44 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c1e266b049841e0779b681e65fb9c847.pdf 451cde7f415e0ebabf0589b62b8f2e48 PDF Text Text Verification And Validation Of The Devs Models Ahmet ZENGIN Department of Computer Science Education, Sakarya University, Serdivan, Sakarya, Turkey, azengin@sakarya.edu.tr Etem KÖKLÜKAYA Department of Electrical-Electronics Engineering Sakarya University, Serdivan, Sakarya, Turkey, ekaya@sakarya.edu.tr Hüseyin EKĐZ Department of Computer Science Education, Sakarya University, Serdivan, Sakarya, Turkey, ekiz@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract :Simulation remains attractive for teaching, training and performance analysis of computer networks. This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for teaching and learning the complex dynamics of computer networks. The general-purpose DEVS-Suite simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high-level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of computer network topologies and the logics of communication protocols. This newly developed DEVSSuite offers an expressive, yet relatively simple to use, simulation environment for students and educators to develop and experiment with computer network models. The paper concludes with observations on the proposed modeling approach and outline some evaluations. In this paper we discuss verification and validation of DEVS simulation models. Four different approaches to deciding model validity are described; two different paradigms that relate verification and validation to the model development process are presented; various validation techniques are defined; conceptual model validity, model verification, operational validity, and data validity are discussed; a way to document results is given; a recommended procedure for model validation is presented; and model accreditation is briefly discussed. Keywords: DEVS, DEVS-Suite, Computer Networks, Education, OSPF, ns-2. I. Introduction DEVS-Suite is a general-purpose, discrete event simulation environment which supports visualization and tracking capabilities [1], [2]. This is the new generation of the DEVSJAVA simulator [3] based on DEVS formalism [4]. This simulator also supports variable structure modeling [5]. The DEVS-Suite user-interface provides a consistent, efficient, integrated hierarchical component-based representation of models with run-time I/O and state trajectories and tabular data visualization. The OSPF models developed on top of DEVS-Suite is the result of using networking theory as well as software engineering principles. Particular attention is paid to reliability and maintainability in view of the ns-2 simulator. With the developed OSPF simulator, students can create arbitrary network topologies, experiment with the models, and in particular track the dynamics of the network related to routing. Students can be empowered to learn the network concepts interactively. DEVS-Suite simulator can be run on a personal computer as well as online via DEVS-Suite Web Start [6] which enables elearning using Java Web Start technology [7]. The beginning stage was to create a model and simulator software that can help with the design of the network. All common components of a packet switched network with atomic node and data link models of various capacity assignments were defined using the parallel DEVS formalism at desirable level of abstraction. DEVS modeling approach supports hierarchical modular model construction and distributed execution, and therefore offers a basis to characterize complex, large-scale systems with atomic and coupled models. Many application 425 �areas such as swarm routing [8] and processor architectures [9] have been developed using the DEVS Formalism. In particular, the link state routing protocol OSPF with its behavior is modeled. In order to show accuracy of model execution, a set of experiments for validation were performed and results were compared with the ns-2 simulator. Later, evaluations together with ns-2 comparison were carried out in terms of modeling and educational aspects. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section II briefly reviews the DEVS, DEVS-Suite and ns-2 simulators and describes the OSPF protocol. Section III defines the developed simulation environment detailing the basic model components. Section IV presents an example that shows learning of the OSPF protocol using the DEVS-Suite simulator. Section V describes the validation of the DEVS-Suite network model using simulation of the OSPF in ns-2. Section VI covers evaluation of the developed framework in terms of modeling and education aspects. Section VII presents conclusions and future work. II. Validation Of Simulation Models A. What is validation? Validation is a degree of which how correct a model represents the behavior of its system counterpart from the perspective of intended use of the model [4]. The degree of representation of the model or abstraction is determined by modeler according to user demands. Whenever modeler and simulation user meets are satisfied, it is considered as model is valid. In other words, model validation must be evaluated for its condition of being useful instead of perfectness of it. Validation is a highly required and an integral part of the entire simulation lifecycle by which model is credible and accredit. Model validation process is intended for building the correct model and it helps to find right one [10]. Simulation validity is related to simulation design and simulation usage purpose. Validation process has to be performed both modeler and simulation user [11]. In order to validate a model, quantitative and qualitative tests can be performed [11] [12]. In DEVS framework, an experimental frame is used to perform validation tests. If behaviors of both model and its system counterpart are within acceptable tolerance, model is said to be valid [4]. Validation tests are various tests rather than single detailed tests by which confidence of the model increase as it passes them. Passing a test doesn’t express model is valid; on the other hand failure of any test allows modeler to make decision on the model redesign. B. Validation process Figure 1 shows verification and validation processes in discrete event modeling and simulation study with experimental frame. In DEVS modeling process, experimental frame is used to make decisions on the model. Though it is main function is to transfer outcome measures to variables, it is also used in evaluating how well model objectives are achieved. In the case study, it is tried to show using experimental frame for verification and validation process. Figure 1 helps to map V&V onto whole modeling process rather giving an idea that V&V process is a singular phase or step in modeling. V&V is a continuous process confluent with modeling and simulation [13]. As shown in the Figure 1, modeling activity starts with problem statement and statement of objectives. After development of the conceptual model, conceptual model validation is conducted to determine detail level of proposed model. Validation of the conceptual model means detail of proposed model is sufficient and performed assumptions are accurate. 426 �Fig. 1. Verification and validation in DEVS modeling process and Experimental Frame Theory validation relates to the technical details of developed model and how it relates to the relevant formalisms, approaches, standards, knowledgeable expertise and underlying theories, for example, for OSPF protocol model, its resemblance to RFC 2328 standard [14]. Validation of theory requires asking questions what theory is used in the models? how the theory is used in the models ? and how the theories are combined in the models ? [15]. Operational validation refers to determining model outputs is sufficiently correct data obtained from the real world. Operational validation activity includes validation of required model representations and their associated knowledge bases and validation of simulation algorithms, formalisms and models and their associated data [16]. Operational validations are directly related to model credibility [11]. Besides above kinds of validation, two aspects of verification can be applied: specification and implementation verification. Specification verification ensures to truly specify the model behavior defined in conceptual model, while implementation verification deals with all specifications are coded in the model run on DEVS-Suite as built. C. Validation techniques Many verification and validation techniques are available for modeling and simulation study [13] [25]. In this section, various V&V techniques are tried to summarize and an approach proposed by Forrester and Senge [12] is given in particular. Analytical method validation is a process of performing several tests designed to verify that an analytical test system is suitable for its intended purpose and is capable of providing useful and valid analytical data. A validation study involves testing multiple attributes of a method to determine that it can provide useful and valid data when used routinely. 427 �III. Devs Modeling And Simulation Framework Discrete Event Systems Specification (DEVS) [4] is well suited for formally describing concurrent processing and the event-driven nature of arbitrary configuration of nodes and links forming network systems. DEVS is a mathematical modeling formalism for describing (discrete and continuous) dynamical systems and supports hierarchical modular model construction, distributed execution, and therefore characterizing complex, largescale systems. Its generic system-theoretic concepts and mathematical formulation provide a basis for describing component models which have modular structure and behavior specifications. This framework lends itself to object-based abstraction, encapsulation, modularity and hierarchy concepts and implementation. Its simulation protocol enforces causality, concurrency, and timing among DEVS atomic and coupled models. DEVS-Suite is an open source, discrete event, general-purpose simulation environment [1]. It is a new generation extended from the DEVSJAVA simulator and DEVS Tracking Environment. The main modules of the DEVS-Suite are DEVSJAVA [3], DEVS tracking Environment [20], and timeview [2]. DEVS-Suite can simulate models specified using the DEVS formalism [4]. The architecture of the DEVS-Suite simulator environment is Model Facade View Control (MFVC) [20] by which simulation data can be displayed with its animation and viewing of time trajectories generated by the parallel DEVS abstract simulator. Soft synchronization among timeviews and animation is supported based on the simulator’s logical (or real-time) execution speed [21]. IV. Devs-Suite Validation Framework: Ospf Case Validation is the most important phase in developing a model. Validation tests are needed in a modeling study since a model cannot be accepted unless it passes them [25], [10]. Validation schemes are generally framework based methodical procedures as well as dynamic processes which have to be applied by a modeler during model development. There are many model validation schemes summarized in [25] and [11]. From these schemes, a widely approved validation scheme is presented in[12] and followed in this study. In this scheme, confidence in the model increases as model passes more tests. This validation scheme is adopted and applied in this study due for it is appropriateness for dynamic models such as distributed systems and networks. Applied validation scheme is mainly divided into four phases. These phases are (1) specifying model objectives, (2) validating model structure, (3) validating model behavior and (4) policy implications. In following sections, these steps are followed to validate the developed model and summarized due for place limitations. A. Model objectives It is important to set objectives correctly when starting to model a system. In the previous sections, we gave some background about motivation and problem entities. Once again, it is good to list main objectives to model such a system. We aimed to develop a network simulator having; • system theoretic design with modular and hierarchy, • easy to deploy, • good visualization, • performance and scalable, • high highly tractable, • advanced testing framework, • parallel and distributed capability. 428 �Fig. 2. Network layers structure of the OSPF model Except for last one, model has all properties. Parallel and distributed capability of the model is still ongoing research and will be done by DEVS/HLA framework [26]. B. Model structure validity Some empirical and theoretical structure tests are experimented with the model to show its structural confirmation. Experiments may be separated into two categories: network structure confirmation done by theoretical tests and OSPF protocol confirmation done by empirical tests. Theoretical structure tests of the OSPF model are done with comparison model structure with generalized knowledge about the system. DEVS network model is developed according to network OSI standard with several abstractions. Since protocol implementation and education is in focus, first abstraction is to flatten seven segment OSI layers to three layers (see Figure 2). Empirical structure tests of the OSPF model includes comparison of the OSPF model structure with information obtained directly from the real system. To do this, we develop network models up to ten thousands nodes and measure efficiency of the networks. Efficiency is estimated as performed network tasks such as message delivery, scheduled events and routing databases’ correctness. In Figure 3, efficiency trajectory of the developed OSPF model is shown. For small scale models, efficiency is ideal (i.e. simulator is running with highly correctness), however in large models, simulator is deviating from reality (for example, 99.5% for 10.000 nodes). According to the tests and evaluations above, developed model is structural valid. C. Model behavior validity Besides structural validity tests, certain tests are needed to measure how accurately the model can reproduce the major behavior patterns shown by the real system. To do this, we select widely accepted network simulator 2 (ns2) models instead of real system. In order to validate behavior of the DEVS-Suite OSPF model, first we considered a small scale topology as shown in Figure 1. In this work, the ns-2 network simulator is chosen for comparison to show the behavior validity of developed OSPF model in DEVS-Suite. Furthermore, to show the key structural differences between modeling DEVS-Suite and ns-2, we use the same model configurations. Finally, comparison with analogous ns-2 test traces is included. 1) Test Simulation Environment and Configurations: When appropriate, we execute the DEVS-Suite OSPF model tests under the conditions as close as possible to the ns-2 tests, but some small differences exist because of different internal parameter settings and/or different level of modeling detail. Simulation experiments were performed both in ns-2 version 2.32 and DEVS-Suite version 2.0. The Table I below shows some differences between ns-2 and DEVS-Suite implementations. 429 �2) Simulation Results and Evaluation: Together structural tests, these validation tests give us at least some assurance that the behavior of the DEVS OSPF model is reasonable. DEVS-Suite more suitable for system level simulation as opposed to ns-2 being suitable for detailed network protocol designs (algorithms). Fig. 3. Efficiency tests of the OSPF model According to the configuration parameters listed in Table I, simulation experiments with both ns-2 and DEVSSuite simulators are performed for ten seconds. The throughput results as a function of time are shown in Figure 4. As depicted in Figure 4 (a) and (b), after a stabilization phase time (2 seconds), throughput curves converge to nearly the same average values, 822.4 KB/sec. for ns-2 and 1489 packets × 552 bytes = 821.9 KB/sec. for DEVS-Suite. We also observed the routing tables for the four router nodes to be consistent – the creation of tables was validated step by step. V. Comparison/Discussion In the following sections, we identify some of the reasons behind the differences between ns-2 and DEVS-Suite simulators with respect to modeling and education aspects. DEVS-Suite ns-2 Topology 4 routers, 4 bi-directional links 4 routers, 4 duplex links Protocol OSPF Link State(LS) Processing speed 1 msec./event N/A Event frequency 1000 events/sec. 28388 events/sec. 552 bytes 552 bytes Link bandwidth 2 Mbps 2 Mbps Link delay 1 msec. 1 msec. Traffic type Uniformly random FTP over TCP Queue Type FIFO-Priority DropTail Queue Limit 200 KB 20 Packets Simulation time 10 sec. 10 sec. Packet sizes Table I. Simulation Model Parameters of Ns-2 and DEVS-Suite 430 �(a) (b) Fig. 4. Simulated performance measurements of ns-2 and DEVS-Suite for throughput VI. Conclusion And Future Work This paper presented a new simulation environment for education and research of computer networks. The DEVS-Suite simulator for modeling OSPF overcomes the limitations of ns-2 concerning the visualization and execution performance. In contrast to ns-2, DEVS-SuiteWebStart enables users to automatically download its latest version and network models and execute them as efficiently given their computer hardware and software resources. Our experiences show that students benefit from the capabilities of DEVS-Suite simulator. The simulator’s visualization and automation provided for tracking of components’ behavior as time trajectories and tabular data help teaching and learning of networking theory with reduced burden on being an expert software developer. Visualization of the protocol logic in the form of creation and alteration of routing tables and databases facilitate active learning. In addition, students can gain the knowledge of modeling and simulation technique for performance evaluation of networking systems. Future work includes developing other network protocol models and evaluating them through classrooms. Additionally, the DEVS-Suite can be extended with data analysis features. Another desirable addition is to use variable structure DEVS since in some cases it can better represent the dynamic nature of the distributed computer networks. Another attractive capability is to visually develop models and automatically generate source code using CoSMoS (Component-based System Modeler and Simulator) [23]. Acknowledgment This work has been funded by the Sakarya University Scientific Research Projects Agency under contract 200705-02-001. The views and conclusions contained in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied, of the Sakarya University. References [1] S. Kim, H. Sarjoughian, and V. Elamvazhuthi, “DEVS-Suite: A simulator supporting visual experimentation design and behavior monitoring,” in Proceedings of the Spring Simulation Conference, San Diego, CA, March 2009, pp. 29–36. [2] “DEVS-Suite,” http://sourceforge.net/projects/devs-suitesim/, 2010. [3] ACIMS, “DEVSJAVA modeling and simulation tool,” http://www.acims.arizona.edu/SOFTWARE, 2010. [4] B. P. Zeigler, H. Praehofer, and T. G. Kim, Theory of Modeling and Simulation. New York: Academic Press, 2000. [5] X. Hu, B. P. Zeigler, and S. Mittal, “Variable structure in DEVS component-based modeling and simulation,” SIMULATION: Transactions of The Society for Modeling and Simulation International, vol. 81, no. 2, pp. 91–102, 2005. [6] H. Sarjoughian, “DEVS-Suite WebStart,” http://acims1.eas.asu.edu/WebStarts/, 2010. 431 �[7] “Java Web Start Technology,” 2010. [8] A. Zengin, H. S. Sarjoughian, and H. Ekiz, “Honeybee inspired discrete event network modeling,” in 16th European Simulation Symposium, Budapest, Hungary, 2004, pp. 176–182. [9] H. Sarjoughian, Y. Chen, and K. Burger, “A component-based visual simulator for mips32 processors,” in Frontiers in Education, Saratoga Spring, New York, October 2008. [10] O. Balci and R. G. Sargent, “Validation of multivariate response models using hotelling’s two-sample t2 test,” Simulation, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 185–192, 1982. [11] M. S. Martis, “Validation of simulation based models: A theoretical outlook,” The Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 39–46, 2006. [12] J. W. Forrester and P. M. Senge, “Test for building confidence in system dynamics models,” TIMS studies in the management sciences, vol. 14, pp. 209–228, 1980. [13] O. Balci and R. G. Sargent, “Validation of simulation models via simultaneous confidence intervals,” American Journal of Mathematical and Management Sciences, vol. 4, no. 3 & 4, pp. 375–406, 1984. [14] I. E. T. Force, “Ospf version 2 (rfc 2328) internet standards track protocol,” http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2328.txt, 2009. [15] C. M. Macal, “Model verification and validation,” in Workshop on ”Threat Anticipation: Social Science Methods and Models”, The University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory, Chicago, IL, April 7-9 2005. [16] Validation, “Us department of defence rpg special topic,” 2004. [17] A. Chow, “Parallel DEVS: A parallel, hierarchical, modular modeling formalism and its distributed simulator,” Transactions of the Society for Computer Simulation International, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 55–67, 1996. [18] Y. J. Kim, J. H. Kim, and T. G. Kim, “Heterogeneous simulation framework using DEVS BUS,” Simulation, vol. 79, pp. 3–18, 2003. [19] H. Sarjoughian and F. Cellier, Discrete Event Modeling & Simulation Technologies: A Tapestry of Systems and AI-based Theories and Methodologies for Modeling and Simulation. Springer Verlag, 2001. [20] H. S. Sarjoughian and R. Singh, “Building simulation modeling environments using systems theory and software architecture principles,” in Proceedings of the Advanced Simulation Technology Conference, Washington DC, April 2004, pp. 99–104. [21] E. Helser, “Design and analysis of view syncrhonization in DEVS-Suite,” Master’s thesis, Computer Science and Engineering Department, Arizona State University, 2009. [22] Ptolemy, “Ptolemy project,” http://ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu/ptolemyII/, 2010. [23] H. S. Sarjoughian and V. Elamvazhuthi, “Cosmos: a visual environment for component-based modeling, experimental design, and simulation,” in Simutools ’09: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Simulation Tools and Techniques. ICST, Brussels, Belgium, Belgium: ICST (Institute for Computer Sciences, Social-Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering), 2009, pp. 1–9. [24] Mathworks, “SimEvents,” http://www.mathworks.com/products/simevents/, 2010. [25] Y. Barlas, “Formal aspects of model validity and validation in system dynamics,” System Dynamics Review, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 183–210, 1996. [26] H. S. Sarjoughian and B. P. Zeigler, “DEVS and HLA: Complementary paradigms for modeling and simulation?” Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 187–197, 2000. [27] D. M. Nicol, “Scalability of network simulators revisited,” in Proceedings of the Communications Networking and Distributed Systems Modeling and Simulation Conference, 2003. [28] G. F. Riley, M. H. Ammar, and R. Fujimoto, “Stateless routing in network simulations,” in in Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Modeling, Analysis and Simulation of Computer and Telecommunication Systems, 2000, pp. 524–531. [29] ns 2, “ns-2 network simulator,” http://www.isis.edu/nsnam/ns/, 2010. 432 �[30] G. V. Wilson, “The history of the development of parallel computing,” http://ei.cs.vt.edu/ history/, Virginia Tech/Norfolk State University, 1994, retrieved on 2008. [31] Wikipedia, “Round-robin scheduling,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robinscheduling, 2008. [32] H. Sarjoughian and K. Shaukat, “A comparative study of DEVS and ns-2 modeling approaches,” Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International, 2009. [33] H. S. Sarjoughian, S. Kim, M. Ramaswamy, and S. Yau, “An soa-devs modeling framework for service-oriented software system simulation,” in Winter Simulation Conference, Miami, FL, 2008, pp. 845–853. [34] G. R. Mayer and H. S. Sarjoughian, “Composable cellular automata,” 2009, simulation: Transactions of The Society for Modeling and Simulation International. [35] C. M. Overstreet and A. Martens, “Introduction to special issue: Modeling and simulation in teaching and training,” SIMULATION, vol. 82, pp. 681–683, 2006. 433 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 539 Title A name given to the resource Verification And Validation Of The Devs Models Author Author Zengin, Ahmet Köklükaya, Etem Ekiz, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. Simulation remains attractive for teaching, training and performance analysis of computer networks. This paper presents a robust simulation environment targeted for teaching and learning the complex dynamics of computer networks. The general-purpose DEVS-Suite simulator supports animation with I/O and state trajectories of computer network models developed using parallel DEVS modeling approach. The simulator offers high-level model abstraction as compared with simulators such as ns-2. The combined capabilities afforded by the robust DEVS-Suite simulator assists in understanding the fundamentals of computer network topologies and the logics of communication protocols. This newly developed DEVSSuite offers an expressive, yet relatively simple to use, simulation environment for students and educators to develop and experiment with computer network models. The paper concludes with observations on the proposed modeling approach and outline some evaluations. In this paper we discuss verification and validation of DEVS simulation models. Four different approaches to deciding model validity are described; two different paradigms that relate verification and validation to the model development process are presented; various validation techniques are defined; conceptual model validity, model verification, operational validity, and data validity are discussed; a way to document results is given; a recommended procedure for model validation is presented; and model accreditation is briefly discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f4323d165e548514650b5b329a74df0b.pdf 8c90e5535ebc053d642fcd3d071d3bbe PDF Text Text Effect of Marble Dust on Consolidation Characteristics of Clay Soils Ismail ZORLUER Department of Construction Education, AKU, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey izorluer@aku.edu.tr Ismail MURATOGLU Department of Construction Education, AKU, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey Abstract : The usage of waste materials as an additive material has became widespread, in soil stabilization. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, marble dust had been used as an additive material in clay soil. Marble dust is a waste of the marble industry and despite its recycling in various industries, there is still a significant amount of marble dust left as waste. In this study, soil specimens were sampled from different locations in the ANS campus of Afyon Kocatepe University. These specimens were mixed with waste marble dust at ratios of 5%, 10% and 15%. Geotechnical experiments were carried out on specimens. Test results shows that marble dust have affected consolidation characteristics of clay soils. Especially, swelling index and consolidation index of specimens were decreased. This decrease is important in point of swelling potential of clay soils. Introduction Marble dust is a waste of the marble industry and despite its recycling in various industries, there is still a significant amount of marble dust left as waste. Marble dust has been used as an additive for soil stabilization. Okagbue and Onyeobi (1999) showed that the geotechnical parameters of red tropical soils are substantially improved by adding marble dust: plasticity is reduced by 20 to 33% and strength and CBR increased by 30 to 46% and 27 to 55%, respectively. The effect of marble dust on the swelling potential of Na-bentonite and Meşelik clays and unconfined compressive strength was investigated by Zorluer (2003, 2006). Specimens were mixed with marble dust at different percentages (3,5,8,10%) of dry soil weight, and compacted at standard proctor compaction energy. For swelling tests, specimens were obtained using oedometer floating ring from compacted mixtures and then tests were carried out with oedometer. Swelling potential reduced from 25.6% to 21% at 5-8% marble dust additive. For compression test, specimens were sampled with coring tube from compacted mixtures. Unconfined compressive tests were performed to these specimens and were cured for 1, 7 and 28 days. At the end of 28 days of curing time, strength increased from 20.1 to 57.3 N/cm2. Waste marble dust was used as an additive material by Zorluer and Taspolat (2009) in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. The objective of this study was to investigate use of marble dust as an additive in clay soils. For this purpose, soil specimens were sampled from 3 locations at ANS campus of Afyon Kocatepe University. These specimens were mixed with waste marble dust (proportions of 5, 10 and 15% dust to dry soil by weight). Index properties of the specimens were determined by liquid limit, plastic limit, sieve, hydrometer and buoyancy analysis tests. Standard proctor and odeometer tests were carried out in these specimens. Materials Afyonkarahisar region is known as one of the most important marble production and processing centre in Turkey. Yearly production of marble is about 80,000 m3 in this region. About 24,000 m3 marble dust occurs 514 �from this production. Marble dust is minimum sized marble waste that occurs with sawing of marble blocks and plates. This dust is carried by water to sedimentation ponds. Sediment dust is removed from the pond to wasteland, but this forms serious problems for the environment. Waste marble dust is used in very small quantities despite being used in widely variable industries, such as construction, ceramics and cement, paint, agriculture and fertilizer; as a result, a lot of marble dust ends up as waste (2003). The marble dust used in this study, was obtained from a marble processing factory in Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. It was dried and sieved, resulting in marble dust grains smaller than 300 microns. Table 1 are shown chemical compound percentage (%) of marble dust. SiO2 0.01 Al2O3 Fe2O3 0.85 0.04 CaO 55.30 MgO 0.24 P2 O 3 ----- K2 O 0.20 Na2O 0.03 SO3 ----- Mn2O3 LOIa ----- 43.51 Table 1. Chemical Compound Percentage of Marble Dust (%) Afyon Kocatepe University Campus area was formed clay. Clay specimens were sampled from three points at campus area. These points were named as BH1, BH2 and BH3. Properties of specimens are in the table 2. Soil classification and definition tests were applied according to the TS 1900 standard. wp Ip class Specimen Gs wl BH1 2,65 59,5 25,6 33,9 CH BH2 2,72 37,2 20,4 16,8 CL BH3 2,76 29,4 21,6 7,8 CL Gs:Specific Gravity, wl: Liquid limit, wp: Plastic Limit, Ip: Plasticity index Table 2. Geotechnical Properties of Clay Specimens 100 BH1 90 BH2 Percent finer (%) 80 BH3 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 1 0,1 0,01 0,001 Grain size (mm) Figure 1. Grain size distribution curves of specimens. Experimental Study and Results Standard proctor test was performed on clay specimens. Compaction characteristics of clay soils were determined from this Proctor test. Maximum dry density and optimum water contents were obtained from figure 2. The specimens were mixed with waste marble dust at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. These ratios were obtained 515 �from other studies (Okagbue&Onyeobi, 1999; Zorluer, 2003, 2006, 2009). Then, these mixtures were compacted with optimum water content at the standard compaction mold. 17,5 BH1 BH2 BH3 Dry Unit weight (kN/m2) 17 16,5 16 15,5 15 14,5 14 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Water content (%) Figure 2. Compaction curves of soil specimens For consolidation tests, specimens were sampled from compacted mixtures using odeometer ring. Consolidation tests were carried out on these specimens. e-log p graphs were plotted from consolidation tests results (fig. 3 a, b, c). In addition, compression index (cc) and expansion index (ce) were obtained from figure 3. 1,3 BH2 5% 10% 15% 1,8 1,6 Void ratio (e) 1,2 1,1 1,4 1,2 1 1 0,9 0,8 0,8 0,6 1 10 100 Pressure (kN/m 2) 1000 1 10 100 Pressure (kN/m 2) a b 2,2 2,1 Void ratio (e) Void ratio (e) 2 BH1 5% 10% 15% BH3 5% 10% 15% 2 1,9 1,8 1,7 1,6 1,5 1,4 1,3 1,2 1,1 1 1 10 100 Pressure (kN/m 2) 1000 c Figure 3. (a, b, c) e-log p curves of specimens 516 1000 �Discussion Compression index (cc) is the slope of the linear portion of the e-log p plot and dimensionless. It was seen that cc has decreased with marble dust increasing for all specimens (fig 4 a). For example, this decreasing is from 0,304 to 0,220 for BH3. Similarly, void ratios of specimens have decreased with marble dust increasing (fig 3). Consolidation settlement of soils is fewer when soil voids decreased. 0,320 0,060 BH1 BH2 0,055 BH3 BH3 Expansion index Compression index BH1 BH2 0,300 0,280 0,260 0,240 0,050 0,045 0,040 0,035 0,220 0,200 0,030 0% Additive 5% Additive %10 Additive %15 Additive 0% Additive 5% Additive %10 Additive %15 Additive a b Figure 4. Change of compression and expansion indices with increasing marble dust. Decreasing of expansion index (ce) is same with other studies (Zorluer, 2003). The findings show that the expansion index of specimens decreases when the amount of the added marble dust increases (fig 4.b). Therefore, swelling potential reduces when the amount of the added marble dust increases. This case shows that marble dust can be used at stabilization of swelling soils. Also, at the other study of Zorluer (2003), swelling potential was reduced by adding marble dust. Besides, swelling potential values was measured from swell pressure test. Conclusion Marble dust affects the properties of clay like strength, swelling potential, freeze-thaw strength. This case was expressed at previous studies. In this study, consolidation characteristic of clay were affected from waste marble dust. Compression index (cc) and expansion index (ce) of specimens decreases when the amount of the added marble dust increases. Furthermore, void ratio decreases with increasing of marble dust. This result shows that consolidation settlement reduced when marble dust mixed to clay soil. Use of marble dust in soil stabilization, provide the protection of the environment. In addition, it is gained an economical material for soil stabilization. References Okagbue, C.O. Onyeobi, T.U.S. (1999). Potential of marble dust to stabilize red tropical soils for road construction. Engineering Geology, 53. 371-380. Zorluer, I. (2003). Effect of waste marble dust to swelling potential of clay soils. XI. National Clay Symposium. Izmir, Turkey. 475-482. TS 1900-1 (Turkish Standard) (2006) Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes in the laboratory - Part 1: Determination of physical properties Ankara, Turkey. TS 1900-2 (Turkish Standard) (2006) Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes in the laboratory – Part 2: Determination of Mechanical Properties Ankara,Turkey. Zorluer, I. (2006). The Effect of waste marble dust on unconfined compression strength of clay soils. GAP V, Engineering Congress. Sanlıurfa, Turkey, 1042-1046. Zorluer, I. & Taspolat, L.T. (2009). Reuse of waste marble dust in the landfill layer. First International Symposium on Sustainable Development. Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. 301-305. 517 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 581 Title A name given to the resource Effect of Marble Dust on Consolidation Characteristics of Clay Soils Author Author ZORLUER, Ismail MURATOGLU, Ismail Abstract A summary of the resource. The usage of waste materials as an additive material has became widespread, in soil stabilization. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, marble dust had been used as an additive material in clay soil. Marble dust is a waste of the marble industry and despite its recycling in various industries, there is still a significant amount of marble dust left as waste. In this study, soil specimens were sampled from different locations in the ANS campus of Afyon Kocatepe University. These specimens were mixed with waste marble dust at ratios of 5%, 10% and 15%. Geotechnical experiments were carried out on specimens. Test results shows that marble dust have affected consolidation characteristics of clay soils. Especially, swelling index and consolidation index of specimens were decreased. This decrease is important in point of swelling potential of clay soils. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e101c7f243ca50481584c8e9ebdb8b81.pdf dee2e350558a7ac93f6d939a53e5e1e6 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Research about the Impacts of Economic Crisis on Destination Marketing: Istanbul Example Burhanettin ZENGĠN Asst. Prof. Dr., Sakarya University, Department of Tourism Management, TURKEY bzengin@sakarya.edu.tr Lütfi Mustafa ġEN Res. Asst., Sakarya University, Department of Tourism Management, TURKEY lsen@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The objective of this study is to offer the alternative policies and strategies in the context of destination marketing which would be followed by the destination management organizations and touristic businesses in marketing their services and products to minimize the impacts of the economic crisis on touristic destinations when the probability of economic crisis is high, and to contribute to the studies that have been done on this issue. The questionnaire method was chosen to collect the data in this study. Sample questions were presented via Five-point Likert and Category Scales. The number of tourism agents operating in Turkey is 5,801, and 2000 of those, that is 33.6%, are in Istanbul. Therefore, considering the time constraint, number of travel agencies in Istanbul constitutes our study population. The study sample is 300 Type A, B, C tourism agencies in Istanbul selected by simple random sampling method and corresponding to 15% of the study population. The data obtained was analyzed in computer environment by using SPSS for Windows package program. Demographic data obtained from survey was subjected to frequency analysis; appropriate data was subjected to the Chi-square test. Introduction Being rich in tourist attractions just is not enough for a touristic destination to be successful nowadays. Due to tough competition in tourism sector, attracting tourists to touristic destinations is very complex and lengthy process, and requires planned destination marketing. The success of destination marketing efforts depends on accurate determination and implementation of policies and strategies, identification of target markets, and success of joint studies conducted by public and private sector organizations operating in the country with respect to planning of publicity and advertising activities for these markets. As known, tourism industry can be affected to a great extent by the smallest socio-cultural, economic, political and business cycle of changes. Therefore, in times of crisis, especially in times of economic crisis, crisis management and destination marketing policies and strategies to follow have even greater importance. Because in times of economic crisis, touristic demand structure and consumer behaviors in the target markets should be analyzed very well, and destination marketing policies and strategies should be identified accordingly. Definition and Characteristics of Tourism Destinations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) defines a local tourism destination as a physical area where a tourist spent a night at least. A tourism destination contains touristic products such as support services during a day trip, attractions and tourist resources. It does have physical and administrative boundaries with respect to management, images and perceptions with respect to market competitiveness. Destinations bring various hosts together, and they can combine to create a network for wider destinations (UNWTO, 2007). Tourism destination is defined as a geographical location or region where tourists are located within the local community. First of all, the destination is considered as a system includes inputs and outputs, communities and services, and business areas (Özdemir, 2008, p. 4). Gunn is suggested that all destinations share certain common features, and knowing that facilitates the design and development of the destinations. He was referring the following key features of destinations listed in Mathieson and Walls study (Howie, 2003, p. 74): 560 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo      Natural environmental features and processes Economic structure and development Social structure and layout Political organization The level of touristic development Destination Marketing Destination marketing aims to make the identity of a destination, established in compliance with the characteristics of that place, more appealing via the effective communication studies for the selected target audience. Since the destination marketing is managed by the individuals and/or entities located within destination borders, and with wide knowledge about the destination, and with dreams and expectations about the future of destination, this type of marketing is a strategy that has a potential to offer more flexible, fast and creative solutions, and to minimize the potential risks (Yavuz, 2007, p. 40). Development of an effective marketing management and strategy that has a clear vision and direction, marketing of destination in a effective and rational way, continuous checking of the brand image which is the most important component of a brand, are essential elements in destination marketing and branding to ensure the optimum benefits from the attractive aspects and different features of a destination (Demir, 2009). Spain is one of the best examples shows how important destination marketing is in tourism development and increasing tourism revenues in a country. That is, Spain has significant role in many international organization and fairs, and has significant athletic facilities. It also plays an important role in tourism in terms of tourism infrastructure and number of hotels, and car rental services. It is ranked tenth in Europe in terms of air transport infrastructure. It is well known that the government in Spain has given priority to tourism industry, strong destination marketing studies have been conducted, and Spain has been presented in many international fairs (Aksu, 2009). Definition and Characteristics of the Crisis The crisis is a situation that creates tension and threatens the high-level objectives of an organization, sometimes endangering the lives of organizations, and requires immediate reaction, and the organization's crisis prediction and prevention mechanisms becomes insufficient (Can, 1999, p. 315). In another source, the crisis is defined as follows; "The crisis is a situation which is unexpected and unpredictable, requires organization‘s quick and immediate response, threatens organization‘s current values, purposes and assumptions by making organization‘s prevention and adaptation mechanism inadequate. Stress, anxiety, panic, etc.. is the expression of emotions experienced in times of crisis‖ (Tağraf & Arslan, 2003, p. 150). The features of the crisis can be listed as follows (Aykaç, 2001, p. 125):  Organizational structures, values and norms to be affected negatively,  Unexpected developments occur,  Crisis situation can not be estimated,  Inadequate mechanisms to prevent,  Crisis, threatening the existence purpose of the organization,  The lack of adequate information and time for the measures to prevent the crisis.  Requires the immediate implementation of the measures taken  Create tension in the management of the organization Some crises are the results of the natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, volcanic explosions, hurricanes, and landslides. Other crises like environmental pollution, crime, war, terrorism, economic stagnation and strikes are caused by the people. Either short-term or long term, whether natural or man-made disaster, the common features of the crisis that has potential impact on tourism industry consist of three parts (Pike, 2004, p. 158):  Any destination is not exempt from the crisis in the long term  A crisis is rarely predictable.  The causes of the crisis are outside of the tourism industry‘s control. 561 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Definition and Characteristics of Crisis Management In contrast to emergency and risk management discipline addressing natural disasters, crisis management concerns man-made or man-caused crisis such as child abduction, environmental pollution, sexual harassment, abuse, and defective products. Crisis management is the strategic planning done before and after the crisis to ensure the least damage out of unexpected situations (Otay, 2008). Some features of crisis management are unique. Some of these features are listed below (HaĢit, 2000, p. 65):  Crisis management primarily aims to reveal the businesses those can predict the crisis in advance, distinguish between the types and take the necessary measures accordingly, learn new things, and recover in the shortest time possible.  Crisis prevention varies according to managers' perceptions of the crisis. The probability of success in the prevention of crises is increasing when crisis managers perceived the crisis as threatening  Crisis management has no beginning and end, and is an application that requires continuity.  Crisis management is constituted according to the type of crisis. Crisis management is tailored to the type of crisis since each type of crisis contains its own signs and solutions. Crisis and Tourism The crisis in tourism in general can be described as follows; is an event which causes disruption in normal functioning of tourism-related businesses, damages all the reputation of the safety, attractiveness, and comfort of a touristic destination by negatively affecting the perceptions of visitors, as a result, negatively affects tourism economy and causes reduced tourist arrival and spending, delay doing business in the tourism sector (Glaesser, 2005, p. 6). The crisis management in tourism is defined as information gathering, assessment, action planning, implementation and control functions carried out to eliminate the effects of an event or events emerged unexpectedly and negatively affecting the image of a product, organization, country or region, ultimately leading to social and economic losses. The crisis management is not an activity only covering the period after the emergence of the crisis. The crisis management in fact includes the activities such as determination of the warning signals, and establishment of protection and prevention mechanism to be carried out in the period until the emergence of the crisis. Therefore, the crisis management involves a long process (Köroğlu, 2004, p. 71). Tourism is an economic activity in terms of bringing foreign currencies and creating employment; is a socio-cultural activity in terms of bringing together different cultures and meeting recreational needs of the people. It is also an activity field where demands have positive and negative impacts on the environment. Tourism, one of the world's fastest growing sectors, has significant problems today. The economic crisis in the world has negatively affected the tourism sector (Aymankuy, 2001, p. 109). The businesses struggling to survive in an intensive competition environment, at the same time, are obliged to fight with the crisis which nearly turned into a chronic crisis in Turkey. In addition to all this, many economies around the globe have been affected by the increasing size of the problems that began as a credit crisis in the world's largest economy in the U.S. in 2008, and reflected in the financial markets, and as a result, the world has come to the brink of a financial downturn. The negative impacts of the global economic crisis are observed in all sectors in our country (especially at the beginning of the year 2009). As having its own crisis, tourism sector has been also significantly affected by this type macro crisis, and difficulties have been experienced in the management of tourism businesses operating in this area (Bahar et al., 2009, p. 28). It is clear that despite the ongoing financial downturn, a variety of tourist products and services are provided. Meetings, incentive travel, conference or exhibition have been identified as the most affected touristic services in a variety of touristic destinations. Apparently, while shopping and entertainment jobs were reducing in coastal, urban and a variety of destinations, cultural attractions have suffered a severe decline in many coastal, mountain and urban destinations (UNWTO, 2009). The strategy to be followed by Turkish tourism against the global economic crisis is very important. In this context, focusing attracting tourists from upper income segments to the country has become more important rather than the number of tourists arriving into the country. Bringing the service quality, customer satisfaction and innovation to the forefront, bringing the revenue to maximum level while reducing costs, and keeping the sound cash flow are extremely important to exit from the crisis with minimum losses and even making profit from the crisis (Demir, 2008). 562 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Objectives of the Study The objective of this study is to offer the alternative policies and strategies in the context of destination marketing that would be followed by the destination management organizations and touristic businesses in marketing their services and products to minimize the impacts of the economic crisis on touristic destinations when the probability of economic crisis is high, and to contribute to the studies that have been done on this issue. Therefore, we believe that our study will be beneficial to our tour operators and travel agents, that have a significant role in obtaining foreign currency income needed in our country, by offering them different view and solutions in the context of destination marketing to minimize the income loss and the contraction in touristic demand especially in times of economic crisis. Method The questionnaire method is chosen to collect the data in our study. The reason for choosing this method is to obtain desired data from a large number of subjects in a short time, and analyze obtained data quickly and reliably with the help of computer-aided statistical data analysis programs. Questionnaire consists of two groups. The first group includes demographic questions; categorical style is used in design of the first group questions and the other questions that aim to assess the impacts of global economic crisis on destination marketing policies of businesses. The five-point Likert scale was created to resolve the main issues of this study. The ideal study population consists of 5,801 A, B and C type of travel agencies in Turkey. However, considering the time constraint, 2000 A, B, and C type travel agencies in Istanbul have been determined as the realistic population of this study. The study sample is consist of 300 Type A,B, C tourism agencies in Istanbul selected by simple random sampling method and corresponding to 15% of the realistic population of this study. Questionnaires were administered to middle and upper level managers in travel agents. 350 questionnaires were distributed, 191 out of 350 questionnaires were received back, 157 out of 191 were subjected to analysis, the remaining 34 out of 191 were not subjected to analysis due to lack of proper data. The data obtained was analyzed in computer environment using SPSS 15.0 for Windows package program. Demographic data and business-related data obtained from the survey were subjected to frequency analysis. In addition, the appropriate data was subjected to the Chi-Square test, an analysis technique for examining relationships. Findings The analysis of the demographic data in Table 1 shows that 61.2% of the participants‘ is male, 38.8% of the participants‘ is female, 30.5% of the participants‘ is in age group of 18-25, 41.4% of the participants‘ is in age group of 26-30, 21% of the participants‘ in age group of 31-35; % 5.7 of the participants‘ in age group of 36-40; 1.2% of the participants‘ is in age group of 41 and over. The analysis of the participants‘ educational status shows that majority of the participants are university graduates. 56% of participants‘ has undergraduate degree; 5.7% of the participants‘ has graduate degree. In parallel, such a large part, 44,6% of the participants‘, are tourism school graduates. A large portion of our audience (study sample), approximately 40%, is working in marketing and sales departments. Another noteworthy issue in Table 1 is, almost all of our audience (study sample), 92.3% of the participants‘, is consisted of middle and upper level managers, which increase the credibility of our work. In addition, 80% of our sample group has 1 to 10 years working experience in the sector, which also indicates the high working experience level of the participants. 563 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CHARACTERISTICS Sex Male Female Total Age 18-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41 and over Total SAMPLE n 96 61 157 n 48 65 33 9 2 157 n Marital Status 60 Married 97 Single 157 Total n Educational Background 12 Primary Education 48 Secondary Education 88 University 9 Graduate Education 157 Total n Have you received tourism education? 70 Yes 87 No 157 Total n Division 9 Purchasing 9 Human Resources 8 Accounting-Financing 54 Operation 61 Sales & Marketing 16 Management 157 Total n Position in The Business 12 Personnel 88 Middle Manager 57 Senior Executive 157 Total Total Working Period in Tourism Industry (Year) n 18 Less than a year 60 1-5 48 6-10 19 11-15 12 16 and over 157 Total Total Working Period in The Business That You n 564 % 61,2 38,8 100 % 30,5 41,4 21,0 5,7 1,2 100 % 38,3 61,7 100 % 7,6 30,5 56,0 5,7 100 % 44,6 55,4 100 % 5,7 5,7 5,0 34,3 38,8 10,1 100 % 7,6 56,0 36,3 100 % 11,4 38,2 30,5 12,1 7,6 100 % �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo are Working Now (Year) Less than a year 1-5 6-10 11-15 16 and over Total 12 78 37 21 9 157 7,6 49,6 23,5 13,3 5,7 100 Table 1. Demographic Data The data in Table 2 is of great importance for our study since it provides updated information of what extent travel agents are affected by the crisis in 2009, when the impacts of the global economic crisis are being felt the most in Turkey. The analysis of the data in Table 2 reveals the following conclusions, and is emerging as important; % 47.7 of the participating businesses‘ is Group A, % 12.1 is Group B, and % 40.2 is Group C travel agencies. The majority of businesses, that is 36.2%, have expressed that they had a bad year in 2009 in terms of economic situation. Likewise, in 2009, 61.1% of the participating businesses‘ could reach the number of customers purchased 0-5000 travel products; only 38.9% of participating businesses‘ could hit 5000-20000 and above. Again in 2009, 54.1% of the participating businesses' noted 00-10% decrease in service production; 67.5% of the participating businesses‘ noted 00-10% decrease in employment. All these data clearly shows the extent of negative impacts of the global economic crisis on travel enterprises operating in Turkey. However, it also shows that the participating businesses are more positive about economics situation in 2010. Indeed, 52.1% of the participating businesses‘ believes that 2010 will be better off in terms of economic situation. However, approximately 50% of the participating businesses‘ believes that the process of economic recovery in Turkish tourism industry has already started. CHARACTERISTICS Choose your type of business Tour Operator (A Group) Travel Agency (B Group) Travel Agency (C Group) Total How many people are working in your business 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and over Total What is the average number of customers that buy travel products in your business in 2009? 0-5.000 5.001-10.000 10.001-15.000 15.001-20.000 20.001 and over Total How was the economic condition in terms of your business in 2009 Very good Good Break-Even Bad Very bad Total What do you think about that; how will be the economic condition in terms of your business in 2010? 565 SAMPLE N % 75 47,7 19 12,1 63 40,1 157 100 N % 88 56,0 22 14,0 18 11,4 15 9,5 14 8,9 157 100 N % 96 16 22 9 14 157 N 10 27 63 36 21 157 61,1 10,1 14,0 5,7 8,9 100 % 6,3 17,1 40,1 22,9 13,3 100 N % �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Very good Good Break-Even Bad Very bad Total Have you ever encountered economic crisis situation in your business before? Yes No Total Have the crisis management policies been carried out for Turkish tourism sector in 2009 successfully? Yes Partly No Total Has the economic recovery process started in Turkish tourism sector so far? Yes Partly No Total If your service production had decrease, to what extent has this decrease been? Less than 10% 10-19% 20-29% 30-39% 40-49% More than 50% Total If your employment was decreased, to what extent has this decrease would be? Less than 10% 10-19% 20-29% 30-39% 40-49% More than 50% Total Do you have a shortage in financing? Yes Partly No Total Did you invest in tourism in 2009 We did not invest We bought business We invested in the modernization We invested abroad We entered to a new investment Total Do you want to increase capacity or invest in tourism for 2010 566 18 64 63 9 3 157 11,4 40,7 40,1 5,7 1,9 100 N % 119 38 157 75,8 24,2 100 N % 70 33 54 157 44,5 21,0 34,3 100 N % 76 48 33 157 48,4 30,5 21,0 100 N % 85 27 12 9 15 9 157 54,1 17,1 7,6 5,7 9,5 5,7 100 N % 106 23 9 12 6 1 157 N 40 103 14 157 N 36 12 75 6 28 157 N 67,5 14,6 5,7 7,6 3,8 0,6 100 % 25,4 65,6 8,9 100 % 22,9 7,6 47,7 3,8 17,8 100 % �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Yes. We want to invest in domestic Yes. We want to invest in abroad No. Total How was the change of your costs in 2009? Increased Unchanged Decreased Total Table 2: Business Related Data 82 24 51 157 N 70 51 36 157 52,2 15,2 32,4 100 % 44,5 32,4 22,9 100 Table 3 shows the results of Chi-Square test. Chi-Square test helps to determine whether a systematic relationship between two variables exists. Chi-Square test, in other words, is used to test whether the observed relationship between variables is statistically meaningful (AltunıĢık et al., 2005, p.195). As noted in Table 3, in ChiSquare test, having the Asymp. Sig. values less than 5% shows a meaningful relationship between variables. PROPERTIES * Type of business * In Turkey, an effective crisis management strategy, or strategies and vulnerable businesses directly affected the economic crisis . * Type of business * Cooperation between public and private sectors decreases the economic crisis devastating effects on the sector. * Type of business * In the tourism sector derivative financial instruments (futures, forwards, options, swaps, etc..) Gaining popularity in use, will increase the negative effects of economic crisis. * Type of business * Upgrades to banks' credit costs in the economic crisis, tourism businesses are left in the lurch financially. * Type of business * Destination marketing for different markets reduces the impact of economic crisis. * Type of business * The marketing of destinations as well makes the difference, in economic crisis, businesses can increase their foreign exchange income. * Type of business * In the economic crisis, businesses, high income levels of competition for the marketing efforts power is increased. * Educational Background * Businesses to reduce their prices, tourism demand is increasing by reducing the impact of economic crisis * Educational Background * Political tensions which lead to narrowing impact of demand, effect economic crisis increases. * Educational Background * Improving service quality, reduce the impact of economic crisis * Educational Background * Establishing crisis management team provides a business to get through the crisis with the least damage. * Educational Background * Building Turkey's own tour operator system , by reducing touristic demand recession in the economic crisis , increases competitiveness in the international arena 567 Value Asymp. Sig. 89,397a ,000 22,986a ,003 34,725a ,000 23,672a ,003 32,596a ,000 26,803a ,001 64,249a ,000 233,001a ,000 322,025a ,000 145,862a ,000 190,577a ,000 127,379a ,000 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo * Educational Background * In the economic crisis, state's increasing the allowance for promotional campaign in different markets, remains a positive impact on tourist demand * Educational Background * During the economic crisis, increasing the incentives given to investors, the economic crisis may reduce the impact of the tourism sector. * Educational Background * During the economic crisis, tourism taxes to eliminate the impact of economic crisis by increasing tourist demand decreases. * Educational Background * Spread over 12 months of alternative tourism by developing tourism, the destinations reduces the effect of strengthening the economic crisis. * Educational Background * Against possible economic crisis faced by the tourism sector, preventive crisis management plans to make our country a significant competitive edge against rival offers destinations. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Governmental support to Turkish tour operators ,in the medium term by increasing the demand for international tourists, especially could minimize the negative effects of the global economic crisis . * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * To increase domestic tourism demand, global economic crisis by minimizing the effects of demand contraction to reduce working capital needs. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Increasing advertising and promotional campaign for domestic tourism has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * The use of different promotional and sales techniques, in times of economic crisis has a positive impact on destination marketing. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Resources and reduction of operating costs, in times of economic crisis has a positive effect on destination marketing. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Going to the integration of another business affects destination marketing positively in times of economic crisis. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Postponing payments or extending the maturity of loans, has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry * Removing the staff has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis. * Total Working Period in Tourism Industry *Organizational downsizing has a positive effect on destination marketing in times of economic crisis. 217,537a ,000 167,923a ,000 166,876a ,000 255,329a ,000 199,555a ,000 155,879a ,000 200,355a ,000 239,396a ,000 253,480a ,000 242,624a ,000 274,542a ,000 320,185a ,000 276,945a ,000 200,148a ,000 Table 3: Chi-Square Test Results Conclusion and Recommendations Global economic crisis emerging in the United States spread all over the word as the use of derivative financial instruments such as futures, forwards, options, swaps, etc. has been gained popularity in stock exchanges in the world. In Turkey, particularly with the establishment of Turkish Derivatives Exchange, the widespread use of these types of derivative financial instruments in tourism industry is one of the biggest reason that the businesses affected by the crisis. This crisis has shown that non-operating items in the balance sheets of the businesses should be under control, and any global financial crisis signs must be well analyzed. In addition to all this, as the increased 568 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo bank credit costs, businesses have been further weakened in this difficult time of economic crisis. Lowering the cost of resources and activities to relief of financial hardship stemming from the crisis is of vital importance. For this, all performed business activities should be analyzed in detail, and unnecessary and non-value-added activities should be eliminated. Thus, an increase on the profitability can be achieved by lowering the cost of goods and services by eliminating resource costs caused by non-income-generating activities. The studies about crisis management are of great importance to minimize the demand contraction for destinations caused by the economic crisis. Therefore, strategies for crisis management for the Turkish tourism sector should be developed primarily at the macro level, and then preventive crisis management plan should be formed in line with these strategies on destination basis. Because the characteristics, the target market/markets, consumer demands and market needs are different for each destination. Therefore, while developing destination marketing activities in times of crisis, such matters shall be taken into consideration. In later stages, establishing crisis management teams on destination basis is of great importance to apply destination crisis management plans designed in line with crisis management strategies. As the basic strategy in times of economic crisis, performing destination marketing studies targeting the upper income levels is of great importance to maximize the profits. Number of foreign tourists coming to Turkey in 2008 was 30.9 million, reached to 32 millions in 2009 increasing by 3.3%. However, total tourism revenue in Turkey in 2008 was 21,950.8 million dollars, decreased by 3.2% in 2009, declined to $ 21,249.3 million (www.turizm.gov.tr). As shown, in spite of the increase in the number of tourists compared to the previous year, tourism revenues decreased in reverse. Therefore, it would be a much wiser strategy to perform destination marketing efforts focusing on increasing the number of tourist from upper income level rather than increasing the number of tourists via cheap mass tourism. The implementation of specific marketing activities such as performing destination marketing focused on different markets, marketing distinctive aspects of destinations, improving the quality of services, spreading to 12 months by developing alternative tourism, using different promotional and sales techniques, etc. are of great importance to successfully implement this basic strategy. In addition, the destination marketing activities performed by the governments in times of economic crisis might be quite useful to minimize the impacts of the crisis on businesses. These are, increasing governmental funds for promotional activities in different markets in times of crisis, increasing the incentives given to investors, minimizing or eliminating the taxes in tourism sector, providing government support to Turkish tour operators, etc. In this context, establishing Turkey's own tour operator system is vital. Because by doing this, the dependence of the Turkish travel agents to foreign tour operators will be eliminated, and therefore, keeping more foreign currency in the country will reduce the negative impacts of the crisis on travel enterprises. References Aksu, A. (2009). Sayılarla Turizm Endüstrisi`nin GeliĢimi. http://www.tourismtoday.net/default.asp?inc=news_details&intCatID=8&intNewsID=6007, 09.03.2010. AltunıĢık, R., CoĢkun, R., Bayraktaroğlu, S. & Yıldırım, E. (2005). Sosyal Bilimlerde AraĢtırma Yöntemleri. Sakarya Kitapevi, Sakarya. Aykaç, B. (2001). Kamu Yönetiminde Kriz ve Kriz Yönetimi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2/2001,123-132. Aymankuy, ġ.Y. (2001). Turizm Sektöründe Kriz Yönetimi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Vol.6, 105-118. Bahar, E., Kaya, F. & Keklik, F. (2009). Konaklama ĠĢletmelerinin Ekonomik Kriz Döneminde Uyguladıkları Krizle Mücadele Stratejilerinin Tespit Edilmesine Yönelik Bir AraĢtırma. X. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, Mersin, 27-36. Can, H. (1999). Organizasyon ve Yönetim. Siyasal Kitapevi, Ankara. Demir, E. Ö. (2009). Destinasyon Pazarlaması ve MarkalaĢma. http://www.turizmdebusabah.com/haber_detay.asp?haberNo=48081, 15.03.2010. Demir, O. (2008). Kriz Yönetim Stratejileri ve Kriz ĠletiĢimi. http://fbe.emu.edu.tr/journal/doc/11-12/06.pdf, 14.01.2010. Demir, Ö. (2008). Küresel Krizin Turizme Etkisi ve 2009‘da Ġzlenmesi Gereken Politikalar. http://www.turizmgazetesi.com/articles/article.aspx?id=45440, 16.01.2010. 569 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Glaesser, D. (2005). Turizm Sektöründe Kriz Yönetimi. Translator: Bahadır Ahiska, Set Systems Yayınları, Ġstanbul HaĢit, G. (2000). ĠĢletmelerde Kriz Yönetimi ve Türkiye‘nin Büyük Sanayi ĠĢletmeleri Üzerinde Yapılan AraĢtırma ÇalıĢması. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları, EskiĢehir Howie, F. (2003). Managing the Tourist Destination. Thomson, London Köroğlu, A. (2004). Turizm ĠĢletmelerinin Muhtemel Krizlere Yönelik Hazırlık ÇalıĢmaları ve Seyahat Acentalarında Bir Uygulama. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 7 (12), 69-87. Özdemir, G. (2008). Destinasyon Pazarlaması. Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara Pike, S. (2004). Destination Marketing Organisations. ELSEVIER, Amsterdam. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, www.turizm.gov.tr, 12.04.2010. Tağraf, H. ve Arslan N. T. (2003). Kriz OluĢum Süreci ve Kriz Yönetiminde Proaktif YaklaĢım. Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Dergisi, 4, (1), 149-160. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), (2009). Impact of the Global Economic Crisis on Local Tourism Destinations. Published and printed by the World Tourism Organization, Spain. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), (2007). A Practical Guide to Tourism Destination Management. Published and printed by the World Tourism Organization, Spain. Yavuz, M. C. (2007). Uluslararası Destinasyon Markası OluĢturulmasında Kimlik GeliĢtirme Süreci: Adana Örneği. BasılmamıĢ Doktora Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Adana. 570 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 275 Title A name given to the resource A Research about the Impacts of Economic Crisis on Destination Marketing: Istanbul Example Author Author ZENGİN, Burhanettin ŞEN, Lütfi Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to offer the alternative policies and strategies in the context of destination marketing which would be followed by the destination management organizations and touristic businesses in marketing their services and products to minimize the impacts of the economic crisis on touristic destinations when the probability of economic crisis is high, and to contribute to the studies that have been done on this issue. The questionnaire method was chosen to collect the data in this study. Sample questions were presented via Five-point Likert and Category Scales. The number of tourism agents operating in Turkey is 5,801, and 2000 of those, that is 33.6%, are in Istanbul. Therefore, considering the time constraint, number of travel agencies in Istanbul constitutes our study population. The study sample is 300 Type A, B, C tourism agencies in Istanbul selected by simple random sampling method and corresponding to 15% of the study population. The data obtained was analyzed in computer environment by using SPSS for Windows package program. Demographic data obtained from survey was subjected to frequency analysis; appropriate data was subjected to the Chi-square test. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/048cb8af3e39502260a123b8464142bb.pdf 75af571291b75f0c4eb54fe4a56b027a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Motivating Young EFL Learners Through Effective Classroom Management Hasan Yüksel Süleyman Demirel University, English Language Instructor, Isparta, Turkey hyuksel@sdu.edu.tr Yekta Halıcı Süleyman Demirel University, Instructor of Maths, Isparta, Turkey yektahalici@hotmail.com Abstract: Finding the best way to catch the attention of young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playing and, drama is of great significance due to the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, pictures, and games, so they are under the bombardment of all these. They live in an age of visualization. Depending upon this, it will also be mentioned that how the ELF teachers will catch the attention of the young EFL learners, which is actually one of the problematic area in classroom management. The reason is that just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, in the stark contrast, the students themselves want movement and action, and they would like to be much more involved in the class. Normally thinking, the learners is not roped to the class. However, the matter is that in order to learn regularly and peacefully, the students must feel themselves relaxed, they should be in peace, it shouldn’t be a kind of torture, and the teacher should vary the activities in the class so as to free from monotonous atmosphere. All of these things leave an impact on the students’ psychology and their motivational level either positively or negatively. Therefore, the main objective of the study is to depict how to motivate young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playings, drama, and body language of the teacher. From this perspective, this study will focus on the sustainable development in the foreign language teaching and learning fundamentally for young EFL learners. Introduction “The present age is essentially an age of games. It certainly is an obvious fact that no form of play can be carried on without them, and it is almost equally obvious that nowadays very little work can be done without them, at any rate where small children are concerned. The instructive game has become a prominent feature in our modern education, and is employed in the teaching of nearly all branches of knowledge” (Harrison, 1907). Arising the most notice of young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, drama, realia, and role playing has gained a very big momentum on account of the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, pictures, and games, so they are under the bombardment of all these. They live in an age of visualization. There is no exaggeration to say that the games are for children and the children are for games. They are in a way counterparts of one another. The result of the research investigated by Fromme (2008) is the indication of this case as shown in the following figure: Boys Girls 1 2 3 playing outside with others going for sports / sport activities listening to music 71% listening to music 71% 67% playing outside with others 63% 4 playing video/computer games 38% reading 52% sport activities 50% 43% Table 1: The indication of the activities that the children deal with. 105 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo It can be witnessed from the statistics above that playing and listening occupies much of young students’ life span particularly playing which will be mainly focused. Again, the statistics illustrate that playing is the sinequanon of their lives. Going from here, it will be also mentioned that how the ELF teachers will catch the attention of the young EFL learners, which is actually the matter. The reason is that just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, on the stark contrast, the students themselves want movement, they would like to be more active, shortly, and they would like to be much more involved in the class. In a way, they would like to think themselves as the students who are cared by the teacher. The Background of the Study The teachers should take into account the fact that the younger students’ motivation can distract swiftly that also determines their failure or success as argued (2002) by The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines motivation as follows: “Motivation is generally considered to be one of the primary causes of success and failure in second language learning” (p.344), and this distraction can be faster than the old ones. If they are distracted by someone or something, it is too tough for the teachers to make the students come to the class again, and now and then it is impossible. Normally thinking, the learners is not roped to the class. However, the matter is that in order to learn regularly, the students must feel themselves relaxed, they should be in peace, they should not worry about their learning, it shouldn’t be a torture, and the teacher should vary the activities in the class so as to free from monotonous atmosphere. All of these things affect the students’ motivation better or worse which actually depends on the teacher, the coordinator of the teaching and learning environment. Statement of the Problem By considering the other side of the coin, in another way, if the particular things that can be done by the young students are considered, the importance of the activities, and games would be understood better as argued by Öztürk, 2007 (cited from Scoot and Ytreberg in 1990): Five to seven years old 1. They can talk about what they are actually doing. 2. They can plan activities and games. 3. They can discuss what they think and why they think in this way. 4. They can use rational explanations. 5. They can utilize their bunch of imaginations. 6. They can comprehend the interactions of humans. Eight to ten years old 1. They can separate the differences between facts and fictions. 2. They mostly depend on the spoken world as well as the physical world to convey and understand the meaning. 3. They have the strength to give decisions about their own learning. 4. They have definite views about what they like and don’t like doing. 5. They can question the decisions of the teachers. 6. They are able to work in groups cooperatively and learn from others. Moreover, Harmer (2001; 38) explain the characteristics of the young English learners especially those up to the ages of nine or ten in this way: 1. They respond meaning although they don’t understand every words. 2. They often learn indirectly rather than directly – that means they take in information from all sides, however just focusing on the precise things to be taught. 3. Their understanding is directly affected from the movements as well as actions, not the explanation itself. 4. They have a great enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them. 5. They need an individual attention and they would like to be notified by the teacher. 6.They are keen to talk about themselves, if they are involved in the learning settings, they will be motivated. 7.They have limited attention span; in a very short of time, they can be bored with the similar activities. Depending upon the data given above, it can be described that the teachers use the activities, they should plan the activities, and they should use their imaginations to take an advantage of the fresh brain of the students. As touched earlier, they should also vary the activities arranged in the classroom in order to make the students learn better, and to enable the students focus on the tasks in a sensitive way. Ways of Classroom Management 106 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo There are some very certain ways for classroom management in accordance with the motivations of the students as well. In more explicit terms, by using these methods such as games, realia and roleplaying and the use of body language, both the students’ motivation can be increased and classroom management can be carried out effectively. Games Teaching young learners is a different phenomena, different from teaching adults as Öztürk (2007) stated the mood of the young learners alter in every minute, and their attention span is limited as well, and it requires a great effort. In spite of all these, in the earlier ages (nearly 5-6), many things can be done so as to enable them to learn in various ways. As cited by Öztürk (2007), the principal characteristics of these learners groups can be listed as follows: (Brumfit et al, 1997; Cameron, 2003); Dunn, 1983; House, 1997; Moon, 2000) 1. They depend heavily on the teacher for directions during the courses. They are in need of help to become autonomous. 2. They are inquisitive and receptive, easily motivated if the teachers know how to motivate them. 3. They have a very limited attention span; therefore, their interests focus on the here and now. They are not able to concentrate for a long time. 4. They have an analytical way of learning rather than intuitive way. 5. They need activities that involve physical movement. 6. Their social relations are restricted with another student sitting next to them. 7. The affective and the emotional aspects of teaching are important for them. 8. They are very receptive to the world of fantasy and imagination as they live in an imaginative environment. 9. They do not regard mistakes as a step towards learning. They may be upset if they are told that they are wrong. It is a need to find a flexible way to correct their mistakes. Under the light of what has been discussed so far, games are just one of the motivational tools that can be utilized both for the benefit of the teacher and the young student. In more explicit terms, games are useful for teachers because they facilitate classroom management and useful for students as they learn in an entertaining atmosphere (Shin, 2006). In language learning, games can serve as tools that strengthen and foster the development of the communicative ability of the learner. The following quote by I-Jung elaborates on this issue: “The use of games can be a powerful language learning tool. On the surface, the aim of all language games is for students to "use the language"; however, during game play learners also use the target language to persuade and negotiate their way to desired results. This process involves the productive and receptive skills simultaneously” (p.1, n.d). From here, it can be easily concluded that games serve beyond their own functions, as stated by Saricoban & Metin (2000) (cited in I-Jung) depending upon the communicative skills of the language learners, it can strengthen their social behaviours. Additionally, about this, Thanh Huyen & Thi Thu Nga (2003) demonstrated that learning vocabulary through the use of games is one of the effective and interesting ways which can be applied in any of the classrooms. Based upon this it can be argued that the games are not only used for fun but also as a sort of useful practice for the revision of the whole course that at the same time improves the communicative aspects of the young learners. Additionally, from another perspective, Piaget (1967) regarded games as “the most admirable social institutions”. According to Piaget every games include a complicated system of rules. On condition that the EFL teachers achieve to make the young students follow these rules, then this means that the classroom management will be easier. Moreover, in order to get a more concrete idea about how motivating games are in learning environments, it can be noted that: So, what is it about video games that make gamers respond to the world differently from the way they respond in the classroom? Compared to the classroom, games are empowering, motivating, individualized differentiated learning environments with set rules which value the efforts of the individual child. Games are challenging and motivating. They offer the child a shared experience with their peers in a collaborative environment. They are a platform for problem solving. The structure is apparent; the rules are clear and unambiguous; and your role in the game is well defined. The goal is always attainable (Simpson, n.d, p. 20). More than anything else, the core of the paper is to motivate the students. Based on that Wright (1984) stated that the effort of language learning must be maintained over a long period of time as language learning is a hard task, and in that case, games make the language learner become interested in that work. Moreover, Ersoz (2000) suggested that the language learning process is a tough task which can be sometimes as frustrating for the 107 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo teachers owing to the fact that the constant effort is required to produce, comprehend and to conduct the target language. It can be demonstrated that to practice the language skills the teachers are supposed to choose the games carefully for only the well chosen games will serve for the purpose. Also, Ersöz (2000) states that another function of the games are to increase the motivation of the students which also fosters the cooperation among the students by enabling them to use the language in real contexts. The Function of Games in Eliminating Anxiety As pointed out earlier, the other particular functions of the games are to reduce the anxiety and stress while learning something which can also be applied to teaching a language. Uberman (1998, cited in I - Jung) asserted that “Games offer students a fun-filled and relaxing learning atmosphere. After learning and practicing new vocabulary, students have the opportunity to use language in a non-stressful way”. The reason is that as Uberman (1998, cited in I - Jung) pointed out that just as playing games the learner’s main focus is to comprehend the message apart from the use of language itself. Therefore, this means that during the game, for learners, the correctness of their use of language doesn’t make any sense, yet still, what they will all do is to play just for winning it. Actually, they learn without even noticing that, but the only difference is that they learn with a great amount of joy. Concerning this state, Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope, (1986, cited in I- Jung) emphasized that just for playing for the sake of gaming reduces the fear of negative evaluation, the state of being ashamed by the public, maybe, his classmates which leads not to use the language in front of an audience. Also, to these scholars, game based context reduces the concern and anxiety, and increases the fluency of the speech. In addition, Su Kim (1995) admitted that regarding the games just because of it brings about laughter, as not a really a learning activity is a sort of misunderstanding. Su Kim (1995) wrote that “It is possible to learn a language as well as enjoy oneself at the same time. One of the best ways doing this is through games.” Jones, also (1957) added that it can be learned better if the students enjoy it rather than being forced. From this perspective, it can be argued that the games are functional tools that make sense for teaching the language without the occurrence of the anxiety. Advantages of Games for Teachers As Klein (1993) claims, the procedure applied to teach young learners are strikingly different from adults. If the focus is the young learners, this process becomes much more difficult than assumed, so teaching must be planned in such a way that “learning becomes an interesting, even at times entertaining process” (Wilkins, 1972). This can be done by the use of the games in the classroom environment. Depending upon this, Ersöz (2007) argues games are the trump cards of the teachers in spite of the fact that the games are recreational activities in terms of their nature and whose ultimate purpose is enjoyment, but they can be used to reinforce what was learned and taught. What’s more, games are also useful in terms of teachers owing to the fact that Wright (1984) reasoned games are also assisting tools for the teachers in order to create language contexts to use the language itself. By means of this, the learners can be exposed to the real like contexts of the language. Since every type of learner has different characteristics to learn, it can be easily comprehended that as teachers, capturing their attention becomes much more important. This means that if you have different types of learners, you have learners who have different worlds, and who have different learning styles. Wilson (n.d) reported that no two learners are alike in any of the classroom environment. The researches indicate that every human beings have multiple intelligences (Gardiner, 83, cited in Wilson). Studies about the neuro-linguistic programming reveal that some of us are auditory learners who need to hear the language to learn, an others are visual learners who need to see the process individually whereas the others can learn by doing, that means they are kinaesthetic learners. Therefore games can be regarded as a kind of facilitating activities of the teachers. Furthermore, this case shouldn’t be seen as a kind of disadvantage, in the stark contrast, teachers ought to regard that case as an advantage like noted by (Berman,1995) it ought not be regarded as a kind of problem, but rather as the main advantage when considering the benefits for the practice of language and the language skills. The reason is that this case frees the course from the monotonous atmosphere that means it paves the way for suffering much to teach the learners by means of motivation, and makes both the teacher and the students rejoice from what they have been doing. Games as Tools for Making Learning Easier and as Providing Entertaining Atmosphere Another function of games is to make the learning easier and they provide an entertaining atmosphere for both for the teachers and the students. It can be said that games are motivating in regards to the fact that they make the language building activities as competitive which makes the learners use the language (Prasad, 2003, cited in IJung). A research conducted by Huyen & Nga (2003, cited in I-Jung) revealed that students got a great pleasure in a game based environment as a result of relaxed atmosphere, the competition and the high motivation that the games brought about. Lee (1979: 2) evaluates the games from two perspectives, firstly, games as the use of language, and secondly, games as relaxing activity. Concerning the first, he says that “language games make learners use the language 108 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo instead of thinking about learning the correct forms adding that games should be treated as central not peripheral to the foreign language teaching programme”. The similar opinion is also mentioned by Richard & Amato (n.d) as usual games are regarded just as a kind of playing activities, but they also have the function of teaching as well and they (1988: 147) add that games also play a significant role about the reduction of the anxiety, and this makes learning better. Also, according to Hansen (1994, cited in Uberman, 1998: 118) “They are highly motivating and entertaining, and they can give shy students more opportunity to express their opinions and feelings”. This can be interpreted that even the shy students can be melted in this pot, the pot of games. At this point the other scholars such as Wierus & Wierus argue (1994: 218, cited in Uberman) that “In the easy, relaxed atmosphere which is created by using games; students remember things faster and better”. Also, this emphasizes another respect of the games, maybe the focus of the article from the beginning, that is, it makes learning easier and easier, and this makes the students gains a great momentum, fundamentally in the field of language learning. Bumpass (1984: 16-18) argues that even the games and the varieties in the classroom are of great significance for the young learners’ learning, but teachers should be careful about the psychological bases for foreign language instruction by taking into account some principles. These are 1. Start from the known and go to the unknown. So that the language can be taught to the young learners, the EFL teachers are expected to use the mother tongue for some time to convey the message because the principle is that proceed from the know to the unknown. 2. Teach utterances in the new language that has the same difficulty in the mother tongue. Great care should be taken to insure that the materials should be in the same complexity with those in their mother tongues. 3. Use simple equipments that are simple enough for their physical development. Objects, pictures, songs, flash cards, games, and other teaching aids can be utilized to adapt the student to the new language learning environment. 4. Choose materials which will satisfy the children’s affective and academic needs. The materials used in the language learning environment should fulfill the needs of the students as well . 5. Be careful about the motivation of interest in each activity. The success gained from the game centered learning environment can increase the motivation of the young students for further study, so the teachers is supposed to give an ultimate care to that. 6. Teach vocabulary that can be used in real life settings. The new vocabulary items to be taught should be functional They can be used in real life too . 7. Direct the students to practice the newly learned concept over and over until it will become automatic. In order to achieve the mastery level of each concept, EFL the teachers are supposed to let the students practice those learned new items up till they will become automatic. In addition, as Khan (1996) pointed out “different games will benefit students in different ways”, but according to Hong (n.d), in order to increase the level of efficiency, there are also some important questions to be answered while choosing a game such as • • • • • • Which language does the game ultimately target? Which skills does it practice? What sort of game is it? What's the purpose for using that game? Is the game suitable for the students? How much interaction and participation will it provide? Language Teaching With Realia Realia is another technique that can be used to capture the attention of the students and to provide and strengthen the classroom management. According to Smith (n.d), realia is defined as “digitized objects and items from the target culture which are brought into the classroom as examples or aids and used to stimulate spoken or written language production”. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics (1992, Richards, Platt, & Platt, Essex) explains that it is the use of “actual objects and items which are brought into the classroom as examples or as aids to be talked or written about and used in teaching”. All the definitions argue that realia is motivating and meaningful in that it brings an authentic piece of the target culture into the language classroom. 109 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Practicing the language and teaching it by means of the real materials brought to the classroom environments enhances the motivations of the students as well. Sumarni (2008) states that Realia is the proponent of Communicative Language Teaching that has advocated the use of ‘authentic’, ‘fromlife’ materials in the classroom. These might include language-based realia, such as sign, magazines, advertisement, and newspaper, or graphic and visual sources around us which communicative activities can be built, such as maps, pictures, symbols, graphs, and charts. Different kinds of objects can be used to support communicative exercises. In practice, bringing the actual item to class provides an unmistakably clear illustration of an object. This can also provide a useful stimulus to lesson. On a slightly more ambitious scale, asking students to teach other students how to perform a task using realia can be very motivating and memorable (p.3) . In this context the materials such as pictures, flashcards, photographs, newspapers, music or anything related to the subject dealt with that day can taken into account as real objects. Harmer (2001) comments that pictures and images of all kinds can be used in a variety of ways, as in the following: a) Games fostering communication: Pictures are extremely useful for a variety of communication activities, such as describing and drawing activities where one student describes a picture the other classmate has to draw the similar picture without looking at the original. b) Drills: Drills can be used to motivate the students by nominating them successively. Flashcards are one of the tools which are particularly useful for drilling grammar items, for cueing different sentences, or practicing vocabulary. c) Comprehension: Another pros of realia is that the young students will be familiar with the real objects. As an example, the students need the actual ‘bicycle’ in order to perceive what is bike. d) Ornamentation: Pictures of various kinds are often used to make the learning much more appealing and attractive. In many modern course books, for example, a reading text will be adorned with a photograph which gives the readers (or students) the chance to associate the activity with reality. e) Prediction: Pictures are also useful for enabling the students to predict what is happening next in a lesson. Therefore the f) Discussion: Pictures can stimulate questions that paves the way for discussion such as ‘What does it represent?’, ‘What do you remember when you see this one?’, ‘Why is this so?’ and so forth. Harmer’s argument shown above lay emphasis that even the pictures used related to the topic as a kind of real life objects can increase the motivation of the students, make them much more involved in the course, make the class free from monotony, and as Hildred (1978) emphasized Language is but one aspect of the child's activity which includes eating, playing, responding to instructions, enjoying social contacts. The human infant's behavior is largely unformed; linguistic expression and behavior patterns are learned simultaneously: "Here's an apple, a ripe, red apple, an apple to pick from the tree, to put in a basket, to eat, slice, peel, buy at the store, to give to someone, to make into pie, etc. At the same time, Spurr (1942) claims that realia can be used to make our teaching process real, to enable coordination in the courses delivered, to develop an actual culture which is comprehensive, indulgent, and to appreciate the whole job done by the students. All these explanations pave the way that real life objects are real life learning. Language Teaching With Role-playing It has been emphasized that the more the students participate in the course, the better they will learn. And sometimes a created real life situation is just the first step for the activation of the learning (Zheng, 1993). So, role-playing is one of the moving force to this activation, and Brown confirms (2001) that, "role-play minimally involves (a) giving a role to one or more members of a group and (b) assigning an objective or purpose that participants must accomplish." Brown (2001, 183) suggested “role-play can be conducted with a single person, in pairs or in groups, with each person assigned a role to accomplish an objective”. Role-playing is regarded as the ideal technique in foreign language teaching since as Salies (1995) added, it enables learners for the unexpected situation in real life, teaches the use of language in an appropriate way, and increases self confidence of the learners. According to Tompkins (n.d), it is a valuable tool for the second language learning due to the fact that it initiates creativity and use of the thought. Also, this method render the students learn the language in an environment that is free of stress which makes the learning effective. Roleplaying technique develops interpersonal relationships among participants. Moreover, Tompkin (n.d) notes that by means of role-playing Comprehensible input is provided in simulations because students engage in genuine communication in playing their roles. Active involvement stems from participation in worthwhile, absorbing interaction which tends to 110 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo make students forget they are learning a new language. Students have the opportunity to try out new behaviors in a safe environment, which helps them develop long term motivation to master an additional language. In addition to encouraging genuine communication, active involvement, and a positive attitude, the simulated "real life" problems help students develop their critical thinking and problem solving skills. Scarcella and Crookall (1990, as cited by Tompkins, n.d), discuss that this way of teaching has these kinds of advantages as well in terms of the students as shown in the following: 1) they experience a great many communicative atmosphere, 2) they are active in the learning process, 3) they have positive motivation to learn. As cited by Zheng (1993), role-playing has some very important aspects of learning such as 1) 2) 3) It creates a real life setting, which is always desirable in learning a foreign language (Nakajima, 1992; O’Donnell & Shaver, 1990) It involves students active participation and involvement in the classroom (Joyce & Weil, 1986; Kunze, 1991, Shaftel &Shaftel, 1967) It motivates students to learn. It can be asserted that depending upon the data given, role-playing is the other teaching tool that the teachers can make use of while teaching especially to young learners of English owing to the fact that as in the other techniques it increases motivation, and it verifies this fact: To learn something, do it. Language Teaching With Drama I hear and I forget I listen and I remember I do and I understand (Chinese Proverb) With the modern approaches to learning, the learner is regarded as the active participant of the learning environment, and they are much more involved. Another technique that enables this is the use of drama as communicative activities because the problem is that the students learn grammar, they learn how to write, how to read and listen, yet they couldn’t adequately learn how to speak which can be achieved through communicative activities the most effective of which is drama. Also, if the features of the communicative activities are taken into account, it would be realized to what extent drama is useful in language teaching. As Sam (1992) agreed, communicative activities have the following characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. They are purposeful. They are beyond overt grammar rules. They are communicative. The activities are often conducted with others and often involve some form of interaction and discussion. Authentic materials are used. The situations in which the learners use language should be as realistic as possible. In another way, the language used as authentic. They are dependent upon the information gap principle. At the same time, Morrow (1981, as cited by Sam, 1992) provided some guiding principles for the use of communicative activities as the learning and teaching criterions. These are as follows: 1. 'Know what you are doing' This principle ensures that the teacher should know how to conduct the course over the period of time. 2. 'The whole is more than the sum of its parts' In communication, in the communicative learning environments, the important thing is to focus on the whole message, not the parts of it. 3. 'The processes are as important as the forms' The processes of communication such as information gap, choice, feedback, should be much more important than only the forms. 4. 'To learn it, do it' Only by practicing communicative activities, the students can develop their communicative skills. The teachers do not interfere with the processes. They solely conduct the process, not interfere. 111 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 5. 'Mistakes are not always mistakes' Mistakes in this process should be regarded as a kind of path towards the correct way of learning. The main concern of this approach is to establish a communication with another person in the classroom and in a way, the society. Thus, drama used in the classroom can be considered a communicative activity since it enables communication between learners and provides opportunities to use the target language in real life like environments as Sam (1992) claimed various 'make believe' situations. In this context, it can be mentioned that drama can be used as a supplementary tool for the child learning appropriate to their developmental process (Redington, 1983). Below, the value of the drama in the teaching and learning environment according to different scholars is mentioned (cited by Sam, 1992). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Fernandez and CoIl (1986), state that drama encourages students to exercise their sensitivity and imagination. Temporary suspension of the ego occurs when students participate in dramatic activities. They are experienced real life atmosphere. It develops a sense of empathy in the student. At the same time, drama develops moral and social abilities of a student (Scharengnivel, 1970). Drama according to Maley and Duff (1978) activates the students energy and strength. It increases the sensitivity and the imagination of the students which provides realistic atmosphere.. Drama increases motivation and provides the incentive to work hard (Mordecai, 1985; Scharengnivel, 1970). The activities using drama tend to be purposeful, that means it focuses on an objective. As an educational tool, the use of drama aims to develop the child socially, intellectually and the linguistically (Dougill, 1987). Drama has a therapeutic effect on the students. It can solve the emotional and behavioral problems (Stern, 1980; Scharengnivel, 1970). Drama enables the students develop a sense of responsibility (Early and Tarlington, 1983; Scharengnivel, 1970; Mordecai, 1985). All over the course of the drama activities, the students cannot be in a passive state, in the stark contrast the must be active which fosters the sense of responsibility. It increases the motivation of the teachers on the basis of meeting the needs of the student (Mordecai, 1985). The drama activities provide facilities to understand the thoughts and feelings of the students as mutually. Drama can be used to activate the emotions, ideas, and more than anything else, to activate the communicative learning in the classroom setting (Chauhan, n.d). Also, as in others, drama can suggest teachers to pick up one among various activities, thereby making the efficiency of learning going up. Conclusion Motivating young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, drama, realia, and role playing has gained a very big momentum on account of the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, and games. Moving from here, it can be stated that learning by doing catches the attention of the students especially the younger ones on account of the fact that one of the primary consensus is that “One should do that to learn that particular thing”. Just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, but they want movement, they would like to be more active, and they would like to be much more involved in the class and in the classroom activities. The younger students’ motivation can be distracted swiftly, and this happens faster than in the older ones. Therefore, it would be no exaggeration to say that they are roped to the class, at least they feel so. However, in order to learn regularly, the students must feel relaxed, they should be in peace, they should not worry about their learning, it shouldn’t be a torture. All of these things affect the student’s motivation better or worse which actually depends on the teacher, the coordinator of the learning environment. Hence, the aim of the study is to indicate the effectiveness of the classroom management fostered through games, realia, roleplaying and drama which also increases the motivation of the young learners of English in the foreign language environment. The Hardships Encountered by the Young EFL Learners during the Foreign Language Education It can be confirmed that the distractions in the classroom, noise, the learning anxiety of the new language, keeping a low motivation profile, and the unknown words and concepts in the new language are the leading difficulties of the young learners of English. Fundamentally, most of the teachers of English argue that the fear of the new language outweighs other factors in terms of the difficulty level. 112 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Apart from all these hardships, there are some other ones as well. For example, as the paper demonstrated that the young EFL learners: � They are easily distracted. � They don’t understand the meaning of the words of the new language. � They don’t comprehend the structural pattern. � They often mispronounce the words. � They have spelling and grammatical mistakes. All the items, which are in accordance with the research conducted, listed above imply that the foreign language teachers have a lot to catch their young students’ attention. For Classroom Management Motivating Young EFL Learners is a Must Though It is Difficult In this paper, it is revealed that motivating young learners of English is a tough process in spite of the fact that it is the snequanon of the learning settings on account of the fact that “Motivation is what stimulates students to acquire, transform and use knowledge (Groccia, 1992, p. 62)”. Basically, it can be reported that the teachers are strongly in need of using motivational tools such as real life materials, let’s say realia, visual images, games, and so fort for the flexible way of learning the foreign language. The Pros of Teaching through Games, Realia, Roleplaying, Drama for the Young EFL Learners Well-chosen games are invaluable as they give students a break and at the same time allow students to practice language skills. Games are highly motivating since they are amusing and at the same time challenging. Furthermore, they employ meaningful and useful language in real contexts. They also encourage and increase cooperation (….) (Ersöz, 2000, p.1). The paper also asserted that the games foster the students learning, in a way, it encourages students to learn. At the same time, it can be claimed that students stop talking with their classmates on condition that the teachers use these motivational tools like games, realia, roleplaying, and drama. The study also shows that these items reduce the disciplinary problems in the course due to the fact that through all these tools the students are much more involved in the classroom activities. The Desired EFL Teacher Profile By the aid of the study, the desired EFL teacher profile can also be understood. The first thing to be revealed about the teachers are the fact that they are not the boss in their classes, in the stark contrast, they are the facilitator and the guide in their classes. And, according to the paper, the EFL teachers should put themselves into the shoes of their students which mean that they should have a sense of empathy. To sum up, all these theoretical assumptions concerning the motivating young learners of English through the effective classroom management pave the way that a good EFL teacher is the one who � Comes to the with interesting and real life materials. � Is opened to technology and new methods of language teaching. � Motivates their students to learn. � Includes group study in their courses. � Teaches out of the class. � Gives students small projects to make them learn the language better. � Thinks that the students learn by doing. � Creates various activities in the courses. � Gives luck to the students to learn a particular topic by means of drama and roleplaying. On the other hand, the paper gives some very important tips about how a teacher shouldn’t be. A good teacher is the one who � Isn’t an authority in the course. � Doesn’t use just the boards. � Doesn’t punish the students as the sign of their authorities. � Doesn’t believe the significance of the teacher based classroom. � Doesn’t believe that the students learn just in the classroom. 113 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Bumpass, F. L. (1963).Teaching Young Students English as a Foreign Language. United States of America: Pan American Coopyright. Gaudart, H. (1990). Using Drama Techniques in Language Teaching, p. 22. Sarinee Arivan, Ed., Language Teaching Methodology for the Nineties , Anthology Series, 24. Groccia, J. (1992). How Motivation Effects <http://www.ulc.psu.edu/studyskills/motivation.html>. Learning. Retrieved March 9, 2008, from Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching (p. 51). Essex: Pearson Education Limited. I-Jung, C. (n.d). Using Games to Promote Communicative Skills in Language Learning. Retrieved March 13, 2008, from <http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Chen-Games.html>. Kang, S., J. (2006). Ten Helpful Ideas for Teaching English To Young Learners. English Teaching Forum. Retrieved from March 5, 2008, from <http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol44/no2/p2.htm>. Norman, K. D. (Autumn, 1975). Play, Games and Interaction. The Contexts of Childhood Socialization. The Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 458-478 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the Midwest Sociological Society. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (Paperback): C. O’ Keeffe, R. (n.d). Motivating Young Learners and Teenagers - From Research to the Classroom: A Few Ideas. Öztürk, E. (2007). Teaching English to Young Learners Through Integrated Skills Approach. Diss. Gazi University Institute of Educational Sciences Department of English Language Teaching. Salias, T, G. Teaching Language Realistically: Role Play is the Thing, 1995. Sarane S. B., & James S. C. (Summer, 1966). Games with Simulated Environments in Learning. Sociology of Education, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 215-236 Published by: American Sociological Association. S. Simpson, E. (n.d). Evolution in the Classroom: What Teachers Need to Know about the Video Game Generation, Volume 49, Number 5, 17-20. Techtrends. Sumarni R. (2008). School Teacher Training and Education Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Research Paper. Wilson, D. (n.d). Motivating Young Learners and meeting their learning needs. Wright, A., & Betteridge, D., & Buckby, M. (1984). Games for Language Learning. Cambridge University Press. Bertha Harrison, S. (Sep. 1, 1907). The Musical Times, Vol. 48, No. 775, pp. 589-592 Published by: Musical Times Publications Ltd. Albert, L. C. (Feb., 1929). The Use of "Realia" in the Teaching of French. The French Review, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 299-312 Published by: American Association of Teachers of French. Frederick, S. S. (Mar., 1942). The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 174-176 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations Stable URL. 114 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Spur F. (March, 1942). Realia in Foreign Language Course, The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 174-176. Gertrude, H. (Feb., 1958). Learning a Foreign Language The French Review, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 307-316 Published by: American Association of Teachers of French. Alfred, S., & Hayes, S. (May, 1965). New Directions in Foreign Language Teaching. The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 49, No. 5, pp. 281-293 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations. Kathleen G. (Jun., 1991). Tools, Language and Intelligence: Evolutionary Implications. New Series, Vol. 26, No. 2. pp. 255-264 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Richards, J., & Platt J., & Platt H. (June 1992). Paperback: 448 pages: Addison Wesley Publishing Company; 2Rev Ed edition. Zheng, B. (Nov 13, 1993). Role Playing in Foreign language Teaching, An Application in an Elementary Chinese Class, New Orleans. Margaret, W., R. (May, 1994). Moving beyond the Tricks of the Trade, or Using Common, Everyday Items as Realia. Hispania, Vol. 77, No. 2, pp. 298-300. Published by: American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. Su Kim, L. (January - March 1995). Creative Games for the Language Class. Forum' Vol. 33 No 1, 35. Ersoz, A. (June 2000). Six Games for the EFL/ESL Classroom. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VI, No. 6. Retrieved March 14, 2008, from <http://www.teflgames.com/why.html>. Thi Thanh Huyen, N., & Thi Thu Nga, K. (December 2003). Learning Vocabulary Through Games. Asian EFL Journal. Summerfield, B. (November 30, 2006). The Importance of Games in Language Learning. Retrieved November, 15, 2008 from < http://www.marcandangel.com/2008/07/07/25-acts-of-body-language-toavoid > p. 21 Retrieved November, 15, 2008 from < http://www.deltabravo.net/custody/body.php > p. 23 Retrieved December 28, 2008, from < http://www.melta.org.my/ET/1990/main8.html > Chinese proverb p.18 Critical period for language learning debate. Retrieved March 21, 2008, from<http://sitemaker.umich.edu/kramer.356/critical_period_for_language_learning_deba e>. 115 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 411 Title A name given to the resource Motivating Young EFL Learners Through Effective Classroom Management Author Author Yüksel, Hasan Halıcı, Yekta Abstract A summary of the resource. Finding the best way to catch the attention of young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playing and, drama is of great significance due to the fact that the world of young learners consists of visual images, pictures, and games, so they are under the bombardment of all these. They live in an age of visualization. Depending upon this, it will also be mentioned that how the ELF teachers will catch the attention of the young EFL learners, which is actually one of the problematic area in classroom management. The reason is that just standing in front of the classroom, and trying to teach something to the students make no sense right now, in the stark contrast, the students themselves want movement and action, and they would like to be much more involved in the class. Normally thinking, the learners is not roped to the class. However, the matter is that in order to learn regularly and peacefully, the students must feel themselves relaxed, they should be in peace, it shouldn’t be a kind of torture, and the teacher should vary the activities in the class so as to free from monotonous atmosphere. All of these things leave an impact on the students’ psychology and their motivational level either positively or negatively. Therefore, the main objective of the study is to depict how to motivate young EFL learners through effective classroom management by means of games, realia, role-playings, drama, and body language of the teacher. From this perspective, this study will focus on the sustainable development in the foreign language teaching and learning fundamentally for young EFL learners Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b2c8a12b6d48bb7ad00144ca56525bb2.pdf 59089037fce68ea27046c93f45ccedf4 PDF Text Text Integrated Water Resources Management: A Path to Achieving Sustainable Development Mehmet Ali Yurdusev Department of Civil Engineering, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey yurdusev@bayar.edu.tr Tekin Tezcan Department of Civil Engineering, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey tekin.tezcan@bayar.edu.tr Abstract: Water resources development is one of the most important national development factors for developing countries whereas it is a service sector issue in developed countries. Water management has become one of the conflict areas as the demand for water increases while the resources available degrade. As a solution to this, integrated water resources management has been proposed to make tradeoffs among the parties involved. This article discusses the issues of integrated water resources management with its possible links with sustainable development. Introduction Water resources management comprises a series of water-related activities including developing water resources schemes for beneficial and protective purposes and managing the system effectively based on both supply and demand considerations. From beneficial point of view, water resources development deals with the promotion of necessary infrastructure elements to bring the water in nature to where it is to be used. Thus, it requires huge investment as it is quite large in scale and time consuming. The development side of water resources management is referred to as source management. The need for protection from the excess water, namely flood, has also resulted in the development of large flood control schemes. As such, water resources development has been one of the most important factors for the national developments of the countries. This is still true for the developing countries where the water resources have not yet fully developed. On the other hand, it is one of the issues of service sectors in developed countries and has lost its impact on the development of those countries. Operational side of water resources management has two dimensions. One is the real operation of the system developed to sustain water supply for the use for a variety of purposes including drinking, irrigation and power generation. The other is the management of the demand for water, namely demand management, which comprises a series of activities to encourage or sometimes to force people to use less water to achieve more efficient use of water in service. The demand management issue may be shadowed in developing countries as they are still trying to develop their water resources for irrigation, power generation and even drinking. It can be seen, however, it is much more popular in developed countries as their main concern is the efficient management of their already developed water resources. In so-called developed countries, water management issue has become one of the conflict areas as the water demanding sectors, namely stakeholders, have increased with also increased quantities as opposed to the degrading resources available to use. Therefore, integrated water resources management concept has long been spelled as a compromising tool to achieve an acceptable solution for the parties involved. If achieved, this would present an efficient regulation of a large portion of national economies of the states as water resources management covers quite a large variety of activities as mentioned previously. This article discusses the issues of integrated water resources management with its possible links with sustainable development with the brief discussions related to both sustainable development and integrated water resources management. 352 �Sustainable Development Any article on sustainable development (SD) cannot disregard mentioning the first and the most widely accepted definition given by the so-called Brundtland Report (Brundtland, 1987) as follows: “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Since the Brundtland Commission first defined the concept of sustainable development, much discussion has been made on the concept on scientific, technical, economical and even political platforms. From the overtwenty-year SD history, it could be possible to find many other definitions for it. Above all, it can be regarded as a reaction to what it may be called “wild development” that had been observed before. The aim was to transform the wild nature of development into the one that was acceptable by the weak. The weak are the society including the future generations and the ecology. Therefore, an acceptable development, e.g. sustainable development, should consider and integrate the social, environmental and economic issues as depicted in (Fig. 1) (The President’s Council on Sustainability, 2010). As shown in (Fig. 1), a development considering social and environmental issues could be bearable; the one with social and economic considerations could be equitable and the solution with environmental and economic ones could be viable. However, if it is to be sustainable, it should consider social, economic and environmental issues. A sustainable solution is such a solution which • • • • • • incorporates the environment and the economy, protects ecosystems and health of the society, meets international obligations, promotes equity, prevents environmental pollution, and respects for nature and the needs of future generations (Economic Development Agency of Canada, 2006). To achieve such a development, an integrated approach to planning and making decisions which considers environmental and natural resource costs of different economic options and the economic costs of different environmental and natural resource options is normally required (The President’s Council on Sustainability, 2010). Having formulated such an integrated approach, it is necessary to articulate detailed principles and control measures to direct the action plans to sustainability. The action plans are equally important elements of achieving sustainable development and should be built based on the specific features of the issue and by the participation of the parties that will be affected. Figure 1. Issues in Sustainable Development, taken from The President’s Council on Sustainability (2010) 353 �Integrated Water Resource Management As for sustainable development, it is quite possible to find fancy verbal definitions for integrated water resources management (IWRM). One could be taken from web-based Water Encyclopedia (http://www.waterencyclopedia.com) as follows: “Integrated water resources management is the practice of making decisions and taking actions while considering multiple viewpoints of how water should be managed.” The above definition is illustrated by the same encyclopedia in (Fig. 2). As seen in (Fig. 2), IWRM describes a process of managing water resources in an integrated manner taking into account the views of parties involved such as the stakeholders, governments and interest groups to achieve certain purposes and services using the knowledge provided by several scientific disciplines. The following quotation (GWP TAC, 2000) well describes the IWRM process: Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare (in an equitable manner) without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. This process involves the holistic coordination and management of natural systems and human activities, which create the demands for water, determine land use and generate waterborne waste. The concept of IWRM is somewhat new and as such it was built over more-than-half-century bad water management experience. As such, it can be regarded a response to the problems encountered in water management, which has become a major conflict area where several sides are competing for the same quantity of water. Figure 2. IWRM process, taken from http://www.waterencyclopedia.com. Achieving IWRM requires the organization of water industry accordingly. Since water resources and the bodies demanding these resources spread in a certain geographical area, IWRM should normally be “place-based” or “enterprise-based”, dealing with a particular location (Clark et al., 2002). River basins have long been regarded as the spatial unit of water management. However, this should be disputed as the river basins are not isolated from each other in terms of both the origin of water resources and the close interactions among the human activities in neighboring basins. Whatever spatial unit is accepted, the main issue is to set appropriate institutional arrangements towards achieving the IWRM, where the big challenge lays. It is unfortunate to say that there are not many countries that have organized its water industry accordingly although there have been several international initiatives such as water framework directive of European Union. From the discussion provided above, it can be paradoxically said that water resources are expected to be managed in a manner that those who demand for water including the ecological environment should be made 354 �happy. Expectedly, this is absolutely impossible. What should/can be done is then to reach a compromising arrangement by which everybody could be a little bit happy. Experiences have shown that such a compromising solution can only be achieved by the participation of all parties. That is, a participatory approach should be followed to set up the practices for IWRM. Technical experts can, in this regard, present available methodologies or acceptable plans/programs to the sides involved. There is also another issue that should be resolved, which is what mechanism will be used to get together the sides or who are the sides. This is a case-specific issue that should be considered carefully. Probably, a perfect mechanism will not be established; but any mechanism for this purpose will somehow work and the outcome will yield much better proposals. Concluding Discussions on IWRM and Sustainable Development The discussions provided separately on SD and IWRM have uncovered that what both IWRM and SD try to achieve is by and large the same. Sustainable development is a little bit older than IWRM. It is also broader and does not exclude any human activity. It has something to say for every development process. As such, it is much more difficult to materialize SD although it is also much more popular than IWRM. In other words, it will require much more time to have “sustainable” development activities. Unlike sustainable development, IWRM is a little bit restricted to a specific area, water resources, and tries to realize much more efficient and helpful water management. Since it deals with water issues, there is much more chance to realize the IWRM purposes although there are several challenges to be overcome (Grigg, 2008). The world-wide experiences have shown several good examples such as fully privatized but highly regulated British water industry. Since water is a natural monopoly, water activities and water management accordingly affect almost every development issue. A better managed water industry will make positive impact on other sectors. Therefore, the water resources of a region or a country managed in an integrated manner will contribute the sustainability of other human activities. In this sense, IWRM can be regarded as a tool, use of which will add positive contributions to the sustainable development. From another point of view, IWRM is essential to sustain our water resources. If we continue to use water, which we do not have any other option, we have to think and explore the ways where the sustainability of our water resources is to be granted. References Brundtland G. H. (1987). Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Oxford University Press, page 54. Clark, W. C., Lebel, L., Gallopin, G., Jaeger, J.,Mabogunje, A., Dowdeswell, E., Hassan, M., Juma, C., Kates, R., Corell, R. (2002) in Science and Technology for Sustainable Development (Int. Council for Science, Paris), pp. 12–29. Economic Development Agency of Canada for the Region of Quebec. (2006). Sustainable Development Strategy 2007-2010. Montréal, Canada. Global Water Partnership Technical Advisory Committee (GWP TAC) (2000). IWRM. Publ. Global Water Partnership, Stockholm, Sweden. Grigg, Neil S.(2008) 'Integrated water resources management: balancing views and improving practice', Water International, 33: 3, 279 — 292. http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Hy-La/Integrated-Water-Resources-Management.html The President’s Council on Sustainability. (2010) Indiana State University Climate Action Plan, Indiana State University, USA. 355 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 452 Title A name given to the resource Integrated Water Resources Management: A Path to Achieving Sustainable Development Author Author Yurdusev, Mehmet Ali Tezcan, Tekin Abstract A summary of the resource. Water resources development is one of the most important national development factors for developing countries whereas it is a service sector issue in developed countries. Water management has become one of the conflict areas as the demand for water increases while the resources available degrade. As a solution to this, integrated water resources management has been proposed to make tradeoffs among the parties involved. This article discusses the issues of integrated water resources management with its possible links with sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/168472ae4c541ef22fe0afad692ef67e.pdf 960f51b64e4a8e44d7581572d4736553 PDF Text Text The Greening Desert Of Karapinar: An Example from Turkey Ali Ihsan Yildirim Soil and Water Resources Research Institute Laboratory Agricultural Engineer, Meram, KONYA-Turkey alyld@hotmail.com Aysen Akay Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Soil Science,Campus Konya-Turkey aakay@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract:In Turkey, there is an area of 465.913 hectares which is subject to wind erosion. 103.000 hectares of this area is in the Karapınar district of Konya province. The Karapınar district of Konya faced the risk of emigration in the 1960s because of reasons such as that the region was an old lake bed and the climate of the region was extremely hot, soil properties etc. The soils lost their yield capacity, the dunes rose, clouds of dust and sand storms made life difficult for the people living in the area as the result of erosion in that period. Because of these problems, the first studies started in 1962. An area of 160.000 decares was taken under control. As the result of approximately 47 years of improvement practice, which constitutes the topic of this paper, today, activities aimed at research and production are also being maintained in Karapınar. Key Words: Desert, dune, improvement practice, sand storms, wind erosion. Introduction Agriculture is practiced on the 28 million hectares of the 78 million hectares total area of Turkey. The lack of the development of a sustainable agricultural policy and the human effect have caused a decrease in organic matter, resulted in the loss of soil aggregation and the dispersion of soil structure, and also, together with bad climatic effects, caused the occurrence of wind erosion in cultivated areas. Wind erosion in Turkey is commonly seen within the borders of Konya, Niğde, Kayseri province, which is located in the southern part of Central Anatolia, and Kars province in the east, both of which are areas under the effect of an arid and semiarid climate (Anonymous 2007). Karapınar county of Konya is located in the most arid region of Turkey with the lowest precipitation; consequently, it is most affected by aridity and desertification. For this reason, the first disaster related to the problems of aridity, climatic change and desertification experienced in our country occurred in this region. In Turkey, wind erosion is observed as a problem varying from light to severe on an inland dune area of 465.913 hectares. Approximately 70% (322.474 hectares) of this area is located within the borders of Konya province (Anonymous 1975), and 103.000 hectares of this area are located in the Karapınar district of Konya. This area constitutes the 22.1% of the area of wind erosion throughout the country (Yıldırım 1999). Reasons for the Occurrence of Wind Erosion in Karapınar In the 1960s, the people living in the Karapınar district of Konya were at risk of emigrating from the region as the result of the wind erosion that occurred in that period. There is an inland dune in the South-Southwest of the district which covers an area of 4000 hectares. 546 �The soils lost their yield capacity and sand dunes occurred as the result of erosion; it was observed that clouds of dust rose and cars on the Konya-Adana Highway were dragged and the paint of the cars was totally or partially damaged. Children could not go to school because of sand storms, machines did not work, and the incidence of ear-nose-throat diseases increased among the people. Winds that cause erosion in this region blow from the South-Southwest, and it was determined that the wind speed reached 110 km/h in the month of March in 1962(Anonymous 2007). We can list the primary factors that cause wind erosion to be effective in the region as follows: This region was an old lake bed, therefore, the lake dried and the dunes that were on the base of the lake rose to the surface, the climate of the region is extremely hot and arid, animal husbandry was highly common and excessive grazing was practiced in the pastures, some plants (Astragalus micracophalus,Salvia cryptantha, Verbascum mucronatum ) which the animals did not like but supported the soil were pulled out by the people and used as fuel, pastures were destroyed, the use of disk ploughs which overturned and broke the soil increased erosion in the region where fallow-cereal rotation system was implemented, and the district is located in an active wind zone. Characteristics of the Wind Erosion Area of Karapınar Karapınar is located on Konya-Adana Highway and is 95 km from Konya. The population of Karapınar is 31.913 according to the 2007 census. The altitude of the district is 995 m above sea level and its area is 3030 km2. Geological Characteristics: In Central Anatolia, there are several sand beds located near Karapınar. The dune systems were altered during the late Pleistocene and Holocene period. The main dune system located in the south of Karapınar was formed as the result of the coastal winds that were caused by the withdrawal of the old lake. The climate changes that occurred during the Holocene period caused the sand to move inland, afterwards, sand movements started as the result of human activity (such as extreme pasturage, becoming poor of soil) (Demiryürek et al. 2007). Climate Characteristics: The climate of the region is semiarid; summers are arid and hot, and winters are cold and snowy. The large part of the snowfall occurs in January and February. The annual average precipitation is 275 mm, and 40% of the precipitation falls in the months of winter. The average precipitation from July to September is 15 mm. Long term climate values of the study area are given in Table 1. The annual precipitation for 2008 is 232.1 mm (Anonymous 2009). Months Climate data I Mean Temp. o C -1.8 II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII -0.8 4.2 11.1 14.8 18.7 22.4 22.1 17.2 11.0 5.9 0.4 Max Temp.oC 19.6 20.5 25.5 31.4 36.0 36.8 41.2 38.4 36.2 33.2 25.3 18.4 Min. Temp. oC -21.4 -26.8 -22.8 -8.0 -2.3 3.1 5.0 4.5 -3.3 -6.4 -15.0 -21.2 Precipitation (mm) 29,9 27,6 28,5 39,6 38,9 25,5 4,6 2,7 7,5 22,6 27,5 39,5 Moisture (%) 78 75 69 62 62 53 48 47 51 63 75 79 Mean wind speed (m/sec) 2.97 3.21 3.36 3.31 2.66 2.92 3.29 3.09 2.46 2.34 2.61 2.86 Wind Max direction and speed ( m/sec ) SSW 27.3 SW 29.0 SSW 28.8 SSW 32.7 NNW 23.1 ENE 23.0 NNW 20.2 NNE 28.0 S 32.0 NW 19.8 SSW 21.8 SSW 27.7 Table 1. Long term climate values of the study area (between 1983-2006 years) (Anonymous 2009) 547 �In the erosion area of Karapınar, the most important factor that affects erosion is the wind, and the dominant direction of the wind is north-east and south-west. Mean wind speed is between 2.34 - 3.36 m/sec. Stormy days are common and the wind speed reaches 20-32 m/sec on those days (Table 1). Soil Characteristics :Although the soil belongs to the group of alluvial soils which is formed over old lake deposits, colluvial, sierozem and regosol soil groups are also seen in Karapınar, where wind erosion studies are conducted. The soil color of the plow layer is light gray and light brown and the lower parts are pale yellow and white. The soil texture is generally light (loamy sand) in the top soil, and heavy (clay) in lower layers. Soils are rich in lime and potassium and poor in organic matter and phosphorus. Some characteristics of the study area soils are given in Table 2. Dept h (cm) San d (%) 0-15 68.1 15-30 57.2 30-60 31.0 60-90 16.0 90120 12.5 Silt (%) 15. 1 22. 7 28. 0 24. 4 42. 3 Cla y (%) Textur e Class Field capacit y (mm) Volum e weight (g/cm3) pH (1/2.5 ) EC(mmhos/cm ) (1/2.5) 25oC 16.6 SL 23.3 1.10 8.1 20.1 SCL 32.9 1.09 43.0 C 79.6 59.6 C 45.2 SiC (%) Organic matter (%) 0.62 44.7 1.9 8.1 0.45 48.6 1.6 1.01 8.2 0.45 53.5 1.5 88.6 1.06 8.3 0.85 54.6 1.3 85.7 1.18 8.0 1.10 53.3 1.2 CaCO 3 Table 2. Some characteristics of the study area soils (Anonymous 2009) Studies Conducted to Improve Problematic Areas The first step taken against erosion in the district was establishing an association with the name “Association for Saving Karapınar from Erosion” in 1959. Afterwards, studies were started by Mülga Topraksu (the Directorate General of Agriculture) in 1962. First, a team was formed of technical personnel and an area of 160.000 decares was taken under control by being enclosed with wire fence.Then, 30.000 decares of this area was assigned to the Armed Forces to be used for military purposes. The remaining 130.000 decares area was divided into four sections based on the problems observed. Soil improvement practices started on this area considering the degree of the problem. Mülga Konya Topraksu VI. Region Management (The Directorate General of Agriculture) maintained its studies continuously for 10 years and when the improvement studies were completed, the area was assigned to Konya Institute of Soil and Water Research Directorate in 1973 to be used for protection control, research and production studies.Today, 43.000 decares of this land is given back to farmers and studies are continued in the 87.000 decares under the control of the government (Yıldırım 1999). The studies conducted on these areas are as follows: Sand Dunes (Dune Barkhan) Area(40.000 decares):This area is located to the south west of the district 7 km from Karapınar. The size of the area is 40.000 decares. The severest erosion effects were observed in the area in the 1960s. Sand dunes with heights of 41 m, widths of 50 m and lengths of 240 m, which are shaped like the moon and completely look like a desert, have been formed in the area. These dunes are inclined at a rate of 517% to the direction of the wind and 20-48% to the other directions. The dunes in this area have the characteristics of moving with the lightest wind. The dunes that move with the effect of the strong winds started to threaten the district by digging up the Ketir Hill, which is covered with 15 hectares of basalt rocks. The improvement study conducted on this area was carried out in two subsequent stages. a.Physical measures Construction of Bamboo Screens: First, bamboo screens were constructed on the sand dunes in order to decrease the speed of the wind and prevent the movement of the sand. These bamboo screens were woven with two lines of wires running perpendicular to the blowing direction of the wind leaving parts of 40 cm uncovered at the top and bottom tips. During the fixing process, the screens were supported with wooden posts at every two meters in order to prevent the collapse of the screens with the effect of the wind. 548 �b.Cultural measures Grassing: After the bamboo screens were constructed and the speed of the wind and the movement of the sand completely stopped, the process of grassing the spaces between the screens started. Weed seeds collected from the pastures around the region were used in grassing the area and also rye (Secale sp.) and wheat grass (Agropyron elongatum), which are known to be resistant to aridity and hot conditions, were extensively used as crop plants. Afforestation: After the area between the bamboo screens was grassed, afforestation studies started as a long lasting precaution in order to completely prevent soil movements. Saplings obtained from the nursery gardens established in the area and from other regions were planted and grown between these screens. The types of trees selected for afforestation were oleaster(Eleagnus sp.L), acacia(Robinia pseudeaccacia), ashen(Fraxinus sp.L), elm(Ulmus sp.L) and maple(Acer sp.L) since they are trees which are resistant to aridity peculiar to the area. The Active Dune(Barkhan) Area(25.000 decares):There were some plants peculiar to the region which were not eaten by animals and were resistant to aridity on this area, which was known to be a high quality pasture a long time ago. Dunes have accumulated around these plants and formed hills with heights of 0.3-1.2 m and widths of 0.2-2.00 m. The inclination of these hills is 30-60% to the direction of arrival of the wind, and 5-19% to the direction of the wind. These plants are Salvia cryptantha, Astragalus micracophalus, Alhagi camalorum and Artemisia sp. .Such areas were enclosed with wire fences during the implementation of the improvement practices. Following the enclosing process, the existing plants were reproduced through self-pollination and other plants were reproduced through grafting. As the result of the studies, today, the soil is completely covered with vegetation and natural flora has been reestablished. Flat Soils Sensitive to Erosion(26.000 decares):This area is composed of agricultural lands on which no vegetation exists, and which was formerly used for dry farming and abandoned because of erosion. 14.000 decares of this area are privately owned lands where erosion prevention practices have been successfully performed and the owners have resettled. Agricultural activities are still being carried out on this area under the control of the government. Today, agriculture is performed through band seeding along paths of 40-60 m width vertical to the prevailing wind direction on the 10.000 decares of the remaining land and fallow-cereal rotation system is implemented, as is done under the conditions of Central Anatolia.Approximately 2.000 decares of land has been irrigated and vineyards and orchards peculiar to the region have been planted on the land. This part of the area is used as a demonstration site for fruit production, and there are also nursery gardens and pasture seed production facilities in the area. Ketir Hill (10.000 decares):Before the implementation of improvement practices, this area was covered with basalt boulders and there were not any trees on the hill. After the erosion studies were conducted and sand movements were stopped, plants such as blackthorn, wild almond and blackberry started to grow on the area. Furthermore, almond seeds (700.000 pieces) were planted on the foot of the hill during the practices. Currently, pine and cedar trees are being planted on the hill. Current Land Use Planning The following improvement practices are implemented on the remaining 87.000 decares of land, which is under the government control: The areas where the problem has reemerged are afforested, practices are performed for the trial of new irrigation techniques, the activity areas of newly drilled wells are widened, and new orchards and sapling production practices are established. The current status of land use is as follows (Table 3): 549 �Status of Land Usage Woodland area Basaltic area Vineyard, garden, orchards and sampling generation areas Nature grass pasture Band seeding(dry cultivation ) Watery cultivation Total Area(decares) 40.000 10.000 2.000 25.000 5.000 5.000 87.000 Table 3. The current status of land use(Anonymous 2009) The plants that were determined in the study conducted on the approximately 30.000 decares of pasture area which is under protection in Karapınar Station of Soil and Water Resources Research Institute are as follows: Festuca ovina (29.8%), Centaurea virgata (17.6%), Euphorbia kotschyana (10,1%), Alhagi pseudalhagi (5,9%), Astragalus microcephalus (5,0%), Scabiosa argentea (4,6%), Scorzonera cana (3,4%), Centaurea urvillei (3,4%) and several other plants at smaller rates (TAGEM 2007). With these plants, the pasture area has acquired the characteristics of a typical arid climate pasture. Conclusion As the result of the studies conducted to prevent the Karapınar District from being moved to another location, the problem has been solved at a cost less than almost a quarter of the moving cost. The project is highly important in terms of presenting the new agricultural techniques to the farmers living in the region and increasing the agricultural value of the land by means of new irrigation wells and canals. Previously, the project area often caused traffic jams and accidents over an 8 km part of the Karapınar Highway when strong winds blew. All of these problems have been solved as the result of the erosion prevention practices. A farmer training camp was organized within the project studies and the workers of the farms were trained on irrigated and dry farming. Groundwater surveys that were conducted at the start of the project studies were found to be favorable and the wells drilled based on these surveys were used for sapling production and irrigated farming. Today, the number of wells is over 5000. Beet-wheat crop rotation system has started under irrigated conditions. Animal feed products such as clover and trefoil, vegetables, fruit, even strawberry is produced in the area. A forestland of 4000 hectares covered with trees has been a good shelter for wild animals (such as fox,rabbit, grouse and nightingale) . Acknowledgment Authors thank to Dr.Cetin Palta and Agr.Engineer Mustafa Okur from Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya for contributions. References Anonymous (1975).Bulletin of Topraksu statistics , Köyişleri ve Kooperatifler Bakanlığı, Topraksu Genel Müdürlüğü. Ankara (in Turkish). Anonymous (2007).Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, General Directorate of Agricultural Research, Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya ,Yeşeren Çöl Karapınar”(in Turkish). Anonymous (2009).Republic of Turkey,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,General Directorate of Agricultural Research, Soil and Water Resources Research Institute of Konya -2009 data.(unpublished). Demiryürek , M., Okur, M. and Taysun , A.(2007).Karapınar rüzgar erozyon sahasında rüzgarla hareket eden sediment miktarı ile yüksekliğinin yıl içerisinde dağılımı ve toprak özellikleriyle kuru agregatlar arasındaki ilişki üzerine mevsim etkisi. 550 �Proje No:Tagem-BB-Topraksu-2007/30, Republic of Turkey,Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,General Directorate of Agricultural Research,Konya (in Turkish). TAGEM (2007).Ulusal Mera Kullanım ve Yönetim Projesi(in Turkish). Yıldırım, A.I.(1999).The Greening Desert Karapinar. in Cereal Symposium, June 8-11,1999, Konya, pp.440-448(in Turkish). 551 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 599 Title A name given to the resource The Greening Desert Of Karapinar: An Example from Turkey Author Author Yildirim, Ali Ihsan Akay, Aysen Abstract A summary of the resource. In Turkey, there is an area of 465.913 hectares which is subject to wind erosion. 103.000 hectares of this area is in the Karapınar district of Konya province. The Karapınar district of Konya faced the risk of emigration in the 1960s because of reasons such as that the region was an old lake bed and the climate of the region was extremely hot, soil properties etc. The soils lost their yield capacity, the dunes rose, clouds of dust and sand storms made life difficult for the people living in the area as the result of erosion in that period. Because of these problems, the first studies started in 1962. An area of 160.000 decares was taken under control. As the result of approximately 47 years of improvement practice, which constitutes the topic of this paper, today, activities aimed at research and production are also being maintained in Karapınar. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f2c32dda8270814eac5929226185212.pdf 076280a8696401d30f72f12308ecceb3 PDF Text Text Effects of Various Fibres in a Thin Biocomposite Material Semiha Yenidoğan Marmara University Faculty of Technical Education Department of Printing, Goztepe Campus Goztepe, Istanbul, Turkey,, semihayavuz@marmara.edu.tr Cem Aydemir Marmara University Faculty of Technical Education Department of Printing, Goztepe Campus Goztepe, Istanbul, Turkey,, cemaydemir@marmara.edu.tr Arif Karademir Kahramanmaras Sutcuimam University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Product Engineering Bahcelievler Campus Kahramanmaras, Turkey arifkarademir@yahoo.com Abstract: There are a number of methods for producing biocomposite materials for different purposes. Wet lying methods are widely used in utilising especially short cellulosic fibres which offers random mixing and formation of homogenous filtrate over a travelling web. The method also contains wet pressing and controlled drying stages for achieving maximum fibrefibre bonding. Fibres having different chemical compositions and physical properties behave differently in moving/draining suspensions which often give bad formation and heterogeneity in produced materials. Nevertheless, various fibres with different desirable properties are required to be finely blended in a suspension for getting targeted materials. This study investigated the effects of various fibres in a thin cellulosic material. It was aimed to see the possibility of using some short fibres, regarded as waste materials, in producing thin cellulosic matrix. Keywords: Waste fibres, wet formation, cellulosic composites, tensile strength. Introduction Paper is probably one of the oldest thin biocomposite, the production of which is dated back to 105 BC. Tsua Lun, a Chinese scholar, initially boiled ramie, hemp and also later the inner bark of mulberry tree (kozo) to liberate the fibres. The pulp slurry, diluted fibre suspensions, was originally filtrated on a coarsely woven cloth and dried in the sun. The cooked rice water was also added into pulp slurry and/or applied to the surface of dried sheet to impart strength. The main principal in papermaking is actually not so changed since its first invention, but the technological movements are tremendous. Today, some modern papermills run at a speed of 120 Km/hour. The demand for raw materials is also fundamentally changed which forced the papermakers to search some alternative fibre resources as it was only nonwoody plants, waste robs and fabric before twentieth century. It was around 1850’ies when paper industry had to turn to forests and woods as main fibre resources. Since then, the demand for paper and many paperbased products has been increasingly growing. The types of paperbased products are also remarkably increased compared to its early use. The paper is in all parts of our daily life now (Kocurek, 1983; Smook, 1992). Currently, paper recycling and search for alternative fibre resources take great attentions from industry and scientists. The waste paper recycling is reported to supply around 42 percent of world pulp demand. Pulp made from non-woody plant is unfortunately recorded to be only 4 percent of total world pulp consumption (Hurter and Riccio, 2006). The figure was quite big and significant in some parts of the world in the past. In Chine and India, for instance, wastes from agricultural activities were utilised to produce up to 73 and 56 percent of countries total pulp consumption respectively for some time ago (Tutus and Karademir, 2002). There have 787 �been numerous studies published on subjects dealing with the optimum pulping conditions of alternative fibre sources for paper making (Sharifah and Ansell, 2004; Tutus and Eroglu, 2004; Copur, Tozluoglu and Karademir 200). In the papermaking process, huge amount of water is used. System actually works with water as the paper is simply made through wet formation. In terms of formation quality, the behaviour of fibres and other ingredients in slurry are crucially important. Homogenous distribution of components in the slurry should be maintained. Mechanical properties of end-products depend on the both fibre strength and interfiber bond strength (I’Anson et al, 2006). Some dry and wet strength additives are used to produce stronger paper. In this study, some alternative fibrous materials (ceramic fibres, wools, wastes from yarn production and cotton dust) were used in the production of a thin board as biocomposite. The main focus was given on the changes of sheet strength. The findings are thought to offer useful information to those working in similar areas. Experimental Materials and Methods Fibres Ceramic fibres, wool, yarn wastes and cotton dusts were used as alternative papermaking materials in this study. The control sample and main matrix with blend of alternative fibres was made of pulp obtained from old corrugated board. Materials were firstly cut in 3 cm length, soaked in water overnight and beaten for 2 minutes in a PFI mill in accordance with Tappi T 248 sp-08 method. Cotton dust was not beaten as it was already in quite small sizes. Handsheets Making and Testing Pulp slurries were prepared at % 0,5 consistency and control sheet was made from pulps of old corrugated boxes at a grammage of 100 g/m2 according to Tappi 205 sp-95 method. Alternative pulps used were blended with control pulp at %15 and %30 levels and various thin biocomposites were produced by wet formation. Sheets were conditioned in accordance with Tappi T 402 om-88 method at 23±2°C and 65±2% relative humidity for at least 24 hours before testing. The tests done to determine some physical properties of sheets were tabulated with relevant standards as below (Table 1). Tests Standarts Beating/Pulping Tappi T 248 sp-08 (PFI method) Handsheet making TAPPI T 205 sp-95 Paper Conditioning TAPPI T 402 om-88 Air permeability (ml/min) TAPPI T 460 Tensile index (Nm/g) TAPPI T 494 om-88 Breaking length (m) TAPPI T 404 om-87 Burst index (kPam2/g) TAPPI T 403 om-91 Table 1: Tests and methods followed during papermaking and analysing. Results Pulp Suspension and Sheet Formation Fibres from softwoods are named as long fibres while those obtained from hardwoods are regarded as short fibres. Length of long and short fibres would be on average 3 mm and 1.5 mm respectively. Long fibres contribute sheet strength while short fibres give smoother and denser sheets. It is known that long fibres tend to get entangled and form floks of big fibre groups in a suspension at a higher speed compared to those of short 788 �fibres. Therefore, the consistency of long fibre suspension must be adjusted at quite low level to be able to have a well distributed stock, hence a good formation. It is noted that all fibres used in this study negatively affected pulp suspensions giving cloudy apperance and heterogenous clumpy fibre groups. Alternative fibres were actually beaten to get an extra fibrillated surface that was in favour of homogenous suspension and also stronger sheets. Differences between fibres such as density, wettability, length, physical structure gave heterogenous suspension. Cotton dust was noted to be well mixed with control pulp out of all studied here. It was attributed to the smaller fraction of cotton dusts and similar structures to wood fibres. The effects of fines like cotton dust were studied by some researchers in details (Retulainen et al, 2002; Lin et al, 2007; Xu and Pelton, 2005). Ceramic fibres were broken down to filler after mechanical action in a lab disintegrator hence were used like fillers. Air Permeability Addition of alternative materials in controlled pulps resulted in significant reductions of sheet air resistance as seen in figure 1. Ceramic fibres in the form of filler were noted to reduced air resistance lower then all other materials. Wool fibres on the other hand remarkably reduced the air resistance of sheets. Result suggests that all materials added to control pulp disturbed the formation quality of sheets. The higher air resistance value of control sheet indicates the firm and dens fibre matrix. Whereas the structure seems to be loosen up and become fluffy as a result of especially wool addition. Wool fibres probably interfered with wood fibre bonding and made them in a sense separated giving a permeable material. 2800 Cotton Dust Air Permeability (ml/min) Ceramic Fibre 2300 Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 1800 1300 800 300 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 1: Fibres added increased the air permeability. Mechanical Properties Tensile index, breaking length and burst index values of all sheets were plotted in figure 2, 3 and 4 respectively. As it is clearly seen in figures, the addition of alternative materials studied here dramatically reduced the mechanical strength of resultant products. It is believed that the alternative fibres did not develop any significant internal bonds between both themselves and fibres of control papers. Furthermore, they actually interfered with fibre-fibre bonding. 789 �30 Cotton Dust Ceramic Fibre Tensile Index (Nm/g) 25 Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 20 15 10 5 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 2: Tensile index was badly damaged with fibre blends. Out of all materials studied here, the highest reduction in sheet strength was noted with the addition of wool fibres. Negative effect on strength by the addition of cotton dust was recorded to be smallest compared to the changes due to other fibres. Differences between the effects of yarn fibre and cotton dust were believed to be mainly due to the particle sizes. The chemical composition of both yarn and cotton dust are not so different since they are compost of almost pure cellulose molecules. The sizes, however, were significantly different as yarn was made of long cotton fibres and cotton dust was quite small in sizes as such it can be regarded as fine in a real papermaking environment. There are various reports on the effects of different fines on paper strength (Retulainen et al, 2002; Lin et al, 2007; Xu and Pelton, 2005). Fine improves paper smoothness and air resistance if retained and evenly distributed in paper structure. It may develop paper strength too if it has plenty hydroxyl groups. Cotton dust in this case did not improve the sheet strength. It suggests that the bond strength between fibres in control pulp were greater than that developed between both cotton dusts and fibres in controlled sheets. 3500 Cotton Dust 3000 Ceramic Fibre Breaking Length (m) Yarn Wastes 2500 Wool Fibre 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 % Fibre Blend 790 45 �Figure 3: Fibre blending reduced the breaking length in a great deal. Cotton Dust 1.80 Ceramic Fibre Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 2 Burst Index (kPam /g) 1.55 1.30 1.05 0.80 0.55 0.30 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 4: Fibre blending destroyed the burst index value of control sheet. Wood fibres from softwood and hardwoods have been extensively used in the production of paper, board and fibreboards in wet forming system. The strength of end products depends on both the strength of individual fibres and interfiber bond strength. The latter is governed by the amount of hydrogen bonds to be developed between fibres during pressing and especially drying stages (I’Anson et al, 2006). Therefore fibres having ability to form hydrogen bonds can contribute strength of end products. It would be said that the materials used in this study did not produce enough hydrogen bonds either between themselves or between fibres of controlled pulp. In such situation, extra bond enhancer must be used such as starches, resins and bonding agents. Conclusion Four materials, ceramic fibres, wool, yarn wastes and cotton dusts were studied to find out if they may be used in the production of thin biocomposites like paper, board and fibreboard in wet lying system. The materials were blended with control pulps at two proportions as %15 and %30 and a number of sheets were formed. Attention was especially given to the changes of mechanical properties of sheets as a result of material blending. It was in general found that all material used here remarkably changed the sheet properties. The sheets air resistance and three mechanical strength values were greatly reduced. It is suggested that in order to increase the formation quality of blended pulps, the fibres should be made in similar sizes. Dry strength agents must be also used if the mechanical strength properties are important for end users of such products. Acknowledgement This research was partly carried out under the Project (No:2003/2-7) granted by Kahramanmaraş Sutcuimam University (KSU), Kahramanmaras, Turkey. Authors sincerely thank to KSU for this support. References Copur, Y., Tozluoglu, A. and Karademir, A. (2007). Pulping of Licorice (Glycyrrhiza Glabra): An Alternative Raw Material to Produce Pulp. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology, 41 (2-3), 155-159. 791 �Hurter, R. W. and Riccio, F.A. (2006).Why CEOS Don’t Want to Hear About Nonwoods or Should They?. Nonwood Fiber Symposium, TAPPI Proceedings, Atlanta, USA. 1-11. I’Anson, S. J., Karademir A. and Sampson, W. W. (2006). Specific Contact Area and The Tensile Strength of Paper. Appita Journal, 59 (4), 297-301. Kocurek, M. (1983). Pulp and Paper Manufacture, Volume 1, Properties of Raw Materials and Their Preparation for Pulping, Ed. Kocurek, M. Joint Textbook Commitee of The Paper Industry, TAPPI, Georgia. Lin, T., Yin, X., Retulainen, E., and Nazhad, M. M. (2007). Effect of Chemical Pulp Fines on Filler Retention and Paper properties. Appita Journal, 60 (6), 469-473. Retulainen, E., Luukko, K., Fagerholm, K., Pere, J., Laine, J., and Paulapuro, H. (2002). Papermaking Quality of Fines From Different Pulps-The Effect of Size, Shape and Chemical Composition. Appita Journal, 55(6), 457-461. Sharifah H.Z. and Ansell M.P. (2004). The Effect of Alkalization and Fiber Alignment on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Kenaf and Hemp Bast Fiber Composites: Part 1-Polyester Resin Matrix. Journal of Composite Science and Technology, (64), 1219-1230. Smook, G.A. (1992). Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technologists, Angus Wilde Publication, Vancouver. Tutuş, A. and Eroglu, H. (2004). A Practical Solution to the Silica Problem in Straw Pulping. Appita Journal, 56 (2), 111-115. Tutuş, A. and Karademir, A., (2002). Production of Paper and Boards from the Agricultural Wastes Generated in Southeast Anatolian Project Area (GAP), Proceeding of 4th GAP Engineering Congress, Volume:2, Sanlıurfa, Turkey. 1327-1332. Xu, Y., and Pelton, R. (2005). A New Look at How Fines Influence the Strength of Filled Papers. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 31 (3), 147-152. 792 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 629 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Various Fibres in a Thin Biocomposite Material Author Author Yenidoğan, Semiha Aydemir, Cem Karademir, Arif Abstract A summary of the resource. There are a number of methods for producing biocomposite materials for different purposes. Wet lying methods are widely used in utilising especially short cellulosic fibres which offers random mixing and formation of homogenous filtrate over a travelling web. The method also contains wet pressing and controlled drying stages for achieving maximum fibrefibre bonding. Fibres having different chemical compositions and physical properties behave differently in moving/draining suspensions which often give bad formation and heterogeneity in produced materials. Nevertheless, various fibres with different desirable properties are required to be finely blended in a suspension for getting targeted materials. This study investigated the effects of various fibres in a thin cellulosic material. It was aimed to see the possibility of using some short fibres, regarded as waste materials, in producing thin cellulosic matrix. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22113fc3de192a7f7f0eeb9c280bb8e0.pdf f35b06ce45fdbfa1b04dffca9d96950a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Turkish Index and Subject Classification of the Words Used in Makbul-i Arif Şefika Yapici International Burch University, MA Student, Sarajevo sefikayapicibosna@hotmail.com Abstract: In this study, general information has been given about Makbul-i Arif (Witness of Potur)- Turkish-Bosnian Verse Dictionary-then the dictionary part was rearranged according to Turkish index. Bosnian counterparts are shown in Turkish index by taking into account the alphabetical order. The importance of this work is due to the fact that it has been the first and only Bosnian-Turkish verse dictionary ever. To classify the words used in this book is important to see the use of daily language. By classifying the word in glossary section according to subject classification, we tried to make more concrete words used in social and daily life in this century. Keywords: Bosnian-Turkish Verse Dictionary, Mehmet Hevai Üsküfi, Makbul-i Arif. Cultural Relations has begun after the conquest of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Fatih Sultan Mehmet in 1463. And thus, Bosnia and Herzegovina has become an integral part of Ottoman history and it was adjusted to the Ottoman culture in all areas (education, culture, customs and traditions). The first studies of classical Turkish literature were presented in 15th century (Kaya, 2008). Bosnian literature until today has continued its existence in two ways; Turkish literature written with Ottoman letters and Bosnian literature written with Arabic letters. The language used in this literature (Alhamiyado Literature) is the language of former Bosnian colloquial language. In this area mostly eulogies, hymns and stories were written. Makbul-i Arif is considered as the first example of this area (Okumuş, 2009:824). There is no enough information about the life of Mehmet Hevai Üsküfi. Makbul-i Arif includes some information about the poet. The name of the poet is Mehmet (Muhammed) Bosnevi. He was born in1601in Dobrinja village near Donja Tuzla. Seems to have good education, Üsküfi knows Turkish, Arabic and Persian. It is clear from the verses in introduction part that he was in the service of Ottoman Palaces about 20 years and lived in the Sanjak of Zvornik for 10 years (Okumuş, 2009).Üsküfi’s most important work is Makbul-iArif (Potur Şahidi). It was written in 1631 and dedicated to IV. Murad. Üsküfi wrote Makbul-i Arif for the villagers. Later on ‘Mevlana’s Şahidi, Ibrahim Dede’, who transcribed this work, changed the name of the book as the Potur Şahidi probably inspired by the book Tuhfe-i Şahidi (Lugat-i Şahidi) in 1515 (Okumuş,2009:826). It seems that Makbul-i Arif, which was written in 17th century, is the first and only Turkish-Bosnian verse dictionary. One of the studies on Makbul-i Arif is the article of Alija Nametak (Nametak, 1968). In 2001 this article was published by Tuzla Dervish Susić Library. (F.Nametak, 2001). In this article, Alija Manetas established the life of Hevai and Bosnian poems, focused on existence of Bosnian words and critisized only the edition of the glossary. (Okumuş, 2009:827). Also a few scientific articles about Makbul-i Arif were published such as Mehmet Hevai Üsküfi by Nedim Filipović1, one article of Adnan Kadrić (Kadrić,2001) and dictionary studies of Kerime Filan (Filan,2000). Besides his verse dictionary, he has some poems. In his Bosnian poems, we can see the effect of especially Turkish, Arabic and Persian languages. There are mülemma featured poems, too. But none of them is known. Mostly he wrote lyrical poems and gave importance to the shape and content. Makbul-i Arif Mesnevis consist of two sections; Turkish introduction and dictionary6. In introduction part, after the formula (In the name of God), Hamdele and Salvele, it was mentioned shortly how the writer decided to write the poem, which method he used, Bosnian with Latin alphabet, thanksgiving and prayer for reaching Sultan Murat, giving name to his work and asking for prayers from the readers(Okumuş,2009:832). There is no epilogue in his work. In dictionary part, there are 13 poems and they are separated by Arabic titles. The poet has not followed the traditional methods and instead of giving bahir and meter of the poem, he used Turkish, Arabic, Persian and Bosnian counsel, verses and proverbs. Some of them are: ‘read, write, work hard and don’t be unfortunate ’, ‘do a favour, and don’t be cruel’, ‘the one who runs away is not brave’. From these statements we understand that one of the purposes is to give advice. When we focus on the words used in dictionary part, we can see most of them are about social life of that time. It was classified by Turkish index and subject classification(Okumuş,2009:833). 480 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Turkish Bosnian Dictionary As mentioned before Alija Nametak, who worked on Makbul-i Arif (Nametak, 1968), emphasized the existence of Bosnian words and prepared verse dictionary in Bosnian index. In this study we have re-prepared Makbul-i Arif in Turkish index. Baş :Glava Çakmak –ognjilo Başak: klâs Çalışmak:raditi A Acımak : žaliti Bay: Bogat, Bogati Çam ağaçı: Ad: ime Baykuş – sova Çamur :kal,kalu Adam :Čovjek Bazılmak: onesvijestiti se Çamura batmak : Adamın tırnak: nokat Behil –lakom Çanag : zdila Adet: običaj Benimdir --:on je moj Çanak kim ağaç olsa –:kotao Ağaç ibrik : žban Bereket –:korist Çarık –opanak Ağaçtan topuz: batina Beş – pet Çavdar – raz Ağız: usta Beş yüz --:pet stotina Çaylak:piljužin,poljuzin Ağlamak: plakati, plakat Beşik –kolijevka, Çekişmek –karati,karat Ağrır: bolyeti, boli kolivka,kilovga Çember – Ak: bilo Bez —postava,potav Çerge :koliba Akar: teče Bıçak –nož Çıban,Çıpan : čir Akıl: pametan Bıyık :Brk Çıbuk (çubuk) – prut Aksırmak: kihati, kihat Biç –kositi,kosi Çıfçı (çifçiye) : težak Aksi: glavnja Biçem –žito Çıkal : gocnovalj Al sende: uzeti Bin – hiljada Çınar :javor Alçak-nisko, nizoko Bine : uzjahati Çıplak : go , golo , pogresno Aldanmak Bir:jedan,jedno, kolo Alın :Čelo Bit : uš Çıra – :luč Altı: šest Biz (bize ) : šilo Çift:orati,ori Altın: zlato Bizim – Çilek:jagoda Altmış: šezdeset Boğulmak : utonuti Çit:plot Ana --mati, mama Borç – dug Çivi –:klin Anar: šipak Boyunduruk:jaram Çoban – govedar Araba: kola Böcek — puz Çömelmek, çöklemek: čučati, Ardıç: smreka Böyrülce --:pasulj čučat Arı(temiz):Čisto Böyüğe : velika D Armut: kruška Brebre sana, brebre sende – Dağ : gora Arpa: jecam :more ti Darı (tarı) :proso Aş ermesi :Ćuda Bucak –:kut Degismek :promijeniti,prominit At: konj Buga –:bik Değirmen:mlin Ates(e) : varta Bugün – danas, danaske Delik : šupalj Ateş –oganj Buğday : psenica Demet-- snop Ateşsiz kömür: ugljen Bulut –:oblak Deniz:more Atı nallatmak: Burun –nos Dere : rijeka Avcı –lovac Buz –led Deri:koža Avrat(kadın) : žena Buzak (buzağa) : tele Derin : dubok, duboko Ay –mjesec Bülbül – Slavic Deve:kamila Ayak –noga Büyüklenmek: ponositi se, Devlet : Ayı --medvjed, medved ponosit Diken : trn Ayıblamak -rugati se C Dikmek: sasiti Ayva: tunja Can : Duša Dil:jezik Cenat ; pucany Dilenci :prosjak B Baba : ćaća,čača Cennet : raj Dink (e) – stupa Baca: komin Cenneti : rajnik Dinlemek : ćutjeti ćuti, Bagça: vrt Ciharşenbe –srıjeda Dirlik : život Bağla – zavezati Cin – sotona Dirsek:lakat Bakır, bakra,bakara –:mjed,mid Cuca –:megaš(malesan) Diş : zub Bal :Med Cuma:petak Diyren : vile Bal mumina : vosak Cumartesi – subota Diz:koljeno,kolino Balığı satan : ribar Doğdu ; rodi Ç Balığı tutan – čaplja Çağırmak – vrečati Dökmak : tkati Balık, balığa –riba Çağırmak –zvećat Doksan : devedest 481 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Dokuz : devet Dolama(elbise) : haljina Don : gaće , gače Don yağı:loj Doyumluk : dobitak , dobit Dökmek:izbiti,izbit Dökümlü:otkati ili,utkati,Utkan Dört: Döşeğ : otelja Döyme(döğme): puca Dud:murva Dudak : usna Duman:magla Dur:ostati,ostani Düğün:babine (svadba) E El :ruka Elemye : vitao Elini salmak:mahati,mahat Elli:pedeset Elma :jabuka Elma atışmak :jabukati,jabukat En : sjahati Erkec :praz Esir – sužanj Eşek:magare Et :meso Etek : skut Ev :Kuča Ev işi : domaćin Evlenmek:oženiti,oženit Eyer : sedlo F Fakir : siromah Fal açmak : vračati Ferişte:anđel Feryad:jaukati,jaukat Fıçı :kaca,kadca Fındık:lješnik,lišnik Fırın:peć G Gebe kadın: zbana žena Gel, Gele : hoditi, hodi Gelin:nevjesta,nevesta Gemi:lađa Getir : donjeti, donesi Geydi:obući,obuče Geymek:obuti,obut Gezinmek : hodati, hodat Gir,gire:pesta,pusta Göbek : pupak Gökler:nebesa Göl:lokva Gömlek:košulja Güc:mučan,mučno Gügüm : trnjina Gül : ruzica Gülgen:bukva Gümüş—srebro Güneş – sunce Güreşmek, güreşmek :hrvati se , hrvat Güven : gagrica Güvercin : golub Güyeği : zet Guzel kari:lipo žena Güzel:lip,lipo, Sen güzel sen:lip si ti H Haber :glas Hisar : grad (tvrđava Haşhaş:mak Hafta:nedjelja(sedmica,tjedan) Hasta:nemoćan,nemočan Halveti : sam sidjet Hamur : tisto Harman . vršaj Heybet . Vučina Hıdır Hekim:ljekar,likar, Hamis : četvrtak I Irlamak(şarkı söylemek):pjevati,pjevat Isırgan :kopriva Đ Đki : dva Đki yuz :dva stotine , dvije stotine Đki kat : dvostruk , dvostdiruk , dvoruk Đğne :igla Đplik:konac Đnek ,inege:krava Đsık ,isek : prag Đncir – smokva Đpek : svila Đz : trag Đp : uže Đnlemek:ječati,ječat Đşlemek K Kaçan : kad Kaçar:bježati,biži Kafir adı:Kosta Kafir:kaur Kahpa kadın:kurva žena Kalın : debel Kanat:krilo Kancık, kancığa:kučka,kuča Kapı : vrata Kar:snijeg Kardaş:brat Karga : vrana Kadın: Karınca:mrav Kaş:obrva Kaşık:kaşıka 482 Kaşık çalmak:kusati,kusat Katı ivmek : htjeti, hitit , hijetit Katır:mazga Katlanmağa:počekati,počekat,p očekaj Kavun, : dinja Kayın : šura Kayn ana:punica Kayn ata:punac Kaz : guska Kazmak:kopati,kopat Keçi:koza Kedi kovmak:pis Kedi:mačka Kel : šuga Kelebek:leptir,lepur Keleposa::kappa Kuzu:janje Kabak : tikva Kuşluk:rucak Kuyu:jama Kuzgun :gavran Kuskun:pohva Kenevir:konoplja Keser : tesla Keten:lan Kılıç, kılıca :sablja Kılısa:crkva,cirkva Kilitlenmek : zaklopiti Kilitlenmek: zaključati Kim : tko Kirk : četrdeset Kisraga:kobila,kobil Kiz ,Kizi:kćer,kćeri,kćera Kız kardeş (e):sestra Kız,yetişmiş kıza:moma kuşku:poluga Kızıl:carevina,crven Koç:ovan Koca kari:baba Koca::muž Kök :korijen,korin Kolan:poprug Kolay:lastan,lasno konag(konuga),konak (konaga) : gost Konaklar oldı : častila Konukluklar : častenje, častena Köpeğin içmesine(eygine):lokati,lokat Köpek::pas Köprü:most Kör:slip Kori : gaj Kütük:panj Kovan : uljište Kovar : tjerati Köy:selo Köylü:potur(tj.seljak) �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Koyun,koyuna:njedra Koyun::ovca Koz(ceviz):orah Küçmak : grliti, grlit Küçük:malenko,malko Kul:ropce Kulak : uho Kulluğ(pepeo) Kurbağa: žaba Kurt : vuk Kürek:lopata(plećka) Kuruk:kožuh Kurum : ćađa,čađa,ćadža Kuşak:pojaš L Lahana turşu suyu :rasol Lahana:kupus Levent:junak Lobut : toljaga Luzan(yer adı):Luzan M Makrama : rucnik Mantar:pečurka,pečur Maşa:ožeg Makber :Grob Meryem:marija Maşraba:bukara Meşe : šuma Maymun(muymul):kobac Mızrak :Džida,džira Mızrak :koplje,kopje Mor:modar,modro Mum :svijeća Murver :zobita Musekkek altın : dukat Mühür:pečat N Nacak:bradva Nagamat etmek(bağırmak) :predikati,pridikat Nakış : vez Nahoş:bolestan Nal :potkov,podkov Nekbeti : zloćesto O Ocak:ognjište Odun : drvo, drva Oğlak:kozle Oğlan Oğul : sin Okşamak : štipati Okşamak:miloviti,milovat Olsun : tere Oluk : žlijeb Omuz :rame On :deset On bin :deset hiljada Oruçlar :post,postanje,postila Otlik: sijeno Otur : sjesti Otuz : trideset Oyun:igra Ö Öpmek:poljubiti,poljubit Ördek:pakta Örulu:platen Öfürmek(üfürmek) : puhat Ön saçina:kika,kafa Öğender:otsan Ölmiş:mrtav P Padişah:car Papaz:pop Parmak :prst Pazardune Pelid : hrastovina, astovina Pencer : prozor Pener,penir :sir Peri : Vila pire:buha Pire otu:paprat Pişer:peći,peće Pirinç : oruz R raf:polica S Saçlar:kose Sadaka vermek:podati,zadušupodat Sağ: desno Sağar:musti,muze Sağdık,Sağdıç : kum Sağır : gluh Sakal:brada Sakın : čuvati, čuvaj Sakız -- smova Saksağan : svraka Salı : utornik Salınmak : šetati Saman Sana benzer:kao,kano ti Sandık:kovčeg Sargısına.sargina:obojak Sarhoş:pijan Savurmak:izvijati,izvijat Say:izbrojiti,izbroj Sehi:blag sehil,ehli:pitom,pitomo Sekiz:osam Seksen:osamdeset Sel :potok Semiz :pretil Sen vur : udriti Senevber:jela Senin : tvoj, tvoje Serhad:krajina Sıçan:miš Sıçramak : skakati 483 Sihir : šurka Sinek:muha Sinir : žila Sırık,siriga:motka Sizin : vaš Soğan:luk Söğüt – vrba Sol:lijevo,livo Soğuk : zima Soyu sopu güzel kadin: Plemenit Soyun : rodbina Söyut,kara söğüt : rakita Söz : rijec Su : voda Sual etmek:pitati,pitat Süme,seme: zalud Süküt etmek : Sende Süpürge:metla Süpürsen Sürmek,zürek sürmek:litati, Litat Süt:mlijeko,mliko Satış yapmak:Trgovat Sarı : žut Sana benzer: Ş Şunu kal Şadır : šator Şahin –sokol Şalgam –repa Şarap : vino Şaşkın: mahnit,mahnito Şeftalu –praska Şerbet,şerbeti –medovina Şeytane : vražji Şimdi –sada Şlama T Tabut:nosilo Tahta biti – stjenica Tan yeri: zora Tan yıl ız : danica Tanrı:bog Tarak : grablje Tarla:njiva Tasma(ya):oputa,oput Taşak:mudo Tauk esmesine (ismesine) čeprkati Taul:bubanj Taun:kuga Tavsan:zeč Tavuk,tauga:kokoš Tay : ždrijebe Tazi : hrt (vrsta psa) Tekne :korito Tencere:kotlica �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Testere:pila Teyze : tetka Tilki:lisica Tırnak:kopito Tırpan:kosa Tez(acele etmek) : htjeti ,hitit Tohum :sjeme Top:lubarda Topal Tosun:june Toz ;prah Turna : ždral Turunç:narandža Tutrak : trud Tutun : dim, dima Tuz -- so, soli Tüfenk : puska U un:mlivo unutmak: yaboraviti uzun : uçmak:poletjeti,poleti Ü üvey kız:pastorka üç yüz : tri stotina üç : tri V velilik satan:prorok,brorog var (do) lan :prtljati Y Yabani Yağ:mast Yağmur:kiša Yak : užeći Yakın:blizu Yanmak : gorjeti , gori Yaprak:list Yaralı : ranjen Yarasa:babq(slijepi miš) Yarım: pola Yassı: širok Yaş ot: trava Yavuz: ljut Yay: luk Yedi: sedam Yel: vjetar, vitar Yem: zob Yeme: jesti, ne jedi Yen: rukav Yenge: kuma Yengeç : rak Yenmek:nadjačati,nadjačat Yeşil : zelen Yetmiş : yetmis Yıldırım : grom Yirmi : dvadeset Yoğurmak:kuhati,kuhat Yoğurt:kisela,(mlijeko) Yol : put Yol arası:međuput Yolcu : putnik Yorulmak : umoriti se Yulaf:ovas,ovsu Yumruk : šaka Yumuşak:mehak,mehko Yuriş Yuvarlanan top:kotur,(konur?) Yük : tovar Yüksek : visoko Yürek: trbuh Yürü: ići,idi Yüz -- sto Yüzmek: pliva Yüzük: prsten Z Zagar: vižle Zahid -- sofi Zalim: nakomica Zevle: teljig Zindan: tavnica Zulm:sil Classified Section In Makbul-i Arif (Potur Şahidi), after giving Bosnian meaning of the words, classified section is formed. While classifying the words, numbers, days, agriculture, livestock and livestock-related terms, human and human-related terms, religious terms, plants, fruits and vegetables, names of objects, colors, beverages and natural events are put in two groups. According to the subject classification of the words is as follows: Bin Kaynana On bin Kaynata Numbers Bir Çift Kız Đki Yarım Kız kardeş Üç Yetişmiş kız Dört Kardas Religious Terms Beş Bay Üvey kız Altı Cennet Akıl Yedi Cenneti Alın Sekiz Cin Ayak Dokuz Oruç Baş On Papaz Bıyık Yirmi Şeytan Burun Otuz Tanrı Dil Kırk Dilenci Elli Dirsek Human and Human-related Altmış El terms Yetmiş Ağız Gebe kadın Seksen Oğlan Göbek Doksan Yenge Hekim Yüz Oğul Kas Đki yüz Ana Kel Üç yüz Baba Kulak Beş yüz Kayın Omuz 484 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Parmak Saçlar Sağır Sakal Tırnak Topal Colors Ak Sarı Turuncu Yeşil Kızıl Eşya Đsimleri Altın Gümüş Đplik Kapı Mum Süpürge Pencere Maşa Yay Top Sırık Çanak Drinks Lahana turşusunun suyu Su Şalgam Şarap Süt Şerbet Days Bugün Salı Ciharşenbe (Çarşamba) Hamis (Perşembe) Cuma Cumartesi Hafta Animals and animal related terms Çoban At Arı (temiz) Atı nallatmak Ayı Bal Balık satan Balık tutan Balık Baykuş Böcek Bülbül Buzak Çaylak Deri Deve Eşek Et Güvercin Đnek Kanat Karga Karınca Katır Kaz Keçi Kedi Kedi kovmak Kelebek Koç Köpek Köpek içmesi Kovan Kurbağa Kurt Kuzu Maymun Oğlak Ördek Pire Saksağan Şahin Sıçan Sinek Tavşan Tavuk Tay Tazı Tilki Tahta biti Tosun Yengeç Turna Yem Isırgan Đncir Lahana Kavun Pirinç Soğan Söğüt Yaprak Arpa Çınar Meşe Koz Yaş ot Mantar Kenevir Nature-related terms Ateş Ay Dağ Deniz Dere Duman Gökler Göl Yağmur Yıldırım Kar Bulut Güneş Sel Yel Toz Fruits-Vegetables-Plants Armut Ayva Ağaç ibrik Bağça Elma Diken Çilek Çam ağacı Buğday Başak Tohum Kabak Fındık Gül 485 Adjectives Alçak Aksi Gebe kadın Güzel kadın Güzel Büyük Uzun Şaşkın Uzak Yakın Derin Verbs Acımak Ağlamak Dinlemek Đvmek Ağrımak Aksırmak Aldanmak Ayıblamak Bağlamak Bazilmak Büyüklenmek Çağırmak �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Çağırmak Çakmak Çalışmak Çekişmek Çömelmek Değiştirmek Dikmek Dikmek Doyumluk Dökmek Elin salmak Elma atışmak Evlenmek Fal açmak Getirmek Gezinmek Giymek Güreşmek Irlamak Đnlemek Đslemek Kaçar Kaşık çalmak Katlanmak Kazmak Kedi kovmak Kilitlenmek Kilitlenmek Kopeğin içmesine Kuçmak Ohşamak Öpmek Sadaka vermek Sakin Salınmak Savurmak Say Sıçramak Sual etmek Sukut etmek Sürmek Tavuk esmesine Üfürmek Yanardı Yeme Yenmek Yoğurmak Yoruldu Yuvarlanan top Yüzmek 486 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results: As a result of the classification; 1. Spoken language was preferred in the verse dictionary. 2. While choosing vocabulary social and economic structure of the age occupies primary importance. 3. The dictionary includes an important part of words concerning the daily life issues of the time such as livestock, fruits and vegetables, plants, nature and numbers. References Boşnakça Sözlük (2006) (Boşnakça-Türkçe, Türkçe-Boşnakça), hzl. Sahir Bayhan Ankara. Filan, Kerima (2005) O Jednom-Sporadıncnom Rukopısu na TurskomBosanskom ANALI Gazi Husrev- Brgove biblioteke u Sarajevu, KNJIGA XXI-XXII, Sarajevo Mehmed Hevâî Üsküfî (2001) Makbûl-i Arif (Potur Sahidiya), (Haz. Fehim NAMETAK), Tuzla Derviş Susiç Kütüphanesi Yayınları Muhamed Hevai Üsküfi,giriş:Nedim Filipovic,hzl.Muhammed Hukovic,Ahmed Kasumovic ve Ismet Smailovic,Univerzal,(Bosna- Hersek)Tuzla 1990 Nametak, Alija (1968) “Tursko-Hrvatskosrpski Rijecnici” Jugoslavenska Akademija Znanosti i Umjetnost, odjel za Filologiju, Zagreb 1968, s, 231-380. Okumuş, Sait (2009) “Muhammed Hevâi Üsküfi ve Türkçe-Bosnakca Manzum Sözlüğü Makbûl-i Arif (Potur Šahidi)”, Turkish Studies, International Periodical For the Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic Volume 4/4 Summer Turska Leksika u Rijacniku Makbul-i Arifi Muhammeda Hevaija Uskufija”, ANALI, Gazi Husrev-Begove biblioteke u Sarajevu, KNJIGA XXIII-XXIV, 2005. 487 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 738 Title A name given to the resource The Turkish Index and Subject Classification of the Words Used in Makbul-i Arif Author Author Yapici, Sefika Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, general information has been given about Makbul-i Arif (Witness of Potur)- Turkish-Bosnian Verse Dictionary-then the dictionary part was rearranged according to Turkish index. Bosnian counterparts are shown in Turkish index by taking into account the alphabetical order. The importance of this work is due to the fact that it has been the first and only Bosnian-Turkish verse dictionary ever. To classify the words used in this book is important to see the use of daily language. By classifying the word in glossary section according to subject classification, we tried to make more concrete words used in social and daily life in this century. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d61d03b1aafc7f3a67cdbe086110883b.pdf 6547dee6b110d956593e645631f8d172 PDF Text Text Effect of Boronizing and Shot Peening in Ferrous Based Fecu-Graphite P/M Material on Fatigue Properties Selim Sarper YILMAZ Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School, Department of Machinery Turgutlu, Manisa, TURKEY bekir.unlu@bayar.edu.tr Bekir Sadık ÜNLÜ Celal Bayar University, Vocational High School Department of Machinery Turgutlu, Manisa, TURKEY Naci Kurgan Karabük University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Karabük, TURKEY kurgannaci@yahoo.com Remzi VAROL Süleyman Demirel University Engineering Faculty Department of Mechanical Engineering Isparta, TURKEY rvarol@mmf.sdu.edu.tr Abstract:Ferrous based materials manufactured by powder metallurgy (P/M) method are widely used in industry. These materials are very important in applications where no machining is required, can also be used as journal bearing material due to their self-lubricated property, and find applications in the medical industry. In this study, powder metal parts were manufactured from composites ferrous based FeCu-Graphite by P/M method. Fatigue test samples were carried out on manufactured samples receiving no treatment or boronizing treatment or boronizing+shot treatment. Fatigue properties of these parts were investigated by rotating bending fatigue test rig. Keywords: Powder metalurgy, Boronizing, Shot peening, Fatigue. Introduction Powder metallurgy is one of the methods used for used or semi-processed parts [1]. Because of higher melting temperatures of some metals, super alloy and hard metals must have been produced by powder metallurgy method [2, 3]. Mechanical properties of P/M parts depend on pore amount, distribution, type, size and form. As pore amount decreases, fatigue strength and the other mechanical properties improve [4]. Strength of machine parts is not as strong as that of conventional steels produced by powder metallurgy method [5]. In order to produce high density parts, high capacity presses or hot isostatic pressing method can be used. Thus, mechanical properties of P/M parts match mechanical properties of forging parts [1, 6]. Furthermore, powder metal materials exhibit different microstructure and density at various sintering conditions [7]. In addition to that, physical properties are affected from pore ratio. Porousity increase sound and vibration absorbution property. Therefore, a significant portion of powder metallurgy products is designed to take 54 �advantage of porousity into consideration [8]. Pore size and distribution are the most important parameters affecting mechanical properties [9, 10]. Boronizing is a thermo chemical surface hardening treatment that enriches the material surface in boron atoms via the diffusion of elemental boron into the surface of material in contact at high temperatures. Boronizing treatment is performed at temperatures of 950 0C for varying times between 1 and 10 hours. The characteristics of this boride layer depending on boronizing temperature, process time and properties of the boronized material. The boronizing elements placed into the heat resistant container and specimens are inserted into this powder [11]. The particle size of the powder is an important factor in the formation of the boride layer [12]. The advantages of boronizing treatment over the other types of surface hardening methods are that the surface layer is very hard, and no extra heat treatment is required after boronizing. The most important aim in boronizing is to achieve the desired hardness [13-15]. Fatigue resistance increases by boronizing. Therefore, boronizing can be applied to ferrous based P/M materials [1, 16]. Shot peening is an applied process where the surface of a machine part are treated with a lot of small spherical shot jet under controlled conditions. A compressive stressed layer occurs as a result of the nonhomogeneous plastic deformation on metal material by shot peening. The aim of the shot peening is to improve fatigue, corrosion fatigue, and stressed corrosion of metal materials [17-20]. Improving fatigue properties of materials are important because machine elements are generally exposed to dynamic loads. One of the methods used to improve fatigue properties of materials is shot peening. Shot peening process can be applied to any metal based machine part. However, surface hardness and quality increases with shot peening in P/M materials due to a decrease in the number of pores [21-23]. In this study, powder metal parts were manufactured from composites ferrous based FeCu-Graphite by P/M method. Boronizing and boronizing+shot peening was applied to samples. Fatigue properties of these parts were investigated. In addition; microstructural properties of fracture surfaces were investigated. Experimental Studies In this study, FeCu-Graphite composites 55x10x10 mm dimension were manufactured at 400 MPa pressure, 1120 0C sintering by P/M method. Non-boronized FeCu-Graphite (Group 1), boronized FeCu-Graphite (Group 2), boronized and shot peened FeCu-Graphite (Group 3) P/M materials were used. The chemical compositions of the materials used in the experiments are given in Table 1. Some basic properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder are shown in Table 2. Mechanical properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder are shown in Table 3. Chemical compositions of samples are shown in Table 4. Material SAE 1020 C 0.2 Si 0.25 Mn 0.7 P 0.04 S 0.05 Fe Based Table 1. Chemical composition of SAE 1020 steel disc (wt %). Grade ASC 100.29 Grade Dimension (µm) 20 - 180 Visible Density (g/cm3) 2.96 Flow (s/50 g) H2 Loss (%) C (%) 24 0.8 0.002 Table 2. Some base properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder. 55 Pressing (g/cm3) (600 MPa) 7.21 �Tensile Strength (MPa) 275 Yield Strength (MPa) A5 % Density (ρ) (g/cm3) Hardness (HV) 218 3.7 6.61 95 Table 3. Mechanical properties of ASC 100.29 iron powder. Powder Quantity (wt %) Graphite 0.2 Cu 3 Fe Based Lubricant (Zn-Stearat) 0.8 Table 4. Chemical composition of samples (wt %). The box boronizing method has been used for the boronizing process. The box was held in electric resistance oven for 4 h at 950 0C. At the end of the boronizing process, the box was cooled to room temperature and then the specimens were cleaned. R38.1 The microstructures were photographed using scanning electron microscope. Fatigue fracture surfaces were examined scanning electron microscope (Jeol JSM-6060). Dimensions of fatigue specimens are shown in Fig.1. Fatigue tests were applied to R=+/-1 under condition by using rotating bending fatigue test rig. Fig.1. Fatigue sample. Results and Discussion Fatigue Properties Results of fatigue properties were shown in Fig.2. Generally, fatigue properties of boronized specimens and boronized+shot peened specimens were higher than those of non-boronized specimens because of very hard boride layer. 56 �300 Strength (MPa) 250 200 Group 1 150 Group 2 Group 3 100 50 0 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000 Cycle Number (N) Fig.2. Curves of samples strength-cycle number (S-N). Tunay et al [6], Varol and Sarıtaş [10], Sarıtaş et al. [13], Selver et al. [20], Orman [21], and Başaran [22] have examined fatigue properties of boronized or shot peened ferrous based P/M materials. They reported that boronizing and shot peening significantly improved fatigue properties in these materials. Harada et al. [25] investigated effects of microshot peening on surface characteristics of high-speed tool steel. They reported increase of hardness by applying shot peening at high temperatures. Chawla and Dang [26] investigated fatigue properties of porous sintered steels. They reported that fatigue strength increased with a decrease in porosity. Pariente and Guagliano [27] investigated fatigue properties of carburized and shot peened gear steels. Mahagaonkar et al. [28] investigated fatigue properties of SAE 1045 and SAE 316L steels. Zhang and Liu [29] investigated fatigue properties of Ti alloys. Bouraoui et al. [30] investigated fatigue properties metal parts. They reported that fatigue properties were improved with high residual stress by applying shot peening. Microstructural Properties When microstructures of fatigue fracture surfaces of samples were examined by scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Figs. 3-6). Brittle fracture was observed in these PM samples due to porous structure. Thick, porous, and bright structure show brittle fructure of PM materials. 57 �Fig.3. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 1). Fig.4. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 1). Fig.5. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of B-FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 2). 58 �Fig.6. SEM microstructure of fatigue fracture surface of B+SP-FeCu-Graphite composite (Group 3). Tunay et al [6], Varol and Sarıtaş [10], Sarıtaş et al. [13], Selver et al. [20], Orman [21], and Başaran [22] have examined microstructure properties of boronized or shot peened ferrous based P/M materials. They reported that boronizing and shot peening significantly improved microstructural properties in these materials because of reduction in porosity. Tsuji et al. [24] investigated microstructural properties of plasma-carburized and shot-peened Ti–6Al–4V alloys. They observed and a lot of uneven dimples on the surface of shot-peened carburized specimens. They reported that the dimple size and depth of the surface was very small due to a fine particle shot. Micro-cracks were not observed in the near surface. The carbon diffusion layer was occurred as a thin whiter and brighter layer in the near surface region of shotpeened carburized specimen. Harada et al. [25] investigated microstructural properties of microshot peening on surface characteristics of high-speed tool steel. They observed that the distribution of white rings on the surface of the peened workpieces. Chawla and Dang [26] investigated microstructural properties of porous sintered steels. They observed plastic deformation and crack growth due to changes in porosity. Conclusions Based on the findings our study, the following conclusions can be drawn: 1. Fatigue properties of boronized specimens and boronized+shot peened specimens were higher than those of non-boronized specimens. 2. Brittle fructure was shown in PM materials. References Başaran, A., “Shot peening mechanical surfaces processes in P/M parts”, Süleyman Demirel University, Master Thesis, 2003. Bouraoui, C., Sghaier, R. B., Fathallah, R., “An engineering predictive design approach of high cycle fatigue reliability of shot peened metallic parts”, Materials and Design 30 (2009) 475–486. Bozkurt, N., “Surface hardening by boronizing in steels”, PhD thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey (in Turkish), 1984. 59 �Çalışkan, C. “Powder Metallurgy”, Istanbul Technical University, Under Graduate Thesis, 2000. Chawla, N., Deng, X., “Microstructure and mechanical behavior of porous sintered steels”, Materials Science and Engineering A 390 (2005) 98–112. Demir A., Sarıtaş S., “Mechanical properties of powder metal steels”, Akdeniz University, Douib, N., “Fatigue of inhomogeneoues low alloy P/M steels” Powder Metallurgy, Vol. 32, No: 3, 209-214. pp. 1989. Engineering Faculty, Journal of Mechanical Engineering, (7) 1-13, 1993. evaluation under industrial processing conditions”, Materials Sci Forum, 299-300, pp. 356-363, 1999. ferrous based PM parts”, PhD thesis, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey (In Turkish), 2004. Göy, Z., “Boronizing”, Master thesis, Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey (in Turkish), 1984. Harada, Y., Fukauara, K., Kohamada, S., “Effects of microshot peening on surface characteristics of high-speed tool steel”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 201 (2008) 319–324. Justino, J. G., Bernardini, P. A. N., “Self-Lubricating Bearings: Microstructural and dimensional Kostilnik, T., “Wheel abrator Corporation”, Surface Engineering, ASM Handbook Vol. 5, 1994. Lawley, A., “Atomization, The Production of Metal Powders”, MPIF, Princeton, 1992. Mahagaonkar, S. B., Brahmankar, P. K., Seemikeri, C. Y., “Effect on fatigue performance of shot peened components: An analysis using DOE technique”, International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 693–702. Mathuschka, A. G., “Boronizing”, Carl Hanser Verlag, München Wien, 1980. Meriç, C., Sahin, S., Yılmaz, S. S., “Investigation of the effect on boride layer of powder particle Metal Society, s.147-157, Birmingham, 1981. Orman, Ş., “Investigation of effects of shot peening parameters on fatigue behavior of SAE 1020 steels”, Gazi University, Master Thesis, 1999. Özsoy, A., “Improve of boron layer properties, transite zone and main matrix in boronized steel”, P/M parts”, Gazi University, I. Inter Conference of Powder Metallurgy, pp. 407-418, Ankara, 1996. Pariente, I. F., Guagliano, P. M., “Contact fatigue damage analysis of shot peened gears by means of X-ray measurements”, Engineering Failure Analysis 16 (2009) 964–971. PhD thesis, Anadolu University, Eskişehir, Turkey (in Turkish), 1996. Sarıtaş, S., “Fatigue of surface treated powder forged steels”, Heat Treatment 81, The Sarıtaş, S., Varol, R., Doğan, C., “The effect of shot peening on the fatigue properties of steels” Euro PM 97, Proce. of Advance Structural PM Compenent Production, Munih, Germany, October 15 – 17, 1995. Selver, R., Boylu, K. S., Varol, R. “Effect of shot peening and boronizing process on some properties of P/M steels materials”, Süleyman Demirel University, Journal of Science, 8-1 (2004) 141-144. size used in boronizing with solid boron-yielding subbstances”, Materials Research Bulletin, (35) 2165-2172, 2000. steels parts” 3. Conference of Powder Metallurgy, pp. 1221-1228, Ankara, Turkey (In Turkish), 2002. tribological properties in journal bearings”, PhD thesis, Celal Bayar University, Manisa, Turkey (In Tsuji, N., Tanaka, S., Takasugi, T., “Effects of combined plasma-carburizing and shot-peening on fatigue and wear properties of Ti–6Al–4V alloy”, Surface & Coatings Technology 203 (2009) 1400–1405. Tunay, R., F., Varol, R., Yılmaz, S., S., “Effect on mechanical properties of boronizing in P/M Turan, H., Sarıtaş, S., “Manufacturing of metal powder by gas atomization”, Machine design and production conference”, 21-23 Eylül 1994, METU, Ankara. Turkish), 2004. 60 �Ünlü, B. S., “Determination of usability of boronized ferrous based materials as bearing and Varol R., Sarıtaş S., “Effect of shot peening treatment on fatigue properties of ferrous based Varol, R. “Effect of different shot peening parameters of 2024 aluminum alloy on fatigue life” PhD thesis, Selçuk University, Konya-Turkey, 1990. Varol, R., Meriç, C., “Shot peening: Therocial and applications”, Eng. and Mech., 1992, 34 (405), 15-22. Yılmaz, S. S. “Effect on physical and mechanical properties of surface hardening treatments of Zhang, X., Liu, D., “Effect of shot peening on fretting fatigue of Ti811 alloy at elevated temperature”, International Journal of Fatigue 31 (2009) 889–893. 61 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 329 Title A name given to the resource Effect of Boronizing and Shot Peening in Ferrous Based Fecu-Graphite P/M Material on Fatigue Properties Author Author YILMAZ, Selim Sarper ÜNLÜ, Bekir Sadık Kurgan, Naci VAROL, Remzi Abstract A summary of the resource. Ferrous based materials manufactured by powder metallurgy (P/M) method are widely used in industry. These materials are very important in applications where no machining is required, can also be used as journal bearing material due to their self-lubricated property, and find applications in the medical industry. In this study, powder metal parts were manufactured from composites ferrous based FeCu-Graphite by P/M method. Fatigue test samples were carried out on manufactured samples receiving no treatment or boronizing treatment or boronizing+shot treatment. Fatigue properties of these parts were investigated by rotating bending fatigue test rig. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/663709da883c11d7f531a46e995369c2.pdf f8fb0071090c8927084ff82ab78ad421 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Assessing International Accounting Harmonization Using Izomorfism Erdal YILMAZ 19 Mayıs University Finance And Account Lecturer erdalyilmaz1971@hotmail.com Okan GELMEDĠ Sakarya Univeristy Finance And Account Ph.D. Student okangelmedi@hotmail.com Abstract:The purpose of this study is to tell the convergence process which is being tried to be created by using the izomorfism concept with the standards of international accounting and financial reporting about accounting records and financial reporting throughout the country. Convergence is the activity in which accounting and related sections work together with the purpose of contributing to the developement of a team of accounting standards for every country to be able to use them globally. However, in the studies done in this concept direction it is seen that, by ignoring the differences between countries and the negativenesses resulted form county dynamics, these studies gradually turn into the shape of an obligatory izomorfism. Obligatory izomorfism concerns the way in wich organizations are subject to external pressure, either from organizations they depend upon, or from more general cultural expectations. We think that , as a result of these applications, in the future the regulations that each country will form by adding their own dynamics will come out and the applications will be similar, not the same. Key Words: Harmonization, Accounting Standards, Financial Reporting, Ġzomorfism Introduction Particularly the acceleration of mutual business traffic worldwide and the intention of businesses to operate in countries other than where they are based made it compulsory for all countries to develop a common accounting language. This is why the convergence efforts, which are described as the identification of accounting practices or the collaboration efforts of accounting-related organizations with the aim of developing new standards that will contribute in creating a set of uniform accounting standards that every country can use on a world scale, have started. To achieve this, accounting committees formed worldwide started publishing International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). As the national legislation should support the published standards in order that they can be implemented, they are adopted as national standards by countries. However, cultural differences between various countries have rendered the standard application goal of the standards inaccessible. The Study With the increase in international investment activities and rapid circulation of capital globally, global economy gained an important acceleration on the one hand while the capital holders started enjoying higher profitability on the other. Firms bound to the international market with an expectation of better profits are bearing the costs largely while making investment decisions. Particularly because the financial indicators relating to the investment area or financial statements of companies are prepared based on varying accounting systems and practices in individual countries, investors were required to bear significant costs during the decision-making process and make various conversions in order to test the accuracy of such financial data and render them understandable for themselves. One of the efforts conducted aimed at reducing said costs of investors are the efforts to narrow the differences in the accounting systems of individual countries. This is because the losses and costs borne by global capital holders for their decisions in the countries they invest in made the accuracy of financial statements in invested countries questionable. ( Gönen,Uğurgel:p.1) This is why convergence eforts have started today as a non-returnable development process. (Moussa,2010;p.1) IASB, FASB, and other standard-setting organizations describe the concept 621 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo of convergence as increasing the conformity of the standards of each organization for high quality financial statements. To ensure this standardization, these organizations set and publish accounting standards, and the countries adopt these standards sometimes with minor changes but as a national accounting standard most of the time. That is, the intent, which was the convergence, meaning quality financial reporting, has become uniformization aiming to comply fully with the standards published. However, the evolution of standards in the form of uniformization gradually puts accounting practices away from the socio-economic realities of the country. To illustrate; while business transactions in certain countries are made beforehand, they are mostly done at fixed future times in countries like Turkey. In which case, the impacts of accounting standards regarding the recognition of term differences shall vary from one country to the other. Moreover, many problems are encountered during the stage of application of standards. This is because accounting practices have become different in all countries for different reasons. The main reasons underlying the differences in the accounting systems of countries are listed below: -Legal System -Sources of Finance -Political and Economic Development -Economic Crises -Taxation -Securities Exchange -National Culture -Inflation -Reconciliation of Accountants Demanding that accounting practices become completely the same and trying to pump an excessive optimism is a vain effort in the face of existence of many differences caused by the above reasons in the accounting systems and practices worldwide. Even though a uniform accounting system is achieved as a result of efforts shown for the standardization of these efforts, the outcomes might not be as desired. This is because the interpretation and application of standards by countries with differing accounting cultures will naturally vary. Despite this fact, the convergence efforts conducted so far bear a continuous quest for uniformization. Uniformity is full compliance with a structure or rule. Uniformity aims to realize international accounting as a uniform purpose at the conceptual level and practical level. .(Çankaya,Aydoğan,2008,p.302) It may be remarkable to see the standards adopted by many countries despite the presence of so many reasons. However, the question we should ask is: Is convergence a practice that countries are willingly into? Or have the countries really adopted the standards in consideration of the positive effects of accounting standards on accounting practices? For us, convergence is essentially a uniformity imposition of global conditions in its current practice. At this point, we see this imposition as compulsory isomorphism. Isomorphism, meaning identity of form, means the organizations working in the same framework having identical conditions and resulting in the formation of similar structure and actions, and making similar arrangements as a result of similar restrictions. However, in compulsory isomorphism, organizations are pressurized by external pressures, general (cultural) expectations, and other organizations. ―From this point of view, adoption of international accounting standards emerging within the frame of convergence efforts as a whole by many countries may also be considered compulsory isomorphism.‖ (Rodrigues,Craig:2007,p.743) For example, the reasons underlying the adoption in Turkey as a whole of international standards published by standard-setting organizations (its creating isomorphic conditions by necessity) are as follows: 1-Globalization: Currently puts Turkey as well as the entire world into type concept of convergence. 2-EU Negotiations: While chapters are opened and closed in The process of Turkey‘s accession of the EU, the standards are accepted with the thought that it will result is support as there is a desire to ensure harmony with Europe on all matters in Turkey. 3-Desire to Increase Foreign Investment: Because Turkey is a developing country, there is a desire for increasing the capital build-up in the country and ensuring economic enhancement. Standards are being adopted to facilitate the procedures of capital holders that will invest in Turkey, and to assist in evaluating the companies they will buy, and this will is reflected in the Turkish Commerce Code currently being discussed by the Turkish Grand National Assembly. 4-Pressures from the Business World: Turkish business world asks the adoption of standards on grounds that it trades and collaborates most with the European countries With these and such other reasons, many countries are adopting the international standards ―by necessity‖ as their national standards. For example, the desire to increase foreign investment is a desire of not only Turkey but of other developing countries as well. On the other hand, all countries desirous of attracting foreign investments try 622 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to see the same capital holders in their countries. That is, as in the definition of isomorphism, developing countries are aiming the same capital, and as can be easily imagined, that the other developing countries take measures aiming to reduce the costs and increase the trusts of such capital holders and, for example their adoption of international standards, putting Turkey into an isomorphic practice and resulting in the Turkish translation of the international standard and its publishing as a national standard. When doing this, general expectations are pressurized and led by the business world and capital holders. This shows the necessity dimension of the isomorphic practice. Problems Of Convergence And Proposal For Solution: The process of convergence continues in the entire world with various problems. The main problems of the process are mainly as follows: (1) Problems on interpretation, (2) Language related problems, (3) Problems on technical terminology (terminology problem) (4) Problems relating to changes in profit measurements, (5) The role of capital markets, (6) Political influences.(Demir,2009,p.5) With IFRS‘s published in the convergence process, the aim is to increase liquidity, level of transparency, international collaborations and fund collection abilities from international markets, reducing funding costs, preservation of competition and contributing to the efforts aimed at creating an economic union. Standards to serve this aim should offer principle-based, dynamic, abstract-priority dependent solutions, suitable for all conditions and businesses. (Gönen, Uğurgel, p.1)However, as mentioned above, there are many problems preventing the formation of standards with such principles. For example, the understanding and desire that the standards should be principlebased does not match Turkey‘s accounting structure. Turkish accounting system has a tax-based approach, the legislator prepared its accounting regulations on tax basis and principle-based in parallel with this. However, as mentioned above, expectations and coercions have put Turkey in a position to develop isomorphic practices for principle-based standards. In fact, uniformity is the adoption of all other countries the accounting practice and reporting standards of several countries. Today, considering the economic effectiveness of capital-intensive countries, if we assume that capital-intensive -developed- countries will be more effective in these accounting practices and reporting, that is if we accept the standards as a common language, it is obvious that developed countries will inject more words into this language. It is clear that developing countries will use the language of the developed ones if the language develops in this manner. Just as a human being speaks his own language best, it should be able to arrange its financial reports first based on the needs of its own country. Speaking the uniformizing accounting language ―by necessity‖, and creating isomorphic practices, developing countries are negatively affected by this process. A situation might arise resembling the difficulty of someone speaking another language in his own country. This is because the developed countries where there are more capital holders have become an industrialized, professional and an informal society. Capital-holding countries mostly look alike one another. For example, an accounting convergence between Germany and France might not be rejected by both of these countries. However, trying to uniformize the accounting practices of Germany and Turkey will create different responses, also bringing many challenges. The economic structure of countries, and their abovementioned cultural differences will make it difficult to practice the same accounting system. For example, level of avoidance of uncertainties, one of Hofstede‘s cultural dimensions, is lower in countries with higher capital accumulations, which will make it easier to adopt new standards, as they are bolder and have risk-based understandings. So the best thing to do is to make efforts in order to minimize the differences between practices and systems. If the aim of convergence is to create a common language in accounting practices and financial tables and to speak that language, the only way to create a common language cannot be the convergence process aiming uniformization. In its place, ways should be considered that would minimize the differences among countries. Mutual recognition and reconciliation are some of the alternatives we can mention at this point. Mutual recognition expresses the acceptance of national financial reports although they are not prepared according to the accounting principles of foreign countries. Mutual recognition is in practice between USA and Canada. US companies may be traded in the Canadian Securities Exchange with US-GAAP‘-compliant financial statements. American companies can trade in the Securities Exchanges of European Union countries based on financial statements prepared in compliance with US-GAAP. Although mutual recognition is very well practiced in 623 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the case of Canada and the USA, the role of close economic and cultural ties between the two nations and the identity of standards and targets in accounting should not be forgotten. Reconciliation is the permission for preparation of financial reports of foreign companies according to the accounting principles of their countries. However, in reconciliation, reconciliation is established arrangements relating to net profit and equities, which are considered as the most important factor by users of financial statements. The purpose of reconciliation is to reveal the great differences arising between the accounting practices. Thanks to reconciliation, foreign investor companies can obtain information about their assets and profitability levels based on their own accounting principles. As a result of the reconciliation, investors can make easy comparisons. The positive side of reconciliation is that it is less costly than the harmonization of all financial reports based on foreign accounting principles. (Çankaya,Aydoğan, 2008,p.307-308) The concepts of reconciliation and mutual recognition also have negative aspects. The negative aspect of reconciliation are expressed to be its presentation of summary information relating to the financial situations of companies and its failure to make disclosures about the general conditions of companies. The negative aspect of mutual recognition is the difficulty that financial users might encounter in understanding different accounting standards. In fact, to remove such negative aspects, XBRL (eXtensible Business Reporting Language), supported for convergence, may be used. As the language of financial reporting, XBRL is a standard, platform-independent, digital data coding language to be jointly used by financial information producers and information users for data exchange. With this data coding language, businesses shall create their financial reports once and these reports shall require no rearrangement or conversion when transferred to other environments. It will be possible to use these XBRL-prepared financial reports for all financial report exchanges. XBRL permits coding any information about the business. So, loading information suitable for each financial statement item, financial statements complying with both international standards and national standards may be produced. Harmonization efforts in preparing financial statements should methodically reduce the difference between accounting practices and increase the comparability of financial statements prepared and practices in various countries. This will also contribute en reducing the overall difference between the countries. When the overall difference is reduced, problems in preparing and reading financial reports will also lessen. Conclusion Globalization is an inevitable reality directly affecting today‘s economic, social and political events. With globalization, capital movements went beyond national borders, continuously searching for and utilizing new investment opportunities in the international arena. That the accounting system is based on different principles and rules in each individual country produced difficulties in mating rational investment decisions. As a result, there has been the necessity for common financial reporting system valid in all countries and convergence efforts continued led by certain countries and organizations. Every country‘s accounting system differs based on factors like their social, political, financial, cultural etc. environment. Set of uniform financial reporting principles to be imposed disregarding these factors shall not give the intended outcome, with many countries being obliged to produce and bear the costs of financial tables not directly addressing their specific needs, as a price of attracting investments to a country. Instead, unnecessary differences between the accounting systems of countries can be removed, while other differences are being made identical by mutual recognition and reconciliation. With the appropriate use of solutions like XBRL, which has emerged with technological improvements, both the needs of international capital and countries intending to maintain their national accounting systems will be greatly met. References Çankaya,Fikret,Aydoğan,Ertan: The Harmonization Of Account Standarts Ġn Frame Of Cultural Differences. Atatürk Üniverstiy, Journal Of Social Sciences Institute, Vol. 11 No 1 (2008), P.299-326 Demir,Volkan: Financial Reporting Practices Relating Different Approaches, April,2009,P.73-92 Approach To Accounting And Auditing, Gönen Seçkin, Uğurgel GülĢah: The International Financial Reporting Standards And Practices Ġn Transition: Problems And Solutions, Ġn Turkey Http://Www.Tmsk.Org.Tr/Ġndex.Php?Option=Com_Content&Task=View&Ġd=82&Itemid=92 , Access Date:09/05/2010 Moussa Boka, On The International Convergence Of Accounting Standards: Ġnternational Journal Of Business And Menagement, Vol.5, No:4; April 2010 624 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Rodrigues Lucia Lima, Craig Russell: Assessing Ġnternational Accounting Harmonization Using Hegelian Dialectic, Ġsomorphism And Foucault; Critical Perspectives On Accounting, 18 (2007),739-757 625 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 242 Title A name given to the resource Assessing International Accounting Harmonization Using Izomorfism Author Author YILMAZ, Erdal GELMEDİ, Okan Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to tell the convergence process which is being tried to be created by using the izomorfism concept with the standards of international accounting and financial reporting about accounting records and financial reporting throughout the country. Convergence is the activity in which accounting and related sections work together with the purpose of contributing to the developement of a team of accounting standards for every country to be able to use them globally. However, in the studies done in this concept direction it is seen that, by ignoring the differences between countries and the negativenesses resulted form county dynamics, these studies gradually turn into the shape of an obligatory izomorfism. Obligatory izomorfism concerns the way in wich organizations are subject to external pressure, either from organizations they depend upon, or from more general cultural expectations. We think that , as a result of these applications, in the future the regulations that each country will form by adding their own dynamics will come out and the applications will be similar, not the same. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory