone of weaker intra-industry tendencies. Since it has been proven that trade imbalance results in the underestimate of the IIT degree calculated using the G-L index, and that in its trade with Croatia BH registers a significant trade deficit every year (BH imports from Croatia exceeded BH exports to the country for a number of years13), it is reasonable to assume a negative impact of trade imbalance on the measured IIT share. Compared to other significant BH trading partners, the use of correction for trade imbalance is most justified in case of its trade with Croatia. Although Croatia is the most significant foreign trade partner of BH, it is in the trade with this country that almost the lowest import coverage by exports is registered compared to the other significant partners 14 . After 2010 15 , import coverage by exports with Croatia mostly ranged between 52 and 55% (except for 60% in 2016)16, as opposed to the trade with Austria, where it amounted to over 90% in the same period (even to 142% in 2014), with Slovenia also over 90% after 2012 (97% in 2015), with Germany and Italy to over 70% (MOFTER, 2011, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017)17. The repeated measurement of IIT with correcting the trade imbalance (using the socalled corrected or adjusted G-L index at the aggregate level) resulted in indices that were by 14-25 percentage points higher and that, except in 2006, entered the area of dominant (though less intensive) IIT. The average of corrected G-L index for the observed period amounted to 0.5718 (Table 1). Table 1: Intra-Industry Trade of BH with Croatia IIT Share 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Aver. Standard 0.25 0.26 0.31 0.29 0.31 0.33 0.37 0.45 0.40 0.43 0.43 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.37 G-L index Corrected 0.57 0.50 0.53 0.43 0.51 0.56 0.62 0.66 0.58 0.62 0.57 0.66 0.62 0.60 0.57 G-L index Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 111 �Snježana Brkić   In the period after Croatia’s accession to the EU, which implied a somewhat changed foreign trade regime, no significant changes regarding the IIT index were observed. In 2014, the increasing trend of IIT continued, while by 2016 stagnation in the overall IIT and a slight increase (1-2 percentage points) of the manufacturing industry IIT were observed. IIT analysis by industries defined as SITC divisions showed the dominance of interindustry trade in over two-thirds of the total number of industries which registered trade with Croatia. However, the number of industries with very low G-L indices 0≤GL≤0.25 (industries with prominent dominance of inter-industry trade) significantly decreased over the observed period, while the number of industries in the category of highest G-L indices (extremely intensive IIT) slightly increased (Figure 2). Figure 2: Number of Product Groups by G-L Index 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 0.00-0.25 0.26-0.50 0.51-0.75 0.76-1.00 Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) Generally viewed, the number of industries where IIT prevails (GL>0.50) gradually increased. In 2003, it amounted to 19, while over the last few years (starting from 2009) it ranged in the interval between 24 and 28. Besides, after 2009 the number of industries in the category with lowest G-L indices (0≤GL≤0.10) – decreased significantly – from 20 product groups in the beginning of the period to 12 at the end of the period (Appendix, Table 8). The analysis of relative unit values of exports and imports for the purpose of differentiating vertical from horizontal IIT revealed a weak presence of horizontal IIT, which serves as an indicator of convergence of the observed economies. 112 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   Horizontal IIT was observed in a small number of industries – the number mostly ranged between 7 and 10 industries out of total 63-6519, except in 2013 and 2014, when it increased to 14 and 15 industries respectively (Table 2). Table 2: Number of Product Groups, by Dominant IIT Type IIT type HIIT VIITh VIITl noRUV20 Total Number of Product Groups 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 7 13 10 9 7 11 6 8 8 9 14 15 9 10 17 14 6 16 10 9 14 12 12 12 9 9 13 10 35 35 43 36 44 42 40 40 41 40 37 34 35 38 4 3 5 3 3 2 3 4 3 2 5 6 6 5 63 65 64 64 64 64 63 64 64 63 65 64 63 63 Legend: HIIT – horizontal IIT; VIITh – vertical IIT with high quality export of BH; VIITl – vertical IIT with low quality export of BH; RUV – relative unit value; Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) In more than ¾ of the total number of industries which BH and Croatia trade in, the vertical type of IIT is encountered, mostly with exports of lower-quality products from BH. This phenomenon typically occurs in the trade of countries which differ by size and development more than BH and Croatia do. Discussion and Policy Implications In general, the paper contributes to empirical research of IIT in transition countries, especially because of its focus on South East European countries – research of IIT of these countries still are lacked in the empirical literature. More concretely, the research results are of a special interest for BH in the context of the country's trade relations with its main trading partners and the future EU membership. Results of analysis of IIT trend and pattern serve both as an indicator of sectoral similarity of observed economies and for approximation of intensity of factor-market adjustment pressures caused by trade expansion and economic integration. The research indicates a continuous growth in IIT between BH and Croatia suggesting the process of structural converegence – given economies have become more similar in terms of their sectoral structure. However, the observed relatively low intensity of IIT associated with prevalence of vertical IIT with BH low quality exports indicates weaker structural convergence than expected in case of similar countries. More quality advantages of Croatia suggest the need to develop sectoral policies in BH aiming at increase in product quality level and technological intensity. Among others, attracting of foreign direct investment to BH manufacturing sector could contribute to reduction in quality and technological differences between countries and changing trade structure toward horizontal IIT. Adequate sectoral Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 113 �Snježana Brkić   policies will lead to catching-up not only with Croatia than also with some other EU members that are more different from BH in terms of their size, income per capita and other characteristics. Because of less mobile production factors within vertical differentiated industries than in horizontal ones (Brülhart and Elliott, 2002), dominancy of vertical IIT does not speak in favor of so called “smoothy-adjustment hypothesis”21. In case of a deeper economic integration it is expected that vertical IIT will have more implications on adjustment process in terms of higher economic and social costs. Conclusion Based on the three-decade-long theoretical and empirical research into IIT, certain regularities were observed regarding relationship between some country characteristics and this phenomenon. In general, the literature indicates that similarity between countries in size and level of economic development, intensive mutual trading, geographic proximity, existence of common border, economic integration, as well as similarity of culture and language, result in greater mutual IIT, particularly of horizontal type (Brkić, 2012). The analysis of IIT of BH with Croatia for the period 2003-2016 revealed a trade pattern which is not fully consistent with the described theoretical theses on IIT between countries with given characteristics. This is a case of neighboring countries with strong mutual historical, economic, political and cultural ties, countries which were tied with a free trade agreement for two decades, seven years out of which within the same regional integration, due to which they have been intensely trading with each other for a long period of time, and transition countries with no significantly different macroeconomic performance. Therefore, the existence of intensive and growing mutual IIT was assumed compared to IIT with other significant trading partners (except for Serbia, which also has a few similarities to BH), with a greater presence of horizontal IIT. However, the research identified BH foreign trade with Croatia as primarily interindustry one, both at the aggregate and sectoral level (in most industries that register the mutual trade), except in the analysis of manufacturing industry only over the last four years. In the same time, most industries showed the dominant vertical type of IIT. The measured IIT shares in the trade with Croatia become more significant when compared with IIT shares in BH trade with other important trading partners and with the world, as well as in case of index correction for trade imbalance. Actually, the dominance of inter-industry trade was also discovered in BH trade with other important partners, with IIT indices in the trade with Croatia being among 114 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   the highest (after Austria) over the last few years, due to the continuously rising trend. The explanation of a lower IIT level with Croatia than expected is also helped by the existence of prominent bilateral trade imbalance. The use of corrected IIT indices at the aggregate level identified a turning point in the direction of slight IIT dominance in BH trade with Croatia since 2007. The used methodology does not allow the determination of the impact of individual characteristics of given countries on their mutual IIT. 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Retrieved from https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519. 122 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �2003 2,197.1 32,176.9 8,048.9 30,785.6 27,527.4 14,906.0 2,836.5 2004 2,611.8 36,754.6 9,365.6 34,657.5 31,319.7 17,282.6 3,315.3 2005 2,789.9 38,319.4 10,224.2 35,239.9 32,066.4 18,222.6 3,504.3 2006 3,178.9 40,469.9 11,359.5 37,020.4 33,486.0 19,777.1 4,145.0 Gross domestic product per capita (GDP p/c), in USD 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 3,912.4 4,784.5 4,508.2 4,404.4 4,788.8 4,430.5 46,652.9 51,629.7 47,785.6 46,757.1 51,192.6 48,381.4 13,544.0 15,889.1 14,142.3 13,505.0 14,538.0 13,234.7 42,531.4 46,681.1 42,576.3 42,641.7 46,853.2 44,089.7 37,890.2 40,953.9 37,130.2 35,969.2 38,379.3 34,918.7 23,959.2 27,784.0 24,785.1 23,499.6 25,040.5 22,517.1 5,486.5 6,689.0 5,820.5 5,353.6 6,424.0 5,656.3 Volume 7 | Issue 2 | Source: Prepared by the author on the basis of IMF World Economic Outlook Database (2017) Country BH Austria Croatia Germany Italy Slovenia Serbia Table 2: Gross Domestic Product Per Capita of BH and Its Most Important Trading Partners Source: Prepared by author on the basis of IMF World Economic Outlook Database (2017) 2013 4,681.9 50,533.3 13,573.7 46,545.1 35,706.6 23,170.3 6,351.7 2014 4,784.8 51,390.0 13,468.7 47,978.6 35,456.7 24,069.3 6,199.1 2015 4,206.7 43,749.6 11,578.5 41,197.4 30,032.1 20,746.9 5,244.3 123 2016 4,308.2 44,498.4 12,095.5 41,902.3 30,507.2 21,320.2 5,376.3 Gross domestic product (GDP), in billion USD Country 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 BH 8.48 10.16 10.94 12.46 15.32 18.71 17.60 17.16 18.63 17.21 18.16 18.52 16.25 16.61 Austria 261.22 300.26 315.19 334.60 386.00 429.64 398.60 390.94 429.43 407.68 428.38 439.07 377.16 386.75 Croatia 34.66 41.57 45.42 50.44 60.08 70.45 62.64 59.67 62.24 56.49 57.77 57.08 48.68 50.44 Germany 2,510.53 2,823.07 2,866.31 3,005.08 3,444.72 3,770.15 3,426.67 3,423.47 3,761.14 3,545.95 3,753.69 3,885.44 3,365.29 3,466.64 Italy 1,572.65 1,800.76 1,855.83 1,944.34 2,206.11 2,402.06 2,190.70 2,129.02 2,278.38 2,073.97 2,131.16 2,155.15 1,825.82 1,850.74 Slovenia 29.74 34.50 36.40 39.62 48.17 55.85 50.37 48.10 51.34 46.28 47.70 49.61 42.80 44.01 Serbia 21.22 24.74 26.08 30.72 40.50 49.17 42.61 39.04 46.49 40.73 45.52 44.21 37.16 37.75 Table 1: Gross Domestic Product of BH and Its Most Important Trading Partners Appendix Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   �2003 17.87 1 18.27 1 18.12 2004 20.15 1 18.40 1 18.83 2005 20.50 1 16.87 1 17.79 2006 18.69 1 17.10 1 17.59 2007 18.36 1 17.78 1 17.96 2008 17.24 1 17.06 1 17.11 2009 17.07 1 18.28 1 17.90 14.38 2.10 6,11 1.62 5.44 2004 13.91 2003 2.44 6.25 14.32 2005 2.79 5.99 12.63 2006 2.84 6.59 14.41 2007 2.67 6.66 15.32 2008 2.67 6.04 12.83 2009 0.26 0.40 0.25 0.39 2004 0.32 0.44 0.31 2005 0.36 0.42 0.29 2006 0.44 0.44 0.31 2007 0.46 0.44 0.33 2008 0.46 124 3.05 6.22 11.61 0.50 0.37 0.46 0.45 2011 0.46 0.43 2012 0,50 3.34 6.64 12.24 2011 14.65 2 14.47 1 14.53 Journal of Economic and Social Studies 0.44 0.40 IIT Share (G-L Index) 2009 2010 2011 0.45 0.49 0.49 Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) IIT with Croatia, all industries (SITC 09) IIT with Croatia – manufacturing (SITC 5-8) IIT with the world 2003 0.30 Table 5: Intra-industry Trade of BH with the World and with Croatia 2010 15.09 2 15.12 1 15.11 2010 Source: Author's own work based on data of Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2016) Share of BH in Croatian export % Share of BH in Croatian import % Trade Intensity Table 4: Trade Intensity of Croatia in Trade with BH Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) Share of Croatia in BH export,% Rank of Croatia in BH export Share of Croatia in BH import,% Rank of Croatia in BH import Trade intensity Table 3: Trade Intensity of BH in Trade with Croatia Snježana Brkić   2012 6.95 3.50 2013 0.50 0.43 6.72 3.52 12.23 2013 14.25 2 12.90 1 13.38 2013 0.50 12.76 2012 14.83 2 14.44 1 14.57 2014 0.55 0.45 2014 0.50 6.12 2.69 11.80 2014 11.00 3 11.43 2 11.28 2015 0.57 0.45 2015 0.53 5.39 2.68 9.73 2015 10.29 3 10.56 4 10.46 2016 0.58 0.45 2016 0.54 5.29 2.91 9.09 2016 10.46 3 10.02 4 10.19 0.47 0.37 Average 0.45 3.11 6.19 11.31 Average 15.75 1 15.19 1 15.34 Average �0.21 0.26 0.27 0.13 0.25 0.29 0.36 0.19 0.42 Country Austria Croatia Germany Italia Slovenia Serbia 0.32 0.30 0.42 0.23 0.31 0.28 2005 0.39 0.33 0.47 0.28 0.29 0.29 2006 0.36 0.44 0.50 0.31 0.31 0.29 2007 0.37 0.44 0.50 0.35 0.33 0.29 2008 0.41 0.44 0.41 0.37 0.37 0.28 2009 44.51% 41.61% 41.81% -671.80 Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 52.00% -505.32 53.62% -532.74 52.89% -530.48 61.06% -389.47 51.58% -458.44 -829.87 595.66 2014 0.38 0.46 0.37 0.47 0.45 0.34 2015 -694.89 615.82 2013 0.39 0.47 0.40 0.43 0.45 0.34 2014 946.75 547.40 2012 0.37 0.43 0.44 0.36 0.43 0.35 2013 1,252.26 1,421.35 1,154.53 1,052.72 1,148.56 1,126.14 1,000.28 482.73 2011 0.41 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.43 0.35 2012 488.31 591.48 557.37 2009 0.41 0.45 0.37 0.37 0.40 0.32 2011 610.81 2008 2007 Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) 2003 2004 2005 2006 Exports to Croatia, mil EUR 218.64 310.37 396.45 493.53 Imports from Croatia, mil EUR 779.58 885.31 964.51 995.44 Trade balance, mil EUR -560.94 -574.93 -568.05 -501.91 Export/import 28.05% 35.06% 41.10% 49.58% coverage % Table 7: Trade Balance of BH with Croatia 2010 0.42 0.43 0.39 0.35 0.45 0.33 2010 IIT Share (G-L Index) Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) 0.35 0.24 0.40 2004 2003 Table 6: Intra-industry Trade of BH with Its Most Important Trading Partners 55.29% -382.44 855.47 473.03 2015 0.34 0.44 0.40 0.50 0.45 0.36 2016 125 60.91% -323.31 827.11 503.81 2016 0.38 0.39 0.42 0.34 0.37 0.31 Average Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia   �2004 31 /16 14 11 9 65 2003 35 /20 10 11 8 63 28 /17 16 11 9 64 2005 26 /19 16 14 8 64 2006 30 /16 14 11 9 64 2007 29 /16 14 10 11 64 2008 21 /12 16 14 12 63 20 /13 19 13 12 64 23 /14 17 13 11 64 20 /13 16 11 16 63 Number of Product Groups 2009 2010 2011 2012 22 /14 15 11 17 65 2013 22 /13 15 15 12 64 2014 21 /14 16 11 15 63 2015 126 Journal of Economic and Social Studies Note: Second number in every cell of the first row (after slash) indicates the number of product groups with 0≤GL≤0.10. Source: Author's own work based on data of Agency for Statistics of BH (2017) 0.26-0.50 0.51-0.75 0.76-1.00 Total Interval GL 0.00-0.25 Table 8: Number of Product Groups, by G-L Index Snježana Brkić   21 /12 17 13 12 63 2016 25 /15 15 12 12 Av. �Journal of Economic and Social Studies                                                                                                                               1  Empirical studies of IIT typically use industry definitions at a three-digit SITC level, since it is believed that it is a category closest to the economic definition of industry. However, reliable data at this aggregation level were not available for BH trade with Croatia in the BH national statistics over a long time period (all until 2008). Using and combining data from other sources (other countries' statistics, international organizations and groups' databases) would affect the reliability and comparability of input „values“in the analysis and the validity of obtained results. 2 The inclusion of data from the period before 2003 into the analysis would mean using data collected and processed by means of different methodologies in BH entities, or combining data from international sources. Since 2003, due to the adoption of appropriate legal documents, it has been possible to merge data on BH foreign trade at a country level, i.e. to collect and express them according to the unique methodology for both BH entities (The Federation of Bosnia and Hercegovina and the Republic of Srpska), and the Brčko District. 3 Balassa (1986a, 1986c) 4 A significant part of IIT in the world pertains to differentiated products for the purchase of which, as opposed to the purchase of standardized products, it is essential that buyers are well informed on varieties' characteristics. Greater proximity leads to an increase in informartion availability – contacts between companies, and between companies and consumers intensify, and thus lower the costs of providing information to buyers, facilitate trade and make it less expensive (Brkić, 2010). 5 Distance between Sarajevo and Belgrade equals 193 km, between Sarajevo and Vienna 510 km, between Sarajevo and Ljubljana 395 km, between Sarajevo and Rome 532 km, and between Sarajevo and Berlin 1,033 km (CEPII, 2013). 6 According to the Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2015), the length of land border between Croatia and BH, including borders on rivers, amounts to 1,011.4 km. 7 CEFTA agreement was signed on 19.12.2006. Croatia became its member in 2006, and BH in 2007 (BH ratified the Agreement on 27.09.2007). 8 Trade coefficient is calculated as a share of foreign trade of a given country in its GDP. 9 In the beginning of the analyzed period, Croatian GDP was four times higher than BH GDP, so that the difference decreased in the meantime. 10 In 2003, Croatian GDP p/c amounted to USD 8,048.9 compared to USD 2,197.1 in BH, while in 2016 it amounted to USD 12,095.5 compared to 4,308.2 in BH (Appendix, Table 1). 11 Countries of this group have incomes p/c between USD 3,956 and USD 12,235 for 2016. 12 Until 2014, IIT index pertains to Serbia and Montenegro together, since the two countries were in a state union at the time. 13 Appendix, Table 7. 14 Except for Serbia. According to the analyses of the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations of BH, import coverage by exports in the trade with Serbia decreased to approximately 50% after 2010 and 2011, when it amounted to over 60%. Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 127 �Snježana Brkić                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           15 Before 2010, it typically amounted to approximately 41% (Appendix, Table 7). Appendix, Table 7. 17 Data from publications on analysis of BH foreign trade issued by Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the following years; 2011, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017. 18 These results are usually not taken as completely accurate, due to certain weaknesses of the use of corrected G-L index. It is however irrefutable that due to the trade imbalance in the mutual trade of these countries, the IIT share is to a degree underestimated. 19 According to parameter ±0.15. 20 Note: „no RUV “means that RUV could not be calculated because of one-way trade i.e. only export or only import registered in a given industry. 16 21 “Smooth-adjustment hypothesis” refers to realocation of production factors (labour and capital) between different product lines within a given sector rather than between sectors. Adjustment in terms of temporary unemployment and wage disparities is “smoothy” if expanding product lines and declining product lines belong to the same sector (Brülhart & Elliot, 1998).     128 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3755 Title A name given to the resource Bilateral Intra-Industry Trade in Country Characteristics Context: The Case Study of Trade of Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia Author Author Brkić, Snježana Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The paper focuses primarily on intra-industry trade (IIT) which is researched in the context of country-specific characteristics. A three-decade-long academic research of IIT phenomena suggests that IIT is likely to be more intensive and mostly of horizontal type between countries that are at a similar stage of economic development, with the same level of trade openness and with intensive and significantly liberalized mutual trade. Geographical proximity of countries, especially their common border, as well as their similarities in some non-economic characteristics such as history, culture, language, also contribute to IIT intensity. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) and Croatia match most of these criteria for intensive and increasing IIT. The aim of the research is to check aforementioned thesis on IIT on a case study of BH in its trade with Croatia over the period from 2003 till 2016. Research is focused on IIT characteristics – intensity, trend and structure, both at aggregate level (based on calculating corrected and uncorrected Grubel-Lloyd indices) and at division level of Standard International Trade Classification – SITC (based on calculating standard Grubel-Lloyd index and relative unit values of export and import). The research findings indicate a continuously rising, although lower than expected, intensity of IIT, taking into account similarities between given countries in comparison with other important trading partners of BH and taking into account a high level of data aggregation. In BH trade with Croatia inter-industry trade still prevails while high intensive IIT appears in a very low number of product groups, coupled with the dominance of vertical IIT. However,at the same time a growing trend and a significant increase of IIT intensity in trade with Croatia have been identified. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed DOI Digital object identifier doi: "10.14706/JECOSS17726 " Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 1986-8499, H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/43ddd9d5e2b2f6a6c07878a469cc2a0d.docx fa1722e477275617d7f8c4ec6e4de409 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a2914f83054db12c9b5e1b7aeaf970dc.pdf 65f7cc1976d2ade1f54a490c548dc60f PDF Text Text BİLGE KARASU’NUN USTA BENİ ÖLDÜRSEN E! ADLI HİKÂYESİNİN İSİM İÇERİK BAĞLAMINDA DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ Burak ARMAĞAN Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen Üniversitesi, Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, Ağrı / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Bilge Karasu, us, ben, tahlil. ÖZET Usta Beni Öldürsen E! hikâyesi on iki bölümden oluşan Göçmüş Kediler Bahçesi kitabının yedinci hikâyesidir. Alıntı ve Gönderge Yöntemiyle Yapılan metinlerarasılık tekniği ile -Koncaku Monogatari Şu- Japon Öyküsü, hikâyenin arka planını oluşturur. Buna göre iblisleşivermiş olan bazı ana babalar herkesi ortadan kaldırdıkları gibi çocuklarını da ortadan kaldırırlar. Hikâyede, kişiliğin oluşumunda en önemli iki etken olan kalıtım ve çevreden kalıtımın ağır basışı, ustasının tüm çabalarına rağmen çırağının iblişleşmesinin önüne geçemeyişi anlatılır. Öykünün isim-içerik ilişkisi iki farklı okumaya da müsaittir. Başlığa göre değerlendirildiğinde usta-çırak ilişkisinin ön plana çıktığı görülür. Ancak kelimelerin arka planda yüklendikleri anlamlar da göz önünde bulundurulduğunda hikâye yepyeni bir yapıya bürünür. Buna göre us+ta [us, akıl/zihin; ta, bulunma hali eki] akılda; ben ise vücutta oluşan siyah leke anlamındadır. Hikâyede ben, nefret imgesidir. Kelimelere bu yönleriyle bakıldığında öykü başlığı zihinde nefreti öldürsene şekline çevrilir. Bu bildiride Usta Beni Öldürsen E! hikâyesinin isim-içerik ilişkisi üzerinden tahlili yapılmaya çalışılmıştır. � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8780acf684f3b3709b8a5592955ac5ff.docx 04811279adb5897b7fe8034b169f9f07 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3124bf1a609f9b2589454c84500ef36d.pdf 39be5e8812b5d5f94cdfaa7990002850 PDF Text Text BİLGE KARASU’NUN USTA BENİ ÖLDÜRSEN E! ADLI HİKÂYESİNİN İSİM İÇERİK BAĞLAMINDA DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ Burak ARMAĞAN1 Özet Usta Beni Öldürsen E! hikâyesi on iki bölümden oluĢan Göçmüş Kediler Bahçesi kitabının yedinci hikâyesidir. Alıntı ve Gönderge Yöntemiyle Yapılan metinlerarasılık tekniği ile -Koncaku Monogatari ġu- Japon Öyküsü, hikâyenin arka planını oluĢturur. Buna göre iblisleşivermiş olan bazı ana babalar herkesi ortadan kaldırdıkları gibi çocuklarını da ortadan kaldırırlar. Hikâyede, kiĢiliğin oluĢumunda en önemli iki etken olan kalıtım ve çevreden kalıtımın ağır basıĢı, ustasının tüm çabalarına rağmen çırağının ibliĢleĢmesinin önüne geçemeyiĢi anlatılır. Öykünün isim-içerik iliĢkisi iki farklı okumaya da müsaittir. BaĢlığa göre değerlendirildiğinde usta-çırak iliĢkisinin ön plana çıktığı görülür. Ancak kelimelerin arka planda yüklendikleri anlamlar da göz önünde bulundurulduğunda hikâye yepyeni bir yapıya bürünür. Buna göre us+ta [us, akıl/zihin; ta, bulunma hali eki] akılda; ben ise vücutta oluĢan siyah leke anlamındadır. Hikâyede ben, nefret imgesidir. Kelimelere bu yönleriyle bakıldığında öykü baĢlığı zihinde nefreti öldürsene Ģekline çevrilir. Bu bildiride Usta Beni Öldürsen E! hikâyesinin isim-içerik iliĢkisi üzerinden tahlili yapılmaya çalıĢılmıĢtır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Bilge Karasu, us, ben, tahlil. AN EVALUATION OF BILGE KARASU’S STORY USTA BENİ ÖLDÜRSEN E IN THE CONTEXT OF NAME AND CONTENT Abstract Usta Beni Öldürsen E! is the seventh story of the book of Göçmüş Kediler Bahçesi which was consisted of twelve chapters. Intertextual technique done by Quote and Referent Method, and a Japanese tale -Koncaku Monogatari ġu- constructed the background of the 1 ArĢ. Gör., Ağrı Ġbrahim burak_87_05@hotmail.com Çeçen Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü, Sayfa 1 / 13 �story. According to this, some demonized parents annihilate their children as they annihilate everybody. In this story, the dominance of heredity from heredity and environment ,the most important elements in the construction of personality, and his master‟s being unable to prevent his apprentice‟s demonizing in spite of all the efforts is told. The name-content relationship of the tale is of two different reading. When evaluated according to the tittle it is seen that the master-apprentice relationship come to the front. Yet, once read considering the meaning of the background meanings of the words story is converted into a new structure. So, us+ta [us, in English, mind/ reason; ta, being in somewhere, suffix] in mind; ben is a black spot on the body. In the story, ben symbolizes the hatred. When looking these words from this aspect they are translated as kill the hatred in the mind. In this paper, the story Usta Beni Öldürsen E! is tried to be examined in the context of name-content relationship. Key Words: Bilge Karasu, mind, I/black spot, examine. Yazarın Hayatı ve Eserleri 1930 Yılında Ġstanbul‟da doğan Karasu, Ġstanbul Üniversitesi Felsefe Bölümü‟nü bitirmiĢtir. 1974 Yılında Hacettepe Üniversitesi‟nde öğretim görevliliğine baĢlayan Karasu‟nun bu görevi 1995 yılındaki vefatına kadar sürmüĢtür. Ġlk yazısı 1950‟de, ilk öyküsü de 1952‟de Seçilmiş Hikâyeler dergisinde yayımlanan sanatçı, 1963 yılında D.H. Lawrence‟ın The Man Who Died (Ölen Adam) kitabının çevirisiyle Türk Dil Kurumu Çeviri Ödülü‟nü, 1971‟de Uzun Sürmüş Bir Günün Akşamı kitabıyla Sait Faik Hikâye Armağanı‟nı, 1991‟de Gece kitabı ile Pegasus Ödülünü ve 1994‟te Ne Kitapsız Ne Kedisiz’le Sedat Simavi Vakfı Edebiyat Ödülü‟nü almıĢtır. Bilge Karasu‟nun eserleri; Troya'da Ölüm Vardı (1963), Uzun Sürmüş Bir Günün Aksamı (1970), Göçmüş Kediler Bahçesi (1979), Kısmet Büfesi (1982), Gece (1985), Kılavuz (1990), Ne Kitapsız Ne Kedisiz (1994), Narla İncire Gazel (1995), ölümünden sonra yayımlanan Altı Ay Bir Güz (1996), Füsun Akatlı tarafından kitaplaĢtırılan Lağımlaranası ya da Beyoğlu (1999), Öteki Metinler (1999) ve Serdar Soydan‟ın derlediği Susanlar (2009) ile birlikte toplam on iki kitaptan oluĢur. Göçmüş Kediler Bahçesi adlı eserde yer alan “Usta Beni Öldürsen E!” hikâyesi, 12 hikâyeden oluĢan kitabın 7. hikâyesidir. Sayfa 2 / 13 �Hikâyenin Özeti Hikâye, Alıntı ve Gönderge Yöntemi ile yapılan “Metinlerarasılık” tekniği kullanılarak -Koncaku Monogatari ġu- Japon Öyküsünün bir parçası ile baĢlar. Bu parçada belirtilenler hikâyede anlatılmak istenenin arka planını oluĢturur. Buna göre “iblisleĢivermiĢ” olan bazı ana babalar herkesi ortadan kaldırdıkları gibi çocuklarını da ortadan kaldırırlar. Hatırladığı ilk gün iki yaĢında olan (bunu daha sonra annesi söyler) çırak, annesi dıĢarı gittiğinde evin içini keĢfetmek ister. Evde yatalak hasta olan amcası ve babaannesini bulunur. O güne kadar dikkat etmediğini düĢündüğü bir “ben” amcasının burnunun dibinde belirir, sonraki günler iyice büyür, hayatını kaybettiğinde zeytin iriliğine ulaĢır. Sonraları babaannesi ve annesinin de ölümlerine yakın bu “ben”leri görür. Kahraman ne zaman, kim tarafından, nasıl olduğu belirtilmeyen Ģekilde bir cambaz ustasının yanına verilir ve onun yanında büyür. Cambaz bildiği her Ģeyi ona öğreten kiĢidir. Hayatta ayakları üzerinde durmayı bile bilmediği halde cambazdan öğrendikleri ile yaĢar hatta incecik bir ipin üzerinde durmayı baĢarır. Ustasından öğrendiği en önemli kural iĢi ile var olabildiği bu sebeple özellikle iĢini yaparken tamamen ona odaklanması, kesinlikle baĢka hiçbir Ģey düĢünmemesi gerektiğidir. Kurala uymadığı zamanlarda canından olmakla burun buruna gelir, ustası tarafından kurtarılır ancak azar iĢitmekten kurtulamaz. Ustası onun hayatta kalması için düĢüncelerini, hayallerini, özlemlerini, kafasında iĢi haricinde var olan her Ģeyi silmesini istese de „düĢünmek‟ kahramana cazip gelir ve kendisini düĢünmekten alıkoyamaz. DüĢüncelerinde iĢinden uzakta su kıyısı, çimenler, yeĢillik özlemi çeker, boĢ olduğu her anında kendisini buralara atar. Her ne kadar büyük iç çatıĢmaları yaĢasa da, korkunç fikirlere karĢı koymaya çalıĢsa da “iblis” yönü ağır basar ve ustasının ölümünden memnun olacak dereceye gelir. Bir ipin üzerinde iki cambaz oynayamazsa, kendisi de artık usta olmak istiyorsa ustasının ortadan kalkması gerekir. Kafasında büyüyen yasak düĢünceler kendini var eden iĢini esaret zinciri, çalıĢtığı mekânı kafes olarak görmesine neden olur, en sonunda hayattaki tek varlığı olan ustasına da günün birinde bir “ben” koyar. Son gösterilerinde ustasının açığını fark eder ve açığı telafi edecek ustalığa eriĢtiğini göstermek istediği hayallere dalar. Zihnini kemiren bu düĢünceler yanlıĢ hareket yaparak yere doğru hızla çakılmasına sebep olur. Sayfa 3 / 13 �Hikâyede anne, baba, babaanne ve amcanın, çocuğun sağlıklı geliĢebilmesi için üzerlerine düĢen görevleri yerine getirmedikleri görülür. KiĢiliğin oluĢumunda en önemli iki etken olan “kalıtım” ve “çevre”den “kalıtım”ın ağır basıĢı, çevrenin (Usta) tüm çabalarına rağmen onu iblisleĢmekten, dolayısıyla hayatını kaybetmekten kurtaramaması anlatılır. Vaka zincirinin ortaya çıkmasını hazırlayan sebepleri “anne etkisi, ben imgesi, usta etkisi” Ģeklinde sıralamak mümkündür. Dolayısıyla inceleme bu faktörler üzerinden yapılacaktır. Anne Etkisi 2 Bu bölümde öncelikle “anne arketipi”nden bahsedilmelidir. “Tüm insan eylemlerinde “a priori” bir faktör vardır, bu da, “psike”nin doğuĢtan gelen, bu nedenle de bilinçöncesi ve bilinçdıĢı olan bireysel yapısıdır. Bilinçöncesi psike, örneğin yeni doğmuĢ bir bebeğinki, uygun koĢullar sağlandığı takdirde her Ģeyin doldurulabileceği boĢ bir levha değildir, aksine son derece karmaĢıktır, çok net bir biçimde tanımlanmıĢ bireysel bir olgudur ve bize karanlık bir boĢluk gibi gelmesinin nedeni, onu doğrudan doğruya göremememizdir. (…) Örneğin, anne babada da görülen bazı marazi özelliklerin kalıtım yoluyla geçtiğini varsayarız" (Jung, 2009: 19). 2 Bu bölümde yer alan “a priori, psike, idea” kavramlarının açıklamaları aşağıda verilmiştir. Söz konusu bilgiler Abdülbaki Güçlü-Erkan Uzun-Serkan Uzun-Ü.Hüsrev Yolsal’ın hazırladığı Felsefe Sözlüğü’nden alınmıştır. A priori; Doğruluğu deneyimlerimize, gözlemlerimize dayanmayan savlara, önermelere, düşüncelere, yargılara a priori denir. (s.1) Psike; İlkçağ Yunan felsefesinde tüm yaşamın temel ilkesi olarak “ruh”; bilincin merkezi olarak da “zihin” anlamında kullanılır. Bu iki ana anlamıyla bağlantılı olarak, terim “can”, bedene can veren yaşama gücü, yaşam ya da canlılık ilkesi; “yaşam soluğu” anlamında da kullanılmıştır. (s.1187) Idea; Platon’un felsefesinde bize hiçbir zaman mutlak olanın bilgisini veremeyecek olan duyulur nesnelere karşı bilginin saltık, değişmez, saf nesneleri olan düşünülür nesnelere, ancak düşünce yoluyla kavranabilir olan “ilkörnek”lere verilen ad. Platon İdeaların zihinde ayrı olarak da gerçek bir varoluşa sahip olduklarını, hatta asıl gerçekliğin, aşkın ve ideal gerçekliğin İdealardan oluştuğunu savlamaktadır. (s.712) Sayfa 4 / 13 �Annenin koruyan, hayata hazırlayan, ilgi ve Ģefkat gösteren özellikleri vardır. Çırağın söz konusu özelliklerden hemen hiç birini annesinden görmediğine Ģahit olunur. Yalnızca amcasının ölümü ile korkan kahramanın annesinin yanına gittiği zaman elinin üzerine annesinin elini koyması ile korkuları azalır. Hikâyede annenin yaptığı, olması gereken anne modelinin sergilendiği tek yer burasıdır. Carl Gustav Jung annenin travmatik etkilerini iki gruba ayırır. Bunlardan ilki hikâyeye uygun düĢen “annenin gerçekten sahip olduğu karakter özellikleri ya da tutumlardan kaynaklanan” (Jung, 2009: 23) etkisidir. Zaten Japon öyküsünde verilen ipucundan da bu etki anlaĢılabilir. Alıntı yapılan bölümde “yaĢlanmıĢ ve iblisleĢivermiĢ” olan annelerin çocuklarını ortadan kaldırdıklarından bahsedilir. Bu ortadan kaldırıĢ elbette karakter, benlik olarak ortadan kaldırmaktır. Doğduğu andan itibaren bir çocuğun alacağı ilk eğitim evde, ailesinden baĢlar. Anne veya baba, çoğu zaman her ikisi de, çocuğun karakterinin oluĢmasındaki örneklerdir. Irsî olarak zaten ailesine çeken çocuk, taklit ile baĢlayan davranıĢlarına bir müddet sonra sorgulamadan devam eder. Dolayısıyla anne ve baba çocuğun ideal benliğinin oluĢumunda önemli rol oynar. “Annemizle iliĢkilerimizden öğrendiğimiz kaçınma, denetim, boyun eğme, üstünlük kurma, saldırganlık, aĢırı denetim ve güvensizlik kalıpları beyinlerimize kazınabilir. O kalıpları benimsemek ve onlarla yaĢamak zorunda bırakılırız. Anababalık budur. Anababalarımızın davranıĢlarını içselleĢtiririz ve onlara göre yaĢarız” (Cloud ve Townsend, 2002: 16). Buradan yola çıkarak “iblisleĢivermiĢ” annelerin doğal olarak evlatlarının da iblisleĢeceği söylenebilir. ĠblisleĢmek; ĢeytanlaĢmak, kendini tüketme demektir. “Ġblis; kötü, lanetlenmiĢ, hileci [dir]. Kendisine kıyamete kadar, Tanrı‟ya sadık olmayan kulları sapkınlığa yöneltme gücü ve görevi gibi bizatihî suç olan bir güç ve görev veril[miĢtir]” (Meydan Larousse, C.6: 155). Onun özelliği kiĢiyi doğru yoldan saptırıp her türlü ahlaksızlığı, düĢüncesizliği, bencilliği yaptırmaktır. Bir süre sonra ona tâbi olan kiĢiler önce kendilerini kendilerine yabancı bulurlar. Kendi egolarını tatmin ile baĢlayan maceraları “bencillik”e varır. YavaĢ yavaĢ hem kendilerini hem etrafındaki değerleri tüketirler. Anneden gördükleri kiĢiliklerini oluĢturan çocuklar da bu sebeple iblisleĢmiĢ olurlar. Zaten iblisleĢmiĢ bir annenin cenazesinin törenle kaldırılmıĢ olması da çocukların aynı korkunç duyguları paylaĢtıklarının, anne etkisinden kurtulamamıĢ olduklarının bir göstergesidir. Sayfa 5 / 13 �Hikâyede de Japon öyküsünde yer alan tüketme eylemi söz konusudur. Çocuğunu tüketmiĢ olan anne yüzünden “çırak”ta da tüketme güdüsü baĢlar. Tüketme, etrafında görmek istemediği, kafasından sildiği, kurtulmak istediği kiĢilere zihninde “ben” koyarak iĢaretlemesi olarak görülür. Ġlk olarak amcasına konulan bu “ben” daha sonra anneye, babaanneye, diğer çıraklara ve en sonunda “usta”ya konulur. Annesi kahramanın evde olmasına müsaade etmez. Elbette bunda babaannesinin ve amcasının hastalıklarının payı vardır ancak bu durum gittikçe çocuğu evden soyutlama halini alır. Amcasının ölümü üzerine korkan çocuk annesinin yanına gelir: “Anasının eli şakağından inip elini örtünce korkusu gitmişti” (s.110). Anne korkulardan kaçıĢ için güvenli bir sığınaktır. Onun yanında huzur, refah bulunur. “Çocuk içinde güveni değil tehlikeyi barındırır. Güveni yalnızca annesinde ya da kendisine annelik yapan kiĢide bulabilir” (Cloud ve Townsend, 2002: 22). Ancak tüm hikâye boyunca annenin çocuğuna sağladığı tek güven ânı bu andır, çocuğunun korkusunu giderir. “SakinleĢtirme anne ile çocuk arasında bir alıĢveriĢtir. Çocuk korkmuĢtur, yalnızlık çeker ve kendisine acı veren duygularla yüklüdür. Bu duygular ona kaldıramayacağı kadar “ağır” gelir. Anne çocuğunu kucağına aldığı zaman onun bu duygularını anlar ve kabul eder. Annesi çocuğun bu duygularını aktarabileceği, onlardan korkmayan bir kiĢidir. Acı veren duygularını annesinin sakinliği ve sevgisiyle değiĢtirir” (Cloud ve Townsend, 2002: 57). Hikâyede çocuğun korktuğu zamanlarda annesi tarafından yatıĢtırılmasına rastlanmaz. YatıĢtırma, beraberinde sevgi, merhamet ve ilgiyi getireceğinden onlar da görülmez. Hatta çocuğun herhangi bir arkadaĢının varlığından da söz edilmez. Bu durum, çırağın iliĢki, dostluk, alaka gibi kavramların ne ifade edebileceğini bilmediğini gösterir. Ustasının ona karĢı yaptığı davranıĢlarda yakınlık bulur, ancak anne ve arkadaĢ arasındaki yakınlık iliĢkisinden habersiz olduğu için bunu bir “anne” sevgisi olarak kabul eder. Ailesinde yer alan kiĢiler herhangi bir sorumluluklarını yerine getiremedikleri için, ona yakın davranan ustası ailesinin yerini tutar ve ona “ana” olur. Çırağın tek korkusu yalnız kalmaktır. Annesi gibi gördüğü ustasının yaĢlanmıĢ, ölüme yaklaĢmıĢ olduğunu sırf yalnız kalmaktan korktuğu için istemez. “Ġyi bir annenin yol göstericiliğinde yaĢama güvenle baĢlamak, yetiĢkinlik dönemimizde iyi iliĢkiler kuracağımız zamanı beklerken yaĢayabileceğimiz yalnızlıklara katlanmamız için gereklidir” (Cloud ve Townsend, 2002: 26). Annesinden aldığı güveni yalnızca amcasının ölümünden hemen sonra elini tuttuğu anda alan çırak için “anne” olgusu hemen hemen yok gibidir. Kendisini iyice bildiği dönem ustasının yanında iĢe ve hayata atıldığı zamanlara denk geldiği için çocuğun Sayfa 6 / 13 �korku ve güvensizlik içinde geçirdiği bir hayli zaman olduğu söylenebilir. Bu da gelecekte yaĢayacağı korkusunun yalnızlıktan ileri geldiğinin bir göstergesidir. Ben İmgesi Kahramanın çocukluktan baĢlayarak insanların yüzünde gördüğünü zannettiği bu noktalar ölümün hazırlayıcısı olarak sunulur. Ortaya çıkan “ben”; kibir, nefret düĢünceleriyle imgeleĢir. „Ben‟ nefretle gelen ölümün hazırlayıcısıdır. “Ölüm imgesinin Bilge Karasu metinlerindeki ekseni “göçmek” düĢüncesi üzerine kurulmaktadır. (…) Göçmek, var olan yaĢantıdan kopuĢun bir göstergesidir. Karakterlerin yaĢadığı ne tam bir ölüm ne de bir yeniden doğuĢtur. Tam olarak trajik bir sondur” (BaĢokçu, 2005: 124). Kahramanın geçmiĢte yaĢamıĢ olduğu annesizlik, ait olamamıĢlık, kiĢiliğinin oturmamıĢ hali ileride hep karĢısına çıkar. Her zaman bu “ben”den kurtarmak ister kendini ancak bilinçaltından gelenler buna izin vermez. Çırak, çocukluğunda anne Ģefkati ve koruyuculuğuna sahip olmadığından savunmasız, sevgisiz ve ilgisiz büyür. Ġçinde kalıtım yoluyla var olan ya da sonradan oluĢan nefret duygusunu insanların yüzlerine “ben” koyarak ortaya çıkarır. ĠĢareti kendisi koyduğu halde yine kendisinin bunu görmekten korktuğu görülür. Bu noktada “benlik çatıĢması” içerisine düĢtüğünü söylemek mümkündür. Ġki parçaya ayrılmıĢ benliği iyi ve kötü benlik olarak düĢünüldüğünde kötü benliği, “ben”in oluĢup diğer benliğe de üstün geldiği ve çırağın ölümüne sebep olduğu taraf olan “iblisleĢen” benlik iken, iyi benliğini ustasının onu hayata bağlamaya çalıĢan gayretleri, öğütleri ve davranıĢları oluĢturur. Usta Etkisi Usta, bir sanat veya zanaat dalında iĢinin ehli olan kiĢiye verilen addır. Hikâyedeki usta, metrelerce yüksekte bir ipin üzerinde akrobatik hareketler yapan bir cambazdır. Bu hüneri elde edebilen usta hayatın çetin yollarından geçmiĢ, belki birçok ölüm tehlikesi geçirmiĢ ama her fırsatta ölüme karĢı galip gelebilmiĢ kiĢidir. Zaten çırağın zihninden geçen usta tanımı da bu Ģekildedir: “Usta, bir yerde, yaşamanın yolunu da bulmakta ustalaşmış değil midir ki?” (s.107). Mademki ustası bu günlere kadar yaĢayabilmiĢ, bir yaĢama yolu bulmuĢ, o zaman bunu çırağına da aktaracak, ona da öğretecektir. Zira bunu da öğrettiği görülür. Usta, kafasını saran düĢüncelerden kahramanı vazgeçirerek yalnızca iĢine odaklanmasını ister. ĠĢi, kendilerini bugüne kadar getirmiĢ ise sadece onunla var olduklarına Sayfa 7 / 13 �göre yalnız o düĢünülmelidir. ĠĢ yaparken en ufak bir dikkatsizlik, ilgi kaybı yaĢama mâl olacaktır. O halde yaĢamak istiyorsa ustasının dediğini yapmak zorundadır. Ustası ona düĢünmeyi yasaklar. Çünkü yaptıkları iĢ bir anlık dalgınlığı affetmeyen bir iĢtir. Onlarca metre yüksekte canlarını hiçe sayarak ekmek parası kazanmaya çalıĢtıklarından dalgınlığa müsaade edilemez. Her atlayıĢla aslında ölüme giderler ancak her atlayıĢta çırağı ölümden kurtaran eller bileklerinden, belinden tutarak onu kurtarır: ”Onu ölümden kurtaracak eller, belini, bileğini bulmayabilirdi günün birinde” (s.110). Çırak ustasını anası gibi görmektedir. “Onu doğuran, emzirip büyüten, ona yaşamasını öğreten anasıyla bir tutardı ustasını” (s.108). Ancak onun anası doğurup emzirmesi haricinde bir Ģey yapmamıĢ, ona en önemli Ģeyi, ayakları üzerinde durabilmeyi, yaĢayabilmeyi öğretmemiĢtir. Ona hayattaki her Ģeyi öğreten ustasıdır. Bu öğretim o derece ileriye gitmiĢtir ki ustasının kendi ölümünün gelebileceğini söylemesi karĢısında çırak “ne söyleyeceğimi öğretmedin ki, bilmiyorum ne diyeceğimi böyle sözler karşısında” (s.118) der. Hayatında ölüm ile ilgili hemen hemen bütün acıları yaĢamıĢ olduğu halde bu durumlar için söyleyebileceği bir Ģeyinin olmaması da ilgi çekicidir. Ustası onun hayatta kalması için uğraĢır. Her ne kadar o çayırı, çimeni özlemiĢ olsa da ustası buna itiraz eder. Geçimlerini sağladıkları iĢ, insanların toplu olarak yaĢadığı yerlerde yapılabilir ve sadece meslekleri ile var olabilirler. Bu yüzden özlem, düĢ, hayal gibi her Ģeyin zihinden silinmesi gerekir. Bunların hiçbiri düĢünülmemelidir. Varlığını iĢine, iĢine bağlılığını ustasına borçludur: “Cambazlık, insanın -ölmek istemiyorsa- bütünüyle kendini ipe, halkaya, ustaya, adıma, ele- göze vermesini gerektiren bir işti” (s.113). Çırağın usu baĢka yerlerde gezinmemelidir. BaĢka Ģeyler düĢünmemesi gerektiğini anlayamadığı, bunu hala kavrayamadığı için “usta” değil hala “çırak”tır: “Birkaç kez usunun başka yerlerde gezindiğini, ipten başka sorunlarla uğraştığını fark etmişti ansızın. Böyle şey olmazdı” (s.113). Hikâyede ne ustanın ne de çırağın adları verilmez. Sadece yaptıkları iĢler ile adlandırılırlar. Ġsmin verilmeyiĢi benliğin tam olarak bulunamayıĢında bir etkendir. Zira birbirlerine seslendikleri zaman, herhangi bir Ģey söylemeden garip sesler çıkarttıkları görülür. Sayfa 8 / 13 �KiĢiliğini ustasının kiĢiliğinde eritmeye çalıĢan çırak, düĢündüğü, aklından geçen her Ģeyi ustasının da bileceğini, biliyor olduğunu, ondan saklamanın yanlıĢ olduğunu anlar: “Birliklerinin, birlikteliklerinin bir öğesi olmuştu” (s.108). “Ustasına söyleyemeyeceği şey zaten içinde, usunda kalamazdı” (s.112). Kalsa “usda” olacaktır. Yani ustası bir anlamda onun belleğidir. DüĢüncelerini, kiĢiliğini, her Ģeyi o tayin eder. Çırağın hayatta kalabilmesi için bu Ģarttır. Kahraman kiĢiliğinin oluĢumu ile ilgili düĢüncelere kapıldığı zaman bunda ustasının payı olup olmadığını, kendi benliğinde kendi etkisinin olup olmadığını ustasına sormaya kalksa ondan alacağı cevap bellidir: “Senin aklın ermez demeyecekti” (s.113). Aklı ererdi mutlaka ancak düĢündükçe yeni düĢüncelere, hayallere, umutlara yelken açacağından her düĢünce onu iĢinden uzaklaĢtıracaktır. ĠĢinden uzaklaĢması kendi olamaması, bu da yaĢayamaması demektir. O yüzden ustası ona “Düşünme” diyecektir. DüĢüncelerini büyütmesi ile ilgili en önemli olay Ģüphesiz “Söğüt Ağacı”na dayanır. “Söğüt, genellikle su kenarlarında iyi yetiĢen ağaçtır” (Meydan Larousse, C.11: 501). Söğüt ağacının yaprakları çoğu zaman yaĢ, canlı, taze durur. Herhangi bir yaprağı alınıp dikilse, kısa bir zamanda fidan olarak büyüdüğü görülür. Buradan hareketle “düĢünce söğütlüğü” kullanımında, her düĢüncenin yeni düĢüncelere gebe olduğu fikri söylenebilir. BoĢ kaldığı her zaman kendisini suyun kenarında, yeĢilliklerde bulması ya da orayı hayal etmesiyle aynı doğrultuda bir kullanımdır. Zaten söğüt de yalnızca suyun olduğu yerlerde bulunur. Hayalinde her zaman canlı olan kır, çimenlik, su kenarı içinde kendisine bir söğüt ağacı oluĢturan çırak bunu da düĢünceleri ile büyütür: “Kendini koyveriyordu soru söğütlüklerinin, soruların yaş otluklarının arasına” (s.114). Ustasına söyleyemeyeceği Ģeylerin usunda kalamayacağını anlayıp tüm bunlardan kurtulduğu, bunları unuttuğu vakit “önünden geçtikleri bir bahçenin bütün söğütlerinin budanmış” (s.112) ancak bunları “kaldırıma atılıp, yığılmış” Ģekilde bulur. Aslında bu mekân onun zihninin bir tasavvurudur. Aklında soru, düĢünce söğütlükleri varken bunların usunda kalamayacağını düĢünerek unutmaya çalıĢması (unutmaması, sadece tekrar hatırlamak üzere zihninin bir köĢesine yığmıĢ olması) söğüdün dallarının budanması olarak belirir. Ustası bunlara basmamak için yol kenarından yürüdüğü halde kendisi “saygıyla, sevgiyle, ağır ağır, cambaz ayaklarının bütün yeğniliğiyle bu dal yığınlarına basarak” (s.112) yürür. Bu bölüm, cambazlıkta ustalığa gittiği yolda, öğrenim hayatında bastırmıĢ olduğu düĢünceleri çiğnediğini gösterir. Ancak bunlar düĢünce söğüdünün budanmıĢ dallarıdır. Budanan ağaç her Sayfa 9 / 13 �zaman yeni, taze, daha gür yaprak ve daha sağlam dallar verir. Bunlar da düĢüncelerin aslında unutulup gitmediğinin, yeni düĢüncelerle birleĢerek daha güçlü bir Ģekilde geleceğinin habercisidir. Zira hemen bu görüntülerin ardından gelen yeĢillik, su kenarı gibi yerleri düĢünmek değil, “böyle yerlerin özlemini içinde taşımak bile suçtu kendini bilen cambaz için” (s.112). Ancak o hiçbir zaman kendini bilen bir cambaz olamaz, budadığı düĢünce söğüdü, çok daha gür ve güçlü Ģekilde kendini gösterir. Çırağın ara ara gelen düĢünmeme, düĢünmek istememe eylemlerindeki gayesi yalnız kalmak istememesi, bundan korku duyuyor olmasıdır. “Ustasının öleceği korkusu sardı yüreğini.(…) Bu düşünce ilk olarak gelip yüreğine korku salmıyor muydu?” (…) “Bu ölümün başka ölümlere benzemeyeceğini biliyordu, ansızın korkunç bir yalnızlık içinde kalacağını biliyordu” (s.119). Çırağın ustasına yardım edeceği gün, ustasının hata yaptığı gün olacaktır. Çırak bu hatayı telafi edebilirse ustasını kurtaracak, kendisi de usta konumuna yükselebilecektir. Ancak ustası bu zamanın gelmesinden, çırağının ona yardım etmesinden korkmaktadır: “Yaşamıma yardım edilmesi gerekecek günün gelmesinden korkarım (…) senin yaşamama yardım etmen gerekecek günün gelmesinden (…) Yardımsız kalayım ki köpekler gibi öleyim, diyorum arada bir. Diyorum ya, yük olmanın acısı, yapayalnız yaşamaktan kötü mü değil mi, bilemiyorum” (s.116). Çırak akrobatik hareketler yaparken, bir yerden bir yere atlayan ustasını yakalamalıdır. Ancak bu durumda tuttuğu ustası ona yük olabilir. Tutmadığı, yardım etmediği takdirde ise ona yük olmaz ancak ustası düĢüp ölecektir. Usta hangisinin daha iyi bir seçim olduğunu bilemez; çırağı yardım etse artık onun usta olduğunu kabul edecektir. Usta, çırağının henüz olgunluğa eriĢmeden bu durumun gelmesinden korkar. Çırak yardım etmediğinde usta yok olma tehlikesi ile karĢılaĢacaktır. Usta bunu da içine tam olarak sindiremez. Bu düĢünceler içinde çırak artık kararını verir ve nice zamandır uyuyamadığı uykusuna dalar. Ertesi sabah ise ustasında “ben”i görür. DüĢünmekten kaçar ancak engel olamaz. Gururlanma, kendini büyük görme kibire, kibir de nefrete zemin hazırlar. Zaten “ben”in çıkmasında asıl etkili olan bu düĢüncelerdir. Hikâyenin en baĢında bir anlamda özet Ģeklinde verilen bölümde ustasının burnunun sağ kanadının dibinde bir “ben” görme ihtimali söz konusu edildiğinde “O zaman, genç bir cambaz olarak, ne yapmanız gerekebileceği konusunda kapıldığınız düşünceler…” (s.107) Ģeklinde kurulan cümlede gördüğümüz “gerek- ebil- ecek” kelimesinde yer alan “e bil-” eki ile kastedilen yeterlilik, gücü yetme olarak görünse de hikâyenin sonlarında yaĢanılan zıt Sayfa 10 / 13 �duyguların tesiriyle aslında “istek” de devreye girmiĢ olarak düĢünülebilir. Bir zorunluluk söz konusu olmaz, olsaydı “e bil-” kullanılmazdı. Ġsteğin devrede görüldüğü bu kullanım karakterin meslek hayatında rütbe alabilmek için her Ģeyini borçlu olduğu ustasını gözünü kırpmadan harcayacağının iĢaretidir. ĠblisleĢen yönünü içeren “kötü ben”i çırağın ruhunu ele geçirir. Kahraman rahat düĢünebilmesini, ustasının ölümüne bağlar. O öldüğünde istediği gibi düĢünmekte özgür olacaktır. Bu yüzden sevinebilirdi ancak ustası onun yaĢaması için düĢünmemesini istemektedir. Nitekim düĢündükçe düĢüncelerinin saptığı yanlıĢ yollardan hoĢlanmaz. DüĢünceler her zaman iyi, güzel Ģeyler olmaz elbette. Ama hayattaki tek varlığının ölümünden memnun olacağını bir an bile düĢünmesi, ölüm bardağına bir an dolu tarafından bakması kabul edilemez: iblisleĢmiĢtir. Çırak son gün son oyunda hala iĢine kendisine vermeyip “düĢünmekte”dir. DüĢünüyor olduğu halde usta olduğunu zanneder ve bu halde kendisini ustasına ispatlama çabasına giriĢir: “Ama böyle şeyler düşünmek bile ustalığı daha hak etmediğini düşündürmez miydi?” (s.120). DüĢ yoluna girmesi yanlıĢ hareket yapmasına ve düĢüĢüne neden olur. Sonuç Hikâyede çırağın yetiĢmesinde en etkili rolü oynayan usta gibi gözükse de aslında annesinin yaptıklarının küçüklükten beynine kazınmıĢ olması, çırağın karakterinin geliĢiminde önemli derecede pay sahibidir. Kalıtım yoluyla devam eden “iblisleĢme” sürecindeki kahramanın “iyi ben” ve “kötü ben” çatıĢmaları yaĢayarak, hayatta kalabilmeyi zanaat haline getirmiĢ usta bir cambaz tarafından nefret, kibir, düĢünce fikirlerinden uzaklaĢtırarak yaĢatmaya çalıĢtığı görülür. “Usta Ben‟i Öldürsen E!”nin isim içerik iliĢkisine bakıldığında “usta”; us, akıl, zihin manasına gelirken “-da” bulunma hal eki almıĢ Ģekli ile düĢünülmelidir. Bu haliyle “usta”, zihinde, akılda anlamlarını taĢır. “Ben” akla gelen ilk anlamının dıĢında kullanılarak, vücutta oluĢan siyah, kahverengi leke anlamındadır. Sayfa 11 / 13 �Hikâyenin sonunda var olan “düĢüĢ” aslında çırağın hayatının her devresinde “iblisleĢmekte” olan diğer benliğinin vasıtasıyla ustasının yasakladığı “düĢünme” ile oluĢur. Her düĢ, yeni bir çok düĢünceleri beraberinde getirdiği gibi “düĢüĢ”ün de hazırlayıcısıdır. DüĢüĢ esnasındaki feryadı hikâyenin isminin sonunda ayrı yazılan “E!” harfi belirtir. Sürekli çatıĢma halinde olan çırak, iyi tarafını oluĢturan benliğine seslenir: “Us-ta ben‟i öldürsen e > zihninde nefreti yok etsene” Ģekline çevrilir. KAYNAKÇA  BaĢokçu, T. Oğuz, (2005), Bilge Karasu Metinlerinde Benlik AnlayıĢı: “Ben”in KuruluĢunda Nietzsche‟ci Yansımalar (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Dan. Prof. Dr. Sedat Sever, Ankara.  Cloud, Henry – Townsend John, (2002), Anne Faktörü, (Çev. Emel Aksay) Ġstanbul, Sistem Yayıncılık.  Çelik, Burçin (2007), Bilge Karasu Öykülerinin Ortak Yapısal Özellikleri (Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Dan. Yrd. Doç. Dr. Nihayet Arslan, EskiĢehir  Güçlü, Abdülbaki – Uzun, Erkan – Uzun, Serkan – Yolsal, Ü. Hüsrev, Felsefe Sözlüğü, Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları.  Jung, Carl Gustav (2009), Dört Arketip, (Çev. Zehra Aksu Yılmazer), Ġstanbul, Metis Yayınları.  Karasu, Bilge (2012), GöçmüĢ Kediler Bahçesi, Ġstanbul, Metis Yayınları. Sayfa 12 / 13 � Meydan Larousse (1979), C.11, Ġstanbul, Meydan Yayınevi.  Meydan Larousse (1990), C.6, Ġstanbul, Meydan Yayınevi. Sayfa 13 / 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2189 Title A name given to the resource BİLGE KARASU’NUN USTA BENİ ÖLDÜRSEN E! ADLI HİKÂYESİNİN İSİM İÇERİK BAĞLAMINDA DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ Author Author ARMAĞAN, Burak Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Bilge Karasu, us, ben, tahlil. ÖZET Usta Beni Öldürsen E! hikâyesi on iki bölümden oluşan Göçmüş Kediler Bahçesi kitabının yedinci hikâyesidir. Alıntı ve Gönderge Yöntemiyle Yapılan metinlerarasılık tekniği ile -Koncaku Monogatari Şu- Japon Öyküsü, hikâyenin arka planını oluşturur. Buna göre iblisleşivermiş olan bazı ana babalar herkesi ortadan kaldırdıkları gibi çocuklarını da ortadan kaldırırlar. Hikâyede, kişiliğin oluşumunda en önemli iki etken olan kalıtım ve çevreden kalıtımın ağır basışı, ustasının tüm çabalarına rağmen çırağının iblişleşmesinin önüne geçemeyişi anlatılır. Öykünün isim-içerik ilişkisi iki farklı okumaya da müsaittir. Başlığa göre değerlendirildiğinde usta-çırak ilişkisinin ön plana çıktığı görülür. Ancak kelimelerin arka planda yüklendikleri anlamlar da göz önünde bulundurulduğunda hikâye yepyeni bir yapıya bürünür. Buna göre us+ta [us, akıl/zihin; ta, bulunma hali eki] akılda; ben ise vücutta oluşan siyah leke anlamındadır. Hikâyede ben, nefret imgesidir. Kelimelere bu yönleriyle bakıldığında öykü başlığı zihinde nefreti öldürsene şekline çevrilir. Bu bildiride Usta Beni Öldürsen E! hikâyesinin isim-içerik ilişkisi üzerinden tahlili yapılmaya çalışılmıştır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/32e4d640f81059683de42c30c0ad893a.pdf edd59913de49e54e66a0245f85fa906c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bilingual education: the road to multilingualism Julijana VuĦo University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology julivuco@gmail.com Katarina Zavišin University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology katarina.zavisin@gmail.com Globalisation emphasizes the importance of foreign languages by influencing the development of national strategies for learning languages, thus contributing to conservation or harmonization of language ecological balance in the world. The increasing attention given to language issues in Europe resulted from the intention to overcome numerous problems related to language, communication, interaction and multilayered international cooperation and understanding in the context of ethnic, religious and cultural differences on global level, but also to promote the integration processes enhanced by various forms of mobility. What also contributes to this is an overall democratization of public life and raising awareness in different minority groups, as well as parallel processes of globalization, localization and glocalization: comparison, permeation, survival and adaptation of local environment to global context. At the same time, there are concerns based on the prejudice that globalization trends could endanger citizens' needs at individual and local level of identification with their people, country, religion, cultural specificities and so on. In the area of foreign language teaching policy there have been inappropriate reactions to the "danger" threatening the dominant language and culture that are allegedly jeopardized by the presence of other cultures and languages in a formal education system and environment. Bilingual education (in Serbia since 2004) promotes multilingualism, with the belief that it contributes to overcoming linguistic, cultural and communication barriers and develops tolerance. This paper, as an appendix to the introduction of bilingual teaching, interprets the results of research on the importance of learning foreign languages, cultural and linguistic bias in students of bilingual and regular classes. The aim of the paper is to identify similarities and differences in the attitudes of bilingual and regular students . Key Words: Bilingual education, multilingualism, multiculturalism, foreign languages, attitudes, bilingual and regular students. Introduction To speak more than one language is a rule rather than an exception because two thirds of the world's population are bilingual. During the eighties and nineties attention began to be paid at national levels in Europe to formative possibilities offered by bilingual education seen as a unique curriculum in two vehicular languages, one of which is not native. By publishing the White Paper (1996) titled Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society, the European Commission emphasized the need to improve the quality of foreign language learning. One of the proposals in the document is about the possibility that several high school subjects can be taught in the first foreign language. Tendencies which are related to the foreign language learning policy in Europe are presented in detail in the Common European Framework of Reference for learning, teaching and assessment of the languages of the Council of Europe. They also contain a proposal of possible scenarios of the curricula presented to the Ministerial Council of the Council of Europe in 1998. New impetus to such education was the signing of the Maastricht Treaty, Article 126, which opened the borders of Europe to the effect of large movements, shifts, increased mobility of people and business relationships between countries. Contemporary attitudes and trends of foreign language learning policy in Europe include multilingualism as a basic principle of the European unity policy, defining it as an individual's ability to take part in intercultural interaction in two, three or more languages, at different levels. Such knowledge of a language offers the possibility of learning about multiple cultural communities, exchange of experiences and wider opportunities for work and 713 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo contacts within the European Union. Advantages of the implementation of the multilingualism principle in school systems lead to expansion of students‘ linguistic competence in a foreign language, development of creativity and sense of communication, greater abilities of analysis and problem solving, dissemination of knowledge in the foreign language as a vehicular language and in the mother tongue, development of self-confidence in the person who speaks the languages, greater respect for themselves, flexibility and adaptability, confidence in social interactions, developed capacity for interpersonal relations, closer ties with some environments and with the European social and cultural environment in general, and the creation of a multicultural attitude, possession of "the experience of two language worlds" (Baker, 2000). In pragmatic terms, education in two languages in a multilingual environment enables easier mobility and exchange of information in the broadest sense, including family, community, employment and international contacts in European and world context, permeation of educational systems of countries participating in bilingual education, transfer of academic knowledge from one language to another, the spirit of mutual cooperation in learning, education of a ready, open citizen of Europe with expressed tolerance and need for social harmony (VuĦo, 2006). Bilingual instruction uses two languages as a tool in teaching process, it is one of the aspects of bilingual education and ways to develop students' bilingualism. In bilingual classes in monolingual environments there is a risk that the second language might threaten the first one and replace it, which is known as subtractive bilingualism, a common phenomenon in language heterogeneous environment, where students whose first language is socially less important in their community, are taught some subjects in the language that is socially more relevant, thus endangering the development of the mother (family) tongue. The use of family language is limited only to home, school, and it is not used in the environment. This phenomenon occurs with immigrants, particularly those from socially less developed areas. When it comes to the bilingual education in Serbia227, its nature is additive, because it produces the mentioned positive effects (FilipoviĤ, VuĦo, ĐuriĤ, 2007). Europe and multiculturalism - from a political desire to political reality The views on multilingualism and intercultural relations on which the European Union bases its policy of equality among member states, encouraging foreign language learning and condemning any kind of linguistic and other discrimination in the areas of formal and informal education are well known. Active political support sends a clear message that there is a need to strengthen the knowledge of foreign languages and define specific language needs by maintaining the diversity of languages as a factor of strengthening European unity. Expressing fear or conciliation with the so-called imperialism of the English language, or with English as a language with the power of lingua franca of the modern world (Seidlhofer, 2005: 340), a valid recommendation (European Commission, 2008) is that a European citizen should speak at least three languages 228. The idea of European multiculturalism is experiencing longer and longer moments of crisis, a social environment is increasingly hostile to the challenges of integrating poor immigrant population into the European context. This is clearly expressed by the statements of the British 229 and German230 Prime Minister, affirming that "the attempts of creating a multicultural society in Germany have completely failed." Up to a few years ago clear messages contained unbelievably politically incorrect opinions addressed to immigrants, "those who don‘t speak the German language are not welcome," despite the fact that "in Frankfurt am Main, two out of three children under the age of 5 years are of immigrant origin" . Multiculturalism and multilingualism were the main pillars on which Europe rested. The threat that these pillars might collapse, for example in Germany and Britain, where as an alternative to unsuccessful multicultural utopia a clear expression of national identity that would contribute to preventing various extremism is evoked, speaks about the danger that hangs over the entire European Union and idea of European equality of nations and languages. 227 Bilingual education in Serbia, started in 2004-2005 in French and Italian, and since 2006 it is held in English and German in some primary schools. The model of bilingual education can be regarded as original and modified according to the CLIL procedure. In contrast to this model, where a sole requirement is not the knowledge of a language, and due to Serbian legal regulations a teacher must be both proficient in the language and have a university degree of the non-linguistic subject he teaches. An anticipated level of language proficiency for teachers is C1 of the CEF. Depending on the availability of teachers, bilingual education is held for a number of subjects: history, geography, art, sociology, biology, philosophy, computer science, etc.. as a percentage of 30 to 45% of the total number of classes. 228 Language for identification, native; language of global/continental communication (English or French, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, or other language), and a personal acquired language that should be developed to the full potential as a second language (represented in the education system at all levels) (European Union, 2008). 229 http://www.vesti-online.com/Vesti/Svet/115356/Nacionalizam-zamena-za-multikulturalnost-u-Britaniji, the site was accessed on February 10 at 00.15h 230 http://www.vesti-online.com/Vesti/Svet/90060/Merkel-Multikulturna-Nemacka-je-propala the site was accessed on February 10 at 00.14h 714 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Interculturalism and foreign language teaching Modern foreign language teaching means that the view of indivisibility of learning, acquisition and teaching of a language and culture of a country, nation, area of the language is accepted and adopted. The awareness of another‘s culture and knowledge about it was a popular concept in the anglophone educational systems of the eighties and nineties. This is brought in connection with foreign languages and with a broader perspective of the cultural turn in other social sciences of the post-modern society (Byram, 2004:159). This issue, which, among other things deals with cultural differences and relationship to "others," regardless of their national, ethnic, social, regional, institutional or other differences, was dealt with in the works of various authors, including Tomalin & Stempelski, (1993) , Byram, (1997), (2004), Kramish, (1993), Spolsky & Hult (2008), Spolsky (2009). Based on cultural differences, but also involving the development of thought in the direction away from ethnocentrism towards relativity, as Byram says (2004:159), this concept is widely used not only in relation to foreign languages but also to other school subjects, geography, history and social sciences and mother tongue. However, it is the most obvious in foreign language learning 231 and can be monitored at all ages. Knowledge of another‘s culture is considered very important in communicative teaching since it is understood that topics of culture and civilization are the frame and the content about which you need to communicate and around which communication is being developed. Attitudes of young people The attitudes of young people who are just going through the educational system in the contemporary social moment in Serbia are vividly expressed by the results of the research conducted by the Center for Children's Rights232 and surveys of 2007233 depicting the attitude of young people in Serbia to their mother tongue, foreign languages, cultures and speakers (VuĦo, 2007). The vast majority of respondents agree with the affirmative attitude in relation to the knowledge of another culture, without seeking for two-way cooperation as a condition for learning about the culture. There are divided opinions on the impact of other cultures on their own: 38% of the boys are concerned about the impact of other nations believing they significantly threaten national identity of their nation, as much as 35% has a very negative opinion and 25% was undecided in these estimates. Girls are slightly less xenophobic: 29% fears foreign influence, the same number was undecided and 41% does not consider the influences of other nations as a threat to national identity. The fact that nearly half of high school students in Serbia feel bigger or less distrust towards foreign cultural influences is a cause for concern. Clear animosity towards foreign language in general, used even in the field of entertainment is shown by the following disturbing information: 17% of the girls and boys as much as 28% are not sure how patriotic it is to listen to music in a foreign language, or are even convinced that it is very unpatriotic behavior. The fact that the concept of ethnically clean country is opposed only by a little more than half of respondents is a cause for concern, 59% of the boys and 57% of the girls, while 21% of the girls and 22% of the boys believe that every nation should live alone in its state, which is one in five young citizen. Others have no clear view on this issue, which makes space for the development of intolerance. Intolerance in relation to other nations (for example, the Chinese) is shown by 31% of the boys and 30% of the girls, who would deny them hospitality in our country even if they fully obeyed our laws, and only 46% of the girls and 43% of the boys would accept them. 231 Foreign language appears as an instrument of learning different types of content, the CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) not only focuses on the acquisition but it also deals with the problem of the relation between vehicular language and non-language subject. It is necessary to promote integrated, simultaneous learning of language and content, one through another. CLIL teacher implements a number of methodological and didactic methods such as strategies of functional understanding of the text, functional memorising and activation of vocabulary, which are already in the possession of foreign language teachers and for which the measurement with the linguistic problems is a daily challenge. 232 During September and October of 2005, Youth Network "Living Together", made up of youth clubs from Belgrade, Nis, Kraljevo, Uzice, Zajecar, Novi Pazar, Vrbas and Subotica, with the support of the Pestalozzi Foundation from Switzerland, conducted a survey on youth attitudes towards minorities and cultural diversity in their environment. The study included 468 high school students of both sexes aged 16-17. 233 The survey was conducted with the students of the Faculty of Philology of Belgrade University and the Third Belgrade High School students aged 16 to 20 years. The selected sample is not representative for Serbia, because it involved students of foreign philologies, and students of the Belgrade elite school, who were believed to have expressed views on the importance of languages in the contemporary world. 715 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In a research conducted with Belgrade high school students and first year university students (VuĦo, 2008) which aimed to obtain information about the attitude of the respondents to their mother tongue and foreign languages in their own and global environment, the young people felt not only patriotic enthusiasm about the knowledge and use of their mother tongue, but they also brought it in connection with the economic development of the country, while they linked a foreign language to the importance of language as a universal category, but also awareness of the limited use of Serbian as a small language. This shows raised awareness of the necessity of the knowledgde of foreign languages for a prosperous life in the modern world. Survey: sample and instruments The specificity of bilingual teaching leads to an assumption about the usefulness and benefits of bilingual education in school, social environment and the wider environment, and in this respect the research was conducted on the views of final year students of bilingual classes and those who attend conventional (regular) classes in the Third Belgrade High School. The research is primarily concerned with students' attitudes towards foreign languages and cultures in order to gain insight on possible differences between the two classes. The research was carried out during February of academic year 2010-2011. The research includes the following dependent variables: social-cultural elements of foreign language learning, attitude to native language and attitude towards foreign languages and cultures, while the independent variables are gender and age. The aim and hypothesis of the research The aim of the research is to determine the similarities and differences in the views of bilingual and regular students of the importance of learning foreign languages and the existence of some cultural and linguistic bias. Our hypothesis was that bilingual students are more open to foreign cultures and languages and have a more tolerant attitude towards ethnic minorities in their country, and are more interested and willing to learn about other cultures. Description of the survey The conducted survey was anonymous. The survey includes general information about the students‘ sex and mother tongue, records of foreign languages that the student has learned during school as well as institutions where the student attended classes of foreign languages. This is followed by questions about respondents‘ interest for learning foreign languages and specific circumstances that would encourage students to learn foreign languages, the importance of foreign cultures for student personality development and its impact on the enrichment or impoverishment of the student's personality. The survey ends with questions about the views of students of the inclusion of national minorities in the environment where they live, the attitude towards foreigners and foreign residence. Most of the questions are a combination of open and closed questions. Statistical analysis of the data included a descriptive analysis of the results. Results of the research The research included two fourth-grade234 classes in the Third Belgrade High School: a regular class of science and mathematics course and a bilingual class that has certain subjects in Italian and French. In connection with the sex distribution of the respondents we can see that in the bilingual class there are more female than male students (18 female students vs. 12 male students, while in the regular class 12 female students compared to 15 male students). Most students in both classes marked Serbian as their mother tongue, while the low percentage of students marked another language (one student per regular class listed Macedonian, Russian and German, and one student per bilingual class listed English and French). The students of both classes have mostly been taught the same foreign language as part of formal education (English and French). The difference, however, is reflected in the learning of German and Italian for the benefit of bilingual classes. As with the experience of learning foreign languages that are not present in the Serbian school system, students from bilingual classes have more diverse experience in relation to their peers in regular classes: they mentioned languages such as Romanian, Portuguese, Greek, Latin and Hungarian. 234 The fourth grade is the final year in the secondary school system in Serbia. Students graduate from secondary school with 18 years of age, which corresponds to the age when majority is attained. 716 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Besides, bilingual students are interested in learning more languages in comparison to students of regular classes (Figure 1). Figure 1. Languages that students would learn, and are not offered in the survey. The need for openness and language tolerance, communication and the desire for cultural integration is shown by the answer given by all the students (of both classes) that if they lived in a foreign country, they would try to learn the language of that country. The students expressed their opinion on the advantages of knowledge of mother tongue in the modern world (Figure 2). Most bilingual students see the benefits of knowing their own mother tongue, while most students of regular classes do not recognize this advantage in the modern world. Figure 2. Students‘ answers about the usefulness of their mother tongue in the modern world. In connection with an assessment of how knowledge of the culture of other nations enriches personality, students of both classes mostly recognized positive effect on personality development, although the bilingual students' had a more positive attitude (Figure 3). 717 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 3. Students‘ answers on the impact of the knowledge of other nations‘ culture on the personality enrichment. Namely, all bilingual students said that knowledge of other cultures enriches a person to a large extent (except for a student who had no position on this issue). Also, we note that bilingual students made greater and more detailed feedback than the regular students in which one recognizes the willingness to intercultural exchange and clearly expressed awareness of how beneficial it is for building your own personality: "knowledge of other cultures has a profound effect on my personality, has forced me to challenge attitudes and has enriched me"; "each culture brings its wealth, history, significance, and each new language opens up more chances for a successful life", "knowledge of others' viewpoints and opinions help us to build a proper personality"; "when you learn about how others live you can easier see advantages and disadvantages of your own way of life"; and that "a man with more knowledge is richer in every sense of the word." The students‘ responses on the degree of their interest to learn about the culture of other nations are shown in Figure 4 where we can see that all bilingual students, but one, are very much interested to learn about the culture of other nations, while the regular students show greater reluctance. Figure 4. Students‘ views on how interested they are to learn about other nations‘ culture. The answers on the negative impact of other cultures on their own are shown in Figure 5 718 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 5. Students‘ views on the negative impact of other cultures on their own. We can see that more regular than bilingual students believe that culture of other nations may have a negative impact on their own culture. Regular students often explain their negative attitude towards other cultures, relating them to the current political context as, for example: "Kosovo is an illustration", "our country is in a mess and it accepts and gradually incorporates into its tradition the negative things from others", or "because the elements of other cultures can replace the elements of our culture and thus we lose our identity." Unlike them, bilingual students are much more tolerant as indicated by the comments like: "if you adjust to other cultures, it does not mean you forget your own culture", "if we properly understand our identity, we will learn to live peacefully with other cultures"; "it can not affect, it can only be positive, because it enriches our culture" or "absolutely not, everyone chooses their way, knowledge of something can only be beneficial." On the other hand, bilingual students show greater caution about the negative impact of modern technologies (listening to foreign music, surfing the Internet, etc.) on their identity, which is somewhat in conflict with their tolerant attitude to foreign cultures (Figure 6). However, this attitude can be explained by their frequent contact with foreign culture resources, and therefore greater capacity for critical attitude towards them. 719 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 6. Students‘ views on the negative impact of foreign music, films and the Internet on their identitety. The answers of bilingual students indicate to a great extent a more tolerant attitude regarding the equal inclusion of ethnic minorities in their environment (Figure 7). In this regard, we highlight some feedback of the bilingual students, "national minorities were disadvantaged under the regime of the nineties and this needs to be to put in order", "everything should be done to enable every citizen of our country feels the same and equal, regardless of the nationality"; "each national minority is entitled to their culture and right for this culture to be recognized (legally accepted)"; "in a democratic country people should be the most important and minorities are part of the people"; "because they are all equal regardless of their race or national origin." Figure 7. Students' views on the degree of justification of equal inclusion of ethnic minorities In this regard, we would like to emphasize the fact that in the survey of bilingual classes there were no negative comments on this issue, while some students of regular classes, explaining their opinion that only to a small extent do they justify the concern for the equitable inclusion of ethnic minorities, expressed the following opinions showing clearly their animosity and xenophobia: "because there are too many of them already, and the minority becomes the majority, as already seen in Serbia (Kosovo)"; "I do not want them to be involved if they do damage to my country"; "as if they sought to have more rights than Serbs"; "I am worried because people are volatile, you give them a finger, they want the whole arm", "there are fewer and fewer Serbs in Serbia, and therefore Serbian culture is weaker, the culture of minorities has a greater impact on the Serbs" and the like. However, among students of regular classes there is a positive attitude towards this issue such as: "Serbia is a beautiful country, and others should enjoy its beauty", "It is vital that everyone has equal rights" and the like. 720 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 8. Students' views of how justified is openness of the country towards foreigners. In relation to the increasing openness of the domestic environment towards strangers, (Figure 8), it is possible to see a more open attitude of bilingual students to foreigners as expressed in the following comments: "yes, and I hope to become more open because it can only have a positive effect" , "the world should learn about our culture and try to correct the opinion people have about us, which is mostly negative"; "the more open we are, the closer we are to European qualities, ie. better quality of life, and it is beneficial for the economy, too" and the like. Besides, the students of regular classes mainly gave positive comments about this question that we should be open to other countries for tourism, and they would like to see more foreigners in Belgrade as it is the case with other capitals and the like. However, some students of regular classes believe that this openness to foreigners is not mutual: "I think our country has always been open to foreigners, only they were not very open to us"; while others justify an open attitude towards foreigners solely for economic reasons: "only for foreign investment"; "for investment, capital, trade, and making the rest of the world aware that we exist on the map" and the like. In connection with going abroad, all students of both classes say they gladly travel and learn about other cultures. It is still possible to see the bilingual students give more diverse reasons such as: "I like to travel, it allows me to look at the world from multiple perspectives and to hear of new experiences"; "It is my pleasure to get to know other people, cultures and countries, and it fulfills me as a person ", or" when you get to know how other people live you will more easily notice the advantages and disadvantages of your way of life and more easily change yourself.― Conclusion The results of the research whose aim was to establish similarities and differences in the attitudes of bilingual and regular students on the importance of learning foreign languages and the existence of some cultural and linguistic bias, have confirmed the hypothesis that bilingual students are more open to foreign cultures and languages, and have a more tolerant attitude towards ethnic minorities in their country, and are more interested and willing to learn about other cultures. Attitudes of regular and bilingual students are substantially similar in terms of students' attitudes towards learning foreign languages and the importance of mother tongue, but the difference in their views is clearly evident in relation to tolerance towards ethnic minorities, equality of all citizens of Serbia and openness to foreigners. A more tolerant attitude toward foreign cultures is associated with greater exposure and contact with second cultures and languages, which is a direct result of bilingual education, teaching and extracurricular content, greater opportunities to travel abroad and beyond the narrow environment. In particular, as proof of openness, we highlight a positive attitude toward the equal inclusion of ethnic minorities in the region, in contrast to the negative attitudes and fear of the impact of foreign culture on the Serbian culture. Bilingual students explain their positive attitude towards foreigners mostly by opportunities to gain knowledge of cultures, while regular students often look at it from the perspective of economic, lucrative interests and prosperity. Culturally mature and motivated attitude is expressed by bilingual students who see time spent abroad as a gain related to the enrichment of their personality, a more rational understanding "of their life" as well as awareness of a possible change in their own attitudes. Bilingual teaching brings major novelties and a number of advantages in the school systems of countries applying it. In addition to new strategies and new spirit of modular teaching, expressed teamwork, modern methods that involve active teaching adapted to specific students needs, bilingual education provides many benefits to students, teachers, school and community as a whole. 721 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Establishment of bilingual classes in Serbia is in line with modern European attitudes toward the principles of multilingualism, mobility, and with contemporary trends in language learning, and includes a number of advantages: the expansion of language competence of students in a foreign language, development of creativity and sense of communication, the greater ability of analyzing and solving problems, expanding other forms of knowledge equally in foreign language as vehicular and Serbian language; developing self-confidence of a person who speaks languages, greater respect for themselves, flexibility and adaptability, confidence in social interactions, more developed capacity for interpersonal relations; establishing closer ties with the Italian, French and European social and cultural environment in general, and the creation of a multicultural attitude, possessing "the experience of two language worlds" (Baker, 2000); facilitated mobility and exchange of information in the broadest sense, from family, community, employment and international contacts in European and world context; permeation of education systems of participating countries, transfer of academic knowledge from one language to another, the spirit of mutual cooperation and cooperation at all levels of human activities; education of a ready, open citizen of Europe with expressed tolerance and the need for social harmony. The project of bilingual education brings globally an undoubted benefit as a road to multilingualism and multiculturalism. Bibliography Baker, Philip, Eversley, John. (2000) Multilingual Capital, Battlebridge Publications, London. 722 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Byram, Michael (1997) Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, Michael, (2004) Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning, Routldge, London, New York European Commission, (1996) Teaching and Learning--Towards the Learning Society. White Paper on Education and Training, Brussels. European Commission, (2008) A Rewarding Challenge How the Multiplicity of Languages Could Strengthen Europe, Bruxelles, http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/doc1646_en.pdf, the site was accessed on April 30, 2009 FilipoviĤ, J. ,VuĦo, J. and DjuriĤ, Lj. (2007) Critical Review of Language Education Policies in Compulsory Primary and Secondary Education in Serbia. Current Issues in Language Planning, Vol. 8:2, str.: 222-242. VuĦo Julijana (2006): U potrazi za sopstvenim modelom dvojeziĦne nastave , Inovacije u nastavi stranih jezika, UĦiteljski fakultet, Beograd. VuĦo, Julijana (2008) Srpski meħu stranim jezicima, Zbornik radova sa meħunarodnog nauĦnog skupa, Srpski jezik u (kon)tekstu, Filium, Kragujevac, str.45 – 53. Kramish, C. (1993) Context and culture in language teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Pres Seidlhofer, Barbara, Key concepts in elt. English as a lingua franca, ELT Journal, Volume 59/4 October 2005; doi:10.1093/elt/cci064, Oxford University Press. Spolsky, Bernard (2009) Language Management, Cambridge University Press. Spolsky, Bernard, Hult, Francis M. (2008) The Handbook of Educational Linguistics, Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. Tomalin, B. and Stempelski, S. (1993) Cultural awareness, Oxford: Oxford University press. 723 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 106 Title A name given to the resource Bilingual education: the road to multilingualism Author Author Vučo, Julijana Zavišin, Katarina Abstract A summary of the resource. Globalisation emphasizes the importance of foreign languages by influencing the development of national strategies for learning languages, thus contributing to conservation or harmonization of language ecological balance in the world. The increasing attention given to language issues in Europe resulted from the intention to overcome numerous problems related to language, communication, interaction and multilayered international cooperation and understanding in the context of ethnic, religious and cultural differences on global level, but also to promote the integration processes enhanced by various forms of mobility. What also contributes to this is an overall democratization of public life and raising awareness in different minority groups, as well as parallel processes of globalization, localization and glocalization: comparison, permeation, survival and adaptation of local environment to global context. At the same time, there are concerns based on the prejudice that globalization trends could endanger citizens' needs at individual and local level of identification with their people, country, religion, cultural specificities and so on. In the area of foreign language teaching policy there have been inappropriate reactions to the "danger" threatening the dominant language and culture that are allegedly jeopardized by the presence of other cultures and languages in a formal education system and environment. Bilingual education (in Serbia since 2004) promotes multilingualism, with the belief that it contributes to overcoming linguistic, cultural and communication barriers and develops tolerance. This paper, as an appendix to the introduction of bilingual teaching, interprets the results of research on the importance of learning foreign languages, cultural and linguistic bias in students of bilingual and regular classes. The aim of the paper is to identify similarities and differences in the attitudes of bilingual and regular students. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/483ef25d7056b867f5d42d6679a948dd.pdf ed05875e0cdf81f4aec8babf232016fc PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1 (2), pp. 110-125, Winter 2018 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/jeh2018122 Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo1, PhD 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo B&H amna.brdarevic.celjo@ibu.edu.ba Sead Zolota2 2 Kuwait Academy Bilingual School, Riggae, Kuwait sead.zolota@gmail.com Abstract: This paper examined the linguistic landscape of the Governorate of Farwaniya, the biggest governorate in the State of Kuwait, by means of public and private signs displayed in the city center and side streets. A corpus of 150 photos of diverse signs, both official and non-official, was collected, categorized, analyzed and discussed. The results point to an undeniable representation of the Arabic language in both public and private spheres of life as well as to a substantial presence of the English language on a wide range of signage therefore confirming the imprint the process of globalization has made on this EFL context. The findings also indicate that some other world languages, namely Bengali, Hindi, and Chinese, are represented in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait but rather poorly. Keywords: linguistic landscape, monolingual and multilingual signs, official and non-official signs, ethnolinguistic vitality Article History Submitted: 15 January 2019 Accepted: 10 February 2019 �Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo & Sead Zolota 1. INTRODUCTION In the modern day and age, we are constantly surrounded by a maze of intricate signage, whether it is a street sign, a shop sign, an advertisement, or a graffiti. The most frequent manifestation of a sign takes the shape of a written message, an image, or in most cases, a combination of both. Their display, content, location, and context constitute the concept of linguistic landscape and they represent the main investigatory data from which information about the linguistic and sociopolitical context of a country in question can be drawn. The field of linguistic landscape focuses on studying representations of language in public spheres of human life, which may include any visible signs, people`s perception of it, and how they interact with it. With the process of globalization in full swing and the ideologies of multilingualism and multiculturalism firmly rooted in different countries around the world, this field has attracted the attention and intense interest of researchers in different disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, sociology, linguistic anthropology, politics, semiotics, and urban studies. The term linguistic landscape has been contested and some other terms have been proposed, namely “the decorum of the public life” (Ben-Rafael, Shohamy, Amara & Trumper-Hecht, 2006, p. 10), the “environmental print” (Huebner, 2006, p. 33-35) and a “multilingual cityscape” (Gorter, 2006, p. 2). In all the aforementioned proposals, the notion of landscape has been avoided due to the fact that the term landscape denotes a large area of the countryside or “a painting depicting a scenery on land” (Gorter, 2006, p. 83) whereas the main focus of this field is actually a public, urban area. In addition to this, the term linguistic has also been found problematic since, as Jaworski and Thurlow (2010) maintain, linguistic is only one of the elements for the construction and interpretation of a place as the written discourse always “interacts with other discursive modalities: visual images, nonverbal communication, architecture, and the built environment” (Jaworski & Thurlow, 2010, p. 2). Still, as the notion of linguistic landscape has been widely accepted and frequently used by many researchers in the field (e.g. Backhaus, 2005; Ben-Rafael et al., 2006; Huebner, 2009; Landry & Bourhis, 1997) it is employed as such in the current paper. Linguistic landscape (LL) is described as “the language of public road signs, advertising billboards, street names, place names, commercial shop signs, and public signs on government buildings [that] combines to form the linguistic landscape of a given territory, region, or urban agglomeration” (Landry & Bourhis, 1997, p. 25) or as a language on the objects in the public space (BenRafael et al., 2006). It determines and clarifies which languages are most prominent and particularly valued in the public and private spheres and “indexes the social positioning of people who identify with particular languages” (Dagenais et al., 2009, p. 254). Shohamy and Gorter (2009, pp. 1-2) believe that the prime focus of LL research is language in the immediate environment, namely words as well as images displayed in public spaces and they associate the LL �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 with language that is visible and can be observed in schools, buses, government buildings, cities, etc. Thus, analyzing the language displayed in the researched context, the context itself, people identifying with that language as well as messages conveyed is the core of LL research. Researchers in the field of linguistic landscape gather data on language displayed in public spaces by visiting different geographical sites which they believe might contain interesting information on the (socio)linguistic or sociopolitical situation. Thus, some studies focused on the analysis of main streets or shopping streets (Blackwood & Tufi, 2015; Cenoz & Gorter, 2003) or researched the surrounding of a public transport route (Backhaus, 2007), while others focused on advertising billboards (Tulp, 1978) or shopping malls (TrumperHecht, 2009). As mentioned earlier, the main investigatory data in this field are signs from the environment performing different functions. The purpose and location of signs play a vital role in their interpretation and we distinguish them based on their function and the context in which they are displayed. According to Chandler (2002, p. 4) signs “take the form of words, images, sounds, odors, flavors, acts or objects, but such things have not intrinsic meaning and become signs only when we invest them with meaning”. Chandler (2002) emphasized that something represents a sign when it is interpreted as a signifier of something “referring to or standing for something other than itself” (p. 4). Scollon and Scollon (2003) state that there are three different ways a sign can have a meaning in semiotic theory. Firstly, the sign can be a picture of something in the environment and it is called an icon. Secondly, it can be a random representation of a thing in the world and it is called a symbol and thirdly, a sign has a meaning because of the place and time it is located in and it is called an index. Signs have been classified in various ways. Heubner (2009) focused on the purpose a sign has in the linguistics landscape and proposed that signs be classified as informational, interactional, directive, expressive, and poetic, which emphasizes the importance of the function of a sign. Likewise, Landry and Bourhis (1997) also attached great importance to the function of a sign and the function of the linguistic landscape of a territory in general and they stated that the linguistic landscape of a territory can have two different functions, namely informational and symbolic. Thus, the linguistic landscape serves to inform “ingroup and out-group members of the linguistic characteristics, territorial limits, and language boundaries of the region they have entered” (Landry & Bourhis, 1997, p. 25). However, Landry and Bourhis (1997) also point out the symbolic function of a sign and state that signs can emotionally and ideologically impact the members of the linguistic landscape in which these signs are displayed. Thus, the absence of a language on public signs certainly affects the feelings of the members of that language group in a setting featuring more than one language (Bourhis, 1992). 112 �Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo & Sead Zolota Signs, such as traffic signs, may inform us or contain a warning notice we should heed, whereas other signs may display names of government institutions or product advertisements providing us with information which is in accordance with our interest. Based on the type of the information signs provide, they can be classified into private signs and government signs (Landry & Bourhis, 1997; Leclerc, 1989). Private signs are non-official and they are commercial signs on shops and other businesses, commercials on billboards, advertising signs in public transport system and individual cars (Landry & Bourhis, 1997). On the other hand, government signs are road signs, street names, names of different governmental institutions etc. Additionally, Ben-Rafael et al. (2010) rely on this classification providing different names for public and government signs. Thus, they classify signs as top-down and bottom-up, whereby top-down or official signs designate government signs while bottom-up or non-official signs designate private signs. In this division of signs, there exists an ambiguous area related to the discrepancies in the design of official and non-official signs due to a substantial difference between them. That particular area was scrutinized by Huebner (2009, p. 74), who claimed that “the distinction between `top-down` versus `bottom-up` failed to capture the notion of agency and how it impacted language forms in the linguistic landscape”. Official or government signs are frequently translated into some widely spread world languages mainly for the purpose of ensuring that tourists and foreigners who visit the country can read them and because of the language policy in the country (Backhaus, 2006), though there are still some official signs which are left untranslated. As for non-official or private signs, their translation depends on the owners of the shops or any other businesses and most owners decide to provide the translation because they want to attract as many tourists or foreigners as possible. The representation of other languages on signs apart from the native tongue is the basic criterion for distinguishing between monolingual and multilingual signs, the distinction made by Backhaus (2006) and the distinction which will be made in this paper. Though a rather new research field, linguistic landscape has sparked an interest of many researchers involved in decoding multilingualism on a global scale. One of the pioneers of linguistic landscape research, Spolsky and Cooper (1991), examined 100 signs in Jerusalem, proposing three classifications of signs. The first classification relates to the function and the use of signs (street signs, advertising signs, warning notices, building names, informative signs, commemorative plaques, signs labelling objects and graffiti), the second one takes into consideration the materials from which the sign is made or its physical form (metal, tile, poster, wood, and stone), while the third classification takes into account the language used in the sign and the number of languages, thus making clear distinction between monolingual signs, bilingual signs, and multilingual signs. The main focus of this study in the field of linguistic landscape was the language choice on street signs in Jerusalem and the results revealed that public �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 signs make an important contribution to communication between people of different ethnicities and that ethnic diversity is reflected on multilingual signs and “recongized and respected” (Spolsky & Cooper, 1991, p. 151) in the Old City of Jerusalem. Some other studies in this field followed. Hence, researching linguistic landscape of Montreal, Monnier (1991) presented interesting results which suggest that French was an overwhelmingly dominant language on the signs in department stores, whereas English was highly prevalent in hotels and restaurants. Moreover, Scollon and Scollon (2003) investigated the presence of English signs in the linguistic landscape of Beijing and they concluded that English is not used for the convenience of foreigners, but simply to advertise their taste and manners. In addition to these studies whose main investigatory data were solely signs, there were also some studies which employed questionnaires to gain people’s perceptions of the linguistic landscape of the area they inhabit or visit. Thus, Bruyèl-Olmedo and Juan-Garau (2009) conducted research on tourists’ expectations about the linguistic landscape in the resort of Arenal in Majorca and they stated that they expected to be able to see English in every place in public thus confirming a global trend of the omnipresence of English in the public space of an area, a tourist area in particular. A broad range of countries, cities, and environments have been analyzed offering a number of distinctive perspectives on multilingualism in different parts of the world. However, to our knowledge, no studies in the field of linguistic landscape have been conducted in Kuwait. Hence, this paper might make a modest contribution to the future of studies in this field. This paper examines the linguistic landscape of Kuwait which involves the presence of official and non-official signs and their dissemination throughout the Governorate of Farwaniya located in Kuwait. Kuwait, officially known as State of Kuwait, is a small country located in the Middle-East in the northern edge of the Persian Gulf bordering Iraq and Saudi Arabia. It is a culturally diverse country boasting numerous cultures and nationalities coming from Iran, Egypt, India, Arica, and western countries as well. Due to its highly developed economy, it has attracted many expatriates from around the globe. Consequently, more than half the population consists of expatriates, which was confirmed by The World Factbook (2015) stating that “Expatriates in Kuwait account for around 70% of Kuwait's total population. 60% of Kuwait's total population are Arabs (including Arab expats)”. The official language of Kuwait is Arabic. In addition to Arabic, minority languages, such as Hindi, Bengali, Tagalog, Chinese and Japanese, are also used as well as English which is most widespread due to its role as a global lingua franca. The fact that the members of this linguistic landscape speak different languages has contributed to the development of multilingualism and the emergence of bilingual or multilingual signs. In this paper, the representation of languages on signs in two urban areas, the main market street abounding in both official and non-official signage, 114 �Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo & Sead Zolota namely the Governorate of Farwaniya and Riggae. Farwaniya was chosen on the grounds of it being culturally and linguistically diverse. On the other hand, Riggae is a sparsely populated area but was selected as a useful contrast to Farwaniya. Taking into consideration all the shops selling perfumes, food, jewelry, clothes, spices, and phones in the area of Farwaniya as well as some areas neighboring the institution of Manpower and Government Restructuring Program, the need for convenient signs was compelling, which granted us a generous amount of signage to capture and analyze. Thus, this paper will explore the presence of the native as well as minority languages on public and private signage to see which language dominates this linguistically contested area. Due to the importance and omnipresence of English in the world today, its representation on the signs in the linguistic landscape of the two aforementioned areas will be given particular attention. Thus, the current paper aims to answer the following research questions: RQ1: Which languages are most frequently represented on official and nonofficial signs in Kuwait and what is the role of English in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait? RQ2: What is the difference in the representativeness of two contestant languages, namely Arabic and English, on official and non-official signs in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait? RQ3: What is the difference in the representativeness of two contestant languages, namely Arabic and English, on signs displayed in city streets and in side streets in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait? 2. METHODOLOGY The research was conducted in the city of Farwaniya and in a smaller area in Riggae. The city center is replete with small businesses and large enterprises, local stores, supermarkets offering a wide variety of services and these were a remarkable source for this study because of innumerable signs strewn in and around the city center. Despite the overwhelming prevalence of non-official signage, we managed to collect a sufficient number of samples of official signage. For the research purposes, a smartphone camera was employed to capture the signage in both areas as it was done in some previous studies as well (Huebner, 2006; Muth, 2008). Thus, 150 photos were taken containing a wide range of signs including street, traffic, shop, warning signs and public places brimming with advertisements. In order to create data as diverse as possible, we photographed a range of different signs including street signs, advertisements, shop signs, warning notices, graffiti, and shops and restaurants of Indian, Filipino, and even Chinese cuisine in particular. The main street served as an ample source of �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 official signage consisting mainly of street names and traffic signs. Taking pictures of the signs near government buildings was impossible due to a strict prohibition of recording or photo taking imposed by the authorities. Nevertheless, in addition to the main street, we decided to explore a few side streets which proved to be abundant supply of non-official signage. The data analysis was conducted by means of qualitative method, which allows for convenient inspection and examination of signs and observation of the languages used on signs but “since such observations are not based on a clearly defined corpus, they cannot be quantified.” (Backhaus, 2005, p. 92-94) 3. RESULTS Which languages are most frequently represented on official and non-official signs in Kuwait? For the purposes of this study, 150 photographs of signs were collected, 42 official and 108 non-official signs. Although the number of two types of signs is disparate, it will not negatively affect the research results. Moreover, there were 11 official monolingual signs and 31 official bilingual signs, whereas there were as many as 52 non-official monolingual signs, 54 non-official bilingual signs, and 2 trilingual signs (Table 1). Table 1. Official and non-official signs Official signs Non-official signs Total Total 42 108 150 Monolingual 11 52 63 Bilingual 31 54 85 Multilingual 0 2 2 The native language of Kuwait, namely the Arabic language, is most commonly represented on various official and non-official signs displayed either in city or side streets (n = 128), which makes 85.33% of the overall number of signs. The language that seems to be contesting Arabic in this linguistic landscape is English as it is present on 108 signs (n = 108) or in 72% of instances. The number of signs in which only Arabic is employed is rather low (n = 42), which makes it only 28% of the overall number of signs, whereas there are 21 signs on which only English is displayed (14%). In addition to two competing languages on signs in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait, there are some other languages, such as Hindi, Bengali and Chinese, which are underrepresented since each language was presented on one sign only (Table 2). 116 �Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo & Sead Zolota Table 2. Languages displayed on the signs Language Arabic Number of Instances (out of 150) 128 English 108 Hindi 1 Bengali 1 Chinese 1 The majority of sings is in Standard Arabic, since apart from natives many expatriates coming from other Arabic countries such as Egypt, Tunisia, Syria, Jordan, and Lebanon live in Kuwait. Since the varieties of Arabic spoken and used in those countries are rather different and sometimes mutually unintelligible, the use of Standard Arabic on signs is needed for their proper interpretation by both natives and expatriates. However, since a large number of people from some western countries and people from Pakistan, China, India and the Philippines etc. live in this area, such a high representation of English on signs is rather expected as it is a means of overcoming language barriers and it plays the role of a Kuwait’s lingua franca. Thus, with English being the most represented foreign language on signs in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait, its immense international prestige has been confirmed once again. Therefore, the results of the current study are fully in line with some previous research which also emphasized the leading role of English (among other foreign languages) in the linguistic landscapes around the globe (Cenoz & Gorter, 2006; Edelman, 2006; Lamarre, 2014 etc.). A low representation of other minority languages is not unexpected due to a small number of people using those languages living in this area. However, two of the three signs representing these minority languages are multilingual and they contain information in Arabic and English apart from either Chinese (Figure 1) or Bengali (Figure 2). One remaining sign is bilingual with the restaurant’s menu in Hindi and only the name of the restaurant in English (Figure 3). It seems plausible that these languages represent the language choice of the owners because they aim people from those specific cultures apart from others as signs very often serve either an expressive or a poetic function (Huebner, 2009). �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 Figure 1. Example of Chinese Language Representation Figure 2. Example of Bengali Language Representation Figure 3. Example of Hindu Language Representation 118 �Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo & Sead Zolota What is the difference in the representativeness of two contestant languages, namely Arabic and English, on official and non-official signs in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait? Most official signs are bilingual (n = 31) in English and Arabic, and they represent 73.81% of the overall number of official signs (n = 42) (Figure 4). Out of those 31 bilingual official signs, the Arabic language is represented first and displayed above the English translation on 29 signs (93.55%) (Figure 4), whereas these two languages are placed next to each other, English on the left side and Arabic on the right side, on 2 signs only (6.45%) (Figure 5). However, there are no official bilingual signs on which English is represented first. 11 official signs (26.19%) are monolingual, and out of those 4 official signs represent only English, whereas 7 signs display information only in Arabic. Figure 4. A bilingual official sign As for non-official signs (n = 108), there are 105 signs which contain only English and/or Arabic and we will elaborate on these further. Namely, out of these 105 non-official signs, 52 signs are monolingual (49.52%), with 35 signs representing only Arabic and 17 signs displaying only the English language. 53 signs (50.48%) are bilingual containing information both in Arabic and English. On 25 bilingual non-official signs information in the Arabic language is represented first, on 11 signs the information in English comes first, whereas on the remaining 17 signs English and Arabic seem to be equally represented as the information in English is displayed on the left side and the information in Arabic on the right side of the sign (Figure 5). Figure 5. A bilingual non-official sign �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 These results are rather interesting, as they show that official signs are more frequently bilingual (73.81%) than non-official signs (50%), which points to the consciousness of the governmental institutions of the presence of foreigners in the country and their need to understand the displayed signs. The fact that Arabic is not present on only 4 official signs out of 42 (9.52%) and on only 17 out of 108 non-official signs (15.74%) points to a rather high awareness of nativism. Moreover, it is rather interesting that on bilingual official signs Arabic is displayed first in 93.55% instances which contrasts with the bilingual non-official signs on which Arabic is presented first in 47.17% instances. Such a predominance of Arabic on bilingual official signs can be ascribed to the country’s policies related to the language choice on public governmental signage. On the other hand, on 28 out of 53 bilingual non-official signs (52.83%), English has either an equal representation as Arabic or it is more prominent as it is presented first. Such findings point to the fact that English is directly competing with Arabic on non-official signs. Still, the high representativeness of Arabic and the place given to it on both official and non-official signs seem to suggest that nativism is still valued in Kuwait and that that country still has high ethnolinguistic vitality (EV) if Landry and Bourhis’s (1997) explanations of EV are taken into consideration. Official signs constitute a vital aspect in an ever-growing expatriate community of the State of Kuwait. One of the critical requirements for a functional community of expatriates is a proper and complete translation of public government signs which convey crucial information regarding street names, warning notices, or names of government buildings. Table 3 examines the translation of English on public signage and strives to see whether the information in Arabic is fully or partially translated into English. All 31 bilingual official signs have been translated from Arabic into English in their entirety. Conversely, the results are somewhat different concerning the translation of bilingual non-official signs into English. Thus, out of 53 bilingual non-official signs, 36 signs have been fully translated, and 17 signs have received a partial translation. Table 3. Translation on bilingual official and non-official signs Type of translation Official signs Non-official signs Full translation 31 36 Partial translation 0 17 What is the difference in the representativeness of two contestant languages, namely Arabic and English, on signs displayed in city streets and in side streets in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait? 120 �Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo & Sead Zolota The research sample was further subdivided into two additional categories, namely the signs found in the city center along the main street and the signs located in side streets outside the city center. Following this division, 106 photos (70.67%) of signs were taken in the city center, whereas 44 photos (29.33%) of signs were taken in side streets. Out of 106 signs displayed in the city center, 36 signs are monolingual (33.96%), 69 bilingual (65.09%) and 1 sign is trilingual (.94%). On the other hand, out of the 44 signs on display in side streets, 27 signs were monolingual (61.36%), 16 signs were bilingual (36.36%) and 1 sign was trilingual (2.27%) (Table 4). Table 5. Signage in the city center and in side streets Total 106 Monolingual 36 Bilingual 69 Trilingual 1 Signs displayed in side streets 44 27 16 1 Total 150 63 85 3 Signs displayed in the city center The results also point to an almost equal presence of English (n = 87; 82.07%) and Arabic (n = 88; 83.02%) on the public signage in the city center and to a much greater prominence of Arabic (n = 40; 90.9%) than English (n = 21; 47.73%) in side streets (Table 5), which is an indication of a great presence of the Arab communities in those areas. Table 5. The representation of English and Arabic on the signage in the city center and side streets Language English Arabic City Center 87 88 Side Streets 21 40 Out of 68 bilingual signs displaying English and Arabic in the city center, it is rather peculiar to notice that on 42 signs Arabic is displayed first, on 16 signs both languages are represented equally and there are even 10 non-official signs in the city center which are only represented in the English language. Moreover, out of 16 bilingual signs displayed in side streets, 12 signs present information in the Arabic language first, 1 sign presents information in English first and on 3 signs both English and Arabic are given equal credit. It is rather interesting to notice that monolingual signs are more frequently displayed in side streets than in the city center as they represent 33.96% of all the signs displayed in the city center and 61.36% of all the signs displayed in side streets. Out of 36 monolingual �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 signs displayed in the city center, 17 signs are English and 19 Arabic. The discrepancy between monolingual English and Arabic signs is much more conspicuous in side streets, where out of 27 signs there were only 4 monolingual English signs and 23 monolingual Arabic signs. Table 6. Monolingual Signs in English and Arabic Area of Inquiry English Arabic Monolingual Signs City Center 17 19 Side Streets 4 23 Such findings show that monolingual English signs are not highly valued and present in side streets (only in 14.81% cases), where the majority of signs were monolingual Arabic signs. On the other hand, in the city center monolingual English and Arabic signs were almost equally represented, which also indicates that English and Arabic in this sociolinguistic context are two contestant languages. Due to the fact that side streets are not frequently visited by foreigners, Arabic seems to be a predominant language in such places, whereas in the city center, which is visited by many foreigners, both English and Arabic are displayed almost to an equal extent. This shows that in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait English is not competing with other foreign languages but its contestant language is the country’s native language, which proves that immense importance is attached to English in this rather peculiar sociolinguistic context. 4. CONCLUSION This study aimed to analyze the linguistic landscape of the Governorate of Farwaniya, the biggest governorate in Kuwait. Within the corpus of 150 photographs taken in the city center along the main street and side streets, the overall presence and language structure of official or public signs and nonofficial or private signs was explored. The results indicated that English is the most dominant foreign language and that no other foreign language is so highly represented in this socio-cultural context with Bengali, Hindi and Chinese each occurring only once in the corpus. Thus, English is the only foreign language competing with the native tongue, namely Arabic in this linguistic landscape. The findings further pointed to a difference between official and non-official signs, as well as between the signs displayed in the city center and those displayed in side streets in terms of the property of monolingualism and bilingualism and the positioning of the languages represented. Thus, it was noticed that on bilingual official governmental signs Arabic is either represented 122 �Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Amna Brdarević Čeljo & Sead Zolota first or Arabic and English are on an equal footing while there were no signs on which English was positioned first. However, this was not the case with nonofficial signs. Moreover, the findings also pointed to a much lower presence of English monolingual signs in side streets (n = 4) than in the city center (n = 17). Compared to the number of 23 Arabic monolingual signs in side street, it strengthens the belief that nativism is still nourished in this country in particular outside a strictly public domain. The results of the current study are rather important as they provide a clearer insight into the linguistic landscape of yet another country where English has a prominent international role. REFERENCES Backhaus, P. (2005). Signs of multilingualism in Tokyo – a linguistic landscape approach. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Duisberg-Essen: University of DuisbergEssen. Backhaus, P. (2006). Multilingualism in Tokyo: A Look into the Linguistic Landscape International Journal of Multilingualism, 3(1), 52-66 doi:10.1080/14790710608668385 Backhaus, P. 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Gorter (eds) Linguistic Landscape: Expanding the Scenery (pp. 1–10). New York: Routledge Spolsky, B. & Cooper, R.L. (1991). The Languages of Jerusalem. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Trumper-Hecht, N. (2009) Constructing national identity in mixed cities in Israel: Arabic on signs in the public space of upper Nazareth. In E. Shohamy and D. Gorter (eds) Linguistic Landscape: Expanding the Scenery (pp. 238–252). London: Routledge Tulp, S. M. (1978) Reklame en tweetaligheid: Een onderzoek naar de geographische verspreiding van franstalige en nederlandstalige affiches in Brussel. [Commercials and bilingualism: A study into the geographic distribution of French and Dutch advertisements in Brussels]. Taal en Sociale Integratie 1, 261-288. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Education and Humanities Subject The topic of the resource Education and Humanities Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Description An account of the resource Abstract: This paper examined the linguistic landscape of the Governorate of Farwaniya, the biggest governorate in the State of Kuwait, by means of public and private signs displayed in the city center and side streets. A corpus of 150 photos of diverse signs, both official and non-official, was collected, categorized, analyzed and discussed. The results point to an undeniable representation of the Arabic language in both public and private spheres of life as well as to a substantial presence of the English language on a wide range of signage therefore confirming the imprint the process of globalization has made on this EFL context. The findings also indicate that some other world languages, namely Bengali, Hindi, and Chinese, are represented in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait but rather poorly. Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Amna Brdarević Čeljo Sead Zolota Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1 (2) Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Winter 2018 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2566-4638 DOI 10.14706/JEH2018122 Type The nature or genre of the resource Keywords: linguistic landscape, monolingual and multilingual signs, official and non-official signs, ethnolinguistic vitality https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8dbf9cfbf5dc993d0e0ac30a004712d4.docx 13b3ea68948d9cd98a2f21c3998205db Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3779 Title A name given to the resource Bilingualism in Kuwait – a linguistic landscape approach Author Author Brdarević Čeljo, Amna Zolota, Sead Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This paper examined the linguistic landscape of the Governorate of Farwaniya, the biggest governorate in the State of Kuwait, by means of public and private signs displayed in the city center and side streets. A corpus of 150 photos of diverse signs, both official and non-official, was collected, categorized, analyzed and discussed. The results point to an undeniable representation of the Arabic language in both public and private spheres of life as well as to a substantial presence of the English language on a wide range of signage therefore confirming the imprint the process of globalization has made on this EFL context. The findings also indicate that some other world languages, namely Bengali, Hindi, and Chinese, are represented in the linguistic landscape of Kuwait but rather poorly. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2566-4638 (In Press) P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology