43 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/60e8fe935dcf56b05fee731c94f03a24.pdf 990eb8bae54e88f253fe27e7d803a238 PDF Text Text Work-Scheduling Model for an Open Cast Coal Mine in Turkey with Integer Programming Necmettin Çetin Dumlupınar University, Faculty of Engineering Mining Engineering Department Kütahya/Turkey necmettin@dumlupinar.edu.tr Abstract: Tunçbilek Open Cast Coal Mine of Garp Lignite Enterprise (GLI) is located in Kütahya, Turkey and the overburden removal operations are carried out by using Truck/Shovel Systems which is faced with the problem of changing number of trucks due to equipment breakdowns. The maintenance of failed trucks are planned to occur at fixed scheduling days. It is required to determine the operating number of truck drivers for each operating shifts in a weekly planning horizon. A simple Integer Programming model is developed using LINGO software to determine the optimum number of truck drivers required to satisfy the variable number of trucks for each operating shift. The developed model schedules the trucks drivers optimally for each operating shift in a weekly scheduling period. Introduction Cyclic staff scheduling problems arise in a variety of service delivery systems including nurses in hospitals, baggage handlers in airlines, operators in telephone companies, etc. Many such systems operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week with demand for services varying in some daily or weekly pattern over each hour of the week. Full-time employees in these service organizations are often assigned to a prescribed 40-hour work schedule (eight hours per day, five consecutive days) each week Staff scheduling or rostering is the process of constructing work timetables for its staff so that an organization can satisfy the demand for its goods or services. It involves a number of hierarchical sub problems including demand modeling, shift design, days-off scheduling, lines of work construction and staff assignment. The first part of this process involves in determining the number of staff, with particular skills, needed to meet the service demand. Individual staff members are allocated to shifts so as to meet the required staffing levels at different times and duties are assigned to individuals for each shift. All industrial regulations associated with relevant workplace agreements must be observed during the process. Days-off scheduling has been extensively discussed in literature in a variety of planning context, including many contributions from the area of nurse scheduling. (Alfares et al., 2007), (Ernst et al., 2004), (Morris, J.G. and. Showalter, M. J, 1983), and Baker, (1974) are some of the research papers in this staff scheduling or rostering problems in various fields of applications. This study is concerned with scheduling the daily truck drivers for a weekly scheduling period at GLI open cast coal mine truck/shovel systems operations in Kütahya, Turkey. In this system, the daily required number of truck driver changes frequently for each working day since the maintenance of trucks and shovels are scheduled for regular inspection days in a weekly planning horizon. It is required to schedule the truck drivers for each operating shift in a weekly planning horizon. Problem and Background Tunçbilek Lignite Reserve which is operated by Garp Lignite Enterprise (GLI) is located in Kütahya, Turkey and is one of the most important lignite deposits being in production since 1940’s. The overburden removal operations are carried out by using truck/shovel systems with 85-ton and 100-ton trucks and 10 and 20 cu-yd capacity shovels. The open cast coal mine is faced with the problem of changing number of trucks due to regular machinery maintenance. The maintenance of truck and shovel resources are planned to occur at fixed scheduling days. It is required to determine the operating number of truck drivers for each operating shift in a week period. The problem considered in this paper focuses on the days-off scheduling phase of the rostering process, and has been dealt with in the context of open cast coal mine truck/shovels systems. The main concern in days-off scheduling is to determine the off-work days for each staff member over the rostering planning 592 �horizon. The constraints refer to the individual days of the planning horizon and are concerned with satisfying the required daily staffing levels for each shift. In this paper, it is assumed that the required shifts and their staffing levels for each day have been determined prior to the days-off scheduling phase and hypothetical data for a case study are given in (Tab. 1). Each truck driver is scheduled to work for six successive day shifts and is off-work for the following single day. It is also assumed that the scheduling model is developed for a single shift in a day for week duration. Required Daily Number of Truck Drivers, r i Days-off Patterns xj Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 17 13 15 19 14 16 11 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 r6 r7 Table 1. Hypothetical Data for Daily Number of Truck Drivers Demanded Models and Scheduling Shift and days-off scheduling problems have received much attention in the literature of integer programming approaches to workforce scheduling. A typical managerial use would be to schedule full-time employees to minimize the number of labor hours while satisfying variable workforce requirements of a service delivery system. To satisfy the daily demand for truck drivers shown in (Tab. 1) most efficiently with minimum cost, the optimum number and schedule of truck driver needs to be determined for the open cast coal mine at GLI which currently employs a (6,7) work schedule. The (6,7) work schedule assigns workers to seven day-off patterns with one-single day off per week. The (6,7) days-off scheduling problem can be represented as an integer linear programming model as follows: Minimize W= ∑ (1) xj Subject to   7  ∑ xj      j =1 – x i+1 ≥ ri x j ≥ 0 and an integer, for i = 1, 2, 3… 7 (2) for j = 1, 2, 3… 7 (3) xj = number of workers assigned to a days-off pattern j , (i.e. number of workers off on just day j+1) ri = minimum number of workers required on day i, W = workforce size, (i.e. total number of workers assigned to all days-off patterns) During the planning stage of operations in open cast coal mining at GLI, a mathematical model is established with Integer Programming method and is used to find answers to truck drivers scheduling and reduce costs. The above formulated days-off scheduling model for determining the optimum number of truck drivers in GLI open cast coal mine truck/shovel systems operations is developed with Integer Programming using LINGO software package very easily and is given in (Fig. 1). (Fig. 2) gives the generated LINGO display of the developed model. (Fig. 3) gives the LINGO model formulation report for scheduling truck drivers. 593 �Figure 1: LINGO Model Program for Scheduling Truck Drivers at GLI Figure 2: LINGO Generated Model Display for Scheduling Truck Drivers at GLI 594 �LINGO Model Statements 1] 2] 3] 4] 5] 6] 7] 8] 9] 10] 11] 12] 13] 14] MODEL: ! A Work-Scheduling Model for Truck Drivers at GLI; SETS: DAYS/1..7/:RQMT,X; ENDSETS MIN=@SUM(DAYS:X); @FOR(DAYS(I):@SUM(DAYS(J)| (J#GT#I+1)#OR#(J#LE#I#AND#J#GT#I-6): X(J))> RQMT(I);@GIN(X(I));); DATA: RQMT=17,13,15,19,14,16,11; ENDDATA END END Figure 3: LINGO Model Formulation Report As shown in (Fig. 3), Line 3 defines the sets needed to solve the problem. Line 4 defines the days of the week (Monday, Tuesday… Sunday) and associates each with two quantities: the number of truck drivers needed (RQMT) and the number of truck drivers that will begin work on that day of the week (X). Line 5 ends the definitions of the sets. In line 6, an objective function is created by summing the number of truck drivers starting work on each day of the week. Lines 7-9 create for each day of the week the constraint that ensures the number of truck drivers working on that day is at least as large as the day’s requirement. For DAY (I), lines 7 and 8 sum the number of truck drivers starting work over the values of J satisfying J > I + 1 or J ≤ I and J > I – 6. For instance, for I = 1, this generates the sum X( 1) + X( 3) + X( 4) + X( 5) + X( 6) + X( 7) which is indeed the number of truck drivers working on DAY 1 (Monday). Line 9 (in concert with lines 7 and 8) ensures that the number of truck drivers working on Day I is at least as large as the number needed on Day I [RQMT (I)]. Line 10 begins the DATA section of the program. In line 11, the input requirement for each day of the week is inputted. The Open cast coal mine must ensure that sufficient number of truck drivers is working on each day of the week. For example, to ensure that at least 17 truck drivers are working on Monday, it is required that the constraint [2] in (Fig. 2). X( 1) + X( 3) + X( 4) + X( 5) + X( 6) + X( 7) ≥ 17 must be satisfied which does not include X(2) term since it is the number of truck drivers who begin work on Tuesday and they will be off-work on Monday. The constraints [3- 8] must be added to the model for the remaining six days in a similar way to complete the whole off-day patterns. GIN X(I) statements are needed for i = 1,2,…,7 to make all decision variables as integer values since number of truck drivers starting work on any day can be positive-valued integers only. Results and Conclusions The objective of this paper is to determine the optimum number of truck drivers workforce for (6, 7) work schedule that satisfies each daily demand with minimum cost. The results of days-off assignments for optimum number of truck drivers determined from LINGO Solution Report are given in (Fig. 4). As it can seen from the LINGO Solution Report, the optimum total number of truck drivers is determined as 19 truck drivers and the number of truck drivers beginning work on each days-off work pattern are as follows: 595 �x1 = 8, x2 = 2, x3 = 6, x4 = 0, x5 = 0, x6 = 0, x7 = 3 An Integer Programming model is developed using LINGO software for determining the optimum number of truck drivers for truck/shovel systems operations to meet the daily work schedule demand at GLI open cast coal mine in Kütahya, Turkey. If there is a future change in daily required number of truck drivers as the mine progresses over time, the LINGO program can easily be modified to determine the required size of truck drivers and the days-off assignments to satisfy the new demands. The developed model is site–specific and can only be used for the given specific mine conditions that prevail. The developed model assumes deterministic equipment breakdowns, which is not realistic for actual operating mines. Stochastic models will be needed to provide more accurate systems performance measures. It is hoped that the developed model to the GLI’s open cast truck driver’s days-off scheduling problem will provide convenient timetables to improve the efficiency of operations. Figure 4: LINGO Solution Report for Scheduling Truck Drivers at GLI References Alfares, H., K., Lilly, M., T., and Emovon, I., (2007). Maintenance Staff Scheduling at Afam Power Station, (pp. 22-37), IEMS Vol. 6, No 1, June. Ernst, A., T., Jiang, H., Krishnamoorthy, M., and Sier, D., (2004). Staff Scheduling and Rostering: A Review of Applications, Methods and Models, (pp.3-27), European Journal of Operations Research Vol. 153. Morris, J., G., and Showalter, M.J., (1983). Simple Approaches to Shift, Days-off and Tour Scheduling Problems, (pp. 942950), Management Science, Vol. 29. Baker, K., (1974). Scheduling a Full-time Work Force to Meet Cyclic Staffing Requirements, (pp. 1561-1568), Management Science, Vol. 20. 596 �Winston, W., L., (2004). Operations Research – Applications and Algorithms, Brook/Cole-Thomson Learning, Belmont, CA, USA. 597 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 606 Title A name given to the resource Work-Scheduling Model for an Open Cast Coal Mine in Turkey with Integer Programming Author Author Çetin, Necmettin Abstract A summary of the resource. Tunçbilek Open Cast Coal Mine of Garp Lignite Enterprise (GLI) is located in Kütahya, Turkey and the overburden removal operations are carried out by using Truck/Shovel Systems which is faced with the problem of changing number of trucks due to equipment breakdowns. The maintenance of failed trucks are planned to occur at fixed scheduling days. It is required to determine the operating number of truck drivers for each operating shifts in a weekly planning horizon. A simple Integer Programming model is developed using LINGO software to determine the optimum number of truck drivers required to satisfy the variable number of trucks for each operating shift. The developed model schedules the trucks drivers optimally for each operating shift in a weekly scheduling period. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3531b7a8e787462773f72cf24365bd8d.pdf 55ed41775d73b865a085ab33b62e703d PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Semantic and Operational Contribution of the Conjunctions to the Improvement of the Linguistic Expression Mustafa Çetin Faculty of Education, International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mcetin@hotmail.com Abstract: In the 20th century, with F. de Saussure’s bringing scientific approach to the language , language/ word separation has been made in the language. The foundation of this separation was attributed to the language with social dimension and to word with individual dimension. This perspective led the individuality-based words (spoken language) to come into prominence. Spoken language, with the freewill of the individual, showed its existence in the axis of paradigm, the possibility of the unlimited utterance production through the preferred limited indicator. In the individual expression too, utterances are cultivated and the discourses are formed with the combination of them. In this process, it was seen that the conjunctions performed an important semantic and Operational functions. The presence significant contribution was observed intending for the flexibility of the conjunction expression and improvement, in this abstract, the impact of the important function that conjunction perform in the collocation axis to the development of the expression will be discussed. 2. Introduction Communication is seen to be one of the most important social and personal activities for human beings. Although there are several means of communication, written and verbal expression are regarded as frequently referred tool of communication. It is a well-known fact that everyone sustains corcerns to express themselves correctly. Verbal utterance (Langue) that forms the basis of written expression has been seen to gain importance with the linguistic studies that F. de Saussure has laid the foundation in 20th century. Particularly, with perspectives like language*, speech†, and performance‡ language has been seen to be intensively in use by the individuals. While producing utterances§, individuals choose the language indicators from that he picks up from the paradigmatic relation** with respect to his intension, his knowledge and his language. Combining the (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) * Human being’s communication, information achievement capability through the use of audible indicators or natural languages(Vardar, 2002:78). † The individual side of language identified with personal desire and the act of comprehension. According to the division, which F.de Saussure made and many linguists adopted, word, which is separated from the language with social quality, comprises combinations that the individual speaking it use the language system to express his thoughts and the mental-physical machinery that enables it to be conveyed outside(Vardar, 2002:180). ‡ In the concept of producer-transformation grammar, acquisition taking place in a speaker during the language use. Chomsky’s concepts of acquisition, memory, attention etc. It indicates the fact, which factors condition, reminds, in some aspects, F.de Saussure’s word concept, emerges with the use of language skill in the individuals(Vardar, 2002:88). § Part of speech chain, which lies between a speaker’s two silence maras; expression emerges from the acquisition of enunciation...some linguists see word as the collection of sentences which follow sentence or each other(Vardar, 2002:88). ** The syntagmatic connections are defined with the transformation relations between the equal language indicators which shoulder the same function. These relations take place in vertical axis and is also known as axis of choice(Kiran, Eziler, 2006:126). 35 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo chosen linguistics in syntagmatic relation††, he produces utterances and puts his thoughts into words. While explaining thoughts in the combination axis, the necessity of depiction is felt with the connection of indicators. The most beautiful examples that language feels the need to bind are the conjunctions.These only gain value within the utterance. The strongest or absolute meaning fields have been put forward in the context. Therefore, conjunctions appear in syntagmatic axis as syntax catalyst and strengthen and develops the meaning. The procedure of binding is done within the framework of language rules. The bodies of conjugational form, known as connectors perform the binding procedure. Some of these are the dependant conjugational forms, and yet some are the independent conjugational forms. This type of bodies are thought of independant structures like“reproduction of so connector”‡‡ or bodies of dependant forms such as state adjuncts like(to, in, from) In the examples “Ahmet eve geldi(Ahmet came to school). Okulu bitiriyorum(I am finishing school)” form bodies /-e/ ve /-u/ connect the indicators /ev/ ve /okul/ to the next indicator(verb). These are considered as formbodies. Their power of expression is weaker than independant form-bodies. Indeed, variety and richness that prepositional phrases add to the expression in terms of structural meaning is impossible to be given by adjunct.§§ In the following examples “Cennet gibi vatanımız var(Our country is just like heaven).” , “ Oyna ama derslerine çalışmayı ihmal etme(Play, but do not neglect to study).”, “kitapları Sana geri vermek üzere veriyorum(I am lending you these books in order to return back).” independent form bodies /gibi(like)/,/ama(but)/,/üzere(for the purpose)/ establish bonds meaning and shape in terms of syntax. However, here the independence of independent form-bodies is limited even though they are regarded as connectives. These are, in the syntagmatic axis of meaning, certainly connected to another element within the syntax. They are assigned to establish bonds of form and meaning. 2. Methodological Background The connecting elements are considered as being a different linguistic category and are refered with different names by the linguists. Generally, they are evaluated under the heading of prepositions. The linguistic constituent which is expressed with the term “preposition” in Turkish, is used in Western Languages as ‘preposition’ (word which establishes an interest and combines two different words) (Aksan, 2000:96). Prepositions help the usage and the expression capabilities of the words, word groups and sentences they are used in. In this sense, we can nouns and verbs the main words, prepositions the supplementary words. Prepositions are of three types: exclamatory prepositions, connecting prepositions and the last conjugated prepositions(Ergin,2009:348). Prepositions are the words which obtained significance not with their meanings, but with their functions. These functions are two types:1.to establish connection between subject and ojbects.These can not exceed their limit; in other words, they can not be independent components in sentences like prepositions.*** Tahsin Banguoğlu, too, using almost the same statement in terms of function, expressed glosseme with different names. Morpehemes, which come after nouns and establish their connection with other elements, are called postposition. Morphemes, which are used to connect two words, two sentence elements with the same value, two opinions and sometimes, two paragraphs - are called conjunctions (Banguoğlu, 1998:385390). Leyla Karahan examined the functionary elements as being conjugated prepositions and connecting prepositions (Karahan, 1999:28-30). H. Đbrahim Delice, in his research called Turkish Syntax, evaluated the word category, generally under the name of preposition, under four different sub-headings: connecting prepositions, conjugated prepositions, exclamatory prepostions and reinforcement prepositions (Delice, 2007:2023). Words, which have no meaning alone, appear their meaning with other word ane word groups, contribute to the meaning, are called “prepositions”. Old linguists regarded prepositions as words with missing letters; in this (f) (g) (h) *** †† The chosen terms or words are called sequence, the combination of these terms and words are called syntax(Kiran, Eziler, 2006:128). ‡‡ Tekin,T. (1958) Daha Zarfı ve da/de Edatı Hakkında. Türk Dili, c. 7, issue 83, p. 560-562. §§ Oner, M.(2003). Prepositions’ “Comparative” and “Limitation” Relations, Turkish Language Research Yearbook – Bulletin 1999 / I-II, Ankara, p. 147-157. Gencan,T.N. (1967) Edat Tümleçleri. Aylık Dil ve Edebiyat Dergisi, vol xvı, issue 192. 36 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo sense, they called prepositions “huruf-u meani: meaningful words”( Oğuzkan,2005:139). Ediskun (1985: 284),too, mentions prepostions as having no meaning when used alone, but when entering into a sentence they establish semantic interest,suggest their meaning and relying on this definition, state adjunctives (to,in,from) along with adjunctives that produce adverbs (from and –less)are examined in this category. Kahraman (1986: 93), like Deny (1941: 560)divides prepositions into three: postposition, conjunction and exclamation. We propose the following division of the terms shown under preposition: Exclamations, conjunctions, prepositions.††† As seen, connectives are given different names and are evaluated in different categories. Among word categories which are evaluated as connectives, exclamations are not included. Because, connectives, in syntagmatic axis, can not take place alone. However, exclamations can take place alone in syntagmatic axis. Therefore, exclamatory prepositions should not be considered within connectives. From syntagmatic perspective: Exclamations are the words that have sentence value;can be used alone or at the end / in the beginning of the sentence: Oh! Ay! Eyvah! Mister!! Özgür!‡‡‡ Glosseme, which we called connectives, take place in the syntactical chain primarily in form and necessitates the continuation of the meaning before or afterwards. In other words, connectives, formally, link the elements in the combination axis. This formal link cause to set up semantic link. When prepositions mentioned, this kind of functioning linguistic category is thought. Some words are satisfied spending an evening at home, alone, eating ice-cream right out of the box, watching Seinfeld re-runs on TV, or reading a good book. Others aren't happy unless they're out on the town, mixing it up with other words; they're joiners and they just can't help themselves. A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence. §§§ 3. The Role of Conjunctions in Linguistic Utterance In fact, in Turkish syntax, the elements are stated to connect to each other through gerunds and participles. So, the work of connecting primary elements, within syntagmatic axis, is still done with primary elements. But, through time, as a consequence of contact of Turkish Language with foreign socities, cultures and languages, linguistic categories, which we call meaningless and funcitonary words, started entering into our language. (...)Ancak zaman içerisinde Türkçenin yabancı toplumlarla, kültürlerle ve dillerle teması neticesinde anlamsız, görevli sözcükler dediğimiz dilbilgisi ulamları dilimize girmeye başlamıştır. (...)Since Uyghur period, in the first level religious texts, as a result of the desire to comply with the original and word by word translation, parallel word and sentence connecting prepositions(conjunctions)along with various supplementary sentences and the prepositions that connect these to the main sentence were seen to enter into Turkish Language.**** The supplementary sentences, which are formed with connecting prepositions,were seen to be used firstly during Uyghur period with the influence of Iranian tribes like Sogud and Tohar. The supplementary sentences, constructed with the connecting preposition‘so’,were widely seen in the Old Anatolian Turkish Language period in the translations made from Persian Language.†††† Even though it is contrary to the nature cof Turkish Language, these elements settled in our language throughout centuries. Entering into the syntax of our language, they contribute to the formal and semantic format of the expression. The members of society will ††† Balcı, T.( 2003). Edat Bağlamında Sözcük Türlerine Yeni Bir Yaklaşım. Dil Dergisi, issue 122, p. 7. ‡‡‡ Balcı, T.( 2003). Edat Bağlamında Sözcük Türlerine Yeni Bir Yaklaşım. Dil Dergisi, issue 122, p. 7. §§§ **** (i) http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/Grammar/conjunctions.htm Mansuroğlu, M.(1955).Türkçede Cümle Çeşitleri ve Bağlayıcıları. Türk Dili Araştırmaları Yıllığı Belleten, p. 59. †††† Tokatlı, S. (2006). Anadolu Ağızlarında Ki Bağlama Edatı ile Kurulan Yardımcı Cümleler. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, sayı : 21, yıl: 2, s. 453. 37 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo want to use every facilities of language at the moment of communication. These elements have been made use of in our written and verbal expressions. The conjunctions, which have no meaning alone, establish strong meaning relations in the chains of syntax and improve the meaning. The conjunctions, set up interests of meaning with words; serve the function of connecting: like“I will speak in that meeting too”, “We came from the garage by car.” The interests of meaning, which prepositions add to the sentence, are in plenty. Primarily:express meanings such as, comparison, similarity, indecision, curiosity, loneliness, hesitation, desire, orientation, inclination...etc , karşılaştırma,benzerlik, kararsızlık, merak, tek başınalık, tereddüt, istek, yönelme, yöneliş...(Oğuzkan, 2005:140). With conjunctions, which enter into Turkish later and are mostly foreign elements, unforgettable songs, folk-songs and texts have been presented. Artist, while saying “I heard that you had forgotten the color of my eyes” the influence of meaning have been felt on the listeners for many years. Songs were liked by large crowds of public, were listened. Here, the artist could have said “I heard you forgot the color of my eyes.” He could have expressed the same thought. But, it is seen that the expression with preposition is more effective. Saying “I,too, missed I too”in a song the effective expression constructed with prespositions can not be ignored. Here, can the power of expression of “I,too, missed I too” be put at the same scale with the power of expression of “I missed I”? Prepositions, which are connected to nouns, contribute a great deal to the expression. In syntax “There is no vivid impression of imaginary reflection of Speaks well and like a Nightingale.‡‡‡‡ In a song, the singer’s statement “For you I can dig through mountains, open ways” the power of expression of for seems to surround the entire song. Again, in “I have a world of work” statement the power of exaggeration that of adds to the expression is difficult to give with another expression. In“There can be no spring with one rose” sentence It is impossible not to notice the richess of expression that with adds. In “I, too, could not understand you!” statement the powerful contribution of too to the expression can not be denied. As seen by the examples, the powerful contribution of the connectors to the expression can be perceived. The student attitudes related to the connectors can be seen as the indication that these were not properly comprehended. While the emphasis is given on the function and meaning in the classification of connectors, and because they were subjected to classification and naming in many aspects like the meaning relations that they establish in application, their structure, their sources, places of use, types of words they are connected to, need or no need for an adjunct, uncertainy is felt on the issue of this grammatical category. Preposition, is one of the most uncertain terms of grammar; it is very difficult to imagine what it tries to explain.§§§§ This uncertainty is reflected to the users(students) too. It is difficult to comprehend the meaning since the classification is not obvious and clear. Mistakes are being made in the usage of connectives because of this. This mistake is clearly seen in the use of connective in. Additionally, the connectives, which have substitutes in language, be replaced with other elements in the expression, are bodies that appeared as a result of fancy choice in expression, are quite difficult to comprehend by the speaker. One significant fact that affects the student attitude towards the connectives is originated from the teacher attitude. In some essay books and teacher recommendations, students are suggested to form short sentences. Short sentences prevent the expression of thoughts within the influence, cause-effect integrality. All of these are seen to cause students to develop negative attitude towards the connectives. These negative atittues can only be remedied, on the students’ part, by doing excessive reading and making plenty of exercises on written and verbal expression. ‡‡‡‡ §§§§ . Gencan, T.N.(1967) Edat Tümleçleri. Türk Dili, Cilt.xvı, Sayı 192, Sayfa 909 . BALCI T. (2003).Edat Bağlamında Sözcük Türlerine Yeni Bir Yaklaşım. Dil Dergisi , Sayı 122, s. 7. 38 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Conclusion: The connectives are active elements of expression. They appear in syntagmatic level as being a catalyst of effective communication and improve the expression stylistically and semantically. The connectives, as understood from their name, are words whose functional aspect overpower and sometimes, they establish very powerful meaning relations too. Connectives, being grammar categories, are called with different names and are evaluated in different categories. A confusion of term attracts the attention. Along with this, it is generally accepted that connectives establish stylistic and semantic relations in syntax as functionary words. From the perspective of student attitude, some mistakes are made in written and verbal expression related to connectives. This results in usage mistakes because students fail to comprehend the semantic and functional fields of word category and opportunites completely. Being one of the problems resulted from teacher attitude, the requirement to form short sentences from the students in essay classes, within integrality, prevents the expression of the thoughts with connectives. The connectives are one of the riches of a language. We can not turn our back on them just because they are foreign elements. In written and verbal expression classes, we can ask students to express complex thoughts with the help of main elements like gerunds and participles and also with the connectives and thus we can make students realize their potentials of expression. References: Aksan, D.(2000). Her Yönüyle Dil Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim. II.cilt. Ankara:TDK yayınları. Banguoğlu, T.(1998).TÜRKÇENĐNĐ Grameri.Ankara, TDK:528. Delice,H.Đ.(2007).Türkçe Sözdizimi.Đstanbul:Kitabevi yayınları. Ergin, M.(2009). Türk Dil Bilgisi. Đstanbul:Bayrak yayınları Karahan, L.(1999). Türkçede Sözdizimi. Ankara: Akçağ yayınları. Kıran, Z., Kıran, A. (2006). Dilbilime Giriş. Ankara: Seçkin yayınları. Oğuzkan, A.(2005). Örneklerle Türkçe Kompozisyon Bilgileri,Đstanbul,Đnkılap yayınları. Vardar, B.(2002). Açıklamalı Dilbilim Terimleri Sözlüğü. Đstanbul:Multilingual yayınları. 39 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 368 Title A name given to the resource Semantic and Operational Contribution of the Conjunctions to the Improvement of the Linguistic Expression Author Author Çetin, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. In the 20th century, with F. de Saussure’s bringing scientific approach to the language , language/ word separation has been made in the language. The foundation of this separation was attributed to the language with social dimension and to word with individual dimension. This perspective led the individuality-based words (spoken language) to come into prominence. Spoken language, with the freewill of the individual, showed its existence in the axis of paradigm, the possibility of the unlimited utterance production through the preferred limited indicator. In the individual expression too, utterances are cultivated and the discourses are formed with the combination of them. In this process, it was seen that the conjunctions performed an important semantic and Operational functions. The presence significant contribution was observed intending for the flexibility of the conjunction expression and improvement, in this abstract, the impact of the important function that conjunction perform in the collocation axis to the development of the expression will be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5c368ad0db56788d3cc13ac3f94514f5.pdf cf074daae247c14438b881a69746df92 PDF Text Text Preferences of Irrigation Methods by Sugar Beet Producers, Their Age and Educational Levels for Konya - Çumra Region of Turkey Assist.Prof.Dr. Muhittin Çelebi Selçuk University Çumra MYO –Konya/Turkey mcelebi@selcuk.edu.tr Prof.Dr. Nizamettin Çiftçi Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey nciftci@selcuk.edu.tr Assist.Prof.Dr. Bilal Acar Selçuk University Agricultural Faculty –Konya/Turkey biacar@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Agriculture is one of the most important strategic sectors in terms of the social and economic ways for Turkey. Approximately 35% of the population has lived in rural areas and there is a huge inactive labor force in such regions. Success and sustainability of agricultural activities depends on the education and social structures of farmers. Irrigation and irrigation technologies are possibly the most important inputs in agricultural activities. This study was conducted in Konya where it has the greatest agricultural land of Turkey with 25% of the total sugar beet production of Turkey. The preferences of irrigation methods by sugar beet producers, age distributions, education status, and number of person in family were researched by face to face technique. The percentages of farmers in 20-30, 31-40, 41-50 and 51-60 years old were 18.2% , 22.7%, 35.2% and 23.9%, respectively. The education levels of those farmers graduated from university, high, and primary schools were determined as 12.5%, 23.3%, and 64.2%, respectively. The number of person in most family varied from 5 to 8. The 95% of the farmers have preferred sprinkler irrigation method. The preference of drip irrigation method was 4.7% for high school graduated farmers. The 89.3% of the farmers defined that irrigation charges were expensive. The overall result of the study showed that increasing the education level in farmers contributed sensitivity of farmers for the water saving irrigation technologies Keywords: Agriculture, Education, Sugar Beet Producers, Irrigation Method. Introduction The utilization of water resources and studies about these subjects are as old as human history. In the past, development of the society was in the areas where the fresh water resources were plenty. Water is the prime element for life on earth but, it is not exist in desired place, amount and time on earth. It is the strategic natural resource and will be also very important in future affected to the whole human life due to the limiting source. Agriculture is the most important top strategic sector in respect to the socially and economy in Turkey. The almost 35% of population has lived in urban in Turkey and there is a huge amount of inactive labor force in such areas. The success of activities and their sustainability depend upon the education level and social structures of farmers. The most important inputs in agriculture are irrigation and irrigation technologies. The availability of water resources, presence of much amount of agricultural areas and good facilities of 162 �crop growth in Turkey has contributed the sustainable agricultural potential. Turkey has 78 million ha surface area and 28 million of this is suitable for agriculture with 5.1 million ha of land are being irrigated at present (Anonymous 2008). In general, the climate is arid and semi-arid in Turkey but, climate change is different in seasons and regions. The total annual consumable water potential of Turkey is 110 km3 (Çiftçi & Kutlar 2007; Çiftçi et al. 2009a; Çiftçi et al. 2009b). According to 2009 records, the population is almost 72.5 million in Turkey. The annual per capita water potential is 2500 m3 and consumable of 1517 m3. Agriculture has used about 70-75% of total fresh water resources in Turkey. It has been estimated that available water resources of 75 km3 will be used in agriculture in next 20 years. Education has very important role to play in efficient use of resources, performing accurate political selection, overcoming well management, obtaining qualified human for employment. It is also effective tool for obtaining well decision and development in democracy. The importance of education has increased gradually in whole our life as well as in agriculture in developed and changing world. The increase of the agriculture production is not only important in meeting the food supply of the nations but, high quality production is also very important. To success this, experienced agriculture trainers as well as skillful producers or farmers are needed. Productivity is the base of the agricultural development and the base of the productivity is education. One of the most important problems, therefore, in Turkey is agricultural education. Although agricultural education is unique, it can be divided into two forms: -Theoretical scientific, and practical - training educations. Under no or insufficient rainfall conditions, crop water requirement is not met by natural rainfall. Under such conditions, soil moisture deficit is met by applying water artificially and this is defined as irrigation. However, every random water applications have not accepted as irrigation. The main purpose of the irrigation is to meet the crop water requirement. By succeeding this goal, crop yield increases. Irrigation networks and systems are constructed to overcome this purpose. Water resources are fairly scant in Konya basin of Turkey. Water scarcity is very serious in region especially summer season. Wheat, barley and sugar beet are very common field crops in this region. The most important problem in region is inefficient use of water resources. The losses are very high in irrigation due to the excess water applications. Konya has share of 25% sugar beet production in Turkey and Konya-Çumra plain has one of the most intensively irrigated lands. Sugar beet is the highest water consuming crop in region so, it is the main target that irrigation water should be applied with minimum loss in sugar beet production. Sprinkler irrigation method has been commonly used and subsidized for many years due to the high irrigation efficiency and easy in labor uses in sugar beet irrigation. The farmers who have the great technical and theoretical information deal with sugar beet farming. In present study, education level, their age, number of family member and irrigation methods preferences of sugar beet producers in Konya-Çumra Plain Turkey was researched by face to face survey technique. Material and Methods This study was conducted Çumra Plain of Konya-Turkey. Konya has the greatest agricultural land with 25% of total sugar beet production in Turkey. In study, preferences of irrigation methods, age distributions, education level, family number of sugar beet producers were researched by using the face to face technique. Konya, in Central Anatolia Peninsula, is located at South of Central Anatolia Region. It has the greatest surface area in Turkey with an average 1016m above the sea level. Soils in plain are mainly heavy, medium in some parts and light in very little parts. It has the rich of lime content and uniform topography as 0-1% land slope. The least rainfall of 326 mm has observed in Konya plain of Turkey. Annual average temperature is 11.5ºC. Konya has steppe climate so irrigation is vital important in crop growth period due to the insufficient rainfall. Irrigation water is obtained from both surface and groundwater resources. Groundwater is received from General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW), irrigation cooperatives and wells constructed by farmers. The surface water resources are Beyşehir Lake and Çarşamba Stream (Çiftçi & Kutlar 2007). Konya plain is one of the government irrigation regions in near history. Konya has the almost 163 �2 million population with 1870000 ha arable and 1644000 ha irrigable lands. It has the shares of 11%, 13.7% and 25% in wheat, barley and sugar beet in Turkey, respectively. The land opened to the irrigation in Konya is 377000 ha (Çiftçi et al. 2010). Results and Discussion Age and Education of Farmers Share of agriculture has decreased in national income while the importance of agriculture in the economy has remained. On the other hand, active population and employment ratios are high in agriculture. Average income of human rises when the ages increased under different education levels. Conventional agricultural structure is very common in agricultural activities of Turkey and those activities have continued by family farms. In recently, there is acceleration in education level in rural areas of Turkey. The age of farmers is more than medium in Turkey. The reason is that the highest-aged farmer is the leader in agriculture. The ages and education levels of farmers in our research are presented in Table 1. Education Level University High School Elementary School Total Number % Number % Number % Number % 20-30 Age Ranges 31-40 41-50 51-60 10 45.5 9 22.0 13 11.5 32 18.2 7 31.8 12 29.2 21 18.6 40 22.7 0 0 5 12.2 37 32.7 42 23.9 5 22.7 15 36.6 42 37.2 62 35.5 Total Number % 22 12.5 100 41 23.3 100 113 64.2 100 176 100 Table 1. Ages and Education Levels of Sugar Beet Producers It can be seen from Table 1 that percentages of farmers were determined as 18.2%, 22.7%, 35.5% and 23.9% in 20-30, 31-40, 41-50 and 51-60 age ranges, respectively. The young population, 20-30 years old, was lowest and percentage of over the medium-aged (41-60 years old) farmers was 59.4%. Increase of the age resulted in improvement of experiences and qualifications. Accordingly, age of farmers in sugar beet production was observed mostly in 41-60 years old. Education has very important role to obtain the qualified labor forces for meeting economic and social requirements as well as for the population who are healthy and ready to work. Education is the human right and is necessary for sustainable development. The education levels of farmers were elementary school in 64.5%, high school in 23.3% and university in 12.5%, (Table 1). Most farmers were graduated from the elementary school accordingly. This indicates that education levels of farmers were found lower than the expectation. Education level is also important for training of farmers about irrigation innovations. It is also vital important for learning the irrigation technologies as well as soilcrop-water relationships. The age was between 20-30 years in most university graduated farmers (45.5%) and all of them were younger than 40 years old. This shows that farmers have noticed the importance of university in agriculture. Marital Status and Number of Family Members In Turkey as well as in the world, population density can be described as the dividing population of farmers who deal with crop and animal production to agricultural land size. The population density varies in different regions and cities. It is highly influenced by the elevation such as mountainous or plain as well as number of the active farmers. It is high in mountainous areas while it is low in large plains. The active 164 �population ratio was lower by comparison to developed countries while unemployment is fairly high in Turkey. The distributions of marital status and family member numbers of farmers in respect to education levels are given in Table 2. Education Level University High School Elementary School Total Marital Status Number % Number % Number % Number % Number of Family Population Married Single Total 1-4 5-8 <8 Total 17 77.3 39 95.1 109 96.5 165 93.8 5 22.7 2 4.9 4 3.5 11 6.2 22 100 41 100 113 100 176 100 8 47.1 14 35.9 26 24.5 49 29.7 9 52.9 25 64.1 72 67.9 107 64.8 0 0 0 0 8 7.6 9 5.5 17 100 39 100 106 100 165 100 Table 2. Distributions of Marital Status and Family Member Number of Farmers The percentages of farmers with married and single were determined as 93.8% and 6.2%, respectively. The percentages of university, high school and elementary school graduated farmers were 77.3%, 95.1% and 96.5%, respectively. Most farmers were married and this indicated that agricultural farms were family farms. The percentages of farmers in family as 1-4, 5-8 and <8 were found as 29.7%, 64.5% and 5.5%, respectively. The highest family number of farmers was obtained from 5-8 as 64.8%. The number of farmers more than 8 was observed in only elementary graduations. The family number of 1-4 was only observed in university graduated farmers and those were also young. The Reason in Sugar Beet Production Preferences of Farmers In Turkey, sugar has been produced by sugar beet that is a very important fundamental food in whole human life. Sugar beet is also very important rotation crop. The yield and income obtained from unit area are good enough. In Turkey, about 400000 or 450000 farmers have obtained their incomes from sugar beet farming (Anonymous 2010). Konya city has the 25% total Turkey sugar beet production and irrigation is necessary prerequisite for sugar beet growth. In examine the crop patterns, sugar beet is highly water consuming crop in region so water saving should be done in sugar beet farming. However, water resources are fairly scant and insufficient. The one of the highest sugar beet production centers of Konya is Çumra province. The Reasons in Sugar Beet Production preferences of farmers and production areas are presented in Table 3. Farmers Number % Sugar Beet Production Preferences Low Easy Market Addiction income growth Guarantees of other crops 9 140 20 7 5.1 79.5 11.4 4.0 Sugar Beet Production Area (ha) Total 20> 20-50 50-100 100< Total 176 20 80 48 28 176 100 11.4 45.4 27.3 15.9 100 Table 3. The Reason in Sugar Beet Production Preferences of Farmers and Production Areas 165 �As seen from the Table 3, 79.5% of the farmers have preferred sugar beet production due to the market guarantees while 20% and 5.1% of them have preferred due to the addiction and easy growth, respectively. As sugar beet production has been performed contraction with the farmers as quotas in the region, and Pankobirlik (General Directorate, representative and senior organization of Beet Cooperatives, which are performing supply, distribution, supervision and coordination of all kinds of inputs, which are being used during the agricultural activities of its partners with the capitals, formed by its members’ efforts) guarantee of the production has been the most important reason for preference. Like the all over the world as well as in Turkey, preference of crop production has affected mainly from the market guarantee in Turkey. The sizes of sugar beet production areas of 2, 2-5, 5-10 and <10 ha were 11.4%, 45.4%, 27.3% and 15.9%, respectively. In general, land size of sugar beet production varied from 2 to 5 ha (45.4%). Irrigation Method Preferences of Farmers Application form of water through the crop root zone may be defined as irrigation method. Irrigation water is brought to the irrigation area by conveyance and distribution Networks. The aim of the irrigation is to apply right amount water uniformly within the root zone depth. For success this, irrigation method is very important. The suitability of the various irrigation methods, i.e. surface, sprinkler or drip irrigation, depends mainly on the following factors (Kara 2005); - natural conditions such as soil type, slope, climate, water quality and availability,- type of crop, -type of technology, -previous experience with irrigation, -required labor inputs, and -costs and benefits. Pressurized irrigation methods can be defined as conveying irrigation water to the crops by closed pipes with a certain pressure. The most widely used pressurized irrigation system is sprinkler irrigation in Çumra Plain of Konya. To use this method, farmers should know the system accurately and have the proper information. The irrigation method preferences of farmers in region are presented in Table 4. The percentages of irrigation methods preferences were 95.0 % and 1.1% in sprinkler and drip irrigation, respectively. The sprinkler irrigation is the most suitable method in respect to the cost, management and irrigation technique. It was preferred as 95.1%, 90.6% and 96.6% for university, high school and elementary graduated farmers. Education Level University High School Elementar y School Total Numbe r % Numbe r % Numbe r % Numbe r % Irrigation Methods Surfac Sprinkle Dri e r p Tota l Which is the most Suitable Irrigation Method in Sugar Beet? Surfac Sprinkle Dri No Tota e r p Ide l a 0 18 2 0 20 1 19 0 20 5.0 2 95 39 0 2 100 43 0 0 90 42 10 2 0 2 100 46 4.7 4 90.6 112 4.7 0 100 116 0 0 91.4 97 4.3 9 4.3 4 100 110 3.4 7 96.6 170 0 2 100 179 0 0 88.2 157 8.2 13 3.6 6 100 176 3.9 95.0 1.1 100 0 89.2 7.4 3.4 100 Table 4. Irrigation methods Preferred in Sugar Beet The highest preference of sprinkler irrigation method as 95% in region shows that farmers have great experiences about this method. Surface irrigation method, highest irrigation water losses, has been preferred the lowest as 3.9%. Although water application efficiency is high in drip irrigation method, it was 166 �preferred low as 1.1%. The disadvantage of such irrigation method is high management cost. Most farmers preferred drip irrigation method were graduated from the high school. Technical qualifications as well as irrigation management cost are very important in water management. This is evidence that most farmers were chosen sprinkler irrigation. The percentages of farmers about the suitable irrigation method for sugar beet were found as 89.2% for sprinkler irrigation, 7.4% for drip irrigation and 3.4% for no idea. None farmers have chosen the surface irrigation as a suitable method. In examine the education level, university graduated farmers were accepted sprinkler irrigation as 90% and drip irrigation as 10%, as a suitable irrigation method. The 91.4% and 4.3% of farmers preferred sprinkler and drip irrigation methods, in high school graduation, respectively. These were 88.2% and 8.2% in sprinkler and drip irrigation methods for elementary education, respectively. Improvement of education level resulted in increase for the use of technological systems as well as capability of accurate irrigation management. Education level is not only needed for successful use of irrigation technologies, but also experiences of farmers are very important. Sugar beet producers, therefore, have considered low water losses and small management cost by preferences irrigation methods. Conclusions Education is very important for all sectors in a changing world especially in agriculture. Agriculture is strategic sector and should be improved in Turkey. The increase of the income in such sector like the central residential areas is necessary prerequisite. To obtain the goal, necessary policies should be performed and applied permanently. Irrigation water is the most important input in agriculture and is the highest share of water resources as 70-75% in Turkey. It is very important to reduce the water losses and minimize the irrigation costs for sustainable water resources. It can be achieved by selection of suitable irrigation method. This method should be high technical characteristics with low irrigation management cost. However, sometimes high technological methods are not preferred by farmers due to some difficulties and great management costs. The base of agricultural production is productivity and education is the base of the productivity. Improvement of education levels of farmers will contribute proper training and accurate management of irrigation Technologies. References Anonymous. (2008) . General Directorate of Sate Hydraulic Works (GDSHW) http://www.dsi.gov.tr/ (in Turkish). Anonymous. (2010). Konya Şeker A.Ş. http://www.konyaseker.com.tr/ (in Turkish). Çiftçi, N & Kutlar, Đ. (2007). Water potential and water resources of Konya Plain. Journal of Konya Ticaret Borsası, 24, 34-37 (in Turkish). Çiftçi, N., Acar, B., Şahin, M., Yaylalı, I., & Yavuz, D. (2009a). Land and Water Potentials of Turkey and Major Problems in Irrigated Agriculture, Proceedings International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 2009, Pocradec. 305-310. Çiftçi, N., Acar, B., Yaylalı, I & Çivicioğlu, N. (2009b). Groundwater Potential Usage and Contamination Problems in Turkey under Global Warming Period, Proceedings International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 2009, Pocradec. 456-462. Çiftçi, N., Topak, R & Çelebi, M. (2010). Water potential and water use in agriculture. Journal of Konya Ticaret Borsası, 36, 40-44 (in Turkish). Kara, M. (2005). Irrigation and irrigation systems. Selçuk University. Agricultural Faculty, ISBN 975-448-177-6: Konya-Turkey (in Turkish). 167 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 358 Title A name given to the resource Preferences of Irrigation Methods by Sugar Beet Producers, Their Age and Educational Levels for Konya - Çumra Region of Turkey Author Author Çelebi, Muhittin Çiftçi, Nizamettin Acar, Bilal Abstract A summary of the resource. Agriculture is one of the most important strategic sectors in terms of the social and economic ways for Turkey. Approximately 35% of the population has lived in rural areas and there is a huge inactive labor force in such regions. Success and sustainability of agricultural activities depends on the education and social structures of farmers. Irrigation and irrigation technologies are possibly the most important inputs in agricultural activities. This study was conducted in Konya where it has the greatest agricultural land of Turkey with 25% of the total sugar beet production of Turkey. The preferences of irrigation methods by sugar beet producers, age distributions, education status, and number of person in family were researched by face to face technique. The percentages of farmers in 20-30, 31-40, 41-50 and 51-60 years old were 18.2% , 22.7%, 35.2% and 23.9%, respectively. The education levels of those farmers graduated from university, high, and primary schools were determined as 12.5%, 23.3%, and 64.2%, respectively. The number of person in most family varied from 5 to 8. The 95% of the farmers have preferred sprinkler irrigation method. The preference of drip irrigation method was 4.7% for high school graduated farmers. The 89.3% of the farmers defined that irrigation charges were expensive. The overall result of the study showed that increasing the education level in farmers contributed sensitivity of farmers for the water saving irrigation technologies Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a51cb951932a7ceb37b0b73a6c5b2d56.pdf adb107680bb7ec5a5af28dbf13b71c95 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Examination of Relationship between Social Support, Social Selfefficacy and Submissive Behavior Mehmet Çardak Ministery of Education, Turkey mcardak@hotmail.com Murat Đskender Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Turkey iskender@sakarya.edu.tr Mustafa Koç Sakarya University, Faculty of Education, Turkey mkoc@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between social support, social self-efficacy and submissive behavior. Participants were 317 university students who completed a questionnaire package that included the Submissive Behavior Scale, the Social Self-efficacy Scale and the Multidimensional Scale for Social Support. The data were tested by correlational analysis. According to results; submissive behavior was related positively to social support and negatively to social self-efficacy. Results were discussed in the light of literature. Introduction Submissive behavior is a set of observable personality traits which involve avoiding to break others, trying to make everyone happy, being inclined to be very helpful, having difficulty with expressing the conditions s/he does not approve, having difficulty with expressing his/her anger, having difficulty with saying “no" and being inclined to say "yes", feeling the urge for continuous approval, being unable to defend their rights and thoughts (Göktuna, 2007). behaviors which start in an early age of childhood is a desired and admired feature as unconditional submission to orders of the state and authority in the local culture (Cüceloğlu, 2003) and in other words is dominant in the interpersonal relationships in Eastern culture rather than Western culture (Yildirim, 2003). There are cultural differences in the ways of submission. Some cultures give more importance to submission than other cultures (Karaoğlu, 2007). Individuals who feel themselves to be low rank, with a tendency to behave submissively, may be more self-focused to ensure monitoring of expressed behavior (Cheung, Gilbert, Irons, 2003). There are views, which suggest that submission is emerged with the effect of imitation and learning from a model. As it is in many behavior types, an individual may be inclined to act the way he observed in someone else. It was found that submission is more frequently observed in those who live in the nuclear family and males. Even if it is accepted that women are exposed to more violence and pressure in a male dominant social structure, it is a wonder that males are more inclined to develop conformist behavior (Kaya, Güneş, Kaya, Pehlivan, 2004). Based on findings on different researches, one can assume that dominance is more male-typed whereas submissiveness is more female-typed. However, this interpretation is only speculative and the gender-typed nature of dominant and submissive acts has yet to be clearly ascertained (McCreary & Rhodes, 2001). democracies, it is possible and expected not to be conformist; in totalitarian systems only a few outlaw heroes and people fighting for an aim are expected to reject submission. But despite this difference, conformism is observed in the overwhelming majority in a democratic society. The reason for this lies in the fact of having to find an answer for the concept of unity or be a part of the group by conforming if a better solution cannot be found. If the core of necessity of thinking differently is understood, the strength of the fear of being different and 294 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo being a few steps away from the flock may be understood. Fear of not being conformist turns into a potential threat of the fear of practical principles in the mind of the nonconformist. But in reality, people, at least in Western democracies, are more willing to conform than they are compelled to act so (Fromm, 1998). Gilbert et al (2003) claim that submissive behavior is then a tactic of defense and not a personal judgment. Apsler (1975) found that humiliating people and making them anxious increases submission. According to this, the reason of increase in submission results from the fear that person’s fault will be displayed or the willing to get rid of the uneasiness rather than the self-anxiety of showing himself/herself better in public (Freedman, Sears, Carlsmith, 1993). Lewis and Michalson (1983) one of the four factors in the emergence of anger is to have to obey the orders and sanctions or pressure or force to do something that the individual does not want to (Özmen, 2006). This condition constitutes an important factor in the deterioration of mental health of people. Studies conducted revealed significant relations between submissive behavior and depression (Gilbert, 2000; Gilbert, Cheung, Grandfield, Campey, Irons, 2003). Social support attributes to the supportive behaviors and resources of our social ties, including emotional support, intimacy, positive interaction, and tangible support (House, 1981; Williams et al, 2008). It can include emotional support, instrumental support, appraisal support, and informational support (House, 1981; Glazer, 2006). Social support has a positive influence on the ability to cope with negative life events. The beneficial effects of social support may occur through protecting individuals from the harmful effects of stress (Lakey & Cohen, 2000), contributing to adjustment and development (Clark, 1991), raising self-esteem (Lakey & Cassady, 1990; Kinnunen, Feldt, Kinnunen, Pulkkinen, 2008), and well-being (Sarason, Pierce, & Sarason, 1990; Cohen, & Wills, 1985). It reduces the intensity of the post-traumatic reactions and predicts better overall adjustment following a traumatic experience (Keppel-Benson, Ollendick, & Benson, 2002; Neria, Solomon, & Dekel, 1998), symptoms of distress and psychopathology (Lindorff, 2000), and symptoms of illness (Dolbier & Steinhardt, 2000). Studies about social support have shown significant relations between lower social support and depression (Keiley, Lofthouse, Bates, Dodge, & Petit, 2003; Young, Berenson, Cohen, & Garcia, 2005), conduct problems (Appleyard, Egeland, & Sroufe, 2007), academic performance (Heard, 2007), and depressive symptoms and hopelessness (Yang, & Clum, 1994). Social self-efficacy, one aspect of effective social skills, refers to a readiness to initiate behavior in social conditions (Sherer & Adams, 1983; Smith & Betz, 2000) and it also can be considered as the student’s expectancy that they can successfully perform or complete a target behavior in an academic or everyday situation involving social interaction (Connolly, 1989; Gresham, 1984). It is important not only in its possible relationship to effective social behavior but also it has been widely applied to psychological adjustment and mental health. Social self-efficacy skills mediated the relationship between stressful life events and depressive symptoms (Maciejewski, Prigerson, & Mazure, 2000). It has been consistently shown to be related to higher levels of global self-esteem (Connolly, 1989; Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Smith & Betz, 2002). Bandura, Barbaranelli, Caprara, and Pastorelli (1996) found that social self-efficacy was related to the emotional wellbeing of high school students. Research has also indicated that lower levels of social self-efficacy are related to higher levels of depression (Hermann & Betz,2004, 2006; Smith & Betz, 2002), attachment anxiety (Mallinckrodt & Wei, 2005) and positively related to loneliness and social dissatisfaction (Galanaki & KalantziAzizi, 1999). 1. Method 1.1. Participants Participants were 317 university students enrolled in various undergraduate programs at Sakarya University, Turkey. Of the participants, 91 were first-year students, 67 were second-year students, 79 were third-year students, and 80 were fourth-year students. One hundred and fifty-two of the participants (48%) were females and 165 (52%) were males. A large majority of the students (94%) were between 17 and 22 years of age. 1.2. Measures Submissive behaviors were measured by Submissive Acts Scale (SAS, Gilbert & Allan, 1994). Turkish adaptation of the SAS had been done by Şahin and Şahin (1992. The adolescents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement with each statement on a 5-point scale ranging from this is a very bad description of me to 295 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo this is a very good description of me. The scale consists of 16 items (e.g., ‘‘Even if I don’t like it, I do things just because other people are also doing them.’’ and, ‘‘I allow other people to criticize and let me down and do not defend myself.’’). The Perceived Social Self-efficacy Scale (PSSS) was developed by Smith and Betz (2000) and contains 25 items on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). A sum of all scores yields a total score that ranges from 25 to 125; higher scores indicate higher level social self-efficacy. Turkish adaptation of this scale had been done by Palanci (2004). The Cronbach a internal consistency coefficient of the adapted Turkish form was .89. For test–retest reliability the scale was administered to 100 undergraduate students twice in 4 weeks. The Pearson correlation coefficient was .68. Social support was measured using Turkish version of the Multidimensional Scale for Social Support (MSPSS, Zimet et al., 1988; Eker, Arkar, 1995). The MSPSS consists of 12 items on a 7-point Likert scale, from not suitable at all (1) to very suitable (7). The students’ self reports also provided scores on three subscales, each subscale comprising four items: (a) family social support subscale, containing items such as ‘‘I can discuss my problems with my family’’ and ‘‘I get help and emotional support from my family’’; (b) friends’ support, consisting of items such as ‘‘I have friends with whom I can share my happiness and pain’’ and ‘‘I can count on my friends when problems arise’’; (c) the significant other’s support, with items such as ‘‘I have a close person who can encourage me’’ and ‘‘I have a close person who supports me when I am in need’’. Scores for each of this scale range from 12 to 84, where a higher score expresses higher social support. 2. Results 2.1. Descriptive Data and Inter-correlations When Table 1 is examined, it is seen that there are correlations between submissive behavior, social self-efficacy and social support. Submissive behavior related positively to social support (r = .11) and negatively to social self-efficacy (r = -.51). Variables 1. Submissive behavior 2. Social self-efficacy 3. Social support Mean Standard deviation ** p<.001, *p<.01 1 1.00 -.51** .11* 51.30 7.49 2 3 1.00 -.09 77.86 10.56 1.00 60.98 14.57 Table 1: Descriptive Statistics and Inter-correlations of the Variables 2.2. Gender differences When Table 2 is examined, there were no significant gender differences in submissive behavior, social selfefficacy and social support. 296 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Variable Submissive behavior Social self-efficacy Social support *** p<0.001 Females (N=152) Mean SD Males (N=165) Mean SD t p 51.52 6.79 51.09 8.10 .60 .61 77.86 60.98 11.15 14.83 79.55 61.32 9.96 14.37 -1.42 -.21 .15 .83 Table 2: Gender Differences in Submissive Behavior, Social Self-efficacy and Social Support 3. Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between social support, social self-efficacy and submissive behavior. Findings have demonstrated that there are relationships among these variables. Firstly, as hypothesized, submissive behavior predicted social self-efficacy negatively and social support positively. Recent studies on lower levels of social self-efficacy are related to higher levels of depression (Hermann & Betz, 2004, 2006; Smith & Betz, 2002), attachment anxiety (Mallinckrodt & Wei, 2005) and positively related to loneliness and social dissatisfaction (Galanaki & Kalantzi-Azizi, 1999) and emotional well-being (Caprara, & Pastorelli, 1996). Similarly, higher social support was found associated positively with well-being (Zimet et al, 1988) and negatively with depression (Keiley et al, 2003; Young et al, 2005), conduct problems (Appleyard et al, 2007), academic performance (Heard, 2007), depressive symptoms and hopelessness (Yang, & Clum, 1994). Research findings have demonstrated that there are no gender differences among social support, social selfefficacy and submissive behavior. The gender-typed nature of dominant and submissive acts has yet to be clearly ascertained (McCreary & Rhodes, 2001). This study has several implications for future research. Firstly, further research investigating the relationships between social support, social self-efficacy and submissive behavior, and other psychological constructs are needed, to reinforce the findings of this study. In addition interventions focused on increasing social support and social self-efficacy can be useful in decreasing submissive behavior. This study has several limitations. First, participants were university students and replication of this study for targeting other student populations should be made in order to generate a more solid relationship among constructs examined in this study, because generalization of the results is somewhat limited. Second, the data reported here for social support, social self-efficacy and submissive behavior are limited to self reported data. So, the current findings increase our understanding of the relationships social support, social self-efficacy and submissive behavior. References Appleyard, K., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (2007). Direct social support for young high risk children: relations with behavioral and emotional outcomes across time. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychololgy, 35, 443-457. Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (1996). Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy belief on academic functioning. Child Development, 67, 1206–1222. Clark, M. L. (1991). Social identity, peer relations, and academic competence of African– American adolescents. Education and Urban Society, 24, 41–52. Cheung, M.S.P., Gilbert, P. & Irons, C., (2003). An Exploration of shame, social rank and rumination in relation to depression. 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Sherer, M., & Adams, C. H. (1983). Construct validation of the self-efficacy scale. Psychological Reports, 53, 899–902. Smith, H. M., & Betz, N. E. (2000). Development and validation of a scale of perceived social self-efficacy. Journal of Career Assessment, 8, 283–301. Smith, H. M., & Betz, N. E. (2002). An examination of efficacy and esteem pathways to depression in young adulthood. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 438–448. 299 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Williams, L., O’Connor, R.C., Howard, S., Hughes, B. M., Johnston, D. W., Hay, J. L., O’Connor, D. B., Lewis, C. A., Ferguson, E., Sheehy, N., Grealy, M. A., & O’Carroll, R. E. (2008).Type-D personality mechanisms of effect: The role of health-related behavior and social support. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 64, 63– 69. Yang, B., & Clum, G. A. (1994). Life stress, social support, andproblem -solving skills predictive of depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and suicide ideation in an Asian student population: a test of a model. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 24, 127–139. Yıldırım, Đ. (2004). Prevalence Of Submissive Acts Among High School Students. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 26 : 220-228. Young, J. F., Berenson, K., Cohen, P., & Garcia, J. (2005). The role of parent and peer support in predicting adolescent depression: A longitudinal community study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 15, 407e423. Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52(1), 30–41. 300 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 710 Title A name given to the resource The Examination of Relationship between Social Support, Social Selfefficacy and Submissive Behavior Author Author Çardak, Mehmet İskender, Murat Koç, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between social support, social self-efficacy and submissive behavior. Participants were 317 university students who completed a questionnaire package that included the Submissive Behavior Scale, the Social Self-efficacy Scale and the Multidimensional Scale for Social Support. The data were tested by correlational analysis. According to results; submissive behavior was related positively to social support and negatively to social self-efficacy. Results were discussed in the light of literature. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e37cbbfcf8201d555c432851a872900.pdf 011a4c97701738675faef38492f07b0e PDF Text Text Competency-Graph Based Elearning Content Development For Halal Quality Control B. Gültekin ÇETĐNER a,* Mete GÜNDOĞAN b* M. Kutluk ÖZGÜVEN c,* a Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Professor Dr., Industrial Engineering cetiner@ius.edu.ba , b Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Professor Dr., Economics mgundogan@ius.edu.ba c Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Associate Professor Dr., Management kozguven@ius.edu.ba *International University of Sarajevo (IUS), Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract: Processing and the production of the food and dairy products is one of the most critical industrial sectors because of its direct effect on human health. On the other hand, echo-ethical concepts such as Kosher, Vegetarian and Halal terms are becoming more popular for certain communities. The concept of Halal on food production and its importance for Muslim communities makes it a great business opportunity in all around the world with its potential of exceeding 500 billion USD. Generating standards for Halal Quality and transforming the religious rules in today’s industry and implementing the Halal concept on food production with well-documented procedures require the combination of various knowledge with systems engineering practices. More effective and efficient ways have to be also developed to disseminate this knowledge. Since a universal set of standards for Certification of Halal is not established yet, Halal Accreditation Agencies in different parts of the world follow various standards to their best. This paper suggests an approach to develop elearning content in order to facilitate the training for Halal Quality Control and Certification practices. It is based on the establishment of competency-graphs according to the standards set in general guidelines of Codex Alimentarius Commission, Malaysian and Bosnian (CACMB) Standards. The suggested competency-graphs in this paper may be used as a model for designing an elearning platform in training all related parties before and during the Halal quality control and certification processes. Key Words: Elearning, Competency-graphs, Halal Certification, Halal Standards. Introduction Nowadays, the meat trade is growing and passing country boundaries in a magnitude never seen before. Several issues that are always cited as the enablers of this growth are: ‘super-production’ by a few large exporting countries; the increase of disposable income in most importing countries; and the gradual lowering of trade barriers in many parts of the world. From 1961 to 2007, total global meat output rose from 71 million MT to about 283 million MT and the global meat trade jumped from only 3.5 million MT to 22 million MT. Poultry meat is still the largest type of traded meat. As a percentage of the total global meat production, global meat trade increased from 4.9 per cent in 1961 to 7.8 per cent in 2007 (Irfan Sungkar, 2009). Halal meat products and their use in other products have become the major driving force for global Halal trade. Due to globalization, more and more trade occurs between countries with different religious backgrounds. The existence of different communities and importance of so-called echo-ethical products such as Kosher and Halal as a major buying decision makes the Halal industry an important sector in all around the world depending on the demand in each particular region. On the other hand, the swell in demand for Halal products has given rise to fraud, where companies and exporters are labeling foods as Halal, when, in fact, this is not the case. One of the major concerns in the food market for Muslim communities is the pork which is prohibited in Islamic tradition. Due to the fact that productivity and relatively easier breeding of animal pigs producers may tend to blend meat products from these animals into other products usually improper labeling. The detection of the frauds at certain times and geographical locations make the Muslim consumers insist that the food industry comply with Halal standards during manufacturing, processing and packaging of foods. 854 �In this new century, the food supply chain has become more complex and it involves a lot more additional processes. It is even more important now than before to ensure safety of the products manufactured, and this is done via standards and regulations imposed on food manufacturers. Although it may be interpreted as a trade barrier, at the end of the day, it is essential for food manufacturers/ exporters to gain consumers’ satisfaction and trust. Most of the countries usually have strict regulations regarding especially meat and its derivatives. The BSE or Mad Cow Disease crisis and other food crises within the European Union (EU) proved that it is very important that at all times the origin of food products can be traced. The new regulations also include provisions for the traceability of food in the food chain (Irfan Sungkar, 2009). The requirements apply to food and feed businesses located in the EU (including importers). They are obliged to: a) Know and document from whom they have bought their food (ingredients) b) Know and document to whom they supply their products c) Label their products so that they can establish traceability in case of a food safety problem All these requirements regarding the food safety regulations set by authorities and demand by the communities need a systems engineering approach to the problem of Halal Certification. A Halal certificate is a document issued by an organization (known as certification agency) certifying that the products listed on it meet Islamic dietary guidelines, as defined by that certifying agency. Halal Certification practices similar to the other practices such as ISO and HACCP involve training of the stakeholders in the food production chain. External accountability principles require an external body which does not have an affiliation or interest in the company for certifying the compliance. It involves experts knowledgeble in food chain analysis. Furthermore, a religious authority is needed and often it is also separate from this expert body. Certification may be based on the compliance for the manufacturing site or specifically for certain products in the production chain. Duration of certificate depends on the manufacturing and product types. Complexity of certification may be overcome by training people in the food chain. Training is usually the most cumbersome part of the process and training needs may change from one agency to another. Competency-graphs were developed herein to model and achieve the knowledge management regarding the training needs related to the whole certification process. For Halal Quality Certification, general guidelines of Codex Alimentarius Commission (GL 24-19971), Malaysian Standards (MS 1500 2004) and Bosnian Standards (BAS 1049-2007) were taken as basis for constructing the whole model which will be named throughout this paper as CACMB. The paper briefly describes the competency graphs known also as Conceptual Prerequisite Maps (CPM) and then outlines the competency graphs for a Halal Certification Processes. It also gives an example knowledge pathway through the competency graph for training in a sample domain within Halal Certification chain. Conceptual Prerequisite Maps (CPM) or Competency Graphs Throughout the later part of the twentieth century, significant research efforts have been devoted into the area of intelligent tutoring system. While small-scale implementations of various systems have achieved successes, no system to-date has been able to achieve large-scale deployment. While the advance of networking and hypertext technologies in recent decades have seemingly introduced new hopes and promises, developments and advances in computer assisted learning have been weighted heavily on content management, organization and standardization. Competency graphs were suggested to answer some of the challenges encountered by developers of intelligence tutoring systems (Louis Shun, Vincent Ng). To allow intuitive creation of concepts by subject matter experts, and to ensure maximum adaptability of the algorithms to be investigated, a competency graph may be utilized to model knowledge base on a basic form as directed acyclic graphs (DAG) named Conceptual Prerequisite Maps (CPM). Only two elements are presented in a CPM. The nodes of the CPM represent knowledge or concepts, while the arcs present “is prerequisite of” relations of one concept to another. The formal definition of a CPM is as follows ((Louis Shun, Vincent Ng): A Conceptual Prerequisite Map (CPM) or Competency Graph (CG) is a directed acyclic graph (DAG) represented as G(C,P,f) where C is a set of concepts represented as vertices, P a set of “is prerequisite of” relationships represented as edges, and f being an ordered mapping f: P → C x C. Figure 1 shows an example CPM with 10 concepts in the knowledge domain. 855 �Figure 1. CPM of 10 concepts All the competencies are represented as nodes in the graph and the dependencies between them are identified and specified. CPM can be used to model a learner’s level of mastery of the concepts in a specific knowledge domain. Some measurements may be associated with individual concepts representing the learner’s level of competency in the domain. With the expansion and abundance of information, it is important to model and to analyze knowledge in an organizational level. The availability of an organizational knowledge model would allow an organization to specify organizational needs of knowledge related to its essential operations in a more systematic way. Competency Graphs for Knowledge Management in Halal Quality Control Conceptual Prerequisite Maps or Competency Graphs are suggested herein for modeling knowledge, content, learners' as well as organizational knowledge needs for Halal Quality Control process. Figure 2 shows the competency graph developed for the certification process. There are three different symbols used in the graph. Conceptual knowledge shown by ellipses represents the theoretical knowledge, general understanding of a concept (see the 'Halal Quality Control H1000'). Procedural knowledge is shown by boxes and means practical knowledge of the way a procedure is performed. It may be also defined an activity or set of activities to perform (see the 'Evaluation of Products P1000'). External knowledge is the knowledge that should be known and being available externally (see the 'Islamic Concepts C1000'). The direction of arrows shows the prerequisite relationship between two entities. In the competency graph given, the concept H1000 requires the P1000 and P1100 whereas P1000 and P1100 are required by H1000. The external entity C1000 (Islamic Concepts) is required by both 'Audit Team P1500' and 'Education Team P2100'. Individual competency cards are developed for all these three items namely conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge (aka actvities), and external knowledge. 856 �Figure 2. Competency Graph for Halal Certification Process Competency Name Evaluation of products Competency Code P1000 Description This competency constitutes the knowledge of the announced and unannounced occasional inspections to Applicant Company and analysis of company’s random samples from the market. Competency Type Activity Required by Competencies H1000 Requires Competencies P1100 Refer to CACMB, Procedure for Halal Quality Certification, Section heading Evaluation of product validity. Figure 3. Competency Card for Evaluation of Products (P1000) Explanatory Supplements 857 �The competency cards may be utilized to quickly refer to the related competency (see Figure 3). Each competency card has the description fields as Competency Name, Competency Code, Description, Competency Type, Required by Competencies, Requires Competencies, and Explanatory Supplements. The competency card in Figure 3 is related to the activity 'Evaluation of products P1000'. Furthermore, a competency table is developed as in Table 1. The competency table includes 14 Activities, 3 Conceptual Knowledge Maps, and 1 External Knowledge Map. Knowledge Pathways in Competency Graphs Competency Graphs provide the designers of elearning system developers with the knowledge paths which are useful for conditional activities style of learning resources. Competency graphs are used for developing the knowledge pathways. Any branch of three elements (activity, knowledge and external entity) in a competency graph may be starting point depending on the learning needs of the required user. The following section gives a brief case study as an example to the knowledge pathway required for a Halal Expert. Case Study: Knowledge Pathway for Halal Expert We assume a case herein where Certification authority wants to expand the number of Halal Experts and Official Auditors to rapidly satisfy increasing Halal Certification demand in the region. Authority receives some applications and makes a selection among the candidates. 30 candidates are elected for the position. Before they start working they must be trained and given the concept of Halal Quality Control. The competency graph given in Figure 2 is utilized for this purpose. To implement the idea of creating the knowledge path, the related branches first need to be identified in the competency graph. Halal Experts can play two roles in the certification process. They may be either a member of education team (P2100) or audit team (P1500). We see that for a person in both positions, the knowledge of CACMB (H1100) and Islamic Concepts (C1000) competencies are required (see Figure 2). Starting with H1100 which is the CACMB standards for Halal certification, the Halal expert requires knowledge of certain competeny paths based on the competency graphs developed for CACMB (H1100). A competency graph was also developed for this project. However, due to the space constraint in this paper, only related parts in the competency graph of H1100 is given. Name Code Type Required By Halal Quality Control H1000 Knowledge P1000 P1100 Evaluation of products P1000 Activity H1000 P1100 Contract of Certification and P1100 Trademark use Activity H1000 P1000, P1200 Audit Report P1200 Activity P1100 P1300 Certification Audit P1300 Activity P1200 P1400 Audit Plan P1400 Activity P1300 P1500 Audit Team P1500 Activity P1400 C1000, H1100 Documentation and Requesting P1600 Activity P1400 P1800 Internal Auditor Certification P1800 Activity P1600 P1700, H1200 Certification Contract P1900 Activity H1200 P2200, P2300 Education Plan P2000 Activity H1200 P2100 Education Team P2100 Activity P2000 C1000, H1100 Proposal Application P2200 Activity P1900 P2400 Price Orientation P2300 Activity P1900 Certification Request P2400 Activity P2200 Islamic Concepts C1000 External P2100 858 Requires P1500 �Internal Auditor Training H1200 Knowledge P1800 CACMB H1100 Knowledge P2100 P1900 P1500, H1110, H1120, H1130, H1140, H1150, H1160, H1170 Table 1 Competency Table for Halal Quality Control (Main Competencies) A Halal Expert needs pathways from H1100 as Area of Implementation (H110), Reference to other standards (H1120), Terms and Definitions (H1130), Halal Food Requiements (H1140), Labeling (H1150), Halal Certificate (H1160) and Additions (H1170) to reach the overall knowledge for Halal Standards requirements and measures for Halal Quality. Terms and Definitions (H1130) require some other knowledge required namely Halal Quality (H1131), Halal Product (H1132), Haram Product (H1133), Mashbooh Product (H1134), HAS (H1135), Halal Products Administration (H1136), and HrCCP (H1137). The knowledge of Halal Food Requirements (H1140) needs the knowledge of Haram Food (H1141), Halal Food (H1142), Additional Requirements (H1143), and Halal Meat and Halal Slaughtering of Animals (H1144). Haram Food (H1141) requires the knowledge elements of Food of Animal Origin (H1145), Food of Herbal Origin (H1146), Beverages (H1147), and Additives (H1148). Additions (H1170) needs the elements Procedure for Halal Quality Certification (H1171), Rulebook on Audit for Halal Quality (H1172), Rulebook on Halal Logo of Halal Quality Appearance and Use (H1173), Rulebook on Halal Slaughtering (H1174), and Rulebook on Halal Status of Additives (H1175). So after having all the knowledge in the path, the trainee gains the competency of CACMB (H1100). The knowledge pathway to H1100 is shown in Figure 4. 1st Step Knowledge H1145 H1146 H1147 H1148 2nd Step Knowledge 3rd Step H1131 H1132 H1133 Knowledge H1134 H1135 H1137 H1110 H1120 H1141 H1142 H1143 H1130 H1140 H1144 H1171 H1172 H1150 H1160 H11734. H1174 H1175 H1170 Figure Knowledge Pathway to H1100 (CACMB) Acquired Knowledge H1100 Besides the knowledge path explained, a Halal Expert candidate must also have the knowledge of Islamic concepts (C1000). This is an external knowledge requirement including religious knowledge of related verses and hadith on Halal subjects. A Halal Expert Candidate needs to acquire the knowledge of H1100 and C1000 in order to participate in an audit team or an education team. There are also some other competencies which are needed for an expert in those positions. Those are ability to prepare an audit plan P1400, education plan P2000, to train internal auditors H1200, making a certification audit P1300, and preparing an audit report P1200. Indeed rules and guidelines of these competencies are included in the CACMB (H1100) but they are changeable in respect to structure applicant organization and the type of the application itself. So they have a procedural hierarchy with a dynamic pathway. Minimum requirement for being a Halal Expert is embedded in this knowledge pathway. However, it is also recommended for Halal Expert to acquire overall competency for Halal Quality control to work with the whole Picture of Halal Concept. Conclusions This paper suggests an approach to develop elearning content in order to facilitate the training for Halal Quality Control and Certification practices. The approach is based on the establishment of competency-graphs according to the standards set according to combination of three standards. The suggested competency-graphs in this paper may be used as a model for designing an elearning platform in training all related parties before and during the Halal quality control and certification processes. This is a unique approach in this business which is growing very fast. Within a decade, the business volume is expected to be more than a trillion dollars worth. References Codex Alimentarius Comission /GL 24-19971, General Guidelines for Use of the Term “Halal” MS 1500 2004 (2004), "Malaysian Standards for Halal", Malaysian Standards Institute BAS 1049-2007 (2007), "Halal Standards in Bosnia and Herzegovina", Halal Accreditation Agency 859 �Louis Shun, Vincent Ng, “Competency Graphs for Intelligent Tutoring System”, Department of Computing, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Irfan Sungkar (2009) “Rising Income and Trade Patterns of the Global Halal Meat Trade”, The Halal Journal, Issue: Jan/Feb 2009 860 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 638 Title A name given to the resource Competency-Graph Based Elearning Content Development For Halal Quality Control Author Author ÇETİNER, B. Gültekin GÜNDOĞAN, Mete ÖZGÜVEN, M. Kutluk Abstract A summary of the resource. Processing and the production of the food and dairy products is one of the most critical industrial sectors because of its direct effect on human health. On the other hand, echo-ethical concepts such as Kosher, Vegetarian and Halal terms are becoming more popular for certain communities. The concept of Halal on food production and its importance for Muslim communities makes it a great business opportunity in all around the world with its potential of exceeding 500 billion USD. Generating standards for Halal Quality and transforming the religious rules in today’s industry and implementing the Halal concept on food production with well-documented procedures require the combination of various knowledge with systems engineering practices. More effective and efficient ways have to be also developed to disseminate this knowledge. Since a universal set of standards for Certification of Halal is not established yet, Halal Accreditation Agencies in different parts of the world follow various standards to their best. This paper suggests an approach to develop elearning content in order to facilitate the training for Halal Quality Control and Certification practices. It is based on the establishment of competency-graphs according to the standards set in general guidelines of Codex Alimentarius Commission, Malaysian and Bosnian (CACMB) Standards. The suggested competency-graphs in this paper may be used as a model for designing an elearning platform in training all related parties before and during the Halal quality control and certification processes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/192b583b95e01d4a51d53e26f3411eea.pdf df567e0b405ac9cfc88563f29273eeda PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Alternative Financing Models for Sustainable Housing Finance System: Some Proposals for Participation Banks in Turkey Ali Cüneyt ÇETĠN University of Suleyman Demirel, Isparta, TURKEY ccetin@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Orhan ADIGÜZEL University of Suleyman Demirel, Isparta, TURKEY orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Abstract: This study examines some alternative financing models for sustainable housing development. As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several financing models are currently in existence, the dominant among which are the cost plus sale (buyand-sell principle) and the diminishing partnership and lease contracts. In this study, the alternative financing models compare to the conventional financing (interest-based) system using illustration from banking practices. The paper examines the differences between the two and goes on to discuss specific problems of housing finance. In relation to the alternative financing models, the paper concludes that the diminishing partnership and lease contracts have several advantages over the cost plus sale for the customer. When implemented through Turkish participation banks and cooperatives, the diminishing partnership can provide an investment avenue for members through the fractional reserve money creation process. Consequently, if alternative housing financing models are adopted worldwide, sustainable housing finance system might be more stable and fair. Introduction Home is a necessity for human life and owning a good home is an aspiration of everyone. People fulfill this need by building a home on their own, purchasing it or renting it from others. Payment for conventional home mortgage normally takes a good chunk of one‘s monthly income. Conventional home mortgages are interest-based. Alternative financial practices for house financing arise from the Islamic contracts. Alternative methods of finance for home do not involve interest. In an alternative house financing contract, the property should be owned by the bank or the financial institution. In practice, this means that a financial institution would buy a property at a certain price (exactly like any other buyer or trader). When the bank becomes a complete owner of this property, it would then be resold at a higher price to any client who would like to buy this specific property. This prospective buyer shows his or her interest by submitting a documented or written promise to the bank assuring that he will re-purchase the property. There is no interest at all because the price is not changeable. Whatever happens after the sale agreement nothing will justify any increase of the cost of the house. There is no room for any speculation to take place in the light of any possible monthly interest rate change. Everything completely relies on the agreed price in the contract, whether payment will be after five years or twenty. The bank deal with properties as an original owner and sell the houses directly to the clients based on instalments or some other mode of the alternative mortgage (Dwaikat, 2008). Some financial institutions have introduced a number of modes for home ownership, the dominant of which are the cost plus sale (CPS) contract and the diminishing partnership and lease (DPL) contracts. The CPS is the popular concept in countries like Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei whereas the DPL is widely practiced in the Middle East, United States, Canada, United Kingdom and Australia (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 5–6). 59 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The objective of this paper is to make theoretical analyses between the CPS and the DPL contracts. For the benefit of the interested readers, managers and customers of participation banks, the paper also provides some examples for the DPL contract. Alternative House Financing Models As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several alternative modes are currently in existence, the dominant among which are; – Cost plus sale (Murabaha5) – Leasing to rent (Ijara): – Lease to own (Ijara wa Iqtina‘a 6) – Diminishing partnership and lease model (the Musharakah Mutanaqisah Partnership) Controversy about alternative home financing practices can arise when the translation is made from Arabic to English. For this reason, British government departments use the same words for different concepts: Ijara (FSA, 2006, p. 3) (leasing to rent), Ijara wa Iqtina‘a (HM Treasury, 2007, p. 9) (lease to own). The Cost Plus Sale (CPS) Cost plus sales (CPS) similar to a buyer‘s credit (see, Jackson, 2004, p. 26; UNCTAD, 2006, p. 12). Cost plus sale is a contract between the customer and the financial institution that entitles the institution to purchase the goods and sell them again to the customer on deferred instalments without the need to have an interest–bearing loan (Hassan, 2007, p. 4–5). Here, it could be said that when the banks undertake the transactions according to CPS contracts, they actually play the role of traders (Akhtar, 2005, p. 26). The process of this contract starts when the customer requests a tangible asset from a supplier, the financial institution sells it, and then the customer pays the money to the institution on a deferred sale basis with a mark- up reflecting the institution‘s profit, which is called a cost-profit (Segrado, 2005, p. 10). It means that this contract is a sale transaction. A specified profit margin goes to the institution by special agreement whereby the institution funds the purchasing operation for the benefit of the customer, but in an indirect way, through buying the goods then selling them again to the customer, who should return the money within an agreed time limit, in instalments or in a lump sum. Any risk connected to the goods bought by the institution should remain its responsibility until they are delivered to the customer. This method of financing used to be one of the most important tools used extensively by participation banks for funding commodity trade by acquisition of long-term assets. In other words, the financial institution (bank) gives the client a commodity loan, the value of which will be returned to the bank at a cost to the bank plus a mark up (Gaber, 2007, p. 6). There are some conditions for a correct cost plus sale contract: – The bank (the seller) keeps the ownership rights of the commodity from the time of negotiation until the end of the contract. – The bank should give the client the exact cost of the commodity, and define the sum of profit in advance. That must be added together and quoted to the client as a final price (Abdelhamid, 2005, p. 37). – The contract with all its transactions must be free from interest. – Any defect in the goods to be sold must be disclosed by the bank (the seller) (Gaber, 2007, p. 6). Cost plus sale is one of the best known forms of alternative finance; it is also applicable to financing commercial transactions which require liquid short- term instruments, and it can also be used for long-term investments (Lovells, 2004). In a CPS contract, the client is certain about all the details of the contract, the original price and the mark-up that should be paid back to the bank, in addition to the clarity of the deferred instalments, without any future changes. This means the client is not concerned about many other details, especially in connection with a fluctuating rate of interest influenced by very changeable market prices. The client can pay all the money back at any point without any kind of restriction or redemption fee being charged. He can pay higher instalments than the instalments agreed on, but of course not lower. This point is a very important difference between the CPS and conventional mortgage (Khanfar, 2009, p. 9). The CPS is basically a sale contract which provides the buyer the benefit of a deferred payment, whereby the deferred price of the sale object carries an additional profit. The commodity exchanged is ―delivered‖ immediately but the sale price (with profit) is paid in instalments, over a long period. The current CPS home 5 Literally, this means a profitable sale and is also called the al-Bay’ Bithaman Ajil meaning deferred payment sale (Thomas, 2001, p. 5). 6 The words mean ―leasing and acquisition‖ and it is variably called ―leasing ending in ownership‖ (Thomas, 2001, p. 8). 60 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo financing, instead of charging the customer interest, financiers charge a profit derived through a buy-and-sell contract, but the profit rate is dependent on the market interest rate due to arbitrage activities. Therefore, while the CPS is practiced in some countries, it is, nonetheless, converging to the conventional mode where the computational formulas are similar to the conventional and where the profit rate tracks the market interest rate. The current difference between the fixed-rate CPS and the conventional mode is that once the profit rate is fixed in the CPS, say at 7% per annum, it will remain the same for the entire duration of financing. This, in fact, causes problems for the financiers as it is difficult to estimate accurately the cost of funds and hence the appropriate profit rate over long periods like 20 years, due to the volatility of economic conditions. This encourages customers to refinance their home from CPS to conventional during low interest periods and vice versa (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 4–5). The CPS Home Purchase plan is based on the principle of trading or buying and selling goods at a profit Investment Banking Unit contracts with the vendor and pays the deposit required when the contracts are exchanged. The sale price from Investment Banking Unit to the client is the price paid by Investment Banking Unit to the vendor, plus the return Investment Banking Unit pays its investors, plus administrative expenses and a profit margin. The property after sale to the; buyer is registered in the buyers name and the buyer repays Investment Banking Unit fixed monthly installments. The key features of CPS are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 7): – Clients identify the property that wish to buy and agree the purchase price with the seller of the property in the normal way. – The Investment Banking Unit will buy the property, and immediately sell it to the client at a higher price. This is calculated depending on the property value, payment terms (up to 15 years) and the amount of the first payment. – When purchased, the property is registered in client‘s name. The sale between client and the bank is recorded in the CPS Contract. – Clients first payment to the bank is made on the day of completion and is client‘s initial contribution is a minimum of 20% of the purchase price. In a CPS based mortgage; firstly, customer find a property requests the bank to purchase it to sell it to him at cost plus a declared profit, and then the bank purchases the property directly and sells it to on the basis of a fixed mark-up-profit, finally, the customer agrees to pay the price in agreed upon easy installments. Example of a CPS Financing Assume that a customer wishes to buy a houses priced at €200, 000. The customer puts a down-payment of 10 percent, i.e. €20, 000 and finances the remaining 80 percent, i.e. €180, 000 using the CPS method. Also assume that the Annual Profit Rate (APR) charged by the bank is 10 percent per annum and the duration of financing is for 20 years. The bank would first buy the house for €180, 000 and then sell the house to the customer at a profit, with deferred payments over the 20-year period. The monthly payment for the above financing is €1,737.047, payable for 240 months which adds up to €416, 889.35 in total. The difference between this figure and the original financing of €180,000 which equals €236, 889.35 is the total profit for the bank from this transaction. The profit of €236, 889.35 is capitalized upfront in the CPS mode, unlike under the conventional mortgage, where the interest due is not recognized until the elapse of time. One important difference of the CPS compared with the DPL and the conventional mortgage is that of the balance of financing remaining before the expiry of the duration of financing. For our example, the CPS balance after 10 years (i.e. after 120 payments) is the total of the remaining 120 payments, i.e. €208, 444.80 whereas under conventional mortgage, this amount would represent the total interest paid for the loan over the 20-year period. The bank, however, may give some rebate for the early repayment, but the amount of rebate is determined at the discretion of the bank. Note that even after ten years of repayment, the balance under the CPS mode can even exceed the original financing of €180,00014 (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 7). While both the bank and the conventional bank create the original principal amounts through fractional reserve banking system (i.e. loans given out do not really reduce the deposits of the depositors), a customer owes more money in the alternative mode than the conventional mode at any time thereafter until the ‗loan‘ is settled. This fact alone is very attractive for even the conventional bankers to provide alternative mode financing (See Meera, 2004). 7 Computed using the standard formula for present value of annuities (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 7). 61 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Lease Lease is proving to be most popular method of house finance. This is because it is more flexible than cost plus sale if the client wishes to pay bank early or if the client wish to make additional, ‗lump sum‘ payments. The key features of lease are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 9): – The client identifies the property that wish to buy and agree the purchase price with the seller in the normal way. – The Investment Banking Unit will then sell the property to the client as detailed in an agreement titled ‗Promise to Purchase‘ The purchase price between The Investment Banking Unit and client is the same price as the original purchase. – At the same time Client will enter into a lease with The Investment Banking Unit which details client rights to occupy the property. – The client pays The Investment Banking Unit monthly payment which is calculated so that part is applied towards the purchase of the property from The Investment Banking Unit and part of it is rent. – The payments are fixed every 12 months, April to April. At the beginning of April each year, The Investment Banking Unit will reassess the rent and payments are likely to vary. – Client may purchase the property from The Investment Banking Unit at any time by paying the bank the balance of the purchase price. Two versions of the leasing house are “lease to own” and “diminishing partnership and lease” model. Lease to own (LTO) model: The key features of LTO model are described below (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 8): – Bank buys the property from the vendor. – Customer enters into two contracts; Promise to purchase contract and Lease contract – In the promise to purchase contract, clients purchase the property from the bank for the original purchase price spread over T years. – In the lease contract, the lease contract deals with occupancy prior to completion of the purchase. – Each monthly payment consists of rent and contribution to profit. – The amount of the rent may be set annually and is normally aligned to the return required buy the banks investors. The LTO is a mode in which the financial institution buys the house and the customer repays the money back in monthly instalments according to an agreed period in advance. During this arrangement, the client pays an agreed rent to the financial institution for occupying the house (Wilson, 2007, p. 10). Some of the writers refer to this mode as Lease-Purchase. The Diminishing Partnership and lease (DPL) model: DPL is a form of partnership in which one of the partner promises to buy the equity share of the other partner gradually until the title to the equity is completely transferred to him. Under DPL arrangement agreement is required; verbal or written; capital is contributed by both parties in cash or in kind; profit is shared as per agreement while loss is shared according to share in equity; cost of repair and maintenance, insurance etc are shared by both parties; one partner (financial institution) leases his share in asset to other (client) for a consideration. Contract of buying and selling of equity units between partners cannot be stipulated in diminishing partnership contract; price of units to be sold /purchased is fair value or else as agreed between parties but face value of units cannot be stipulated (Hanif and Hijazi, 2010, p. 4). Under this contract, the parties agree in advance that one of them will own the shared asset gradually by paying the value of the other party‘s shares until the complete cost of transferring the title to the buyer is paid. In the case of the mortgage contract, the bank and the customer agree to enter into a partnership to share the same property but under two contracts: Leasing to rent contract and partnership with a period defined in advance. Here the client pays two kinds of instalments, one as a rent for the bank‘s share, the other to increase the client‘s share in the ownership, which diminishes the share of the bank until the client owns all the property at the end of the defined period (OICU–IOSCO, 2004, p. 11). The DPL contract is based on two portions to the contract. First, the customer enters into a partnership under the concept of joint ownership agreement with the bank. Customer pays, for example, 10% as the initial share to co-own the house whilst the bank provides for the balance of 90%. The customer will then gradually redeem the financier‘s 90% share at an agreed portion periodically until the house is fully owned by the customer. Second, the bank leases its share (90%) in the house ownership to the customer under the concept of lease, i.e. by charging rent; and the customer agrees to pay the rental to the bank for using its share of the property. The periodic rental amounts will be jointly shared between the customer and the bank according to the percentage share holding at the particular 62 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo times which keeps changing as the customer redeems the financier‘s share. The customer‘s share ratio would increase after each rental payment due to the periodic redemption until eventually fully owned by the customer (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 8–9). The key features of DPL model are the financier and the client to participate in the joint ownership of a property and the share of financier is divided into a number of units. The client can purchase those units periodically (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 8). Example of a DPL Financing Consider the same example as for the CPS concept where a customer wishes to buy a house priced at €200,000. Let‘s assume again that the customer pays 10 percent of the price, i.e. €20,000, the financier puts the remaining 80 percent, i.e. €180,000 and that the average rental for similar homes in the locality is agreed upon between the two parties to be €1,000 per month. In addition, the customer wishes to add another €289.58 monthly 8 in order to redeem the financier‘s share in 20 years. This gives the total monthly payment as €1,289.58. Table 1 below provides the schedule for the DPL contract: Mon th Monthl y Rent (€) A Monthl y Redemp tion B (€) Total Paymen t Customer‘ s ratio C=A+B (€) 0 1 2 3 4 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 289.58 289.58 289.58 289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 D 0.10000 0.10195 0.10391 0.10587 0.10785 5 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 6 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 1,000 289.58 1,289.58 Total = €309, 499.20 IRR = 6% Rental Division Custom Financi er er E F Customer‘ s Equity Financier‘ s Equity H (€) 180,000 179,610.4 179,218.9 178,825.4 178,430.0 Financie r‘s Cashflo w 100.00 101.95 * 103.91* * 105.87 900.00 898.05 896.09 894.13 G (€) 20,000.00 20,389.58 20,781.11 21,174.59 21,570.05 0.10984 107.85 892.15 21,967.48 178,032.5 1,289.58 0.11183 . . . . 1.00000 109.84 . . . . 993.59 890.16 . . . . 6.41 22,366.89 . . . . 200,000 177,633.1 . . . . 0 1,289.58 . . . . 1,289.58 (180,000 (€) )1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,289.58 1,000 Rental Distribution i.e. E-2 (Customer‘s) = 20,389.58 X = € 101.95*; F – 2 (Bank‘s) € 898.05 200,000 G-1 Customer‘s Equity = € 20,000 + € 289.58 + € 100 H-1 Bank‘s Equity = € 200,000 – € 20,389.60 = € 20,389.58 = € 179,610.40 Table 1. Payments Schedule for DPL (Meera and Razak, 2005: 10) Notice that while the amount to be paid monthly was €1737.04 under the CPS concept, the monthly amount needed under DPL is only €1, 289.58. Therefore, the customer saves €447.46 monthly but acquires the home also in 20 years. Indeed, if the customer pays €1, 737.04 for the DPL mode as in the CPS, then the customer can own the home in 12 years 3 months, i.e. saving about 8 years of monthly payments. Table 2 below provides a comparison for financing the home using the conventional, CPS and DPL methods. 8 Mathematical derivations for DPL are used to obtain this amount of €289.58 (See, Meera and Razak, 2005: 24-27). 63 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Price of house = €200,000 Customer puts = €20,000 Financier provide = €180,000 Monthly Rental = €1,000 APR = 10% APR = 10% APR = 6 % Monthly payment Total Payment in 20 years Total Interest/ Profit to Bank APR Balance after 10 years Conventional Loan 1737.04 416,889.60 236,889.60 CPS DPL 1737.04 416,889.60 236,889.60 1289.58 309,499.20 129,499.20 10% 131,443.76 10% 208,444.68 6% 116,156.56 Table 2. Comparison between Conventional Loan, CPS and DPL (Meera and Razak, 2005: 11) From Table 2, it is obvious that so long the annual percentage rates (APRs) are the same the total interest in the conventional equals the total profit in the CPS. But when customer wants to settle the financing earlier, say after 10 years, the loan balance under the CPS is always higher than under the conventional loan. The balance under the conventional is much lower because here the balance is the present value of the remaining 120 payments whereas under the CPS it is simply the monthly payment times 120 (i.e. under CPS the total profit for the twenty years is capitalized upfront). Nonetheless, the bank may give a rebate for early settlement which is decided at its discretion. Nevertheless, the total payments and loan balances are lowest in the DPL among the three financing methods. The mathematical derivation for DPL in the Appendix shows that the return to the DPL is solely determined by the rental rate, which in this case is 0.5% per month (accordingly the APR is 6%) 9. Interestingly, this return to the financier is neither determined by the initial capital provided by the financier nor the duration of the contract which is usual under debt financing. The return is solely but determined by the rental alone as a percentage of the house price. Such as the case, financiers of DPL would be tempted to finance only homes with high rental rates, whereas it would be in the interest of the customers to negotiate for low rentals. If, in our example, the rental rate for the DPL equals an APR of 10 percent (i.e. where the rental is €1, 666.67 per month) then, indeed, the ‗amortization‘ schedule for all the three methods will be the same (though they differ conceptually). But one important difference would still remain, i.e. the balance of financing before expiry of the contract. The balance under the conventional loan and DPL would be the same while the balance under CPS would still be higher. This is because the conventional and diminishing partnership and lease methods follow a diminishing balance schedule. Therefore, the balance under conventional and DPL can never exceed the financiers original contribution, but under the CPS it can 10 (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 10–12). The Differences between the CPS and the DPL Contracts In summary, the main differences between the joint ownership DPL and debt-type CPS financing are as follows (Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 17–18): – There are two separate contracts under the DPL method. The first is a partnership where the client is a partner and the second one is a rental which involves the leasing of the property. The CPS, on the contrary, follows the cost plus concept of buying and selling of property. – Under CPS, the selling price of the house does not reflect the market value since the mark-up for the deferred payment is quite substantial. On the contrary, the value of the house under DPL always reflects the market price and the rental is determined by the market rental values. – The return to the CPS is based on a fixed selling price (that uses the prevailing interest rate as the benchmark). But under DPL, the financer need not be tied to a fixed profit rate throughout the financing tenor. This is because the rental rate can be revised periodically to reflect current market conditions. Indeed, as argued earlier, the rental can be tied to some economic variables like Rental Index, House Price Index etc. 9 The annual percentage rate (APR) in the DPL is determined by the rental rate, i.e. the annual rent divided by the original price of the house. In the example, it is (€1,000 x 12)/200,000 x 100% = 6% (See, Meera and Razak, 2005, p. 24-27). 10 As in the above example where after 10 years of payments, the balance under CPS is €208,444.68 which exceeds the original amount of €180,000. 64 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo – The financier can manage the liquidity risks better as rental payments can be adjusted at the end of each subcontract period. This is not possible under the 17current fixed-rate CPS as the profit rate is a constant throughout the entire tenor of financing. – Even compared with a floating-rate CPS, the DPL still differs in the balance of financing at any point in time before the end of the contract. Under DPL the balance can never be larger than the original price/finance of the house. Rebates for early redemption under CPS cannot be specifically stated in the contract. – The DPL is a more flexible financing structure than the CPS as the customer can own the property earlier by redeeming faster the principal sum of the financier, without the need to compute rebates as in CPS. – In the event of payment defaults, the penalty charges under CPS can be challenged, while under DPL, defaults will cause the equity of financier to remain constant and therefore entitled to higher rental portions when payments made later. – Currently many customers opine that the CPS is similar to the conventional loan with some ―disadvantages‖ for the customer particularly for early redemptions. The DPL is accepted internationally whereas the CPS is recognized predominantly in the east, i.e. in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei etc. Conventional and Alternative Home Financing Models Comparison In the case of basic home financing, alternative products under the CPS structure, which is deferred payment sale, might offer more competitive deals than conventional banking. In comparing the two models, an ordinary conventional housing loan is based on debtor-creditor relationship and the interest rate charged is based on a certain percentage above the base lending rate over loan period. Fluctuation in the base lending rate will affect total loan cost. Simultaneously, arrears in conventional loans are normally capitalized. However, under the CPS scheme, a seller-buyer relationship is established and the selling price is fixed upfront. The sale price is then repaid in installments, with the amount remaining fixed throughout the financing period. This eliminates the customer‘s interest rate risk and furthermore, arrears will not be capitalized. The CPS scheme eliminates additional or hidden costs that will change the price of the property purchased — providing clients with a better value-for-money option compared to conventional home financing (Islamic Finance, 2008, p. 34). Under conventional financial system, interest is charged which is determined on the basis of demand and supply of the capital while under alternative financial system rent of the property is charged, determined through demand and supply of real asset. As conventional banks do not own the underlying asset, hence sharing of risk and reward of property is not required while alternative housing finance institutions (AHFIs) are co owner of the property and share risk and rewards attached with ownership. Return for conventional home financing model starts from the date of loan extension facility which is not the case in AHFIs. Under DPL model return is due when the property is ready for use either through acquisition or through construction. Conventional banks are not required to share any loss occurred to the underlying property while AHFIs being co owner will share any damage occurred to the house. Conventional banks will continuously receive the installments (containing interest & principal) even if property is not use able and needs some repair. During the repair period AHFIs cannot receive the rent. Return of conventional banks is fixed as interest while AHFIs will receive rentals as well as shares any appreciation (depreciation) (Hanif and Hijazi, 2010, p. 6). 65 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CONVENTIONAL HOME FINANCE The lender advances funds to the borrower and charges [interest] for the use of their money. Credit references, sources of income to be able to retune the loan before 65 birthdays. Most of the lender has no lower limit to the property value. Up to 125% of the property value. Life insurance and building are mandatory in most cases. Lender never owns the property. Payment term up to 40 years. Income Multiples Up to 5 times primary annual income sole applicant. Arrangement fee usually up to £500. ALTERNATIVE HOME FINANCING Based on trade (cost plus sale) and leasing, alternative home financing models are interest free. Credit references, sources of income to be able to retune the loan before retirement age. Minimum property value £50,000. Up to 80% of the property value There is no compulsory life and building insurance are required. The bank puts itself in the position of owner of the property. Higher risks. Cost plus sale up to 15 years minimum 5 years Lease up to 25 years minimum 7.5 years Cost plus sale 2.5 times primary annual income Lease 3 times primary annual income sole applicant Arrangement fee of 0.75% of the property value less the first payment. Table 3. A Comparison between Conventional and Alternative Home Financing (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 12) For example the price is £ 100,000.00 the banks require 10% deposit if the bank agrees to give a 30-year mortgage of £90,000, at an annual interest rate of 8%, the monthly payments would be £660.39. Each payment will consist partly of interest due and partly the repayment of principal. The buyer will make 360 monthly payments, which add up to a total of £237,740.40 paid to the bank accruing £147,740.40 interest to the bank. Payment Number 1 2 3 …. 120 …. 240 …. 359 360 Total Monthly Payment £ 660.39 £ 660.39 £ 660.39 Interest £ 660.00 £ 599.60 £ 599.19 Principal £ 60.39 £ 60.79 £ 61.20 Balance after Payment £ 89,939.61 £ 89,878.82 £ 89,817.62 £ 660.39 £ 527.13 £133.16 £ 78,951.84 £ 660.39 £ 384.83 £ 295.56 £ 54,428.98 £ 660.39 £ 660.39 £ 237,740.40 £ 8.70 £ 7.30 £ 147,740.40 £ 651.69 £ 653.09 £90,000.00 £ 653.09 £ 0.00 Table 4. Amortization schedule for a 30 year conventional housing finance at 8% interest: £ 90,000 principal (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 13) Just as in the conventional arrangement, the coop bank will require some down payment. That will be client initial equity share. Let‘s assume client make the same down payment of 10 %, or £10,000. The coop bank puts up the remaining £90,000. Now client and the bank are co-owners. If client occupy the house, client will be required to pay rent to the owners. But client are also allowed to increase his/her ownership share at any time by making additional payments to the coop bank, in effect, buying out the bank‘s interest in the house. As client do so, his/her proportionate share increases while the coop bank‘s share decreases and the distribution of the rent payments will change accordingly. Let‘s compare this arrangement with the conventional mortgage in the example given above. The big question, of course, is what is a fair amount for the monthly rent? It might be reasonable to assume that it is equal to the monthly payments client would have made under the conventional mortgage arrangement, in this case, £660.39. At the outset, 66 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo client will receive 10% of that rent as his/her ownership share and the bank will receive 90 percent, Let also assume that client apply his/her share of the rental payments to increasing his/her share of the ownership. Payment Number 1 2 3 … 24 …. 120 … 240 … 359 360 Total Payment Amount £ 660.39 660.39 660.39 Client Share £ 60.04 60.48 66.91 Bank‘s Share £ 594.35 593.91 593.48 Client Equity £ 10,066.04 10,132.52 10,199.43 Client Equity % 10.07 10.13 10.20 Bank‘s Equity £ 89,933.96 89,867.48 89,800.57 Bank Equity % 89.93 89.87 89.80 660.39 76.83 583.56 11,711.34 11.71 88,288.66 88.29 660.39 144.54 515.85 22,030.94 22.03 77,969.06 77.97 660.39 318.43 341.96 48,536.24 48.54 51,463.76 51.46 660.39 660.39 231,018.30 652.52 538.63 7.87 3.56 99,461.37 100,000.00 99.46 100.00 538.63 0.00 0.54 0.00 Note: (With Rent Equal to Conventional 8%, 30 Year Monthly Payment Owner‘s share applied to repurchase: No additional principal Payments Table 5. Diminishing Partnership and Lease Model (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 15) Table 5 is an abridged amortization table which shows the respective returns to client and the coop bank. Under this arrangement, client will own 100% of the property after making the 350th payment. Client will have paid total rent of £231,018.30. The bank‘s total share will have been £141,018.30. This is a saving of more than £6,000.00 or 4.1% over the amount of interest paid on the conventional home finance. The Practices of Alternative House Financing In the World Alternative house financing models in Germany are equity based diminishing partnership and lease (DPL), debt based DPL, CPS and adjusting CPS. Ansar Finance, Manchester operates equity based DPL concept. Equity based mode is no debt, but possibly longer purchasing period and less prone to asset price bubbles. Debt based modes could have identical cash flow. In CPS, if the sale is void, so is the financing – one contract; contrary to credit to be repaid because fraud is only with property not with loan. There is no penalty interest if default is due to difficulties (Kennedy and Gassner, 2009: 5–9). The practices of alternative house financing have been fortunate in getting legal obstacles removed so that they are applicable under English law. This has been intended to facilitate the needs of consumers so that they can have an alternative mortgage with equal safeguards to those available under existing FSA mortgage regulation. The British government confirmed its positive standpoint by releasing the necessary regulations which allowed the Islamic mortgagees to be treated in the same way as the mortgagees of conventional mortgage modes (Solé, 2007, p. 17). Based on that, the alternative mode of mortgage has become more available and more widely accessible (Russell, 2004, p. 13). The Islamic Investment Banking Unit of the United Bank of Kuwait (UBK) in London has been offering alternative house financing since 1997. The products are CPS Home Purchase Plan11 and Lease Home Purchase Plan12. Al Baraka Bank‘s the operations were similar to DPL model. The bank and its client would sign a contract to purchase the house jointly, the ownership share being determined by the financial contribution of each of the parties. The bank would expect a fixed predetermined profit for the period of the mortgage. The client makes either monthly or quarterly repayments over a 10-20 year period, which covered the advance plus profit share. There was some 11 12 This program is named Manzil Murabaha. This program is named Manzil Ijara. 67 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo debate if the profit share could be calculated in relation to the market value of the property, but this was rejected as frequent revaluation of the property would be expensive and administratively complicated. Furthermore, given the fluctuating prices in the London property market, there would be considerable risk for the bank (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003, p. 6–9). The British government has realised the significance of the growth of alternative types of finance in the UK, especially the mortgage. Some writers consider that the cancellation of double stamp duty has supported the promotion of the Islamic market mortgage expansion (Alam, 2004, p. 2). Besides that the government also permitted the mode of lease to own to be used for asset finance, as well as the CPS; the latter became included in the definition of a regulated mortgage and is now covered by FSA mortgage regulation. This also happened with the mode of the diminishing partnership when the government included this mode as part of the concept of alternative finance arrangements instead of standard loans within the Finance Act 2006 (HM Treasury, 2007, p. 9).Co-operative Housing Corporation, Canada uses the LTO model. MSI housing Fund Houston, Texas [USA] applies the DPL model (Tlemsani and Matthews, 2003). Participation Banks in Turkey Participation banks are an indispensable and complementary element of the financial system in Turkey. They operate under the Banking Act, regulated and supervised by the Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency– BDDK (Büyükdeniz, 2006). Participation banks provide not only classical banking activities but also some more, as leasing, insurance, barter in financial sector. Participation banks perform almost all operations of classical banks in various methods, without any confliction on their principals. The objective of this typical banking is to bring in, the idle capital of interest sensitive people in to national economy, under the interest free banking principals. While performing classical banking operations, not interest but profit-loss participation investment method made this banking type to be called as interest free banking in literature. These institutions perform almost all banking services in different methods. Nevertheless, they do not do such operations depending to interest. This creates a complementary issue between banks and participation banks. Besides, they are such institute which increases the financial deepening and diversification (Özulucan and Deran, 2009, p. 85). Turkish Participation Banks’s Home Financing Methods Turkish participation banks‘s home financing methods are decreasing installments model, real estate consumer price index leasing model and home loan. Decreasing installments model in home financing is based on applying different monthly profit rate for every year during financing. Monthly profit rate is same for each twelve months. Next years‘ monthly profit rate will be less than that of previous years‘. At the beginning of home financing, the monthly profit rates are already determined. The monthly profit rates to be apply are (http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr); 120 months installments 60 months installments 1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year 4th Year 5th Year 6th Year 7th Year 8th Year 9th Year 10th Year Annual Cost Ratio 1.19% 1.15% 1.14% 1.05% 1.04% 0.95% 0.89% 0.84% 0.79% 0.74% 13.46% 1.04% 0.99% 0.95% 0.89% 0.84% 12.61% Table 6. Decreasing installments model For each 12 months installments, monthly profit rates shown above are applied. Unlike other fixed price installment term Turkish Lira leasing transactions, a consumer price indexed real estate leasing product is a new leasing product where leasing installments can be indexed to inflation through the Consumer Price Index (CPI) rate announced by the Turkish Statistical Institute on the 3rd day of every month and vary according to economic conditions. Thanks to this payment system, with the increase in installments indexed to CPI, not changing throughout the year, and installments up to 10 years, in an environment of falling inflation client will be able to own a home as if client was paying rent. In fact, under this payment system, with the change in the 68 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CPI index for the past year, client will be able to calculate his/her installments for the following year (http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr). Home loan is a transaction where the Bank purchases the real property required by the customer and then resells it thereto by adding a profit according to the required term. Home loan includes (http://www.turkiyefinans.com.tr/en/retail_banking/personal_loans); – Discounted Home Finance: With discounted home finance, customer can reduce the profit share on his/her loan and thus greatly reduces his/her monthly installment payments by paying an amount in 1% to 10% of his/her loan at the beginning. – Home Finance with increasing installments: If customer wishes to pay his/her installments at lower amounts at the beginning and then increases them gradually. – Home Finance with decreasing installments: If customer wishes to reduce, his/her installment amounts in the next period and then pays a higher installment at the start – Flexible Payment Home Finance: Under Flexible Payment Home Finance, customer can make regular extra payments at every 3, 6 or 12 months at his/her option or lower his/her monthly installment by adding an interim payment to any month of his/her choice. – Deferrable Home Finance: With Deferrable Home Finance, customer can defer his/her loan up to 3 months from the start of its term and starts his/her payments in the next period. Therefore, customer can more easily meet other costs of his/her house during such deferment period. Conclusion A home is basic necessity, it consumes a large chunk of peoples‘ income for long periods. In the present interest-based system, owning a home is increasingly becoming burdensome. Mortgages are one of the significant causes of bankruptcies. While price of homes keep rising, the mortgage duration also keep rising, till two-generation mortgages are even being talked about. The practices of alternative housing finance are concerned with issues of sustainable rather than efficiency. These practices focus on the necessity of sharing risk in a fair and stable society, and upon problems of exploitation in markets where power is asymmetric, this is the real interest issue. In this study, the case analyses shows that the principles differences between alternative and conventional housing finance is that the former is equity based and the latter is debit based. In an alternative home financing situation, both the bank and the client share ownership [equity] and therefore share the risk of equity ownership. In conventional banking, the client owns all the equity and the banks loan to the client is secured on the value of the property. The essence of alternative house finance system is sharing; sharing of risks and rewards by both parties. Alternative housing finance is unique and unmatched with traditional mortgages. Internal rate of return cannot be determined in advance. It is true DPL, which demands the sharing of risk and reward by both partners. Under alternative home finance, financier is earning more as compare to conventional banking (in case of appreciation) but after capacity building of customer, while under conventional financial system return is fixed which put the client in trouble in early years and prosperity in following years if property value appraises and vice versa. This paper made a comparative analysis between the CPS and DPL contracts as means for home ownership. This paper attempted to argue in favour of the DPL as a better alternative to the conventional mortgage and the CPS. The CPS is a contract that is based on a buy-and-sell principle while the diminishing partnership consists of a partnership contract and a rental contract where the equity of the financier follows a diminishing balance method. The paper concludes that the DPL has several advantages over the CPS for the customer. It can be made to avoid interest totally and can reduce the cost of homes and the duration of financing. The balance of finance, at any point in time, never exceeds the original price of the asset, unlike under the CPS where it can. When a home is purchased from a developer and financed using the present conventional or CPS, the customer would end up paying about four times the original cost (both the developer and the bank are assumed to make a gross 100 percent mark-up). This, undoubtedly, can burden particularly the low income group. DPL allows people to own homes with limited initial capital. In doing so, it promotes the welfare of the people. The DPL is less attractive to the banker compared to the CPS. For that matter, a viable avenue to implement the DPL is through a cooperative setting. When implemented through cooperatives, the DPL can also provide an investment avenue for members while substantially reducing the price of house and the duration of financing. The concept has a positive impact on the economy and reduces inflation as no additional money is created in the system compared to debt-financing, as currently done under the fractional reserve banking system. 69 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The DPL is just and fair compared to the conventional loan and the CPS as there is no interest charge or ‗advanced‘ profit involved in the DPL contract. It is purely based on rental payments of property and the redeeming of the financier‘s shares. As a benchmark, the paper suggested the use of a Rental Index or House Price Index in determining the rental to be charged for each specified rental contract period. The DPL concept is a viable alternative to the conventional floating rate financing since the rental rate can be adjusted if there are fluctuations in the economy. Hence, it is more flexible, wherein the Turkish Participation banks will not be faced with too many uncertainties due to variations in economic conditions. As for the society, the DPL brings stability into the economy by promoting positive partnership instead of negative indebtedness thus assisting in the equitable distribution of society‘s wealth; minimizing the large number of debt defaults and bankruptcies that are observed in the current financial system. References Abdelhamid, M. (2005). Islamic Banking, Department of Economics Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario. Akhtar, C. (2005). Islamic Economic System, Issues in Islamic Banking, The Pakistan Accountant. Alam, N. (2004). Islamic Finance - Issues and Opportunities. Client Briefing Note EIRIS 4. Büyükdeniz, A. (2006). Participation Banks in Turkey: An Economic and Social Reality, http://www.tkbb.org.tr/en/download/PBECONOMIC.PPT Dwaikat, MR, (2008). The Sale, the Interest, the Pledge in the Holy Qur‘an, and the People Life, Nablus, Rabbaniyeen School. FSA, (2006). Regulation of Home, Reversion and Home Purchase Plans, Financial Services Authority Consultation Proposals, 1 (8), London, 1–148. Gaber, A. (2007). Risk Management: Islamic Financial Policies, Case study of Farmers‘ Commercial Bank, Paving the Way Forward for Rural Finance, An International Conference on Best Practices, http://www.basis.wisc.edu/live/rfc/cs_06a.pdf> (accessed 4 April 2009). Hanif, M. & Hijazi, S. T. (2010). Islamic Housing Finance A Critical Analysis and Comparison with Conventional Mortgage, Middle Eastern Finance and Economics, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1483524 (accessed 7 May 2010). Hassan, MK, Soumaré, I. (2007). Financial Guarantee as innovation tool in Islamic project finance, Working Paper 0713. HM Treasury, (2007). Alternative Finance Products, Budget 2007: Regulatory Impact Assessments, HM Treasury. Islamic Finance Asia (2008). Paying the Price: Conventional versus Islamic, http://www.islamicfinanceasia.com/pdf/_feature4.pdf. (accessed 07 May 2010). Jackson, S. (2004). Basics of Islamic Law, the Sources of Islamic Law, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan. Kennedy, V., Gassner, M. S., (2009). Islamic Mortgages, Frankfurt BAFIN Konferenz Islamic Finance and Certification Islamic Finance Products, Köln, Germany, 28. Oktober 2009, 1–17. Khanfar, A.A. N. (2009). The Applicability of the Islamic Mortgage Contract under English Law, Web Journal of Current Legal Issues (5), http://webjcli.ncl.ac.uk/2009/issue5/khanfar5.html, (accessed 12 March 2010). Lovells, (2004). Islamic finance, Shariah, Sukuk and securitization, http://www.yasaar.org/pubs/20177%20Islamic%20finance%20client%20note1.pdf, (accessed 10 March 2010). Meera, A.K.M. & Razak, D.A. (2005). Islamic Home Financing through Musharakah Mutanaqisah and al-Bay Bithaman Ajil Contracts: A Comparative Analysis, Review of Islamic Economics, 9 (2), 5-30. Meera, A.K.M. (2002). The Islamic Gold Dinar. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. 70 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Meera, A.K.M. (2004). The Theft of Nations. Subang Jaya, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. OICU–IOSCO (2004). Islamic Capital Market, Fact Finding Report. Report of the Islamic capital market task force of the international organization of securities commissions. Özulucan, A. & Deran, A. (2009). The Comparison of Participation Banking and Traditional Banking on the Perspective of Banking Services and Accounting Applications. Mustafa Kemal University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 6 (11), 85–108. Russell, JG. (2004). Jeffrey Green Russell‘s Guide to Islamic Home Finance, London. Segrado, C. (2005). Islamic microfinance and socially responsible investments, Case study, Microfinance at the University, University of Torino, Torino. Serlah, A. (2002). ―Special Report for Client Sofraslan‖, Loon Gandree Grecht Sanwalte, Glossary of Islamic Banking Terminology, Solé, J. (2007). Introducing Islamic Banks into. Conventional Banking Systems. Monetary and Capital Markets Department, IMF Working Paper. Thomas, A. (2001). Methods of Islamic Home Finance in the United States. The American Journal of Islamic Finance, 1–14. Tlemsani,I., & Matthews, R. (2003). Ethical Banking Islamic House Financing in The United Kingdom: A Comparative Study, Centre for International Business Policy, Kingston Business School. UNCTAD, (2006). Islamic Finance and Structured Finance Techniques: Where The Twain Can Meet. UNCTAD Secretariat. Wilson, R. (2007). Islamic Finance in Europe, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, Florence. http://www.kuveytturk.com.tr/en/BireyselBankacilik_TuketiciKredisi_TaksitliKonut.aspx http://www.turkiyefinans.com.tr/en/retail_banking/personal_loans https://www.ubl.com.pk/ameen/pdf/Glossary_Islamic_Banking.pdf/10/6/2007. p. 6, 2007, (accessed 15 March 2009). 71 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 175 Title A name given to the resource Alternative Financing Models for Sustainable Housing Finance System: Some Proposals for Participation Banks in Turkey Author Author ÇETİN, Ali Cüneyt ADIGÜZEL, Orhan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study examines some alternative financing models for sustainable housing development. As alternatives to conventional interest-based home financing modes, several financing models are currently in existence, the dominant among which are the cost plus sale (buyand- sell principle) and the diminishing partnership and lease contracts. In this study, the alternative financing models compare to the conventional financing (interest-based) system using illustration from banking practices. The paper examines the differences between the two and goes on to discuss specific problems of housing finance. In relation to the alternative financing models, the paper concludes that the diminishing partnership and lease contracts have several advantages over the cost plus sale for the customer. When implemented through Turkish participation banks and cooperatives, the diminishing partnership can provide an investment avenue for members through the fractional reserve money creation process. Consequently, if alternative housing financing models are adopted worldwide, sustainable housing finance system might be more stable and fair. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/40cace274d69281db3f652cf76dd67ab.pdf dfff630b5a555470f733348b85ef9f52 PDF Text Text A Survey on Swarm Intelligence based Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks Fatih ÇELĐK Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY Ahmet ZENGĐN Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY azengin@sakarya.edu.tr Sinan TUNCEL Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY stuncel@sakarya.edu.tr Bülent ÇOBANOĞLU Sakarya University Electronics and Computer Science Department 54187 Sakarya TURKEY bcobanoglu@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Recently, wireless sensor networks have attracted many researchers. One of the main topics adopted by researchers studying on wireless sensor networks is developing routing protocols for wireless systems. Routing protocol development concerns to deal with problems such as complexity, scalability, adaptability, survivability and battery life in wireless systems. Routing protocols grounded for wireless systems are developed in order to solve these problems. In this paper, we briefly discussed especially swarm intelligence based routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. 1. Inroduction Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are such networks in which numerous small scale sensors are nodes communicating via wireless channels. Current developments in wireless communications and digital electronics render possible to design sensor units with low power consumption, small size and short range communication capability. WSN architectures including many processing sensors having such properties provide significant advantageous on classic sensor systems. Large-scale sensor networks can be deployed to around of the measured region in some applications. Each sensor unit is randomly distributed to the region; therefore it is impossible to determine exact location of the sensors. In such applications, self organization and adaptive collaboration among sensors become key properties to provide survivable structure in the network level [1]. Collaboration and self organization among sensor units allow network to route physical information from observed environment to the base station via multihop routes. The features such as low cost of the WSN nodes deploy ability into inaccessible regions and long life without any maintenance enable sensor networks to be used a wide range of application areas. A typical sensor network is composed of observation region, sensor nodes, base station and task allocator nodes. WSN’s application areas can be exemplified as military, environmental and medical applications. Primary goals of the routing task of the WSN systems are to extend network life and to prevent connection errors emerged from 434 �use of intensive energy management techniques [2]. Therefore, there is no way to use classical routing approaches in WSNs and need for new routing approaches. Social insect colonies such as ants and honeybees have complex collective behavior and decentralized management structure. These properties have resemblances with parallel, dynamic and distributed systems such as computer networks. Several researchers studied these insects to devise high performance routing protocols. This paper are lend itself to give brief information about swarm intelligence based routing protocols. Figure 1. The components of a sensor node [1] Following introductions, paper gives brief information about swarm intelligence in Section 2. Section 3 covers swarm intelligence based routing protocols inspired from social insects. The paper concludes with Section 4. 2. Nature-Inspired Routing Protocols In this section, routing protocols developed by inspiring from nature systems are summarized. Main concerns in such routing protocols are Optimality, Simplicity, Robustness, Convergence, Flexibility, Scalability, Multi-path Routing, Reachability, and Quality of Service [3]. 2.1. Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) Routing Algorithms The Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) methods has been inspired by operating principles of ants [7], which empower a colony of ants to perform complex tasks like nest building and foraging [8]. 2.1.1. Ant-Based Control (ABC) Schoonderwoerd et al. [8] were the first to apply the ACO approach to routing and load balancing problems in circuit-switched telecommunication networks. As a symmetric network, a circuit-switched network reserves a virtual circuit between a sender and a receiver by explicitly connecting them through crossbar switches. Consequently, the major challenge is to distribute the calls over multiple switches so that the system can support a maximum number of possible calls during peak hours. Such a network is not able to admit calls if all input ports of a crossbar switch are connected to its output ports. Consequently, congestion could be defined as a function of the number of used connections in a crossbar switch [9]. The performance of a switching algorithm is measured in terms of the number of calls which are blocked or failed due to congestion [10]. 435 �Figure 2. A taxonomy of routing protocols for fixed telecommunication Networks[3] 2.3.2. AntNet AntNet was proposed by Di Caro and Dorigo in [11]. It is inspired by the principles of the ACO approach but has additional network-specific enhancements as well. The algorithm is designed for asymmetric packetswitched networks, and the primary objective of the algorithm is to maximize the performance of a complete network. The algorithm implicitly achieves load balancing by probabilistically distributing packets on multiple paths. 2.3.3. Ant Colony Routing (ACR) and AntNet + SELA QoS-Aware Routing Di Caro has discussed ACR, which is a general framework for designing fully distributed and adaptive systems for network control and management, in [12]. ACR can be viewed as a distributed society of static agents, which are known as node managers, and mobile agents, which are proactively or reactively launched in the network. Node managers autonomously manage node activities by learning and then following stochastic management policies based on local pheromone values, which represent goodness of different control actions. However, they expand their “sensory field” to acquire information about their environment with an adaptive generation of mobile agents. Mobile agents take an active preceptor role on behalf of the node managers that launch them. These agents collect the important parameters that act as input parameters to learning strategies of node managers. A node manager, based on the feedback provided by preceptor agents, might alter its control actions. 2.3.4. BeeHive BeeHive inspired by the foraging principles of honeybees. The communicative model of bees was instrumental in designing intelligent bee agents, which are suited for large and complex topologies. The results obtained from extensive simulation experiments conclude that bee agents occupy smaller bandwidth and require significantly less processor time compared to the agents of existing state-of-the-art algorithms [3]. 3. Swarm Intelligence Based Routing Protocols For Wireless Sensor Networks In this section, a brief literature is given for swarm based routing protocols for WSNs [14]. 3.1. BeeSensor Saleem and Farooq (2007) are implemented BeeHive routing protocol for wireless sensor networks which is developed originally for wired networks. BeeHive is developed by inspiration of scout-recruit system of honeybees [4]. 436 �Table 1. Classification of routing protocols for WSNs[3] 3.2. Energy-efficient ant-based routing (EEABR) EEABR is developed by T. Camilo in 2006 and a new communication protocol for WSNs called energy efficient ant-based routing algorithm (EEABR), which is based on the Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) [5]. EEABR uses a colony of artificial ants that travel through the WSN looking for paths between the sensor nodes and a destination node, that are at the same time short in length and energy-efficient, contributing in that way to maximize the lifetime of the WSN. Each ant chooses the next network node to go to with a probability that is a function of the node energy and of the amount of pheromone trail present on the connections between the nodes. When an ant reaches the destination node, it travels backwards trough the path constructed and updates the pheromone trail by an amount that is based on the energy quality and the number of nodes of the path. After some iteration the EEABR protocol is able to build a routing tree with optimized energy branches [5]. 3.3. Flooded piggybacked ant routing (FP-Ant) FP-Ant is developed by Ying Zhang in 2004. The flooding mechanism is significantly helpful in wireless networks, especially in sensor networks, where the probability of a packet loss is substantially higher compared to that of fixed networks. FP-Ant is a variation of the AntNet proposed in and is based on the flooding mechanism [6]. In Table 1, comparison and main features of the previous routing algorithms are listed. 4. Conclusions Together with emergence of WSN networks, new routing approaches are required since networks have highly dynamism and distributed. When literature is investigated, it is obviously seen that routing protocols for WSNs are implementations from wired networks. The researches done have shown that swarm intelligence based routing protocols can remove at least one or several problems in the area such as battery life, scalability, maintainability, survivability, adaptability and so on. Ant based approaches are attracted by much researchers than other approaches. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Al-Karaki, J.N.; Kamal, “A.E. Routing Techniques in Wireless Sensor Networks: a Survey”. Wireless Communications, IEEE,2004; Volume 11, pp. 6-28 Selçuk Ökdem, Derviş Karaboğa, Kablosuz Algılayıcı Ağlarında Yönlendirme Teknikleri, 2007. Muddassar Farooq, Bee-Inspired Protocol Engineering From Nature to Networks, 2009 Dervis Karaboga, Bahriye Akay, A survey: algorithms simulating bee swarm intelligence, 2009 Tiago Camilo, Carlos Carreto, An Energy-Efficient Ant-Based Routing Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks, 2006 Y. Zhang, L. D. Kuhn, and M. P. J. Fromherz,"Improvements on Ant Routing for SensorNetworks," M Dorigo et al. (Eds.): ANTS 2004 437 �7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. E. Bonabeau, M. Dorigo, and G. Theraulaz. Inspiration for optimization from social insect behaviour. Nature, 406:39–42, 2000. M. Dorigo, G. Di Caro, and L.M. Gambardella. Ant algorithms for discrete optimization. Artificial Life, 5(2):137–172, 1999. R. Schoonderwoerd and O. Holland. Minimal agents for communications network routing:the social insect paradigm. Software Agents for Future Communication Systems, (1), 1999. R.L. Freeman. Telecommunication System Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2004. S. Appleby and S. Steward. Mobile software agents for control in telecommunications networks. BT Technology Journal, 12(2):104–113, Apr. 1994. G. Di Caro and M. Dorigo. Ant colonies for adaptive routing in packet-switched communications networks. In Parallel Problem Solving from Nature – PPSN V, LNCS 1498, pages 673–682, Sept 1998. G. Di Caro. Ant colony optimization and its application to adaptive routing in telecommunication networks. Ph.D. thesis, Universit´e Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium, 2004 Marco Dorigo, Ant Algorithms Solve Difficult Optimization Problems,2001 Selçuk Ökdem , Derviş Karaboğa, Routing in Wireless Sensor Networks Using an Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) Router Chip, 2009 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 542 Title A name given to the resource A Survey on Swarm Intelligence based Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks Author Author ÇELİK, Fatih Zengin, Ahmet Tuncel, Sinan Çobanoğlu, Bülent Abstract A summary of the resource. Recently, wireless sensor networks have attracted many researchers. One of the main topics adopted by researchers studying on wireless sensor networks is developing routing protocols for wireless systems. Routing protocol development concerns to deal with problems such as complexity, scalability, adaptability, survivability and battery life in wireless systems. Routing protocols grounded for wireless systems are developed in order to solve these problems. In this paper, we briefly discussed especially swarm intelligence based routing protocols for wireless sensor networks. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/eaf79b7d37d59b6a8bb6653589e9062f.pdf c8abccba35336bd0c4657d66a8693bfe PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Analysis of Development Indicators in Balkan Countries Fatih ÇELEBĠOĞLU Dumlupınar University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Economics, Kutahya, TURKEY fcelebi@dumlupinar.edu.tr Phone: +90 274 265 20 31 (ext.2206) Fax: +90 274 265 21 97 Abstract: Since the collapse of socialism, Balkan countries have been changing as social, economic and politic structure. Some former socialist countries (Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full member of EU. Some Balkan countries (Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia) lived difficult war years. After the wars, they have started to struggle for economic, social and political reconstruction process. Each country in Balkan Peninsula wants bigger real per capita income, better welfare level, and generally become a developed country. But these countries have some political, economic and social problems in development process. The aim of this paper is to analysis Balkan countries in terms of development indicators such as education, population, national income and income distribution in 2000s. Moreover, new suggestions will be offered to accelerate development process at the end of paper. Key Words: Balkan Countries, Development, Development Indicators Introduction Balkan Peninsula (South Eastern Europe) is an important area because of witness historic and politic experiences and incidents for ages. But it has been living historical alteration in recent decades. Although some Balkan countries (such as Turkey and Greece) were relatively stable in 1990s, there was war in Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia Herzegovina, and Macedonia. Some former socialist countries (Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full member of EU. The others have been struggling for this aim. In spite of Kosovo declared of independence in 2008, many countries haven‘t been accepting this situation. Nevertheless Balkan Peninsula is living relatively stable condition nowadays, compare with last ten years. Whole Balkan Countries, especially gain independence in recent decade, wants to become rapidly developed country. But all Balkan countries have some political, economic and social problems in this process. After a long war and unstable political period, Balkans has taken an opportunity about their development process nowadays. This region has been gaining stable structure overtime and this stable period has been supporting development indicators. In this paper, Balkan countries are being analyzed in terms of development indicators such as education, population, national income and income distribution in 2000s. Moreover, new suggestions will be offered to accelerate development process at the end of paper. This paper is organized as follows: the next section explains concept of development. Section 3 investigates indicators of development by using statistic data in this peninsula. Section 4 gives an analysis of development indicators for these countries. Section 5 offers some suggestions to accelerate development process. The last section provides some concluding remarks. Concept of Development34 After World War II, one of the important debating subjects is development. But generally development concept is accepted as a problem of underdeveloped countries. Underdeveloped countries don‘t perform industrial revolution, don‘t experience changing that it‘s bringing, and don‘t fulfill necessities of development process. Development is being used sometimes instead of concepts as improvement, modernization, structural changing, and industrialization. This semantic shift complicates definition of development concept. According to Peet and Hartwick (2009:1), development is better life for most people means, essentially, meeting basic needs: 34 According to Online Etymology Dictionary, Development concept used first time in 1756, "an unfolding, from develop + ment). Of property, with the sense "bringing out the latent possibilities" from 1885. Meaning "state of economic advancement" is from 1902. Meaning "advancement through progressive stages" is 1836. 254 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo sufficient food to maintain good health; a safe, healthy place in which to live; affordable services available to everyone; and being treated with dignity and respect. Other definition about development that is innovative changes resultant in socio-economic structure of a country. It can be understood from these definitions that development is related not only economic paradigm but also social life, health system, educational and vocational structure, democracy, freedoms, human rights etc. For this reason, it is multidimensional and it spreads very long time. Development is also related to economic growth. Stable economic growth process is very important for development. Unstable economic conditions affect negatively this process. In this point, being of stable economic structure is come into question. When being of stable economic structure, economic growth supports development process. This concept is more important for developing countries. For example, Turkey had big problems about unstable economic and political structure in 1970‘s and 1990‘s. Also, almost all Balkans lived unstable political and economic periods in 1990‘s. There are also new approaches to development concept. The most important of these is belonging to Amartya SEN that had Nobel Economy Prize in 1998. Amartya SEN (1993:3) defines development that ―as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy‖. Again according to SEN, development requires the removal of major sources of unfreedom: poverty as well as tyranny, poor economic opportunities as well as systematic social deprivation, neglect of public facilities as well as intolerance or overactivity of repressive states (Sen, 1993:3). The approach of SEN combines two important concepts: freedoms and development. Besides he recommends developing of freedoms before other indicators. Main Development Indicators For years many indicators have been used by economists in order to explain different level of development among countries. But which indicators are the best explanatories of level of development? We need to investigate indicators that are being used to explain development process by international institutions such as World Bank (especially World Development Indicators-WDI Online Database) and UN (United Nations, especially UNDP-United Nations Development Programme). World Bank uses more than 331 indicators from the World Development Indicators (WDI) covering 209 countries. This indicators take parts inside of 16 topics such as Agriculture & Rural Development, Infrastructure, Aid Effectiveness, Labor & Social Protection, Economic Policy and External Debt, Poverty, Education, Private Sector, Energy & Mining, Public Sector, Environment, Science & Technology, Financial sector, Social Development, Health, and Urban Development (for details look at The World Bank, WDI Online Database). UNDP calculates The Human Development Index (HDI). HDI includes some special data such as life expectancy at birth, adult literacy rates, gross primary-secondary and tertiary enrolment, GDP (gross domestic product) per capita (PPP - purchasing power parity- US$). HDI separates three subgroup as developed (high development), developing (middle development), and underdeveloped (low development) countries. According to Map 1, Africa, Middle East, South Asia and some South American countries have big problems in terms of level of human development. Especially in Africa, the level of human development is lower than other regions of the world. 0.950 and Over 0.900–0.949 0.850–0.899 0.800–0.849 0.750–0.799 0.700–0.749 0.650–0.699 0.600–0.649 0.550–0.599 0.500–0.549 0.450–0.499 0.400–0.449 0.350–0.399 under 0.350 not available Map 1: World map indicating the Human Development Index based on 2007 data, published on October 2009 Look at http://hdr.undp.org/en/, 25.04.2010 Again UNDP (United Nations Development Programme) uses to determine development level of each countries (particularly developing countries) eight topics as eradicate extreme poverty and hunger, achieve 255 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo universal primary education, promote gender equality and empower, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability, and develop a global partnership for development in scope of Millennium Development Goals (for details look at UN - Millennium Development Goals 2009 Report). Besides each country collect some data on development by using international standards. Hundreds of variables are being used by official statistical institution for this reason. Mainly of these variables are per capita GDP, literacy rate, tertiary education, unemployment rate, urban population, population growth rate, public expenditure on education, number of doctor, electric power consumption, number of computer and internet user, final consumption expenditure, daily newspaper, fertility rate, foreign direct investment, life expectancy at birth etc… Also Human Development Index and Democracy Index35 are used to determine level of development in a country. The next section offers an analysis of development indicators in the Balkan countries by using some of these variables. Analysis of Development Indicators for Balkan Countries In this section, it will be investigated that situation of Balkans countries in terms of some indicators of development. But after the wars and unstable political period in the Balkans, some Balkan countries reached full independence in the different years. For this reason, we have data that has different initial year for each country (especially in 1990s). This problem has been almost solved in 2000s. But Kosovo‘s independence isn‘t being accepted by many countries. This situation complicates comparing all Balkan countries. According to UNDP statistics, all Balkan counties (exclude Slovenia and Greece) are inside of High Human Development classification. Slovenia and Greece are inside of Very High Human Development classification (UN, 2009). According to currently economic development literature, the best indicator of development is value of per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in a country. Mostly Balkan countries have low per capita GDP. For example Albania has $1677 per capita GDP in 2007; Bosnia and Herzegovina has $2044; Bulgaria has $2401; Macedonia has $2061; Montenegro has $2269; Romania has $2595 and Serbia has $1780. Exclusively Greece ($15052), Croatia ($5794), Slovenia ($13333) and Turkey ($5053) have relatively bigger than aforementioned countries‘ per capita GDP (see Table 1). It is possible that global crisis in 2008-2009 and financial crisis in Greece can be changed this figures. GDP per Final consumption Literacy rate, adult Life expectancy at capita, (yearly, expenditure, etc. (% total (% of people ages birth, total (years) dollar) (2007) of GDP) (2007) 15 and above) (2007) (2007) Albania 1677 96.53 99.04 76.5 Bosnia & Herz. 2044 111.89 96.66 75.0 Bulgaria 2401 85.30 98.28 72.7 Croatia 5794 78.67 98.72 75.7 Greece 15052 87.52 97.08 79.7 Macedonia 2061 96.66 96.99 74.1 Montenegro 2269 113.81 .. 74.0 Romania 2596 82.77 97.60 72.6 Serbia 1780 98.95 .. 73.4 Slovenia 13334 69.86 99.68 77.7 Turkey 5053 83.47 88.66 71.8 Table 1: Basic Indicators of Development in Balkan Countries Note: Data comes from WDI Online Database The other important indicator of development is final consumption expenditure (% of GDP). High levels of final consumption expenditure (% of GDP) refer low level intermediate product expenditure, capital goods (% of GDP) in a country. According to table 1, we can say that especially Bosnia & Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia and partially Albania have high level final consumption expenditure. These countries have also low level saving rates. For this reason investment amount in these countries is lower than the other Balkan countries. 35 Look at Przeworski et al. (2000). They investigate relations between democracy and development. 256 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Literacy rates are very close to percent 100 (exclude Turkey). Turkey has percent (88.66). This figure shows that Turkey is the worst country in terms of literacy rate in the Balkans (see Table 1). Another important variable is life expectancy in birth. According to Table 1, Greece has the best figures with 79.7 years. Turkey has the lowest number with (71.8 years) (see Table 1). Life expectancy level in the Balkans (averagely) is lower than Euro area (80.4 years) and higher than world average (68.7 years). Population growth rate is very slow in the Balkans. Especially Bosnia & Herzegovina (-0.14), Bulgaria (-0.48), Croatia (-0.04), Romania (-0.16) and Serbia (-0.43) have negative level population growth figures (see Table 2). Others (exclude Turkey and Slovenia) have also figures very close to zero. This situation is dangerous process for next years. Demographic structure will be very old in the next decades. This can bring social security problems similarly Germany and the other West Europe countries. When table 2 is investigated in terms of foreign direct investment (FDI), we can see that Serbia (3.95) and Slovenia (3.34) have the best figures. Macedonia has the lowest number of FDI with (-0.01). The lowest value of per capita electric power consumption is in Albania with 976.1 kWh. The highest value is in Slovenia (7123.5 kWh). Greece has the second best value of per capita electricity power consumption with 5372.1 kWh. Unemployment, as percent of total labor force, is an important indicator of economic development. Macedonia (percent 36.02) and Bosnia & Herzegovina (31.09) have very high unemployment figures in 2006. Third high level unemployment figure is in Serbia with percent (20.84). But global crisis can be changed these figures in Balkan countries as generally world. For example, unemployment figure is percent 14 in Turkey in 2009. Population growth (annual %) (2008) Foreign direct Electric power Unemployment, investment, net consumption (kWh total (% of total outflows (% of per capita) (2006) labor force) (2006) GDP) (2007) 0.35 0.14 976.1 .. Bosnia & Herz. -0.14 0.16 2382.4 31.09 Bulgaria -0.48 0.69 4311.3 8.94 Croatia -0.04 0.42 3635.8 11.13 Greece 0.40 1.68 5372.1 8.75 Macedonia 0.03 -0.01 3495.4 36.02 Montenegro 0.23 .. .. .. Romania -0.16 0.17 2401.6 7.22 Serbia -0.43 3.95 4040.4 20.84 Slovenia 1.05 3.34 7123.5 5.73 Turkey 1.24 0.32 2078.4 9.86 Albania Table 2: Basic Indicators of Development in Balkan Countries (Continued) Note: Data comes from WDI Online Database Income distribution is other considerable variable of development. The highest value of Gini index is in Turkey with (43.2). Macedonia (39.0), Bosnia & Herzegovina (35.8) and Greece (34.3) follow respectively Turkey. Croatia has the lowest value of Gini Index with (29.0). Beside share of poorest 10% of population in GDP is in Turkey with (1.9%). Again Turkey has the highest value in terms of share of richest 10% of population in GDP with (33.2%). The highest share of income in poorest 10% is in Croatia (3.6%) and the lowest share of income in richest 10% is also in Croatia with (23.1%). We can say that Croatia has the best figures in Balkans in terms of income equality (see Table 3). 257 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Share of income or expenditure (%) Greece Slovenia Croatia Bulgaria Romania Montenegro Poorest 10% 2.5 3.4 3.6 3.5 3.3 .. Richest 10% 26.0 24.6 23.1 23.8 25.3 .. Inequality measures Richest 10% to poorest Gini 10% Index 10.2 34.3 7.3 31.2 6.4 29.0 6.9 29.2 7.6 31.5 .. .. Serbia Albania Macedonia Bosnia & Herz. Turkey .. 3.2 2.4 2.8 1.9 .. 25.9 29.5 27.4 33.2 .. 8.0 12.4 9.9 17.4 .. 33.0 39.0 35.8 43.2 Table 3: Share of income or expenditure (%) and inequality measures in Balkan Countries in 2007. Note 1: The Gini index lies between 0 and 100. A value of 0 represents absolute equality and 100 absolute inequalities. Note 2: Data was compiled from UNDP Human Development Index Industrial production index is frequently used an indicator of development. When it is investigated industrial production index values of Balkan countries, Romania (120.6) has the highest value of industrial production index and Greece (101.1) has the lowest value (see Table 4). It is interesting that Serbia loses industrial production capacity, because Serbia has 113.1 index values in 1998, but Serbia has 108.6 score in 2007. Also Greece loses production capacity. Beside we haven‘t got Albania‘s index value. 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Albania 97.0 111.5 124.8 100.0 110.7 86.6 81.9 .. .. .. Bosnia & Herz. 53.7 59.3 64.8 72.8 79.6 83.3 94.4 100.0 107.4 117.3 Bulgaria .. .. 68.6 70.0 73.3 82.9 93.5 100.0 106.0 116.2 Croatia 80.5 79.5 80.7 85.5 89.7 92.7 95.6 100.0 104.1 109.3 Greece 95.1 95.1 100.8 98.7 99.3 99.8 100.8 100.0 100.8 103.4 Montenegro 91.4 84.4 87.6 87.0 87.5 89.6 101.9 100.0 101.0 101.1 Romania 76.3 74.4 97.0 100.8 100.9 100.5 102.9 100.0 109.3 120.6 Serbia 113.1 84.1 93.7 93.8 95.5 92.6 99.2 100.0 104.7 108.6 Slovenia 81.6 81.1 86.2 88.7 90.9 92.1 96.6 100.0 105.7 113.3 Turkey 77.8 74.9 79.4 72.5 79.4 86.3 94.7 100.0 105.8 110.6 Table 4: Industrial Production index (2005=100) in Balkan Countries Note: Data comes from UNECE Statistical Division Database, compiled from national and international (CIS, EUROSTAT, IMF, OECD) official sources. Only economic indicators are necessary, but not sufficient for comparison whole Balkan countries. For this reason we need other pointers. We investigate Human Development Index values and Democracy Index values for Balkan countries. Table 5 shows HDI ranks and values for Balkan countries in 2003 and 2009. The highest value is belonging to Greece with 0.892 and its rank in HDI is 24 in 2003. Again Greece has the highest values of human development index with (0.942) and its rank is 25 in the world in 2009. Turkey (0.806) has the lowest value of HDI in 2009 and its HDI rank is 79. When 2009 ranks are compared with 2003, Greece, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bosnia & Herzegovina lose former position. But Croatia, Romania, Albania and Turkey obtain better position. 258 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Country Name HDI rank in 2003 Human development index value 2003 HDI rank in 2009 Human development index value 2009 Greece 24 0.892 25 0.942 Slovenia 29 0.881 29 0.929 Croatia Bulgaria 47 57 0.818 0.795 45 61 0.871 0.840 Romania 72 0.773 63 0.837 Montenegro - - 65 0.834 Serbia - - 67 0.826 Albania 95 0.735 70 0.818 Macedonia 60 0.784 72 0.817 Bosnia & Herz. 66 0.777 76 0.812 Turkey 96 0.734 79 0.806 Table 5: Situation of Balkan Countries in Human Development Index Values Note: Data was compiled from UNDP Human Development Report 2009 (calculating with 2007 values) and UNDP Human Development Report 2003 (calculating with 2001 values) Another important thing about development is democracy level in country. We can investigate democracy index to understand this relation. Democracy Index is calculated by The Economist Intelligence Unit based on the answers of 60 questions for 167 countries (EIU, 2008). According to Table 6, Greece is the strongest democracy in Balkans. The weakest democracy in the Balkans is Turkey. While Greece and Slovenia have full democracy; Albania, Bosnia & Herzegovina and Turkey have hybrid regime. This situation is generally parallel to economic development levels. Country Name Rank in the Index Kind of Democracy Score Greece 22 Full Democracy 8.13 Slovenia 30 Romania 50 51 Full Democracy Flawed Democracy 7.96 7.06 Flawed Democracy 7.04 52 Flawed Democracy 7.02 Serbia 63 Flawed Democracy 6.49 Montenegro 65 Flawed Democracy 6.43 Macedonia 72 Flawed Democracy 6.21 Albania 81 Hybrid Regime 5.91 Bosnia & Herz. 86 Hybrid Regime 5.70 Turkey 87 Hybrid Regime 5.69 Croatia Bulgaria Table 6: Democracy Index (2008) Note: Data comes from The Economist, Economist Intelligence Unit When Democracy Index (2008) values are accommodated in the Map 2 for each country, lighter colors show more democratic countries and darker areas represent authoritarian countries. Especially North America and West Europe have lighter colors. Africa, Middle East and Asia countries have mostly darker colors. Balkan countries have averagely values. 259 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Map 2: World Map Indicating the Democracy Index (2008) Look at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index, 01.05.2010 After analysis of indicators that are belonging to Balkan countries, we offer to accelerate development process of Balkan countries some suggestions in the next section. Suggestions for Development Process of Balkan Countries When it is considered special position of Balkans (multi cultural, multi religion and multi ethnical), to offer new suggestions are quite difficult. Even so, we explain some suggestions for Balkan countries below: Stabilization Policy Balkans had important problems it‘s throughout history. Especially after Ottoman Empire, unstable politic and economic life started in all Balkan Peninsula. With together socialism, there was relatively stable politic and economic life. However, after collapse of socialism, again war, blood, tears and unstable politic and economic life came back in Balkans. Nowadays Balkans has been living more stable days. We know that development is closely related to stable politic and economic structure. For this reason, the first and the most important stage strengthen of stabilization process. To strengthen stabilization process; - European Union full membership process should be accelerated for Balkan countries that are not member of EU. By considering ethnic, religion and cultural structure of the region, bilateral goodwill (bona fides) agreements should be signed among countries. - Some countries in the region should play a part in this process as a mediator. For example, Turkey invited presidents of Bosnia & Herzegovina and Serbia to talk problems between two countries in the last April. - All Balkan countries should be invited international institutions. For example Bosnia & Herzegovina was invited to NATO in the last April 2010. Invitation of only Bosnia & Herzegovina is necessary, but it is not enough. For this reason, all Balkan countries that are not member of NATO should be invited. - By protecting cultural, ethnic and religion diversity, an interior peace law should be composed agreeable by different society parts. Trade Policy - EU trade policy should be accepted by all Balkan countries. Free trade should be improved in the Balkans. Tariffs and other arrangements should be reciprocally dropped. Visa applications should be facilitated to improve trade among Balkan counties for especially businessman and scientists. Bilateral trade agreements should be improved. 260 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo - Collective science, education and R&D agreements should be signed. Balkan Common Wealth that is including all Balkan countries should be established in the next time. Substructure of information and communication technologies should be developed. Goods and Service Production - Manufacture and service sectors should be supported by government. Productivity level of industry should be accrued. To support industrial production, it should be allowed to transfer of technology. Barriers in front of foreign direct investment should be decreased. The Others - - Tax system with progressive rates should be performed to decreasing Gini Index and social benefits of poor population should be improved. Banking system should be developed and its trustworthiness level should be boosted. Barriers for touristic travel should be diminished. Especially visa application should be facilitated. Countries that have insufficient capital for investment need foreign direct investment to accelerate of economic development. For this, it should be allowed foreign direct investment for whole sectors. Democratic reforms such as human rights, constitutional state, economic freedoms, freedom of thought should be performed particularly in Turkey, Albania and Bosnia & Herzegovina. The bigger part of budgets should be gone to education and productive investment. Conclusions When compare with developed countries, Balkan countries (exclude some full members of EU such as Greece and Slovenia) has important problems about economic development. Many countries in this region have less level GDP figures. Also human development and democratic level are not sufficient. Nowadays, Balkan Peninsula has some opportunities related to development process after the war and unstable politic and economic life. These opportunities can be realized forthcoming periods. But this is depends on better orientate and management of economic, politic and social processes. Besides protecting and improving of stabilization process will be important in the next decades. It is a reality that war and unstable politic and economic conditions encourage backwardness, poverty and anti-democratic applications of governments. Conversely peace, trade, stable politic and economic life cause better conditions for all nations in the Balkans. References http://data.worldbank.org/indicator, 22.04.2010 http://hdr.undp.org/en/, 25.04.2010 http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/, 18.04.2010 Online Etymology Dictionary, http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=develop&searchmode=none, 08.04.2010. Peet R. and Hartwick E. (2009) Theories of Development: Contentions, Arguments, Alternatives, 2nd edition, The Guilford Press, New York. Przeworski A. & Alvarez M.E. & Cheibub J.A. & Limongi F. (2000). Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. CambridgeUniversity Press. Sen A. (1999) Development as Freedom, Oxford University Press, New York. The Economist Intelligence Unit –EIU (2008), Democracy Index, http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy%20Index%202008.pdf, 01.05.2010 The World Bank, WDI (World Development Indicators) Online Database 261 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo UN (2009), The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009, New York. UNDP (2003), Human Development Report 2003, Oxford University Press, New York. UNDP (2009), Human Development Report 2009, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. UNECE Statistical Division Database, http://www.unece.org/stats/stats_h.htm, 24.04.2010 262 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 172 Title A name given to the resource Analysis of Development Indicators in Balkan Countries Author Author ÇELEBİOĞLU, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the collapse of socialism, Balkan countries have been changing as social, economic and politic structure. Some former socialist countries (Bulgaria, Slovenia and Romania) and Greece became full member of EU. Some Balkan countries (Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Macedonia) lived difficult war years. After the wars, they have started to struggle for economic, social and political reconstruction process. Each country in Balkan Peninsula wants bigger real per capita income, better welfare level, and generally become a developed country. But these countries have some political, economic and social problems in development process. The aim of this paper is to analysis Balkan countries in terms of development indicators such as education, population, national income and income distribution in 2000s. Moreover, new suggestions will be offered to accelerate development process at the end of paper. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0fbcadeb57f422e19f2b7fa78047fd46.pdf b5413b7aa42c91e6eb91e36d92d67d33 PDF Text Text Design of Web-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks Murat ÇAKIROGLU Department of Electronics and Computer Education, Faculty of Technical Education, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey muratc@sakarya.edu.tr Mustafa KUŞ Department of Electronics and Computer Education, Faculty of Technical Education, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey mustafa_kus@hotmail.com Abstract:WSNs consist of sensor nodes with limited capacity, low cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate. The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties. In this application fields, there are some requirements to appear that the wireless sensor nodes can be monitoring by remote-controlled and the data which are picked up from where the system is placed can be processed. This paper describes the design of web based interface for wireless sensor networks. The proposed web-based interface provide configuration of the network and access to real-time and archived temperature, humidity, light data through any Internet-capable device. Keywords: WEB-based, Interface, Remote Monitoring, Wireless Sensor Network Introduction WSNs (Wireless Sensor Networks) consist of sensor nodes with limited data storage / processing capacity, low-cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate (Akyildiz, 2002). The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties (Akyildiz, 2002). For example WSNs are used for remote monitoring of bird life with the 32 sensor nodes in Great Duck Island Project (Mainwaring, 2002, Szewczyk, 2004). The temperature, humidity, pressure, and light parameters have been observed in nesting environment of the birds. WSNs are used to observe the growth of the trees in Redwood forest. The temperature, humidity, and solar radiation parameters are sensed (Tolle, 2005). Welsh, 2005 and Werner-Allen, 2006 has realized to remote monitoring of the active volcano in Ecuador. The processing and delivering to the remote users in real time manner, graphical representation, and storage of sensed data are so important in such as application areas. Various data processing and visualization tools have been developed in the literature. For examples, Mote-View software was developed by Crossbow can set node configuration and allow to monitoring, plotting and storing of real-time sensed data (Crossbow). But this software is able to support to plotting and visualization service in local manner. Spyglass is java-based and modular WSN visualization software (Buschmann, 2005). jWebDust is also java-based and general-purpose visualization tool (Chatzigiannakis, 2005). However, good Java knowledge is needed to configure them in accordance with the requirements of different applications. Cao, 2009 were designed the general-purpose web interface for WSNs. This interface focuses on data processing capability and congestion avoidance. In this study, we have designed the PHP and FLASH-based web interface for remote monitoring and controlling of WSNs. The most important difference of this interface than others focuses on flexibility, visuality, and ease of use. Therefore PHP, FLASH and the PostgreSQL database server are used in this web-based interface for receiving, analyzing, processing, visualizing, and showing the data in a web browser. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The hardware and software tools used to design of the proposed web interface are introduced in Section 2. In Section 3 are described the design criteria and features of proposed PHP and FLASH based web interface. The paper is concluded by Section 4. 394 �Preliminaries MicaZ WSN Mote and Sensor Kit The MICAz (Figure 1) which is a widely used sensor node in WSNs, has an integrated ATMEGA128L microcontroller from AVR family having 128KB code memory and 4KB data memory with the clock speed of 16 MHZ (MICAz, 2009). It can communicate at 250 Kbit / second data transmission speed using Chipcon CC2420 IEEE 802.15.4 compliant wireless transceiver (Crossbow, 2010). In this study, it is also used MTS400 sensor board, which can sense the light, temperature, pressure, humidity and acceleration, together with MICAz nodes. Figure 1. MicaZ motes PHP PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor is a widely used, general-purpose scripting language that was originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document. PHP is available as a processor for most modern web servers and as standalone interpreter on most operating systems and computing platforms. (Wikipedia, 2010). PHP has widespread use in recent since it is an open source language, has rich document support and ease of use. Therefore in this paper PHP language is used. Design Stages of WEB-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks System Architecture The system architecture, which consists of WSN, server, and users, are shown in Figure 2. WNS is consisting of more than one wireless sensor nodes, which sense the phenomenon, and a base station, which ensure communication of the nodes with the server. The nodes regularly collect the information such as temperature, humidity, light and forward them to the server through base station. Server is responsible to evaluate, process, and visualize the data coming from the base station. For this purpose PostgreSQL database, Apache server and PHP language are used. First server record data coming from base station to the PostgreSQL database, then it process the data in the database depending on user requests, and last it display the processed data with the help of Apache Web server and PHP. User can examine the processed data by means of any device connected to the internet. Client Wireless Sensor Network Client internet N BS N: WSN node Server BS: Base Station Sensor Layer Client Server Layer Client Layer Figure 2. System architecture 395 �Designed WEB-based Interface In this subsection the properties and usage of proposed general-purpose and web based interface are described. In figure 3, introduction page is shown. This page allows to user securely accessing the web based interface. After the password is approved the general view of the designed web based interface is shown as Figure 4. This page allows monitoring the wireless sensor nodes, examining sensed data of nodes, creating the graphs of sensed data and observing the topology of network. The main purpose of the proposed interface is providing flexibility to the user. Therefore the interface is divided into five main sections. Figure 3. Introduction page Data Section In data section, the momentary value of the temperature, humidity, pressure, light and voltage level information coming from sensor nodes are shown as Figure 4. Figure 4. Data section. 396 �Chart Section In chart section, the temperature, humidity, pressure, light and voltage values coming from sensor nodes can be converted the various graphical forms as Figure 5. Moreover, these graphs can be saved by the user. Figure 5. Chart section It is shown different physical data (humidity, pressure) belonging to a single node in Fig. 6. Moreover, the proposed interface allows plotting different data (humidity, pressure) belonging to more than one nodes in a single page as shown Fig.7 Figure 6. Chart of the different physical data (humidity, pressure) belonging to a single node 397 �Figure 7. Chart of the different physical data belonging to multiple nodes Health Section This section allow monitoring the parameters belonging to the sensor nodes such as number of dropped packets, number of retries, number of received packets as shown Fig. 8 Figure 8. Health section Topology Section This section allows observing logical connection of the sensor nodes deployed in the environment. Further, sensed data of the nodes can be easily seen as a summary. 398 �Figure 9. Topology section Summary and Final Remarks In this paper, the design of general purpose and PHP based web interface for wireless sensor networks are presented. Proposed web interface allow monitoring sensed data, creating the graphs, and observing the topology of network. The main advantage of the proposed interface is user friendly. Depending on the user's request it can be plotted and saved the graph of different physical values. Designed web based interface can be acceptable as a prototype for WSNs, and can be easily used in various application areas such as environment monitoring, military surveillance systems, habitat monitoring. References Akyildiz I F, Su W, Sankarasubramaniam Y, Cayirci E.(2002). Wireless Sensor Networks: Survey. Comput Networks, (pp. 38:393–422). Buschmann C, Psterer D, Fischer S, Fekete S P, Kroler A.(2005) Spyglass: A Wireless Sensor Network Visualizer, ACM SIGBED Review (pp. 2 (1):1-6). Cao X, Chen J, Sun Y.(2009) An interface designed for networked monitoring and control in wireless sensor networks, Comput Stand Interface, (pp. 31:579-585). Chatzigiannakis I, Mylonas G, Nikoletseas S E.(2005) jWebdust: a javabased generic application environment for wireless sensor networks, In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Networks (DCOSS), (pp. 376–386). Crossbow Technology Inc. URL: http://www.xbow.com Juang P, Oki H, Wang Y, Martonosi M, Peh L S, and Rubenstein D.(2002) Energy-efficient computing for wildlife tracking: design tradeoffs and early experiences with zebranet. In: Proc. of ASPLOS-X,(pp. 96–107). Mainwaring A, Culler D, Polastre J, Szewczyk R, Anderson J.(2002) Wireless sensor networks for habitat monitoring. In: Proc. of WSNA, (pp. 88–97). MicaZ Data Sheet, Last visited: December 2009, Available: www.xbow.com/Products/Product_pdf_files/Wireless_pdf/MICAZ_Datasheet.pdf PHP, URL: http://www.php.net 399 �PostgreSQL, URL: http://www.postgresql.org Szewczyk R, Mainwaring A, Polastre J, Anderson J, Culler D.(2004) An analysis of a large scale habitat monitoring application. In: Proc. of SenSys, (pp. 214–226). Tolle G, Polastre J, Szewczyk R, Culler D, Turner N, Tu K, Burgess S, Dawson T, Buonadonna P, Gay D, and Hong W. (2005) A Macroscope In The Redwoods. In: Proc. of SenSys, (pp. 51–63). Welsh M, Werner-Allen G, Lorincz K, Marcillo O, Johnson J, Ruiz M, and Lees J.(2005) Sensor Networks for highresolution monitoring of volcanic activity. In: Proc. of SOSP, (pp. 1–13). Werner-Allen G, Lorincz K, Welsh M, Marcillo O, Johnson J, Ruiz M, and Lees J.(2006) Deploying a wireless sensor network on an active volcano. IEEE Internet Computing, (pp. 10(2):18–25). Wikipedia PHP: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP 400 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 534 Title A name given to the resource Design of Web-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks Author Author ÇAKIROGLU, Murat KUS, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. WSNs consist of sensor nodes with limited capacity, low cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate. The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties. In this application fields, there are some requirements to appear that the wireless sensor nodes can be monitoring by remote-controlled and the data which are picked up from where the system is placed can be processed. This paper describes the design of web based interface for wireless sensor networks. The proposed web-based interface provide configuration of the network and access to real-time and archived temperature, humidity, light data through any Internet-capable device. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f608ee547bacf0a6cc6e18c1511353ad.pdf c716771f4c42ef1a863c85b804d79d6e PDF Text Text Estimation of Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters and Effect of Some Factors on Birth Weight in Brown Swiss Calves in Turkey Using MTDFREML Uğur Zülkadir Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey uzulkad@selcuk.edu.tr Đsmail Keskin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey ikeskin@selcuk.edu.tr Đbrahim Aytekin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey aytekin@selcuk.edu.tr Adel Salah Khattab Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, EGYPT adelkhattab@yahoo.com Abstract: The objective of this study was therefore to assess the influence of the age of dam, sex of calf, birth type, season and year of birth of the calf on birth weight and to estimate phenotypic and genetic parameters for birth weight for Brown Swiss cattle in Turkey using Multiple Trait Derivative Free Restricted Maximum Likelihood (MTDFREML). A total of 1437 calf birth weight records of Brown Swiss cows raised at Altınova State Farm in Konya Province were used for estimation of phenotypic and genetic parameters for calf birth weight. Phenotypic and genetic parameters were estimated by MTDFREML programme using a Single Trait Animal Model (STAM). The model included additive direct effect, maternal permanent environment and errors as random effects, birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam as fixed effects. Calf birth weight least square mean was determined as 39.20 ± 2.42 kg, the direct heritability (h2a), maternal heritability (h2m) and the repeatability (r) of calf birth weight were calculated as 0.12 ± 0.06, 0.15 ± 0.006 and 0.12 ± 0.06, respectively. The breeding value of dam, sire and calves were calculated. Minimum and maximum breeding value of calves and its accuracy were -1.037 ± 0.66, 0.979 ± 0.68, 0.41 and 0.45, respectively. The effect of birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam on calf birth weight were significant (P<0.01). Key Words: Birth weight, Brown Swiss, Breeding value, Repeatability, Heritability Introduction One of the important breed characteristics in cattle breeding is calf birth weight. Since birth weight is considered as an initial reference point with regard to subsequent development of individual as well as other characteristics, this trait is of critical importance to cattle industry. It is demonstrated that calves having too small live weight at birth may lack vigor and tolerance to external condition, whereas various degrees of dystocia may occur in calves that are too large at birth. Besides these extremes, heifers having high birth weight grow fast and produce more beef (Bakır et al., 2004). These heifers also can reach mature weight to produce offspring at an earlier age and subsequently, milk production as described from Ilaslan et al.,(1978). In addition to these statements, some researchers were demonstrated similar evidence (Kaygısız et al., 1995; Kaygısız, 1998; Akbulut et al., 1998; Akbulut et al., 2001). A study of birth weights as a measure of the prospective value of the calf is therefore justified since it is one of the first measures that can be obtained and also one of the easiest to record with reasonable accuracy (Dawson, 1965). 269 �Growth in beef cattle has been extensively studied in part because of the economic value of growth in this type of farmed livestock. However, growth in dairy cattle has not been studied so extensively, particularly the genetic component of growth. Groen and Vos (1995) estimated the heritability of growth at different stages prior to first calving in Holstein heifers, and Korver et al., (1991) estimated genetic parameters for feed intake and feed efficiency in growing Holstein heifers. Demeke et al., (2003) estimated heritabilities for BW at various stages of life for a range of European and indigenous breeds and their crosses in Ethiopia (Coffey, 2006). Genetic selection in dairy cattle is applied to traits that are measured during the animal’s productive life, mostly those recorded during early productive life as genetic evaluations are best calculated from unbiased, early data. Consequently, much genetic research on correlated responses has focused on traits that change after lactation has started. For example, Pryce et al., (1999) showed that selection for yield would result in a decline in fertility and an increase in mastitis and lameness, as the genetic correlation between yield and these traits is unfavorable (Coffey, 2006). The practice of calving dairy heifers for the first time at 24 months of age has been adopted as a result of research and extension demonstrating the economic benefits Hoffman and Funk (1992). In order to avoid any detrimental effects and negative physiological activities of animals, the animals should be used as possible as early age to produce maximum yield in the later yields. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the influence of the age of dam, sex of calf, birth type, season and year of birth of the calf on birth weight and to estimate phenotypic and genetic parameters for birth weight for Brown Swiss cattle in Turkey using MTDFREML. Material and Method A total of 1437 birth weight records of Brown Swiss calves raised in the intensive conditions at the Altınova State Farm in Konya Province. Records covered the period from 1993 to 1998. The 1437 calves, 618 dams and 42 sires constituted pedigree data. Data were analyzed with a derivative-free algorithm Smith and Graser (1986) using MTDFREML. To ensure global convergence, the algorithm by Boldman et al., (1995) was restarted with estimates until the log likelihood did not change at the fourth decimal. The solutions given are from the final round of iteration. A maternal permanent environmental effect was included to account for repeated measures. Data were analysed by least squares techniques using the general linear models procedure of Harvey (1987). The differences between the factor levels were determined using the Duncan multiple comparison test (Düzgüneş, 1993). Experiment was carried out according to Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture guidelines. The full model in the analysis is included the fixed effects of birth type (1 and 2), sex of calf (1 and 2), season of birth (1, 2, 3 and 4), year of birth (1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998), age of dams (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) and the random effects of individuals and errors. Variance components were estimated using the following animal model: Y = Xβ + Za + Wm + Sp + e where; Y = a vector of the observations, β = a vector of fixed effects (birth type = 1(single) and 2 (twin); sex of calf = 1 (male) and 2 female); season of birth = 1 (spring), 2 (summer), 3 (autumn) and 4 (winter); year of birth = 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 and 1998) a = a vector of animal direct genetic effects m = a vector of random maternal genetic effects p = a random vector of maternal permanent environmental effects e = a vector of random error To estimate heritability (h2) and repeatability (r) the following equation was used: h 2 = σ a2 /(σ a2 + σ m2 + σ am + σ p2 + σ e2 ) r = σ a2 + σ p2 /(σ a2 + σ m2 + σ am + σ p2 + σ e2 ) The mixed model equations (MME) for the best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE) of estimable functions of b and for the best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) of a, m and p in matrix notation were as follows: 270 �X'X X'Z Z ' X Z ' Z + A −1α1 W ' X W ' Z + A −1α 2 α1 = σ e2 / σ a2 , and X 'S Z ' W + A −1α 2 W ' W + A −1α 3 S' W S' Z S' X Where X'W Z 'S W 'S S'S + Iα 4 α 2 = σ e2 / σ am , α 3 = σ e2 / σ m2 and ) b X'y a = Z' y m W'y p S' y α 4 = σ e2 / σ 2p Results and Discussion Unadjusted mean and standard deviation (SD) for CBW was 39.20 ± 2.42 kg, Table 1. The estimated mean of CBW was higher than those found for beef cattle by Dawson (1965); and also the present mean was lower than those reported for Holstein by Plum (1965). The estimated mean of CBW was similar those found for Brown Swiss by Yanar et al., (1999), (38.50) using another herd of Brown Swiss in Turkey. The differences between this informed means can be due to the difference between breeds or some macro environmental conditions. Traits Calf Birth Weight Mean s.d. CV % Estimates CBW 39.20 2.42 6.19 - 2 log L 3643.758 σ Observations 2 a 0.54844 No. of records 1437 σ m2 0.69107 No. of cows 618 σ am -0.61564 No. of sires 42 No. of dams 77 -1 σ 2 p 0.0000716219 σ 2 e 3.98718 2 Animals in relationship matrix (A ) 2097 ha Mixed Model Equations (MME) 4834 hm 35 ram No. of iterations 2 0.12 ± 0.06 0.15 ± 0.006 -1.00 ± 0.289 0.12± 0.06 r σ a = Additive genetic variance, σ m = Maternal genetic variance, σam = Maternal genetic covariance, σ2p= Permanent environmental variance, σ2e = Temporary environmental variance, h2a= Direct heritability, h2m= Maternal heritability, ram = Direct-maternal genetic correlation r = Repeatability, -2 log L= log likelihood 2 2 Table 1. Estimation of (co)variance components, genetic parameters and data structure, unadjusted mean (kg), standard deviation (s.d.) and coefficient of variation (CV%), number of mixed model equations and number of iterations for Calf Birth Weight (CBW) The heritability estimates was 0.12 for calf birth weight (Table 1). The heritability estimates found in this study was lower than some informed literature finding as Plum (1965); Ahunu (1997); Burrow (2001); Coffey (2006); Demeke (2003) and some informed literature finding was similar such as Dawson (1965); Demeke (2003); Kaygısız (1998); Bakır et al., (2004). Repeatability of birth weight estimates (Table 1) was 0.12 in herd. Similarly, the repeatability estimates found in this study was lower than some informed literature finding as Euclides et al., (1991); Ulusan (1992); Bakır et al., (2004) and the repeatability estimates found in this study was bigger than as defined by Bakır and Söğüt (1998). According to this result, It can be said that the genetic variation is low, therefore mass selection will be ineffective in respect of birth weight in this herd. Instead, the regulation of environmental conditions may be recommended. Table 2 shows the mean calf birth weight and standard deviations, R2 value, total and residual sum of squares of calf birth weight according to birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam. The 271 �effect of birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam on CBW was significant (P<0.01). Single born calves were heavier 2.71 kg than twins born calves and male calves heavier 1.14 kg than female born calves. Calves born in winter had the greatest birth weight and calves born in autumn had the least birth weight. The abundance of the fresh and dry feed in summer and autumn might have resulted in this phenomenon. Year by year, the birth weight decreases steadily but not necessarily linearly. This might be caused by the deterioration of the conditions of the farms and/or increased familiarization within herd. The birth weight increased with the increase of the maternal age. This increase continued up to 6 years then decreased again. N LSM ± SD 1331 106 39.57 ± 0.68a 36.86 ± 0.21b 669 768 37.64 ± 0.12a 38.78 ± 0.12b 463 349 307 318 38.09 ± 0.14b 38.28 ± 0.15ab 37.93 ± 0.15b 38.55 ± 0.15a R2 value Residual sum of square Total sum of square 0.237 6447.134797 8444.475992 Birth type Single (1) Twin (2) Sex of calf Female (1) Male (2) Season of birth Spring (1) Summer (2) Autumn (3) Winter (4) a,b Year of birth 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Age of dam 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 N LSM ± SD 216 201 225 269 223 303 38.81 ± 0.17a 38.15 ± 0.18b 38.53 ± 0.17ab 38.27 ± 0.16b 38.06 ± 0.17b 37.46 ± 0.16c 304 322 278 201 135 83 114 37.10 ± 0.16c 37.72 ± 0.15b 38.48 ± 0.16a 38.55 ± 0.17a 38.91 ± 0.20a 38.30 ± 0.25ab 38.43 ± 0.22a Means in a column with different superscripts differ (P <0.01). Table 2. The least squares means (LSM) and standard deviations (SD), R2 value, total and residual sum of squares of calf birth weight according to birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam Breeding value for calves, sires and dams ranged from -1.037 and 0.979, -1.130 and 0.884, -1.612 and 1.470, respectively. Its accuracies ranged from 0.41 to 0.45 for CBV’s, 0.53 to 0.57 for SBV’s and 0.22 to 0.52 for DBV’s, respectively (Table 3). Direct-maternal genetic correlation (ram) value was found to be -1.00 ± 0.289. This indicates that maternal component must be taken into account in selection. Minumum Maximum Range Accuracy Birth Weight (kg) CBV’s SBV’s -1.037 ± 0.66 -1.13 ± 0.63 0.979 ± 0.68 0.884 ± 0.61 2.016 2.02 0.41 to 0.45 0.53 to 0.57 DBV’s -1.612 ± 0.72 1.470 ± 0.63 3.082 0.22 to 0.52 Table 3. Range of predicted breeding values of calves (CBV’s), sires (SBV’s) and dams (DBV’s) and their accuracy for birth weight (kg) If there is a problem in regard to vitality because of low birth weight, a selection can be done for high breeding value in order to increase of vitality. In addition, Table 3 shows that importance of dam, since it gave the higher range of breeding values for birth weight. Thus, selection of dam for the next generation would lead to higher genetic improvement in the herd. Also, Table 3 shows that the accuracy of the estimates of sire breeding value was higher than the accuracy of dam breeding values and calve breeding value, which may be due to the higher number of progeny per sire. The breeding values (EBV) were estimated according to MTDFREML and the trends in breeding values according to years are presented in Figure 1. 272 �Figure 1. Mean breeding values of birth weight for DBV, Weighted Mean of SBV, CBW and SBV according to the years. According to Figure 1, it can be seen positive trends in breeding value of CBVs and weighted mean of SBVs. However, no positive or negative trends in DBVs have been observed among the years. A selection in the years, the use of bull breeding activity to determine whether the correct choice in selection for weighted mean of SBVs has been calculated. It can be seen that, looking at the values of both weighted mean of SBVs and SBVs in the same years, bulls used in breeding programs are chosen correctly. In this situation, success of selection from 1993 to 1998 has been increased. To obtain high birth weight, animal breeding values should be determined, environmental conditions must be well organized and the selection of animals must be done in a proper manner. From time to time to calculate genetic parameters and selection must be made according to these criteria. Acknowledgments This research was supported from the Coordinatory of Scientific Research Projects of Selcuk University, Turkey. We are thankful to Konuklar State Farm for providing data. References Ahunu, B.K., Arthur, P.F., & Kissiedu, H.W.A. (1997). Genetic and Phenotypic Parameters for Birth and Weaning Weights of Purebred and Crossbred Ndama and West African Shorthorn Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 51: 165-171. Akbulut, Ö., Tüzemen, N. Yanar, M., & Aydın, R. (1998). Esmer Sığırlarda Erken Dönem Canlı Ağırlık ve Vücut Ölçülerinin ilk Laktasyon Süt Verimi Özellikleri ile Đlişkisi. Atatürk Üniv. Zir. Fak. Derg., 29 (2): 250-258. Akbulut, Ö., Bayram, B., & Yanar, M. (2001). Estimates of Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters on Birth Weight of Brown Swiss and Holstein Friesian Calves Raised in Semi Entansif Conditions. Lalahan Hay. Arst. Derg., 41 (2): 11-20. Bakır, G., & Söğüt, B. (1998). Genetic and Phenotipypic Parameter Estimates for Birth in Holstein Calves Raised the Ceylanpınar State. Doğu Anadolu Tarım Kongresi. Erzurum, 810-816. Bakır, G., Kaygısız, A., & Ülker, H. (2004). Estimation of Genetic and Phenotypic Parameters for Birth Weight in Holstein Friesian Cattle. Pakistan J. Biol Sci. 7: 1221-1224. Boldman, K.G., Kriese, L.A., Van Vleck, L.D., Van Tassell, C.P., & Kachman, S.D. (1995). A Manual For use of MTDFREML. A Set of Programs to Obtain Estimates of Variances and Covariances (Draft). U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, pp:14. Burrow, H.M. (2001). Variances and Covariances Between Productive and Adaptive Traits and Temperament in a Composite Breed of Tropical Beef Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 70:213–233. 273 �Coffey, M.P., Hickey, J., & Brotherstone, S. (2006). Genetic Aspects of Growth of Holstein-Friesian Dairy Cows from Birth to Maturity. J. Dairy Sci, 89 (1): 322- 329. Dawson, W.M., Phillips, R.W., & Black, W.H. (1965). Birth Weight as a Criterion of Selection in Beef Cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 6: 247-257. Demeke, S., Nesera, F.W.C., & Schoemanb, S.J. (2003). Variance Components and Genetic Parameters for Early Growth Traits in a Mixed Population of Purebred Bos Indicus and Crossbred Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 84: 11-21. Düzgüneş, O. (1993). Đstatistik Metodları (Statistical Methods). Ank. Üniv. Zir. Fak. Yay: 1291, Notebook: 369, Ankara. Euclides, F.K., Nobre, P.R.C., & Rosa, A.N. (1991). Age of Cow and its Interaction with Herd, Sire and Sex of Calf. Rev Bras Zootecn, 20: 40-46. Groen, A.F., & Vos, H. (1995). Genetic Parameters for Body Weight and Growth in Dutch Black and White Replacement Stock. Livest. Prod. Sci. 41: 201-206. Harvey, W.R. (1987). Users guide for LSMLMW PC-1 Version mixed model least squares and maximum likelihood computer program, Ohio State Uni. Colombus, Mimco, USA. Hoffman, P.C., & Funk, D.A. (1992). Applied Dynamics of Dairy Replacement Growth and Management. J. Dairy Sci. 76: 3179-3187. Ilaslan, M., Aşkın, Y., Geliyi, C., & Alataş, I. (1978). Body Condition, Milk and Reproductive Traits in Brown Swiss and Simmental Cattle Raised in Kars Testing Station. Kars Deneme Đst., Yay. No: 5, 1-36. Kaygısız, A., Akyol, I., & Yılmaz, I. (1995). Genetic and phenotypic parameters estimates for birth weight in brown swiss calves raised at regional school in Van. Journal of Central Animal Research Institute. 5(1-2): 71-73. Kaygısız, A. (1998). Estimates of Genetic and Phenotypic Parameters for Birth Weight in Brown and Simmental Calves Raised at Altındere State Farm. Tr. J. of Veterinary and Animal Sci, 22: 527-535. Korver, S., Van Eekelen, E.A.M., Vos, H., Nieuwhof, G.J., & Van Arendonk, J.A.M. (1991). Genetic Parameters for Feed Intake and Feed Efficiency in Growing Dairy Heifers. Livest. Prod. Sci. 29: 49-59. Plum, M., Andersen, H., & Swiger, L.A. (1965). Heritability Estimates of Gestation Length and Birth Weight in HolsteinFriesian Cattle and Their Use in Selection. J. of Dairy Sci. 48 (12): 1672-1675. Pryce, J.E., Nielsen, B.L., Veerkamp, R.F., & Simm, G. (1999). Genotype and Feeding System Effects and Interactions for Health and Fertility Traits in Dairy Cattle. Livest. Prod. Sci. 57:193–201. Ulusan, H.O.K. (1992). The Change of Calf Growth According to Birth Season and Repeatability of Birth Weight in Brown Swiss Cattle Raised in Elazığ Sugar Factory Farm. Uludağ Üniv. Vet. Fak. Derg., 11: 57-67. Yanar, M., Tuzemen, N., Yuksel, S., & Turgut, L. (1999). The effects of Individual and Group Rearing on the Characteristics of the Growth and Development of Brown Swiss Calves. International Animal Husbandry Congress 99, 21-24 September, Đzmir, Turkey. 274 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 440 Title A name given to the resource Estimation of Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters and Effect of Some Factors on Birth Weight in Brown Swiss Calves in Turkey Using MTDFREML Author Author Zülkadir, Uğur Keskin, İsmail Aytekin, İbrahim Khattab, Adel Salah Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study was therefore to assess the influence of the age of dam, sex of calf, birth type, season and year of birth of the calf on birth weight and to estimate phenotypic and genetic parameters for birth weight for Brown Swiss cattle in Turkey using Multiple Trait Derivative Free Restricted Maximum Likelihood (MTDFREML). A total of 1437 calf birth weight records of Brown Swiss cows raised at Altınova State Farm in Konya Province were used for estimation of phenotypic and genetic parameters for calf birth weight. Phenotypic and genetic parameters were estimated by MTDFREML programme using a Single Trait Animal Model (STAM). The model included additive direct effect, maternal permanent environment and errors as random effects, birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam as fixed effects. Calf birth weight least square mean was determined as 39.20 ± 2.42 kg, the direct heritability (h2 a), maternal heritability (h2 m) and the repeatability (r) of calf birth weight were calculated as 0.12 ± 0.06, 0.15 ± 0.006 and 0.12 ± 0.06, respectively. The breeding value of dam, sire and calves were calculated. Minimum and maximum breeding value of calves and its accuracy were -1.037 ± 0.66, 0.979 ± 0.68, 0.41 and 0.45, respectively. The effect of birth type, sex of calf, season of birth, year of birth and age of dam on calf birth weight were significant (P<0.01). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)