40 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b34cf8f3d7915c475a1b32d65961648b.pdf fc5aea17d1dda46feb11cedb0bd03485 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2946 Title A name given to the resource Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Author Author ÇETİNKAYA, Melek AĞCA, Veysel ÖZUTKU, Hatice Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This study is based on “stakeholder theory” in order to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities in Corporate Social Responsibility Report of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies from Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index were selected as the sample of the study. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. The data obtained from the annual reports, sustainability reports and corporate governance compliance reports of these 48 companies were subjected to content analysis. According to the findings, economic and legal responsibilities were found to have priority for shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. While philanthropic responsibility was found to have priority for community stakeholder group, economic responsibility is important for suppliers stakeholder group. Legal responsibility, on the other hand, is important for environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities have priorities in all stakeholder groups other than community stakeholder group. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/281023a4addeceecece0c41058512c64.pdf 4782131984994cc895db97c8cd1af6c2 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Melek Çetinkaya Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey mlcetinkaya@hotmail.com Veysel Ağca Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey agca@aku.edu.tr Hatice Özutku Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey hozutku@aku.edu.tr Abstract: This study is based on “stakeholder theory” in order to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities in Corporate Social Responsibility Report of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies from Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index were selected as the sample of the study. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. The data obtained from the annual reports, sustainability reports and corporate governance compliance reports of these 48 companies were subjected to content analysis. According to the findings, economic and legal responsibilities were found to have priority for shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. While philanthropic responsibility was found to have priority for community stakeholder group, economic responsibility is important for suppliers stakeholder group. Legal responsibility, on the other hand, is important for environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities have priorities in all stakeholder groups other than community stakeholder group. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility; The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility JEL Classification: M10, M14 Article History Submitted: 21 May 2015 Resubmitted: 21 August 2015 Resubmitted: 10 September 2015 Accepted: 14 September 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/ JECOSS15525 57 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Introduction An early definition of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) by European Commission was “a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis” (Commission of the European Communities, 2001: 3). The Commission modified this definition in 2011 as “the responsibility of enterprises for their impacts on society”. In order to fulfil corporate social responsibility, business organizations must have a process that integrates social, environmental, ethical and human rights, and consumer expectations into their business operations and core strategy to get close relationships with social partners (Commission of the European Communities, 2011: 6). According to this definition, it is clear that business organizations have more duties than the official expectations, such as investing in human capital and the environment. Global environmental problems such as climate change, vanishing natural resources and pollution have made corporate social responsibility an important agenda of business world (Harrison and Freeman, 1999; Dincer and Dincer, 2007). The definition and content of CSR change in different contexts. A company should take its stakeholders’ needs into consideration when planning its CSR programmes. Since CSR will always have a location-based nature, a company should understand the priorities of local stakeholders (Welford, Chan and Man, 2007: 52). Environmental concerns of the consumers and the increasing interest in CSR since the 1970’s brought CSR into the discussion of the academic and business world (Harrison and Freeman, 1999; Dincer and Dincer, 2007). Although the term ‘corporate social responsibility’ is still widely used, terms such as corporate citizenship, business ethics, stakeholder management and sustainability offer competing, complementary and overlapping concepts to cover the field (Carroll and Shabana, 2010: 86). The purpose of this study is to analyse the nature of CSR. A descriptive analysis based on CSR Pyramid developed by Carroll was used for the Turkish context. The CSR Pyramid which can be labeled as to be the most well known model for corporate social responsibility emphasize the importance of economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities with its four levels. None the less, analysis of CSR in Turkey may provide an opportunity to examine the relevance of CSR Pyramid priorities in Turkish context to the conventional American ordering when Carroll’s basic four part model is taken into consideration. Corporate Social Responsibility and Organizational Stakeholders The content and definition of CSR has always been a most debated subject (Dahlsrud, 2008: 2; Moir, 2001: 19). As a result of these debates, different perspectives flourished in the field of CSR. Among these perspectives on CSR, Ozuem et al. (2014: 400) put forward some theoretical perspectives as agency theory, the stakeholder theory, the stewardship theory, a resource-based view of the firm, the institutional theory and the strategic leadership theory. 58 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange The history of CSR goes a long way back. The modern era of CSR is dated back to 1950s by Carroll (1999: 268). Although the attempts to define CSR flourished during the 1960s and especially in 1970s, the definitions of CSR became more specific while different approaches on corporate social responsiveness and corporate social performance (CSP) began to flourish. However, the 1980s saw fewer new definitions, more empirical research, and an increase on alternative themes such as corporate social performance, stakeholder theory and business ethics theory. In the 1990s, CSR continued to serve on the same basis but it was transformed through alternative thematic frameworks such as stakeholder theory, business ethics theory, CSP, and corporate citizenship. The analysis of definitions showed that these concepts were appealing to the same dimensions of CSR (Dahlsrud, 2008: 4). Grouping the phrases which refer to the same dimensions gave out five dimensions, namely as the environmental dimension (The natural environment), the social dimension (The relationship between business and society), the economic dimension (Socio-economic or financial aspects, describing CSR in terms of business operations), the stakeholder dimension (Stakeholders or stakeholder groups) and the voluntariness dimension (Actions not prescribed by law). Acting responsibly is important for any firm doing business. Two theories of CSR offer definitions for responsibility. According to the definition based on shareholder theory managers should make decisions that maximize the wealth of their firms’ stockholders. On the other hand, the definition based on stakeholder theory argues that rather than maximizing the prosperity of their owners, firms have duties towards the society. Ultimately, this debate on the definition of responsibility changed its direction towards deciding the amount a firm should spend for acting responsibly (Wu, 2014: 286). The concepts of corporate citizenship, corporate sustainability, stakeholder management, environmental management, business ethics and corporate social performance are studied under CSR. Carroll defines social responsibility as the entire range of obligations a business has towards the society in terms of the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary categories of business performance (1979: 497). According to this definition, there are four dimensions of CSR namely as economic, legal, ethical and discretionary (philanthropic) responsibilities. Although these four constituent parts of CSR reflect the viewpoints related to earlier definitions, it represents the social responsibilities of businesses in more details. Thus Carroll’s definition has been the most widely accepted one among a vast number of definitions in the literature of CSR (Visser, 2005: 33). Carroll presents economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic dimensions of CSR on the model of “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” and argues that not only economic and legal responsibility dimensions have been a part of CSR but all four responsibility dimensions have always existed to some extent while ethical and philanthropic functions have taken a significant position just in recent years (Carroll, 1991). Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 59 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku The pyramid of corporate social responsibility is presented in Figure 1. As can be seen, economic responsibilities component is the foundation block of the other three components. Obeying the laws, or playing by the rules, is the second most important dimension because the law is society’s codification of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Ethical responsibilities lies on the next level and covers being just and fair, discern what is right or wrong in order to avoid doing harm or to protect the stakeholders which are the employees, consumers, the environment, and others. Ultimately, philanthropic responsibilities focusing on being a good corporate citizen lie at the top of the CSR pyramid. These benevolent activities include contributing financial and human resources to the community and improving the quality of life. No CSR pyramid is perfect without one of these four components. They cannot be separated from one other but here and elsewhere, they are taken into consideration individually in order to discuss their specific nature. Moreover, as Carroll argues (1991: 42), “a consideration of the separate components helps the manager see that the different types of obligations are in a constant but dynamic tension with one another”. Figure 1. The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Source: Carroll, A. (1991), “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders”, Business Horizons. According to recent literature on CSR, it is important to have a dialogue with stakeholders in order to protect the interests of stakeholders and to have conformity between the stakeholders and schemes of sustainable development and business strategy. In their study, Romolini et al. (2014: 67) argue that stakeholders, in turn, are less influenced by an entity’s financial performance alone and more influenced by their perception that sustainability is critical to an entity’s financial performance and to fulfilling the 60 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange implicit contract between the entity and society. In this study, theoretical perspectives of stakeholders have been taken into consideration. According to a stakeholder-oriented perspective, organizations exist within networks of stakeholders and face potentially conflicting demands from these stakeholders and have to adapt stakeholders’ demands into the core policies of CSR. In his study on CSR, Dahlsrud (2008: 4) argues that the stakeholder dimension covers “interaction with their stakeholders”, “how organizations interact with their employees, suppliers, customers and communities” and “treating the stakeholders of the firm”. First proposed by Freeman in 1984, stakeholder theory focuses on the strategic management of organizations in the late twentieth century. Numerous studies in literature, especially those of Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995), Mitchell et al. (1997) helped the theory to flourish and develop (Mainardes et al., 2012: 1862). Although they may offer different definitions and interpretations, all these studies, in their core, follow the definition of Freeman (1984) and reflect the same principle to a greater or lesser extent: the company should take into consideration the needs, interests and influences of people and groups, who either impact on or may be impacted by its policies and operations. According to Freeman’s (1984) definition, individuals or groups may influence or be influenced by the scope of organizational objectives. Within this concept, a person, an informal group, an organization or an institution may all be stakeholders (Mainardes et al., 2011: 228). Moir (2001: 19) argues that the stakeholder theory can be used as a basis to analyse those groups to whom the firm should be responsible. A literature review reveals various proposals for classifying stakeholders by their respective level of importance (Clarkson, 1995: 106; Donaldson and Preston, 1995: 68; Mainardes et al., 2012: 1865; Ozuem et al., 2014: 400; Trebeck, 2008: 352). Stakeholders are important for companies in some sense because they have an influence on company performance. For this reason, companies try to respond to their stakeholders’ demands in economic, formal or political frames. Stakeholders may have different levels of priorities for companies at different times but according to literature, there is some stability in the pattern of priority of stakeholders. Also, the stage of business and expectations of businesses may be different in different countries although they may be in the same field. Moreover different orientations can be observed in corporate environments of different countries. Pinkston and Carroll (1994: 165), who studied the conditions of markets in England, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland and the US, argue that stakeholders have different levels of importance in different countries. For example, while the focus is on economic responsibilities to owners in England, the focus shifts to company-employee relations in France and Germany, and to nurturing the business-community relationships in Japan. Naturally, because of the differences in these business relationships, stakeholder priorities can also be different. Thus, the stakeholder groups studied in the samples appeared to be prioritized in the same order while communities and government stakeholders ranked lower than the other threestakeholder groups of employees, consumers, and owners (Pinkston and Carroll, 1994: 161). Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 61 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku The terms of “stakeholder” and “social responsibility” have close relationships in terms of corporate social responsibility. The connection between these two terms derives from the vague content of the term “social” and the concept of “stakeholder” denotes to social or societal responsibilities of a company (Carroll, 1991: 43). Ozuem et al. (2014: 400) argue that according to stakeholder-oriented perception, organizations exist within networks of stakeholders and they aim to meet potentially conflicting demands of these stakeholders in terms of CSR objectives and policies. The duty of the management of a stakeholder oriented business is difficult because the managers have to make a settlement between their objectives and the expectations and demands of the stakeholders. While doing this, they have to meet the demands of main stakeholders in the first place and the remaining groups later. Although it is not always possible to satisfy all the parties at the same time, it is important for a company to protect its long-term interests. Carroll (1991: 43) assumes that the functions of stakeholder management are to describe, understand, analyse, and finally to manage. Carroll poses five questions to understand stakeholder management: 1. Who are our stakeholders? 2. What are their stakes? 3. What opportunities and challenges are presented by our stakeholders? 4. What corporate social responsibilities (economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic) do we have to our stakeholders? 5. What strategies, actions, or decisions should we take to best deal with these responsibilities? These questions can be discussed in details but attention must be given to what kind of responsibilities does a company have towards its stakeholders (Carroll, 1991: 43). A conceptional framework of stakeholder/responsibility matrix on this topic is presented in Figure 2. Figure 2. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Types of CSR Economic Legal Ethical Philanthropic Stakeholders Owners Customers Employees Community Competitors Suppliers Social Activist Groups 62 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Public at Large Others Source: Carroll, 1991: 44 By looking and working on this matrix, a manager can decide on how to act in different types of corporate social responsibility environments by taking different stakeholder groups into consideration. For each cell, the manager can gather analytical data and use them “for developing priorities and making both long-term and short-term decisions involving multiple stakeholders’ interests” (Carroll, 1991: 44). However, Pinkston and Carroll (1994) made a little alteration on this classification regarding the stakeholder groups in one of later studies. In their study on international businesses in different countries, Pinkston and Carroll (1994: 161) renamed stakeholder groups as owners, consumers, employees, communities and government. They argued that the perceived relative importance of the organizations’ stakeholder groups will differ across firms by countries-of-origin. Purpose and Importance of the Research Most of the research on Carroll’s (1991) CSR Pyramid has been in an American context. Nevertheless, several of the empirical studies already discussed suggest that culture may have an important influence on perceived CSR priorities (Visser, 2005). Within the framework of Carroll’s CSR Pyramid (1991), this study aims to find out CSR priorities of companies listed in the Corporate Governance Index of Borsa Istanbul (BIST) which apply corporate management principles. In order to realize this aim, economic, legal, ethical and philantrophic responsibilities are placed on stakeholder/responsibility matrix based on Carroll’s Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid and the distribution of stakeholder groups according to their responsibility fields is investigated. It has been observed that no previous study in the literature of the field has attempted to place these four responsibilities on stakeholder/responsibility matrix. From this perspective, it can be said that this study is of great importance with its pioneering aspects. Methodology of the Research The research in this study was carried out using the qualitative research method. Extreme case sampling (Patton, 2002) was carried out by selecting Turkish companies with the best corporate social responsibility performance. A similar criterion for selecting companies was used by previous studies in order to analyze CSR (Collison et al., 2008; Lankoski, 2008; Romolini et al., 2014). The sample of the research is composed of 48 companies, which trade in Borsa Istanbul (BIST) and listed in Corporate Governance Index. BIST Corporate Governance Index (XKURY) is an index which includes the companies that apply Corporate Governance Principlesi. Corporate Governance Principles in Turkey are constituted by Capital Markets Board by taking primarily the “OECD Corporate Governance Principles” of 1999 into consideration. Corporate Governance Principles are made up of four parts: (1) Shareholders, (2) Public Disclosure and Transparency, (3) Stakeholders, (4) Board of Directors. An important portion of corporate governance Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 63 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku principles are about the responsibilities of companies towards stakeholdersii. For this reason, sampling for the study has been chosen from companies within Corporate Governence Index which lists companies with high corporate social responsibility performance. In the attainment of data, “Annual Reports”, “Sustainability Reports”, and “Corporate Governance Compliance Reports”, which are presented as “public domain” information in the websites of the so-called companies, were taken as a basis. Content analysis method was used in the analysis of the data. Content analysis necessitates the information in the content of a text (or report) to be coded within the framework of pre-described categories, as quantitatively and qualitatively (Guthrie and Abeysekera, 2006: 117). With this method, percentage distribution of the information presented in a report (or a text) is measured, by being classified (coded) according to categories (Loberet et al., 1997: 59). Quantitative measurements obtained as a result of coding can be used as data in other kinds of analyses (Hackston and Milne, 1996: 84). For information related to corporate social responsibility which will be coded in content analysis, categories need to be formed and corporate social responsibility information types which will be included in these categories need to be determined. Carroll’s (1991) study was taken into consideration for defining the social responsibility areas in the content analysis. Business practices defined by Spiller (2000) were taken into consideration in order to identify the business practices related to the expectations of stakeholder groups. Content Analysis Process In order to determine the categories and classifications of corporate social responsibility information types according to these categories, which will be used in the execution of this research and application of content analysis technique, literature review was completed and the following basic and sub categories were formed based on the information and categories in the studies of Carroll (1991) and Spiller (2000). Moreover, studies of Carroll (1991), Pinkston and Carroll (1994), Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995) and Trebeck (2008) were considered for the identification of stakeholder groups. Accordingly, stakeholder groups were taken into account as shareholders, consumers, employees, communities, suppliers, governments and others. Social Responsibility Areas of Business Organizations To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic (Figure 3). 64 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Figure 3. Economic, Legal, Ethical and Philanthropic Responsibilities Economic Components (Responsibilities) Legal Components (Responsibilities) 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with maximizing earnings per share. 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with the expectations of government and law. 2. It is important to be committed to being as profitable as possible. 2. It is important to comply with various federal, state and local regulations. 3. It is important to maintain a strong competitive position. 3. It is important to be a law-abiding corporate citizen. 4. It is important to maintain a high level of operating efficiency. 4. It is important that a successful firm be defined as one that fulfils its legal obligations. 5. It is important that a successful firm be defined 5. It is important to provide goods and services as one that is consistently profitable. that at least meet minimal legal requirements. Ethical Components (Responsibilities) Philanthropic Components (Responsibilities) 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with expectations of societal mores and ethical norms. 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with the philanthropic and charitable expectations of society. 2. It is important to recognize and respect new or evolving ethical/moral norms adopted by society. 2. It is important to assist the fine and performing arts. 3. It is important to prevent ethical norms from being compromised in order to achieve corporate goals. 3. It is important that managers and employees participate in voluntary and charitable activities within their local communities. 4. It is important that good corporate citizenship be defined as doing what is expected morally or ethically. 4. It is important to provide assistance to private and public educational institutions. 5. It is important to recognize that corporate integrity and ethical behavior go beyond mere compliance with laws and regulations. 5. It is important to assist voluntarily projects that enhance a community’s “quality of life”. Source: Carroll (1991) Business Practices Related to the Expectations of Stakeholder Groups In order to determine the expectations of stakeholder groups within the context of corporate social responsibility in content analysis, the study of Spiller (2000) was taken into consideration. This study of Spiller (2000), which defines important business practices regarding each important stakeholder group, is one of the most detailed studies conducted about stakeholder groups’ expectations as part of corporate social Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 65 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku responsibility practices. Spiller (2000) specified stakeholder groups that constitute primary priority for a business and claimed that organizational practices, which appear in accordance with the expectations of these groups, can be used in determining the corporate social responsibility performance of a business. This study has been beneficial for many researches about corporate social responsibility practices. To guide implementation, Spiller (2000: 153-154) has identified ten key business practices for each of the six main stakeholder groups: community; environment; employees; customers; suppliers, and shareholders (Figure 4). The list of 60 practices summarised below is neither exhaustive, nor uncontroversial. However, it does provide a starting point, a menu from which companies can choose, preferably in conjunction with their stakeholders, the areas on which to focus. Figure 4. Key Business Practices for Each ofthe Six Main Stakeholder Groups 1. Community 1.1. Generous financial donations 1.2. Innovative giving 1.3. Support for education and job training programmes 1.4. Direct involvement in community projects and affairs 1.5. Community volunteer programmes 1.6. Support for the local community 1.7. Campaigning for environmental and social change 1.8. An employee-led approach to philanthropy 1.9. Efficient and effective community activity 1.10. Disclosure of environmental and social performance 2. Environment 2.1. Environmental policies, organization and management 2.2. Materials policy of reduction, reuse and recycling 2.3. Monitoring, minimising and taking responsibility for releases to the environment 2.4. Waste management 2.5. Energy conservation 2.6. Effective emergency response 2.7. Public dialogue and disclosure 2.8. Product stewardship 2.9. Environmental requirements for suppliers 2.10. Environmental audits 3. Employees 3.1. Fair remuneration 3.2. Effective communication 3.3. Learning and development opportunities 3.4. Fulfilling work 3.5. A healthy and safe work environment 3.6. Equal employment opportunities 3.7. Job security 3.8. Competent leadership 3.9. Community spirit 3.10. Social mission integration 4. Customers 4.1. Industry-leading quality programme 4.2. Value for money 4.3. Truthful promotion 4.4. Full product disclosure 4.5. Leadership in research and development 4.6. Minimal packaging 4.7. Rapid and respectful responses to customer comments, complaints and concerns 4.8. Customer dialogue 4.9. Safe products 4.10. Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition 66 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange 5. Suppliers 5.1. Develop and maintain long-term purchasing relationships 5.2. Clear expectations 5.3. Pay fair prices and bills according to terms agreed upon 5.4. Fair and competent handling of conflicts and disputes 5.5. Reliable anticipated purchasing requirements 5.6. Encouragement to provide innovative suggestions 5.7. Assist suppliers to improve their environmental and social performance 5.8. Utilise local suppliers 5.9. Sourcing from minority-owned suppliers 5.10. Inclusion of an environmental and social element in the selection of suppliers 6. Shareholders 6.1. Good rate of long-term return to shareholders 6.2. Disseminate comprehensive and clear information 6.3. Encourage staff ownership of shares 6.4. Develop and build relationships with shareholders 6.5. Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends 6.6. Corporate governance issues are well managed 6.7. Access to company’s directors and senior managers 6.8. Annual report and accounts provide a comprehensive picture of the company’s overall performance 6.9. Clear long-term business strategy 6.10. Open communication with the financial community Source: Spiller, 2000: 153-154. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Business practices devoted to meet the expectations of stakeholder groups for corporate social responsibility areas defined by Carroll and which responsibilities become prominent in which stakeholder groups were defined in the content analysis, based on the Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix of Carroll (1991). None the less, besides Carroll’s (1991) study, stakeholder groups to be considered in the matrix were identified by considering Pinkston and Carroll (1994), Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995), Spiller (2000) and Trebeck’s (2008) classifications. According to this, stakeholder groups were taken into consideration as shareholders, consumers, employees, communities, suppliers and others. As a result of the assessment done by the authors of the study, business practices related to the expectations of the stakeholder groups (Spiller, 2000) were placed in economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic areas in the stakeholder/responsibility matrix. By this way, a framework was formed in order to evaluate the findings obtained from the content analysis. Figure 5: Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Types of CSR Economic Legal Ethical Philanthropic Stakeholders Shareholders Customers Employees Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 67 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Community Suppliers Others Findings of the Research and Evaluation of Findings The data attained from the content analysis was analysed with the help of SPSS 20.0 Windows program. How often and at what level the information about corporate social responsibility took place in the related report was determined as number and percentage, and emerging frequency tables were interpreted. During the process of putting data into codes, “1” was used for coding the practices present in the categories considered in the content analysis and “2” was used for coding the practices which are not present in the businesses. Additionally, in terms of sector information, service sector was coded as “1” and manufacturing sector was coded as “2”. 27 of the businesses taking place in the sample operate in service sector, while 21 of them operate in manufacturing sector. Frequency and percentage values belonging to business practices about the expectations of stakeholder groups are presented in Figure 6. Hereunder, business practices falling within shareholders groups are seen to be over 90%. Businesses perform their legal responsibilities against their shareholders to a large extent. Of the practices in economic area, “Open communication with the financial Community” is seen to be over 65% and others are seen to be over 83%. Economic practices of companies as “Clear long-term business strategy” and “Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends” oriented to shareholders stakeholder group ate at 90% level. Among the economic practices taking place in customers stakeholder group, “Customer dialogue” is seen to be at level 87.5%, “Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition” is seen to be at level 83% and “safe products” is seen to be at level 79%. Businesses perform their responsibilities against their customers in the economic area. Of their responsibilities in legal area, “Truthful promotion” is at level 67% while “Minimal packaging” is at the level of 33%. The fact that this practice is used only in manufacturing businesses should be considered in minimal packaging radio to be low. Ethically, “Rapid and respectful responses to customer comments, complaints and concerns” is at level 79% and “Value for Money” is at level 44%. It is observed that businesses do not stress on the “Money” concept much, which is directed to customers stakeholder group. Of the practices falling within employees stakeholder group, economically “Learning and development opportunities” was emphasized as 96% and legally “A healthy and safe work environment” was emphasized as 94%. In the ethical responsibility area, “Fulfilling work” and “Competent leadership” were mentioned at 60%, “Community spirit” at 75%, and “Fair remuneration” and “Equal employment opportunities” were mentioned over 83%. It is regarded that practices in employees stakeholder group were given a quite high importance. 68 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Business practices in community stakeholder group are seen to be at 35% in the economic area with “Disclosure of environmental and social performance” at 35% and at 73% in the ethical area of “Innovative giving”. In the philanthropic area, the practice that has the highest level is “Direct involvement in community projects and affairs” with 88% and the practice that has the lowest level is “An employee-led approach to philanthropy” with 48%. It can be stated that businesses act sensitive about philanthropic practices in community stakeholder group. Businesses do not seem to give much place to information related to suppliers stakeholder group. The most emphasized practice in economic area is “Encouragement to provide innovative suggestions” with a level of 48%. The most emphasized practice in ethical area is “Inclusion of an environmental and social element in the selection of suppliers” with a level of 40%, and the most emphasized practice in philanthropic area is “Assist suppliers to improve their environmental and social performance” with a level of 40%. Other practices seem to be even lower than this level. Practices under the title of Environment were encountered mostly in the stakeholder group named as Others. The most mentioned practice in economic practices area is “Environmental policies, organization and management” with a level of 83%. “Environmental requirements for suppliers” is seen to be at level 37% and “Environmental audits” is seen to be at level 35%. The practice in legal area is “Public dialogue and disclosure” at a level of 60%. Whether a difference exists between expectations of stakeholder groups and related business practices from the point of sectors of the businesses taking place in the research was analysed via t-test. As a result of the analysis, business practices falling within stakeholder groups did not show a significant difference between service sector and manufacturing sector. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 69 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Figure 6. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix in Turkey Sample 70 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange According to findings obtained from this research, economic and legal responsibilities were determined to have priority in shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. Philanthropic responsibility was determined to be primary in community stakeholder group, economic responsibility was seen to be primary in suppliers stakeholder group, and legal responsibility was seen to be primary in environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities were observed to have priority in all stakeholder groups, except community stakeholder group. Findings obtained reveal that corporate social responsibility practices of businesses taking place in Turkey research sample are wide enough to include stakeholder groups, other than suppliers. In Turkey, companies traditionally perform corporate social responsibility practices for long years within the framework of philanthropy. As a matter of fact, many businesses materialize their politics in this direction through various projects, such as awarding scholarships to students, sponsoring sports and art activities. Although social responsibility programs do not improve in private sector as fast as in the world, they have a different status lately. Non-governmental organizations, which developed quickly especially in 1990s, lead the supports of companies in social areas, in which education projects comes first on a more substantial ground with sustainability. On the other hand, especially in previous years, many companies head towards professional support for social responsibility programs. Non-governmental organizations enable the support given to social-oriented projects in private sector to increase quickly. Nongovernmental organizations, which work with a transparent administrative mentality and responsibility mission, establish a ground for the creation of social projects with the leading companies of private sector. Social responsibility projects, which are realised through a co-operation with non-governmental organizations, are seen to be executed in areas such as education, sports, health, elderly, children and environment. Besides this, several consultancy institutions are seen to function with the purpose of supporting businesses in identifying social responsibility projects and in the process of putting them into practice (Akgeyik, 2007: 82). As the obtained findings are compared to the findings of prior studies in different countries, similar results were attained in some aspects, while different ones were obtained in others. For instance, in their study which includes England, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland and the US, Pinkston and Carroll (1994) put forward that the importance given to stakeholders differed according to countries. England has been shown to emphasize economic responsibilities to owners in its business community. France, on the other hand, has been understood to focus on company employee relations, as has Germany. The Japanese environment has appeared to nurture the business-community relationships. Since these relationships can be noticeably different in any given business environment, the stakeholder priorities were expected to be different for the sample organizations. One of the conspicuous findings of the study is the lack of corporate social responsibility practices regarding the suppliers stakeholder group. A similar situation exists in the findings of the studies that were conducted in other countries. For example, several Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 71 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku empirical studies in Europe, North America and Asia have investigated how firms work with CSR-related issues in their supply chains. Most of these studies are not only confined to large multinational corporations, but also include SMEs. According to the results attained, despite many companies’ efforts to engage in CSR-related activities in their supply chains, there is often a gap between the ethical standards expressed and the actual conditions at the suppliers (Andersen and Larsen, 2009: 78). In today’s competitive business environment, it has become imperative for firms to find ways to work collaboratively with suppliers. Moreover, it has been shown that firm-supplier cooperation and partnership can help all supply-chain members to increase performance. Additionally, ethical behavior in the firm-supplier relationship will generate trust and better communication – attributes which can result in greater competitiveness and wealth creation (Gonzalez et al., 2013: 373). Conclusion This study is based on “stakeholder theory” to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility levels in Turkey. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities (highlight issues and areas) in Corporate Social Responsibility of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies were selected as the sample of the study in the Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index. The research was carried out using the qualitative research method. In the attainment of data, “Annual Reports”, “Sustainability Reports”, and “Corporate Governance Compliance Reports”, which are “public domain” information published in the websites of the so-called companies, were taken as a basis. Content analysis method was used in the analysis of the data. According to the findings of this study, economic and legal responsibilities were determined to have priority in shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. Among the companies which fall into the scope the study, responsibilities outstanding in the field of economic responsibilities for shareholders are: “Good rate of long-term return to shareholders”, “Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends”, “Clear long-term business strategy”, “Open communication with the financial Community”. The important topics for shareholders in terms of legal responsibilities are: “Disseminate comprehensive and clear information”, “Corporate governance issues are well managed and access to company’s directors and senior managers”, “Annual report and accounts provide a comprehensive picture of the company’s overall performance”. For customers stakeholder group, social responsibility topics on economic level are: “Industry-leading quality programme”, “Customer dialogue”, “Safe products”, “Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition”. Legal responsibilities which are important for customer stakeholder group are: “Truthful promotion” and “Minimal 72 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange packaging”. While the economic responsibilities which stand out for employees stakeholder group are “Learning and development opportunities”, legal responbilities which are important for the same group are “A healthy and safe work environment”. Corporate social responsibility practices reflecting ethical and philanthropic responsibility understanding were not seen to take place in shareholders stakeholder group. Philanthropic responsibility mentality was seen not to fall within customers and employees stakeholder groups. In community stakeholder group, on the other hand, it is conspicuous that most of the corporate social responsibility practices are performed within the context of philanthropic responsibility understanding and ethical and economic mentalities remain in the background. It has been realised that social responsibility practices taking place in suppliers stakeholder group are not common, and current social responsibility practices reflect economic responsibility. On the other hand, in the environment stakeholder group, legal responsibility was identified to be primary. In general, economic and legal responsibilities were seen to have priority in all stakeholder groups, except the community stakeholder group. The findings obtained reveal that corporate social responsibilities of large companies in the research sample of Turkey are wide enough to include all stakeholder groups other than suppliers, and economic and legal responsibilities have priority in the corporate social responsibility understanding. As a result, many companies embrace a CSR program as a way to promote socially responsible actions and policies, and effectively respond to stakeholder demands. According to stakeholder theory, companies can achieve more positive results by paying more attention to corporate social responsibility programs. Stakeholder theory suggests that organizational survival and success is contingent on satisfying both its economic (e.g. profit maximization) and non-economic (e.g. corporate social performance) objectives by meeting the needs of the company’s various stakeholders. The stakeholder management concept serves to ensure that organizations recognise, analyse and examine the individual and group characteristics that influence or are influenced by organizational behaviours and actions. Future studies may include analyses of which stakeholder groups must be paid more attention in the value creation process of organizations within the context of stakeholder theory, what the contributions the stakeholders provide are and what the possible risks related to stakeholders are, expectations of stakeholders and how processes that will meet these expectations will be developed. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 73 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku References Akgeyik, T. (2007). The human resource management dimensions of corporate social responsibility in Turkey: A survey. http://www.journals.istanbul.edu.tr/iusskd/article/ view/1023000164. Andersen, M. & Larsen, T.S. (2009). Corporate social responsibility in global supply chains. 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Social Responsibility Journal, 3(3), 44 – 49. 74 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Donaldson, T. & Lee E. P. (1995). The stakeholder theory of the corporation: Concepts, evidence, and implications, Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 65-91. Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach, Pitman Publishing, Boston, MA. González-Trejo, E., González-Salazar, N. M., Pedroza-Cantu, G. & ElizondoArroyave, S.G. (2013). Corporate supply chain responsibility (CSCR). Journal of Management Development, 32(4), 363 – 375. Gupta, S. (2011). Consumer stakeholder view of corporate social responsibility: A comparative analysis from USA and India. Social Responsibility Journal, 7(3), 363 – 380. Guthrıe, J. & Abeysekera, I. (2006). Content analysis of social, environmental reporting: What is new?, Journal of Human Resource Costing and Accounting, 10(2), 114-126. Gürol, Y., Büyükbalcı, P., Bal, Y., & Ertemsır Berkın, E. (2010). Concept of corporate social responsibility and an overview in developing countries. Istanbul University, Journal of Political Science. 43, 135-162. Hackston, D. & Milne, J. M., (1996). Some determinants of social and environmental disclosures in New Zealand companies. Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 9(1), 77-108. Harrison, J. & Freeman, R. (1999). Stakeholders, social responsibility and performance: Empirical evidence and theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Journal, 42(5), 479-485. Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage Publications Beverly Hills, CA. Hofstede, G. (1991), Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill, London. http://borsaistanbul.com/en/indices/bist-stock-indices/corporate-governance-index http://www.spk.gov.tr/indexcont.aspx?action=showpage&menuid=10&pid=0. Kavut, L. (2010). Corporate governance, corporate social responsibility and environmental reporting: Review of the environmental explanation of the ISE 100 companies. Istanbul University School of Management Journal, 66, 9-43. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 75 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Lankoski L. (2008). Corporate responsibility activities and economic performance: A theory of why and how they are connected. Business Strategy and the Environment. 17, 536–547. Lober, D.J., Bynum, D., Campbell, E., & Jacques, M. (1997). The 100 plus corporate environmental report study: A survey of an evolving environmental management tool. Businell Strategy and the Environment, 6, 57-73. Mainardes, E. W., Alves, H. & Raposo, M. (2011). Stakeholder theory: Issues to resolve, Management Decision. 49(2), 226 – 252. Mainardes, E. W., Alves, H. & Raposo, M. (2012). A model for stakeholder classification and stakeholder relationships. Management Decision, 50(10), 1861 – 1879. Mitchell, R. K., Bradley R. A. & Donna J. W. (1997). Toward a theory of stakeholder identification and salience: Defining the principle of who and what really counts. Academy of Management Review, 22(4), 853-886. Moir, L. (2001). What do we mean by corporate social responsibility? Corporate Governance, 1(2), 16-22. Ozuem; W., Howell, K. & Lancaster, G. (2014). Corporate social responsibility: Towards a context-specific perspective in developing countries. Social Responsibility Journal, 10(3), 399 – 415. Patton M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. Sage: Thousand Oaks. Pinkston, T. S. & Carroll, A. B. (1994). Corporate citizenship perpectives and foreign direct investment in the US. Journal of Business Ethics. 13(3), 157-169. Pinkston, T. S. & Carroll, A. B. (1996). A Retrospective examination of CSR orientations: Have they changed? Journal of Business Ethics, 15(2), 199-206. Romolini, A., Fissi, S. & Gori, E. (2014). Scoring CSR reporting in listed companies evidence from Italian best practices. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 21, 65–81. Sachs, S., Maurer, M., Rühli, E. & Hoffmann, R. (2006). Corporate social responsibility from a “Stakeholder View” perspective: CSR implementation by a Swiss mobile telecommunication provider. Corporate Governance: The International Journal of Business in Society, 6(4), 506 – 515. Spence, L. & Bourlakis, M. (2009). The evolution from corporate social responsibility to supply chain responsibility: the Case of Waitrose. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 14(4), 291 – 302. 76 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Spiller, R. (2000). Ethical business and investment: a model for business and society. Journal of Business Ethics. 27, 149-160. Trebeck, K. (2008). Exploring the responsiveness of companies: corporate social responsibility to stakeholders. Social Responsibility Journal, 4(3), 349 – 365. Visser, W. (2005). Revisiting Carroll’s CSR Pyramid: An African Perspective, In E.R. Pedersen & M. Huniche and Economic Justice, Hyberabad: ICFAI University, 5-10, 2005. Welford, R., Chan, C. & Man, M. (2007). Priorities for corporate social responsibility: a survey of businesses and their stakeholders. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 15, 52–62. Wu, J. (2014). The antecedents of corporate social and environmental irresponsibility. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 21, 286–300. i. ii. (http://www.borsaistanbul.com/en/indices/bist-stock-indices/corporate-governance-index) (http://www.spk.gov.tr/indexcont.aspx?action=showpage&menuid=10&pid=0) Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 77 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2947 Title A name given to the resource Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Author Author ÇETİNKAYA, Melek AĞCA, Veysel ÖZUTKU, Hatice Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This study is based on “stakeholder theory” in order to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities in Corporate Social Responsibility Report of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies from Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index were selected as the sample of the study. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. The data obtained from the annual reports, sustainability reports and corporate governance compliance reports of these 48 companies were subjected to content analysis. According to the findings, economic and legal responsibilities were found to have priority for shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. While philanthropic responsibility was found to have priority for community stakeholder group, economic responsibility is important for suppliers stakeholder group. Legal responsibility, on the other hand, is important for environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities have priorities in all stakeholder groups other than community stakeholder group. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/66ae46b16f989b8c89cca48d23413101.docx 04beb8281ad7afd52761639a3d18d1ea Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2977 Title A name given to the resource THE ARABIC TEACHING IN PREPARATORY CLASSES OF THEOLOGY FACULTIES (THE SAMPLE OF KASTAMONU UNIVERSITY) Author Author Çekin, Abdulkadir Abstract A summary of the resource. Preparatory classes in theology faculties can be considered as foundation of Arabic teaching. Qualified teaching in these classes can be possible with planning, practicing and evaluating the teaching process by the data of educational sciences. The method used in Arabic teaching is one of the most important points that should be taken into consideration. Methods selected by taking into consideration of teaching elements and actively applied make learning easier. On the other hand, methods selected at random are not consistent with the conditions and reduce the success of teaching. Therefore, successful Arabic teaching largely depends on the methods that are selected and used considering the conditions. In this context, teaching methods must be primarily selected by considering teaching objectives. In this paper, it has been tried to find out which curriculum and methods are used, how students’ attitudes and instructors’ ideas are, in Arabic teaching in preparatory classes of theology faculties. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/81163b7cf8332ebedf5054e10f5aae9f.pdf 68158002e29b5301b631657efe2466ce PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Melek Çetinkaya Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey mlcetinkaya@hotmail.com Veysel Ağca Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey agca@aku.edu.tr Hatice Özutku Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey hozutku@aku.edu.tr Abstract: This study is based on “stakeholder theory” in order to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities in Corporate Social Responsibility Report of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies from Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index were selected as the sample of the study. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. The data obtained from the annual reports, sustainability reports and corporate governance compliance reports of these 48 companies were subjected to content analysis. According to the findings, economic and legal responsibilities were found to have priority for shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. While philanthropic responsibility was found to have priority for community stakeholder group, economic responsibility is important for suppliers stakeholder group. Legal responsibility, on the other hand, is important for environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities have priorities in all stakeholder groups other than community stakeholder group. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility; The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility JEL Classification: M10, M14 Article History Submitted: 21 May 2015 Resubmitted: 21 August 2015 Resubmitted: 10 September 2015 Accepted: 14 September 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/ JECOSS15525 57 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Introduction An early definition of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) by European Commission was “a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis” (Commission of the European Communities, 2001: 3). The Commission modified this definition in 2011 as “the responsibility of enterprises for their impacts on society”. In order to fulfil corporate social responsibility, business organizations must have a process that integrates social, environmental, ethical and human rights, and consumer expectations into their business operations and core strategy to get close relationships with social partners (Commission of the European Communities, 2011: 6). According to this definition, it is clear that business organizations have more duties than the official expectations, such as investing in human capital and the environment. Global environmental problems such as climate change, vanishing natural resources and pollution have made corporate social responsibility an important agenda of business world (Harrison and Freeman, 1999; Dincer and Dincer, 2007). The definition and content of CSR change in different contexts. A company should take its stakeholders’ needs into consideration when planning its CSR programmes. Since CSR will always have a location-based nature, a company should understand the priorities of local stakeholders (Welford, Chan and Man, 2007: 52). Environmental concerns of the consumers and the increasing interest in CSR since the 1970’s brought CSR into the discussion of the academic and business world (Harrison and Freeman, 1999; Dincer and Dincer, 2007). Although the term ‘corporate social responsibility’ is still widely used, terms such as corporate citizenship, business ethics, stakeholder management and sustainability offer competing, complementary and overlapping concepts to cover the field (Carroll and Shabana, 2010: 86). The purpose of this study is to analyse the nature of CSR. A descriptive analysis based on CSR Pyramid developed by Carroll was used for the Turkish context. The CSR Pyramid which can be labeled as to be the most well known model for corporate social responsibility emphasize the importance of economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities with its four levels. None the less, analysis of CSR in Turkey may provide an opportunity to examine the relevance of CSR Pyramid priorities in Turkish context to the conventional American ordering when Carroll’s basic four part model is taken into consideration. Corporate Social Responsibility and Organizational Stakeholders The content and definition of CSR has always been a most debated subject (Dahlsrud, 2008: 2; Moir, 2001: 19). As a result of these debates, different perspectives flourished in the field of CSR. Among these perspectives on CSR, Ozuem et al. (2014: 400) put forward some theoretical perspectives as agency theory, the stakeholder theory, the stewardship theory, a resource-based view of the firm, the institutional theory and the strategic leadership theory. 58 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange The history of CSR goes a long way back. The modern era of CSR is dated back to 1950s by Carroll (1999: 268). Although the attempts to define CSR flourished during the 1960s and especially in 1970s, the definitions of CSR became more specific while different approaches on corporate social responsiveness and corporate social performance (CSP) began to flourish. However, the 1980s saw fewer new definitions, more empirical research, and an increase on alternative themes such as corporate social performance, stakeholder theory and business ethics theory. In the 1990s, CSR continued to serve on the same basis but it was transformed through alternative thematic frameworks such as stakeholder theory, business ethics theory, CSP, and corporate citizenship. The analysis of definitions showed that these concepts were appealing to the same dimensions of CSR (Dahlsrud, 2008: 4). Grouping the phrases which refer to the same dimensions gave out five dimensions, namely as the environmental dimension (The natural environment), the social dimension (The relationship between business and society), the economic dimension (Socio-economic or financial aspects, describing CSR in terms of business operations), the stakeholder dimension (Stakeholders or stakeholder groups) and the voluntariness dimension (Actions not prescribed by law). Acting responsibly is important for any firm doing business. Two theories of CSR offer definitions for responsibility. According to the definition based on shareholder theory managers should make decisions that maximize the wealth of their firms’ stockholders. On the other hand, the definition based on stakeholder theory argues that rather than maximizing the prosperity of their owners, firms have duties towards the society. Ultimately, this debate on the definition of responsibility changed its direction towards deciding the amount a firm should spend for acting responsibly (Wu, 2014: 286). The concepts of corporate citizenship, corporate sustainability, stakeholder management, environmental management, business ethics and corporate social performance are studied under CSR. Carroll defines social responsibility as the entire range of obligations a business has towards the society in terms of the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary categories of business performance (1979: 497). According to this definition, there are four dimensions of CSR namely as economic, legal, ethical and discretionary (philanthropic) responsibilities. Although these four constituent parts of CSR reflect the viewpoints related to earlier definitions, it represents the social responsibilities of businesses in more details. Thus Carroll’s definition has been the most widely accepted one among a vast number of definitions in the literature of CSR (Visser, 2005: 33). Carroll presents economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic dimensions of CSR on the model of “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” and argues that not only economic and legal responsibility dimensions have been a part of CSR but all four responsibility dimensions have always existed to some extent while ethical and philanthropic functions have taken a significant position just in recent years (Carroll, 1991). Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 59 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku The pyramid of corporate social responsibility is presented in Figure 1. As can be seen, economic responsibilities component is the foundation block of the other three components. Obeying the laws, or playing by the rules, is the second most important dimension because the law is society’s codification of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Ethical responsibilities lies on the next level and covers being just and fair, discern what is right or wrong in order to avoid doing harm or to protect the stakeholders which are the employees, consumers, the environment, and others. Ultimately, philanthropic responsibilities focusing on being a good corporate citizen lie at the top of the CSR pyramid. These benevolent activities include contributing financial and human resources to the community and improving the quality of life. No CSR pyramid is perfect without one of these four components. They cannot be separated from one other but here and elsewhere, they are taken into consideration individually in order to discuss their specific nature. Moreover, as Carroll argues (1991: 42), “a consideration of the separate components helps the manager see that the different types of obligations are in a constant but dynamic tension with one another”. Figure 1. The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Source: Carroll, A. (1991), “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders”, Business Horizons. According to recent literature on CSR, it is important to have a dialogue with stakeholders in order to protect the interests of stakeholders and to have conformity between the stakeholders and schemes of sustainable development and business strategy. In their study, Romolini et al. (2014: 67) argue that stakeholders, in turn, are less influenced by an entity’s financial performance alone and more influenced by their perception that sustainability is critical to an entity’s financial performance and to fulfilling the 60 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange implicit contract between the entity and society. In this study, theoretical perspectives of stakeholders have been taken into consideration. According to a stakeholder-oriented perspective, organizations exist within networks of stakeholders and face potentially conflicting demands from these stakeholders and have to adapt stakeholders’ demands into the core policies of CSR. In his study on CSR, Dahlsrud (2008: 4) argues that the stakeholder dimension covers “interaction with their stakeholders”, “how organizations interact with their employees, suppliers, customers and communities” and “treating the stakeholders of the firm”. First proposed by Freeman in 1984, stakeholder theory focuses on the strategic management of organizations in the late twentieth century. Numerous studies in literature, especially those of Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995), Mitchell et al. (1997) helped the theory to flourish and develop (Mainardes et al., 2012: 1862). Although they may offer different definitions and interpretations, all these studies, in their core, follow the definition of Freeman (1984) and reflect the same principle to a greater or lesser extent: the company should take into consideration the needs, interests and influences of people and groups, who either impact on or may be impacted by its policies and operations. According to Freeman’s (1984) definition, individuals or groups may influence or be influenced by the scope of organizational objectives. Within this concept, a person, an informal group, an organization or an institution may all be stakeholders (Mainardes et al., 2011: 228). Moir (2001: 19) argues that the stakeholder theory can be used as a basis to analyse those groups to whom the firm should be responsible. A literature review reveals various proposals for classifying stakeholders by their respective level of importance (Clarkson, 1995: 106; Donaldson and Preston, 1995: 68; Mainardes et al., 2012: 1865; Ozuem et al., 2014: 400; Trebeck, 2008: 352). Stakeholders are important for companies in some sense because they have an influence on company performance. For this reason, companies try to respond to their stakeholders’ demands in economic, formal or political frames. Stakeholders may have different levels of priorities for companies at different times but according to literature, there is some stability in the pattern of priority of stakeholders. Also, the stage of business and expectations of businesses may be different in different countries although they may be in the same field. Moreover different orientations can be observed in corporate environments of different countries. Pinkston and Carroll (1994: 165), who studied the conditions of markets in England, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland and the US, argue that stakeholders have different levels of importance in different countries. For example, while the focus is on economic responsibilities to owners in England, the focus shifts to company-employee relations in France and Germany, and to nurturing the business-community relationships in Japan. Naturally, because of the differences in these business relationships, stakeholder priorities can also be different. Thus, the stakeholder groups studied in the samples appeared to be prioritized in the same order while communities and government stakeholders ranked lower than the other threestakeholder groups of employees, consumers, and owners (Pinkston and Carroll, 1994: 161). Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 61 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku The terms of “stakeholder” and “social responsibility” have close relationships in terms of corporate social responsibility. The connection between these two terms derives from the vague content of the term “social” and the concept of “stakeholder” denotes to social or societal responsibilities of a company (Carroll, 1991: 43). Ozuem et al. (2014: 400) argue that according to stakeholder-oriented perception, organizations exist within networks of stakeholders and they aim to meet potentially conflicting demands of these stakeholders in terms of CSR objectives and policies. The duty of the management of a stakeholder oriented business is difficult because the managers have to make a settlement between their objectives and the expectations and demands of the stakeholders. While doing this, they have to meet the demands of main stakeholders in the first place and the remaining groups later. Although it is not always possible to satisfy all the parties at the same time, it is important for a company to protect its long-term interests. Carroll (1991: 43) assumes that the functions of stakeholder management are to describe, understand, analyse, and finally to manage. Carroll poses five questions to understand stakeholder management: 1. Who are our stakeholders? 2. What are their stakes? 3. What opportunities and challenges are presented by our stakeholders? 4. What corporate social responsibilities (economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic) do we have to our stakeholders? 5. What strategies, actions, or decisions should we take to best deal with these responsibilities? These questions can be discussed in details but attention must be given to what kind of responsibilities does a company have towards its stakeholders (Carroll, 1991: 43). A conceptional framework of stakeholder/responsibility matrix on this topic is presented in Figure 2. Figure 2. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Types of CSR Economic Legal Ethical Philanthropic Stakeholders Owners Customers Employees Community Competitors Suppliers Social Activist Groups 62 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Public at Large Others Source: Carroll, 1991: 44 By looking and working on this matrix, a manager can decide on how to act in different types of corporate social responsibility environments by taking different stakeholder groups into consideration. For each cell, the manager can gather analytical data and use them “for developing priorities and making both long-term and short-term decisions involving multiple stakeholders’ interests” (Carroll, 1991: 44). However, Pinkston and Carroll (1994) made a little alteration on this classification regarding the stakeholder groups in one of later studies. In their study on international businesses in different countries, Pinkston and Carroll (1994: 161) renamed stakeholder groups as owners, consumers, employees, communities and government. They argued that the perceived relative importance of the organizations’ stakeholder groups will differ across firms by countries-of-origin. Purpose and Importance of the Research Most of the research on Carroll’s (1991) CSR Pyramid has been in an American context. Nevertheless, several of the empirical studies already discussed suggest that culture may have an important influence on perceived CSR priorities (Visser, 2005). Within the framework of Carroll’s CSR Pyramid (1991), this study aims to find out CSR priorities of companies listed in the Corporate Governance Index of Borsa Istanbul (BIST) which apply corporate management principles. In order to realize this aim, economic, legal, ethical and philantrophic responsibilities are placed on stakeholder/responsibility matrix based on Carroll’s Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid and the distribution of stakeholder groups according to their responsibility fields is investigated. It has been observed that no previous study in the literature of the field has attempted to place these four responsibilities on stakeholder/responsibility matrix. From this perspective, it can be said that this study is of great importance with its pioneering aspects. Methodology of the Research The research in this study was carried out using the qualitative research method. Extreme case sampling (Patton, 2002) was carried out by selecting Turkish companies with the best corporate social responsibility performance. A similar criterion for selecting companies was used by previous studies in order to analyze CSR (Collison et al., 2008; Lankoski, 2008; Romolini et al., 2014). The sample of the research is composed of 48 companies, which trade in Borsa Istanbul (BIST) and listed in Corporate Governance Index. BIST Corporate Governance Index (XKURY) is an index which includes the companies that apply Corporate Governance Principlesi. Corporate Governance Principles in Turkey are constituted by Capital Markets Board by taking primarily the “OECD Corporate Governance Principles” of 1999 into consideration. Corporate Governance Principles are made up of four parts: (1) Shareholders, (2) Public Disclosure and Transparency, (3) Stakeholders, (4) Board of Directors. An important portion of corporate governance Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 63 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku principles are about the responsibilities of companies towards stakeholdersii. For this reason, sampling for the study has been chosen from companies within Corporate Governence Index which lists companies with high corporate social responsibility performance. In the attainment of data, “Annual Reports”, “Sustainability Reports”, and “Corporate Governance Compliance Reports”, which are presented as “public domain” information in the websites of the so-called companies, were taken as a basis. Content analysis method was used in the analysis of the data. Content analysis necessitates the information in the content of a text (or report) to be coded within the framework of pre-described categories, as quantitatively and qualitatively (Guthrie and Abeysekera, 2006: 117). With this method, percentage distribution of the information presented in a report (or a text) is measured, by being classified (coded) according to categories (Loberet et al., 1997: 59). Quantitative measurements obtained as a result of coding can be used as data in other kinds of analyses (Hackston and Milne, 1996: 84). For information related to corporate social responsibility which will be coded in content analysis, categories need to be formed and corporate social responsibility information types which will be included in these categories need to be determined. Carroll’s (1991) study was taken into consideration for defining the social responsibility areas in the content analysis. Business practices defined by Spiller (2000) were taken into consideration in order to identify the business practices related to the expectations of stakeholder groups. Content Analysis Process In order to determine the categories and classifications of corporate social responsibility information types according to these categories, which will be used in the execution of this research and application of content analysis technique, literature review was completed and the following basic and sub categories were formed based on the information and categories in the studies of Carroll (1991) and Spiller (2000). Moreover, studies of Carroll (1991), Pinkston and Carroll (1994), Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995) and Trebeck (2008) were considered for the identification of stakeholder groups. Accordingly, stakeholder groups were taken into account as shareholders, consumers, employees, communities, suppliers, governments and others. Social Responsibility Areas of Business Organizations To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic (Figure 3). 64 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Figure 3. Economic, Legal, Ethical and Philanthropic Responsibilities Economic Components (Responsibilities) Legal Components (Responsibilities) 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with maximizing earnings per share. 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with the expectations of government and law. 2. It is important to be committed to being as profitable as possible. 2. It is important to comply with various federal, state and local regulations. 3. It is important to maintain a strong competitive position. 3. It is important to be a law-abiding corporate citizen. 4. It is important to maintain a high level of operating efficiency. 4. It is important that a successful firm be defined as one that fulfils its legal obligations. 5. It is important that a successful firm be defined 5. It is important to provide goods and services as one that is consistently profitable. that at least meet minimal legal requirements. Ethical Components (Responsibilities) Philanthropic Components (Responsibilities) 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with expectations of societal mores and ethical norms. 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with the philanthropic and charitable expectations of society. 2. It is important to recognize and respect new or evolving ethical/moral norms adopted by society. 2. It is important to assist the fine and performing arts. 3. It is important to prevent ethical norms from being compromised in order to achieve corporate goals. 3. It is important that managers and employees participate in voluntary and charitable activities within their local communities. 4. It is important that good corporate citizenship be defined as doing what is expected morally or ethically. 4. It is important to provide assistance to private and public educational institutions. 5. It is important to recognize that corporate integrity and ethical behavior go beyond mere compliance with laws and regulations. 5. It is important to assist voluntarily projects that enhance a community’s “quality of life”. Source: Carroll (1991) Business Practices Related to the Expectations of Stakeholder Groups In order to determine the expectations of stakeholder groups within the context of corporate social responsibility in content analysis, the study of Spiller (2000) was taken into consideration. This study of Spiller (2000), which defines important business practices regarding each important stakeholder group, is one of the most detailed studies conducted about stakeholder groups’ expectations as part of corporate social Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 65 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku responsibility practices. Spiller (2000) specified stakeholder groups that constitute primary priority for a business and claimed that organizational practices, which appear in accordance with the expectations of these groups, can be used in determining the corporate social responsibility performance of a business. This study has been beneficial for many researches about corporate social responsibility practices. To guide implementation, Spiller (2000: 153-154) has identified ten key business practices for each of the six main stakeholder groups: community; environment; employees; customers; suppliers, and shareholders (Figure 4). The list of 60 practices summarised below is neither exhaustive, nor uncontroversial. However, it does provide a starting point, a menu from which companies can choose, preferably in conjunction with their stakeholders, the areas on which to focus. Figure 4. Key Business Practices for Each ofthe Six Main Stakeholder Groups 1. Community 1.1. Generous financial donations 1.2. Innovative giving 1.3. Support for education and job training programmes 1.4. Direct involvement in community projects and affairs 1.5. Community volunteer programmes 1.6. Support for the local community 1.7. Campaigning for environmental and social change 1.8. An employee-led approach to philanthropy 1.9. Efficient and effective community activity 1.10. Disclosure of environmental and social performance 2. Environment 2.1. Environmental policies, organization and management 2.2. Materials policy of reduction, reuse and recycling 2.3. Monitoring, minimising and taking responsibility for releases to the environment 2.4. Waste management 2.5. Energy conservation 2.6. Effective emergency response 2.7. Public dialogue and disclosure 2.8. Product stewardship 2.9. Environmental requirements for suppliers 2.10. Environmental audits 3. Employees 3.1. Fair remuneration 3.2. Effective communication 3.3. Learning and development opportunities 3.4. Fulfilling work 3.5. A healthy and safe work environment 3.6. Equal employment opportunities 3.7. Job security 3.8. Competent leadership 3.9. Community spirit 3.10. Social mission integration 4. Customers 4.1. Industry-leading quality programme 4.2. Value for money 4.3. Truthful promotion 4.4. Full product disclosure 4.5. Leadership in research and development 4.6. Minimal packaging 4.7. Rapid and respectful responses to customer comments, complaints and concerns 4.8. Customer dialogue 4.9. Safe products 4.10. Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition 66 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange 5. Suppliers 5.1. Develop and maintain long-term purchasing relationships 5.2. Clear expectations 5.3. Pay fair prices and bills according to terms agreed upon 5.4. Fair and competent handling of conflicts and disputes 5.5. Reliable anticipated purchasing requirements 5.6. Encouragement to provide innovative suggestions 5.7. Assist suppliers to improve their environmental and social performance 5.8. Utilise local suppliers 5.9. Sourcing from minority-owned suppliers 5.10. Inclusion of an environmental and social element in the selection of suppliers 6. Shareholders 6.1. Good rate of long-term return to shareholders 6.2. Disseminate comprehensive and clear information 6.3. Encourage staff ownership of shares 6.4. Develop and build relationships with shareholders 6.5. Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends 6.6. Corporate governance issues are well managed 6.7. Access to company’s directors and senior managers 6.8. Annual report and accounts provide a comprehensive picture of the company’s overall performance 6.9. Clear long-term business strategy 6.10. Open communication with the financial community Source: Spiller, 2000: 153-154. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Business practices devoted to meet the expectations of stakeholder groups for corporate social responsibility areas defined by Carroll and which responsibilities become prominent in which stakeholder groups were defined in the content analysis, based on the Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix of Carroll (1991). None the less, besides Carroll’s (1991) study, stakeholder groups to be considered in the matrix were identified by considering Pinkston and Carroll (1994), Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995), Spiller (2000) and Trebeck’s (2008) classifications. According to this, stakeholder groups were taken into consideration as shareholders, consumers, employees, communities, suppliers and others. As a result of the assessment done by the authors of the study, business practices related to the expectations of the stakeholder groups (Spiller, 2000) were placed in economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic areas in the stakeholder/responsibility matrix. By this way, a framework was formed in order to evaluate the findings obtained from the content analysis. Figure 5: Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Types of CSR Economic Legal Ethical Philanthropic Stakeholders Shareholders Customers Employees Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 67 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Community Suppliers Others Findings of the Research and Evaluation of Findings The data attained from the content analysis was analysed with the help of SPSS 20.0 Windows program. How often and at what level the information about corporate social responsibility took place in the related report was determined as number and percentage, and emerging frequency tables were interpreted. During the process of putting data into codes, “1” was used for coding the practices present in the categories considered in the content analysis and “2” was used for coding the practices which are not present in the businesses. Additionally, in terms of sector information, service sector was coded as “1” and manufacturing sector was coded as “2”. 27 of the businesses taking place in the sample operate in service sector, while 21 of them operate in manufacturing sector. Frequency and percentage values belonging to business practices about the expectations of stakeholder groups are presented in Figure 6. Hereunder, business practices falling within shareholders groups are seen to be over 90%. Businesses perform their legal responsibilities against their shareholders to a large extent. Of the practices in economic area, “Open communication with the financial Community” is seen to be over 65% and others are seen to be over 83%. Economic practices of companies as “Clear long-term business strategy” and “Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends” oriented to shareholders stakeholder group ate at 90% level. Among the economic practices taking place in customers stakeholder group, “Customer dialogue” is seen to be at level 87.5%, “Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition” is seen to be at level 83% and “safe products” is seen to be at level 79%. Businesses perform their responsibilities against their customers in the economic area. Of their responsibilities in legal area, “Truthful promotion” is at level 67% while “Minimal packaging” is at the level of 33%. The fact that this practice is used only in manufacturing businesses should be considered in minimal packaging radio to be low. Ethically, “Rapid and respectful responses to customer comments, complaints and concerns” is at level 79% and “Value for Money” is at level 44%. It is observed that businesses do not stress on the “Money” concept much, which is directed to customers stakeholder group. Of the practices falling within employees stakeholder group, economically “Learning and development opportunities” was emphasized as 96% and legally “A healthy and safe work environment” was emphasized as 94%. In the ethical responsibility area, “Fulfilling work” and “Competent leadership” were mentioned at 60%, “Community spirit” at 75%, and “Fair remuneration” and “Equal employment opportunities” were mentioned over 83%. It is regarded that practices in employees stakeholder group were given a quite high importance. 68 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Business practices in community stakeholder group are seen to be at 35% in the economic area with “Disclosure of environmental and social performance” at 35% and at 73% in the ethical area of “Innovative giving”. In the philanthropic area, the practice that has the highest level is “Direct involvement in community projects and affairs” with 88% and the practice that has the lowest level is “An employee-led approach to philanthropy” with 48%. It can be stated that businesses act sensitive about philanthropic practices in community stakeholder group. Businesses do not seem to give much place to information related to suppliers stakeholder group. The most emphasized practice in economic area is “Encouragement to provide innovative suggestions” with a level of 48%. The most emphasized practice in ethical area is “Inclusion of an environmental and social element in the selection of suppliers” with a level of 40%, and the most emphasized practice in philanthropic area is “Assist suppliers to improve their environmental and social performance” with a level of 40%. Other practices seem to be even lower than this level. Practices under the title of Environment were encountered mostly in the stakeholder group named as Others. The most mentioned practice in economic practices area is “Environmental policies, organization and management” with a level of 83%. “Environmental requirements for suppliers” is seen to be at level 37% and “Environmental audits” is seen to be at level 35%. The practice in legal area is “Public dialogue and disclosure” at a level of 60%. Whether a difference exists between expectations of stakeholder groups and related business practices from the point of sectors of the businesses taking place in the research was analysed via t-test. As a result of the analysis, business practices falling within stakeholder groups did not show a significant difference between service sector and manufacturing sector. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 69 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Figure 6. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix in Turkey Sample 70 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange According to findings obtained from this research, economic and legal responsibilities were determined to have priority in shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. Philanthropic responsibility was determined to be primary in community stakeholder group, economic responsibility was seen to be primary in suppliers stakeholder group, and legal responsibility was seen to be primary in environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities were observed to have priority in all stakeholder groups, except community stakeholder group. Findings obtained reveal that corporate social responsibility practices of businesses taking place in Turkey research sample are wide enough to include stakeholder groups, other than suppliers. In Turkey, companies traditionally perform corporate social responsibility practices for long years within the framework of philanthropy. As a matter of fact, many businesses materialize their politics in this direction through various projects, such as awarding scholarships to students, sponsoring sports and art activities. Although social responsibility programs do not improve in private sector as fast as in the world, they have a different status lately. Non-governmental organizations, which developed quickly especially in 1990s, lead the supports of companies in social areas, in which education projects comes first on a more substantial ground with sustainability. On the other hand, especially in previous years, many companies head towards professional support for social responsibility programs. Non-governmental organizations enable the support given to social-oriented projects in private sector to increase quickly. Nongovernmental organizations, which work with a transparent administrative mentality and responsibility mission, establish a ground for the creation of social projects with the leading companies of private sector. Social responsibility projects, which are realised through a co-operation with non-governmental organizations, are seen to be executed in areas such as education, sports, health, elderly, children and environment. Besides this, several consultancy institutions are seen to function with the purpose of supporting businesses in identifying social responsibility projects and in the process of putting them into practice (Akgeyik, 2007: 82). As the obtained findings are compared to the findings of prior studies in different countries, similar results were attained in some aspects, while different ones were obtained in others. For instance, in their study which includes England, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland and the US, Pinkston and Carroll (1994) put forward that the importance given to stakeholders differed according to countries. England has been shown to emphasize economic responsibilities to owners in its business community. France, on the other hand, has been understood to focus on company employee relations, as has Germany. The Japanese environment has appeared to nurture the business-community relationships. Since these relationships can be noticeably different in any given business environment, the stakeholder priorities were expected to be different for the sample organizations. One of the conspicuous findings of the study is the lack of corporate social responsibility practices regarding the suppliers stakeholder group. A similar situation exists in the findings of the studies that were conducted in other countries. For example, several Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 71 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku empirical studies in Europe, North America and Asia have investigated how firms work with CSR-related issues in their supply chains. Most of these studies are not only confined to large multinational corporations, but also include SMEs. According to the results attained, despite many companies’ efforts to engage in CSR-related activities in their supply chains, there is often a gap between the ethical standards expressed and the actual conditions at the suppliers (Andersen and Larsen, 2009: 78). In today’s competitive business environment, it has become imperative for firms to find ways to work collaboratively with suppliers. Moreover, it has been shown that firm-supplier cooperation and partnership can help all supply-chain members to increase performance. Additionally, ethical behavior in the firm-supplier relationship will generate trust and better communication – attributes which can result in greater competitiveness and wealth creation (Gonzalez et al., 2013: 373). Conclusion This study is based on “stakeholder theory” to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility levels in Turkey. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities (highlight issues and areas) in Corporate Social Responsibility of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies were selected as the sample of the study in the Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index. The research was carried out using the qualitative research method. In the attainment of data, “Annual Reports”, “Sustainability Reports”, and “Corporate Governance Compliance Reports”, which are “public domain” information published in the websites of the so-called companies, were taken as a basis. Content analysis method was used in the analysis of the data. According to the findings of this study, economic and legal responsibilities were determined to have priority in shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. Among the companies which fall into the scope the study, responsibilities outstanding in the field of economic responsibilities for shareholders are: “Good rate of long-term return to shareholders”, “Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends”, “Clear long-term business strategy”, “Open communication with the financial Community”. The important topics for shareholders in terms of legal responsibilities are: “Disseminate comprehensive and clear information”, “Corporate governance issues are well managed and access to company’s directors and senior managers”, “Annual report and accounts provide a comprehensive picture of the company’s overall performance”. For customers stakeholder group, social responsibility topics on economic level are: “Industry-leading quality programme”, “Customer dialogue”, “Safe products”, “Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition”. Legal responsibilities which are important for customer stakeholder group are: “Truthful promotion” and “Minimal 72 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange packaging”. While the economic responsibilities which stand out for employees stakeholder group are “Learning and development opportunities”, legal responbilities which are important for the same group are “A healthy and safe work environment”. Corporate social responsibility practices reflecting ethical and philanthropic responsibility understanding were not seen to take place in shareholders stakeholder group. Philanthropic responsibility mentality was seen not to fall within customers and employees stakeholder groups. In community stakeholder group, on the other hand, it is conspicuous that most of the corporate social responsibility practices are performed within the context of philanthropic responsibility understanding and ethical and economic mentalities remain in the background. It has been realised that social responsibility practices taking place in suppliers stakeholder group are not common, and current social responsibility practices reflect economic responsibility. On the other hand, in the environment stakeholder group, legal responsibility was identified to be primary. In general, economic and legal responsibilities were seen to have priority in all stakeholder groups, except the community stakeholder group. The findings obtained reveal that corporate social responsibilities of large companies in the research sample of Turkey are wide enough to include all stakeholder groups other than suppliers, and economic and legal responsibilities have priority in the corporate social responsibility understanding. As a result, many companies embrace a CSR program as a way to promote socially responsible actions and policies, and effectively respond to stakeholder demands. According to stakeholder theory, companies can achieve more positive results by paying more attention to corporate social responsibility programs. Stakeholder theory suggests that organizational survival and success is contingent on satisfying both its economic (e.g. profit maximization) and non-economic (e.g. corporate social performance) objectives by meeting the needs of the company’s various stakeholders. The stakeholder management concept serves to ensure that organizations recognise, analyse and examine the individual and group characteristics that influence or are influenced by organizational behaviours and actions. Future studies may include analyses of which stakeholder groups must be paid more attention in the value creation process of organizations within the context of stakeholder theory, what the contributions the stakeholders provide are and what the possible risks related to stakeholders are, expectations of stakeholders and how processes that will meet these expectations will be developed. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 73 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku References Akgeyik, T. (2007). The human resource management dimensions of corporate social responsibility in Turkey: A survey. http://www.journals.istanbul.edu.tr/iusskd/article/ view/1023000164. Andersen, M. & Larsen, T.S. (2009). Corporate social responsibility in global supply chains. 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Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 21, 286–300. i. ii. (http://www.borsaistanbul.com/en/indices/bist-stock-indices/corporate-governance-index) (http://www.spk.gov.tr/indexcont.aspx?action=showpage&menuid=10&pid=0) Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 77 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2928 Title A name given to the resource Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Author Author Çetinkaya, Melek Ağca, Veysel Özutku, Hatice Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This study is based on "stakeholder theory" in order to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities in Corporate Social Responsibility Report of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies from Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index were selected as the sample of the study. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. The data obtained from the annual reports, sustainability reports and corporate governance compliance reports of these 48 companies were subjected to content analysis. According to the findings, economic and legal responsibilities were found to have priority for shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. While philanthropic responsibility was found to have priority for community stakeholder group, economic responsibility is important for suppliers stakeholder group. Legal responsibility, on the other hand, is important for environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities have priorities in all stakeholder groups other than community stakeholder group. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1db6da12c3aebd73203492ac143522af.pdf feaf10f8675d124fdb22fa139a792fb6 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Monika Černá University of Pardubice, Czech Republic Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 08.11.2014. Abstract The paper discusses the challenges of test design in the context of a research project focusing on the analysis of tertiary students’ spoken production in English. One of the project aims is to create a corpus of learner-spoken English. The participants in the study are Czech first-year students in English language teacher education study programmes at three universities. In order to elicit samples of the students’ oral production, a test of speaking, including a pronunciation subtest,was designed with respect to the research aims and objectives and in accordance with the current trends in the field. The challenges faced by the research team may be divided into three groups – those pertinent to the construction phase of the research instrument, the pilot phase, and the data-collection phase. The paper discusses how the team responded to the perceived challenges.The process of test designing was informed by relevant literature (e.g. Bachman, 1990, Hughes, 2003, Luoma, 2004);the team strove to achieve the highest possible level of ‘test usefulness’, i.e. test qualities including reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality, as introduced by Bachman and Palmer (2009). Consequently, the decisions regarding the abilities that the candidates, prospective English teachers, should demonstrate, as well as the decisions about the test format (elicitation techniques, number of tasks, etc.), were made with respect to the proposed ‘test usefulness’. The pilot phase confirmed the usability of the tool to elicit the required data, but also necessitated a few content- and procedure-related modifications. They reflected the results of the analysis of the performances recorded during the trial testing as well as the analysis of feedback questionnaires.Having revised the test, the researchers then implemented it in the data-collection processin three universities in the Czech Republic. The number of studentstested was 176. Keywords: Diagnostic test, speaking, English, tertiary students, research Introduction 213 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Data elicitation is inherent to any research, not excluding second language research. Depending on the aims of a study, various data elicitation techniques are used. Gass and Mackey (2011) place techniques on a continuum ranging from naturalistic data to prompted-production data and prompted-response data. Regarding the investigations of input and interaction, there has been a gradual move away from studying those aspects in natural settings (Ellis, 2008). Researchers often rely on clinical elicitation, i.e. prompted production and prompted response, through which samples of learner language are obtained. Gass and Mackey (2011) suggested specific examples of diverse elicitation techniques. Additionally, language tests may also be utilised to elicit data for a variety of research purposes such as ‘research into the language ability itself, including the effects of different test taker characteristics on language test performance’ (Bachman & Palmer, 2009, p. 99). This matches the focus of the research project1 designed to investigate the influence of the Czech students’ mother tongue on their communicative competence in spoken English in relation to the students’ individual learning histories (Černá, 2013). The project is discussed in the paper with an emphasis on the challenges of test designing within its context. Achieving a high level of communicative competence in the target language has been the core of the language teacher’s expertise. Therefore, the project of a diagnostic nature has been targeted at Czech students’ spoken production in English on the onset of university teacher education. The findings of the project will provide insights into the processes and outcomes of learning English as a foreign language in the Czech Republic, which may be found beneficial by educational institutions operating at all levels from the pre-primary to upper-secondary, namely for the purpose of curriculum design. The results will also function as feedback for Czech authors of English textbooks and as a basis for the design of new research-based teaching materials. Most importantly, the outcomes will be utilised in teacher education, research-based evidence will allow for the development of methodologies leading to a sound content knowledge base of trainee teachers. The project started in 2013; actions in the first year were centred on data-elicitation tools. Challenges of test design Testing or formal assessment in general is a complex and challenging matter; it is even more so with testing spoken language. Davis (2009) attributes the complexity to the interaction of different factors and their influence on a final score. It is far beyond the scope of the paper to attempt to reiterate all the relevant factors, therefore, the major challenges perceived in the particular testing situation will be in focus. 1 A three-year project, Aspects of English Language Acquisition of Czech Students on the Onset of Teacher Education, has been supported by the Czech Science Foundation (GA ČR 13-25982S). 214 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Designing a test for research purposes The priority of research is obvious in the testing situation explored in the paper. The team was supposed to construct a diagnostic test of spoken language that would elicit samples of learner language for the subsequent investigation of its variability. A set of structures to be included in the analysis has been identified on the basis of the following criteria(a) relevance of particular features to the grammar of spoken language, and (b) potential negative transfer from the mother tongue. Selected syntactic and discourse features comprise word order deviations (both incorrect and systemic caused by the nature of conversation), distribution of verbs typical of spoken discourse (functioning as discourse markers, main clauses or comment clauses), structures with non-finite verb complementation and the use of vagueness hedges (Ježková, 2012). Regarding pronunciation, the segmental and suprasegmental features of interest include the following: the front open vowel ‘ash’, the weak central mid vowel ‘schwa’, the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives, the labiovelar approximant /w/, the velar nasal, the pronunciation of word-final voiced consonants and non-initial primary word stress(Nádraská, under review). Apart from data elicitation the test administration is expected to impact on the students in the first year of the English major bachelor study programmes at three universities in the Czech Republic involved in the project. Being a diagnostic tool, the test should uncover the students’ strengths and weaknesses in performing oral communication tasks. The diagnosis on entry to the programmes may lead to possible adjustments of syllabus objectives of relevant courses, e.g. language development courses, phonetics, phonology and syntax. Furthermore, the performance on the test is likely to influence the setting of the students’ autonomous language development goals. Considering the features of the particular testing situation, the research team aimed to achieve the highest possible level of ‘test usefulness’, which was proposed by Bachman and Palmer as ‘a function of several different qualities, all of which contribute in unique but interrelated ways to the overall usefulness of a given test’ (2009, p. 18). These include reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact, and practicality; out of the listed qualities, authenticity will be at the centre of attention. Bachman and Palmer consider authenticity a critical quality of language tests (2009, p. 23) and define it ‘as the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a TLU [target language use]task.’ (ibid.). In order to achieve the highest possible level of authenticity, the team attempted to design a test that would be relevant to the target language use domain, i.e. that of teaching English as a foreign language. Reflecting the variety of the target language-use tasks, it was desirable to design test tasks 215 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design capable of eliciting samples of both monologic production and of student-student spoken interaction. Therefore, the paired format proved a necessity. The researchers were aware of the advantages and caveats of the paired format reported in the papers on testing speaking (e.g. Galacsi, 2010). In discussing various task types O’Sullivan (2012) concluded that there were issues for less outgoing studentsin relation to interactive tasks. However, there seem to be other assets of the paired format that are worth considering. Galacsi (2010) enumerates studies that support the finding that oral paired tasks were more symmetrical in the interaction possibilities they created. Brooks (2009) reports that subjects in her study performed better in the paired format than they did in the individual format. While the latter tended to result in asymmetrical discourse, a variety of interactive features was distributed in a more balanced way in the former paired format. With the research aims in mind, those findings provided a substantial argument for involving the paired format. Nevertheless, there were other questions to answer, namely those related to the ways of pairing the test-takers. Two factors, reflecting the project aims, will be mentioned: the influence of interlocutor proficiency and learner acquaintanceship. The subjects in the study are students on entry to the tertiary education, i.e. the diagnosis is scheduled as soon as possible after the beginning of the academic year to prevent the impact of university education to contaminate the data. Before the diagnosis there is virtually no possibility for the researchers to learn either about the students’ proficiency in English or about their social relationships in the newly constituted groups. Although there is some research evidence that subjects achieve higher scores when working with a friend (O’Sullivan, 2009), the acquaintanceship effect was ignored in this particular testing situation. The examinees could choose a partner, but it was based on availability rather than personal preference;however,thepotential existence of some interpersonal relationships cannot be excluded. Regarding a variety of proficiency levels, it was considered in the light of the study by Davis (2009) in which he investigates the effects of the proficiency level of an examinee’s partner in a paired oral test. Davis concludes that the level of proficiency has little influence on scores, but in some cases the pairing type appears to influence language quantity or interaction characteristics (ibid.). In the context of the research project, a potential decrease of language quantity or eliciting a type of response other than expected would have detrimental impact on the obtained data. In order to prevent this, two information-exchange tasks with precisely defined roles were included together with an informal discussion. Whether the three interactive tasks provide space for each test-taker to produce the expected response should be verified in the pilot phase of the test construction process. Reflecting the research aims and with reference to relevant resources (e.g. Bachman, 1990, Hewings, 2004, Hughes, 2003, Luoma, 2004) and preliminary studies (Černá, Urbanová, &Vít, 2010, Ježková, 2012), the team constructed a diagnostic speaking test with a pronunciation 216 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics subtest. The table below presents selected test tasks’ characteristics based on the framework proposed by Bachman and Palmer (2009). INPUT EXPECTED RESPONSE Warm-up Individual Sustained monologue Individual Aural, Target language*, Language input: sentences, prompt = open-ended questions, Unspeeded*, Live* Aural, Language input: sentences, prompt = open-ended questions, Oral*, Target language*, Limited production response, Unspeeded*, Live* Extensive production response, Individual long turn Information transfer (asking/ giving detailed information about events, processes; telling what to do) Information transfer (see Task 2) Paired Visual, Language input: words, phrases, sentences, prompt = task sheet, Non-language input: pictures Co-constructed, extensive production response, Transactional and interactional language Reciprocal, Broad scope, Direct see Task 2 see Task 2 see Task 2 see Task 2 Informal discussion Paired Visual, Language input: phrases, sentences, prompt = issue to discuss, clues given Co-constructed, extensive production response, Transactional and interactional language Reciprocal, Narrow scope, Indirect Introduction FORMAT Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 SPEAKING INPUT – RESPONSE RELATION SHIP Reciprocal, Narrow scope, Indirect TYPE OF TASK Nonreciprocal, Narrow scope, Indirect 217 �Reading aloud: text Individual Visual, Language input: extended discourse, prompt = text (152 words) Extensive production response Nonreciprocal, Broad scope, Direct Reading aloud: word list Individual Visual, Language input: words, prompt = wordlist (27 words) Limited production response Nonreciprocal, Broad scope, Direct Task 5 Task 6 PRONUNCIATION Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design *The characteristics that remain the same are not repeated for each task. Not only the test characteristics but also the topical content of a test plays an important role with respect to its authenticity. In this particular testing situation, the researchers explored a range of topics that would be appropriate to the test-takers with the following characteristics: young adults on the onset of their university teacher education, native speakers of Czech, the level of communicative competence approximately B2 according to the Common European Framework (Council of Europe, 2001). Topical knowledge was deliberately excluded not to favour certain test takers; all the information necessary to complete the tasks was prompted in the input or personal experience was called for. The topics were carefully considered to avoid those that might be perceived as sensitive by the test-takers; for example, the following topics were finally involved in the test: experience with learning English, renting a flat, student mobility, part-time jobs, the role of social networks in one’s life, healthy eating, and plagiarism. Although overreaction to any of the topics was not expected, topic relevance was also examined in the pilot phase. Trial testing Challenges of the pilot phase were manifold. Since the respondents were recruited on a voluntary basis, the main challenge was to attain a sufficient number of cooperating students with such a set of characteristics that would be close to those of the prospective cohort. Furthermore, the implementation of the trial version of the test was seriously constrained by the schedule of the academic year. In spite of all the problems the test was piloted with a group of first-year students. The performances were recorded and four of them were selected for a detailed analysis (fivewomen, three men). All the participants in the pilot study completed a feedback questionnaire after the performance and were invited to discuss any aspects of the performance with the researchers. The questionnaires and outcomes from the discussions were investigated too. Consistent with the objectives of this paper, only selected outcomes 218 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics of the analyses will be presented, i.e. those focusing on the quantity of language produced by individual students inthe interactive tasks and topic relevance. The analysis of the recorded performances was primarily targeted at testtakers’ participation in the interactive tasks. Individual students varied in the total time spent onthetasks, and individual students alsospent a different amount of time on each of the tasks (see Chart 1 below). However, to judge the language quantity, the number of words is used as a criterion. When considered in relation to time, the difference between student 1 and student 2 (S1 – S2) in pair 1 has slightly diminished, the variation in pair 2 (S3 – S4) remained roughly the same but the differences in pairs 3 (S5 – S6) and 4 (S7 – S8) have magnified considerably (see Chart 2). Overall, the testees’ personal attributes, along with thetopic and task characteristics, may account for the variation. Given that tasks 1 and 2 are in principle the same, the difference may be attributed to the topic (e.g. S8). Task 3 is of a dissimilar nature; therefore, it is uneasy to uncover the reasons for variation. Hypothetically, they may be linked to the task characteristics or topical content. Chart 1 Chart 2 To find out the subjects’ opinions about the topics, feedback questionnaires were analysed. Topics of individual tasks were evaluated positively; the respondents characterised them as relevant, useful and adequate to their life experience. Several topics initiated a certain level of emotional arousal; however, it concerned only positive emotions and the students appreciated it. No sensitive or inadequate topics were identified. Critical comments concerned the topic of plagiarism; interestingly, it was marked as irrelevant by pair 3. Obviously, none of the students had problems discussing it (S5 – S6, Task 3). Observed quantitative differences in language production may be attributed to topic-related personal preferences. Regarding the task characteristics, a few respondents pointed out that there was too much information on a task sheet. Consequently, all the sets of task sheets were revised in terms of language, informational relevance, and layout before the datacollection phase. 219 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Test administration Finally, the challenges experienced in the data collection phase should be mentioned. Since the research was conducted in three institutions located in diverse regions in the Czech Republic, it was demanding to prepare a schedule suitable for the participants as well as for the research team. Standardising the process of the test administrationwas another issue. It concerned not only testing conditions in the three institutions but also procedural aspects of the test. The total number of recorded students was 176. Threeacademics were involved in the data collection. As implied by the charts above, they occasionally failed to maintain internal consistency of time management. In situations when the discussion was evolving smoothly, the researchers provided discussants with unlimited time to finish the task. Conclusion The paper has deliberated the process of test construction in the context of a research project. While test has proved a valid technique of data elicitation, at the same time there seem to emerge certain tensions or potential conflicts. Most importantly, there exist conflicting needs of the research and those of the cooperating institutions. For example, the project required testing the students who meet the criteria to be included in the research sample; however, the test could fulfil its diagnostic function only if all the students were involved in the assessment. Thus there was an increased workload on the part of the researchers on the one hand but a positive impact on the studentson the other hand. Obviously, the research benefits the cooperating institutions, but at the same time interferes with their established procedures. Furthermore, the schedule of the research project is not necessarily in harmony with the academic-year schedule and time becomes a real issue.Lastly, there is an internal conflict of the two identities of the same person – that of a test designer and that of a researcher. The conflict is manifested in making decisions throughout the entire process of test construction. Apparently, project aims are prioritised and the decisions tend to be ‘researchfriendly’. References Bachman, L. F. (1990).Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (2009). Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 220 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Brooks, L. (2009). Interacting in pairs in a test of oral proficiency: Co-constructing a better performance. Language Testing,26 (3), 341 – 366. doi: 10.1177/0265532209104666 Černá, M. (2013). Aspekty osvojování si anglického jazyka u českých studentů při vstupu do přípravného vzdělávání učitelů.In Sborník příspěvků 21. výroční konference ČAPV Efektivita vzdělávání v proměnách společnosti.Ústí nad Labem: UJEP. Černá, M., Urbanová, Z., & Vít, M. (2010). Pronunciation awareness of students in English language study programme. In S. Válková (Ed.),New trends in educating future teachers of English VI. Olomouc: Palacký University. Council of Europe (2001).Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davis, L. (2009). The influence of interlocutor proficiency in a paired oral assessment. Language Testing,26 (3), 367 – 396. doi: 10.1177/0265532209104667 Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Galacsi, E. D. (2010). Paired Speaking Tests: An Approach Grounded in Theory and Practice. In J. Mader, &Z. Ürkün (Eds.), Recent Approaches to Teaching and Assessing Speaking. IATEFL TEA SIG Conference proceedings. Canterbury: UK: IATEFL Publications. Gass, S. M., &Mackey, A. (2011). Data Elicitation for Second and Foreign Language Research. New York: Routledge. Hewings, M. (2004). Pronunciation Practice Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hughes, A. (2003).Testing for Language Teachers. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ježková, Š. (2012). Syntactic Deviations and Mistakes in Learners’ Spoken English Language. In R. Trušník, K. Nemčoková, &G. J. Bell(Eds.), Theories and Practices – Zlín Proceedings in Humanities, Volume 3(pp. 223-232). Zlín: Tomáš Baťa University. 221 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing Speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nádraská, Z. (under review) A Pre-Diagnostic Stage of a Research Project: Selected Features of University Students’ Pronunciation of English. O’Sullivan, B. (2002). Learner acquaintanceship and oral proficiency test pair-task performance. Language Testing,19 (3), 277 – 295. doi: 10.1191/0265532202It205oa O’Sullivan, B. (2012). Assessing Speaking. In C.A. Coombe, P. Davidson, B. O’Sullivan, & S. Stoynoff (Eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Assessment. New York: Cambridge University Press. 222 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2795 Title A name given to the resource Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Author Author Černá, Monika Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper discusses the challenges of test design in the context of a research project focusing on the analysis of tertiary students’ spoken production in English. One of the project aims is to create a corpus of learner-spoken English. The participants in the study are Czech first-year students in English language teacher education study programmes at three universities. In order to elicit samples of the students’ oral production, a test of speaking, including a pronunciation subtest,was designed with respect to the research aims and objectives and in accordance with the current trends in the field. The challenges faced by the research team may be divided into three groups – those pertinent to the construction phase of the research instrument, the pilot phase, and the data-collection phase. The paper discusses how the team responded to the perceived challenges.The process of test designing was informed by relevant literature (e.g. Bachman, 1990, Hughes, 2003, Luoma, 2004);the team strove to achieve the highest possible level of ‘test usefulness’, i.e. test qualities including reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality, as introduced by Bachman and Palmer (2009). Consequently, the decisions regarding the abilities that the candidates, prospective English teachers, should demonstrate, as well as the decisions about the test format (elicitation techniques, number of tasks, etc.), were made with respect to the proposed ‘test usefulness’. The pilot phase confirmed the usability of the tool to elicit the required data, but also necessitated a few content- and procedure-related modifications. They reflected the results of the analysis of the performances recorded during the trial testing as well as the analysis of feedback questionnaires.Having revised the test, the researchers then implemented it in the data-collection processin three universities in the Czech Republic. The number of studentstested was 176. Keywords: Diagnostic test, speaking, English, tertiary students, research Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/205d02bedb2d25f0e43139d0aafd4239.pdf bbc1ba6a6300ab73e2846c2de5e8ca32 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language Amela Šehović & Đenita Haverić University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 12.04.2014. Accepted: 03.11.2014. Abstract Before it was fully adopted by the Bosnian language, a Persian loanword, from the moment it was borrowed from the source (Persian) to the receiver (Bosnian) language, would undergo various stages of adaptation on the phonological, morphological, and semantic plane. Due to the fact that many Persian words entered the Bosnian language through Turkish as the mediator language, a great number of semantic changes occurred when the word was borrowed from Persian and later used in Turkish. Later on, the same meaning from Turkish would be transferred to Bosnian language. Words of eastern origin, i.e. words from Turkish, Arabic or Persian, made their way into the Bosnian language due to various influences and during various periods of time. These words were introduced to the Bosnian language mostly through Turkish and are, for that reason, referred to as turcisms. However, a more scientifically approved term is orientalisms since not all of these words belong to the Turkish lexical material, and since they involve a great number of Arabic and Farsi phrases. This paper examines the significance and role of the Turkish language as the language mediator in the case of words of Persian origin entering the Bosnian language. As loanwords, turcisms were used mainly during the 500-year-long Ottoman rule in Bosnia-Herzegovina, when the contact with the Turkish language and culture was most immediate. For that reason, the number of turcisms in the Bosnian language is quite impressive. For instance, Škaljić’s Rječnik turcizama (Dictionary of Turcisms) contains 8,742 words (expressions) and 6,878 terms (1979: 23). During the Ottoman period, Persian was the language of literature, especially poetry. The most of the lexis of Persian origin entered the Bosnian language owing to great Iranian classics, but also, indirectly - through Turkish. Compared to Turkish and Arabic, lexis of Persian origin is the least present – more than 600 words in Škaljić’s Dictionary of Turcisms (Akopdžanjan 2010: 18). Keywords: Persian loanwords, Turkish language, Bosnian language, semantics changes 21 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language Introduction The Bosnian language contains a number of words of Persian origin, mainly received through Turkish as the relay language during Ottoman rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Today, these words are mainly part of the passive lexis of modern Bosnian, which is primarily a consequence of the disappearance of the notions and phenomena they denote, but also a result of their replacement with other forms. However, quite a number of these lexemes appear in conversational Bosnian, where they are used for the purpose of greater expressive force. They are most frequently nouns, followed by adjectives and verbs – parts of speech that carry the largest amount of information. This paper will focus on verbs derived from words of Persian origin, usually nouns. This is no surprise in light of the fact the majority of loanwords are nouns. This is because nouns’ function is to name phenomena and objects – both those that do not have adequate local equivalents, and those that do have local equivalents, but are for some reason less prestigious and are therefore replaced with a borrowed noun. Since Persian loanwords no longer enter our language, due to the influence of different factors, the corpus of this research comprises dictionaries of modern Bosnian language1. Namely, we thought that such lexicographical sources would represent a reliable source for a derivation and style-based analysis of verbs in Bosnian. However, since the root of such verbs is Persian, we consulted dictionaries of the Persian language in order to determine their origin and semantics. These dictionaries were used as an auxiliary tool in this derivation and style-focused analysis of verbs in the lexical stock of the Bosnian language. Derivative features of verbs of Persian origin in Bosnian Most verbs in our language derived from Persian words are dominative, i.e. derived from nouns. Although prefixal derivation is indeed the most productive type for They include: Rječnik bosanskoga jezika (2010) by Senahid Halilović, Ismail Palić and Amel Šehović, published by the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, further referred to in this paper as RBJ, as well as Rječnik sarajevskog žargona (2003) by Narcis Saračević, published by Vrijeme Zenica, further referred to in this paper as RSŽ. 1 22 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics derivation of verbs, this paper will first look at verbs of suffixal derivation, since the meaning of verb suffixes is far more precise than that of verb prefixes. Suffixal derivation of verbs As a method of word formation, suffixal derivation is more frequent in nouns than in verbs. Still, there are numerous verbs derived in this way. Suffixal derivation of verbs from nouns The most prominent are verbs derived with the following suffixes (according to: Barić – Lončarić i dr., 1979:293–294): 1. the suffix -a-, used to form verbs related to the meaning of the noun, a) as object: erendati – ‘to grate potato, cheese etc.’ (RBJ: 272), hujati – ‘conversat., expr. to cause anger, fury, to anger, upset’ (RBJ: 373); i.e. those whose meaning can be described by transforming nouns: noun + ati → verb + noun in the accusative case (Babić, 1986:449), for example: džumbusati – ‘conversat., expr. to cause džumbus, excitement, noisy celebration’ (RBJ: 253). The verb erendati is interesting in terms of norm, since the former Serbo-Croat norm recognised only the form rend(e)isati (MS2: 506–507), and erende was marked as pokr. [regional, provincial] (MS – MH3: 858), indicating its non-normative status and forwarding the entry to the noun rende. The situation is the opposite in modern Bosnian – the form rende is non-preferred in the norm of contemporary Bosnian (RBJ:1142), as indicated by the marking v. [see], forwarding the lexicographical entry to the noun erende. b) as substance or object used as a tool or a device for a particular action: pandžati – ‘scratch and hurt with pandže [claws]’ (RBJ: 872); tamburati – ‘rare, to play the tamboura’ (RBJ: 1316); testerati – ‘to cut using testera [saw], to saw’ (RBJ: 1327). Derivatives of this meaning are the most frequent among verbs derived using the suffix -a-. c) as a name of a state: beharati – ‘to be in behar [spring blossom] (fruit trees), to blossom’ (RBJ: 54); This abbreviation is used to refer to Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika, vol. 5 (P – S) (1973), published by Matica srpska Novi Sad. 3 This abbreviation refers to Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika, vol. 1 (A – E) (1967), published by Matica srpska Novi Sad and Matica hrvatska Zagreb. 2 23 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language d) in various other meanings: pendžerati – ‘conversat., expr. to go to someone’ pendžer [window] for the purpose of courtship’ (RBJ: 889); 2. suffix -i-, used to derive verbs: a) whose meaning can be described by a transformation: noun + -iti → verb + noun in the accusative case, for example abdestiti se – ‘to take abdest, to conduct the ritual of ablution’ (RBJ: 1); divaniti – ‘expr. 1. to speak, discuss, present, etc.; i.e. to conduct divan – meeting, discussion’ (RBJ: 193); or when related with the starting noun: b) as substance or object used as a tool or a device: sirćetiti – ‘to season with sirće [vinegar]’ (RBJ: 1194); šećeriti – ‘to sweeten with šećer [sugar]’ (RBJ:1288); c) as an object resulting from the action denoted by the verb: ćariti – ‘conversat., expr. to acquire ćar [gain], to earn, e.g. through trade’ (RBJ: 148); ćemeriti – ‘arch. to build as ćemer [type of roof]’ (RBJ: 149), jagmiti – ‘trying to reach or grab something by fighting others’ (RBJ: 454); kauriti – ‘to turn into a kaur’ (RBJ: 495); pazariti – ‘to conduct pazar, to purchase or sell, to trade’ (RBJ: 885); šićariti – ‘conversat., expr. to gain šićar [profit, gain] easily or quickly, (u)ćariti’ (RBJ: 1292); zijaniti – ‘conversat., expr. to suffer damages or loss’ (RBJ: 1523); d) expressing the same thing as the base noun: bećariti – ‘to live the life of a bećar [carefree, sociable, enjoying a good time, etc.]’ (RBJ: 53); e) expressing a feature: jaraniti (se) – ‘conversat., rare, to become friends, to maintain friendship, to spend time together, to socialise’ (RBJ: 457– 458); f) denoting a particular job or profession: pehlivaniti – ‘to be pehlivan, to perform the acrobatics of a pehlivan’ (RBJ: 888); piljariti – ‘to be a piljar, a (green)grocer’ (RBJ: 898); g) in various other meanings: meziti – ‘conversat., to be served or eat meze’ (RBJ: 648); nišaniti – ‘mil. to take aim (nišan)’ (RBJ: 770); timariti – ‘to clean and groom (esp. a horse) using a brush or a comb’ (RBJ: 1331). The last set of verbs belongs to a large group of derivatives from inanimate nouns of unidentifiable general semantic definition. 3. with the suffix -ira-, used to derive verbs that mean: a) to play or seek amusement: šahirati – ’1. conversat., to play chess for fun, 2. To attack the opponent’s king in chess’ (RBJ: 1284). 24 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Most nouns used as the base for verbs derived using the suffix -ira- are of foreign origin, primarily Latin and French, and less frequently from Classical Greek and Italian, with numerous colloquial examples from German and more recently from English (data from: Klajn, 2003:355), and this kind of verbs derived from a noun originally from Persian is thus particularly interesting in terms of derivation. 4. the suffix -isa- used to derive verbs meaning: a) to be or resemble the meaning of the noun: dembelisati – ‘expr. to live like a dembel [lazy person]’ (RBJ: 169).4 If the base noun is labelled pejorative, the verb inevitably carries with it a pejorative connotation, despite the fact that the source may not register the pejorative meaning with the verb, but rather only with the noun. b) to perform a particular job or craft: dunđerisati – ’1. to be a dunđer [builder], , 2. pejor. to perform building or construction work poorly’ (RBJ: 240); c) an action or the result of an action expressed by the noun: mahanisati – ‘to find mahana [fault]’ (RBJ: 619); d) a substance or an object used as a tool or a device: testerisati – ‘to cut with a saw’ (RBJ: 1327). As for verbs derived using the suffix -isa-, particularly interesting are those which use the Turkish -le(n)- or -la- before this one, itself of Greek origin (cf. Muftić, 19601961:23), such as: muhurleisati – ‘arc. to place a muhur [stamp, seal], to certify with a stamp’ (RBJ: 680). 5. the suffix -ova-, used to derive verbs meaning: a) to be or resemble the meaning of the noun: bećarovati (bećariti) – ‘to live the life of a bećar’ (RBJ: 53). Verbs ending in -isa- and -ova-, derived from animate nouns, such as the one listed in example a), denote behaviour. b) to perform a particular task or craft: šegrtovati – ‘to be a trainee craftsman, šegrt’ (RBJ: 1288).¸ Suffix-based derivation of verbs from adjectives Verbs are derived from adjectives using the following suffixes: 4 Although Bosnian classifies this word as both a noun and an adjective (RBJ: 169), here it appears as a noun and it is treated accordingly. 25 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language 1. with the suffix -i-, when they mean ‘to develop a feature expressed by the adjective’, as in ćoraviti – ‘to make ćorav [blind], to go blind’ (RBJ: 151); 2. with the suffix -je-, when they mean ‘to develop a feature expressed by the adjective’, as in ćelavjeti – ‘to become ćelav [bald], to lose hair’ (RBJ: 149); ćoravjeti – ‘to become ćorav; to lose sight’ (RBJ: 151). Prefix and suffix-based verb derivation Some of the verbs we looked at in the previous chapter also use prefixes, hence they can be considered prefix-based derivatives. Although some authors (cf. Babić, 1986:495) restrict prefix-based derivation to a limited number of prefixes (o-, ob-, po-, pod-, pre-, u-) and suffixes (-nuti, -jeti, -iti, -ati), we decided to accept a more comprehensive treatment of this form of derivation, as elaborated in Priručna gramatika hrvatskoga književnog jezika, and include all the prefixes and suffixes that appear in verb derivation. However, unlike verb suffixes5, which, in most cases, render clearly defined meanings, the meaning of verb prefixes do not entail such precision. Klajn even insists that ‘as language developed, certain prefixes were combined with certain verbs in a more or less arbitrary fashion’, influenced by different factors, rendering an ‘entirely unpredictable’ result (Klajn, 2002:248). In light of this fact, we will try to offer explanations of prefixes noted in the verbs included in our analysis: A typical meaning of verbs derived using the prefix iz- is completion of an action, as evident in the verb istimariti, which also includes sound assimilation [z into s]. The primary perfective meaning is evident in the use of the verb prefix na-, which can also express completion of an action (narendati [to complete grating, cf. above]), though not necessarily (nanišaniti [to take aim]). The verb narendati deserves an additional comment: the prefix na- is added to a form which is not preferred in the Bosnian language – rende, probably caused by the tendency to avoid the initial hiatus. Also, the verb narendati is opposed to the form izrendati, derived under the same principle as narendati: prefix + root rend- + suffix -a- + suffix -ti, though not confirmed through sources. 5 The meaning of these will not be added, since they were covered in the preceding section. 26 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Performing an action on the surface of another object is expressed using the prefix po- in verbs such as posirćetiti [to drizzle with vinegar (sirće)] and pošećeriti [to sprinkle with sugar], whereas pokauriti [to convert to Christianity] presents the meaning of completion of the action denoted (perfective). Although verbs derived using the prefix pro- on a noun are not that numerous, our corpus incudes the verb probeharati [cf. above], denoting a completed action (perfective). The prefix s- is used to derive transitive and reflexive verbs, mainly from nouns, as evident in the example sjaraniti se, meaning to come together. The meaning of the prefix u- in verbs such as ućariti, ujagmiti and ušićariti is identical – completion of the action denoted. The prefix za- has numerous meanings, and those noted in the corpus include: – inchoative: zameziti, zamezetiti; – completed action (perfective): zabeharati; – perform an action on the surface of an object: zasirćetiti, zašećeriti; but also possible with a nuanced majorative meaning. – Therefore, it can be concluded that prefixes may change the aspect of the verbs they are attached to – they may shift their meaning from imperfective to perfective, which is the primary feature of verbs derived by prefixation. Derivational synonymy A number of verbs derived from words of Persian origin display a relationship of derivational synonymy – be it that suffixes are synonymous, as they are in examples such as: bećarovati, bećariti; testerati, testerisati (only in the 1st meaning) or prefixes with synonymous meaning, such as: probeharati: zabeharati (perfective meaning); posirćetiti: zasirćetiti (perform an action on the surface of an object), posoliti: zasoliti (perform an action on the surface of an object); narendati: izrendati (perfective). In principle, all these verbs are used frequently in everyday communication, since their roots denote objects, notions and phenomena present in everyday life – ‘two or three derivational forms would not have appeared in case of a rarely used item’ (Šehović, 2012:413) and the explanation of this phenomenon should certainly be sought in light of this fact. Stylistic features of Bosnian verbs derived from words of Persian origin 27 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language There are numerous verbs derived from words of Persian origin that belong to conversational Bosnian. These include the following6: jagmiti – ‘2. trying to be ahead of others in something; rush, hasten’ (RBJ: 454); jaraniti se (with an added label rarely), meziti, pekmeziti – ‘pejor. whine (RBJ: 889)’; šahirati (in the 1st meaning), tezgariti – ‘pejor. to earn money on the side, doing part-time or honorarium-based work in addition to regular employment (often in art or intellectual services)’ (RBJ: 1328); some of them are also expressive, such as: ćariti, džumbusati, hujati, pendžerati, šićariti, zijaniti – ‘to suffer damages or loss’ (RBJ: 1523). We may add to this group additional examples of jargon, thus completing their assignment in terms of style. This group includes the following: lešiti – ‘hit, beat’ (RSŽ: 146); lešiti se – ‘drink heavily, use drugs, participate in a fistfight’ (RSŽ: 146); mezetiti – ‘abuse verbally, ridicule’ (RBJ: 648); olešiti – ‘beat up someone’ (RSŽ: 190); ‘hit hard, beat up with great force’ (RBJ: 822); olešiti se – ‘get drunk’ (RSŽ: 190); ‘get very drunk’ (RBJ: 822); tamburati – ‘hit someone, beat up someone’ (RBJ: 1316); testerati – ‘be very boring to someone, annoy someone’ (RBJ: 1327); zijaniti – ‘sport. experience defeat; lose a game’ (RBJ: 1523). All these are examples of metaphoric meaning, as is evident in the following examples, unmarked in terms of which functional style to which they belong: beharati – ‘(humorous) turning grey [hair]’ (RBJ: 54); pehlivaniti – ‘a. managing to survive in a complex situation; b. pejor. be a turncoat’ (RBJ: 888); šegrtovati – ‘be a beginner in a job and trying to learn from more experienced ones’ (RBJ: 1288); testerati – ‘snore very loudly (resembling the sound of a log being sawed)’ (RBJ: 1327); interestingly, pejorative meaning seems to have developed parallel to the metaphoric one, as evident in the following examples: dunđerisati (in the 2nd meaning); piljariti – ‘work as a petty merchant’ (RBJ: 898); tamburati – ’speak incessantly, bore the interlocutors with pointless talk’ (RBJ: 1316). Some of these verbs are certainly marked for their expressiveness. One of them is certainly the verb horoziti se, derived in Bosnian from a word of Persian origin, horoz, which means: ‘1. rooster, 2. trigger on a firearm’ (RBJ: 368), whereas xorūs in Persian means: ’1. zool. rooster’ (PBR7: 406). In Bosnian, the verb horoziti se belongs to the conversational style, and its figurative meaning is based on the meaning of the word it is derived from: ’1. to become angry 2. to rise in anger, to be upset’ (RBJ: 368). The same features can be found in the verbs dembelisati; pandžati se – ‘enter suspicious relations’ (RBJ: 872), and divaniti, which also includes an element of pejorative meaning: ‘talk nonsense, speak pointlessly, fantasize’ (RBJ: 193). 6 meaning will be added for verbs described previously: they will be listed for illustration only. This abbreviation refers to Perzijsko-bosanski rječnik (2010) by Mubina Moker and Đenita Haverić, published by the Ibn Sina Research Institute Sarajevo Sarajevo 7 28 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conclusion This analysis of verbs in the Bosnian language derived from words of Persian origin leads to the following conclusions: 1. These verbs are usually derived using suffixes and prefixes, with clear evidence of derivational synonymy in certain cases. 2. Many of these verbs have developed figurative meaning, often pejorative and expressive, sometimes arising from the expressiveness of the root word itself. 3. The verbs included in this analysis are present in Bosnian mainly in the conversational style, but they can be entirely neutral in terms of affiliation with a particular functional style. This however is quite rare. Therefore, these conclusions indicate a clear need for further research in relation to words of Persian origin in the Bosnian language, and linguists should focus in particular on their various derivatives. That is why we hope that this paper will open new avenues for more comprehensive research in this segment of our language. 29 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language References Babić, Stjepan (1986). Tvorba riječi u hrvatskom književnom jeziku. Zagreb: Jugoslavenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti – Globus. Barić, E., Lončarić, M. i dr. (1979). Priručna gramatika hrvatskoga književnog jezika. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Dehhoda (Loġatnāme-ye Dehxodā). See: http://www.loghatnaameh.org/. Halilović, Senahid; Palić, Ismail; Šehović, Amela (2010). Rječnik bosanskoga jezika. Sarajevo: Filozofski fakultet. Jahić, Dževad (1999). Školski rječnik bosanskog jezika. Sarajevo: Ljiljan. Klajn, Ivan (2002). Tvorba reči u savremenom srpskom jeziku. Deo prvi, Slaganje i prefiksacija. Beograd – Novi Sad: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva – Institut za srpski jezik SANU – Matica srpska. Klajn, Ivan (2003). Tvorba reči u savremenom srpskom jeziku. Deo drugi, Sufiksacija i konverzija. Beograd – Novi Sad: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva – Institut za srpski jezik SANU – Matica srpska. Moker, Mubina; Haverić, Đenita (2010). Perzijsko-bosanski rječnik. Sarajevo: Naučnoistraživački institut „Ibn Sina”. Muftić, Teufik (1960–1961). „O arabizmima u srpskohrvatskom jeziku”. Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju. X–XI. Pp. 5–29. Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika. Vol. 1 (A – E) (1967). Novi Sad – Zagreb: Matica srpska – Matica hrvatska. Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika. Vol. 5 (P – S) (1973). Novi Sad: Matica srpska. Saračević, Narcis (2003). Rječnik sarajevskog žargona. Zenica: Vrijeme. Šehović, Amela (2012). „Univerbacija u bosanskom jeziku”. In: Tvorba reči i njeni resursi u slovenskim jezicima, a conference book (ed. Rajna Dragićević). Filološki fakultet: Beograd. Pp. 407–417. 30 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2782 Title A name given to the resource Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language Author Author Šehović, Amela Haverić, Đenita Abstract A summary of the resource. Before it was fully adopted by the Bosnian language, a Persian loanword, from the moment it was borrowed from the source (Persian) to the receiver (Bosnian) language, would undergo various stages of adaptation on the phonological, morphological, and semantic plane. Due to the fact that many Persian words entered the Bosnian language through Turkish as the mediator language, a great number of semantic changes occurred when the word was borrowed from Persian and later used in Turkish. Later on, the same meaning from Turkish would be transferred to Bosnian language. Words of eastern origin, i.e. words from Turkish, Arabic or Persian, made their way into the Bosnian language due to various influences and during various periods of time. These words were introduced to the Bosnian language mostly through Turkish and are, for that reason, referred to as turcisms. However, a more scientifically approved term is orientalisms since not all of these words belong to the Turkish lexical material, and since they involve a great number of Arabic and Farsi phrases. This paper examines the significance and role of the Turkish language as the language mediator in the case of words of Persian origin entering the Bosnian language. As loanwords, turcisms were used mainly during the 500-year-long Ottoman rule in Bosnia-Herzegovina, when the contact with the Turkish language and culture was most immediate. For that reason, the number of turcisms in the Bosnian language is quite impressive. For instance, Škaljić’s Rječnik turcizama (Dictionary of Turcisms) contains 8,742 words (expressions) and 6,878 terms (1979: 23). During the Ottoman period, Persian was the language of literature, especially poetry. The most of the lexis of Persian origin entered the Bosnian language owing to great Iranian classics, but also, indirectly - through Turkish. Compared to Turkish and Arabic, lexis of Persian origin is the least present – more than 600 words in Škaljić’s Dictionary of Turcisms (Akopdžanjan 2010: 18). Keywords: Persian loanwords, Turkish language, Bosnian language, semantics changes Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PI Oriental languages and literatures https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/00c3d5566e97718f8e4f468fcea0936a.docx d04bd84a4bbd2599cf122c6d26de14b3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fafccda765bde4c113258c4b13f6afc9.pdf 3f83fe37b22615d6cca4bd34513e1264 PDF Text Text Pregledni naučni rad Izv.prof.dr.sc. Mirela Župan, Pravni fakultet Osijek Martina Drventić, mag. iur. SUSTAV SREDIŠNJIH TIJELA KROZ EUROPSKI MODEL NAPLATE PREKOGRANIČNOG UZDRŢAVANJA Saţetak: Jedna od konzekvencija suvremene intenzivne mobilnosti je značajno povećanje broja prekograničnih obiteljskih predmeta. Pravni sustavi na ovu pojavu odgovaraju normiranjem (kako na nacionalnoj, tako i na meĎunarodnoj razini), u okviru kojega se u području pravne zaštite najranjivijih, prije svega djece, naglasak stavlja na rad i funkcioniranje sustava središnjih tijela. Sustav središnjih tijela ima presudnu ulogu u prekograničnoj naplati uzdržavanja, te time čini jednu od ključnih poluga u smanjenju siromaštva vjerovnika uzdržavanja. Predmetom je ovoga rada pozicioniranje sustava središnjih tijela u rješavanju meĎunarodno obilježenih obiteljskih predmeta, pojašnjenje djelokruga njihova rada u predmetima uzdržavanja te u kontekstu Hrvatske konkretna obrada relevantnih propisa, poglavito Uredbe br. 4/2009. Ključne riječi: sustav središnjih tijela, uzdržavanje,Uredba o uzdržavanju. 1. Uvod Jedna od konzekvencija suvremene intenzivne mobilnosti je značajno povećanje broja prekograničnih obiteljskih predmeta, uključivo i predmeta uzdržavanja. Pravni sustavi na ovu pojavu odgovaraju normiranjem: usvajaju se moderniji nacionalni zakoni o meĎunarodnom privatnom i procesnom pravu,1 dok se u okviru rada meĎunarodnih organizacija iznalaze i donose novi pravni okviri. Vodeći globalni akter za meĎunarodne konvencije u području meĎunarodnog privatnog prava je Haška konferencija za meĎunarodno privatno pravo,2 dok značajnu regionalnu poziciju danas zauzima Europska unija.3 Normiranje se u svojoj osnovi dogaĎa u sferi metoda uvriježenih za rješavanje meĎunarodno obilježenih situacija: propisivanje pravila o meĎunarodnoj nadležnosti, propisivanje mjerodavnog prava, uvoĎenje pravila o meĎunarodnoj litispendenciji, odreĎivanje postupka i pretpostavki za priznanje i ovrhu stranih odluka. Ipak, u području pravne zaštite najranjivijih, prije svega djece, odavno je na meĎunarodnoj sceni u okviru rada Ujedinjenih naroda usvojen još jedan pristup: uvoĎenje sustava središnjih tijela (tada prijemnih i otpremnih). Sustav središnjih tijela danas doživljava svoju renesansu u svim novijim meĎunarodnim i europskim aktima namijenjenim rješavanju prekograničnih predmeta. Sustav središnjih tijela ima presudnu ulogu u prekograničnoj naplati uzdržavanja, te 1 Symeon C. Symeonides, Codifying Choice of Law Around the World. An International Comparative Analysis (Oxford University Press 2014). 2 www.hcch.net 3 Geert Van Calster, European Private International Law (Hart Publishing, Oxford) 2013. 151 �time čini jednu od ključnih poluga u smanjenju siromaštva vjerovnika uzdržavanja. Predmetom je ovoga rada pozicioniranje sustava središnjih tijela u rješavanju meĎunarodno obilježenih obiteljskih predmeta, pojašnjenje djelokruga njihova rada u predmetima uzdržavanja te konkretna obrada nadležnosti, rada i funkcioniranja u kontekstu Uredbe br. 4/2009. 2. Sustavi središnjih tijela – pravni izvori Suvremeni trend prema kojem se zbog unapreĎenja pravosudne suradnje u obiteljskim predmetima prakticira mehanizam središnjih tijela nije inovacija našeg vremena!4 UN Konvencija o ostvarivanju alimentacijskih zahtjeva u inozemstvu iz 1956. jedna je od najstarijih konvencija kojom je uspostavljena globalna mreža središnjih tijela.5 U radu Vijeća Europe takoĎer se koristi ovaj vid pravosudne suradnje u prekograničnim obiteljskim predmetima.6 Konvencije Haške konferencije u kojih je korišten mehanizam središnjih tijela7 poslužile su kao prototip širokom prakticiranju u instrumentima EU. EU acquis prihvaća ovaj model, štoviše, u domeni pravosudne zaštite djeteta daje prednost mehanizmu meĎuvladine administrativne suradnje putem središnjih tijela u odnosu na klasične mehanizme meĎunarodnog privatnog i procesnog prava. Središnja tijela u svakoj su državi članici bazična struktura u učinkovitom pristupu pravnim i upravnim postupcima u kojima se mogu naći djeca i njihovi roditelji, kako u okviru Uredbe 2201/2003 (dalje Brisel II. bis),8 ali i Uredbe br. 4/2009. o 4 Sardenber, M., Judicial and administrative cooperation in family law matters: introduction, u Wybo P. Heere ur., International law and the Hagues 750th anniversary (The Hague, T.M.C. Asser Press 1999). 5 Implementacija ove konvencije bilježi značajne poteškoće. Više vidi Duncan, W., The Development of the New Hague Convention on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintennace, 38 Family Law Quarterly (2004), str. 666. 6 Poglavito su to slijedeće tri konvencije: The European Convention on recognition and enforcement of decisions concerning custody of children and on restoration of custody of children (the Custody Convention) [ETS No. 105 - Luxembourg 20.05.1980]; The European Convention on the exercise of children"s rights [ETS No. 160 - Strasbourg, 25.01.1996]; Convention on contanct concerning children, Strasbourg, 15.V.2003. 7 Convention of 19 October 1996 on Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, Recognition, Enforcement and Co-operation in Respect of Parental Responsibility and Measures for the Protection of Children. Proceedings of the Eighteenth Session 1996 II. (The Hague 1996) str. 615; Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child AbductionActes et documents de la Quatorzième session 1980, III. (The Hague 1980) str. 481; Convention of 29 May 1993 on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Session 1993, II. (The Hague, 1993) str. 659; Convention of 23 November 2007 on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance, Final Act of the Twenty-First Session, The Hague 23. November 2007. dostupno na: http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php, (posjećeno: 15.3.2015.) 8 Uredba Vijeća (EZ) br. 2201/2003 od 27. studenoga 2003. o nadležnosti, priznavanju i izvršenju sudskih odluka u bračnim sporovima i u stvarima povezanim s roditeljskom odgovornošću, kojom se stavlja izvan snage Uredba (EZ) br. 1347/2000, OJ L 338, 23.12.2003. 152 �uzdržavanju.9 Sukladno čl. 53. Brisel II. bis, odnosno članku 49. Uredbe o uzdržavanju svaka država članica odreĎuje središnje tijelo kojemu su povjerene brojne opće i posebne zadaće. U načelu ova tijela promiču razmjenu informacija o nacionalnom zakonodavstvu i postupcima, meĎusobnu suraĎuju u primjeni odnosnih uredaba; olakšavaju komunikaciju izmeĎu sudova, i drugo. 3. Središnja tijela u prekograničnim postupcima uzdrţavanja sukladno Uredbi o uzdrţavanju 3.1. Prekogranična suradnja u predmetima uzdržavanja Sam se sustav središnjih prijemnih i otpremnih tijela prvo pojavio u kontekstu predmeta uzdržavanja kroz New Yoršku konvenciju.10 Mehanizam je prihvaćen i bitno pojačan kroz sustav Haških konvencija.11 Ključna je pregovaračka točka kod usvajanja HK o uzdržavanju 200712 bila upravo u općim i posebnim zadacima povjerenim središnjim tijelima, u kontekstu nužnih promjena nacionalnih sustava koji bi trebali osigurati takav sveobuhvatan, brz i učinkovit rad središnjih tijela.13 U okvirima acquisa, Uredba o uzdržavanju do sada je najsveobuhvatnije normirala rad središnjih tijela.14 Posebne zadaće u okviru Uredbe o uzdržavanju odnose se na prijem i prijenos zahtjeva, pokretanje postupaka za donošenje odluke ili izmjenu odluke o uzdržavanju ili za ovrhu odluke o uzdržavanju, pomoć u nalaženju dužnika ili vjerovnika, i drugo (članak 50. – 53.). U prvoj je godini primjene Uredbe o uzdržavanju na razini EU zaprimljeno više od 4000 zahtjeva putem središnjih tijela.15 Ipak, isto je istraživanje pokazalo da se sve države članice teško nose s kratkim rokovima koje Uredba predviĎa ili ih ne uspijevaju ispoštovati.16 9 Uredba Vijeća (EZ) br. 4/2009 od 18. prosinca 2008. o nadležnosti, mjerodavnom pravu, priznavanju i izvršenju sudskih odluka te suradnji u stvarima koje se odnose na obvezu uzdržavanja, OJ L 19, 10.1.2009. 10 Curry-Sumner, I., International Recovery of Child Maintenance Administrative Cooperation in in-coming child maintenance cases, dostupno na http://www.voorts.com/wpcontent/uploads/Publicatie-C.13.pdf (posjećeno: 15.3.2015.) str. 44. 11 Duncan, W., The Hague Convention of 23 November 2007 on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance Comments on its Objectives and Some of its Special Features, u Bonomi, A. i Volken, P. ur., X Yearbook of Private International Law (2008) str. 321, 325. 12 13 Borrás, A., Degeling, J., Convention of 23 November 2007 on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance, Explanatory Report (Hague, 2013) str. 77. 14 Curry Sumner, I., Transnational Recovery of Child Maintenance in Europe: The Future Is Bright, The Future is Central Authorities, dostupno na http://www.law.muni.cz/sborniky/Days-ofpublic-law/files/pdf/mep/Curry-Sumner.pdf (posjećeno: 15.3.2015.) 15 Walker, L., Beaumont, P., Empirical Study on the Early Operation of the EU Maintenance Regulation,u Beaumont, P., Hess, B., Walker, L., Spancken, S. (eds), The Recovery of Maintenance in the EU and Worldwide (Hart Publishing, 2014) str. 339 et.seq. 16 Walker i Beaumont, ibid, str. 354-359. 153 �3.2. Postupanje središnjih tijela povodom zahtjeva po Uredbi o uzdržavanju 3.2.1. Zahtjevi putem središnjih tijela Opće i posebne funkcije središnjih tijela utvrĎene u člancima 50. i 51. Uredbe o uzdržavanju u praksi se ponajviše ostvaruju kroz zahtjeve utvrĎene u članku 56. Zahtjevi se ulažu preko središnjeg tijela države članice u kojoj podnositelj zahtjeva boravi središnjem tijelu zamoljene države članice. U Republici Hrvatskoj kao središnje tijelo za provedbu Uredbe o uzdržavanju odreĎeno je ministarstvo nadležno za poslove socijalne skrbi.17 Uzdržavanoj osobi koja nastoji naplatiti uzdržavanje na raspolaganju stoji šest vrsta zahtjeva: (a) zahtjev za priznavanje ili za priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke; (b) zahtjev za izvršni postupak sudske odluke donesene ili priznate u zamoljenoj državi članici; (c) zahtjev za izdavanjem sudske odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici kad nema odluke, uključujući prema potrebi utvrĎivanje roditeljstva; (d) zahtjev za izdavanjem sudske odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici kad priznavanje i izvršivost sudske odluke donesene u državi koja nije zamoljena država članica, nije moguće; (e) zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke donesene u zamoljenoj državi članici; (f) zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke donesene u državi koja nije zamoljena država članica. Dok obveznik uzdržavanja protiv kojeg je donesena postojeća odluka o uzdržavanju može uložiti zahtjev za: (a) priznavanje sudske odluke na temelju koje se izvršenje prethodne sudske odluke suspendira ili ograničuje u zamoljenoj državi članici; (b) izmjenu sudske odluke donesene u zamoljenoj državi članici; (c) izmjenu sudske odluke donesene u državi koja nije zamoljena država članica. Očekivano je da će glavninu postupaka po ovoj Uredbi činiti zahtjevi za priznavanje ili za priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke. Ovaj zahtjev primjenjiv je u slučajevima u kojima podnositelj zahtjeva posjeduje odluku o uzdržavanju i želi njezino priznanje ili izvršenje u zamoljenoj državi članici. Zahtjev uklanja potrebu za donošenjem nove odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici i omogućuje da postojeća odluka o uzdržavanju bude priznata u zamoljenoj državi članici na istom pravnom temelju na kojem je donesena u državi porijekla. Kao primjer ćemo navesti majku koja ima uobičajeno boravište u državi članici A i posjeduje odluku o uzdržavanju kojom se utvrĎuje obaveza njezinog bivšeg supruga na plaćanje uzdržavanja za njihovo troje djece. Bivši suprug ima uobičajeno boravište na području države članice B. Država A proslijedit će zahtjev za priznavanjem i proglašenjem izvršivosti sudske odluke državi B. Središnje tijelo države B proslijedit će zahtjev tijelu nadležnom za 17 Zakon o provedbi Uredbe Vijeća (EZ) br. 4/2009 o području nadležnosti, mjerodavnog prava, priznanja i izvršenja odluka te suradnji u stvarima koje se odnose na obveze uzdržavanja, Narodne novine br. 127/13, čl. 3. st. 1. 154 �priznavanje i izvršenje sudske odluke. Bivši suprug bit će obaviješten o pokrenutom postupku priznavanja i proglašenja izvršivosti te će imati priliku osporiti takvu odluku sredstvima koje mu na raspolaganje daje Uredba. Ukoliko bivši suprug dobrovoljno ne pristane na plaćanje uzdržavanja, nadležno tijelo države B poduzet će potrebne mjere za izvršenje odluke i u konačnici proslijediti naplaćenu novčanu tražbinu državi A.18 U Republici Hrvatskoj tijela nadležna za postupanje na području primjene Uredbe o uzdržavanju su sudovi i centri za socijalnu skrb, sukladno s propisanim djelokrugom i nadležnostima tih tijela.19 Tako će, postupajući po ovakvom zahtjevu, središnje tijelo Republike Hrvatske potpuni zahtjev proslijediti nadležnom centru za socijalnu skrb koje će o okolnostima obavijestiti obveznika uzdržavanja i proslijediti zahtjev nadležnom sudu. Zahtjev za priznavanje ili priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke podnosi se na obrascu iz Priloga VI Uredbe o uzdržavanju. Ostalu potrebnu dokumentaciju Uredba utvrĎuje u Poglavlju IV kojim je ureĎeno priznavanje, izvršivost i izvršenje sudskih odluka pri čemu se dokumentacija razlikuje s obzirom na to je li odluka donesene u državi članici koju obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. godine ili u državi koju ne obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. godine.20 Druga je vrsta zahtjeva za izvršni postupak sudske odluke donesene ili priznate u zamoljenoj državi članici. Radi se o najjednostavnijem zahtjevu na temelju Uredbe. Njime se želi ostvariti da zamoljena država članica izvrši vlastitu sudsku odluku ili odluku koju je ranije priznala. Uredba na ovaj način omogućuje podnositelju zahtjeva ishoĎenje izvršenja odluke, bez odlaska u državu koja je donijela ili priznala odluku, podnošenjem zahtjeva putem središnjeg tijela države u kojoj ima uobičajeno boravište. I u ovom slučaju, ukoliko obveznik uzdržavanja dobrovoljno ne pristane ispuniti svoju obvezu, zamoljeno će središnje tijelo poduzeti mjere potrebne za izvršenje sudske odluke. Zahtjev se takoĎer podnosi putem obrasca iz Priloga VI i dokumentacije utvrĎene u Poglavlju IV Uredbe. Zahtjev za izdavanjem sudske odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici podnosi se u svrhu ishoĎenja odluke o uzdržavanju. Podnositelj zahtjeva se obraća središnjem tijelu države u kojem ima uobičajeno boravište koje njegov zahtjev prosljeĎuje središnjem tijelu države u kojoj obveznik uzdržavanja ima uobičajeno boravište, s ciljem donošenja odluke o uzdržavanju u toj državi, što po potrebi uključuje i utvrĎivanje očinstva. Uredba poznaje dva razloga za podnošenje ovog zahtjeva – kada nema odluke o uzdržavanju i kada postoji 18 Lortie, P., Groff, M., Practical Handbook for Competent Authorities : the 2007 Hague Child Support Convention, the 2007 Hague Protocol on Applicable Law (Maintenance) and the 2009 European Union Maintenance Regulation(CIP National Library of Romania, 2013) str. 34. 19 Zakon o provedbi Uredbe Vijeća (EZ) br. 4/2009 o području nadležnosti, mjerodavnog prava, priznanja i izvršenja odluka te suradnji u stvarima koje se odnose na obveze uzdržavanja, op. cit. (bilj. 1.), čl. 5. 20 Pismena za potrebe izvršenja odreĎena su u čl. 20. Uredbe o uzdržavanju za odluke donesene u državi članici koju obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. godine, a u čl. 28. odreĎeno je koje se isprave prilažu zahtjevu za proglašenju izvršivosti za odluke donesene u državi članici koju obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. 155 �odluka o uzdržavanju donesena u državi članici koja nije zamoljena državi, ali postoje razlozi zbog kojih nije moguće njezino priznavanje i izvršivost u zamoljenoj državi članici. Uzmimo za primjer majku maloljetnog djeteta koja ima uobičajeno boravište na području države članice A. Majka nije bila udana za oca djeteta i isto tako očinstvo maloljetnog djeteta nikada nije utvrĎeno. Otac djeteta ima uobičajeno boravište na području države članice B. Majka želi ostvariti pravo na uzdržavanje maloljetnog djeteta od strane oca te se obraća središnjem tijelu države članice A. Središnje tijelo države A proslijedit će zahtjev za izdavanjem odluke o uzdržavanju državi B. Središnje tijelo države B poduzeti će sve potrebne mjere s ciljem izdavanja sudske odluke što će svakako uključivati prosljeĎivanje zahtjeva nadležnom tijelu. Nadležno tijelo u državi B poduzet će potrebne radnje za utvrĎivanje očinstva. Nakon donošenja odluke središnje tijelo države B će se pobrinuti i za njezino izvršenje te u konačnici proslijediti naplaćenu novčanu tražbinu državi A. U ovako provedenom postupku više neće biti potrebe za podnošenjem dodatnih zahtjeva od strane majke.21Kod podnošenja ovog zahtjeva u slučajevima kada odluka o uzdržavanju postoji ali nije moguće njezino priznavanje ili izvršivost, postupak je isti osim što je isključena potreba utvrĎivanja očinstva. Razlozi za odbijanje priznanja ureĎeni su u članku 24. Uredbe o uzdržavanju, a temelje se na Uredbi Vijeća (EZ) br. 44/2001 od 22. prosinca 2000. o nadležnosti, priznavanju i izvršenju sudskih odluka u graĎanskim i trgovačkim stvarima. Ovaj se zahtjev podnosi putem obrasca iz Priloga VII uz koji se prilažu svi drugi potrebni podaci ili dokazi o pravu podnositelja na pravnu pomoć. Zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke primjenjiv je u slučajevima kada postoji odluka o uzdržavanju, ali podnositelj zahtjeva želi njezinu izmjenu. Razlozi podnošenja zahtjeva su promjena životnih potreba na strani vjerovnika, ili pak promjena financijske sposobnosti na strani obveznika uzdržavanja. Podnositelj zahtjeva (vjerovnik ili obveznik uzdržavanja) zahtjev podnosi putem središnjeg tijela države u kojoj ima uobičajeno boravište središnjem tijelu države članice u kojoj druga strana ima uobičajeno boravište. Za primjer uzmimo majku koja posjeduje odluku o uzdržavanju donesenu u državi A kojom se odreĎuje uzdržavanje za njeno dvoje djece od strane njenog bivšeg supruga. Bivši suprug boravi u državi B. Odluka o uzdržavanju priznata je u državi B. Majka želi povećanje iznosa uzdržavanja budući da su se primanja njezinog bivšeg supruga povećala nakon donošenja odluke. Majka će putem središnjeg tijela države A proslijediti za zahtjev za izmjenom odluke središnjem tijelu države B. Bivši suprug bit će o svemu obaviješten te saslušan pred nadležnim tijelom u državi B. Nakon donošenja, izmijenjena odluka biti će izvršiva u državi B.22 Zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke takoĎer se podnosi putem obrasca iz Priloga VII. 3. 2. 2. Zahtjevi za posebne mjere 21 22 Lortie, op. cit. (bilj. 18.), str. 37. Lortie, op. cit. (bilj. 18.), str. 38. 156 �Uz navedene zahtjeve Uredba o uzdržavanju ureĎuje i dodatne vrste zahtjeva putem središnjeg tijela, zahtjeve za posebnim mjerama, koji podnositelju zahtjeva stoje na raspolaganju samo u slučaju kada u skladu s člankom 56. nije podnesen ni jedan zahtjev. Tako Uredba o uzdržavanju u članku 53. odreĎuje kako središnje tijelo može uz odgovarajuća obrazloženja dati zahtjev drugom središnjem tijelu za poduzimanjem odgovarajuće posebne mjere ukoliko bi poduzimanje takve mjere pomoglo pri pronalaženju obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavane osobe; pomoglo pri pribavljanju podataka o dohotku i drugih potrebnih financijskih okolnosti obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavane osobe, uključujući lokaciju imovine; olakšalo pribavljanje dokaza u obliku isprava ili u drugom obliku, ne dovodeći pritom u pitanje Uredbu (EZ) br. 1206/2001; osiguralo pomoć pri utvrĎivanju roditeljstva kad je to potrebno za naplatu tražbina za uzdržavanje; pokrenulo postupak ili olakšalo njegovo pokretanje i ostvarilo potrebne privremene mjere teritorijalnog karaktera i čija je svrha osigurati ishod neriješenog zahtjeva za uzdržavanje te olakšalo uručivanje pismena, ne dovodeći pritom u pitanje Uredbu (EZ) br. 1393/2007. Zamoljeno središnje tijelo poduzet će prema potrebi ove mjere, ako je uvjereno da su korisne i ako smatra da su potrebne kako bi potencijalnom podnositelju zahtjeva pomogle pri podnošenju zahtjeva iz članka 56. ili utvrĎivanju treba li uopće zahtjev uložiti. Glavnina je ovih zahtjeva usmjerena na pronalaženje obveznika uzdržavanja te na pribavljanje podataka o dohotku i drugim financijskim okolnostima obveznika. Ovaj zahtjev najčešće se podnosi kada je podnositelju zahtjeva poznato na području koje države boravi obveznik uzdržavanja, ali mu nije poznata njegova adresu. Nerijetko podnositelju zahtjeva nije poznato niti u kojoj državi članici obveznik uzdržavanja ima boravište, ali s obzirom na okolnosti koje su mu poznate pretpostavlja koja bi to država ili države mogle biti. U tom slučaju moguće je uputiti zahtjev za posebnim mjerama u središnja tijela više država. Nakon što zamoljeno središnje tijelo zaprimi zahtjev za posebnom mjerom sa svrhom pronalaženja obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavanje osobe ili sa svrhom pribavljanja podataka o dohotku i drugim potrebama financijskih okolnosti obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavanja osobe, uključujući lokaciju imovine, ono će od nadležnih nacionalnih institucija ili putem službenih evidencija pokušati pribaviti tražene podatke. Ukoliko su takve informacije dostupne, zamoljeno će središnje tijelo priopćiti pribavljene informacije središnjem tijelu koje je podnositelj zahtjeva.23Ako zamoljeno središnje tijelo ne može osigurati tražene informacije, o tome odmah izvješćuje središnje tijelo koje je podnijelo zahtjev te razloge svoje odluke. Zahtjev za posebnim mjerama podnosi se putem obrasca iz Priloga V. Središnje tijelo molitelj popunjava „Dio A“ obrasca. U zahtjevu je poželjno navesti što više informacije o osobi na koju se zahtjev odnosi, kao što su puno ime i prezime, datum roĎenja, adresa, kako bi nadležne institucije zamoljenog središnjeg tijela 23 Uredba u čl. 53. st. 2. odreĎuje da kad su zatražene informacije pribavljene u skladu s člankom 61. Uredbe u priopćenju se navodi samo adresa potencijalnog tuženika u zamoljenoj državi članici. U slučaju zahtjeva u svrhu priznanja, izvršivosti ili izvršenja, u priopćenju se dodatno može navesti samo ima li obveznik uzdržavanja dohodak ili imovinu u toj državi članici. 157 �u što kraćem vremenskom roku i sa što većom sigurnošću utvrdile tražene informacije. „Dio B“ obrasca ispunjava zamoljeno središnje tijelo nakon što utvrdi činjenice tražene u zahtjevu te ispunjeni zahtjev vraća središnjem tijelu molitelju. 3.2.2. Slanje, primanje i obrada zahtjeva Osim slanja, primanja i obrade zahtjeva središnja tijela takoĎer imaju važnu zadaću koja podrazumijeva pomoć podnositelju zahtjeva prilikom podnošenja samog zahtjeva. Ona se očituje u davanju jasne upute o potrebnim podacima i ispravama, dostavljanju praznih obrazaca podnositelju i pomoći pri ispunjavanju istih, naputku o tome koje je isprave potrebnu prevesti na jezik zamoljene države i sl. Po primitku dokumentacije od strane podnositelja zahtjeva središnje tijelo će pregledati je li potpuna te ukoliko nije zatražiti dopunu ili ispravak. Središnje će tijelo proslijediti zahtjev središnjem tijelu zamoljene države tek kad smatra da zahtjev ispunjava sve uvjete iz Uredbe. Po zaprimanju zahtjeva zamoljeno će središnje tijelo pregledati zahtjev i zaprimljenu dokumentaciju prije nego li je proslijedi tijelu nadležnom za postupanje. Vezano uz to, Uredba u čl. 58. st. 2. nameće i obavezu zamoljenom središnjem tijelu da u roku od 30 dana od datuma zaprimanja zahtjeva, potvrdi primitak na obrascu iz Priloga VIII, te izvijesti središnje tijelo države članice moliteljice koje su početne mjere poduzete, ili će biti poduzete, te po potrebi zatraži potrebne dodatne dokumente i podatke. Isto tako, kroz obrazac iz Priloga VIII priopćit će središnjem tijelu molitelju i kontakt podatke osobe ili jedinice nadležne za odgovaranje na upite o napretku pri obradi zahtjeva. Osim toga, zamoljeno središnje tijelo dužno je izvijestiti središnje tijelo države moliteljice o stanju obrade zahtjeva u roku od 60 dana od datuma potvrde primitka. Zamoljeno središnje tijelo ne smije odbiti zahtjev isključivo zbog toga što su potrebni dodatni dokumenti ili podaci. MeĎutim, zamoljeno središnje tijelo može od središnjeg tijela molitelja zatražiti da predoči te dodatne dokumente ili te podatke. Ako središnje tijelo molitelj to ne učini u roku 90 dana ili tijekom duljeg razdoblja koje je odredilo zamoljeno središnje tijelo, zamoljeno središnje tijelo može odlučiti da više ne obraĎuje zahtjev. U tom slučaju o tome odmah obavješćuje središnje tijelo molitelja na obrascu iz Priloga IX. 3.2.3. Komunikacija između središnjih tijela Uredba inzistira na učestaloj i brzoj komunikaciji izmeĎu središnjih tijela, stoga su ona dužna primijeniti najžurnija i najučinkovitija sredstva priopćavanja koja im stoje na raspolaganju. Kao najbrži i najpovoljniji način komunikacije najzastupljenija je komunikacija putem elektroničke pošte. Ova vrsta komunikacije najlakši je i najbrži način za dobivanje informacija o statusu predmeta pred središnjim tijelom i pred tijelima nadležnima za postupanje po Uredbi. Isto tako, dok država ne stekne praksu u postupanju po Uredbi s odreĎenom državom članicom, na ovaj način najbrže može saznati zahtjeva li 158 �možda zamoljena država dodatne isprave u skladu sa svojim nacionalnim pravom izuzev onih koje propisuje Uredba. Na taj način izbjeći će se moguća potreba za dopunom dokumentacije nakon podnošenja zahtjeva. 3.2.4. Troškovi podnositelja zahtjeva Osim što Uredba za cilj ima ubrzati postupak za ostvarivanjem prava na uzdržavanje, za cilj ima i maksimalno smanjiti troškove podnositelja zahtjeva, koji je u većini slučajeva ekonomski slabija strana. Svi zahtjevi u skladu s člankom 56. omogućuju podnositelju zahtjeva da svoje pravo ostvari bez odlaska u stranu državu. Isto tako podnošenje zahtjeva putem središnjeg tijela ne zahtjeva osobni dolazak podnositelja zahtjeva u središnje tijelo. Podnositelj zahtjeva će sve potrebne informacije i upute od središnjeg tijela dobiti telefonski, elektroničkom poštom ili pisano poštom, a svoj će zahtjev u konačnici dostaviti središnjem tijelu putem redovne pošte. U skladu s člankom 54. Uredbe središnja tijela ne smiju podnositelju zahtjeva naplaćivati svoje usluge, osim izvanrednim troškova koji proizlaze iz zahtjeva za posebnim mjerama. Troškovi manjeg opsega za stranku bi mogli nastati jedino prilikom prikupljanja dokumentacije potrebne za pojedini zahtjev. Tako nerijetko za stranku nastaju troškovi zbog potrebe prevoĎenja odreĎene dokumentacije.24U takvim se slučajevima podnositelju zahtjeva savjetuje da u tu svrhu pokuša ostvariti pravo na jednokratnu naknadu u skladu sa Zakonom o socijalnoj skrbi.25 MeĎutim, rješenje o pravu na jednokratnu naknadu diskrecijskom ocjenom donosi centar za socijalnu skrb, što podnositelju zahtjeva i dalje ne pruža sigurnost da će njegovi troškovi biti nadoknaĎeni. Stoga je, zbog socijalne osjetljivosti stranaka u većini predmeta uzdržavanja, nužno na nacionalnoj razini utvrditi pravni mehanizam koji će podnositelju zahtjeva dati pravo na djelomičnu ili potpuno naknadu troškova ove vrste. Prijevodi obrazaca kojima se podnose zahtjevi – Prilozi V, VI, VII neće stvarati dodatan trošak stranci, zahvaljujući veoma dobroj i razvijenoj informatizaciji europskog zakonodavstva. Naime, službenicima u središnjim tijelima dana je mogućnost da korištenjem Internet stranice „The European e-Justice Portal“, ispune željeni obrazac na svom jeziku te po završetku ispunjavanja obrasca odaberu jezik države članice na koji žele da obrazac bude preveden.26 24 U skladu s čl. 20. st. 1.(d) i 28. st. 1.(c) Uredbe o uzdržavanju, kada je potrebno, kod podnošenja zahtjeva za priznavanje ili priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke, izvod iz odluke koju je donio sud podrijetla uporabom obrasca iz Priloga I ili priloga II mora biti transliteriran ili preveden na službeni jezik države članice koja obavlja izvršenje ili kad u državi članici ima više službenih jezika, na službeni jezik ili na jedan od službenih jezika sudskog postupka mjesta u kojem je uložen zahtjev u skladu s pravom te države članice ili na drugi jezik koji je predmetna država članica navela kao prihvatljiv. Čl. 20. st. 3. i 28. st. 3. odreĎuju kako svaka država članica može navesti službeni jezik ili jezike institucija Europske unije, a koji je drukčiji od njezina jezika, koji prihvaća za ispunjavanje obrazaca. Svaki prijevod mora učiniti osoba kvalificirana za prevoĎenje u jednoj od država članica. 25 Čl. 46.-48., Zakon o socijalnoj skrbi, Narodne novine br. 157/13 i 152/14. 26 Bitno je napomenuti da ovaj sustav prevodi samo formu obrasca, dok će ispunjeni tekst obrasca ostati na jeziku na kojemu je upisan, stoga je uobičajena praksa izmeĎu središnjih tijela da se tekst 159 �4. Zaključak Učinkovitost prekogranične naplate uzdržavanja već je gotovo cijelo stoljeće u fokusu kako nacionalnih država, tako i meĎunarodne zajednice. Europska unija je prekogranični pravni promet odlučila urediti brojnim tradicionalnim metodama prvenstveno procesnog prava, ali u njihovim unaprijeĎenim varijantama: primjerice ukidanje egzekvature za priznanje odluka drugih država članica,27 ili zamrzavanje računa kao privremena mjera osiguranja prekograničnog potraživanja, eklatantni su primjerci.28 Nadalje, u odnosu na uzdržavanje djece EU predviĎa besplatnu pravnu pomoć u predmetima uzdržavanja. Ipak, suvremeni intenzivni prekogranični pravni promet stavlja na kušnju uvriježene pravne mehanizme meĎunarodnog privatnog i postupovnog prava. Klasična parnica i postupak postaju u velikoj mjeri neučinkoviti u kontekstu zaštite najranjivijih: oni su skupi i spori. MeĎunarodna zajednica je prije više od pola stoljeća prvi puta prakticirala sustav logističke podrške koji pomaže ostvarenju pravosudne zaštite najranjivijih, a taj je mehanizam danas obilno preuzela i koristi EU. Stranke same niti mogu niti znaju kako locirati dužnika, utvrditi imovinu, pokrenuti postupak, naplati tražbinu – za to im danas kao servis treba služiti središnje tijelo na koji se prebacuje taj teret. Prednosti EU u odnosu na sve ostale sustave središnjih tijela (poglavito one usvojene u okvirima Haških konvencija) je učinkoviti nadzor primjene, redoviti monitoring i izvješćivanje o radu, te mogućnost sankcioniranja države članice koja bi zakazala u provedbi svojih obveza. Unatoč teškoćama u radu središnjih tijela, njihovo funkcioniranje ukazuje na progresiju prava usmjerenu smanjenju siromaštva djece, a koja su u inferiornoj socio-ekonomskoj poziciji u predmetima uzdržavanja. ispunjava na engleskom jeziku. Budući da ispunjavani dio obrasca obično čine samo nazivi, brojke i eventualno kratka pojašnjenja takva praksa do sada nije naišla na poteškoće. 27 Župan, M., Osobitosti ovrhe strane odluke o uzdržavanju, u: Rešetar, B., Župan, M., Imovinskopravni aspekti razvoda braka – hrvatski, međunarodni i europski kontekst (Osijek, 2011) str. 331-367. 28 Župan, M., Cross-border recovery of maintenance taking account of the new European Account Preservation Order (EAPO), radni materija predstavljen na ERA ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON EUROPEAN FAMILY LAW, Trier 2014 ( u postupku objave). 160 �Mirela Župan, Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Osijek Martina Drventić, mr. iur. Faculty of Law, University of Osijek SYSTEM OF CENTRAL BODIES THROUGH EUROPEAN MODEL OF CROSS-BORDER PAYMENT OF MAINTENANCE Summary: One of the consequences of modern intensive mobility is a significant increase in the number of cross-border family cases. Legal systems correspond to this phenomenon by introducing new/improved legal norms (both at national and international level). In the field of legal protection of the most vulnerable, especially children, emphasis is placed on norms that present a legal framework for functioning of the central authority system. System of central authority has a crucial role in cross-border payment of maintenance and thus constitutes one of the key levers in reducing poverty of support creditors. This paper speaks of positioning of the system of central bodies in resolving international family matters, clarifying the scope of their work in the case of maintenance and in particular Maintenance Regulation no. 4/2009. Key words: central authority system, maintenance obligations, Maintenance Regulation. 161 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2994 Title A name given to the resource SUSTAV SREDIŠNJIH TIJELA KROZ EUROPSKI MODEL NAPLATE PREKOGRANIČNOG UZDRŽAVANJA Author Author ŽUPAN, Mirela Abstract A summary of the resource. Jedna od konzekvencija suvremene intenzivne mobilnosti je značajno povećanje broja prekograničnih obiteljskih predmeta. Pravni sustavi na ovu pojavu odgovaraju normiranjem (kako na nacionalnoj, tako i na međunarodnoj razini), u okviru kojega se u području pravne zaštite najranjivijih, prije svega djece, naglasak stavlja na rad i funkcioniranje sustava središnjih tijela. Sustav središnjih tijela ima presudnu ulogu u prekograničnoj naplati uzdržavanja, te time čini jednu od ključnih poluga u smanjenju siromaštva vjerovnika uzdržavanja. Predmetom je ovoga rada pozicioniranje sustava središnjih tijela u rješavanju međunarodno obilježenih obiteljskih predmeta, pojašnjenje djelokruga njihova rada u predmetima uzdržavanja te u kontekstu Hrvatske konkretna obrada relevantnih propisa, poglavito Uredbe br. 4/2009. Ključne riječi: sustav središnjih tijela, uzdržavanje,Uredba o uzdržavanju Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/40bbc90ba9a72c4a34e6785cff9e3877.pdf 2dcd2ef28957dcdde41cbfdaf93f7195 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Aida Tarabar University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 24.11.2014. Abstract The paper offers an insight into the highlights of the ESP teaching practice at the University of Zenica, the university with the longest ESP tradition in the country. This type of language instruction started as part of an optional course at the Faculty of Metallurgy in 1970s. During the following decades – especially in recent times – the teaching has been developed and organized into several obligatory ESP courses that are taught during the final four semesters of undergraduate studies at technical faculties. The training finishes with so called Public Lecture – a series of presentations delivered by the students themselves. The main characteristics of ESP instruction at these faculties are total flexibility and adaptability. This means the ESP teacher not only tends to follow the most recent findings in the realm of the ELT, but also observes the specific educational and social circumstances within which the learning/teaching process takes place. In a country such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the legacy of war includes a brain drain and a complex situation at all three educational levels, it is important to design innovative practices that can compensate for the aforementioned deficiencies. By being responsive to students’ needs, we try to bridge and/or fill in the gaps in their knowledge. In the course of our ESP instruction the students are equipped with the most appropriate and practical tools they can use when they encounter the problem of translating a technical text – a simplified 'translation technology'. Thus, they are encouraged to enter the language arena. Without such a scaffold, they would most probably remain only spectators. Key words: ESP, translation technology, vocabulary, syntax, morphology Introduction We are all aware of a growing tendency for universities to provide courses in English. In his book, The Future of English, a British linguist David Graddol describes this trend and its consequences in the following words: 7 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties 'One of the most significant educational trends world-wide is the teaching of a growing number of courses in universities through the medium of English. The need to teach some subjects in English, rather than the national language, is well understood: in the sciences, for example, up-to-date text books and research articles are obtainable much more easily in one of the world languages and most readily of all in English ... English-medium higher education is thus one of the drivers of language shift, from L2 to L1 Englishspeaking status’ (Graddol 1997: 45) Indeed, such education presents an invaluable advantage for those who can afford it. But the question remains: Is such education possible in most countries? If not - What should be done? How can the grounds for such education be set or how can we speed up its implementation? Having been a language teacher at different technical faculties for fifteen years now, I have become quite familiar with the situation in B&H education. The University of Zenica provides more English teaching at its technical faculties than any other university in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was the management of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering that first recognized the importance of the English language for their students and their professional development. They introduced English as a subject during each year of studies. Soon afterwards, the other faculties, i.e. the Faculty of Metallurgy and Materials and The Faculty of Polytechnics, followed suit. Due to these actions, conditions were met for an adequate instruction in English for Specific Purposes (hereinafter: ESP). The results of such a praxis proved to be so good that the University opened its 'doors' to quite modern approaches in foreign language teaching such as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). During the academic year 2012/2013, CLIL was tested at technical faculties and the outcome was exceptionally good. However, CLIL is not the topic of this paper. I mention it only because one of the researchers’ conclusions was that CLIL would not have produced such good results at our faculties had it not been supported by the ESP teaching in the first place.1 In other words, the time is not ripe for modern approaches such as CLIL at the majority of our universities. This is because students who enrol in the faculties generally arrive with poor English proficiency. This situation is mainly the legacy of war. Over the last 10 years, some of the deficiencies in English teaching have been overcome, but many of them remain, particularly those related to vocational or technical schools. The majority of students recruited by technical faculties have graduated from schools where English doesn't have the status it deserves. 1 This paper's discussion of ESP instruction focuses exclusively on the kind that is currently practiced at our technical faculties. 8 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Therefore, we wish to share our experience, particularly in terms of ESP, in order to help others find their way to contemporary types of English language teaching. Is a Different Approach to ESP Teaching Needed at Technical Faculties? There is nothing new about the idea that ESP is reserved for professional discourse and university-level education. Although ESP instruction is also offered in certain secondary schools and in companies that prepare professionals for tasks that require proficiency in English, universities pose a special challenge for ESP. There are few reasons for this. It is expected that students' proficiency at this level of education is high – intermediate at the very least. Also, students are expected to demonstrate a significant level of enthusiasm for studying English, because it is the language that will help them understand the content of the books and texts from their reading lists in the course of their studies as well as in their further specialization through Life Long Learning (LLL). However, the situation in B&H falls far short of these expectations. When referring to foreign language knowledge, we must appreciate that students studying at these faculties typically come from rural areas where, up until recently, foreign languages at primary school level were taught by unqualified staff. The same goes for teaching the mother tongue. A similar situation prevails in secondary technical schools, which supply the most students to the technical faculties.2 The language instruction has been deficient, substandard and irregular, which has generated resistance amongst students towards learning foreign languages in particular. Turnover among teachers is often high, which adds to the students’ uneasiness about dealing with foreign language texts. However, aware of the importance of the English language, these students are keen to fill in the gaps in their knowledge. Given a low number of hours allocated to teaching foreign languages (2 hours per week) and a high number of students, it was not possible to apply the usual foreign language teaching methods and expect high achievement rates across the student population. Therefore, we decided to: a) introduce the General English classes in the first two years of studies, b) start with the ESP in the third year (when there are fewer students compared to Years 1 and 2) and to c) offer 'a new beginning' to students by adopting an approach that is designed to give them a badly needed boost. 2 The number of students coming from gymnasiums (general secondary schools) is negligible. 9 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties In other words, we knew that students needed a different, or enstranged3 approach to reading technical texts. More precisely - they required a different ‘language narrative’. Bearing all this in mind, we designed the ESP, which includes, amongst other things, an analysis of a limited range of simple sentence structures, as well as some phrasal forms, which is necessary for basic understanding of a technical text. Particular focus is given to simple sentence forms, such as SV, SVO, SVA and SVSC, and to simple and easily recognisable phrasal forms, such as NP, PP, and VP. This seemed to be the only way to give students a sense of a new beginning and motivation to start learning and using English in a practical manner. Our current experience of teaching ESP suggests that students with basic foreign language knowledge find this aspect of ESP most helpful in gaining confidence when translating an English technical text. A Short Overview of ESP Activities at the University of Zenica At the time the ESP starts, students are supposed to have already passed their exams in General English (1, 2, 3 and 4). The General English courses take place during the first four semesters and are designed to provide an elementary basis for students' further development in the field of Technical English (ESP). In the fifth semester, students are instructed to use the basic vocabulary and syntax related to technical English, both orally and in writing. In this semester, they translate simple technical texts while using bilingual dictionaries. In the sixth semester, the texts to be translated are more complex, both in terms of vocabulary and in their morphological and syntactic structures. In the seventh semester students are developing their oral skills by means of repetition, reformulation, substitution of certain elements in given constructions etc. Writing skills are developed mainly through translating longer texts from English into BHS4 and vice versa. Students are expected to master vocabulary and grammar typical of technical-register sentence constructions. Special attention is paid to writing summaries of different technical texts. 3 This term, quite appropriate for the purpose, was coined by a literary critic and theorist V. Shklovsky. The term is found in Russian Formalists who posited that something attracts attention only if it is 'enstranged' or unusual. (see: Petković, N. 1988: 71-111). 4 BHS stands for Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian. It is the mutual language of the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 10 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The eighth semester is reserved for assignments that lead to Public Lecture - the final activity where students deliver their own lectures in English on different technical topics. The Technology of Translation From the overview, it is evident that translating technical texts from English into BHS and other way round is one of the priorities for ESP teaching at the technical faculties in Zenica.5 In an attempt to bring the process of translating closer to the students’ experience, we sometimes call it ‘Technology of Translating a Technical Text’. Namely, the use of this technical term (technology) has a significant positive effect on removing the barriers that the students have towards language teaching and on raising their motivation levels, which very often result in high achievement. In the following paragraphs we will explain how using the ESP methodology can help students overcome problems they encounter when translating technical texts. In this process, the grammatical explanations are adapted to technical discourse that these students are familiar with, and the use of technical vocabulary and descriptions resonate with the familiar content of technical subjects that they have learnt in their mother tongue. As typical for any technology, the starting point is basic materials. In our case, basic materials are word classes (parts of speech). This is one of the most difficult problems our students must overcome, as they are not sufficiently familiar with the word classes and their functions. Therefore, at the very beginning of the course we introduce word classes and provide basic information about them. During this process we try to avoid overburdening the students with unfamiliar linguistic jargon or excessive information. Our aim is to achieve maximum results with minimum means. We therefore carefully assess the quantity of information, or technically speaking ‘the volume of information input’, in order to avoid excess information that may discourage students from continuing, or even cause them to drop out.6 In the next phase we try to address the structure of sentences. Our starting point is the foundation, i.e. basic 'materials', which are then combined into more complex 'structures'. In order to bring these language phenomena to life, we often use graphic representations, such as diagrams, graphs, tables, technical drawings, photographs, etc. This approach has very positive results on students’ motivation. Grammar stops The ESP Curriculum Plan at the technical faculties places the greatest emphasis on building students’ knowledge and skills to enable them to translate technical texts. 6 The academic strength of individual student cohorts is often a deciding factor for selecting ESP teaching materials. 5 11 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties being a collection of prescriptive rules that must be learnt in order to translate a technical text and becomes a toolbox that facilitates translation. That is what the students need. Successes during this phase of teaching encourage students to achieve more later on. It is important to emphasise that initially students are not expected to translate paragraphs. Instead they concentrate on singular simple sentences, which are then broken down into smaller constituent parts. For that purpose it is important for students to learn how to move from the sentence level down to a phrase level. 7 In order to learn this, the students have to understand how phrases are connected into sentences, i.e. how lower-level constituent parts link together to form higher-level parts, thereby forming a sentence structure. Students are introduced to the simplest sentence types, e.g. SV, SVO, SVA, SVSC, and SVOA, which are selected from textbooks suitable for this level.8 In the process of identifying sentence types, or their individual constituent parts that perform certain functions within those sentence types, students are advised to use certain ‘road signs’ or ‘ signals’. Learning to recognise them makes it easier to divide sentences into smaller constituent segments (phrases), which are then individually translated before they are connected again and translated as a whole sentence. The following are examples of these ‘road signs’: A) Students are asked to start analysing a sentence by identifying the predicate in the main sentence. They are advised to first identify all verbs, both finite and non-finite ones, and after that to exclude the following9: 1. all non-finite forms i.e. those verbs that they identify as incomplete to form a Tense and then: 2. finite forms appearing in dependent/subordinate clauses after the dependent clause markers, such as which, that, when, because, where, who, when, if, etc. with which they would be familiar from the previous year of study. The remaining verb is then identified as the predicate of the main sentence. 7 In our explanations we often use technical terminology the students have already learned in their Machine Elements syllabus, which is as important for their chosen study as Anatomy is for medicine. 8 The textbooks used in our ESP classes are: English for Metallurgy and English for Mechanical Engineering. See: Šestić, L. (1985.), (1994.) 9 It is worth noting that during lessons we do not use linguistic terminology, such as constituent, finite or non-finite verb form, or markers, because this would create barriers and disengage the students. 12 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Here we are only referring to selected examples. The students are never given difficult sentences. The examples we give our students illustrate the above methodology very clearly10. Here are a couple of examples: 1) The factory producing steel needs iron ore. 2) The conveyor belt which carries raw material to the plant is very expensive. Applying the above methods the students will exclude from the first sentence the non-finite form producing and will deduce that the predicate can only be needs, which is also confirmed by its affix –s. In the second sentence, the students will exclude the clause beginning with the marker which, thereby concluding that is is the only finite form of verb, which therefore represents the main verb (linking verb) and introduces the subject complement. B) The identification of the subject in the sentence is made easy by explaining the fixed word order in English sentences in which the subject precedes the predicate, especially in affirmative sentences. Such sentences are typical in technical texts. For instance, A vast quantity of energy has been lost in the process. S V A C) Students are also alerted to the possibility of adverbials appearing at the beginning of the sentence, which can also be positioned in the middle or at the end of the sentence. The comma is cited as the most common ‘road sign’, albeit not the only one, for differentiating an adverbial from the subject. However, technical texts are often riddled with mispunctuation, which makes the comma an unreliable ‘road sign’. For that reason, the students are asked to check if an adverbial is placed at the very start of the sentence before they mark another segment as the subject of the sentence and start translating it as such. The students are also advised that it is possible to have an adverbial in the form of a prepositional phrase at the beginning of the sentence, or a dependent clause starting with e.g. when, how, which, or if which precedes the main clause. At this point, we The aim is to provide simple examples for sentence analysis, which would boost the students’ confidence. Otherwise, it would become obvious very quickly that such 'road signs' are not always present in more complex examples. 10 13 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties do not introduce the notion that clauses with the aforementioned markers can act as the subject of the main sentence, as that may cause a degree of confusion. Let us look at some examples we use in the syllabus: Over the past few years, the laboratory has been performing regular inspections. A S V O If the temperature does not rise, the speed of molecules will not increase A S V When this ideal condition is obtained, we start the process. A S V O It is, of course, possible to have an adverb, functioning as an adverbial and ending with -ly at the start of the sentence, which the students recognise easily, such as the following example: Usually, the process starts upon the completion of the prerequisites. A S V A In parallel with learning how to identify the subject, the students are also introduced to noun phrases and the functions they perform in the sentence. The basic elements are covered as well as the importance of their meaning for the correct translation of a sentence. By using the technical terminology, the noun phrase is referred to as a subsystem 'meshing' with other similar subsystems to form a whole sentence, which is a system in itself. To help identify a noun phrase, the students are introduced to signals such as determiners that precede it.11 Students can easily remember that this function is performed by indefinite and definite articles, a, an and the. In order to help them memorise as many determiners as possible, we draw a parallel between the indefinite article a and number one, which also introduces numbers, as well as quantifiers such as some, any, much, little, many, few etc. as possible determiners. Similar methodology is used with the definite article the, and the students are taught to regard demonstrative pronouns this and that as determiners. This number of words signalling a noun phrase is enough for the students’ translation needs. From our experience it is evident that the students have no difficulties in identifying other similar determiners, although they were not explicitly mentioned during the course. 11 In the ESP syllabus, the term determiner is used to designate both a pre- and a post-determiner in order to avoid unnecessary confusion that such complexity may cause amongst the students. 14 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The absence of determiners is also referred to, but not elaborated on. The students accept the possibility of nouns not being signalled by determiners. They regard the presence of a determiner as an aid for easier identification of a text segment, such as a noun phrase. In the next step students are informed that the following element within the noun phrase can be a noun premodifier (usually adjective), the task of which is to modify i.e. to change the meaning of the noun while preceding it. In other words, we explain that the premodifier unites its meaning with the meaning of the noun, whereby the reference of the noun is narrowed down. In order to reduce the probability of their making mistakes in determining the noun head within a noun phrase, students are made aware of a possibility that the noun head can be preceded by another noun (noun adjunct) that also functions as a premodifier (e.g. metal part). The majority of students make mistakes while translating such phrases. When they encounter two nouns, one next to another, they usually go in the wrong direction and use the first noun as a noun head of a phrase. Then they try to adjust the rest of the phrase to the initially inaccurate translation. Such errors normally occur in the series of nouns that the students are not familiar with. When informed of a possibility that a noun can be a premodifier to a noun head, they become more careful and consequently make fewer mistakes. It becomes evident to them that the second noun to the right in the linear series of two is actually the noun head of the phrase. Of course, this refers to situations when there is neither a preposition nor a hyphen between the nouns. As far as the intensifier is concerned, we explain to the students that it has the same influence on the premodifier as the premodifier has on the noun. Namely, the premodifier inherently modifies and narrows down the meaning of the related noun, so does the intensifier modify the meaning of the premodifier. For instance, in the phrase very successful production the premodifier successful modifies the meaning of production and the intensifier very further modifies the preceding premodifier. Most common intensifiers are identified, such as adverbs with the suffix -ly (e.g. successfully conducted experiments). However, as students expand their vocabulary over time, they begin to recognise other, non-derivative forms of adverbs. In this phase of their learning, it is important to help the students understand the linear nature of language, where the words appearing in a linear order are interconnected and interdependent. In this respect, our approach has had positive results. Because we provide a short repository of word classes (parts of speech) at the beginning of ESP teaching, the students become quite successful in identifying them. 15 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Although they are not expected to have an extensive vocabulary, these students display a fairly good grasp of morphological markers, which enables them to identify the key word classes. Therefore, we pay particular attention to affixes of derived nouns, adjectives and adverbs, which also has positive results on student attainment. In this phase, the students become very aware that the knowledge of basic elements of noun phrases will be very useful for their future work. As to the role of noun postmodifiers, students are told that they modify meaning of a noun, similarly to noun premodifiers, the only difference being that they are placed after, not before the noun. The students are acquainted with the most frequent postmodifiers: 1. Relative Clause with its markers: which, where, who, that (N+ which...) e.g.: the conditions which/that can be obtained 2. Reduced form of Relative Clause in Active Voice (N+Ving) e.g.: the power plant producing energy (obtained by reduction of: the power plant which produces energy) 3. Reduced form of Relative Clause in Passive Voice (N+Ved) e.g: metallurgical phenomenon observed in cold worked metals (obtained by reduction of: metallurgical phenomenon which was observed in cold worked metals) 4. Prepositional Phrase (N + PP) e.g: a support for rotating elements A special attention is paid to the last type of postmodification (N + PP). When we first introduce a prepositional phrase in our classes, students are told that this phrase consists of preposition and a new noun phrase. This information usually arouses a feeling of satisfaction among the students because it brings them back into the noun phrase domain, which – in their opinion – they know well by then. Also, the students are constantly warned to be careful about the scope that a noun phrase can take within a sentence. The warning makes them more concentrated and analytical, especially when a more complex noun phrase is in question – particularly the one with prepositional phrase as a postmodifier to a noun head, i.e. N + PP. It should be highlighted that this type of postmodification is rather frequent in technical texts. It is interesting to note that students easily discern the difference between the noun head in a noun phrase and the noun in the noun phrase within a prepositional phrase that serves as a postmodifier to noun head. Namely, the students immediately observe that the position of a noun after a preposition indicates that the noun is not 16 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics the head noun of the phrase (N+PP) but only a part of its postmodifier (PP=prep+NP). With regard to the appositive adjective phrase and infinitive phrase, we rarely mention them as possible postmodifiers in order to avoid information overload, which could have negative effect on students. D) When identifying the object (O) of a sentence, the emphasis is given to its position after the sentence predicate. Nevertheless, this position can be occupied by an adverbial in the form of a prepositional phrase (e.g. The slag layer remains on the surface), or by an adverb (e.g. The process develops slowly). For that reason, students are advised to analyse closely what comes after the predicate before they move on to translating the sentence. Thus, if the position is taken by a noun phrase, the students know it can only be the object of the sentence. It is well known that sentences of the SVOA structure are quite frequent. It is difficult for the students to quickly determine where the object ends and where the adverbial starts, which slows down their translation process. However, a number of them manage to do this correctly thanks to their knowledge of noun phrases as well as the context of a subject area with which they are familiar. One of the things that we always insist on is for students to rely on the context and general technical knowledge. E) Finally, when introducing the subject complement (SC) to students, we underline that the best indicator of its presence in the sentence is the linking verb to be.12 It is also stressed that this verb, as the main verb in the sentence, is followed by either noun phrase or adjective phrase.13 The name of subject complement is derived from the word subject, as they can be interchangeable in function. Therefore, this relation is easily explained by using the ‘equals’ sign between the subject and its complement, as in the following example: Arcelor Mittal is the biggest company in this region. → Arcelor Mittal = the biggest company in this region. 12 In the initial phase of the ESP course we do not mention other linking verbs such as seem, prove, appear etc. 13 Of course, other constructions that may serve as subject complements, such as: infinitive, gerund or noun clause, are not mentioned at this stage, because the complexity of information could potentially confuse students. 17 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Although seemingly simple, this sentence type (SVSC) leads to plethora of incorrect translations. Namely, students that are not acquainted with it see the verb to be as an auxiliary verb, i.e. as a part of predicate. While looking for the main verb of the predicate, they identify the coming word (usually noun or adjective) as a verb, and translate it accordingly. Then, confused by the remainder of the text, which obviously does not fit the translation, they start improvising and end up with inaccurate translations. It is for this reason that a special attention is paid to the SVSC type of sentence. We should mention here that once the students get enough skill in translating simple sentences, more complex structures are introduced. In the end, it is worth mentioning that the students are warned of exceptions to all rules, including the ones provided by the course, as well as of the necessity to always check out the truth-value of their translations. If they feel that their translation does not fit the logic of the text, they are advised revise it. Conclusion Our approach to teaching English for Special Purposes (ESP) focuses on functional sentence analysis with the aim of simplifying the translation process. We try not to overburden our students with more linguistic information than they would find useful in their future engineering careers. With that in mind, we have introduced relatively simple examples of individual sentences, or texts specifically adapted for this purpose. When introducing this teaching methodology, we were concerned that the ‘technology of translating technical texts’ might be problematic, but we were prepared to take the risk in consideration of other factors such as the students’ very low level of English proficiency. We were pleased to note very positive results. Our experience, as well as numerous student surveys, confirmed that the students are very satisfied with this approach. They are mindful of the fact that they are future engineers, not linguists. They are aware that their linguistic knowledge will be limited but they are still keen to learn. The students approach translations with pragmatism and logic. The methodology used in ESP classes enables them to engage in the process of translation without fear, and to translate simple texts independently. This is a good basis for translating more complex texts in the future. Their progress is evident even after the initial translation exercises. This boosts the students’ motivation, as well as self- confidence. 18 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics In conclusion, the approach described above empowers the students to translate technical texts from and into English with a degree of confidence and ease. Our experience confirms that it is better to encourage students to use their limited linguistic knowledge than not to try at all for fear of the reaction of their tutors or peers. The guidance we offer them, and continue to do so, is not aimed at producing proficient translators but at enabling future engineers to take important steps towards interrogating technical literature in English with confidence, thereby using the language as a tool for furthering their professional knowledge. References Graddol, D. (1997). The Future of English. London: British Council. Huskanović, A.; Tarabar, A. (2009). The Importance of Foreign Language in Teaching Mathematics at Technical Faculties. Proceedings: 13th International Research/Expert Conference - TMT 2009. Tunisia: Hammamet, 265-267 Šestić, L. (2013). Forme sa nastavkom –ing u engleskom tehničkom registru i njihovi prevodni ekvivalenti u bosanskom/hrvatskom/srpskom. Zenica: Univerzitet u Zenici Šestić, L. (2002). Gramatika tehničkog engleskog sa rječnikom. Zenica: Minex Šestić, L. (1994). English for Mechanical Engineering Students, Engleski za studente mašinstva. Zenica: Univerzitet u Sarajevu Šestić, L. (1985). English for Metallurgists - Engleski za metalurge. Zenica: Univerzitet u Sarajevu Tarabar, A. (2013). Jezička komponenta CLIL-a na univerzitetskom nivou. (Doctoral dissertation) Zenica: Univerzitet u Zenici Tarabar, A. (2010). Nastava engleskog jezika i upotreba lokaliziranog softvera na tehničkim fakultetima. Zbornik radova III Međunarodni naučno-stručni skup: Edukacija nastavnika za budućnost, Zenica: Univerzitet u Zenici, 679-686. Tarabar, A. (2003). EFL and ESP Teaching Practice at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Proceedings of the 11th International Scientific Conference COMAT-TEC, Bratislava: Slovenska tehnická univerzita v Bratislave 19 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Petković, N. (1988). Poetika avangarde kao avangardna poetika: teorijska načela ruskih formalista. Moderna tumačenja književnosti, ur. Đurčinović, M. et al. Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 71-111. Trimble, L. (1985). English for Science and Technology: A Discourse Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 20 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2779 Title A name given to the resource ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Author Author TARABAR, Aida Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper offers an insight into the highlights of the ESP teaching practice at the University of Zenica, the university with the longest ESP tradition in the country. This type of language instruction started as part of an optional course at the Faculty of Metallurgy in 1970s. During the following decades – especially in recent times – the teaching has been developed and organized into several obligatory ESP courses that are taught during the final four semesters of undergraduate studies at technical faculties. The training finishes with so called Public Lecture – a series of presentations delivered by the students themselves. The main characteristics of ESP instruction at these faculties are total flexibility and adaptability. This means the ESP teacher not only tends to follow the most recent findings in the realm of the ELT, but also observes the specific educational and social circumstances within which the learning/teaching process takes place. In a country such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the legacy of war includes a brain drain and a complex situation at all three educational levels, it is important to design innovative practices that can compensate for the aforementioned deficiencies. By being responsive to students’ needs, we try to bridge and/or fill in the gaps in their knowledge. In the course of our ESP instruction the students are equipped with the most appropriate and practical tools they can use when they encounter the problem of translating a technical text – a simplified 'translation technology'. Thus, they are encouraged to enter the language arena. Without such a scaffold, they would most probably remain only spectators. Key words: ESP, translation technology, vocabulary, syntax, morphology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-11-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PN Literature (General),PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/695d574b822d84b3f77087f3713666e7.pdf 4f3e40a5a5e4c77dce84ae313f7615e5 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Ramazan Arslan Bartın University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Turkey rarslan@bartin.edu.tr Abstract: This study aims to look into the economic Keywords: Bartın district, structure of Bartın province, located in West Black Temettüat Registers, 19th Century, Sea Region in Turkey, in the 19th century. The main Ottoman Empire, Viranşehir resource of the study is the temettüat register no Sanjak, Economic Structure. 02824 that belongs to Bartın, which was formed on the basis of the census in 1844-1845. Temettüat registers are significant archive resources that provide statistical information about the period studied as well as the region itself. Moving from data suc as the income resources, distribution of land, husbandry and labor, this study examines the economic structure of Bartın, which used to be a District of Viransehir Sanjak during the time. The study will also contribute to the literature by giving insights into the economy of Ottoman rural area in the 19th century. In addition to forestry products, the economy of Bartın depended on agriculture and husbandry during the time period studied. Agricultural production included such main products as wheat and barley while agricultural enterprises were mediumscale businesses. JEL Classification: N00, N30, N50 Article History Submitted: 02 August 2013 Resubmitted: 24 October 2013 Accepted: 29 October 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS 11429 221 �Ramazan Arslan Introduction In the periods before the reign of Ottoman Empire, states used to keep a set of inventories in order to produce social, economic, financial and military policies. It is known that one of these inventories was made in Old Egypt between 2500 – 3000 B.C. (Barkan, 2000, p. 181). In order to keep the Empire under control, Ottoman Empire developed a set of specific inventory systems (İnalcık, 1996, p.IX). Rapid increase in the number of soldiers with permanent salaries in Ottoman army was putting a serious burden on the budget (Pamuk, 2007a, pp. 119-121). In order to resolve these problems in the financial structure, various measures such as creating lease holding system and transferring resources from the treasure were taken (Genç, 2000, p.101) and as it is known, finally, foreign borrowing was used (Tabakoğlu, 1985, pp. 296-297). Although Ottoman bureaucracy was hesitant about foreign borrowing for a long period, in a short time foreign borrowing turned out to be the most frequently used method for budget deficits (Pamuk, 2007b, pp.144-145). Besides, attempts to devise solutions in financial field continued through reforms in budget and tax issues (Güran, 1989, pp 717), and instead of civil tax, a new single tax called “Proportionate Tax” was introduced. In the 19th century, there had been significant differences in the economic structure of the government and significant changes occurred in traditional Ottoman regime (Pamuk, 2002, p.241). Beginning with Tanzimat, possession inventories were made in Hüdâvendigar (Bursa), Ankara, Aydın, Izmir, Konya and Sivas cities (Çadırcı, 1987, p.190). Again in the same period tax resources were determined again by new tax regulations (Tabakoğlu, 2003, p.169), Temettüat inventories were made in order to determine the financial situation of the public, to establish a fair tax system and to increase public revenues; and thus it was attempted to tinker disrupted financial system was tried to be tinkered (Öztürk, 2000, p.550). After the inventory in 1840, all personal assets, real estate, land, cattle, product etc. information were recorded for each house in 1844 in each residential area like districts and villages. Classification of Temettüat registers were grounded on administrative partition and these registers were alphabetically prepared for each province. Total number of Temettüat 222 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Registers between 1844- 1845 is 17.747 (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi Rehberi, 2000, p.254). Bartın, which was a significant coastal city of Ottoman Empire during the period (especially in lumbering) is chosen as the sample field for this study. Bartın, today, is one of Turkey’s cities in the West Black Sea Region. Rumor has it that the name Bartın comes from the mythological Greek word “Parthenios”, which means “river”. Bartın, which had fallen under the domination of various states at different times in history, was annexed to the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Amasra by Mehmet the Conqueror (Mehmed II) in 1460 (Bartın Guide, 1927, p.8). After annexed to the Ottoman Empire, Bartın was affiliated to Bolu district of Anatolian Governorship; it became a town in 1867 and its municipal organization was founded in 1876. After Zonguldak became a city in 1924, Bartın turned to be a district of the city and in 1991, Bartın itself became a city. Today Bartın has 4 districts, namely: Center, Amasra, Ulus and Kurucaşile; 9 municipalities including Arıt, Kozcağız, Kumluca and Abdipaşa towns; and 260 villages (Bartın Valiliği, 2011). Income Sources Income sources in an economy differ according to sectors and locations. Villages or if we are to say it with a more general expression, rural areas are small residential areas where there is no specialization in economic life and indeed, it is not necessarily needed, where production is at the level of earning one’s keep, and where agriculture and husbandry are important income sources (Öztürk, 1996, p.109). These residential areas also inform us about the agriculture in the Ottoman Empire. The economic structure of Ottoman Empire which was based on agriculture in general also stands out in the 11 residential area we work on. Besides, it is also seen that lumbering ranks high on the top as a source of income. In this study, the records of 11 villages annexed to Bartın township, selected as the sample field of the study, and registered to Temettüat Register no 02824 recorded at the ML.VRD.TMT. were examined and it was intended to 223 �Ramazan Arslan demonstrate the features of the economic structure in a rural area of the Ottoman Empire in the midst of the nineteenth century. The villages used in this study are: “Mekeçler” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.4-10), “Kurtköy” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, p.11-16), “Receb Beşeoğlu” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp. 17-21), “Gedikler” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.22-24), “Çayır” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.25-32), “Bonlar” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.32-34), “Kıran” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.35-39), “Hoşafçılar” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.40-41), “Emiroğlu” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.42-43), “Pınarlı” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.44-49) and “Akmescid’’ (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.49-50). Aforementioned rural area had 154 taxpaying houses and all of the residents of these houses were Muslim. Income from lumbering has an important share in the distribution of income sources in the rural area and it takes the first place. We put all lumbering-relevant incomes in Temettüat register under the same topic. Revenue from lumbering within the total product was 59,69% in 1260/1844 in Bartın rural area (graphic 1). This shows that lumbering is an important income source in our study field. Forestland in Bartin is one of the most interesting and among the richest forestlands in Turkey in terms of plant and tree species diversity (Bartın Valiliği, 2011). Agricultural income is the second income source for rural areas. The rate is 33.51%. In this context, income generated from fields, vegetable gardens and grape vines are included in agricultural income sources. The reason for agricultural income to take the second place as an income source can be explained with the economic properties of the region. Income rate generated from being a laborer is 4.66%. Laborer which means worker (Devellioğlu, 2005, p.31) has been a considerable income source in villages. Income from husbandry, on the other hand, ranks last in income resources in the region with a rate of 2.14%. Due to rich pastures and humid climate, bovine breeding is widespread in the region. In the distribution of incomes, large amount of income is obtained from lumbering in villages. Lumbering transportation has an important share in all villages. It is 38, 89%. Income obtained from lumber milling has the second place with a ratio of 36,65%. Income from both lumbering and its 224 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period transportation takes the third place as an income source. Lumber trading is only done in Akmescid village. In all village settlements income from lumbering has an important share as a source of income. Mekeçler Village had the highest agricultural income among total product across the villages. Income from lumbering amounted 58.04% in this village. The lowest agricultural income was in Kıran Village with a rate of 30,04%. Income from husbandry among total product was the highest in Akmescid Village with the rate of 2,14% and lowest in Mekeçler village with 0,21%. There was no income obtained from husbandry in Hoşaflar Village. There was no laborer income in three villages in all sources. Laborer income was the highest in Recep Beşoğlu Village. When income from lumbering is looked into in total product in all villages, it has a big share of 59,69%. Among villages, Kıran village had the highest income from lumbering with a rate of 66,52% (Table 1). Table 1. Distribution of Income Sources by villages Villages Agricultural Income (Kurus) Husbandry Income (Kurus) Labour Income (Kurus) Mekeçler 5.914 50 Kurtköy 4.512 Receb Beşeoğlu 4.392 Karagedikler Lumbering Income (Kurus) Total (Kurus) 450 9.330 15.744 125 500 6.807 11.944 144 1.600 6.551 12.687 2.649 44 700 3.950 7.343 Karaçayır 4.166 59 1.250 6.550 12.025 Bonlar 2.467 36 0 3.700 6.203 Kıran 4.019 111 150 8.901 13.381 Hoşafçılar 761 0 0 1.250 2.011 Emiroğlu 2.269 154 0 3.930 6.353 Pınarlı 4.646 132 150 8.900 13.828 Akmescid 11.153 713 1.550 19.870 33.286 TOTAL 46.948 1.568 6.350 79.739 134.805 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50. Income per house in the rural area was found as 931 kurus (The main currency used in the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the XIX. century). Among the total 11 villages 6 of the villages were recorded to have an income above 225 �Ramazan Arslan the average and 5 of them were recorded to have an income below the average. Table 2. Total Income of the Villages and Income per House Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Kıran Hoşafçılar Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid TOTAL Number of Houses 20 18 12 8 22 6 13 5 6 17 26 153 Total Income 23.426 11.944 12.687 7.343 12.025 6.203 13.381 2.011 6.353 13.828 33.286 142.487 Income per House 1.171 664 1.057 918 547 1.034 1.029 402 1.059 813 1.280 931 In Village Average + + + + + + Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Income per house was the highest in Akmescid Village with an average income of 1,280 kurus per house. And, the lowest average income, on the other hand, was in Hoşaflar Village with 402 kurus per house. The reason behind the high rate of average income in Akmescid village was that lumbering trade was only made in this village. In general, there are no significant differences between the averages of plus and minus income groups. It is possible to say that the income levels of the houses in the same group are close to each other. Land Distribution Total area of land recorded for agricultural purposes (as fields and vegetable gardens) in village settlements was 2033 decares (1 decare equals to one thousand square meters, 0,247 acres). These lands are 100% planted areas. All the lands in the villages were used for planting cereals, vineyards, vegetable gardens. 93,21% (1895 decare) of the agricultural lands were fields and 6,79% (138 decare) of the lands were vegetable gardens. This shows that agricultural production was the second source of income in the region after lumbering. 226 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period In this section, land shares, amount of planted areas and their shares among the total 2033 decare agricultural area will be emphasized. 100% of the 2033 decare land that villages had were planted areas. There were no lands allowed to lie for fallow. Total land amount per taxpaying houses was 13, 29 decares (Özlü, 2008, p.118). Akmescid Village had the highest share in land distribution. Total land amount of this village was 422 decares. The village with the lowest amount of land was Hoşafçılar village with 21 decares. When we look into the amount of land per house, Bonlar Village had the highest rate with 20,33 decares per house. Again Hoşafçılar Village had the lowest amount of land with 4,20 decares per house. In terms of planted area, again Akmescid had the highest amount while Hoşafçılar had the lowest amount of planted area. The amount of planted area in Akmescid Village was 422 decares and the same amount was 21 decares in Hoşafçılar Village. The amount of planted area per house was the highest in Bonlar Village with 20.33 decares per house. The lowest amount was in Hoşafçılar Village with 4.20 decares per house. The total land amount of all villages, the amount of planted and fallow land, amount of land per house is given in detail in Table 3. Table 3. Land Distribution Villages Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Kıran Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid TOTAL Nr. of Houses 20 18 12 8 22 6 13 5 6 17 26 153 Total Planted Area (Decare) 280 206 189 117 195 122 186 21 94 201 422 2033 Planted Area per House (Decare) 14,00 11,44 15,75 14,63 8,86 20,33 14,31 4,20 15,67 11,82 16,23 13,29 Total Land (Decare) 280 206 189 117 195 122 186 21 94 201 422 2033 Land per House (Decare) Planted Area % Unplanted land % 14,00 11,44 15,75 14,63 8,86 20,33 14,31 4,20 15,67 11,82 16,23 13,29 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 - Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 227 �Ramazan Arslan In their distribution by the type of agricultural production and villages, it is seen that the total land reserved for branches of production is used to full capacity. The usage rate of fields reserved for such products as wheat, barley, oat and flax were close to one another. The largest land use in grains production was in Akmescid Village with 380 decares while the least land amount was in Hoşafçılar Village with 17 decares. The land distributed for vegetable gardens was the highest again in Akmescid Village with 42 decares and lowest in Bonlar Village with 5 decares (Table 4). Table 4. Distribution of Agricultural Production Land Village Nr. Of Houses Fields where grains are planted (Decare) % % Total Production (Decare) % 97,50 Vineyard, orchard and vegetable production (Decare) 7 Mekeçler 20 273 2,50 280 100 Kurtköy 18 198 96,12 8 3,88 206 100 Receb Beşeoğlu 12 178 94,18 11 5,82 189 100 Karagedikler 8 110 94,02 7 5,98 117 100 Çayır 22 184 94,36 11 5,64 195 100 Bonlar Village 6 117 95,90 5 4,10 122 100 Kıran Village 13 177 95,16 9 4,84 186 100 Hoşafçılar Village 5 17 80,95 4 19,05 21 100 Emiroğlu 6 83 88,30 11 11,70 94 100 Pınarlı 17 178 88,56 23 11,44 201 100 Akmescid Village 26 380 90,05 42 9,95 422 100 TOTAL 153 1895 93,21 138 6,79 2033 100 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 In all villages a large amount of the land was reserved for grain production. The income from a 1895-decare-field reserved for field crops was 38.352 kurus. The highest revenue was obtained in Akmescid village with 9.155 kurus. The lowest income level was at Hoşafçılar village with 545 kurus. An area of 138 decare was left for vineyards, gardens and vegetable gardens. The revenue from this area was 1998 kurus. The highest revenue was obtained from Kurt Köy with 1.245 kurus. Again, the lowest revenue was at Hoşafçılar Village with 216 kurus. 228 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The total area reserved for wheat, barley, oat, flax, vineyard and fruits& vegetable was 2033 decares. 46.948 kurus revenue was made from an area of 2033 decares in all villages (Özlü, 2008, p.118). When we compare this income with Akçakoca on the same period, we find a significant difference between the two. It was figured that 46757 kurus revenue would be earned from 746,5 decares area in Akçakoca rural area (See Özlü, p.188). This means 62,63 kurus per decare. On the other hand, 46948 kurus revenue was generated from 2033 decares in Bartın rural area, and such a low number as 23,09 was found per decare. The highest income was obtained in Akmescid Village in all villages with 11.153 kurus. The lowest income was obtained in Emiroğlu Village with 2.269 kurus. Table 5. Distribution of Land by Villages in terms of their usage area and value, 1844 Village Mekeçler Fields where grain production is made Decare Income (Kurus) 273 4.802 Vineyard, orchard and vegetable garden Decare Income (Kurus) 7 1.112 Total Decare 280 Income (Kurus) 5.914 Kurtköy 198 3.267 8 1.245 206 4.512 Receb Beşeoğlu 178 3.681 11 711 189 4.392 Karagedikler 110 2.118 7 531 117 2.649 Çayır 184 3.446 11 720 195 4.166 Bonlar 117 2.125 5 342 122 2.467 Kıran 177 3.407 9 612 186 4.019 Hoşafçılar Village 17 545 4 216 21 761 Emiroğlu 83 2.017 11 252 94 2.269 Pınarlı 178 3.789 23 857 201 4.646 Akmescid 380 9.155 42 1.998 422 11.153 TOTAL 1895 38.352 138 8.596 2033 46.948 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 When we compared Bartın rural area with Bilecik, Bursa and Akçakoca rural areas in the same period, we found totally different ratios. Among the three districts, Bilecik had the highest rate. Bartın rural area had the lowest level of productivity among the four districts. 229 �Ramazan Arslan Table 6. Comparison of Bartın rural area with surrounding districts’ rural areas in terms of productivity (Kurus) City Bilecik Bursa (Öztürk, 1996, p.134) Akçakoca (Özlü, 2008, p.207) Bartın Grain Productivity Level 68,95 44,22 38,50 20,24 The productivity of crops in agricultural land varies according to the type of product; and geographical properties, on the other hand, effect productivity. Differences in practice in the production phase and use of fertilizers also effect productivity. When we leave all other factors aside except the geographical factors and make an evaluation; it is possible to set forth in which productive product a residential area should specialize in by determining in which product a village gets the highest revenue per decare (Öztürk, 1996, p.132). Table 7. Productivity of Agricultural Products by Villages (Kurus) Village Grains Vegetables 347 Grape vine 765 Fruit Tree - Miscellaneous Fruits - Mekeçler 4.802 Kurtköy 5.914 3.267 253 792 - - 4.312 Receb Beşeoğlu 3.681 324 351 - 36 4.392 Karagedikler 2.118 189 306 - 36 2.649 Karaçayır 3.446 234 360 126 - 4.166 Bonlar Village 2.125 117 225 - - 2.467 Kıran Village 3.407 162 387 63 - 4.019 545 72 81 63 - 761 Emiroğlu 2.017 162 - 63 27 2.269 Pınarlı 3.789 324 243 290 - 4.646 Akmescid Village 9.155 713 533 702 - 11.103 38.352 2.897 4.043 1.307 99 46.698 Hoşafçılar Village TOTAL Total Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 The village with the highest productivity in grain production in rural area was Akmescid Village. With a 9.155 kurus revenue Akmescid was the village 230 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period with the highest revenue among all villages and it was also the village with the highest revenue in vegetable and fruit growing. Hoşafçılar Village had the lowest revenue in grain production with 545 kurus revenue. Highest revenue in vegetables belonged to Akmescid Village with 713 kurus revenue. Hoşafçılar village where the lowest revenue was obtained was also the village with the lowest grain and grape revenue. Kurtköy had the highest grape income with 792 kurus and Hoşafçılar had the lowest grape income with 81 kurus. Grapevine and cloth trading income was only obtained in Kurtköy with 100 kurus each. In miscellaneous fruits 99 kurus revenue was obtained in three villages in total. Size of Agricultural Enterprises In Ottoman agricultural statistics, enterprises were divided into three groups according to their size. Companies with an area below 10 decares were grouped as “imalât-ı sağire”(small scale enterprise), those with an area between 10-50- decares were grouped as “ imalât-ı mutavassıta”( medium-sized enterprise), and those with an area more than 50 decares are grouped as “imalât-ı cesime (large-scale enterprise)’’ (Güran, 1998b, p. 242). According to this division the rate of small businesses in Bartın rural area was 18.15% while the rate of medium-sized businesses counts for 81.85%. There were no big-sized enterprises (with an area over 50 decares) among agricultural businesses. And this showed that there were mostly medium-sized enterprises in the villages. According to a study in 2007, when the ratio of the sizes of the agricultural businesses and the area they cover is looked into the total rate of three group business with 50-100 and 100-200 and 200-499 decares (da) size make 60,75%. In Bartın, on the other hand, the number of businesses with 0-20 da make up 29,2%.And the companies with 20-100 da make up the 68,7%. Besides, there are no companies larger than 500 da in Bartın (Sarı, 2007, p.45). 231 �Ramazan Arslan Table 8. Size of Agricultural Enterprises 1-10 Decare % 10-50 Decare % % 87.81 Over 50 decare - Planted field 231 12.19 1664 Vegetable garden 138 100 - 0 - 0 TOTAL/AVERAGE 369 18.15 1664 81.85 - 0 0 Grain Production We see that grain production, which was the most important source of income for Ottoman Empire (Keyder and Tabak, 1998, p.182), had been an important source of income in Ottoman rural areas, a small reflection of the empire, as well. Moving from the data regarding the grain production of eleven villages chosen, numbers about the type of grain and their amounts (table 8) will be presented. All the fields in the Temettüat register, the main source of our study, were planted areas. There were no fields allowed to lie for fallow. Wheat, barley and oat were grown in all villages. Besides, reed plant and flax oil grew in Akmescid too. The highest wheat production was made in Akmescid village with 880 bushels while the lowest production was made in Hoşafçılar village with 50 bushels. As is seen, wheat production took the first place in grain production. In the villages we realized our study, a total amount of 3840 bushels wheat production was made. After wheat, the second most produced grain was barley. Barley was most produced in Kıran Village and least produced in Hoşafçılar Village. The total production of field products was 8315 bushels. The highest share was at Akmescid Village with 1900 bushels and the lowest share was at Hoşafçılar Village with 85 bushels. 232 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Table 9. Distribution of Grain Production according to their amounts (Bushel) Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL Wheat 370 310 340 230 480 240 390 50 180 370 880 3840 Barley 390 220 270 160 290 120 220 30 140 190 390 2420 Oat 190 120 200 50 190 110 80 5 30 130 350 1455 Reed Plant 120 200 280 600 Total 950 650 810 440 960 470 690 85 470 890 1900 8315 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 We can find if there is a surplus product in the total agricultural production amount of the villages. When doing this, we can use the tithe paid for one year in the villages. Total tithe from wheat in the villages was 384 bushels. Since this tax in-kind corresponds to 10% of the total product, moving from this information we can find the total wheat production as 3840 bushels. When 384 bushels, the tithe, is deducted from the total production, the amount of wheat the villagers would consume in a year is found; and this amount corresponds to 3456 bushels (88.354 kg). Does this amount supply the villagers with the necessary amount they need? When we consider that a person can consume almost 8 bushels (205 kg) of wheat in a year (Güran, 1998 a, p.16), wheat consumption of the villages in the same year is calculated as 6120 bushels (156.978 kg) (Özlü, 2008, pp. 195196). 153 houses, the population of the village is found as 765 by calculating 5 people living in each house. As it is known that each person consumes 8 bushels of wheat every year, total consumption is found as 765 x 8 = 6120 bushels (Barkan, 1953: 1-26). Ömer Lütfi Barkan’s thesis stating that each Ottoman house’s population is five people. The same calculation can be made for Akçakoca rural area. There were 294 houses in Akçakoca. And accordingly, the total population is 1470. Total annual wheat consumption is 1470x8= 11.760. However, the total wheat production in Akçakoca was 1790 bushels. Thus, all dwellings of Akçakoca produce less wheat than 233 �Ramazan Arslan they need. And this brings in mind that the people in the villages provide their wheat need from the districts in the neighborhood partially (Özlü, 2008: 195-196). According to this calculation, it is revealed that villagers cannot even supply their own wheat amount for themselves and their families let alone merchandise it (For similar and comparative calculations see Öztürk, 1996: 146; Küçükkalay & Efe, 2006: 252). The required amount of wheat-deficit for aforementioned villages to nourish themselves is 2.280 bushels or in other words 58.482 kg. However, this deficit should be approached with precaution because in those aforementioned villages such supporting products as barley, oat, reed plant, flax and flax oil were also grown. Husbandry Husbandry is at the bottom of the list as an income source in the region. Its share in the total revenue was 2.14% (Özlü, 2008: 82). In Özlü’s study on Akçakoca, the share of husbandry in Akçakoca rural area was found to have 3% share in total revenue. Between 1811-1864, Akçakoca was a town attached to BoluSafranbolu (Viranşehir) Has Voyvodalığı (Özlü, 2008: 32). Existing husbandry, as far as it seems, was for meeting needs. It is not possible to say that production for the market was made and that husbandry was done as an occupation. It appears that only ox among cattle was used in plowing. Such pack animals as bear, horse, donkey and hinny were not found in the villages. Table 10. Ovine and Cattle Distribution Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL 234 Ovine (Number) Incomegenerating ovine (Number) Total Revenue Cattle (Number) 9 15 10 0 3 24 61 3 14 6 3 14 40 6 14 12 4 29 65 56 35 43 26 23 25 63 5 32 32 110 450 Incomegenerating cattle (Number) 2 6 4 2 2 3 8 8 5 28 68 Total Revenue (Kurus) 20 75 40 20 50 30 80 150 105 598 1168 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The number of bovine in rural area was 61. Among these 61 animals, 40 of them brought in money; the income generated from these 40 animals was 65 kurus. Akmescid Village ranked in the first place in raising ovine with 24 ovine. Again the highest income from ovine was generated in Akmescid Village with 29 kurus. The total number of cattle was 450. There were cattle in all rural areas. The highest number of cattle was in Akmescid Village. The number of cattle in this village was 110. The income generated from these 110 cattle was recorded as 1168 kurus. An important part of this revenue was generated from milk cows and milk buffalos. The rate of ovine among all animals was 11.94% while the rate of cattle was 88.06%. When we grouped the animals raised in rural areas according to their species (Table 10) we saw that cattle species had the highest share. It is seen that ovine breeding did not develop in the villages in rural areas while bovine breeding significantly improved. Table 11. Total Animal Distribution in Villages by their species Animal species Goat Sheep Cattle Number 15 46 424 % 3,09 9,48 87,42 It is seen in the records that goat and sheep were the animal species in which ovine breeding developed. There was no information on poultry so we cannot comment on poultry. The total number of goats and sheep that we assessed in total ovine was 61. Among these 61 ovine, 15 of them were goats and 46 of them were sheep. Among both species sheep had a predominant place. Annual revenue from 61 ovine was 65 kurus. And 18 kurus of this amount was earned from goats and 47 of it was earned from sheep. It seems that when annual revenue from each animal is considered, sheep was a more productive animal. Among goat species mostly milk goats were raised. Goat was only raised in Emiroğlu (3) and Akmescid (12) villages. And in sheep species again mostly milk sheep were raised. It is seen that these animals were mostly raised in Recep Beşeoğlu village. 235 �Ramazan Arslan The distribution of bovine breeding in the rural area is as follows; Number of cattle was higher than the number of pack animals. Except from milk cow and milk buffalo, no income was generated from the other animals among cattle. The number of draught animals among cattle was high. And among pack animals there were no donkeys in all rural areas except 1 in Emiroğlu village. When we looked into the animal species used for ploughing and packing and those which should be regarded as capital, we saw ox and water buffalo on the top of the list. Only donkey was recorded carrying and apart from donkey, was no other animal like horse and hinny. The total number of bovine animals in the rural area raised for various purposes and used in various areas was 370. Among these animals 369 of them were cattle and 1 on them was pack animal. Annual revenue from 50 milk cows in cattle group was 643 kurus. Average annual revenue per animal was found as 12.86 kurus. In terms of annual revenue, income from milk buffalo took the second place. While income was 10 kurus per milk cow, the same income from each milk buffalo was two and a half times higher than it. The annual revenue from each milk buffalo was 25 kurus (Özlü, 2008, p.165). In a research on Plovdiv city, it was found that 60 kurus income is generated from a buffalo and 5-6 kurus income is generated from a milk cow annually. (Özlü, p.165). The total revenue from cattle was 1193 kurus. The highest number of milk cows was in Akmescid Village. There were 17 milk cows in the village. There were two milk buffalos in each Çayır, Emiroğlu and Ponar villages, and one in both Kurtköy and Kıran Villages. There were no milk buffalos apart from the mentioned ones. The highest number of cattle used for ploughing was in Akmescid village. The total number of cattle used for ploughing in this village was 30. When the number of houses in this village is considered (a total of 24 houses) it is obvious that there are more than one cattle for each house. During the times before mechanization and in fields where mechanization did not apply, cattle was the main agricultural tool and there was almost one cattle for each house in the rural area. According to our calculations, there were 1.02 cattle per house. When we accept that each house had one cattle, it 236 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period means that all household heads in all villages have a cattle. The rate of cattle, used as draught animal, per house in the rural area is shown in Table 11. In the table, we see that the number of draught animal per house is 1.02. The highest number of cattle per house was in Bonlar Village and the number was 1.67 per house, which means there was more than one cattle for each house in this village. The highest number of cattle was in Mekeçler Village and the total number of cattle was 33. However, since the population of the village was high, the number of cattle per house was 1.65. The lowest number of cattle was in Emiroğlu Village and there were 5 draught animals in the village. In Hoşafçılar Village, where there were only 5 houses, there were no draught animals. Table 12. Draught Animal per House Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/AVERAGE Number of Houses 20 18 12 8 22 6 13 5 6 17 26 153 Total cattle number 33 19 19 12 16 10 16 5 9 17 156 Cattle per House 1.65 1.06 1.58 1.50 0.73 1.67 1.23 0.00 0.83 0.53 0.65 1.02 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 When we looked into the amount of agricultural land per cattle in our sample study field, we saw quite different numbers. As seen in Table 12, village averages differs. On all planted areas scale, the average land per cattle is 13.03. The highest amount of land per cattle was in Akmescid Village. Pınarlı Village followed Akmescid Village with an average land per cattle among all planted area as 22.33 decare. The village where a cattle had the lowest land was Mekeçler Village. The average land for a cattle among all planted area in this village was 8.48 decare. 237 �Ramazan Arslan According to the calculations made, a couple of horses plough 6-7 decare area while a couple of cattle plough 2-3 decare area (Güran, 1998 a, p.86). Accordingly, it was found that a cattle in Bartın rural area was only used for two work days for ploughing. Table 13. Land per cattle Village Number of Total cattle Planted area (Decare) 33 19 19 12 16 10 16 0 5 9 17 156 280 206 189 117 195 122 186 21 94 201 422 2033 Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/AVERAGE Planted Land per Cattle (Decare) 8,48 10,84 9,95 9,75 12,19 12,20 11,63 0 18,80 22,33 24,82 13,03 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Although beekeeping was not accounted as a source of living, still some villages were engaged in beekeeping. All villages were engaged in beekeeping except from Hoşafçılar and Emiroğlu villages. The total number of bee hives in all villages was 43 and the total annual revenue from beekeeping was 299 kurus. The annual revenue from each bee hive was 6 kurus in all villages except Pınarlı and Akmescid villages. Distribution of Labor Force In village settlements, there were not many occupational diversity as in urban areas. In villages, where main source of income was based on agriculture and husbandry, there was no need for occupational differentiation (Güran, 1985, p.318). However, in rural areas there were reasons to do agricultural and non-agricultural activities together. Because of the density of population in the rural area, not everyone could engage in agriculture (Güran, 1998 b, p.271). 238 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The rate of agricultural revenue in total revenue in the rural area used as the study field was 35.51%, while the same rate for lumbering was 59.69%. In other words, we see that the income rate earned from an occupation other than agriculture and husbandry and which can be regarded as occupational income had a quite high level in total revenue. This shows that Bartın, located in the West Black Sea Region, was rich in terms of forests. According to Forest Management Map Database of General Directorate of Forestry, Bartın city has 98.578 ha forest area and 13.229..029 cubic meter planted forest. Most of the existing forest areas are high forests (Sarı, 2007, p.23). It can be said that the large amount of forest areas in the region developed lumbering activities. When the occupations of the household heads were specified in the registers their being “erbâb-ı ziraat”(farmer) was indicated clearly. Since almost all of the people engaged in a business other than agriculture had agricultural lands, it is understood that these people were engaged in farming. Recent studies show that almost all of the people living in the villages of Bartın are somehow engaged in agricultural activities (Sarı, 2007, p.44). It is indicated that 10 household heads among 153 in all villages did not have any income. These people without any income were recorded as “Sa'ile”, “unemployed”, “orphan”, “Lunatic”, “Diseased and Alone” and “Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne”. Only in Çayır Village there was a record of one people as “Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne”. This person had no property, land or animals and was engaged in merchandising in Adapazarı and later came to Bartın to attend Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne”. There were other 9 people without any income and without any kind of property. It is stated that those people live off with the support of other people. Apart from these 10 people, all other household heads have some piece of agricultural lands that they work. Most of these household heads were earning their income from lumbering apart from agricultural activities. The share of income obtained from lumbering among total revenue was 59.15%. The number of people with an income from an occupation income breakdown and the share of will be assessed. In all the villages examined, income from lumbering apart from agricultural highest occupation income was Akmescid Village. occupation; total and average this income in total revenue all household heads earned activities. The village with the 239 �Ramazan Arslan Their occupation revenue had 40.70% share in total revenue The rate of occupational income in total revenue in Akçakoca in the same period was quite higher than Bartın and it was 87 % (Özlü, 2008, p.180). Rural area had a total 54.866 kurus occupation income. The village with the highest occupation income was Akmescid Village, which also had the highest number of household heads having an occupation income. The average revenue in all villages was 386.38 kurus. The highest average was again in Akmescid Village with 536.64 kurus. 25 houses out of a total of 26 had an occupation revenue in this village. Distribution of Taxes Tax is transfer of fund to the government from economic resources with a political decision in order to carry on public works (Milliyet Genel Ekonomi Ansiklopedisi I-II, 1988, p.920). And it was the basis of income distribution in pre-industrial economies. This financial system, which was one of the basic dynamics of the empire took its unique place in world finance history with the collapse of the empire (Genç, 1975, p.231). There had been various implementations of tax in Ottoman Empire in terms of how it was imposed, how it was collected and its diversity. In the period before Tanzimat, there were taxes with different rates and collection methods under the main headings of “Tekâlif-i Şer’iye” and “Tekâlif-i Örfiye”. 19th century had been a totally different period for Ottoman society and economy compared to the previous periods. One of the most significant improvements during the century was the reform movements that the Ottoman executives initiated (Pamuk, 2007a, p.238). With Tanzimat, as in other institutions, many reforms were made in financial structure too. Financial institutions and tax system had been the main focus of Tanzimat reforms (Ortaylı, 1974, p.2). In tax practice religious taxes were remitted and substituted by tithe at a rate of one of a tenth in agricultural products and “adet-i ağnam” (literally meaning “sheep tax”) in ovine, jizya taken from non-Muslim citizens. And civil tax was also substituted with “vergü-yi mahsusa” (a private tax) (Güran, 1989, p.13). Jizya was a per capita tax levied on non-Muslim citizens in Ottoman Empire (Karaman and Pamuk, 2010, p.599). 240 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Vergü-yi Mahsusa (Private tax) This tax which was allocated somehow considering the income of the people and which was substituted for civil tax during Tanzimat period began to be implemented as of 1840. The amount of this tax was determined in sanjak scale and the total amount was divided between the districts. Later the members of the town council used to determine the amount that each town or village had to pay in a meeting where, according to the ethnicity of the population, imam and priest were participating; finally the tax was allocated according to the abilities of the people to pay. In determining the amount of the tax, the total amount of removed civil tax was based on and the ability of the taxpayers to pay which was used when allocating the tax among taxpayers was determined by a census. In this new practice, real estate, land, animal and if the person is engaged, their trade income was grounded on. In order to determine this financial strength fairly and to allocate the tax in a just manner according to people’s ability to pay, inventories were taken in 1844 in a large part of the country. And as a result of these inventories “Property, Land, Animal and Temettüat Registers” were prepared. During the inventories taxman began tax registering from the villages and registered every single person’s name and reputation, their property, land and animals, average amount of revenue of the merchants and tradesmen. And a notable person would be appointed by the city council to each town to help the taxman for registry and a secretary would be appointed to them. Registries were to be made on a properly and fairly, and those who make wrong or incomplete register would be punished. During the collection, the mukhtar of the village or neighborhood, imam or clerk registered the collection they made to the register book with a name of the household head and would bring the book and money to the district. The taxes that people paid were registered to the book at the district and the amount money and date of the payment were written and sealed by the principal and presiding officer. During the collection and the delivery of the tax to the taxman, zaptiah soldiers were also appointed for security reasons. 241 �Ramazan Arslan The collection of this tax was made in two installations as “ruz-ı Hızır” and “ruz-ı kasım” until 1261/1845. And each installation was collected in three other installations. However, since these collection periods were not appropriate for collection, from this date on the tax was to be collected step by step from the farmers from harvest period till the end of the year, and from merchants and tradesmen it was to be collected in a year in installations. With this regulation in 1864, paying the tax in 10 installations was introduced. This tax which was based on identifying property, land and other income resources of the public and taxation according to their ability to pay was abolished in 1860 and instead, land and income taxes were brought (Öztürk, 1996, p.176). After all these general information about taxes, we will now put an emphasis on the shape of Vergü-yi Mahsusa in Ottoman rural area. From the Temettüat register sequence no: 02824, we know the amount of tax allocated to villages in the rural area. Here we will look into the allocation of taxes in the villages from the registers belonging to the villages. When we look into the average amount of tax levied per house, it is seen that the amount is 187,10 kurus in total rural scale. And when we look at village averages we see that 6 villages are above this average and 5 villages are below the averages. Highest average tax was seen in Akmescid Village as 241,73 kurus. The lowest average tax was seen in Hoşafçılar Village as 98 kurus. Total vergü-yi mahsusa in all villages is 28.627. Tithe The word tithe means a one tenth part of something (Akdağ, 1999, p.408); and in Islam land law it means a land tax at a rate of 1/10 and 1/20 taken from the products raised in lands whose owners converted to Islam with their own will and from the lands which were won after a war and divided among the war veterans. Tithe taken directly from the producers (Keyder and Tabak, 1998, p.146) is like a religious service and regarded as the zakat of the land and was only taken from Muslims and the owned land. Tithe in the Ottoman Empire was the name of the money taken from demesne. Since the word exaction would not 242 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period be approved among the public, it was called as tithe and thus, had been used for centuries. Tithe was taken from all products in agriculture. It was taken from all grains and grain types, products raised in vegetable gardens, fruits, vineyards and grape products, pastures and other agricultural products; and the collection of this tax was made in three ways: in kind, in cash and fixed. This tax was not previously transferred to the national treasury but paid to the land owner by rayah working on the land. After the corruption of manorial system the authority of demesne was given to tacksman, taxman and civil servants. During Tanzimat tithe was collected at a rate of one tenth. Tithe, the most efficient source for the finance of socio-economic development, was remitted in 17 February 1341 (1925) and was replaced by “mahsulat-ı araziye (land income)” (Öztürk, 1996, pp. 184-185). Following these historical improvement phases of tithe, the tithe per house, its share in total tithe and the rates of tithe in Bartın rural area will be highlighted. Burden of tithe tax varies in each house according to the capacity of agricultural lands in rural area and according to the products. In all rural areas, the total tithe occurred as 5.366 kurus. The average tithe burden per house is 35.07 kurus. The highest tithe average per house was seen in Akmescid Village. Here the average tithe per house was 47.04 kurus. The highest tithe tax burden in rural area was also seen in Akmescid Village which had the highest average tax burden per house. The lowest average was found in Hoşafçılar Village as 84 kurus. Since the total number of tax payers in Hoşafçılar Village was only 5, the total tax amount was low. The Share of Taxes in Total Revenue The share of Vergü-yi Mahsusa in total revenue in rural area was 20.09, and the share of tithe was 3.77. Among villages, the village with the highest Vergü-yi Mahsusa was Çayır Village. The share of Vergü-yi Mahsusa in total revenue in Çayır Village was 243 �Ramazan Arslan found as 26.25%. And the lowest rate was found in Mekeçler Village. The highest rate of tithe among the total revenue was again found in Çayır Village with 4.94% and the lowest rate was found in Mekeçler Village with 2.84%. When we looked into rural areas in terms of net revenue, it was found that Mekeçler village had the highest net revenue with 79.54% excluding tithe and tax and Hoşafçılar Village had the lowest revenue with 71.46%. The average of all rural area was 76.14%. The share of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe in total revenue and the rate of net revenue is given in Table 14 below on village scale. Table 14. Vergü-yi Mahsusa, Tithe and Net Revenue Rates Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/ AVERAGE Total Revenue (Kurus) 23,426 11,944 12,687 7,343 12,025 6,203 13,381 2,011 6,353 13,828 33,286 142,487 Vergiyi Mahsusa (Kuruş) 4,128 2,660 2,558 1,296 3,156 1,252 2,546 490 1,332 2,924 6,285 28,627 Tithe (Kuruş) 665 485 525 302 594 277 434 84 254 523 1,223 5,366 Net Revenue (Kuruş) 18,633 8,799 9,604 5,745 8,275 4,674 10,401 1,437 4,767 10,381 25,778 108,494 Vergü-yi Mahsusa % 17.62 22.27 20.16 17.65 26.25 20.18 19.03 24.37 20.97 21.15 18.88 20.09 Product Tithe % 2.84 4.06 4.14 4.11 4.94 4.47 3.24 4.18 4.00 3.78 3.67 3.77 Net Revenue % 79.54 73.67 75.70 78.24 68.81 75.35 77.73 71.46 75.04 75.07 77.44 76.14 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Vergü-yi Mahsusa and Tithe in Tax Burden Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe burden in total revenue developed at different levels in different villages. The rate of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe in all tax expenditures in all rural area was 84.21% and 15.79%, respectively. The highest Vergü-yi Mahsusa was at Mekeçler Village with 86.13% and the lowest was at Karagedikler Village with 81.10%. The situation with tithe regarding the highest and lowest levels was vice versa. It was the lowest in Mekeçler Village and highest in Karagedikler Village. 244 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The rates of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe in total tax burden realized in the villages are given in Table 15 below. Table 15. The rate of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and Tithe in Total Tax Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/ AVERAGE Vergiyi mahsusa (Kuruş) Tithe (Kuruş) Total (Kuruş) 4,128 2,660 2,558 1,296 3,156 1,252 2,546 490 1,332 2,924 6,285 28,627 665 485 525 302 594 277 434 84 254 523 1,223 5,366 4,793 3,145 3,083 1,598 3,750 1,529 2,980 574 1,586 3,447 7,508 33,993 Vergü-yi Mahsusa % 86.13 84.58 82.97 81.10 84.16 81.88 85.44 85.37 83.98 84.83 83.71 84.21 Product Tithe % 13.87 15.42 17.03 18.90 15.84 18.12 14.56 14.63 16.02 15.17 16.29 15.79 Total Tax % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Conclusion Bartın is a province located in the West Black Sea in Turkey today. The surface area of the province is 2.143 km2, while the total population is 188.436 according to the address-based population registration system of Turkey Statistical Institute dated 31.12.2012. The province became an Ottoman land in 1460 and became a town attached to Zonguldak province in 1924 and a province status in 1991. The province today has 4 districts, 8 municipalities and 260 villages. In the socio-economic development rank among the provinces in Turkey, Bartın ranks the 48th province. The main elements identifying its economic structure are mining, industry, agriculture, tourism and forestry. There are also such handicrafts as embroidery, traditional flattened metal threads (a kind of embroidery), weaving, wood engraving as well as ship building. The most important city in terms of tourism is Amasra. Agricultural and industrial goods make up the domestic and foreign trade of the city. Leading agricultural products are wheat, barley, corn and oat, apple, pear, quince, medlar, cherry, plum, walnut, chestnut, nut, peach, cranberry, strawberry, kiwi and mulberry. This study examined the economic structure of Bartın province in the mid 19th century and it was found that agriculture, husbandry and forest products were 245 �Ramazan Arslan significant in the economic structure of the city. First of all, income resources of these chosen villages was found to be including 5 items which are agricultural, husbandry, being a laborer, lumbering and unexpected. It was observed that in a rural area chosen as the study field in Ottoman Empire, which was an agrarian state, lumbering was at the top of the list with 59.69% and on the contrary, agricultural income was in the second line of the list with 33.51% and husbandry was at the bottom of the list with 2.14%. It was found that there were differences in the distribution of income sources in different villages and that average revenue per house was 931 kurus. It was also found that 6 of those 11 villages were above the average and 5 of them were below the average and that there were no big differences in the averages of income groups. When the agricultural production is looked into, it was found that such grains as wheat, barley, oat and flax were raised as well as vineyards, fruits and vegetables; and the total land amount in village scale was 2033 decare. All those land were planted; 93.21% of the land was used as fields (1895 decare), 6.79% (138 decare) was used as vegetable gardens. The land for each tax-paying house was 13.29 decare, and the land used for grain production was 8315 bushel. Wheat is raised in large part of this grain production area. In terms of the size of agricultural enterprises, the share of small businesses was 18.15% and share of medium-sized businesses was 81.85%. In those sample eleven villages, it was found that there were mostly medium-sized businesses and that there were no large-scale businesses. It was seen that husbandry was not practiced as an occupation but as a means to meet the needs. In all villages, bovine breeding was in the forefront (88.06%). The share of ovine breeding was 11.94%. Annual income was obtained from milk cows and milk buffalos. Buffalo oxen were used as draught animals. In 153 houses in the rural area there were 156 oxen; which means there were 1.02 draught animal per house. This rate shows that each household heads had one draught animal. The average amount of land for one ox in planted areas was 13.03 and the days that each ox was used for ploughing was two working days on average. 246 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period With regards to occupational income, there are 10 household heads among 153 who did not have any income source. And these people were recorded under “beggar”, “unemployed”, “orphan”, “lunatic”, “diseased and lonely” names. The total occupational income in the rural area was 54.866 kurus and the income average was 386.38 kurus. The share of occupational income in total revenue was found as 40.70%. The total revenue of the rural area was calculated as 142,487 kurus and the Vergü-yi Mahsusa was calculated as 28.627 kurus. As a result of the calculations, tax burden imposed per house was found as 187.10 kurus. It was stated that six villages were taxed above this village average and five villages were taxed below the average. On the other hand, tithe burden in the rural area was 5,366 kurus and tithe per house was calculated as 35.07 kurus. Finally, when the total amount of wheat and the tithe paid in the villages is taken into account, it is determined that there are no surplus product in agricultural production amount. This finding showed that in the sample rural area of Ottoman Empire in this study, the villagers could not even provide themselves with the amount of wheat they need for a year let alone they merchandise it. In short, Bartın a town of Viranşehir Sanjak in mid-19th century during the Ottoman period was a settlement with an economy based heavily on forestry products, agriculture and husbandry. References Akdağ, M. (1999). Türkiye’nin İktisadî ve İçtimaî Tarihi (1243-1453), c.1, Barış Kitabevi, Ankara. Barkan, Ö.L. (1953). Tarihi Demografi Araştırmaları ve Osmanlı Tarihi, Türkiye Mec., C:X, İstanbul. Barkan, Ö.L. (2000). Osmanlı Devleti’nin Sosyal ve Ekoonmik Tarihi, Tetkikler, Makaleler, c.1, Yayına Hazırlayan Hüseyin Özdeğer, Dilek Ofset Matbaacılık, İstanbul. 247 �Ramazan Arslan Bartın Rehberi (1927). Publication of Bartın Chamber of Commerce and Industry, (Printed with Ottoman letters), Şirket-i Mürettebiye Matbaası. Bay, G.E. (2010). 19. Yüzyılda Banaz Kazası’nın Sosyo-Ekonomik Yapısı, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Çadırcı, M. (1987). Tanzimat Döneminde Anadolu Kentlerinin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Yapısı, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara. Devellioğlu, F. (2005). Osmanlıca-Türkçe Ansiklopedik Lûgat, Aydın Kitabevi, Ankara. Genç, M. (1975). Osmanlı Maliyesinde Malikane Sistemi, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi Semineri, Mart Matbaası, Ankara. Genç, M. (2000). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Devlet ve Ekonomi, Ötüken Yayınları, İstanbul. Governorship of Bartın, Retrieved July 07, 2011, from http://www.bartin.gov.tr Güran, T. (1985). On Dokuzuncu Yüzyıl Ortalarında Ödemiş Kasabası’nın SosyoEkonomik Özellikleri, İÜİF, Ord. Prof. Dr. Ömer Lütfi Barkan’a Armağan Özel Sayısı, İstanbul. Güran, T.(1989). Tanzimat Döneminde Osmanlı Maliyesi: Bütçeler ve Hesapları (1841-1861), Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayını, Ankara. Hazine Güran, T. (1998a). 19.Yüzyıl Osmanlı Tarımı, Eren Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Güran, T. (1998b). Osmanlı Tarım Ekonomisi 1840-1910, 19. Yüzyıl Osmanlı Tarımı Üzerine Araştırmalar, Eren Yayıncılık, İstanbul. İnalcık, H. (1996). Tarihi İstatistikler Dizisi Başlarken, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun ve Türkiye’nin Nüfusu 1507-1927”, Tarihi İstatistikler Dizisi, c. II, Yayına Hazırlayan: Cem Behar, T.C. Başbakanlık DİE, Mayıs. Karaman, K.K. & Pamuk, Ş. (2010). “Ottoman State Finances in European Perspective, 1500-1914”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol.70, No.3 (September 2010). 248 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Keyder, Ç. & Tabak, F. (Ed) (1998). Osmanlı’da Toprak Mülkiyeti ve Ticari Tarım, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul. Küçükkalay, A. M. & Efe, A. (2006). Osmanlı Ziraî Sektörünün Ticarileşebilme İmkânı Üzerine Bir Deneme:1844-45 Alpu Village Örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi,20, 245-279. Milliyet Genel Ekonomi Ansiklopedisi (1988). I-II, c. 2, İstanbul. Ortaylı, İ. (1974). Tanzimattan Sonra Mahalli İdareler (1840-1878), Sevinc̦ Matbaası, Ankara. Özlü, Z. (2008). XVIII. Ve XIX. Yüzyıllarda Karadeniz’de Bir Kıyı Kenti Akçakoca, Yeditepe Yayınevi, İstanbul. Öztürk, S. (1996). Tanzimat Döneminde Bir Anadolu Şehri: Bilecik, Kitabevi Yayınları, İstanbul. Öztürk, S. (2000). Temettüat Tahrirleri, Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl:2, Sayı:4-5 (Osmanlı Özel Sayısı), İstanbul. Pamuk, Ş. (2002). Küreselleşme Çağında Osmanlı Ekonomisi (1820-1914), Türkler, C.14, Ankara. Pamuk, Ş. (2007a). Osmanlı-Türkiye İktisadî Tarihi 1500-1914, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul. Pamuk, Ş. (2007b). Osmanlı Ekonomisi ve Kurumları, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul. Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives (BOA): BOA, ML (Maliye, VRD ( Vâridât Muhasebesi Defteri), TMT (Temettüat), Nr: 02824, Yıl: 1844(1260). Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives Directory (2000). Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry General Directorate of State Archives, Publication No: 42, İstanbul. 249 �Ramazan Arslan Sarı, S. (2007). Bartın İli Tarım Coğrafyası, Unpublished Post Graduate Thesis, Sakarya University Institute of Social Sciences. Tabakoğlu, A. (1985). Gerileme Dönemine Girerken Osmanlı Maliyesi, Dergah Yayınları, İstanbul. Tabakoğlu, A. (2003). Türk İktisat Tarihi, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul. Appendices Appendix 1. Map of Turkey (Bartın indicated). Source: http://www.hgk.msb.gov.tr/english/downloads.php Retrieved on October 24, 2013. 250 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Appendix 2. Map of Zonguldak (Bartın indicated). Source: BOA, HRT, h, 00589-00001: Zonguldak'ı gösteren harita, Year: 1311 (Rumi calendar) / 1894 (Julian calendar) 251 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2412 Title A name given to the resource Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Author Author Arslan , Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to look into the economic structure of Bartın province, located in West Black Sea Region in Turkey, in the 19th century. The main resource of the study is the temettüat register no 02824 that belongs to Bartın, which was formed on the basis of the census in 1844-1845. Temettüat registers are significant archive resources that provide statistical information about the period studied as well as the region itself. Moving from data suc as the income resources, distribution of land, husbandry and labor, this study examines the economic structure of Bartın, which used to be a District of Viransehir Sanjak during the time. The study will also contribute to the literature by giving insights into the economy of Ottoman rural area in the 19th century. In addition to forestry products, the economy of Bartın depended on agriculture and husbandry during the time period studied. Agricultural production included such main products as wheat and barley while agricultural enterprises were medium-scale businesses. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c57c6b3a0910a190e8e235e17518eb70.pdf b78f0d690c52f83da99a5a47904d0eb0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2409 Title A name given to the resource The High-Speed Rail and the Productivity of Freeway Bus Service Industry: Taiwan’s Case Author Author Chen, Chih Cheng Abstract A summary of the resource. This study explores the productivity of Taiwan’s freeway bus service (FBS) industry in response to competition from the Taiwan High-Speed Rail (THSR). We employ the Malmquist index to investigate the productivity of Taiwan’s FBS industry and apply the dynamic panel data (DPD) model to identify the factors influencing its productivity. The emergence of THSR initially worsened the total factor productivity of the FBS industry firstly and stimulated it in a longer time period. We also find that year 2007, sales and management expense, the total assets, and capital/asset ratio of an FBS company are the primary factors positively influencing the productivity. However, lagged 1 period Malmquist index service and service diversity reversely influence it significantly. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)