40 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/21b01570502d6bcaa3d5fbf3aa3b2e5b.pdf 8fd14c215e3e0972fae1b8febdaebbc9 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo How Is the Market Size Relevant as a Determinant of FDI in Developing Countries? A Research on Population and the Cohort Size Mustafa Şeref AKIN Assist.Prof.Dr., Fatih University, Đstanbul, Turkey msakin@fatih.edu.tr Abstract : The small size of the market in developing countries is associated with non-market seeking FDI activities. Even though, GDP per capita is a poor indicator for the market seeking FDI activities in developing countries, both population and GDP are crucial. The findings of the study suggest that FDI is concerned with the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas rather than on an expansion through the country. In terms of cohort size, the size of middle age cohort promotes FDI, and old and young age cohorts weaken FDI. Keywords: Developing Countries; FDI; domestic market size; population; cohort size. Introduction How do multinational enterprises decide on the locations of their foreign direct investment (FDI)1? Market size has been the single most widely accepted as a significant determinant of FDI flows (Chakrabarti, 2001). The larger the host area’s (country, region, and sub region) total income and its potential for development, the greater the amount of the FDI investment (Billington, 1999). A large market is necessary for efficient utilization of resources and exploitation of economies of scale (Chakrabarti, 2001). On the other hand, Asiedu (2002) argues that market size is not a determinant for a developing country due to low income. In the FDI literature, not much research on the impact of the market size has been conducted yet for developing countries. The additional originality of this paper is to approach the market size framework from the population aspect and its cohort size. In this respect, this research is intended not just to review previous models dealing with the market size, but also to examine the significance of untested market size determinants of locations. The market size itself cannot be easily ascertained (Billington, 1999). Regressions of Schimitz and Bieri (1972) are estimated for U.S.A. FDI to Canada, the EEC and EFTA. Their market size proxy is GNP and growth of GDP2. Root and Ahmed (1979) identify unattractive, moderately attractive and highly attractive countries in terms of FDI per capita for 58 countries with 38 variables. The unattractive category represents FDI per capita as less than $1, the moderately attractive as between $1 and $4.1, and the attractive as more than $4.1. They use GDP, GDP per capita and growth per capita as a proxy for market size. They argue that the absolute size of GDP is more likely to reflect population size rather than per capita income. Their conclusion is that developing countries that have attracted FDI have a relatively advanced infrastructure, comparatively high growth rates and per capita GDP, and political stability. Culem (1988) tests the impact of market size for 14 countries for the period of 1969-1982. A bigger market allows the benefits of large-scale production to be more readily captured. Moreover, investors naturally prefer faster growing markets, which offer more promising prospects. Billington3 (1999) is the first author to consider population as a variable; she uses population density as a determinant of FDI. Population density implies a more concentrated consumer and labor market as well as a more integrated infrastructure (Billington, 1999). Chakrabarti (2001) states that absolute GDP is a poor indicator since it reflects the size of the population rather than the income per capita. Broadly, this paper aims to explore the impact of market size on FDI considering population size and its characteristics in developing countries in a theoretical and empirical framework. 1 Some major benefits of FDI are that FDI is a much better way than borrowing due to risk factor of repayment, and reforms for an increase of FDI may directly also promote growth (Gastanaga et al. ,1998). 2 Lunn (1980)’s findings support Scmitz and Bieri (1972) except the first lag growth, which is negatively correlated with FDI. 3 Billington (1999) uses GDP and growth rate of GDP. 425 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo This paper is structured in the following ways: In section 2, we define methodology and all the variables of interest. Section 3 provides an analysis of results. Finally, section 5 concludes by considering the implications of these findings. 2. Methodology We use average data from 1980 to 2000, and we apply cross-sectional OLS. The standard error is White Heteroskedasticity Consistent . FDI is a dependent variable. The list of data and countries is obtained from the World Bank (2003) and is reported in the appendix. FDI= α + β (Population Variables) + ∏ (Control Variables)+ ui (11) Where α is a constant coefficient, β and ∏ are the estimated coefficients on the independent variables and ui is an error term. The impact of population variables according to the model that we presented in section 2 is measured in several ways; size of population (n), life expectation (m) and young, middle and older population-cohort size (c). Further more, population growth rate can be also considered in the same framework. Higher population growth rates will more likely attract FDI. 2.1. Dependent Variable Billington (1999) considers total FDI, Culem (1988) uses the share of FDI in GNP, Chakrabarti (2001) prefers FDI per capita, and Asiedu (2002) uses the share of FDI in GDP. In this research, we consider FDI (% GDP) as a standard in the literature (Asiedu, 2002). Plus, Chakrabarti (2001) indicates that GNP refers to citizens who do not live in the country. So, they are not the part of the domestic market. 2.2. Independent Variables 2.2.1. Infrastructure Infrastructure increases the productivity of investments. The proxy for infrastructure varies. Billinton (1999) uses government expenditure on transportation and communications, and Asiedu (2002) chooses telephone mainlines (per 1000) as a proxy for infrastructure. In this research, we will use telephone mainlines (per 1000) as in standard in the literature (Asiedu, 2002) 2.2.2. Import A high level of imports into the host area may indicate a high level of penetration by foreign companies who may begin exporting to the host countries and switch later to FDI (Culem, 1988). 2.2.3.Manufacturing Industrialization will tend to encourage capital-intensive companies, so it should also attract FDI. The share of manufacturing in GDP represents the degree of industrialization (Wheeler and Mody, 1992). 2.2.4. Human Capital Multinational are distinguished from national firms in terms of four characteristics: high level of R&D, professional and technical workers, new and complex products and advertising (Markusen, 1995). From this perspective, we believe that human capital as well as physical infrastructure in a country is relevant to draw FDI to the country. The theoretical relationship between human capital and FDI is demonstrated by Zhang and Markusen (1995). Multinational firms are able to exploit factor-price differences in the world economy, locating skilledlabor intensive phases of operation in skilled-labor abundant locations and unskilled-labor-intensive in respective locations. (Zhang and Markusen, 1995). This correlation is tested the macro level by Akin and Vlad, (2004). The authors show that FDI flows to skilled-labor abundant countries. In this research, primary education enrollment is considered as a proxy for human capital (Barro, 1991). 2.2.6. Income We include income, since concepts such as total GDP, GDP per capita and growth are considered as proxies of the abundance of the market size. We are able to compare the population argument with the standard proxies (see more discussion in the introduction and the theoretical framework). 426 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Empirical Results Table 2 reports the results of the regression of Model 1 and 2, which compare population size and GDP. The results show that the population size is more relevant than GDP to measure the effects of domestic market. A more populated nation can have a more promising future for investors. However, a similar comparison is realized in model 4 and 5. In this case, both of the variables are positive and significant. This result suggests that GDP is a good proxy to measure the market size. However, in some cases GDP is not sufficient to take into account the population size. For instance, a country, which may currently have a low GDP, may have a high GDP in the future, thanks to growth of income and population. In this context, population reflects promising prospects. Variables Constant Telephone Mainlines Import (%) GDP Per Capita (PPP) GDP Growth (%) Pop Growth (%) Pop Density Pop Total Life Expectancy GDP (PPP) 0-14 Age Pop 14-65 Age Pop 65 Over Pop Primary Education (%) Manufacturing Value Added N R-square Table 2: FDI (%) is dependent variable: average 1980-2000 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 -.52 -.54 -.23 -.63 (-.36) (-.37) (-.16) (-.46) -.0047 -.0047 -.005 -.000457 (-1.42) (-1.42) (-1.52) (-0.09) .05 .05 0.05 0.04 (4.9)*** (4.7)*** (4.73)*** (5.03)*** -0.00000391 -0.00000155 -0.0000009 - 8.08 (E-08) (-.03) (-.134) (0.08) (-.61) -0.052 -0.049 -.05 -.05 (-.95) (-.88) (-1.09) (-1.27) -.37 -.37 -.44 -.51 (-2.48)** (-2.43)** (-2.89)*** (2.8)*** -0.002 -0.002 -.0024 -.0027 (-2.21)** (-2.129)** (-2.29)** (-2.3)** 11(E-10) 1.52 (E-09) (1.68)* (1.72)* 0.026 0.026 0.024 0.01 (1.001) (1.001) (.92) (.6) 45 (E-14) (1.01) -2.04 (E-08) (-1.27) 3.29(E-08) (1.81)* -2.52 (E-07) (-1.88)* .023 (2.92)*** -.064 (-1.57) 110 110 110 105 .32 .32 .33 .38 White Heteroskedasticity-Consistent Standard Errors * **t is statistically significant at 1% level ** t is statistically significant at 5 level *t is statistically significant at 10 % level Model 5 -.63 (-.45) -.000253 (-0.052) 0.04 (4.96)*** -.0000971 (-.73) -.06 (-1.29) -.51 (2.8)*** -.0026 (-2.2)** 0.01 (.6) 9.52(E-13) (1.75)* .022 (2.88)*** -.064 (-1.59) 105 .38 Asiedu (2002) argues that FDI flows with non-market seeking activities in developing countries. Even though GDP per capita and GDP growth are negatively correlated (not significant) in all models, GDP or population size is positively correlated with FDI and significant. This may indicate that FDI is taken into account the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas with relatively higher purchasing power rather than on an expansion throughout the country. 427 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Model 3 includes the population by cohort size: young (0-14 age), middle (14-65) and old (65 and above) ages. Our regression suggests that the middle age1 cohort is positively and significantly correlated with FDI. However, the older cohort size is negatively and significantly correlated with FDI. This suggests that a society where the age demography consists heavily of old people will receive less FDI because old people have a shorter life span and are more likely to be maturated in consumption2. The coefficient of young cohort size is negative and not significant. Contrarily, a young cohort size can be very eager to purchase all goods. On the other hand, they may not earn income or receive sufficient allowances from their parents to fulfill their aspirations. Model 4 and 5 indicate that human capital acquisition is important to attract more FDI (Akin and Vlad, 2004, Walkirch 2003). However, telephone mainlines as a proxy of infrastructure and manufacturing as a proxy of industrialization are negatively correlated but insignificant. Further more, high population growth and population density are not promoting FDI. However, Billington (1999) suggests that the concentration of the human resources in one region is more attractive for FDI. This result suggests the importance of the balanced in population density. None of the regression results finds an enhancement of FDI due to life expectation. 4. Conclusion We have presented a model in which population and its characteristics have a systematic effect on FDI in developing countries. The small size of the market due to the low income argument in developing countries is associated with non-market seeking FDI activities. Even though GDP per capita is a poor indicator for the market seeking FDI activities in developing countries, both population and GDP are crucial. This result suggests that FDI is taken into account the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas with relatively higher purchasing power rather than an expansion through the country. We also hypothesize that higher life expectation and young cohort size will attract more FDI. The result shows that life expectation has a slight impact on FDI. An overwhelmingly young or old cohort size impedes FDI; however a moderate age composition attracts FDI. Human capital acquisition promotes FDI. The weak association between the level of manufacturing and FDI suggests that FDI in developing countries barely flows to industrial sectors. References Akin, M and V. Vlad (2004). The Relationship between Human Capital and Foreign Direct Investment Testing ZhangMarkusen Theory (ZM). Working paper. Asiedu, E. (2002). On the Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment to Developing Countries: Is Africa Different? World Development, vol. 30 (1), 107-119. Barro, R. (1991). Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries. The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 106 (2), 407-443. Billington, N. (1999). The Location of Foreign Direct Investment: An Empirical Analysis. Applied Economics, 31(1), 65-76. Culem, C.G. (1988). The Location Determinants of Direct Investments: Among Industrialized Countries. European Economic Review, 32 (4), 885-904. Chakrabarti, A. (2001). The Determinant of Foreign Direct Investment: Sensivity Analysses of Cross-Country Regression. Kyklos, 54 (1), 89-114. Haufler, A. and I. Wooton. (1999). Country Size and Tax Competition for Foreign Direct Investment. Journal of Public Economics, 71 (1), 121-139. Friedman, J, D. Gerlowski, and J. Jilberman (1992). What Attracts Foreign Multinational Corporations? Evidence From Branch Plant Location in the U.S.. Journal of Regional Science, 32 (4), 403-18. Gastanaga, V., J. Nugent, and B. Pashamova (1998). Host Country Reforms and FDI Inflows: How Much Difference Do They Make? World Development, 26(7), 1299-1314. Lunn, J. (1980). Determinats of U.S. Direct Investment in the EEC. Euiropean Economic Review, 13 (1), 93-101. Markusen, J. (1995). The Boundaries of Multinational Enterprises and the Theory of International Trade. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9 (2), 169 1 Our theoretical model favors the young cohort size rather than the middle age cohort. A similar argument can be made in terms of traditional and modern consumption patterns, since relatively young people can be more eager of new items. 2 428 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Root, F and A. Ahmed (1979). Empirical Determinants of Manufacturing Direct Foreign Investment Developing Countries. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 27, 751-767. Schmitz, A and J. Bieri (1972). EEC Tariffs and U.S. Direct Investment. European Economic Review, 3 (3), 259-270. Wheeler, D. and A. Mody (1992). International Investment Location Decisions. Journal of International Economies, 33, 5776. World Bank (2003). Social Indicators. (CD-ROM). Zhang, K.H. and J.R. Markusen (1999). Vertical Multinationals and Host-Country Characteristics. Journal of Development Economics, 59 (2), 233-252. 429 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/af7135c6897f6637fcf6741a26f6cc3e.doc 9002aa75ef16112b5c1884514f996c04 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 286 Title A name given to the resource How Is the Market Size Relevant as a Determinant of FDI in Developing Countries? A Research on Population and the Cohort Size Author Author AKIN, Mustafa Seref Abstract A summary of the resource. The small size of the market in developing countries is associated with non-market seeking FDI activities. Even though, GDP per capita is a poor indicator for the market seeking FDI activities in developing countries, both population and GDP are crucial. The findings of the study suggest that FDI is concerned with the size of market in developing countries not in per capita basis but rather in aggregate size. More precisely, FDI will more likely focus on regional areas rather than on an expansion through the country. In terms of cohort size, the size of middle age cohort promotes FDI, and old and young age cohorts weaken FDI. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/51d77364b63243cd6420b482dbfaa0ca.pdf 6e76307f14d5c2779db328c5358fbc0b PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Determinants of Bank Efficiency in Turkey: A Two Stage Data Envelopment Analysis Ahmet AKIN Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul akin@fatih.edu.tr Merve KILIÇ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul mervekilic@fatih.edu.tr Selim ZAĐM Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul szaim@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: Financial industry plays an important role in the economy and banks are indispensable players in the financial industry. Therefore, the evaluation of banks’ performance became a popular research topic in all over the world, and also in Turkey. There are different techniques to determine the banks’ performance. Among those techniques, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), which is a non-parametric technique, has been widely used in the banking sector. In this research, we analyzed the efficiency of Turkish Banking Industry with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) methodology between 2002 and 2007. All the banks that constantly operated in the years between 2002 and 2007, excluding investment and development, participation banks, get into the analysis. So there are four groups of banks in the research, those are state-owned deposit banks, privately-owned deposit banks, foreign banks founded in Turkey, and foreign banks having branches in Turkey. In the research model, number of employees, interest expenses, non-interest expenses and total deposit are determined as input, total credits, interest revenue and non-interest revenue are determined as output. This analysis aims to explain the variation in efficiency scores with a set of explanatory variables, such as size, ownership type, nationality, being publicly held. According to results, the efficiency levels do not change very much between 2002 and 2007. The efficiency scores reached top level in 2005 and 2006. The results of regression application denote that all of the explanatory variables have a significant effect on banks’ efficiency levels. According to regression analysis results, size negatively affects the efficiency levels of banks. Publicly listed banks operate more efficient than not publicly listed banks. Foreign owned banks operate more efficient than their domestic peers. Furthermore, state owned banks are less efficient than non-state banks. Keywords: Efficiency, Data Envelopment Analysis, Tobit Regression Model, Turkish Banking Sector. 1. Introduction With the changes in economical environment, financial institutions have an essential role in the developing countries’ economy. Especially banks are fundamental players in the financial industry. So the evaluation and assessment of banks’ performance, efficiency, and effectiveness have attracted considerable attention. Measurement of efficiency of banking institutions serves two important purposes. It helps to benchmark of an individual bank against the “best practice” banks and secondly, it helps to evaluate the impact of various measures on the efficiency and performance of these institutions (Das et al. 2009). But the performance measurement in banking sector is not so straightforward, because there are some difficulties in determining inputs and outputs of a bank for efficiency measurement. There is not consensus on that subject. Furthermore, banks may not be homogeneous with respect to types of output they produced. In Turkey context, some reforms were applied in banking industry after 1980s. The banking industry experienced some financial crises in November 2000 and February 2001. The efficiency level of banking sector decreased in those years. This situation required restructuring of banking sector in Turkey. There are some researches that investigate the performance of banking sector after liberalization policies in 1980s or the effects of financial crises on banking sector. There is not much study that investigates the recent efficiency of Turkish Banking Industry. 32 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo There are a lot of techniques to determine the banks’ performance. One of them is ratio analysis. In ratio analysis, measures such as return on assets (ROA), return on investment (ROI), liquidity ratios give only one dimension of performance. In this type analysis, different measures can give contradictory results. The regression analysis eliminates this disadvantage but it can only handle one output at a time. In the most of industries corporations especially in banking operate with many inputs and many outputs. Therefore there exists a requirement for efficiency measurement method besides ratio and regression analysis. Data envelopment analysis which was originally introduced by Charnes et al. (1978) is capable of solving multiple inputs and outputs and enables to see complete picture of performance of a company. This paper examines the efficiency of Turkish banking sector for the period 2002-2007. In this study the effects of size, ownership type, being publicly held on performance are also analyzed. There are two stages of this research. First stage is the analysis of efficiency levels of banks with Data Envelopment Analysis methodology and the second stage is determination of the effects of bank size, ownership type, nationality and being publicly held on bank efficiency scores by Tobit Regression. The paper is structured in the following way. Section 2 includes a brief review of the literature about bank performance and explanatory variables’ effects on banks’ efficiency levels. Section 3 denotes the research sample of this study, input and output variables that are used, and outlines the non-parametric Data Envelopment Analysis methodology. In the fourth section the results of the study are charted and the findings are discussed. And in the fifth section the conclusions of the study are presented. 2. Literature Review In a rapidly changing financial market worldwide, bank regulators, managers, and investors are concerned about how efficiently banks transform their expensive inputs into various financial products and services (Işık & Hassan 2002). So the investigation of the financial institutions has been motivated by academics, policy makers, bankers. There a lot of studies Sufian (2008), Işık (2008), Rezitis (2006), Işık and Hasan (2002), Das et al. (2009), Mercan et al. (2003) that examine the efficiency levels of banks with different methods. Some researchers investigated also the effects of some explanatory variables on bank efficiency, such as, size, type of ownership, bank configuration, being publicly traded or not. Bank size is generally measured by banks’ amount of assets. Jackson and Fethi (2000), Mercan et al. (2003), Rezitis (2006) analyzed the effect of the bank size on efficiency found a positive relationship between size and efficiency. Işık and Hassan (2002) determined a negative relationship between bank size and efficiency. Chen et al. (2005) indicated that large and small banks are more efficient than medium banks. Aly et al. (1990) investigated the effect of size on the overall efficiency, technical efficiency, allocative efficiency and pure technical efficiency of banks and they measured size as total deposits in thousand of dollars and number of bank branches. They found that size is positively related to efficiency, regardless of whether size was measured as total deposits or number of branches. There is no consensus on how bank size affects bank efficiency, but general view large banks are more efficient than small and medium sized banks. Hypothesis 1. Large sized banks are more efficient than small sized banks. The market hypothesis supposed that publicly traded banks should operate more efficient than not publicly traded. But studies that analyze the relationship between being publicly listed or not and bank efficiency generally indicate there is not a significant relationship. Sufian (2009) investigated the effect of being publicly listed on bank performance and did not find evidence of higher efficiency levels of the publicly listed banks. Havrylchyk (2006) studied on being publicly traded effect the performance of banks, but observed no impact of publicly traded on banks efficiency. Mamatzakis et al. (2008) discriminated the banks as publicly listed or not and analyzed the effect of being publicly listed on efficiency, the results do not reveal significant differences between publicly traded or not traded banks. Hypothesis 2. Being publicly held has no affect on bank’s performance. Jackson and Fethi (2000) analyzed the effect of ownership type on banks’ performance and according to their results state ownership worsens efficiency. Işık and Hassan (2002) found that private banks operate more cost efficient than banks in public sector. Mercan et al. (2003) classified the banks according to type of ownership as state-owned, private and foreign. State-owned banks had lowest performance in their study. Sufian (2009)’s study showed that the foreign banks are likely to be more efficient than domestically owned banks. Jackson et al. (1998) analyzed the performance of banks during the period 1992-96 in Turkey. Among three ownership types, private and foreign banks showed greater productivity growth compared to state owned banks. Chen (1998), Chen and Yeh (2000) analyzed the efficiency differences between private and public banks in Taiwan. The results indicated that private banks operate more efficient than public banks. Havrylchyk (2006) assessed the efficiency of foreign and domestic banks, showed that foreign banks are operating in a higher level of efficiency than domestic banks. Also, his study showed that state banks are more efficient than other domestic banks. Chen et al. (2005) grouped the Chinese banks as state owned commercial banks, national-joint 33 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo equity banks, regional-joint equity banks and investment banks to determine the relation between efficiency level and type of ownership. State banks showed a relatively higher efficiency level. Lensink et al. (2008) analyzed 2095 banks in 105 countries over the years 1998-2003 and found that foreign ownership negatively affects bank efficiency. Bonin et al. (2005) suggested that foreign-owned banks are more cost-efficient than other banks. Hypothesis 3. Private banks operate more efficiently than public banks. Hypothesis 4. Foreign ownership positively affects bank efficiency. 3. Research Methods 3.1. Sample The research sample of this study includes all the banks that operated in Turkey constantly between 2002–2007, excluding investment and development, and participation banks. This data set should be as homogeneous as possible to be meaningful for relative efficiency measurement for DEA application. So there are four groups of banks in the research, state-owned deposit banks, privately-owned deposit banks, foreign banks founded in Turkey, and, foreign banks having branches in Turkey. Total thirty-one banks from those groups are determined and get into the analysis. Table 1: The Banks in the Analysis B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 ABN AMRO Bank N.V. Adabank A.S. Akbank T.A.S. Alternatif Bank A.S. Anadolubank A.S. Arap Türk Bankası A.S. Bank Mellat Citibank A.S. Denizbank A.S. Eurobank Tekfen A.S. Finans Bank A.S. Fortis Bank A.S. Habib Bank Limited HSBC Bank A.S. JPMorgan Chase Bank N.A Millennium Bank A.S. B17 B18 B19 B20 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 B27 B28 B29 B30 B31 ING Bank A.S. Societe Generale (SA) Sekerbank T.A.S. Tekstil Bankası A.S. Turkish Bank A.S. Turkland Bank A.S. Türk Ekonomi Bankası A.S. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Ziraat Bankası A.S. Türkiye Garanti Bankası A.S. Türkiye Halk Bankası A.S. Türkiye Đs Bankası A.S. Türkiye Vakıflar Bankası T.A.O. Unicredit Banca di Roma S.P.A. WestLB AG Yapı ve Kredi Bankası A.S. 3.2. Measurement of Variables The necessary data set from the income statements and balance sheets of the banks is obtained from the annual issues of the Bank Association of Turkey. In the banking performance literature, there is no definite consensus on the determination of bank inputs and outputs. But there are two main approaches to determine the inputs and outputs that can be used for efficiency measurement; production approach and intermediation approach (Thanassoulis 1999; Sealey & Lindley 1977; Anthanassopoulos 2009). According to production approach, banks are regarded as using labor and capital to generate deposits and loans, and according to intermediation approach deposits are regarded as being converted into loans (Avkıran 2006). Avkıran (2006) summarized two approaches, and showed inputs and outputs for two approaches. Under production approach, number of employees, occupancy, furniture and equipment, other noninterest expenses are determined as input, number of demand deposits, time deposits, real estate loans, installment loans and commercial loans are determined as output. Under intermediation approach, deposits, debentures, other liabilities, shareholder equity, number of employees, physical capital, non-interest expenses are regarded as inputs, loans, securities, deposits with other banks, except central bank, non-interest income are regarded as outputs. Sufian and Majid (2007) employed DEA method to investigate the effects of merger and acquisitions on Singaporean domestic banking groups’ efficiency. They estimate two alternative models and they used total deposits as input, total loans and non-interest income as output in the first model, non-interest and interest income as output and interest and non-interest expense as input in the second model. Aysan and Ceyhan (2008) determined the inputs as labor, capital and loanable funds, outputs as short- and long-term 34 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo credits, off-balance sheet items, and other earning assets. Jackson et al. (1998) used number of employees and the sum of non-labor operating expense, the direct expenditure on buildings and amortization expenses as inputs, loans, demand deposits and time deposits as output under value-added approach. Wheelock and Wilson (1999) investigated the technical progress, inefficiency and productivity change between 1984 and 1993. They employed three inputs: labor, physical capital, purchased funds, five outputs: real estate loans, commercial and industrial loans, consumer loans, all other loans, total demand deposits by adopting intermediation approach. Oral and Yolalan (1990), Ayadi et al.(1998) determined inputs as interest paid on deposits, expenses on personnel, administration etc. and total deposits, outputs as total loans, interest and non-interest income. Aly et al. (1990) employed a non-parametric frontier approach in their study to calculate the overall, technical, pure technical, allocative and scale efficiencies of a sample of 322 independent banks. And, they determined the inputs as labor, capital, loanable funds, outputs as real estate loans, commercial and industrial loans, consumer loans, all other loans and demand deposits. Bergendahl (1998) applied DEA to Nordic Banks by using loan volumes, deposit volumes, and gross revenues as output, costs of personnel, cost of material and the volume of credit losses as input. Işık (2008) investigated the technical X-efficiency and productivity growth of novo banks and established banks by using a non-parametric frontier method. By employing intermediation approach the outputs that are used in his research are, short-term loans, long-term loans, and other earning assets, the inputs are labor, capital, and loanable funds. Havrylchyk (2006) investigated the efficiency of the Polish Banking industry between 1997 and 2001, and under intermediation approach he determined the inputs as capital, labor and deposits, outputs as loans, government bonds, and off-balance sheet items. Chen et al. (2000) analyzed the operating efficiency of 34 commercial banks in Taiwan banking sector. Under intermediation approach they determined outputs as provision of loan services, portfolio investment, and non-interest income, inputs as bank staff, assets and bank deposits for this analysis. Liu (2009) used slack-based efficiency measures to measure the efficiency of 24 banks in Taiwan; he employed deposits, interest and non-interest expenses as input, loans, interest income and non-interest income as output in his study. By taking into consideration the literature intermediation approach is used in the analysis. Number of employees, interest expenses, non-interest expenses, and total deposits are determined as input; total loans, interest income, and non-interest income are determined as output. All variables are measured in thousands of Turkish Liras, except number of employees. 3.3. Measurement of Efficiency The efficiency measurement is generally performed in several methods such as ratio analysis, parametric and non-parametric methods. In the ratio analysis, efficiency is measured with the calculation of several ratios of financial units. The financial unit with the highest output over input or lowest input over output is determined as efficient. But for the calculation of efficiency of financial units which operate multi-input and multi-output ratio analysis is not suitable. Another criticism about the ratio analysis is that some ratios denote that the firm has a successful level of performance but other may show the opposite. The regression analysis does not suffer from that disadvantage, but it assumes a priori form of functional relationship between inputs and outputs, in addition regression analysis can only handle one output at a time (Manadhar & Tang 2002). In the most of industries corporations especially in banking operate with many inputs and many outputs. Therefore there exists a requirement for efficiency measurement method besides ratio and regression analysis. There are another two techniques called as parametric and non-parametric enable efficiency measurement with many input many output. One of the nonparametric techniques which is widely used to measure efficiency is Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). 3.3.1. The Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) Model Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is a linear based programming model which was first proposed by Charnes et al. in 1978 twenty years after Farrell’s seminal work for evaluating activities of not-for-profit entities participating in public programs. Recent years a variety of DEA applications have been seen for evaluating the performances of different kinds of entities engaged in many different activities in many different contexts in many different countries (Cooper et al. 2004). DEA assess the comparative efficiency of homogeneous organizational units, such as bank branches, schools, tax offices, and hospitals (Thanassoulis 1999). DEA responds to the need for satisfactory procedures to assess the relative efficiencies of multi-input multi-output production units (Cook & Seiford 2008). The efficiency score is usually denoted as either a number between zero and one or 0 and 100 percent. The efficiency score of one or 100 percent of a decision making unit shows that decision making unit is efficient relative to other units in the research sample. In addition to providing meaningful scalar efficiency values, DEA is designed to determine the sources and estimate the amounts of inefficiencies that might present in the various output and input vectors (Charnes et al. 1991). The most important advantage of DEA over other traditional econometric frontier method is that it does not require prior 35 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo assumption (such as standard forms of statistical regression analysis) about the analytical form of the production function (Avkıran 1999; Banker 1984; Cooper et al. 2004). In addition, DEA enable to calculate the efficiency of decision making units that operates multi-input and multi-output. DEA is a valuable benchmarking tool, because it identifies inefficiencies in decision making units by comparing them with similar decision making units regarded as efficient (Avkıran 2006). Unlike other benchmarking tools that rely on the managers’ observation, comparison, DEA enables to identify best practices that are too complex to be identified (Sherman & Ladino 1995). On the other hand, the main problem about DEA model is that, it is a non-parametric method, so it is sensitive to the measurement problems (Al-Sharkas et al. 2008). The relative performance measurement of DEA is a two-staged process (Mercan et al. 2003): (i) Determining the best performing decision making units that produces greatest output with the least input. Assigning a DEA performance-index value of unity (1) to such decision making units and placing them on the efficient frontier. (ii) Determining the DEA performance-index values for all other decision making units in the set. Such values are represented by the distance of the less efficient units from the above defined efficient frontier. The decision making units in this subset use more inputs given an output level or produce less output for a specific level of inputs. DEA determines, the most productive decision making unit, the amount of excess resources used by inefficient decision making units, the amount of excess capacity or ability to increase service outputs in lessproductive units, the set of best-practice service units most similar to the less-productive units, referred to as the best-practice reference set (Sherman & Ladino 1995). Mathematical formulation of DEA model can be stated as: m Max Z o = ∑u r =1 n ∑v i =1 ro y ro (1) io x io Subject to the constraints: m ∑ r =1 n u rj y rj ∑ ≤ 1 for j = 1, 2, k v ij x ij i =1 (2) u ,v ro io ≥0 for r =1, m; and i = 1, n (3) Where: Zo : Efficiency score of oth decision making unit. : Observed value of input i for the decision making unit j. x ij yrj : Observed value of output r for the decision making unit j. u rj , vij : Weights of input r and output i of decision making unit j respectively. k m n : Number of decision making units. : Number of outputs. : Number of inputs. Linear programming expression of the DEA model is like that: m Max Z o = ∑ u ro y ro r =1 (4) Subject to the constraints: n ∑v x i =1 36 io io =1 (5) �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo m ∑u r =1 n rj yrj ≤ ∑ vij xij for j = 1, 2, k (6) i =1 u ro , vio ≥ 0 for r =1, m; and j =1, n (7) 4. Results The efficiency scores of each bank included in the sample are shown in Table 2. The efficiencies of the banks are examined between the years 2002-2007 with input oriented CCR model. The banking sector operated higher than 0.8 of efficiency scores in the whole research period. The average scores are 0.87 in 2002, 0.89 in 2003, 0.84 in 2004, 0.91 in 2005, 0.92 in 2006, 0.88 in 2007. The efficiency levels increased after the 2002 and reached 0.92 point in 2006, and again decreased 0.88 in 2007. There is a recovery phase in banking industry performance. There are six banks that operated efficiently in the whole research period. So the 19% percent (six of thirty-one banks) operated constantly efficient from 2002 through 2007. Also, there are thirteen banks that operated inefficiently during all analysis period. So the 41% (thirteen of thirty-one banks) operated inefficiently between 2002 and 2007. Table 2: CCR-I Efficiency Scores (2002-2007) B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 B17 B18 B19 B20 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 B27 B28 B29 B30 B31 Average 2002 1,00 0,76 1,00 0,86 0,79 1,00 1,00 0,63 0,77 0,73 1,00 0,72 1,00 0,94 1,00 0,81 0,78 1,00 0,64 0,77 0,85 0,76 0,79 0,94 0,97 1,00 0,75 0,72 1,00 1,00 0,88 0,87 2003 0,88 1,00 1,00 0,79 0,99 1,00 1,00 0,65 0,91 0,66 0,90 0,83 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,49 0,84 1,00 0,59 0,91 0,85 0,87 0,97 0,99 1,00 1,00 0,75 0,90 1,00 1,00 0,99 0,89 2004 1,00 0,55 1,00 0,99 0,83 0,77 1,00 0,66 0,75 0,62 0,86 0,78 1,00 0,78 1,00 0,40 0,86 1,00 0,84 0,72 0,82 0,66 0,76 1,00 0,83 1,00 0,82 1,00 0,91 1,00 0,80 0,84 2005 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,90 0,78 0,87 1,00 0,98 0,90 0,65 1,00 0,83 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,68 0,86 1,00 0,92 0,85 0,81 0,79 0,88 1,00 0,96 1,00 0,94 1,00 0,93 1,00 0,78 0,91 2006 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,82 0,78 1,00 0,97 0,91 0,75 0,96 0,87 1,00 0,98 1,00 0,86 0,85 1,00 0,77 0,88 0,85 0,68 0,85 1,00 0,98 1,00 0,91 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,87 0,92 2007 0,75 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,85 0,60 1,00 0,67 0,81 0,99 0,85 0,69 1,00 0,80 1,00 1,00 0,82 1,00 0,73 0,87 0,66 0,67 0,77 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,86 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,83 0,88 Frequency of Efficiency 3 4 6 2 0 2 6 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 6 1 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 6 0 4 4 6 0 37 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The total efficiency, technical efficiency and scale efficiency of the banks are also analyzed and the findings are showed in Table 3. Input oriented CCR efficiency scores give the total efficiency of banks. Input oriented BCC results give the technical efficiency of banks. As CCR scores are divided by BCC scores, the outcome will give the scale efficiency of banks. The average technical efficiency levels of banks are higher than average scale efficiency levels within this period. It is observed that the increase in total efficiency level is mainly resulted from the increase in technical efficiency level. Given our results that Turkish banking sector suffered from scale inefficiency. Table 3: Total Efficiency, Technical Efficiency and Scale Efficiency of the Banks B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 B17 B18 B19 B20 B21 B22 B23 B24 B25 B26 B27 B28 B29 B30 B31 Average Total Efficiency 0,94 0,88 1,00 0,92 0,84 0,84 1,00 0,76 0,84 0,73 0,93 0,79 1,00 0,92 1,00 0,70 0,83 1,00 0,75 0,83 0,81 0,74 0,84 0,99 0,96 1,00 0,84 0,94 0,97 1,00 0,86 0,89 Technical Efficiency 1,00 0,97 1,00 1,00 0,89 0,98 1,00 1,00 0,92 0,80 1,00 0,98 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,83 0,93 1,00 0,92 0,95 0,85 0,87 0,95 1,00 1,00 1,00 0,99 0,95 0,98 1,00 0,99 0,96 Scale Efficiency 0,94 0,91 1,00 0,92 0,95 0,85 1,00 0,76 0,91 0,91 0,93 0,80 1,00 0,92 1,00 0,85 0,90 1,00 0,81 0,87 0,95 0,85 0,88 0,99 0,96 1,00 0,85 0,98 1,00 1,00 0,87 0,92 Table 4: Tobit Regression Results (n=176) Size Nationality Ownership Publicly Listed Constant 38 Coefficient -0.0697283 -0.0762108 0.1843663 0.0757398 0.9239495 Standard Error 0.0231161 0.0217101 0.0341993 0.0248959 0.0145359 t-ratio -3.02 -3.51 5.39 3.09 63.56 P-value 0.003 0.001 0.000 0.003 0.000 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The effects of bank size, ownership type, nationality and being publicly held on total efficiency are analyzed with Tobit Regression by STATA. Ownership type, nationality, size and being publicly held are employed as dummy variables. In this analysis, DEA efficiency score of a bank is determined as dependent variable. If the coefficient of an explanatory variable is positive, it increases the efficiency level of the bank. In spite of that if the coefficient of an explanatory variable is negative; it decreases the efficiency level of the bank. Significance level of the regression is 95%. The findings imply that all explanatory variables are significantly different from zero and have a significant effect on efficiency score of banks. Banks are grouped as large and small according to their assets levels in this study. Size has a negative effect on efficiency levels of banks, suggesting that the smaller the bank, the more efficient bank will be. There is a scale problem in Turkish banking sector, the banks can not use economies of scale advantage. There may be decreasing return to scale in Turkish banking sector. 1% percent increase in inputs results less than 1% increase in outputs. As the banks grow they become less efficient. Larger banks have lower efficiency which could be due to complex organizational structure and moral hazard behavior (Sufian & Abd. Majid 2007). In Turkey, smaller banks are typically newer and generally specialize in trade and finance and wholesale corporate banking and employ more professional and astute management teams (Işık & Hassan 2002). Because of competition small banks should operate efficient to survive especially in metropolitan markets. The results are accordance with Işık and Hassan (2002) on Turkish banking sector. To analyze the relationship between publicly traded and Turkish banks’ efficiencies a dummy variable is introduced as an explanatory data. Being publicly traded has a positive effect on efficiency levels of banks. So, the publicly traded banks operate more efficient than not publicly traded banks. That finding supports the market discipline hypothesis. According to this hypothesis banks whose shares are publicly traded should exhibit higher efficiency. Thus, the easily transferable ownership structure of firms creates incentives for both shareholders to monitor management performance and for bank management to improve their performance as it contains risks associated with moral hazard practices (Mamatzakis et al. 2008). Banks of different nations may have different outcomes with the same inputs. Thus, in this section the effect of ownership type and nationality on efficiency levels of banks are analyzed. Ownership dummy is determined as state and non-state banks. The positive sign of the coefficient on non-state ownership binary variable implies that non-state ownership improve the efficiency level of the banks. Non-state banks operate more efficient than state banks. There are two major reasons behind the efficiency difference between public and private firms. The first is while all private firms are profit maximizing, public firms would pursue whatever objectives the government demands. The second is while private firms are subject to relatively hard budget; public firms are subject to relatively soft budgets (Işık & Hassan 2002). Nationality has a positive effect on efficiency levels. The positive sign of the coefficient on foreign ownership binary variable implies that foreign ownership improve the efficiency level of the banks. Foreign banks operate more efficient than their domestic counterparts. This may be because of foreign owned banks have better risk management, operational, technological techniques which they enable from their parent banks abroad. The empirical observation that foreign banks perform better compared to domestic banks in developing countries. This suggests that technical ability of banks from developed countries overcomes the home field advantage in developing countries (Jeon & Miller 2005). Berger et al. (2000) explained the differences between home field advantages and global advantages. The global advantage hypothesis denotes that foreign banks might benefit from competitive advantages relative to their domestic banks. Foreign banks may also become more competitive when compared to domestic banks due to an active market for corporate control in the home country, and because they have access to an educated labor force that is able to adapt new technologies (Lensink et al. 2008). The results are accordance with Sufian (2008) on Malaysian banks, Jackson et al. (1998) on Turkish banks, Işık and Hassan (2003) on Turkish banks, Havrylchyk (2006) on Polish banks, Bonin et al. (2005) in transition countries. 5. Conclusion This paper aims to determine the efficiency of Turkish banks between 2002 and 2007. So, the efficiency levels of Turkish banking sector are analyzed during the period 2002-2007 with Data Envelopment Analysis. Then, multivariate regression analysis have been employed in order to detect the determinants of banking efficiency in Turkey. The sample includes thirty-one banks that continuously operated during this period. According to results, the efficiency level of Turkish banking did not change very much in the analysis period. The banking sector operated at stable efficiency level. The average performance values between 0.84 and 0.92 in this period. Additionally, the findings reveal that the average technical efficiency scores of banks are higher than average scale efficiency scores. There is a scale inefficiency problem in Turkish banking sector. The effects of some explanatory data on the banks’ efficiency levels are also analyzed in this research. Size, ownership type, nationality, being publicly listed are improved as dummy variables. Findings imply that 39 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo smaller banks are more efficient than larger banks. As the banks grow they become less efficient. The Turkish banking sector may experience decreasing returns to scale. Publicly listed banks are more efficient than not publicly listed banks. This finding is compatible with market discipline hypothesis which suggests stockholders of the banks can exert market discipline over bank management, so the publicly traded banks are expected to be more efficient. Non-state banks operate more efficient than their state counterparts. This may be because of the goals of those two banks differentiate. Private entities always aim to maximize their profit. The regression analysis results also denoted that foreign banks are more efficient compared to their domestic peers. Foreign banks might profit from better risk management and take advantage of technological improvements. References Al-Sharkas, A.A., Hassan, M.K., & Lawrence, S. (2008). The Impact of Mergers and Acquisitions on the Efficiency of the US Banking Industry: Further Evidence. Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 35, 5070. Aly, H.Y., Grabowski, C.P., & Rangan, N. (1990). Technical, Scale, and Allocative Efficiencies in U.S. Banking: An Empirical Investigation. Review of Economics and Statistics, 30, 211-18. Anthanassopoulos, A.D. (1998). Nonparametric Frontier Models for Assessing the Market and Cost Efficiency of Large-Scale Bank Branch Networks. 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Thanassoulis, E. (1999). Data Enevelopment Analysis and Its Use in Banking. Interfaces, 3, 1-13. www.tbb.org.tr Wheelock, D.C. & Wilson, P.W. (1999). Technical progress, inefficiency, and productivity change in U.S. banking, 1984-1993. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 31 (2), 212-234. 41 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9683e11e1eaf47673f32afb6f4b70b6d.doc 0034382326ea96da54d7ef03036daf29 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 132 Title A name given to the resource Determinants of Bank Efficiency in Turkey: A Two Stage Data Envelopment Analysis Author Author AKIN, Ahmet KILIÇ, Merve ZAİM, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. Financial industry plays an important role in the economy and banks are indispensable players in the financial industry. Therefore, the evaluation of banks’ performance became a popular research topic in all over the world, and also in Turkey. There are different techniques to determine the banks’ performance. Among those techniques, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), which is a non-parametric technique, has been widely used in the banking sector. In this research, we analyzed the efficiency of Turkish Banking Industry with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) methodology between 2002 and 2007. All the banks that constantly operated in the years between 2002 and 2007, excluding investment and development, participation banks, get into the analysis. So there are four groups of banks in the research, those are state-owned deposit banks, privately-owned deposit banks, foreign banks founded in Turkey, and foreign banks having branches in Turkey. In the research model, number of employees, interest expenses, non-interest expenses and total deposit are determined as input, total credits, interest revenue and non-interest revenue are determined as output. This analysis aims to explain the variation in efficiency scores with a set of explanatory variables, such as size, ownership type, nationality, being publicly held. According to results, the efficiency levels do not change very much between 2002 and 2007. The efficiency scores reached top level in 2005 and 2006. The results of regression application denote that all of the explanatory variables have a significant effect on banks’ efficiency levels. According to regression analysis results, size negatively affects the efficiency levels of banks. Publicly listed banks operate more efficient than not publicly listed banks. Foreign owned banks operate more efficient than their domestic peers. Furthermore, state owned banks are less efficient than non-state banks. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0b17b64b0d419dc07cda69ad74477261.pdf 26793df5a5de20e5327261fea7c9cce7 PDF Text Text INDUSTRIALIZATION PROBLEM OF CULTURE IN THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION Dr. Abamüslim AKDEMİR Ataurk University Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty Philosophy Department akdemir@atauni.edu.tr Dr. Erdinç PARLAK Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Department of English Language erdincparlak@hotmail.com Abstract:The rapid changes and transformations in science, technology and mass communication have gave way to a new process. This recent phenomenon which made itself felt in almost every part of human life has, at the same time, caused debates in western cultural life on philosophy, literature, architecture, painting under the name of globalization. One of the debates was the one towards modern age under the domination of production and industrial capitalism. The valid value of industrialization, the “production”, has left its place to a new social understanding named “upper-reality”. This has emerged as a result of post-industrial viewpoints. On the other hand, “similarity” replaced the “reality”of modern cultural values. The process of globalization , again, transformed the aesthetic nature of cultural values into commercial meta identity together with post-industrial approaches. As the globalized industrial values made man mere consumer, there emerged the ideology of entertainment industry. This process has both produced meta and created mass culture or popular values before individuality. The rapid changes in information and communication due to the developments in science, technology and economy have put international borders aside. The world has turned into a large village where common values have been formed. This recent phenomenon which made itself felt in almost every field of life together with the last quarter of 20th century, emerged under the name of “new world order”, “postmodernity”, and “globalization”. It became the focal point of discussions in every field from art to philosophy. Human rights, also, became one of the main issues of discussion in every area. Globalizataion began to dominate almost all the world with the understanding of human rights, liberal economy and market economy. The political dimension of globalization made the leadership of USA felt, on the other and its economic dimension that of multi dimensional capital. On its cultural basis, the label hegamony of monotonus consumption culture came to the fore as universal and local were presented at the same time (Akdemir, 2004, p.43). This new era was defined by Fredric Jamesan as modernization, post-industrial, consumption society and show society. To him new economic order and social life have formed the beginning of new government in the cultures (Jameson, 1993, p.27). This new case has mingled cultural social and economic to each other with globalization. The borders have became much more ambigious in culture. With the process of globalization, the rationalization form of modernity was opened to discussion as meaning, order and content. Direct relationships were formed with the methods of bringing closer diverse lives ontologically not related to each other. According to Benjamin, man has lost his freedom and singleness. Every object is the mirror of another. Those objects eating, drinking, listening, watching the same things have now 124 �started to think and feel the same things exactly. Everybody is the same (Dellaoğlu, 2003, pp.21-22). Within this process, the postmodern view which adresses to the homogeuous mass has now created mass culture or popular culture. The products of mass culture do not give rise to creativity. It has made men an inactive object who can be directed and controlled instead of putting them into a mutual discussion atmosphere. Culture and entertainment have mingled to each other in the fantasy world of mass communucation tools (Swingewood, 1996, p.36). Its culture and works of art have now become meta and its function has been only to entertain and has reduced conscious totally to inactivity. Globalization considers eclecticism as the basis of culture. On the one hand it mixes everything to each other by mass culture and makes them global by loading them with homogenous. It, on the other hand, brings sub-cultures, localization, tradition and differences to the fore. For instance, man begins to listen to reggae music, watches cowboy film on tv, has his lunch at Mc. Donald’s, dinner at a local restaurant. He uses Paris perfume in Tokyo, wears redra clothes in Hong Kong (Appignanesi and Garrat, 1996, p.47). Elite and popular culture forms are have migled to each other. Mass culture has criticized aesthetic sensitivity with the concepts of imitation, irony and pastiche and rejected aesthetic elitism. It has demonstrated a populist attitude with the understanding of “Anything goes”. Money is the sole measurement in the lack of aesthetic criteria. Everything that the artist spits is money. There is nobody where everybody is the same. There no longer, exists such a thing as object. All those have been caused by “Culture Industry”. The concept of “Culture Industry” has been used for the first time by the thinkers Adorno and Harkheimer of Frankfurt School taking mass culture criticism as the basis in the “Dialectics of Illumination.”. The most widely criticized feature of Adorno’s culture industry is its misleading aspect. On the basis of this criticism lies Marx’s meta fetishism. According to Adorno, those produced by culture industry are not the works of art that have become as meta but those metas produced for Market from the very beginning. The concept of culture, industry, starting from the time that culture became a thing and money in the classic term became a culture during the late capitalist era, struggles to form a theory of daily life with this concept (Dellaloğlu, 2003, p.23). Culture industry has reduced individuals to a living meta in the name of consuming to consume. The individual has formed a living area with the product. As Adorno says; “The typical cultural existence of culture industry are no longer product but has been turned into product besides other features” (Adorno, 2003, p.72). The culture industry is, in the simplest definition, the industrialization of culture and man has became as an industrial product within the industrial society and has became a thing. The individuals have created an area of living with the product. The main reason here is to gain satisfaction by kitch products without aesthetic. The imitation has replaced the real one. The society, on the other hand, consists of individuals totally consumers and of which behaviours have been determined in advance. Adorno explains it as: “Every one should behave suitable for their levels determined before and should move towards the mass production categories produced for certain types of consumers”(Adorno, 2007, p.51). In such a case, consumers have become materials of statistics. For the individuals, being adaptable has replaced consciousnes. Industrial mind suggests workers a model of mental cooperation. It spends effort in order to make them accustomed to the system. Though it seems at first sight that this gives man freedom both in their working life and cultural industry, men (individuals) in such case 125 �have always been a subject (Adorno, 2007, pp. 81-82). Culture industry, consciously, has been a barrier before the development of free individuals. Though the products of culture industry create a monotonus atmosphere, it has been successful in attracting men by its very nature. Similar and charming products do not alow their customers move out of the circle. As Adorno explains; the men who are now consumers became the ideology of entertainment industry which they cannot get rid of (Adorno, 2007, p.96). Cultural industry imposes an entertainment equal to thinking. Man, unconsciously and with no resistance , accepts this insistence (Adorno, 2007, p.56). The administrators have, according to Adorna, directed the mass and changed them into the means of propaganda and tourism. Thus, the artistic works that industry of culture created made art object and merchandising. In this context, the best way to merchandise and present all the products to consumption is advertisement. In the process of industrialization ion of culture, advertising appears to have formed an area of surrealism. Advertising not only creates desire but it also forms a reality of being an object. Adorna (2007, p. 96) states that advertising is the elixir of life of culture industry. Behind advertisement, the sovereignty of system is hidden. Everything having no mark of advertisement is regarded as meaningless economically. Adorno explains the success of advertising in the domain of culture industry in the light of the fact that though consumers know that advertisement is not true, they continue to purchase the cultural objects and sustain to use them with a strong desire. (Adorna, 2007, p. 107) While Adorna strongly defends modernist art, he criticizes the mass culture as a result of the industry of culture. He objects to capitalist and socialist totalitarian regimes since they intervene with the human freedom. He regards the culture that was created by means of technological facilities as a tool of mass manipulation. The process of being object that Hollywood, Broadway, Manhattan and Rock’n Roll directed and accelerated Adorno’s criticism who migrated to New York during the World War II ( Pelvanoglu, 2009). Adorner’s criticism towards the cultural industry that global world has created displays how he was contemporary. Culture’s industrialization changed it into an object carelessly. The mass culture or popular values towards particularity or individualism came front. The dominance of subject overwhelmingly became restricted and the power between subjectivity and culture declined. (Connor, 2005, p.364). In postindustrial culture, thus, high culture understanding integrated with commercial and mass culture. The standards of culture irresistibly lost and the cultural products made individual an ordinary carrier of the social tendencies. According to Adorno, the industry of culture occurred through the instinct of profit which has always been prevailing.(adorno, 2007, p. 112). This is the reason that made everything object and the changed the object itself into culture. Therefore, the individual who has become alienated towards effort in the phase of production become also alienated to life and the whole existence through consumption’s becoming aesthetic in the phase of consumption. Adorno’s subject which is his object of analysis is not the employee but the customer of consumption society. The subject’s meaning that he attributed while using culture industry is different from the meaning that mass culture or popular culture attributed. In mass culture, authentic people is mentioned , people’s culture has a role for the mass culture. However, Adorno cannot stand even their implication in that in culture industry people does 126 �not create culture. It includes in the industry culture. It is not the subject but the object. Today people have become more inactive than what Adorno stated. Today’s culture industry forces to consume more alienation and forget to be individual in the society. People have changed what they consume into fetishism. Brand sovereignty has occupied people’s life space. Thus, Adorno’s remark goes back to 50 years turned out to be true. References Adorno, T. W (2003) “Kültür Endüstrisini Yeniden Düşünürken”, çev. Bülent O. Doğan, Cogito, Sayı: 36, Yaz 2003, pp. 76-84. Adorno, T. W. (2007) Kültür Endüstrisi- Kültür Yönetimi, çev. N. Ünler, M. Tüzel, E. Gen, İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları. Akdemir, A. (2004) “Küreselleşme ve Kültürel Kimlik Sorunu”, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt:3, Sayı:1, 2004, Erzurum, pp. 43-51. Apigenes, R. And Garratt, C. (1996) Postmodenizm, İstanbul, Milliyet Yayınları. Connor, S. (2005) Postmodernist Kültür, çev. Doğan Şahiner, İstanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları. Dellalloğlu, B. F. (2003) “Bir Giriş: Adorno Yüz Yaşında”, Cogito, Sayı: 36, Yaz 2003, pp. 13-36. Jameson, F. (1993) “Postmodernizm ve Tüketim Toplumu”, çev. H. Güleryüz, V. Aytar, Edebiyat ve Eleştiri Dergisi, Ocak-Şubat 1993, İzmir. Swingewood, A. (1996) Kitle Kültürü Efsanesi, çev. Aykut Kansu, Ankara, Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları. 127 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/19b708f68849576353eee4b6babfde47.doc fd68f84e1937e889d127d33f1e16d6ad Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 662 Title A name given to the resource INDUSTRIALIZATION PROBLEM OF CULTURE IN THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION Author Author AKDEMİR, Abamüslim Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. The rapid changes and transformations in science, technology and mass communication have gave way to a new process. This recent phenomenon which made itself felt in almost every part of human life has, at the same time, caused debates in western cultural life on philosophy, literature, architecture, painting under the name of globalization. One of the debates was the one towards modern age under the domination of production and industrial capitalism. The valid value of industrialization, the “production”, has left its place to a new social understanding named “upper-reality”. This has emerged as a result of post-industrial viewpoints. On the other hand, “similarity” replaced the “reality”of modern cultural values. The process of globalization , again, transformed the aesthetic nature of cultural values into commercial meta identity together with post-industrial approaches. As the globalized industrial values made man mere consumer, there emerged the ideology of entertainment industry. This process has both produced meta and created mass culture or popular values before individuality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c33bf5a0581e859f7e99e42437aad1c.pdf 0a1a789e393d3bd71a86d35e8ac56c51 PDF Text Text Mentoring SYSTEM: An Evaluation by English Mentors and Efl StudentTeachers Suna AKALIN Cüneyt ÖZATA İrem ÖZBAY Atatürk University Turkey sakalin@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The system of mentoring has first been applied in England and is being used in Turkey’s educational system, too. The aim of the study is evaluating the mentoring system of Ataturk University, School of Education, and English Language Teaching Department in training pre-service English teachers during their teaching experience at schools. Questionnaires were applied to mentors, student-teachers and supervisors. Data have been collected through questionnaires which include Lykert type items and collected data have been analyzed statistically using mean scores of the participants. The purpose of this study is to make student teachers and mentors aware of mentors’ importance in teaching experience, to attract the interest of teachers who have never taken part in mentoring. The aim which is to reach mass of mentors has been achieved. However, it is essential to state that this study is a kind of starting point to develop new research in this context. Introduction The mentoring system has been applied in various countries and its positive results have been in the Literature. The aims of this study are to make student teachers and mentors aware of mentor’s importance in teaching experience and to draw the attention of teachers’ who have never taken part in mentoring. The study aims at evaluating the system of mentoring at Atatürk University, School of Education, English Language Teaching Department in training pre-service English teachers during their teaching experience at schools. Mentors are the ones we, Department of English Language Teaching, send our student-teachers to get training through working with them at primary and high schools, during teaching experience. The student-teachers interact with ELT mentors and get information and training from them both on the ways of teaching English and also on classroom management during their teaching experience in the fourth year of their education (two terms) in ELT department, School of Education, at Ataturk University. At this point the mentors are the only means of having our student-teachers apply the knowledge they have acquired to the real-life situations and finding practical solutions to them. Therefore, the mentors should be well-trained and equipped with the necessary information in order that they may guide and help our student-teachers. The mentors in this sense act as a bridge between the schools and our department back at the university, since they pass information about the skills needed in real classrooms to our student-teachers. All the information given in the department cannot go much further beyond a theoretical framework; except for the micro and macro teaching sessions during Methodology classes in the third year. Background Upon reviewing the Literature on mentor evaluation, there appeared a lot of research, both national and international in this field. As for the departmental scope, a handbook (Akalin, 1998) composed of feedback and comments on a three-day seminar held in ELT department at Ataturk University was first published and it has been the major source of collected data of this study. Furthermore, Hussein (2007) outlines the deficiencies of the traditional mentoring system and sets up a new approach to mentoring. Rajuana et al. (2007) focus on a group technique to bring the expectations of the participants concerning the role of the cooperating teacher to awareness and articulation. The student teacher group held more expectations for a personal relationship than the cooperating teacher group. Suggestions are given for bridging the gap in expectations between cooperating teachers and student teachers in the initial stage of the practicum program. Smith (2007) using a case study approach, examines the challenges faced by a 298 �cooperating teacher and student-teacher during their collaborative planning conversations. The article concludes that cooperating and student-teachers could engage in more educative planning conversations if they broadened their understanding of their roles as expert and novice planners and of the definition of expertise itself. Varghese and Wilberschied (2002) explore mentee- mentor relationships, which illustrate the tensions and difficulties that arise when this simplistic dichotomy breaks down, a situation that is becoming more and more prevalent when teachers pursue secondary certifications, validations or endorsements. The study finds that the mentoring relationship was mainly coloured by the discourse used by the mentors, the specific backgrounds and goals of the mentees, as well as the different understandings each mentor and mentee had of the TESL profession and their roles in the practica. Time and opportunities need to be allowed for these factors to be discussed and negotiated. Rush et.al. (2008) examined two in-service English teachers and two preservice English teachers, who participated in a shared mentoring relationship during the student-teaching semester, shared their experiences, conflicts, and how they were resolved. The authors provided first-person narratives of all four teachers and suggestions for improving mentoring experiences for both mentor teachers and student-teachers. Friedman and Wallace (2006) document a three-year complex case study that addressed the question: What happens when English, education, and high school faculty cross borders to prepare secondary English teachers to teach in urban schools is the central concern of the article. Bullough (2005) implements a case study constructed of a secondary school teacher's struggle to move beyond her identity as a teacher to assume a mentor's identity in her year-long work with two English-teaching interns. Based on the data, the author argues for the importance of attending to identity in teacher education and and the education of mentors describes conditions that would facilitate mentor identity formation. The literature amply proves that the importance of mentoring in bringing up novice teachers is not diminishing, just the opposite, it is saliently gaining a momentum requiring of the revision of every such program. Method This study aims at assessing the current situation so that what can be done in the next step should be known. So this study is limited to the Turkish mentors preparing student-teachers as secondary school English language teachers in the Turkish National Educational System. The subjects were chosen randomly, so, caution should be taken in making generalizations for further research. The questionnaires have been applied to the mentors, the student-teachers and the supervisors. But supervisors were reluctant to respond the questionnaire. (Only three supervisors have responded). Therefore the supervisors have been left out of the evaluation. The following research questions were generated to guide the research: 1- What role do the mentors have in preparing the student-teachers for their future career? 2- How do the mentors, supervisors and student teachers perceive the mentors? 3- Are there problems hindering the mentors from being better mentors? What are they? A total of 32 English mentors and 142 EFL student-teachers participated in the present study. The student-teacher participants have to attend school experience and training program two semesters at local state schools under the guidance of mentors of English who are the subject matter of this study as well. The senior students have been charged with attending different high schools in Erzurum. In the schools, since the number of the mentors is high, each mentor becomes responsible of 12 students. That is why, the number of the mentor participants may be argued to be low in contrast to student- teacher participants. A questionnaire was applied at different 9 state high schools In May, 2007, the questionnaire consisting of 37 items was conducted on both mentors and EFL student-teachers in which the mentors evaluated themselves and the student-teachers evaluated the mentors. The answers were taken in the form of Likert Scale (from 1= never to 5= always). In preparing the questionnaire the author has carried out seminars (1998) with the same local English mentors and school administrators and published a guide book (1999) underlying the qualities of the mentors. Data Analysis In both groups (mentors& student-teachers), the participants completed evaluation forms. These forms have been prepared both for mentors and student-teachers separately but both of the questionnairies aimed at evaluating the mentors. The questions in both questionnairies can be grouped as follows: 299 �Question#1 is about the process of observation. Questions# 2, 3, 4, 5, 19, 20 and 21 ask about how much self-evaluation opportunities and feedback the mentor gives to the student-teachers. Questions# 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 investigate what problems mentors face when dealing with the student-teachers. Questions# 12, 13 and 14 discuss about the duties of the mentors. Questions# 22, 23, 24, 26, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36 and 37 try to get information about the level of interaction and communication between the student-teachers and the mentors. Question# 25 asks how much reinforcement the mentors give to the student-teachers. Questions# 15, 16, 17, 18, 27, 28, 29, 35 ask the mentors about how they find themselves as mentors, and the same questions in the student-teachers’ questionnairies ask the student- teachers how they find mentors. Written comments by student-teachers: One of the student-teachers comments on his mentor: “A very good model for me.” Another one says: “He is a perfect teacher in both teaching and communicating.” Next comments go: “I like her. She is professional in her job.” “I am glad with her.” One last general comment: “I think it is necessary for us to experience in the schools and it is efficient and will be efficient.” Written comments by mentors: One of the mentors’ comments: “Students-teachers should be taught that this is one of the university lessons, and they should care for it as much as their university lessons. Moreover they should attend the lessons, and be more eager to teaching.” One other mentor points out the student-teacher’s responsibility to make English lessons more enjoyable by saying: “English lesson should be fun for the studentteacher.” Another one says: “The schools should be introduced to the student-teacher before they begin their apprenticeship. The education payment which is paid to the student-teacher should be increased.” One last mentor is dissatisfied with their own payment, for he says: “It’s urgent that the mentor is to be paid regularly and highly.” Findings and Results This study has achived its objectives. It is inevitable to get some fake results but they indicate that evaluation of mentors should be revised more deeply. It might be seen as a mirror which reflects reality in that case. It has gained success and made participants of the questionnaire think about their professions, process of learning and teaching with a peaceful atmosphere. The questionnaire is the central collector of the results. It was applied to the mentors in more than 9 schools in Erzurum and student-teachers at English Language Teaching Department of Ataturk University. In that questionnaire, thirty seven questions were asked to student-teachers. Moreover, thirty seven different questions were asked to mentors. The questions are all related to teacher training system, its tiring process with all its difficulties and benefits. Within this process, both student teachers and mentors might have faced with many problems or inadequate communication between each other. So, thanks to this study they try to convey their feelings, ideas and experiences in an unbiased observation. It is the main objective of this study to construct an unbiased platform for all professions in teaching language and teacher training programs. So, they can give what they have faced or experienced within this whole term period. In order to get the best results, this study lasts not in limited time but enough time to observe. Because participants have their own responsibilities apart from teacher training program so they need enough time to think and write down objective explanations. Besides evaluating the mentors, this study has tried to reply how one becomes a good and well qualified teacher, because to become a good teacher is as important as training a student teacher. Teacher’s awareness of methods, techniques which are used in classroom activities should be taken into consideration. Hence, mentors are asked about their teaching background, field knowledge and their own value system oriented to what they teach in classroom. Whether they receive accurate feedback or they encourage student teachers to build self-esteem and their value system. Self-evaluation for both studentteachers and mentors is necessary. It can be inferred from the results that they do not have enough knowledge about self-evaluation. Thanks to this study, it is tried to make them conscious. This study gives some heavy burdens for mentors. It is argued that the syllabus is not appropriate for all instruction contexts. It consists of limited time and lots of subjects should be taught in this limited time. It is regarded as an inevitable situation for teachers. It brings heavy workload for both mentors and student teachers. Hence, the time devoted to student teachers is not enough to build reciprocal training and experience. A question may be asked: “Is there a good relation between the supervisor at the university and the mentor?” It is important to interact effectively in order to observe student-teachers objectively. The 300 �results indicate that most of the mentors go and meet supervisors about the recent developments, studentteachers’ attendance to training (whether regular or not). And also supervisors visit schools to monitor student-teacher’s performance in the light of some criteria. During these observations, supervisors generally contact with school administrations. Some mentors prefer sending the recent report or message via student-teachers going back to the department. This study also examines mentors’ methods they are using in the classroom. It is asked to student-teachers to discover this reality, of whether student centered instruction or teacher centered instruction is dominant. But less than half of the mentors use different approaches for their class and students. They use either a course book or series of the book. They rarely benefit from different language resources apart from course books, teacher’s book and audio cassettes. Most mentors depend on group teaching rather than individual learning. Mentors are inclined to provide comfortable school atmosphere and condition for student teachers. Thanks to school administration, student teachers can use teachers’ room for conferencing sessions with mentors. Briefly, this study has achieved its overall objectives. Its aims are making student-teachers and the mentors be aware of mentors’ importance in teaching experience; attracting the interest of teachers who have never taken part in mentoring. The aim which is to reach mass of mentors is achieved. However, it is inevitable to tell that this study is a kind of starting point to develop new research in this context. Further study would require the restructuring of the whole system to represent the voices and experiences of the student-teachers. Towards this end, a new mentoring framework that potentially encourages studentteachers to become critical practitioners should be offered. The model proposed should emphasize the professional agency of the student-teacher. Such a model holds the position that to transform their views of teaching and learning, student-teachers as well as their trainers should be empowered to seek justice and emancipation from the traditional model of evaluation. Finally, it should attempt to leave readers with the impression that if we prefer our zone of comfort at the expense of our student-teacher’s growth we must know that we are jeopardizing the fate of teacher education. Given the ANOVA analysis, the fourth question examining the frequency and quality of getting feedback from the mentors to the student-teachers, the finding (sig. 0.030) shows that there is a significant difference between the answers of mentors and student -teachers at the level of p< 0.005. While the mean of mentors is 2.91, the mean of the student- teachers is 2, 35. The means suggest that mentors do not sufficiently give feedback to the students. As for the question 7, a significant difference about mentor’s language proficiency (sig. 0.022) at the level of p<0.05 is seen. It seems that student teachers do not see their mentors successful about language proficiency as much as their mentors consider. Question 19 examines the mentors’ approach towards self evaluation. However, both groups gave significantly different answers. While the mean of the mentors is 3.79, the mean of the student teachers is 2.80. Considering mentors’ achievement about reinforcement, there also seems to be a significant difference between the responses of the mentors and student-teachers (sig. 0.031) on question 25. While the mean of student-teachers was 2.886, the mean of the mentors was 3.54. In fact, it displays that mentors appear to reinforce their student though it is not seen sufficient by the student-teachers. Question 29 also indicates a significant difference between the responses of the mentors and student-teachers as to the perception of the mentor in terms of supportive aspects. While the mean of the student-teachers was 3.170, on the other hand for the mentors, mean turned out 4. 17. For the question 32, it can be argued that mentors consider themselves adequate about their affective and communicative functions (f. 9.299, sig. 0.003); however student-teachers are not certain of getting affective support. As to the interaction between the mentors and student-teachers (question 33), student-teachers pointed out that mentors do not consider student teachers’ ideas adequately in contrast to the mentors’ responses. There appears a significant difference at the level of p<0.005 (f.15.452, sig. .000). While the mean of mentors is 4.04, the mean of the studentteachers is 2.99. Likewise, question 34 suggests the same argument given the mean of student-teachers (3.37), the mean of the mentors (4.12). The findings show that there is a significant difference between the two parties about communicative situation (f.7.892, sig. 0.006). Question 35 has examined the mentors’ function as a scaffolder; regarding the former findings this item suggests the same result. As to the sufficient pedagogical support to the student-teachers by the mentors, while the mean of the mentors is 3.79, the mean of the student-teachers is 2.80. This again states that the mentors and the studentteachers are not in a common opinion about mentor’s support. 301 �Variables How often do you give feedback in written form as well as verbally? How often do you face problems with your own English language proficiency/field knowledge? How often do you give the student-teacher the chance to self-evaluate himself/herself orally? How often do you give studentteacher the chance to selfevaluate himself/herself in written form? How often do you give reinforcement to the studentteachers? How often do you thing a mentor is a reflective friend? Is there a two-way interaction rather than a directive attitude of the mentor in these sessions? Is there a communicative atmosphere characterized by openness and caring? How often do you seek studentteachers’ ideas as well which could be discussed and enriched if needed? How often do you encourage and support the student-teachers so as to build up their confidence in planning and teaching English? How often do you believe you can give dynamic service by using other resources and methods and do you go step by step by having the student-teachers begin from what they can manage, for example groupteaching, with a trial-error learning approach? Sum of squares DF Mean Between Group Within Groups Between Group 6.543 1 6.543 224.228 164 1.367 8.293 1 8.293 Within Groups 254.984 164 1.555 Between Group 16.127 1 16.127 Within Groups 284.140 163 1.743 Between Group 17.790 1 17.790 Within Groups 230.649 162 1.424 Between Group 8.803 1 8.803 Within Groups 302.143 163 1.854 19.921 1 19.921 245.219 162 1.514 15.328 1 15.328 168.390 161 1.046 12.097 1 12.097 Within Groups 213.331 164 1.301 Between Group 22.558 1 22.558 Within Groups 237.951 163 1.460 Between Group 11.509 1 11.509 Within Groups 237.703 163 1.458 Between Group 19.859 1 19.859 Between Group Within Groups Between Group Within Groups Within Groups Within Groups 235.751 162 1.455 Table 1. Mentors and Mentees’ Responses 302 F Sig. 4.786 .030 5.334 .022 9.251 .003 12.495 .001 4.749 .031 13.160 .000 14.655 .000 9.299 .003 15.452 .000 7.892 .006 13.646 .000 �Variables How often does the mentor follow the process of pre-observation, observation and postobservation? How often does the mentor provide feedback to the student-teachers as a mentor? Is his/her feedback sufficient in depth How often does the mentor give feedback in written form as well as verbally? How often does the mentor give feedback immediately after the observation? How often does the mentor face problems with time constraints when providing feedback ? How often does the mentor face problems with his own English language proficiency/field knowledge? How often does the mentor face problems related with inadequate/no training given to the mentor? How often does the mentor face problems with school management? How often does the mentor face problems with heavy workload for mentors? Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Student teacher Mentor teacher Mean Standard Deviation 3,0219 1,1972 3,5000 ,78019 3,2887 1,15826 3,7500 ,89685 3,2214 1,18788 3,5417 ,93153 2,3521 1,16203 2,9167 1,21285 3,1773 1,22056 3,2917 1,12208 2,5357 1,14685 2,3750 ,96965 2,2606 1,30835 1,6250 ,76967 2,1786 1,16463 1,7391 ,68870 1,6929 1,03114 1,9167 1,10007 2,0073 1,01094 2,0870 ,90015 Table 2. Mean and Standard Deviation Scores of Both Groups 303 �Conclusions and Implications Based on these data, the results show that it would be essential to train the mentors once again 10 years later the first training seminar in 1998(Akalın). It has been found out that a revision of the system is a Must. It seems also necessary to encourage the supervisors back in the department to be more attentive to the issue. Whenever necessary, mentors should be able to easily reach the department and get utmost support in their decisions. It is also highly recommended that mentors should be encouraged to give more feedback to the student-teachers. They should also be supported about getting more help from the department in upgrading their level of language proficieny. The mentors should be more willing to do self evaluation and they should be encouraged to use more reinforcement on student-teachers. The results also indicate that mentors should use a revised, less authorative and more communicative approach in dealing with student-teachers’ needs and they should be more supportive of the student-teachers’ new approaches to teaching. References Akalın, S. (1998). İngilizce Rehber Öğretmenlerinin Hizmet İçi Eğitimi, Erzurum: Bakanlar Media. Bullough, R. V. (2005). Being and Becoming a Mentor: School-Based Teacher Educators and Teacher Educator Identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 143155. Retrived August 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Hussein, J. W. (2007). A plea for a mentoring framework that promotes dialogic professional learning in the ELT teacher education context. International Journal of Progressive Education, 3, (2). Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Friedman, Audrey A; Elizabeth Kowaleski Wallace (2006). Crossing Borders: Developing an Innovative Collaboration to Improve the Preparation of High School English Teachers. English Article (EJ) 12 Equity & Excellence in Education, 39, (1), 15-26. Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Rajuana, M., Douwe Beijaardb and Nico Verloopc (2007), The role of the cooperating teacher: bridging the gap between the expectations of cooperating teachers and student. Mentoring & Tutoring, 15, (3), 223-242. Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. Rush, Leslie; Sandra H Blair; David Chapman; Andrew Codner; Becky Pearce. (2008). A New Look at Mentoring: Proud Moments and Pitfalls. English Article (EJ) 5 Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 3, 128-132 Web site: http://www.heldref.org Smith, E. R. (12.04.2009), Negotiating power and pedagogy in student teaching: expanding and shifting roles in expert–novice discourse. Retrieved in March 13th, 2008, from http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a739048845? words=men Varghese, Manka M.; Lee Wilberschied (2002). Reconsidering the novice/expert dichotomy in the K-12 mentor-mentee relationship. Journal of In-Service Education, 28, 23-34. Retrived August, 19, 2007, from the Elsevier database. 304 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2160ab2e6c19f4d0c353968f240cba9e.doc a34d3d97d2fc07142efed886bb3ec90d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 365 Title A name given to the resource Mentoring SYSTEM: An Evaluation by English Mentors and Efl Student- Teachers Author Author AKALIN, Suna ÖZATA, Cüneyt ÖZBAY, İrem Abstract A summary of the resource. The system of mentoring has first been applied in England and is being used in Turkey’s educational system, too. The aim of the study is evaluating the mentoring system of Ataturk University, School of Education, and English Language Teaching Department in training pre-service English teachers during their teaching experience at schools. Questionnaires were applied to mentors, student-teachers and supervisors. Data have been collected through questionnaires which include Lykert type items and collected data have been analyzed statistically using mean scores of the participants. The purpose of this study is to make student teachers and mentors aware of mentors’ importance in teaching experience, to attract the interest of teachers who have never taken part in mentoring. The aim which is to reach mass of mentors has been achieved. However, it is essential to state that this study is a kind of starting point to develop new research in this context. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/075fee0b35fda7cb687261410e6166f6.pdf 3317f9dd25d3e5c11e653aa7fbe88e4d PDF Text Text Freshman Students’ Attitudes Toward Issues of Computer Ethics Ali ACILAR The Department of Business Administration Bilecik University, Turkey ali.acilar@bilecik.edu.tr; Muzaffer AYDEMİR The Department of Business Administration Bilecik University, Turkey muzaffer.aydemir@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: Computers and Internet have become a part of our life. Our dependence on these technologies has been continuously and rapidly increasing. Computers and Internet use also has become a necessity for instructional purposes in academic environments. Although the widespread use of computers and Internet has many benefits for almost everyone, it has also increased the use of these technologies for illegal purposes or unethical activities such as piracy and privacy invasion. Taking these issues into consideration, the main purpose of this study is to explore freshman students’ attitudes toward several issues of computer ethics. This study was conducted using a survey method and data were collected among freshman students in the Department of Business Administration at a public university in Turkey. Hypotheses were tested for investigating whether age, gender and duration of computer usage in a week have a significant impact on freshman students’ ethical judgments regarding computer and Internet usage. Keywords: Computer ethics, freshman students Introduction Computers have become a part of society. Computers and internet change the way we live, the way we communicate, the way we get education, the way we make business. Societies are changing with information and communication technologies. Many businesses depend on computers and Internet for its operations. Computers and Internet have increasingly become necessity in education and industry as well as in daily life. There is no doubt that these technologies have had considerable impact on our lives. However, the tradeoff between the benefits and dangers for a person or a society is controversial. Today’s advanced information and communication technologies have enlightened many people but, also have increased the use of computers for illegal purposes or unethical activities such as piracy, privacy invasion, unauthorized access and use of computer systems (Banerjee et al, 1998; Mason, 1986; Sedlet, 1999, Lee and Chan, 2008; Maslin Masrom and Zuraini Ismail, 2008; Akbulut et al, 2008, a). Technological developments create new opportunities for action and new sets of choices that are ultimately of a moral nature (Mullen and Horner, 2004). As living in the information age, also known commonly as the computer age or information era, we constantly confronted with important technological changes and the need to create new attitudes towards new situations arose from the computer technology (Maslin Masrom and Zuraini Ismail, 2008). Technological changes penetrate societies faster than new attitudes are formed for them or legal and ethical codes are adopted (Bercu, 1991). As the use of computers and Internet has become widespread, misuses of these technologies have increased dramatically (Banerjee et al, 1998). The easy of reaching, storing, changing and transmitting information provided by Internet has made unethical behaviors much easier, particularly among students in academic settings (Abdul Karim, Zamzuri, and Nor, 2009). Internet has provided a new dimension to human computer interaction. There is no doubt that proper use of Internet is beneficial to both, students and academicians. However there is no code of ethics for users in the Internet. There is an ethical vacuum in cyberspace (Laudon, 1995). According to Sackson (1996) as the general public becomes increasingly ‘computer literate’, the gap between technology and peoples’ intellect noticeably shrinks. Students enter universities from different backgrounds and with different experiences. Many students are unaware of ethical issues of computer usage such as software piracy (Cohen and Cornwell, 1989). According to Calluzzo and Cante (2004) many if not most, students had misconceptions about what represented ethical and unethical behaviors in the use of software and information technology and systems. It is important to measure the 213 �level of computer ethics awareness in the first year of undergraduate education to take necessary measures about ethical computer usage among students before graduation. Teaching computer ethics is a critical task in the Department of Business Administration. There are several reasons computer ethics is an important issue for students in the Department of Business Administration. It is possible that if college students are uncertain about what constitutes appropriate and inappropriate behavior then this uncertainty will be carried forward into their workplaces after graduation (Calluzzo and Cante, 2004; King and Case, 2007). Employee abuse of company information technology resources can slow a system’s network, hurt the productivity of all workers trying to access information on the system and even dangerous network can be infected by a downloaded virus. These cases may generate huge losses for company and can result in lawsuit or dismissal (Perreault and Keith, 2004). Even though some organization adopted code of ethics for members, not every computer user and information system professional is a member of these organizations, and therefore does not necessarily follow these codes (Harris, 2000). Computer abuse is widespread issue around the world. To prevent financial losses from computer abuse, companies need to employ people who are aware of ethical computer usage (Pierce and Henry, 1996). Since many companies depend on people who are computer literate and computer users face ethical problems everyday in the work-place. For these reasons college students should be aware of ethical computer usage before graduation (Pierce and Henry, 1996; Calluzzo and Cante, 2004). Given these issues, this study was conducted among freshman students in the Department of Business Administration at a public university in Turkey to gain insight about their awareness and understanding of the computer ethics issues. Literature Review Computer ethics awareness among undergraduate students in different fields of study has been the subject of several studies. Different dimensions of computer ethics have been addressed by these studies. Cohen and Cornwell (1989) conducted a study on college students to determine their attitude toward copying of computer software. They determined that 58% of the college students, who are participated the survey, had personally pirated. Cohen and Cornwell (1989) determined that an overwhelming majority of students feel that software piracy and other forms of information system unethical behavior are acceptable, also many students feel that it is okay for them to pirate software but they feel that piracy is normative behavior. Athley (1993) surveyed sixty-five computer science and computer information systems students to determine their ethical beliefs on seven scenarios and nineteen ethical problems. She found significant differences between high-tech students and computer experts based on ethical beliefs in computer-related situations. Harris (2000) investigated information systems ethical attitudes among college students with a survey including ethical situations of 20 individual situations. He found that there is a difference in attitudes as students mature through the educational process in 12 of the 20 individual situations, and between genders in 8 of the 20 individual situations. Siegfried (2004) investigated student attitudes on software piracy and related issues of computer ethics. He determined from the study that students generally felt that copying commercial software and downloading music from the Internet was acceptable and found that there was no significant correlation between student attitudes and their school’s religious affiliation or lack thereof. He found that a small but significant percentage of responding students considered the other questionable behaviors as ethically acceptable. Students do not see any problem with downloading music over the Internet. Siegfried (2004) determined that there is no sense among college students that the unauthorized copying of commercial software is wrong. Calluzzo and Cante (2004) conducted a research among graduate and undergraduate students to gain insight into their attitudes, perceptions and understanding of ethics in information technology and software use. They found that the sample were quite ethical in those behaviors associated with personal privacy, personal property or outright theft. This study couldn’t find significant differences among genders based on ethical judgements. McCarthy, Halawi, and Aronson (2005) studied to determine whether there are significant differences between undergraduate and graduate students in their perception of information technology ethics. The study found that significant differences do not exist between undergraduate and graduate computer information systems students but significant differences existed between male and female computer information systems students in their ethical beliefs related to information technology usage. Gan and Koh (2006) examined perceptions of software piracy and studied to discover its underlying factors in three universities at Singapore. They found that while age was negatively related to software piracy, computer experience or computer usage demonstrated an ambiguous relationship to software piracy. 214 �Halawi and Karkoulian (2006) investigated ethical attitudes of business information systems student toward information systems. They found that there is a difference in perception to ethical situations between undergraduate and graduate students as well as between females and males in certain ethical situations. King and Case (2007) investigated undergraduate student behavior and perceptions about e-cheating. They founded that even cheating is common among undergraduates only four percent of students admit to cheating on exams using information technology. Masrom, Ismail, and Hussein (2008) investigated the ethical awareness of computer use among undergraduate computer science students at two public Malaysian universities. They found that the ethical awareness of computer use of the students differ most significantly on the basis of the university itself. They found no major differences across gender, age and duration of computer use. Namlu and Odabasi (2007) carried out a survey with 216 undergraduate students from Anadolu University, Turkey computer engineering and computer and instructional technologies teaching departments and developed unethical computer using behavior scale (UECUBS). Akbulut et al (2008, b) investigated influence of gender, program of study and PC experience on unethical computer using behaviors of Turkish undergraduate students from five different departments (not including the Department of Business Administration) at Anadolu University using UECUBS. Akbulut et al (2008, a) explored the types and reasons of Internet-triggered academic dishonesty among undergraduate students in department of education at Anadolu University and developed Internet-Triggered Academic Dishonesty Scale (ITADS). Beycioglu (2009) conducted a study aimed to determine prospective teachers’ unethical computer using behaviors at a faculty of education in Turkey. Beycioglu (2009) in his study concluded that prospective teachers undermine ethical computer use. The results revealed that female candidate teachers were more concerned about ethical issues than male candidate teachers and that prospective teachers who had up to five years of PC experience considered ethical computer use more than those with five years and beyond. Research Methodology Hypotheses In this study three research hypotheses were stated to guide the research. These are as follows: H0(1): 18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old students have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage. H0(2): Female and male students have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage. H0(3): Students with less computer usage (1-4 hours) and students with more computer usage (more than 4 hours) in a week have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage. Participants The study was conducted in the spring semester in 2009. 143 full time freshman students in the Department of Business Administration participated the study. The total number of questionnaires used after the exclusion of missing values was 110. Respondent students (excluding missing values) consisted of 36% of all freshman students in the Department of Business Administration (309). Sample characteristics are provided in Table 1. 215 �Frequency Percentage 1) Male 49 44.5 2) Female 61 55.5 18-19 57 51.8 20-24 53 48.2 52 47.3 58 52.7 57 51.8 53 48.2 97 88.2 13 11.8 13 11.8 97 88.2 Gender Age Duration of Computer Usage in a Week 1-4 hours > 4 hours Internet Experience 1-4 years > 4 years E-Mail Users Yes No Internet shopping Yes No Table 1. Participants’ characteristics Instrument The questionnaire used in this study consists of two parts. The first part was developed to collect demographic information. The second part comprised of 28 items measuring computer ethics awareness. 10 items in the second part of the questionnaire are adapted from “Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics”. Remaining 18 items are adapted from “unethical computer using behavior scale (UECUBS)” developed by Namlu and Odabaşı, 2009. Respondents answered each item in the survey on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree), 2 (Disagree), 3 (Neutral), 4 (Agree) to 5 (Strongly Agree). Results The results indicate sensitivity toward unethical behavior in various situations among freshman students. The highest mean score (Q12: 2.44, with standard deviation (SD): 1.345) regarded “Copying licensed CDs, DVDs”, second highest mean score (Q6: 2.15, with SD: 1.322) regarded “Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid”. Other high mean scores were “Using crack programmes” (Q11: mean: 2.05, SD: 1.244), “Using materials like pictures, animations, etc., without the consent of the owner” (Q14: mean: 2.03, SD: 1.207). The lowest mean score (Q23: mean: 1.11, SD: 0.367) regarded “Sending pornographic mail to people without request”. Other low mean scores were “Use a computer to steal” (Q4: mean: 1.13, SD: 0.386), and “Deliberately sending a virus by e-mail” (Q24: mean: 1.15, SD: 0.473). Table 2 shows descriptive statistics of the items. The results of the hypotheses testing are summarized in the following paragraphs. The results of t-test are shown in Table 3 and the group means are presented in Table 4. 216 �Age Differences The first hypothesis is about whether students in different ages have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage. Respondent students were grouped according to age as 18-19 years old and 20-24 years old. The results show that 5 of the 28 items resulted in differences between 18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old students. Table 3 shows where there was a difference among group means between 18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old students for the items. In all cases but two, mean score of 18-19 years old students is higher than mean score of 2024 years old students. This finding coincides with the results to other studies (ie. Masrom, Ismael and Hussein, 2008). Age is an important factor for students to their understanding of ethics become mature. Two groups believed that use a computer to harm other people is unethical (Groups’ mean scores are 1.26). There is no difference between age groups regarding to “Copying licensed CDs, DVDs” and “Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid” items. These items have the highest mean scores for these groups. “Sending pornographic mail to people without request” item has the lowest mean score for two age groups. There is no statistically significant difference between two groups regarding to this item. Gender Differences The second hypothesis is about whether female and male students have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage. The results show that 15 of the 28 items resulted in statistically differences between male and female students. Table 3 shows where there was a difference among group means between male and female students for the items. In all cases, mean score of male students is higher than mean score of female students. Female students are more sensitive than male students regarding to unethical use of computers. The lowest mean score of males is 1.12 (1.11 for females) related to “Sending pornographic mail to people without request” item. Male and female students accept this as an unethical behavior. The highest mean scores of males are 2.78 and 2.71 related to “Copying licensed CDs, DVDs” and “Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid” items. Female students’ mean scores of these items are 2.16 and 1.7 respectively. Duration of Computer Use in a Week Differences The third hypothesis is about whether students with less computer usage and students with more computer usage in a week have the same ethical beliefs about computer usage. The results show that 14 of the 28 items resulted in differences between students with less computer usage and students with more computer usage in a week. Table 3 shows where there was a difference among group means between students who use computer 1-4 hours in a week and students who use computer more than 4 hours in a week for the items. In all cases, mean of students who use computer more than 4 hours in a week is higher than mean of other group. These results indicate that more computer experienced students show less ethical attitudes toward computer usage. The highest mean score for these groups is also related to “Copying licensed CDs, DVDs.”. Mean scores of this item are 2.81 and 2.02 respectively. The lowest mean score for more computer experienced students is 1.16 and it is related to “Use a computer to steal.”. The lowest mean score for less computer experienced students is 1.02 and it is related to “Sending pornographic mail to people without request.”. In this study, we couldn’t find statistically significant difference between groups in 5 of 28 items regarding all three hypotheses. These items are Q5, Q8, Q19, Q20, and Q25. Conclusions As computer and Internet use continues to grow, users and institutions face some ethical and legal issues related with using these technologies. The aims of this study were to test three hypotheses regarding freshman students’ attitudes toward issues of computer ethics. To achieve these objectives, authors collected data from one hundred and ten freshman students in the Department of Business Administration. The study found that there were significant differences in ethical attitudes about computer usage between 18-19 years old students and 20-24 years old students. 20-24 years old students were more aware about ethical behavior using computer than 18-19 years old students. In terms of gender factor, the results of this study indicated that significant differences existed between male and female freshman students. It is found that, female students' attitudes about ethical computer usage better than 217 �male students in all 28 cases. The study showed 15 of the 28 items resulted in statistically significant differences between male and female students. The study shows that more computer experienced students show less ethical attitudes toward computer usage. In all cases, mean scores of students who use computer more than 4 hours in a week is higher than mean scores of students who use computer 1-4 hours in a week. The results show that 14 of the 28 items resulted in statistically significant differences between students depending on duration of computer usage in a week. There are some limitations of this study. The respondent sample of the study is composed students in the Department of Business Administration. Students in other departments may show differences. Another limitation is that study is conducted in a public university in Turkey. Besides all the limitations, this study makes meaningful contribution to field of study in computer ethics awareness among undergraduate students. References Abdul Karim, Nor Shahriza; Zamzuri, Nurul Hidayah Ahmad; and Nor, Yakinah Muhamad. (2009). Exploring the relationship between Internet ethics in university students and the big five model of personality. Computers & Education, doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.001, (Article in Press). Akbulut, Yavuz; Şendağ, Serkan; Birinci, Gürkay; Kılıçer, Kerem; Şahin, Mehmet C., and Odabaşı, Hatice F. (2008, a). Exploring the types and reasons of Internet-triggered academic dishonesty among Turkish undergraduate students: Development of Internet-Triggered Academic Dishonesty Scale (ITADS). Computers & Education, 51(1), 463–473. Akbulut, Yavuz; Uysal, Ömer; Odabaşı, Hatice F.; and Kuzu, Abdullah. (2008, b). Influence of gender, program of study and PC experience on unethical computer using behaviors of Turkish undergraduate students. Computers & Education, 51(2), 485–492. Athey, Susan. (1993). A Comparison of Experts' and High Tech Students' Ethical Behefs in Computer-related Situations. Journal of Business Ethics, 12, 359–370. Banerjee Debasish; Cronan Timothy Paul; Jones Thomas W. (1998), “Modeling IT Ethics- A Study in Situational Ethics”, MIS Quarterly, Volume 22, Number 1, 31–60. Bercu, Steven. (1991). Book Note, Computer Ethics: Cautionary Tales & Ethical Dilemmas in Computing, by Tom Forester & Perry Morrison. Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, Vol. 4, pp.299–305. Beycioglu, Kadir. (2009). A cyberphilosophical issue in education: Unethical computer using behavior – The case of prospective teachers. Computers & Education, doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.009, (Article in Press). Calluzzo, Vincent J., and Cante, Charles J. (2004). Ethics in Information Technology and Software Use. Journal of Business Ethics, 51, pp.301–312. Cohen, Eli and Cornwell, Larry. (1989). College Students Believe Piracy is Acceptable. CIS Educator Forum, 1(3), pp.2–5. Gan, Lydia L., and Koh, Hian Chye. (2006). An empirical study of software piracy among tertiary institutions in Singapore. Information & Management, 43, pp640–649. Halawi, Leila and Karkoulian, Silva. (2006). Ethical Attitudes of Business Information Systems Students: An Empirical Investigation. Issues in Information Systems, Volume VII, No. 1, p.175–178. Harris, Albert L. (2000). IS Ethical Attitudes Among College Students: A Comparative Study. The Proceedings of the Information Systems Education Conference, 2000, v. 17. King, Darwin L. and Case, Carl J. (2007). E-Cheating: Are Students Misusing IT? Issues in Information Systems, Volume VIII, No.1, p.71-75. Laudon, Kenneth C. (1995) Ethical Concepts and Information Technology. Communications of the ACM, 38 (12), pp.33–39. Lee, Wanbil W. and Chan, Keith C. C. (1998). Computer Ethics: An Argument for Rethinking Business Ethics. 2nd World Business Ethics Forum: Rethinking the Value of Business Ethics, Hong Kong Baptist University, 1-12 December 2008. Masrom, Maslin; Ismail, Zuraini, and Hussein, Ramlah. (2008). Computer Ethics Awareness Among Undergraduate Students in Malaysian Higher Education Institutions. 19th Australasian Conference on Information Systems, 3-5 Dec 2008, Christchurch, p628–637. 218 �Mason, Richard O. (1986). Four Ethical Issues of the Information Age. Management Information Systems Quarterly, Volume 10, Number 1, pp.5–12. McCarthy, Richard V.; Halawi, Leila, and Aronson, Jay E. (2005). Information Technology Ethics: A Research Framework. Issues in Information Systems, Volume VI, No. 2, pp.64–69. Mullen, Hilary, and Horner, David Sanford. (2004). Ethical problems for e-government: an evaluative framework. Electronic Journal of e-Government, 2(3), pp187-196. Namlu, Aysen Gurcan, and Odabaşı, Hatice F. (2007). Unethical computer using behavior scale: A study of reliability and validity on Turkish university students. Computers & Education, 48(2), pp205–215. Perreault, Heidi R., and Keith, Nancy K. (2004). Incorporating Ethical Decision Making Into Business Technology Classes. Journal of Applied Research for Business Instruction, Volume 2, Issue 1, pp.1–6. Pierce, Margaret Anne, and Henry, John W. (1996). Computer Ethics: The Role of Personal, Informal, and Formal Codes. Journal of Business Ethics, 15, p425–437. Sackson, Marian. (1996). Computer Ethics: Are Students Concerned? First Annual Ethics and Technology Conference Loyola University Chicago Saturday, March 9, 1996 http://webpages.cs.luc.edu/~laufer/ethics96/papers/sackson.doc (02-04-2009) Sedlet, Steven. (1999). Computers, ethics, law and society: what do we teach undergraduates? In Proceedings of the Conference: 1999 International Symposium on Technology and Society, Women and Technology: Historical, Societal, and Professional Perspectives. 29-31 July 1999, Page(s): 249-253 Siegfried, Robert M. (2004). Student attitudes on software piracy and related issues of computer ethics. Ethics and Information Technology, 6, 215– 222. 219 �Mean SD Q1) Use a computer to harm other people. 1.26 0.585 Q2) Interfere with other people’s computer work. 1.53 0.786 Q3) Snoop around in other people’s computer files. 1.41 0.782 Q4) Use a computer to steal. 1.13 0.386 Q5) Use a computer to bear false witness. 1.17 0.446 Q6) Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid. 2.15 1.322 1.50 0.843 Q8) Appropriate other people’s intellectual output. 1.50 0.886 Q11) Using crack programmes. 2.05 1.244 Q12) Copying licensed CDs, DVDs. 2.44 1.345 Q13) Selling licensed CDs, DVDs which are reproduced against regulations. 1.62 0.948 Q14) Using materials like pictures, animations, etc. without the consent of the owner. 2.03 1.207 Q9) Do not think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing. 1.51 0.763 Q10) Do not use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow humans. 1.28 0.608 1.38 0.69 Privacy Property Q7) Use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation. Social Impact Q15) Disturbing people by using the advantage of virtual environment. Q16) Carrying a propaganda in Internet that threatens social peace. 1.23 0.501 Q17) Allowing children to play computer games of violence. 1.53 0.936 Q18) Permitting children to enter inappropriate sites on Internet in Internet Cafes. 1.28 0.731 Q19) Web masters’ delivering the personal information of members to other people. 1.20 0.503 Q20) Deliberately damaging the hardware of computers designed for public use. 1.16 0.418 Q21) Copying the data in a computer without the consent of the owner. 1.27 0.573 Q22) Sending a private mail to others without the consent of the sender. 1.49 0.875 Q23) Sending pornographic mail to people without request. 1.11 0.367 Q24) Deliberately sending a virus by e-mail. 1.15 0.473 Q25) Using others’ personal information without permission. 1.23 0.553 Q26) Sending one’s personal information to a web page without permission. 1.19 0.459 1.91 1.253 1.60 1.051 Safety and Quality Q27) Using the network of an individual or institution to access Internet without permission. Q28) Hacking through Internet. Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Items 220 �Privacy Ha(1) Ha(2) H(3) p p p Q1) Use a computer to harm other people. 0.993 0.002** 0.056 Q2) Interfere with other people’s computer work. 0.015* 0.019* 0.019* Q3) Snoop around in other people’s computer files. 0.016* 0.032* 0.118 Q4) Use a computer to steal. 0.172 0.028* 0.426 Q5) Use a computer to bear false witness. 0.024 0.062 0.676 Property Q6) Copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid. 0.236 0.000** 0.001** Q7) Use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper compensation. 0.142 0.053 0.010** Q8) Appropriate other people’s intellectual output. 0.915 0.332 0.520 Q11) Using crack programmes. 0.111 0.000** 0.037* Q12) Copying licensed CDs, DVDs. 0.387 0.017* 0.002** Q13) Selling licensed CDs, DVDs which are reproduced against regulations. 0.340 0.001** 0.012* Q14) Using materials like pictures, animations, etc. without the consent of the owner. 0.033* 0.170 0.022* Q9) Do not think about the social consequences of the program you are writing or the system you are designing. 0.043* 0.011* 0.106 Q10) Do not use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow humans. 0.546 0.033* 0.605 Social Impact Q15) Disturbing people by using the advantage of virtual environment. 0.147 0.000** 0.026* Q16) Carrying a propaganda in Internet that threatens social peace. 0.051 0.478 0.022* Q17) Allowing children to play computer games of violence. 0.424 0.002** 0.009** Q18) Permitting children to enter inappropriate sites on Internet in Internet Cafes. 0.034* 0.182 0.004** Q19) Web masters’ delivering the personal information of members to other people. 0.076 0.224 0.088 Q20) Deliberately damaging the hardware of computers designed for public use. 0.221 0.184 0.817 Q21) Copying the data in a computer without the consent of the owner. 0.138 0.015* 0.036* Q22) Sending a private mail to others without the consent of the sender. 0.046* 0.194 0.155 Q23) Sending pornographic mail to people without request. 0.141 0.734 0.011* Q24) Deliberately sending a virus by e-mail. 0.084 0.080 0.036* Q25) Using others’ personal information without permission. 0.078 0.520 0.090 Q26) Sending one’s personal information to a web page without permission. 0.009** 0.494 0.097 Q27) Using the network of an individual or institution to access Internet without permission. 0.089 0.017* 0.086 Q28) Hacking through Internet. 0.493 0.001** 0.262 Safety and Quality * indicates significant at the 0.05 level ** indicates significant at the 0.01 level Table 3. The Results of t-test 221 �Ha(2) Ha(1) 18-19 20-24 years old years old H(3) Male Female 1-4 hours >4 hours N 57 53 49 61 52 58 Q1 1.26 1.26 1.47 1.10 1.15 1.36 Q2 1.70 1.34 1.73 1.36 1.35 1.69 Q3 1.58 1.23 1.59 1.26 1.29 1.52 Q4 1.18 1.08 1.22 1.05 1.10 1.16 Q5 1.26 1.08 1.27 1.10 1.15 1.19 Q6 2.30 2.00 2.71 1.70 1.73 2.53 Q7 1.61 1.38 1.67 1.36 1.29 1.69 Q8 1.49 1.51 1.59 1.43 1.44 1.55 Q11 2.23 1.85 2.63 1.57 1.79 2.28 Q12 2.54 2.32 2.78 2.16 2.02 2.81 Q13 1.70 1.53 1.96 1.34 1.38 1.83 Q14 2.26 1.77 2.20 1.89 1.75 2.28 Privacy Property Social Impact Q9 1.65 1.36 1.71 1.34 1.38 1.62 Q10 1.32 1.25 1.43 1.16 1.25 1.31 Q15 1.47 1.28 1.65 1.16 1.23 1.52 Q16 1.32 1.13 1.27 1.20 1.12 1.33 Q17 1.60 1.45 1.84 1.28 1.29 1.74 Q18 1.42 1.13 1.39 1.20 1.08 1.47 Q19 1.28 1.11 1.27 1.15 1.12 1.28 Q20 1.21 1.11 1.22 1.11 1.15 1.17 Q21 1.35 1.19 1.43 1.15 1.15 1.38 Q22 1.65 1.32 1.61 1.39 1.37 1.60 Q23 1.16 1.06 1.12 1.10 1.02 1.19 Q24 1.23 1.08 1.24 1.08 1.06 1.24 Q25 1.32 1.13 1.27 1.20 1.13 1.31 Q26 1.30 1.08 1.22 1.16 1.12 1.26 Q27 2.11 1.70 2.22 1.66 1.69 2.10 Q28 1.67 1.53 2.00 1.28 1.48 1.71 Safety and Quality Table 4. Group Means 222 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ec9b8cdd49e4e6d4f698cbcab5b5aa35.doc 06471204d203c8f2497ab8a2d4287525 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 402 Title A name given to the resource Freshman Students’ Attitudes Toward Issues of Computer Ethics Author Author ACILAR, Ali AYDEMİR, Muzaffer Abstract A summary of the resource. Computers and Internet have become a part of our life. Our dependence on these technologies has been continuously and rapidly increasing. Computers and Internet use also has become a necessity for instructional purposes in academic environments. Although the widespread use of computers and Internet has many benefits for almost everyone, it has also increased the use of these technologies for illegal purposes or unethical activities such as piracy and privacy invasion. Taking these issues into consideration, the main purpose of this study is to explore freshman students’ attitudes toward several issues of computer ethics. This study was conducted using a survey method and data were collected among freshman students in the Department of Business Administration at a public university in Turkey. Hypotheses were tested for investigating whether age, gender and duration of computer usage in a week have a significant impact on freshman students’ ethical judgments regarding computer and Internet usage. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c2ceb70d068e3f8cd2c70948621140e.pdf 501a49b00f352f7bdf53fbda152f2c67 PDF Text Text Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education Caglayan ACIKGOZ, Alev A.BORAZAN Department of Chemical&Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , Bilecik University, Bilecik, TURKEY Email: caglayan.acikgoz@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: With worldwide demand for energy increasing every day, the development of new, clean, renewable energy sources is critical to Earth's environment. To use clean-energy technology to help developing countries improve their quality of life and economies. Turkey is an energy importing country. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. The use of renewable energy as a topic to study energy and its forms permits a novel way to motivate students, particularly those who energy topics taking conscience with the environment. We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and energy management methods in Universities and Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors. Key words: Renewable Energy Education, Teaching Learning Material, Motivation Introduction Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life in all countries. Availability of cheap and abundant energy with minimum environmental and ecological hazards associated with its production and use is one of the most important factors for economic growth and also for the desired improvement in the quality of life of the people living in developing countries. Because environmental problems result from energyrelated factors, energy and environment are closely related concepts. Studies in last 2 decades have predicted that energy education will be a new discipline in both developed and developing countries. It is therefore especially developing countries that should take into account those studies and make some decisions about their energy, environment, and educational policy. Two important strategies are being adopted by a number of countries around the globe. The first strategy calls for energy demand management, which effectively means promotion of various energy conservation and efficiency measures, and the second approach is the development and large-scale dissemination of renewable energy technologies. Many countries around the world took initiatives for the development and dissemination of renewable energy technologies immediately after the first oil crisis. However, in spite of ambitious programmes of many countries in this direction, the dissemination of these technologies has not met the expectations of the planners and implementing organizations. There have been only a few successful cases of the adoption of renewable energy technologies. The poor dissemination of renewable energy technologies may be attributed to several factors. One of the important inhibiting factors is the lack of a structured framework for providing energy education, in general, and renewable energy education, in particular. For example, in many countries, the lack of indigenous technology development capacity in the area of new and renewable sources of energy has often resulted in the promotion of very expensive and inappropriate designs. Similarly, in some other places, owing to the unavailability of local technical manpower of proper repair and maintenance of the initially installed systems, the users have decided to use some other energy resource – technology combinations. Some of the renewable energy technologies were not accepted by the end-users as they were unaware of their potential benefits and associated requirements. These and several other such problems are merely manifestations of the same root cause - lack of proper renewable energy education. 145 �Many developed and developing countries have changed their energy policies to find and develop new, clean, and renewable energy sources. These countries have also been aware of the importance of formal and informal energy and environmental education to make their citizens aware of the problem. Therefore they have been planning to make required changes in their educational programs to integrate some energy and environment-related concepts, units, activities, etc. into their curricula at different levels. As mentioned above, investments in the energy sector and development of this sector are vital for Turkey. For this purpose, several new policies have been continuously produced and changed according to new growing economic requirements in this sector. During this process, it is also important to take into consideration environmental and educational factors. It is obvious that one of these policies produced must be related to studies dealing with energy education to supply qualified employees to the sector, to increase energy efficiency, to prevent energy extravagancy, and to make citizens aware of the need to protect their environment. It should not be ignored that formal education institutions play the most important role in achieving all of these goals. Because energy is closely linked to concern for the environment, energy education should also include environmental issues(Garg 2006, Keser et al. 2003, Dinçer 1991). Renewable Energy Education in the World The need for energy education increases depending on war and economic turmoil day by day. What is important is to decide how teaching about energy education should be done and what should be taught without such crises. However, the problem is that sources and studies on energy education are limited. For instance, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, energy curriculum-development projects were underway in the US. A search of the ERIC database, using the key words “energy-education and local-studies,” reveals that in 1981 eleven documents or articles met that criteria and the next year the number jumped to 19. The same ERIC search that identified almost 2 dozen articles in 1982 located no articles on those topics in either 1989 or 1990(Keser et al. 2003, Marker 1991). In the last decade, besides a few studies dealing with energy education, it can be seen that the number of web sites on this topic has been increasing due to developing technologies. Energy in itself has not been regarded as a separate discipline of education since the students in other disciplines (e.g., mechanical, chemical, electrical engineering, as well as physics) are just exposed to the relevant aspects (of energy extraction, conversion, transmission and distribution, utilization, etc.) as a part of their curricula. In these disciplines, the subject of energy is not pictured with all its own aspects. Thus independent courses dealing with energy-related issues are not offered to the students at any level of formal education. This has necessitated that energy be considered a very special topic and all its relevant dimensions be studied in considerable detail. Hence the need to establish a separate educational discipline for energy is urgent as well made some suggestions for this purpose (Garg 2006). In their study, they offered levels and desirable features of energy education programs. For creating awareness and interest among the public and also for providing first-hand exposure to the basic concepts and their applications, relevant inputs will have to be introduced at the school level. Short-term courses and the use of mass media techniques can also help in achieving the above objectives. Diploma level courses will have to be introduced for training of personnel in fabrication, installation, and maintenance of energy technologies and systems. Regular four-year bachelor degree courses in energy engineering with specialization in the area of renewable energy and energy conservation may be required for providing the required manpower for design development and evaluation of emerging technologies. Teaching and training programmes at the postgraduate level can be useful in imparting advanced level inputs to engineering graduates or science students preferably with certain specialization options. Finally, short-term mid-career training of scientists, engineers, policy-makers, and administrators in certain specific aspects may also be required. It must be emphasized that for effective and large-scale dissemination of Renewable Energy Technologies initiating and strengthening efforts at all the above levels is equally important. In some developing countries, especially in rural areas, a primaryschool focus is particularly important, for this may be the only formal education children receive. The attitudes about energy inculcated at this time might have a profound effect, not only on the students, but also on their parents if they follow their children’s schoolwork. This can have a direct impact on the improvement of understanding among the general public, for example of the fuel wood problem and the need for innovation in stove design and solar cropdrying techniques, and such other renewable energy issues. In many developing countries, secondary education is used to impart job-related trade skills, as well as to prepare for college. Programmes on the maintenance and repair of renewable-energy devices and the adaptation of non-local designs to local needs and materials should be introduced into high-schools and technical schools. This will not only provide societies with the skilled technical manpower needed to make introduction of renewable-energy 146 �technology feasible, but it will also impart income-earning skills for a new era of energy use. Here again, training materials and equipment are needed and teachers must be trained in their use. It is probably desirable throughout the educative process, but particularly at the university level, that renewable-energy considerations be presented as part of the complete energy picture, and that energy considerations in general be placed in the development context, both rural and urban. There are several reasons for this. Renewable energies are more likely to receive their proper due if they are considered on a par with other supply options so as neither to exaggerate nor to underestimate their potential importance to any locals. Beyond this, the impact of energy issues on each economic sector and on intersectional coordination needs to be made clear and even emphasized. Desirable features of an energy education program are as follows: It should include all energy resources (renewable and non-renewable) with particular emphasis on some specific ones depending upon the local needs and characteristics. It should cover all aspects of energy technologies such as resource assessment, technology, economics and energetic, socio cultural issues, and ecological and environmental impacts. Separate curricula should be developed for different levels (school, polytechnic, university) and for different audiences. Although to some extent the energy education programs may cater to the local, site-specific needs, they should at the same time be consistent with national, regional, and international priorities and requirements. It should be flexible and dynamic, thus allowing for improvement in the future, if desired. It should provide a balance between theory and practical aspects and should involve all aspects of teaching/training including lectures, laboratories, demonstrations, hands-on skills training, design, manufacture, trouble-shooting, etc. It should be capable of providing energy education to all in a minimum amount of time and should be economically viable so that the maximum number of people may be educated within the existing financial resources. Energy education should also ensure employment/self-employment for the students and should thus have a direct link with job requirements and responsibilities of the manpower required in the area of energy. It should be compatible with the global efforts in this direction and should allow effective and mutually beneficial experience sharing and interaction. Renewable Energy Education in Turkey The eighth Five-Year Development Plan of Turkey reports that the main objective in the energy sector is to meet the increasing demand for energy, in line with economic development targets, population growth rate, transition to industrialization, and taking into account the environment The options related to some energy and environmental policies are the following General Policies: • Measures to encourage wider use of natural gas • Support the utilization of clean and renewable energy sources as well as passive solar energy applications • Decentralization in energy generation • Optimizing sustainability of energy supply and environmental costs • Setting integrated energy consumption targets for organized industrial zones Education and Training: • Organization of energy conservation training at adult education centres • Introducing energy conservation in formal education • Organization of training for households in mass housing and rural areas (WECTNC 1999). As mentioned above, investments in the energy sector and development of this sector are vital for Turkey. For this purpose, several new policies have been continuously produced and changed according to new growing economic requirements in this sector. During this process, it is also important to take into consideration environmental and educational factors. It is obvious that one of these policies produced must be related to studies dealing with energy education to supply qualified employees to the sector, to increase energy efficiency, to prevent energy extravagancy, and to make citizens aware of the need to protect their environment. It should not be ignored that formal education institutions play the most important role in achieving all of these goals. Because energy is closely linked to concern for the environment, energy education should also include environmental issues. During the past decades or so, Renewable Energy Education efforts have primarily focused on postgraduate level teaching / training programmes. Several other undergraduate engineering degree programmes on Renewable Energy are offered. Short-term training and refresher courses are also being offered besides a large number of seminars, workshops, symposia and conference being organized on Renewable Energy and related topics every year. Some work has recently been initiated towards the development of vocational courses and courses for technicians and mechanics. 147 �To Motivate Renewable Energy Education We aims at improving the environmental and renewable energy awareness of young people for a sustainable development, and also, at the development of innovative approaches for the analyses and solution of problems. We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and energy management methods in Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors. Teachers are profoundly consulted and accompanied in the field of web-didactics. An environmental and energy management system is a professional management instrument, which systematically directs the school organization as well as the processes and activities in the schools towards an environmentally friendly acting. All environmental media and material flows in the schools become transparent and the environmental awareness of those involved is improved. Previous experiences with Environmental and Energy Management System have shown that the consumption of resources and therefore costs can be reduced at the schools. In their every-day surroundings the young people learn about an environmentally friendly handling of resources and by means of out-of-school training forms they come to a positive attitude towards active citizenship engagement. All students have undertaken the steps for the introduction of an environmental and energy management system. Each step is described in detail and illustrated on the internal Learning Management System. The implementation has been realized by environmental teams consisting of both students and teachers. The necessary management skills have been transmitted in special compulsory optional environmental and energy classes or in optional environmental and energy trainings. Moreover, the schools have been realizing environmental projects involving different stakeholders such as students, teachers, parents and local organizations (environmental organizations and experts, energy suppliers etc.). Thus for example renewable energy resources were introduced to the students, whereby the environmental and energy groups provided necessary documentation and presented and explained the new concept in school meetings to all members of the school. In order to establish the comparability in the approaches, the teachers provided exemplary training units on the basis of a common pattern, which show how an environmental and energy management system can be introduced with students. The development of the blended learning approach (a mixture of face-to-face lessons and e-Learning) and the information-technological development is realised by the Training and Project Network. The Pedagogical Seminary of the University accompanies and evaluates the pedagogical development in the framework of the project on a European level. The environmental and energy contest will be developed by Environmental and Energy Management. These Joint Actions are about the possibility to do projects together in order to achieve synergy effects as it is intended in the resolutions of the programmes Socrates (general education), Leonardo da Vinci (vocational training) and Youth. In general these Joint Actions have to deal with subjects, which not exclusively are part of one of the areas general education, vocational training or youth. They favour an increasing cooperation between stakeholders of different sectors and fields of knowledge. The learning material might be all kinds of office-files, like Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Pack and gopresentations, Access-data bases and other, but also small subprograms that do automatically start as web-basedtraining units on students computer, like flash-files. One further option to give illustrations is the provision of photofiles in all current formats, like jpg, gif-files. Further often used file-formats are PDF-files. Even small video sequences can be enclosed attached, like mpg-files. By clicking the particular file symbol you open the material online. In general it is advisable to save the learning material on PC, if necessary to print it as well. Conclusion It is essential to develop and implement a well-designed energy education program, including environmental issues oriented to formal and non-formal education in cooperation with all foundations dealing with energy before it is too late. A careful analysis of the course contents of many teaching / training programmes on new and renewable sources of energy reveals that more often than not the curriculums are strongly driven by the expertise 148 �of available teachers rather than the inputs to be given to the students. A proper balance between theoretical and practical inputs is crucial for any renewable energy education programme. The laboratory component of renewable energy courses must ensure enough hands-on training of the students. There is an urgent need to develop suitable experiments which can be offered at different levels. References H.P. Garg, Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education IX. World Renewable Energy Congress, Aug 2006, Florence, ITALY Kandpal, T. C., and H. P. Garg., Resources materials for renewable energy education. Renewable Energy 5:2362–2366, 1994. Kandpal, T. C., and H. P. Garg, Energy education. Appl. Energy 64:71–78, . 1999. Ömer F. Keser, Haluk Özmen, Fikret Akdeniz, Energy, Environment, and Education Relationship in Developing Countries’Policies: A Case Study for Turkey, Energy Sources, 25:123–133, 2003 WECTNC, Web site of World Energy Council Turkish National Committee, Energy Report and Statistics of Turkey-1999, dated searching from www.dektmk.org.tr/ Dinçer, I. Environmental issues: 1 Energy utilization, Energy Sources 23:69–81. 2001. Marker, G. W., Has the time come to revive energy education? Social Studies 82(5):183–187, 1991. 149 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b735fbab22c147e2b65c12a7e311a6aa.doc 2e4383064a7bbc2ee4458e33bfffc95b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 366 Title A name given to the resource Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education Author Author ACIKGOZ, Caglayan BORAZAN, Alev A. Abstract A summary of the resource. With worldwide demand for energy increasing every day, the development of new, clean, renewable energy sources is critical to Earth's environment. To use clean-energy technology to help developing countries improve their quality of life and economies. Turkey is an energy importing country. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. The use of renewable energy as a topic to study energy and its forms permits a novel way to motivate students, particularly those who energy topics taking conscience with the environment. We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and energy management methods in Universities and Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/87efd43b43a1e2cf2629114604cbb018.pdf cecdc39d57cced4ef9528a5da695d009 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Competition Strategies for Tourism Industry in the Context of Sustainable Development Faruk Kerem ġENTÜRK Akdeniz University Alanya Faculty of Business, Turkey fksenturk@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: The subject of competition started to be more important while we are facing with a quick changeable enviroment and an uncertain future. All around the world in every sector people who try to establish a new business will meet lots of rivals, lots of opportunities with high risks and a competition which ends with death or life. Because of these reasons strategies which help managements to compete with their rival are very important for a sustainable development. In the Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report which presented by World Economic Forum, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina ranked 107th. among 133 countries in 2009 index. This report shows us that Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina need to prepare new competitive strategies for tourism industry. If Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina can market his tourism industry effectively this development also will provide a new way for sustainable development. The purpose of this study is to determine which competition strategies are suitable for the managements in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina to provide sustainable development. In this context we will evaluate the strategies of Porter (Generic Strategies), D‘aveni (Hypercompetition), Miles&Snow (Adaptation Strategies). Key Words: Strategy, Competition Strategies, Sustainable Development 1. Introduction In recent years general trends in management area attach importance to information more than physical assets. Companies around the world started to transform themselves for competition with information tools(Kaplan and Norton, 2007). Companies forced to transform themselves because of environment conditions which can change anytime, communication speed is increasing day by day and managers can‘t see what they face with in the future. In a world like this, people(poor or rich), companies(little or big), countries(developed or developing) have to be dynamic and prudent against rivals to compete with them. In this study we evaluate the competition from the view of tourism to provide sustainable development. First we asked the question of ―Can Bosnia and Herzegovina use tourism to provide development?‖ and found the place of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina economy. Then we checked the structure of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina and identified some criterions for the tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Also we examined the rivals of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the tourism sector. And finally we determined some suitable competition strategies for tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina to provide development. And we presented some suggestions for Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism to provide sustainable development. 2. Concept of Competition Strategies Since the early 1990s firms have faced significant challenges in their operating environments, including stagnant or decreasing market volumes, shorter product and technology lifecycles, and more demanding consumers and competition driven by price that forces participants to rationalise resources wherever possible (e.g. human resources or logistics)(Kotzab et al., 2009). In this new business environment, competitors aggressively introduce new products, change distribution channels, implement cost-cutting programs, and imitate each other‘s innovations; and companies regularly redraw the traditional boundaries of markets as they globalize their operations in response to the changing regulatory and competitive climate(Akhter, 2003). In this mercurial environment, some business scholars present some strategies from different perspectives to compete against our rivals. In this study we will evaluate only three author‘s strategies. These strategies are shown in the table 2.1. 587 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Authors Michael E. Porter Richard D‘Aveni Raymond Miles& Charles Snow Strategies 1. Cost Leadership (low cost) 2. Differentiation 3. Focus 1. Speed 2. Strategic Soothsaying 3. Stakeholder Satisfaction 4. Surprise 5. Shift the Rules 6. Signalling Strategic Ġntent 7. Strategic Thrust 1. Prospector 2. Analyzer 3. Defender 4. Reactor Table: 2.1. Competition Strategies D‘aveni (1994) described the environment of companies as hypercompetitive environment. Hypercompetition is ―characterized by intense and rapid competitive moves, in which competitors must move quickly to build [new] advantages and erode the advantages of their rivals‖ (D‘Aveni, 1994:217- 218). Hypercompetition emerged from the dynamic manoeuvres of innovative and global rivals. A hypercompetition environment caused companies to face with more uncertainty, dynamism and increased animosity between heterogeneous rivals(Akın, 1999). According to D‘aveni(1994) companies cant provide sustainability in a hypercompetition environment. Besides that D‘aveni(1994) emphasizes that ―sustaining your own advantage is not enough to reach the top in business, also you should destroy the advantages of competitors through constantly disrupting the equilibrium of the market‖. Within the framework of this view D‘aveni exposed some strategies to compete against rivals effectively. These strategies shown in the table below which based on market disruptions and performed with vision, capabilities and tactics. Three Critical Factors for Delivery of a Series of Disruptions The New 7-S’s Vision for Disruptions * Envisioning disruptions that create Superior Stakeholder Satisfaction * Using Strategic Soothsaying as a meaning of seeing and creating opportunities for disruption * Buildinf the capability for Speed into the organization so the disruptions are executed beter * Creating the capability to Surprise opponents so that the disruptions are more powerful * Selecting actions that Shift the Rules used by competitors in their dynamic strategic interactions * Using Signals to influence future dynamic strategic interactions * Executing Simultaneous and Sequential Strategic Thrusts as a meaning of molding the flow of the dynamic strategic interactions that will ocur. General Capabilities Disruptions for Executing Product/Market Tactics Used to Deliver The Disruptions Table: 2.2. Three Critical Factors for Disruptions and 7 strategies to make it real Source: D‘aveni, 1994, p.244. 588 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo D‘aveni emphasized that four driving forces are contributing to the new era of hypercompetition: customer changes, including fragmenting tastes; rapid technological change; falling geographic and industry boundaries as markets globalize, and deep pockets among competitors due to the rise of giant global alliances in a raft of industries(Rifkin, 2000). Porter(2000) indicated that the competition strategy is to have a tenable position to cope with five forces succesfully thus firm can behave as aggressive or defensive to achieve investment return. These five force can be sorted as threat of substitute products or services, threat of the entry of new competitors, intensity of competitive rivalry, bargaining power of customers (buyers), bargaining power of suppliers. According to Porter(2000), firms in the sector can choose one of the generic strategies to gain competitive advantage and also can cope with five forces. Generic strategies known as differentation, overal cost leadership and focus strategies. According to Porter, a business can maximize performance either by striving to be the low cost producer in an industry or by differentiating its line of products or services from those of other businesses; either of these two approaches can be accompanied by a focus of organizational efforts on a given segment of the market(Parnell, 2006:1142). A firm that uses a differentiation strategy competes on the basis of its ability to do things differently than its major competitors do. A firm that uses a low-cost strategy builds competitive advantage by producing goods or services at the lowest possible cost. And if entrepreneurs persist in their ability to keep costs lower than others, their organizations thrive. In contrast to the cost leadership and differentiation strategies, which are based on the creation of competitive advantage over an entire market segment, Porter´s focus or a niche strategy recommends focusing on market niches – on specific target groups, particular portion of the product spectrum or a narrower geographical market(Papulova and Papulova, 2006). STRATEGİC TARGET STRATEGIC ADVANTAGE Industry Wide Multi-Segment Particular Segment Uniqueness Percieved by the Costumer Low-Cost Position DIFFERENTIATION OVERAL COST LEADERSHIP FOCUS Figure; 2.1. Porter‘s Generic Strategies According to Porter, firms that are capable of identifying one of the types of generic strategies will be capable of producing superior results(Chathoth and Olsen, 2005). Miles and Snow developed a comprehensive framework that addresses the alternative ways in which organizations define and approach their product- market domains (the entrepreneurial problem) and construct structures and processes (the administrative and technical problems) to achieve competitive advantage in those domains(Slater and Olsen, 2009). Miles and Snow posit four basic managerial strategies – prospecting (innovative and exploratory), defending (narrow and focused), reacting (waiting for environmental cues), and analyzing (a mix of prospecting and defending) – and trace out the expected contingencies for the core strategies of prospecting and defending(Andrews et al., 2008). 589 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Adaptive Strategies Prospector (innovation) Content  High research and development and market intelligence investments  Lower level of controls and operational efficiency  Organic organisational structure  Low fixed asset intensity  Flexible technologies, processes, and skills Analyzer  Maintains core products and adopts proven innovations (minimise risk with proven opportunities)  Large matrix organisational structure  Mix of processes and technologies for efficiency and flexibility Reactor  Rapid, opportunistic responses to immediate market demands (quick response to market demands)  Project-orientated processes and organisational structure  Negligible long-term planning  Inconsistent or uncoordinated responses to competitive environment Defender (operational efficiency)  High-quality standardised products and processes  Low prices achieved with economies of scale  Mechanistic organisational structure  High fixed-asset intensity  Highly cost-efficient but relatively few core technologies Table: 2.3. Miles&Snow‘s Adaptive Strategies Source: Mclaren et al., 2004:50. These strategy typologies based on how a firm responds to three major problems facing it, i.e. entrepreneurial, engineering, and administrative problems. According to them, the entrepreneurial problem defines an organization‘s product-market domain; the engineering problem focuses on the choice of technologies and process for production and distribution; and the administrative problem involves the formulization, rationalization and innovation of an organization‘s structure and policy processes(Tan et al., 2006). 3. Competition Strategies in the Concept of Sustainable Development Globalization brought lots of new trends such as removal of boundaries, new information technologies(cell phones, internet e.t.c.), changes in the concept of human and personality, rapid changes in management approach and competition conditions. In this changeable world, countries and companies try to develop themselves. But the changes in the competition conditions force them to think globally. Because twenty years ago companies could survive with executing internal factors. But now countries and companies have to think both internally and externally to survive against the global changes. The report which is known as ―Our Common Future‖ highlighted three fundamental components to sustainable development: environmental protection, economic growth and social equity(UNEP, 2002). Yet the Travel&Tourism sector remains a critical economic sector worldwide and one that provides significant potential for economic growth and development internationally. Also tourism gives people ―environmental awareness‖ and with providing ―employment‖ it contributes to ensure the social equity. According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), international tourist arrivals reached 880 million in 2009, representing a decline of 4.3 percent compared with 2008(UNWTO, 2010).The World Travel&Tourism Council (WTTC) estimates that, from direct and indirect activities combined, the T&T sector now accounts for 9.9 percent of global GDP, 10.9 percent of world exports, and 9.4 percent of world investment(WEF, 2009). A growing national T&T sector contributes to employment, raises national income, and can improve the balance of payments.Thus the sector is an important driver of growth and prosperity, and, particularly within developing countries, it can also play a role in poverty reduction(WEF, 2009). Approximately 1 billion people join tourism activities. Every country and company wants to benefit from a big pie like tourism. As a result of this conflict of interest, countries and companies start to compete with each other to grab the big slice. In global competition environment everyone has to find different ways to defeat their rivals. As a result of this search some authors developed some competition strategies for companies ---from different sectors to 590 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo compete with their rivals and provide development. We mentioned about competition strategies above. But here we will present some studies which will help us to understand that tourism is a effective tool to provide development. Authors Christina CRISTUREANU & Ana BOBIRCA (2006) Studies The competitiveness of Romania as a tourism destination Liljana ELMAZI & Jovan STOJANOSKI & An environmentally sustainable in viewpoint of Alexandru NEDELEA tourism market competitiveness in the global settings K.S. TURSINBAEVA Prospects of development tourism industry in the Republic of Kazakhstan Editors: Melih BULU & Ġ. Hakkı Eraslan (2008) Tourism Sector to Obtain Sustainable Competition Advantage: Sectoral Strategies and Practices Tony BINNS & Etienne NEL (2002) Tourism as a local development strategy in South Africa Donald SINCLAIR & Chandana JAYAWARDENA The development of sustainable tourism in the (2003) Guianas Table 2.4. : Studies relevant to tourism development and competition As we see from the table 2.4. tourism can be an effective tool to provide development if it can be used properly. Countries or companies need to have enough information to implement their strategies. Because of that they must analyse both internal and external environment. Therefore, first we determined the place of tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina economy. 4. The Status of the Tourism Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina Different countries began to interact each other with some activities such as tourism. Tourism is a perfect key for people to know different cultures, histories and life styles. Also tourism is an effective tool for countries to provide added value for country economy. Bosnia and Herzegovina is the heart shaped land that lies in the heart of southeast Europe with its cultural and historical beauties. It is here that eastern and western civilizations met, sometimes clashed, but more often enriched and reinforced each other throughout its long and fascinating history(www.bhtourism.ba). Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism is specially based on nature and cultural tourism. Also Bosnia and Herzegovina has potential specialy on winter tourism, thermal spring tourism, hunting tourism and natural sports. 591 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Number of Facilities Hotels Motels Pensions and Hostels Others Number of Rooms Hotels Motels Pensions and Hostels Others Number of Beds Hotels Motels Pensions and Hostels Others 2007 Number 2008 Number Chancing(%) 2009 Number Chancing(%) 344 369 7.3 393 6.5 169 95 50 179 95 61 5.9 0.0 22.0 189 106 62 5.6 11.6 1.6 30 34 13.3 36 5.9 10,667 11,064 3.7 11,737 6.1 8,433 1,199 656 8,612 1,218 736 2.1 1.6 12.2 9,160 1,321 709 6.4 8.5 -3.7 379 489 29.0 547 11.9 22,149 23,015 3.9 24,402 6.0 17,449 2,539 17,823 2,554 2.1 0.6 18,952 2,775 6.3 8.7 1,342 1,547 15.3 1,483 -4.1 819 1,091 33.2 1,192 9.3 Table 2.5.: Accommodation capacity over the years in Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.ġ. Ekonomik ve Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Müdürlüğü. ―Bosna Hersek Sektör Raporları: Turizm Sektörü‖, Ankara, 2010. Bosnia and Herzegovina has 189 hotels, 106 motels, 62 pension&hostels and 36 other turism managements in 2009. These managements have 11.737 rooms and 24.402 beds. Hotels have an important place in Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism because they have 18.953 beds which reflects %78 of all accomodation facilities bed capacity. In the period of 2007-2009 number of facilities increased %14, number of rooms increased %10 and number of beds increased %10.2. Bosnia and Herzegovina entertained 142.000 domestic guests and 213.000 foreign guests in 2008 which makes totally 355.000 guests. %47 of these guests accomodated in Sarajevo, %1 of them accomodated in health spas, %16 of them accomodated in seaside resorts and %36 of these guests accomodated in non-tourist places(different facilities)(FOS, 2009). B&H CROATIA MONTENEGRO SERBIA AUSTRIA MACEDONIA Tourism Sector Number of Rooms 10,789 76,087 17,965 24,023 285,558 7,214 Number of Beds 22,442 163,171 42,778 52,547 646,915 17,124 9,307 984 696 20,766 3,903 Incoming Tourists (000) 306 Overnight Tourist (000) Domestic 642 6,431 851 5,853 29,138 1,502 Foreign 695 49,575 6,443 1,476 71,507 516 Average Tourists Nights Domestic 2.30 3,47 5.70 3.63 3.20 4.90 Foreign 2.30 5,33 6.55 2.12 4.30 2.30 9,576 457 1,011 21,292 219 Tourism Expenditures 798 (million $) The Share of Tourism Expenditure GDP (%) 5.3 18.7 2.4 5.6 2.9 Export of Goods 18.8 75.9 11.5 13.1 6.5 Export of Services 59.9 76.3 31.9 38.2 26.8 Table 2.6.: Tourism indicators for Bosnia and Herzegovina and neighboring countries (2007) 592 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Source: Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.ġ. Ekonomik ve Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Müdürlüğü. ―Bosna Hersek Sektör Raporları: Turizm Sektörü‖, Ankara, 2010. The important points of this table are; 1. Bosnia and Herzegovina is ranked last in terms of incoming tourists. (with 306.000 tourists) 2. Bosnia and Herzegovina is ranked 5.th in terms of bed capacity (with 22.442 beds). 3. Bosnia and Herzegovina is ranked 4.th in terms of tourism expenditure. (with 798 million $) 4. Average number of overnight of incoming tourists is too low in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In WEF(World Economic Forum)‘s ―Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009‖, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked 107th among 133 countries and ranked 42th between 42 european countries. Rank (Out of 133) Score (1-7 scale) 2009 Index 107 3.4 2008 Index 105 3.4 T&T regulatory framework 96 4.1 Policy rules and regulations 119 3.4 Environmental sustainability 115 3.9 Safety and security 57 5.3 Health and hygiene 56 5.0 Prioritization of Travel & Tourism 126 3.0 T&T business environment and infrastructure 93 3.0 Air transport infrastructure 130 1.9 Ground transport infrastructure 126 2.2 Tourism infrastructure 57 3.7 ICT infrastructure 66 2.9 Price competitiveness in the T&T industry 100 4.2 T&T human, cultural, and natural resources 124 3.3 Human resources 109 4.4 Education and training 124 3.1 Availability of qualified labor 30 5.7 Affinity for Travel & Tourism 92 4.5 Natural resources 123 2.2 Cultural resources 81 1.9 Table 2.7.: Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index For Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: WEF(World Economic Forum). ―Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009‖, Geneva, 2009. From the table above we can see areas which can provide competition advantage or disadvantage to Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism. Bosnia and Herzegovina has to focus both of side to sustain tourism sector. A very important problem for Bosnia and Herzegovina which needs to be improved urgently is ―infrastructure‖(93th between 133 country). Also Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strong potential about natural and cultural resources. But goverments dont attach importance to tourism as needed and dont have strong policy rules and regulations for tourism sector. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a qualified labor but they dont have enough employment opportunities for them. 593 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Strenghts *Climatic diversity and geographic structure is conducive to different tourism activities, *Rich flora and fauna, * Cultural structure is suitable for the development of the tourism sector, *Potential of thermal resources *Existence of national parks which can be used for tourism, * Rich historical and cultural assets, *To have symbols and values which represent three holy religion, *To be organizer of the Winter Olympics in 1984, *Reviving the domestic tourism with diversification of tourism products *Labor and energy costs are too low, *Having a stable economic environment for investments, *Political administration supports the investments in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Weaknesses *Advertisements are insufficient and thats affect all sectors, * Ground transport infrastructure is insufficient, *Accomodation facilities are weak both in terms of quality and quantity, *Tourism master plan has not been completed already, *Other sectors are not improved enough to support tourism, *Weak competition power to compete other european countries, *Tourists accommodate too short time in Bosnia and Herzegovina, *Natural, cultural and historical values isn‘t protected enough, * Capital accumulation is too low and they have already depended to outside assistance, * Institutionalization and legal structures have shortages, *Management system can cause damages about investment decisions. Threats *Unbalanced income distribution, *Bad effects of war still can be feel by people in Bosnia and Herzegovina, * Political and economic instability, *Winter tourism season becomes shorter due to global warming, *Insufficiency of infrastructure and transportation investments, *Competition of neighboring countries, *Rivals are supported by EU with sharing information and financial support, *EU supports travels between EU members with new policies, *Insufficient airplane componies. Opportunities *Having an unspoiled environment, *Sector needs lots of new invesments, *Tourism started to be seen as a strategic development area in Bosnia and Herzegovina, *Technical and judicial changes can be arranged to attract new entrepreneurs, *People in Bosnia and Herzegovina welcome foreign capital in nationwide, *EU support projects which is about alternative tourism types, *New players start to show themselves in the sector, * The development of world tourism, *Population and average income level per person increased, *Having good opportunities to improve ―winter tourism‖, *1984 Winter Olympics brought Bosnia and Herzegovina a touristic image around the world. Table 2.8.: SWOT of Bosnia and Herzegovina Tourism Source: Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.ġ. Ekonomik ve Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Müdürlüğü. ―Bosna Hersek Sektör Raporları: Turizm Sektörü‖, Ankara, 2010. The SWOT analysis is a tool for a situation analysis and when used in an appropriate way, it can be a good foundation for strategy formulation(Božac and TipuriĤ, 2006:433). SWOT analysis aims to identify the strengths and weaknesses of an organisation and the opportunities and threats in the environment(Dyson, 2004:632). SWOT analysis also can help us to determine strategies for specific areas. 5. Competition Strategies for Tourism of Bosnia and Herzegovina Porter claims that to gain competition advantage and to cope with 5 forces(threat of new entrants, industry rivalry, bargaining power of buyers, bargaining power of suppliers, threat of substitutes companies) can choose one of 3 general competition strategies. 594 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina can apply differentiation strategy in tourism sector. World tourism trends are showing us that people travel to see different cultures and historical places(cultural tourim), natural beauties(ecotourism). Bosnia and Herzegovina has a perfect potential for cultural tourism, winter tourism and ecotourism. If Bosnia and Herzegovina can show his unique natural resources and cultural values to world travellers, tourists can flow through Bosnia and Herzegovina. While trying to apply differentiation strategy, Bosnia and Herzegovina should focus specific markets. Bosnia and Herzegovina has only 25 kms of beach. This area needs focus because tourists who choose Bosnia and Herzegovina for its beaches are too few. Bosnia and Herzegovina should organize sea tourism according to tourists whose income levels are higher and that considers to accomodate for a long time. Bosnia and Herzegovina cant apply cost leadership strategy with having insufficient infrastructure, few accomodation facilities, low market shares. Also the main need to apply cost leadership strategy is to have a large market. But Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism start to improve recently and also accomodation facilities in Bosnia and Herzegovina are damaged by enemies in war. D‘aveni claims that companies can‘t provide sustainable improvement. Because companies environment change too fast, to provide costumer satisfaction is too hard and the rules of markets can change suddenly. Types Approaches 1.Speed of 2.Surprise 3.Stakeholder Satisfaction 4.Strategic Soothsaying 5.Shift The Rules 6.Signalling Strategic Ġntent 7.Strategic Thrust Areas which Bosnia and Herzegovina can apply D’aveni’s Strategies Bosnia and Herzegovina should move fast and surprise costumers and rivals with innovation moves in tourism sector to manage disruptions on rivals. Bosnia and Herzegovina can use unspoiled environment to surprise tourists and in this area they can build different structures like ―Skywalk-Grand Canyon USA. To provide costumer satisfaction they should increase the quality and safety in accomodation facilities and envision future costumer demands with following global tourism trends. First they should learn the rules of market between rivals. When they have enough power in market they can set their own rules. And with innovative services which spread market with short-ranges can block rivals to enter our areas. Tablo 2.9.: D‘aveni‘s Strategies and Suitable Areas to Apply D‘aveni‘s strategies are used to disrupt rivals. Bosnia and Herzegovina can use his unique areas (untouched environment, 25kms long beach and historical places) to disrupt rivals in tourism market. With innovative goods and services they can be arbiter in market. But before all of these strategies they must try to build a strong infrastructure and introduce Bosnia and Herzegovina to the world with effective advertising campaigns. The most suitable strategy for general Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism among 4 strategies of Miles and Snow is Prospector strategy. After war, Bosnia and Herzegovina started a new period to improve tourism and other sectors. Because at war they lost lots of tourism facilities. And now Bosnia and Herzegovina has a chance to build a new tourism market with lots of opportunities and resources. With applying prospector strategy Bosnia and Herzegovina can create innovative services and explore new techniques to improve tourism in Bosnia and Herzegovina. They can create new competencies which cant be imitate easily and provide sustainable competition advantage. 6. Conclusion Bosnia and Herzegovina has a favorable investment environment and financial stability for foreign entrepreneurs. Also privatization process in country is proceeding in a positive way. Legal treatments to start a business in Bosnia and Herzegovina are very appropriate for foreign entrepreneurs. With all these positive developments, Bosnia and Herzegovina can be developed more quickly than competitors. According to an estimation of the World Tourism Organization, Bosnia and Herzegovina will have the third highest tourism growth rate in the world between 1995 and 2020. With various tourism types (cultural, historical, winter, spa, ecotourism) Bosnia and Herzegovina can provide competition advantages in tourism sector to disrupt their rivals. 595 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this study we determined some strategies for Bosnia and Herzegovina to improve tourism activities. We determined that Porter‘s ―differentation and focus strategies‖, D‘aveni‘s ―New 7‘S strategies‖ and Miles&Snow‘s ―prospector‖ strategy are suitable to apply for Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism. Porter‘s and Miles&Snow‘s strategies can help Bosnia and Herzegovina to create general tourism strategies to compete with rivals. To apply these strategies first they need a strong location in market and for that they have to build strong and qualified accomodation facilities and advertise their untouched natural beauties. D‘aveni‘s strategies can help Bosnia tourism in specific markets. They can focus on markets which they are stronger like ecotourism, thermal tourism and cultural tourism. Bosnia and Herzegovina tourism can improve quickly if they follow these steps; 1. They need to revise and renew their old tourism facilities which are damaged at war. 2. They have to use their untouched environment within a strategic plan. To provide sustainable advantage they should hinder the harmful side of tourism activities. 3. They need to announce the investment opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 4. Another advantage for Bosnia and Herzegovina is being close to countries which have people with high income levels. 5. Tourism trends indicate that tourists often travel by airplane. To compete with rivals in tourism sector Bosnia and Herzegovina need to build new airports and also need to make strategic alliances with foreign airline companies. 6. To ensure economic stability they must take the necessary measures. 7. They have to expedite actions to become a member of EU. Because rivals are supported by EU. This cause disadvantage for competition. References Akhter, S. H. (2003). Strategic Planning, Hypercompetition, and Knowledge Management. Business Horizons, Jan./Feb., pp. 1924. Akın, H.B. (1999). Rekabetçi Üstünlük ve Teknoloji: Küresel Bir YaklaĢım. Verimlilik Dergisi, Sayı:4. Andrews, R. & Boyne, G.A. & Meier, K.J. & O‘Toole, M.J. & Walker, R.M. (2008). Strategic Fit and Performance: A Test of the Miles and Snow Model. Organizational Strategy, Structure, and Process: A Reflection on the Research Perspective of Miles and Snow, Cardiff University and the Economic and Social Research Council Conference, Wales. Binns, T. & NEL, E. (2002). Tourism as a local development strategy in South Africa. The Geographical Journal, Vol. 168, No. 3, p. 235-247. Bozac, M. G.&Tipuric, D. (2006). Top Management‘s Attitudes-Based SWOT Analysis In The Croatian Hotel Industry. Ekonomski Pregled, No:57, p. 429-474. Bulu, M. & Eraslan, Ġ.H. (2008). Sürdürebilir Rekabet Avantajı Elde Etmede Turizm Sektörü: Sektörel Stratejiler ve Uygulamalar, URAK Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Chathoth, P.K. & Olsen M.D. (2005). Lodging Industry Competitive Strategies: Developing a Multidimensional Causal Empirical Model to Test the Relationship between Strategy and Performance. Vol.2, No.2, p. 67–86. Cristureanu, C. & Bobirca, A. (2006). The competitiveness of Romania as a tourism destination. Turk-Kazakh International Tourism Conference. New Perspectives and Values in World Tourism & Tourism Management in the Future. Alanya, Turkey. D‘aveni, R. & Gunther, R. (1994). Hypercompetition: Managing the Dynamics of Strategic Maneuvering. NY: The Free Press. Dyson, R. G. (2004). Strategic development and SWOT analysis at the University of Warwick. European Journal of Operational Research, No.152, p. 631–640. Elmazi, L. & STtojanoski, J. & Nedelea, A. (2006). An environmentally sustainable in viewpoint of tourism market competitiveness in the global settings. Turk-Kazakh International Tourism Conference. New Perspectives and Values in World Tourism & Tourism Management in the Future. Alanya, Turkey. 596 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo FOS (Federal Office of Statistics). (2009). Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina, Statistical Yearbook-2009, Sarajevo. http://www.bhtourism.ba/eng/, Access Date: 20.04.2010. Kaplan, R.S. & Norton, D.P. (2007). Using The Balanced Scorecard as a Strategic Management System. Harward Business Review, July-August. Kotzab, H. & Grant, D.B. & Teller, C. & Halldorsson, A. (2009). Supply chain management and hypercompetition. Logist. Res., 1, 5–13. McLaren, T.S. & Head, M.M. & Yuan, Y. (2004). Using competitive strategy patterns to determine ideal supply chain management information systems capabilities. Int. J. Internet and Enterprise Management, Vol.2, No.1, p.45-61. Papulova, E. & Papulova, Z. (2006). Competitive Strategy And Competitive Advantages Of Small And Midsized Manufacturing Enterprises In Slovakia. Journal of E-Leader. Slovakia. Parnell, J.A. (2006). Generic Strategies After Two Decades: A Reconceptualization of Competitive Strategy. Journal of Management Decision, Vol.44, No.8, p. 1139-1154. Porter, M.E. (2007). Rekabet Stratejisi: Sektör ve Rakip Analizi Teknikleri (Çev.: Gülen Ulubilgen). Ġstanbul, Sistem Yayıncılık. Rifkin, G. (2000). The Art of Hypercompetition. http://www.strategy-business.com/briefs/96298. (19.04.2010) Sinclair D. & Jayawardena, C. (2003). The development of sustainable tourism in the Guianas. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15/7, p. 402-407. Slater, S.F. & Olson, E.M. (2009). Miles & Snow And Marketing. Cardiff University Pres. Wales. Tan, H. & Weston, R. & Tang, Y. (2006). Applying the Miles and Snow‘s Business Strategy Typology to China‘s Real Estate Development Industry: A Research Framework. Proceedings of the Pacific Rim Real Estate Society 12th Annual Conference, Auckland, New Zealand. Tursinbaeva, K.S. (2006). Prospects of development tourism industry in the Republic of Kazakhstan. Turk-Kazakh International Tourism Conference. New Perspectives and Values in World Tourism & Tourism Management in the Future. Alanya, Turkey. Türkiye Kalkınma Bankası A.ġ. Ekonomik ve Sosyal AraĢtırmalar Müdürlüğü. (2010). ―Bosna Hersek Sektör Raporları: Turizm Sektörü‖, Ankara. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). (2002). Industry as a partner for sustainable development: Tourism. United Kingdom. UNWTO (World Tourism Organization). (2010). ―UNWTO World Tourism Barometer April‖. WEF (World Economic Forum). (2009). The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2009: Managing in a Time of Turbulence. Geneva. 597 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 285 Title A name given to the resource Competition Strategies for Tourism Industry in the Context of Sustainable Development Author Author ŞENTÜRK, Faruk Kerem Abstract A summary of the resource. The subject of competition started to be more important while we are facing with a quick changeable enviroment and an uncertain future. All around the world in every sector people who try to establish a new business will meet lots of rivals, lots of opportunities with high risks and a competition which ends with death or life. Because of these reasons strategies which help managements to compete with their rival are very important for a sustainable development. In the Travel&Tourism Competitiveness Report which presented by World Economic Forum, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina ranked 107th. among 133 countries in 2009 index. This report shows us that Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina need to prepare new competitive strategies for tourism industry. If Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina can market his tourism industry effectively this development also will provide a new way for sustainable development. The purpose of this study is to determine which competition strategies are suitable for the managements in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Herzegovina to provide sustainable development. In this context we will evaluate the strategies of Porter (Generic Strategies), D‘aveni (Hypercompetition), Miles&Snow (Adaptation Strategies). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8aacd46db40e9a446ada4ebd206983a.pdf ce9b41cfd4e80a54f5ad9fa5e04c636e PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Effects Of Potential Business Managers’ Risk Tolerance Level On Entrepreneurship In Emerging Markets ġermin ġENTURAN Dr., International Balkan University, International Economic Relations, Scopje, Macedonia. charged by Zonguldak Karaelmas Universitesi,Zonuldak, Turkey serminsen@hotmail.com Engin DEMĠREL Dr., International Balkan University, International Economic Relations, Scopje, Macedonia. charged by Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey edemirel@mail.com Abstract Entrepreneurs in emerging markets may not have much information about the financial and market conditions of the economy and this may lead them not to be an entrepreneur or have low financial risk tolerance level at the time when they start a new business. This study aims to investigate the correlation between the financial risk taking behavior of the people and the level of tendencies as entrepreneurship, managerial and stock market decisions in the emerging economic conditions. The Business Administration undergraduate students graduating from the public and private universities in Skopje/Macedonia are chosen as the sample of this study. By analyzing risk taking propensity and tolerance for ambiguity degree of the respondents, it is aimed to provide insight into entrepreneurship education, as to which entrepreneurial characteristics can be developed. Query dates‘ will be analyzed by using Pearson correlation and ANOVA for explaining risk tolerance and entrepreneurship behaviors related to emerging markets conditions. Keywords: Risk tolerance, entrepreneurship, emerging markets. Introduction In a period of globalization and modernization of the economy and information, societies‘ development, the tendency for business development is tightly connected with the use of the latest technology, by investing in the human resources development with the most sophisticated working methods. The primary development factor in the modern working conditions is knowledge-based economy enable of keeping economic development with more and better workplace and bigger social cohesion. Managing an investment firm (whether it is a financial investment firm or a physical investment firm) involves selecting people with a high level of skill at counseling investors. Such a skill involves sensitivity to how the investor thinks about and assesses risks, a task which is difficult if the advisor and the investor have different values and risk attitudes. It might be argued that the problem is solved if everyone concerned acts in a rational manner. However, rational decision making is an ideal that few human decision makers could experience (Sjoberg & Engelberg, 2009) � Business development starts with the educational system. In almost all transitional economies, the education reform is emphasized on every level, starting with the preschool, the primary, the secondary and the university education. Within these reforms, people are becoming more conscious about spreading of the culture influence in the society, and the attitude towards work, business and entrepreneurship. With the promotion of the entrepreneurship attitudes and skills there is a great possibility of students‘ improvement as well as improvement of the whole society. 706 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Entrepreneurship is the main feature which can be very useful for all work and life activities. The education goal is to nurture the young people‘s qualities, through the enforcement of creativity, initiative, responsibility, independence and ability to take a risk. Encouraging the enterprise spirit is a key to achieve this goal. Education can help a lot in the entrepreneurship‘s culture development of young people and make them be aware of the entrepreneurship, developing their abilities and skills which will help them in their professional career as well as in life by becoming responsible and active members of the society. The university education is an essential pillar of the social and economic development of every country. The university education presents the most significant priority of the emerging countries, considering the importance of the contribution of the staff with university education to the economic development of the country and to the culture of the population. In the university education of European countries, the entrepreneurship teaching is focused on creating new businesses. At the level of tertiary education, ―entrepreneurship teaching provide the students with specific training on how to start and run a business, including the capacity to draft a real business plan and the skills associated with methods of identifying and assessing business opportunities. Also, it will encourage and support new business ideas (for instance by providing special loans, business facilities, mentorship, etc.) By this way researched projects can be put into practice. Development of the students’ entrepreneurship skills It is necessary for all young people to possess entrepreneurial skills, to advance their creativity, to improve their talent and in that way to become more competent in achieving their professional ambitions and to be allowed to consider the creation of business as a possible option in their career. In this way they are becoming more prepared to conduct with innovative projects. The education system has to have an assignment to:     Raise the consciousness of the youth strengthening their entrepreneurial spirit, Put the world of business closer to them, Wipe out the barriers between the educational system and the business, Encourage the development of their entrepreneurial skills simultaneously with the development of their education,  Enrich their experience for entrepreneurship,  Organize projects for the development of the entrepreneurship with the cooperation of the local companies, in which all students will be included,  Give young people a chance individually to take part in the creation of the small business,  Create an open atmosphere for study in which the students will develop the necessary confidence and ability for taking risks. Young people need somebody to make them believe in their own creative forces. They should be educated to realize and use the local resources as a foundation for the creative values. With their self-assurance, young people can become more productive, can improve the workplaces and can take responsibility in their local community. Education plays an important role in the development of the attitudes, working habits and activities which improve the abilities for cooperation, creativity and innovation of young people, i.e. it is capable of stimulating the development of their entrepreneurial activities. The educational institutions and the government should support the net of teachers and trainers for entrepreneurship in order to encourage the mobility of teachers and the cooperation between the educational sector and the business and which will help them build a road of exchanging competence and knowledge. In this content trainings, seminars, courses and studies for entrepreneurship should be arranged. This will increase the participation of the professionals from this area in the educational process, because in that way more direct, approachable and larger access of the students (as potential managers) to the world of business will be achieved, their entrepreneurial attitudes and skills will be developed and the realization of their entrepreneurial ideas will be encouraged and stimulated, which will directly be reflected in the development of the economy and the whole society.ean experience shows that within the university education Financial risk tolerance, defined as the maximum amount of uncertainty that someone is willing to accept when making a financial decision, reaches into almost every part of economic and social life. Although the importance of assessing financial risk tolerance is well documented, in practice the assessment process tends to be very difficult due to the subjective nature of risk taking (Grable, 2000). 707 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Risk tolerance must be measured simply because it is an aspect of ―utility‖ and maximizing the expected utility is considered to be the ultimate goal in any financial activity. If investment decisions are based on Expected Monetary Value (EMV) alone, the decision is driven only by the nature of the investment and the optimal choice would be the same for all potential investors. If the investment decision is based on Expected Utility, the attitude and risk tolerances of the investor are incorporated too. Thus, the optimal choices are different for each investor because the utility functions are different. Once the investment advisor understands some aspects of the client‘s utility function and how risk averse is, this information can be incorporated in the selection of the right portfolio.(Ardehali, Paradi, Asmild, 2005). There is some evidence that the common factor reflects changes in investors‘ tolerance for risk. Although it is impossible to ascribe precise economic meaning to the common factor, the high correlation between it and highfrequency measures of risk tolerance suggests that the common variation in emerging market debt spreads is largely explained by changes in attitudes towards risk within the international investment community. Furthermore, to the extent that changes in investor risk tolerance and expectations of future growth prospects are procyclical, this hypothesis is supported by the negative correlation between the factor and US interest rate variables. (McGuire & Schrijvers 2003) Carducci and Wong (1998), reported the findings from a study that attempted to identify personality factors that determine financial risk taking in everyday money matters. They concluded that persons fitting the Type A personality trait tended to take greater risks than those more closely aligned with the Type B personality profile. They suggested that socioeconomic factors, such as income, might have played a part in explaining their findings. Specifically, it was determined that persons identified as Type A personalities were likely to maximize their achievements through additional risk taking in the attainment of increased incomes, higher status occupations, and increased educational attainment. The results of research conducted by investigators such as Carducci and Wong (1998) and Grable and Joo (1997) suggests that the investigation of factors that determine financial risk taking and risk tolerance can be expanded beyond the testing of purely psychological factors. Specifically, demographic, socioeconomic, and attitudinal characteristics need to be examined to determine how these factors influence a person's willingness to take financial risks in "everyday money matters." A review of current risk-taking and risktolerance research indicates that factors such gender, age, marital status, occupation, income, and expectations may influence a person's level of risk taking in everyday money matters. Increasing levels of risk tolerance also have been associated with being single. Increased levels of income and educational attainment also are considered to be associated with increased levels of risk tolerance. Researchers and practitioners have suggested that demographic, socioeconomic, and attitudinal factors can be used to differentiate individuals into risk-tolerance or risk-taking categories. While there are research data to support these beliefs, there is a need to examine these assumed relationships in more detail (Sung & Hanna, 1996). Froot (2003) proposed a methodology for measuring investor confidence by decomposing investor demand for international assets, examination of the cross-section of international portfolio holdings and flows of international institutional investors over time. It was observed shifts in aggregate investor demand into expected risk and return, wealth and risk tolerance components. The risk tolerance component turns out to account for a substantial portion of variation in portfolio holdings and a smaller but meaningful amount of variation in equity returns. In addition, it appears to be informative about future returns. It is argued by a number of researchers that the low correlation between emerging equity returns and developed market returns. In an active portfolio strategy, this means that the opportunity set has become larger, higher expected returns can be gained at lower volatility. (Harvey, 1994) Analysis of risk tolerance of potential businesses managers Risk is the potential for realizing low returns or even losing money, possibly preventing you from meeting important objectives. But many financial advisers and other experts say that these days investors aren‘t taking the idea of risk as seriously as they should, and they are overexposing themselves to stocks. The market has been so good for years that investors no longer believe there‘s risk in investing, till 2008-2009 financial fluctuations. So before the market goes down and stays down, be sure that you understand your tolerance for risk and that your portfolio is designed to match it. Assessing your risk tolerance, however, can be tricky. You must consider not only how much risk you can afford to take but also how much risk you can stand to take (Bodie, Kane, Marcus, 2003), . Determining how much risk you can stand your temperamental tolerance for risk is more difficult. It isn‘t quantifiable. To that end, many financial advisers, brokerage firms and mutual-fund companies have created risk quizzes to help people determine whether they are conservative, moderate or aggressive investors. Some firms that offer such quizzes include Merrill Lynch, T. Rowe Price Associates Inc., Baltimore, Zurich Group Inc.‘s Scudder Kemper Investments Inc., New York, and Vanguard Group in Malvern, Pa. typically; risk questionnaires include 708 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo seven to 10 questions about a person‘s investing experience, financial security and tendency to make risky or conservative choices. The benefit of the questionnaires is that they are an objective resource people can use to get at least a rough idea of their risk tolerance. Many experts warn, however, that the questionnaires should be used simply as a first step to assessing risk tolerance. The second step, many experts agree, is to ask yourself some difficult questions, such as: the questions that related on ―How much you can stand to lose over the long term?‖. In order to analyze of potential business managers which in our study those are 4th and 3rd class business administration students on public and state universities in Skopje. Risk tolerance level quarry that used on the Wall Street Journal 1998 by Dow Jones & Company in USA. Quarry has totally 16 questions. Each question has 3 answers. (a,b,c). Each answers related on numbers that a is 1, b is 2, c is 3. at the end of the questionnaire, to score the risk tolerance, ad up the number of answers that given by questioners each categories‘ a-c, than multiply by the shown table. Because each question answers 1 to 3 risk choices increases and 1 has the conservative answer on the other hand 3 has the highest risk taker choice. Total Score Number (a) answers x 1 = points (b) answers x 2 = points (c) answers x 3 = points Table1: Calculation of total score number for risk tolerance The score is total of all answers with related rates. The total number had been categorized as fallows which were referred on Dow Jones Company questionnaire (1998). Total Score Number Questioner Risk Tolerance Between 16- 26 points Conservative Investor Between 27-37 points Moderate Investor Between 38-48 points Aggressive Investor Table 2: Questioner risk tolerance according to total score number In this paper we use 252 observations on total 16 questions. We had analyzed the total score numbers which were mentioned that questionnaire. ―Conservative, moderate and aggressive investor, (1,2,3)‖ for analysis of variance. We analyzed the potential business managers‘ opinions‘ who were undergraduate students that study in transition economy in the Balkan region. Affects of choices of risk tolerance at entrepreneurship capacity relation on their gender, marital status, age, class, working condition, average monthly income (euro), and working status. To analyze age we use the scales (17-19, 2022, 23-25,26 and upper), on working condition (yes or no), status of working (no, part time, full time), on average monthly income as Euro (100 and below, 101-200, 201-300,301-400, 401 and above). On the regression analyze as an input Y range uses as total score number on risk tolerance, and as an input X range was demographic conditions selected as mentioned above. Regression Statistics Multiple R 0,688986 R Square 0,474701 Adjusted R Square 0,463758 Standard Error 3,389823 Observations 252 Table 3: Regression statistics results ANOVA df Regression Residual Total Table 4: ANOVA results 7 336 343 SS 3489,055 3860,943 7349,997 709 MS 498,4364 11,4909 F 43,37661 Significance F 1,9E-43 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Intercept Gender Marital Status Age Class Working Average Monthly Income (Euro) Status of working Coefficients 29,40065 -3,61627 Standard t Stat Error 2,046517 14,36619 0,467007 -7,7435 8,08E-37 1,15E-13 Lower 95% 25,37506 -4,53489 Upper 95% 33,42625 -2,69764 Lower 95.0% 25,37506 -4,53489 Upper 95.0% 33,42625 -2,69764 -0,19815 0,797532 0,150978 -3,27562 0,711239 0,409961 0,370683 0,544074 -0,2786 1,945386 0,407296 -6,02055 0,780721 0,052562 0,68405 4,55E-09 -1,5972 -0,00888 -0,57817 -4,34584 1,200889 1,603946 0,880129 -2,2054 -1,5972 -0,00888 -0,57817 -4,34584 1,200889 1,603946 0,880129 -2,2054 4,758799 0,318106 14,95979 3,91E-39 4,133069 5,384529 4,133069 5,384529 1,471514 1,020217 1,442355 0,150134 -0,5353 3,478331 -0,5353 Table5: Standard error, t-stat and p values. P-value 3,478331 According to analyze of each demographic condition on total risk score, we used Pearson correlation formula: r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 r6 r7 r8 Total risk tolerance score Gender Marital Status Age Class Working condition Average Monthly Income (Euro) Status of working 1 -0,23113 -0,08375 0,169817 0,003724 -0,12903 0,402851 -0,055775 Table 6: Pearson correlation table Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (sometimes referred to as the PMCC, and typically denoted by r) is a measure of the correlation (linear dependence) between two variables X and Y, giving a value between +1 and −1 inclusive. It is widely used in the sciences as a measure of the strength of linear dependence between two variables. It was developed by Karl Pearson from a similar but slightly different idea introduced by Francis Galton in the 1880s (Stigler, Stephen M, 1989).The correlation coefficient is sometimes called "Pearson's r." which in this study total risk tolerance score numbers (r1), Gender (r2), Marital Status (r3), Age (r4), Class (r5), Working condition (r6), Average Monthly Income (Euro) (r7), Status of working (r8). Conclusion The training for entrepreneurship must continue through life. It must cover the full range of knowledge: knowing how to behave, how to handle knowledge, how to learn, knowhow, and how to innovate, do good and lead others. The training system must be one which will encourage the spirit of entrepreneurship and innovation. This will enable us to create an economy which is truly working for the people. As individual entrepreneurs, the students should follow their wishes, they should be able to use the possibilities for their achievement and believe in the possible success. Test statistics were generated for the purpose of measuring the significance of the demographic, socioeconomic, and attitudinal factors in differentiating between levels of risk tolerance. ANOVA results indicated that gender, age, working status, income and education. It was concluded that (a) males were more risk tolerant than females, (b) older respondents were more risk tolerant than younger respondents, (c) married respondents were more risk tolerant than single respondents, (d) respondents with higher incomes were more risk tolerant than those with lower incomes. In all but two cases, the pattern of association between socioeconomic factors and financial risk tolerance was as expected. The association 710 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo between age and risk tolerance is positive and marital status and risk tolerance is negative. But in either case, these two results correlation values close to zero. The highest positive Pearson correlation value on total risk tolerance score is found on average monthly income as Euro. The research has multiple R 0.688986, R square 0.4747 and which has 3.3898 standard error value. As the average monthly income increases, respondents` risk tolerance level becomes moderate investor rather than conservative investor. With this demographic conditions of business administration students in Skopje hasn‘t got the total score number refer to aggressive investor. Working conditions and status of working as a part time and full time becomes negatively correlated on total risk score numbers. References Ardehali P.H., Paradi J.C., Asmild M. (2005), “Assessing Financial Risk Tolerance Of Portfolio Investors Using Data Envelopment Analysis‖, International Journal of Information Technology & Decision Making Vol. 4, No. 3 491-519 Bodie Zvi, Kane Alex, Marcus Alan J. , (2003), Investments 5th edition, The McGraw−Hill , USA. Carducci, B. J., & Wong, A. S. (1998). Type A and risk taking in everyday money matters. Journal of Business and Psychology, 12, 355-359 Froot A.K. (2003) ―The Risk Tolerance Of International Investors‖, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No, W10157, December Grable, J. E., & Joo, S. H. (1997). ―Determinants of risk preference: Implications for family and consumer science professionals. Family Economics and Resource Management Biennial, 2, 19-24 Grable J.E. (2000) ―Financial Risk Tolerance and Additional Factors That Affect Risk Taking In Everyday Money Matters‖, The Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol 14, No 4 625-630 Harvey C.R., (1994) ―Portfolio Enhencement Using Emerging Markets and Conditioning Information‖, National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No, W4623 McGuire P & Schrijvers M.A. ―Common Factors in Emerging Market Spreads‖, BIS Quarterly Review, December, 65-78 Sjoberg L, Engelberg E,(2009) ―Attitudes to Economic Risk Taking, Sensation Seeking and Values of Business Students Specializing in Finance‖, The Journal of Behavioral Finance, 10 33-43 Sung, J., & Hanna, S. (1996). Factors related to risk-tolerance. Financial Counseling and Planning, 7, 11-20 Stigler, Stephen M.,1989. "Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation". Statistical Science 4, pp2. 711 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 213 Title A name given to the resource The Effects Of Potential Business Managers’ Risk Tolerance Level On Entrepreneurship In Emerging Markets Author Author ŞENTURAN, Şermin DEMİREL, Engin Abstract A summary of the resource. Entrepreneurs in emerging markets may not have much information about the financial and market conditions of the economy and this may lead them not to be an entrepreneur or have low financial risk tolerance level at the time when they start a new business. This study aims to investigate the correlation between the financial risk taking behavior of the people and the level of tendencies as entrepreneurship, managerial and stock market decisions in the emerging economic conditions. The Business Administration undergraduate students graduating from the public and private universities in Skopje/Macedonia are chosen as the sample of this study. By analyzing risk taking propensity and tolerance for ambiguity degree of the respondents, it is aimed to provide insight into entrepreneurship education, as to which entrepreneurial characteristics can be developed. Query dates‘ will be analyzed by using Pearson correlation and ANOVA for explaining risk tolerance and entrepreneurship behaviors related to emerging markets conditions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3356e0a9689c3dfd2e93865f4006dcdd.pdf f918112ae91f6158dd269648e157b330 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo To Examine Sustainable Development Through The Historical Applications of Foundations Fatma ġENSOY fatmasensoy@yahoo.com Abstract: Sustainable development is one of the contemporary concepts. If we move from today‘s definition of this concept, the solutions for the global problems can be obtained from the foundation‘s applications in the past. Sustainable development concept is generally referred to the 1987 report of World Commission on Environment and Development. The Brundtland Commission reported the slogan, ―Our Common Future: From One Earth to One World‖. The Commission conceptualized sustainable development as ―paths of human progress, which meet the needs and aspirations of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖. The goals of sustainable development are far-reaching and have as their objective the transformation of contemporary development theory and practice. They include the formulation of new paradigms of social, economic, political, cultural, and ecological development. More and more rational approaches are improved to the concept of ―development‖ which takes into account the long-term costs associated with short-term improvements. The judicious use of the planet‘s non-renewable physical resources; a balance between economic, social, cultural and physical development; and the realization of fully integrated development strategies that bring together all relevant sectors and actors into a common framework of local, national, regional and international action. Foundations (Waqf) are Non Governmental Organizations. Current approaches to the definition of a waqf includes; local administration and free economic rules in management. In addition, democracy and volunteerism are essential for the definition. These are weld from the Islamic law. Foundations with the social policy functions had provided the continuity of social life. Waqf functions include almost all stages of social life. Such as; increasing recruitment rates and employment, income and wealth redistribution, social security formation, infrastructure development, expansion of education… The aim of the settler, colleteur is the continuation of this functions for infinitum. It indicates that they think not only for needs of future generation but also the needs of all humanity. According to the facts mentioned above, economic and social resources were available to all humanity. Community life has a constantly changing dynamic character. We are the heirs of the finest examples of the foundation of civilization. In other words, we as the heirs must attribute a new, fresh and modern mission to the third sector or civil society organizations. Sustainable development concept includes different dimensions. Such as ecological, economic, political, cultural, social sustainability. This study‘s aim is to indicate that the applications of foundation were serving the same purposes of sustainable development. The treatments applied today to strengthen the social structure exactly overlaps with the services performed by the awqaf throughout history. The given example in this case will emphasize the importance of each term. The traces of good experiences are which created in the past have lived for centuries. The orphans, widows, elderly people, children and the others joined economic and social life through endowed charity. However, it is clear that foundations must have found new solutions and different policy instruments for today‘s problems. The Concept of Sustainable Development Sustainable development has become a buzzword in development thought. Indeed, sustainable development appears to have replaced such venerable concepts as ―growth‖, ―modernization‖, ―progress‖ and even ―accelerated development‖ as the unifying concept for worldwide development activities. The concept of ―human development‖, that has been promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1992) since 1990. Thus, it represents a serious challenge to the primacy of sustainable development in the new hierarchy of development concepts. 399 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The fact is that the sustainable development has succeeded in uniting widely divergent theoretical and ideological perspectives into a single conceptual framework. The goals of sustainable development are far-reaching and have as their objective the transformation of contemporary development theory and practice. They include: 1) the formulation of new paradigms of social, economic, political, cultural, and ecological development; 2) more rational approaches to development that take into account the long-term costs associated with short-term improvements; 3) the judicious use of the planet's nonrenewable physical resources; 4) a balance between economic, social, cultural and physical development; and 5) the realization of fully integrated development strategies that bring together all relevant sectors and actors into a common framework of local, national, regional and international action.(Estes,1993) Inside the Brutland Report: Our Common Future, Chapter 2: Towards Sustainable Development is summarized that ―In essence, sustainable development is a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development; and institutional change are all in harmony and enhance both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations.‖(UN-Documents net) The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1992:17) identifies the following outcomes as minimum additional requirements for achieving the goal of sustainable development: 1) the elimination of poverty; 2) a reduction in population growth!; 3) more equitable distribution of resources; 4) healthier, more educated and better trained people; 5) decentralized, more participatory government; 6) more equitable, liberal trading systems within and among countries, including increased production for local consumption; and 7) better understanding of the diversity of ecosystems, including locally adapted solutions to environmental problems and better monitoring of the environmental impact of development activities. Since 1990, annual Human Development Reports have explored challenges including poverty, gender, democracy, human rights, cultural liberty, globalization, water scarcity, climate change, and mobility. 2010 marks the twentieth anniversary of the human development report and offers an opportunity to reappraise its contribution and to make the case for a new human development vision to meet the challenges and opportunities of the twentyfirst century. This concept note, based on a series of valuable discussions with colleagues in different parts of the UNDP, sets out the basic approach to tackle this task, which will focus on the implications of the human development approach for development policies and strategies. The Human Development Report has been a major force in thinking about development, not only by highlighting the inadequacy of per capita income as the sole measure of a society‘s progress, but also by exploring how a people-centered approach affects the way we should think about key challenges. The reports have covered subjects as diverse as participation, cultural liberty and financing, as well as larger global challenges like cooperation and climate change. The human development approach has influenced many strands of development thinking and the ways that most policymakers and researchers think about human progress. The 2010 report aims to take this contribution significantly further by showing how placing human development at the center of our priorities changes the ways in which we think about, formulate, implement and monitor development policies designed to promote empowerment, address inequality and tackle sustainability.(Human Development Report 2010). The Concept of Waqf Waqf is a charitable foundation. In Arabic language, means forbidding movement, transport or exchange of something. Awqaf is the plural of Waqf. (Öztürk, 1983) The word Waqf is used in Islam with the meaning of holding certain property and preserving it for the confined benefit of certain philanthropic use and prohibiting any use or disposition of it outside that specific objective. On the other side, as an approach for ―ownership‖; a property converts from private ownership to social ownership category. It improves by the effect of moral and religious motivation. Due to the fact that Allah encourage human beings to help each other in his holly Qur‘ân and in the example of his prophet, waqf is prominently improved in the Muslim World and plays a significant role in social, political, and economic life in the Muslim society.(Zaim) ―When a human being dies, his work for Allah comes to an end except for three things: a lasting charity (sadaqa jaariya), knowledge that benefits others, and a good child who calls on Allah for His favour.‖ (Related by Muslim in his Sahih, the book of ―Al-Wassiya‖. Related also by Abu Daoud, At-Tirmidhi and An-Nasaii.) Commenting on this Hadith that the ‗lasting charity‘ is generally recognized as referring to Waqf endowments.(Ali, 2009) There are three main kinds of waqfs. The first kind is the Khairy Waqf or charitable waqf, which means withholding one‘s property and directing its revenues towards different philanthropic goals. The second kind of waqf is the Ahli Waqf or the family waqf. Family vakıfs (vakıf-ı-ehli) were made in favor of one‘s relatives and descendants with the final stage being the dedication of the vakıf to charitable purposes.(Peters,2002) Family awqaf 400 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo were used as a source of income for offspring and for slaves, ensuring the transmission of family wealth from generation to generation. In contrast, a vakıf-ı hayri was dedicated to pious, religious or charitable causes, or for public utilities or the poor.(Yediyıldız, 1982) Family awqaf were divided into two categories; family and semi-family awqaf Semi-family awqaf had the characteristics of both public and family awqaf and were the most preferred type in the Ottoman Empire. In eighteenth-century Anatolia, 82% of the awqaf were family awqaf with the ratio of semifamily awqaf reaching 75 %.(Yediyıldız,1982). Upon the death of the last descendant the endowment reverted to the poor.The founder, called as the ―vâkıf‖ appointed himself to the position of Ģeyh if he created a dervish convent; müderris or professor if he established a medrese; and mütevelli or adminisrator of the waqf, whether it be a mosque, soupkitchen, inn, hospital, or any other instutions that was created. It hardly need be stressed that this last office enabled the vâkıf and his posterity to exercise virtually absolute control over the waqf and its revenues. (Yediyıldız, 1982; Barnes,1986) Vakfiyes(deed of trust) give us various kinds of information about the donor, but they also allow us to hear their individual voices, demonstrate the kind of founder and the purposes for which these foundations were established, and the differences in their size. Unlike vakfiyes, court registers give information when a legal issue arose. These registers rather record the problematic nature of the awqaf . We can only learn the location and nature of the waqf in addition to some other information, from these records. Safiye Sultan, in her deeds of trust: ―For as long as she lives, her royal majesty shall be entitled to receive the surplus of the foundation‘s revenues and after her death, so shall her children, and the children of their children, and the children of the children of their children, and from generation to generation shall they and the right to make use thereof…Let whichever of the manumitted servants and of their children, and of their children‘s children is the most intelligent and capable serve as trustee of the endowment and let whoever is trustee share equally in the surplus revenues with the others. Should their line be wholly extinguished; let the trustee of the mortmain estates of Medina become trusteeof this endowment; let him receive this surplus; and each year let him ensure that it reaches the poor of Medina and is distributed to them…‖(Duran,1990) Waqf action gained prominence because it provided the dead posthumously with permanent reward and the living with an endowment of lasting benefit. The development of waqf foundation in Islamic states peaked and highly improved from aspects of variety, quantity and content. Waqf is the prominent institution, which develop social law, economic and political structure of the society and Islamic state structure on a democratic ground and provide stability and balance in the development. Social justice and equal opportunity and prosperity are result of waqf. Waqf which has been tried to improve, should be examined from the different aspects in order to fulfill properly its functions along with the changing needs and structure of society.(Zaim) Waqf grew by leaps and bounds. This institution became an important pillar in the religious, social, cultural, scientific, economic and political life of Islamic society. Even non-Muslims in Muslim countries established Waqf for the benefit of their communities. For every conceivable enterprise of social benefit there was a Waqf. There were awqaf for mosques, universities, schools, hospitals, orphanages, houses for the poor, food for the poor, the blind, battered/abused women, soup kitchens, wells, aqueducts, fountains, public baths, watchtowers, bridges, cemeteries, salaries, pensions, guest houses, libraries, books and animal welfare. ―The Ottoman society left the financing of health, education and welfare entirely to the Waqf system so much so that the following saying does not exaggerate its central importance: ―Thanks to the Waqfs that flourished during the Ottoman Empire, a person would have been born into a Waqf house, slept in a Waqf cradle, eaten and drunk from Waqf properties, read Waqf books, been taught in a Waqf school, received his salary from a Waqf administration, and when he died, placed in a Waqf coffin and buried in a Waqf cemetery.‖ (Arsebük, 1938) Awqaf are classified in two categories. 1-Tangible (in the form of buildings or real estate) and 2-intangible (cash…) In both cases, the essential point is the foregoing of individual property for the benefit of mankind. Thereafter, that property belongs to Allah (s.w.t.). The main waqf is in the form of real estate, primarily agricultural land and commercial buildings.(Tabakoğlu, 1992) Many sorts of assets such as fields, farms, mills, villages, shops, khans, baths, pastures and springs…have been so bequeathed and the income from themhas been put to work protecting and watching over the poor, serving the pursuit of knowledge, and performing numerous other social and cultural functions. The cash awqaf constituted a special category of Islamic endowment, and played a major role in Ottoman economic –financial history. It can be considered such as an important Islamic financial institution which facilitated the flow of funds from those who were able to save, to those who needed capital, primarily the entrepreneurs, but also to the members of the general public. The well developed money market which legally sanctioned was emerged by the cash awqaf. (Çizakça,1992) 401 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The voluntary institution of Waqf supplemented the state in fulfillment of its obligation towards the provision of public goods. Public investment expenditures, which consist the main part of any modern budget, are not contained in the Ottoman budgets. Because, such investments, together with education, health and other social service expenditures were financed not through the treasury, but through private and especially awqaf which were mostly exempt from taxation and other financial responsibilities. (Tabakoğlu,1992) Awqaf and Sustainable Development The Effectives of Awqaf on Economic Development The Economic Power of Awqaf The importance of the awqaf is seen in terms of the huge assets it controls, in its social expenditure, in the number of people it employs, and in its significant contribution to the economy.In the history, In Otoman, the share of waqf revenues in total public revenues was around 12 per cent in the sixteenth century with the surge in private property. 20 per cent land of whole lands inside of waqf system too.(Tabakoğlu,1994) During the next two centuries, from 1600 to 1800, the condition of awqaf changed and from two-thirds to three –fourths of the land of the empire had by the nineteenth century been placed in waqf.(Barnes,1984) Today, waqf in some communities are governed by Act of Parliament such as in India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Kenya while many are operated under laws governing Trusts, Foundations, Non-Profit Organisations, Non-Government Organisations and Societies.(Ali,2009) United Kingdom, For over two decades, Islamic Relief has been providing emergency aid and long-term assistance to some of the world‘s most deprived people. In 2000, it set up the Waqf Future Fund aimed primarily at reviving a great tradition of setting up a charity that continues to benefit the needy for many future generations. The Fund allows donors to support numerous ongoing charitable projects, not just for people who need immediate help but for those who will continue to need help in the future (www.islamic-relief.com). India, There are an estimated 250,000 Waqf properties in India, valued in excess of US$75 billion and with a potential for generating approximately US$3 billion in revenue. Since 1913 a number of Waqf Acts were passed by the central and state legislatures while the Waqf Act of 1954 was a major development in the history of Awqaf in India. South Africa With only a few exceptions, most of the Awqaf institutions in South Africa are related to mosques and religious educational institutions. Among the few income-generating Waqf institutions in South Africa is the Hajee Ahmed Mahomed Lockhat Wakuff, established in Durban in 1933. Another recent initiative is the National Awqaf Foundation of South Africa Initiated in 2000, Awqaf SA was registered as a trust in 2003, as a NonProfit Organisation.(www.awqafsa.org.za) Awqaf’s Influences on Consumption and Investment Waqf causes transfer of the sources from luxury consumption to essential needs consumption. As a result of consumption transfer to essential needs consumption, waqf causes increasing of marginal profit, total profit provided by consumption in national economy and feeding of total satisfaction. Its influence on savings: waqf causes to save the sources, which could be spent otherwise for luxuries and obstention consumption. Its influence on investment: waqf encourage investing in a useful way the sources, which could be spent for luxuries and obstention consumption or would not be used in an effective way.(Zaim) The discouragement and prohibition of luxury and extravagance in Islam has limited the prospects fordisposable income. Thereby, such extra income had spent to the enhancement of the social welfare through awqaf. Besides, the revenues appropriated by the producers of the capitalist system through price differentiation are directed (in the Islamic system) towards furthering social welfare by way of awqaf. Today the investment which are contained in the central budget revenues, such as religious affairs, education, health, social aid and civil construction were financed generally by the awqaf. Redistribution of Wealth and Income The relationship of waqf with economic life differentiates in accordance with its periods from beginning to the present. Waqf connects with the distribution of wealth in national economy because of that in its establishment period, waqf provides the transfer of wealth for society. 402 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo -In order to maintain a waqf successfully, waqf should be managed rationally. Therefore waqf management must be based on rationality principle. -In order to sustain and increase incomes waqf should implement the ratability principle. -In order to maximize the service and the profit provided by waqf the expenditures should be accordance with productivity principle. In sum, waqf is a foundation, which effects redistribution of national wealth and should be managed as productive and rantable.(Zaim) Despite of this, in waqf the prosperity, which belongs to wealthy groups, doesn‘t transfer to the people having low-level income, but rather to society. After wealth transfer, redistribution of revenue in favor of low-level income people is provided thorough service fulfilling with income of this wealth. Wealth transfer becomes only for one time, however revenue transfer continues during waqf is a going concern. The Functions of Increasing Employment The waqf system had a significant role in the economic development for several reasons. Firstly, the waqf facilitated renting shops with low prices in the markets that had waqfs, which led to the decrease of prices and, in turn, activated the commercial movement in these markets. Besides, the markets that had no waqfs had to decrease their prices in order to be able to compete with the waqf markets to maintain their businesses. Secondly, the waqf helped the decrease of the unemployment rate and the creation of job opportunities. Besides, the waqf helped the poor to own money which increased the demand rate on numerous products and services that were going to be confined only to the wealthy segments in the society if the waqf did not exist. On the other hand, the sabeel or the water fountain that was built on the important commercial roads had significant roles in activating the trade and in facilitating the movement of the commercial caravans traveling between the cities and the villages. Social Policy Functions Education The waqf system had played a vital role in achieving development at the educational, social and economic levels. The educational role of waqf started from the mosque, which was not only a place of praying and worshipping, but was also a source of education where students used to come to learn from instructors specialized in the different branches. Therefore, at the beginning of the Islamic civilization, the mosque used to play the role of the school. However, the form of the educational waqf has evolved to the ―kottab‖, which was similar to a small school where children are taught reading, writing, Quran, and mathematics. Despite the continuance of the kottab, the educational waqf had developed to normal schools, which had widely increased allover the Islamic society. Meanwhile, schools had direct relations with libraries which people started to put them as waqfs since they were aware of the importance of the book and its role in education. Social Services As for the social development, the social services provided by the waqf system were various. A big number of Muslims withheld their properties to build medical centers and hospitals, some of which were built to cure animals. In fact, many of the waqf documents revealed the successful management of the endowed hospitals. Besides the medical services, there were several kinds of social services provided by the waqf, including helping the poor do their pilgrimage, helping poor girls get married, building homes for the orphans, the elderly, and the blind. Waqf‘s health and education services causes to provide equal opportunity; moreover equal opportunity encourages social justice advancing people according to their ability.(Kozak,1985) The periods when the social service provided by waqf is doing properly it is provided services such as education, health for law and middle stratum class thus they can save their sources and increase their prosperity. That is, waqf causes that law and middle class have prosperity. Waqf provides an equilibrium position in distributing sources between individual and society needs. The important point in a society is to provide a balance between individual profit and social input, also, between private and social marginal revenue. Waqf seeks to this aim in underdevelopment countries the cost of free-market economy and rapid-development are unequal prosperity and spoiling social injustice. Advancing of waqf plays a role providing balance in development process. This social service fulfills a duty beyond the struggle of poverty to help to poor people. Waqf contributes to upliftment of humanity and betterment of life and provides a life level which is proper with human dignity. As a 403 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo result of these features of waqf not only low level income groups but also other income groups get benefited from the service provided by waqf. The protector of waqf, which provides social service, is not only rich people. But rather, the people from each social class (artisan, peasant, soldier and worker) contribute to the social service as a nation. Social Insurance Function Most of the waqf aims at providing a security for risks, which the people would undergo in economic life and due to the fact that service is fulfilled by foundation waqf prevent from insulting the people‘s dignity. The relationship between consideration and social insurance decreases in social insurance system and social insurance considerations converts to social insurance payment. In waqf, as being different from contemporary social insurance system solidarity feelings have improved between waqf and the people serviced, without insulting their dignities. It causes joining together in society. Waqf feels peace and satisfaction of raising help for charity. In social insurance system, there is no sharing feeling between two sides. This situation prevents from the feeling alienation in urban life of industrial society. Helping field prevent from alienation, being divided of personality and loneliness and feelings and depression in urban life. The profit for the people organizing waqf, provides a unity human being and his social environment moreover, going beyond this limit contains next generations and eternal life after death. Social insurance system does not affect directly distribution of wealth in economy conversely waqf provides distribution of wealth in the establishment time. Conclusion Throughout its history the most powerful vehicle for charitable and philanthropic endeavors was probably the endowment, or waqf.. A waqf enables a Muslim to assign any proportion of his or her wealth, to designated persons or public utilities. Persons, and institutions such as mosques, schools, bridges, graveyards and drinking fountains, could be the beneficiaries of a waqf. Waqf has always been associated with creating a balance between the local worries and finding solutions for human sufferings in general, which made waqf a unique example of sustainable development. Thus waqf is a unique example of sustainable development. If with the social policy functions had provided the continuity of social life. Waqf functions include almost all stages of social life. Such as; increasing recruitment rates and employment, income and wealth redistribution, social security formation, infrastructure development, expansion of education … Permanence and irrevocability are two essential characteristics of the waqf. The aim of the settler, colleteur is the continuation of this functions for infinitum. It indicates that they think not only for needs of future generation but also the needs of all humanity. According to the facts mentioned above, economic and social resources were available to all humanity. Community life has a constantly changing dynamic character. This condition of perpetuity has led over the years to a considerable accumulation of societal wealth such that awqaf has become an important sector dedicated to the social and economic improvement of the society. References Ali, B.Ġmtiaz. Waqf A Sustainable Development Institution Tobago,2009,www.takaafultt.org-Last Access: May 9th, 2010 . for Muslim Communities. Trinidad and Arsebük, Esat. Medeni Hukuk, BaĢlangıç ve ġahsın Hukuku, Ġstanbul,1938, I,298, Barnes, John Robert. An Introduction To Religious Foundations in The Ottoman Empire , Leiden,1986. Çizakça, Murat. The Relevance of The Ottoman Cash Waqfs (Awqaf Al-Nuqud) For Modern Islamic Economics, Financing Development in Islam, p.393-414 Ed.by M.A. Mannan, Kuala Lumpur, 1992. Ed. Duran, Tülay.Tarihimizde Vakıf Kuran Kadınlar Hanım Sultan Vakfiyyeleri Deeds of Trust of the Sultans Womenfolk,Ġstanbul, 1990. Kozak, Erol. Bir Sosyal Siyaset Müessesesi Olarak Vakıf ,Ġstanbul, 1985. 404 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Öztürk, Nazif. MenĢe‘i ve Tarihi GeliĢimi Açısından Vakıflar, Ankara, 1983. Peters, R. ―Wakf‖, EI² , p.60, v.XI, Leiden, 2002. Tabakoğlu, Ahmet. The Role of Finance in Development, Financing Development in Islam, p.323-344. Ed.by M.A. Mannan, Kuala Lumpur, 1992. Tabakoğlu, Ahmet. Türk Ġktisat Tarihi, 2nd edition,Ġstanbul,1994 Yediyıldız, Bahaeddin. Türk Vakıf Kurucularının Sosyal TabakalaĢmadaki Yeri, 1700-1800, OA, II, Ġstanbul,1982. Zaim, Sabahattin. The influence of Awqaf on economic development, www.awqafsa.org.za. www.awqafsa.org.za/.../PROF%20SABAHATTIN%20ZAIM%2024082002.doc – last access: May 9th ,2010. 405 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 216 Title A name given to the resource To Examine Sustainable Development Through The Historical Applications of Foundations Author Author ŞENSOY, Fatma Abstract A summary of the resource. Sustainable development is one of the contemporary concepts. If we move from today‘s definition of this concept, the solutions for the global problems can be obtained from the foundation‘s applications in the past. Sustainable development concept is generally referred to the 1987 report of World Commission on Environment and Development. The Brundtland Commission reported the slogan, ―Our Common Future: From One Earth to One World‖. The Commission conceptualized sustainable development as ―paths of human progress, which meet the needs and aspirations of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖. The goals of sustainable development are far-reaching and have as their objective the transformation of contemporary development theory and practice. They include the formulation of new paradigms of social, economic, political, cultural, and ecological development. More and more rational approaches are improved to the concept of ―development‖ which takes into account the long-term costs associated with short-term improvements. The judicious use of the planet‘s non-renewable physical resources; a balance between economic, social, cultural and physical development; and the realization of fully integrated development strategies that bring together all relevant sectors and actors into a common framework of local, national, regional and international action. Foundations (Waqf) are Non Governmental Organizations. Current approaches to the definition of a waqf includes; local administration and free economic rules in management. In addition, democracy and volunteerism are essential for the definition. These are weld from the Islamic law. Foundations with the social policy functions had provided the continuity of social life. Waqf functions include almost all stages of social life. Such as; increasing recruitment rates and employment, income and wealth redistribution, social security formation, infrastructure development, expansion of education… The aim of the settler, colleteur is the continuation of this functions for infinitum. It indicates that they think not only for needs of future generation but also the needs of all humanity. According to the facts mentioned above, economic and social resources were available to all humanity. Community life has a constantly changing dynamic character. We are the heirs of the finest examples of the foundation of civilization. In other words, we as the heirs must attribute a new, fresh and modern mission to the third sector or civil society organizations. Sustainable development concept includes different dimensions. Such as ecological, economic, political, cultural, social sustainability. This study‘s aim is to indicate that the applications of foundation were serving the same purposes of sustainable development. The treatments applied today to strengthen the social structure exactly overlaps with the services performed by the awqaf throughout history. The given example in this case will emphasize the importance of each term. The traces of good experiences are which created in the past have lived for centuries. The orphans, widows, elderly people, children and the others joined economic and social life through endowed charity. However, it is clear that foundations must have found new solutions and different policy instruments for today‘s problems. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/78d71a100b6e0c9e0ba41d8ce463c467.pdf 09f9e5a62eb3a5579b1de16a19447bc0 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Effect of Turkish Culture on Bosnian Culture Exemplified by Food Culture Fatih Đyiyol International Burch University, Sarajevo fiyiyol@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: This paper discusses the effect of Turkish Culture, which enhanced its existence in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the historical period, on Bosnian Culture by providing examples from the food culture. The purpose of this paper is to discover Turkish food that continues to exist in Bosnia-Herzegovina till today. Paper, being a folkloristic study, made use of dictionary resources apart from the written resources. Paper was examined with the functional method which is one of the methods of Folklore. At the end of study, it is seen that dishes, soups and desserts kind belonging to the Turkish culinary culture continues to function even today. Key words: Turkish cuisine, Bosnian cuisine, folklore, effect Introduction The presence of Turkish culture in the Balkans extends to the ancient period. Before the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, Turks settled here and left significant traces in this region. It is known that Turkic tribes like Bulgarians, Pechenegs, Oghuz and Kumans lived in the Balkans Bulgari (Hamzaoğlu, 2004:105-106). Before the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, the Turkic tribe, which left significant traces in the Balkans and Bosnia-Herzegovina, is Avars. Avars’social and cultural effect on the societies living in the Balkans before the Ottoman period can be clearly seen in the later centuries too****************** (Malcolm, 2002:6; Hamzaoğlu, 2000: 391-397). After Ottoman’s conquest of the Balkans, a new era has started with regard to the relationship between the communities living in the Balkans and Turks and Turkish culture. Balkans fall under the Ottoman rule helped the Turkish culture to get into direct contact with the settled communities. Situated at a significant junction point, Bosnia-Herzegovina’s considerable part was conquered by Sultan Mehmet the conquer in 1463 (Âşık Paşazâde, 2007: 210-212). Along with this conquest, the cultural interaction between Turkish culture, Bosnian residents’ and Bosnian culture came to a more effective point. After the conquest, the Islamization of Bosnia-Herzegovina occuring in masses enabled Turkish culture to enhance its effect in this region (Imamovic, 1998: 138-181). Embracing Islam through Turks, Bosnians, with their new religion, entered into a basin of a new culture and civilization. With the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Islamization, several elements of Turkish culture had moved to Bosnia-Herzegovina. Staying under Ottoman rule that lasted almost four and half centuries, the deep traces of Turkish culture and Islamic civilization, in BosniaHerzegovina, settled here in many areas ranging from architecture to art; culture to literature; religious tradition to food culture. Until Austro-Hungarian Empire’s conquest of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1878 (Friedman, 1996: 5758), this cultural interaction continued directly. Turkish Cuisine Having an important place among the world cuisines, “Turkish Cuisine” took its current state after passing through three significant periods. One of these; the period which carries the traces of Central Asian Turkish culture,where pre-Islamic Turkish culture and sosyal life and cavalry nomadic are seen. In this period, meaty foods were common, especially horse and sheep meat were eaten roasted. Again in this period, beside The title “Ban”given to Croatian and Bosnian Presidents passed on to these communities from Avar Turkish. Again, the word “Obri” in Serbian Language was used for Avars. Even today the toponyms, such as “Obravac” which means a place where Obris live, is seen in the Balkans (Malcolm, 2002: 6). 469 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo food of nomadic life like yoghurt, milk and cheese, the viniculture and grape molasses are among the dishes seen in residental life (Kafesoğlu, 2009: 318-319). The second period in Turkish cuisine is a period which started with Karahans and ended with Seljuk Empire. Turks, after introduction to Islam, entered into communication with Arab and Persian cultures. Entering into communication with these cultures, Turks adapted various dishes from the mentioned cultures. Besides, many dishes belonging to Turkish culture are called with the words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. For example, included in Turkish folklore; for the meals “the meat, with no water, roasted inside a pan directly in fire” they used the name “Kebab” which was borrowed from Arabic (T.S, 2005: 1124). Again, for a meal that is cooked, with no water, in tandoor, the word “Biryan” which entered in to Turkish from Persian was used (T. S, 2005: 284). Dishes and dish names, taken from Arab and Persian cultures, were reshaped in Turkish social life and established a deep-rooted rich cuisin. The Arabic-origin word “Kebap” revealed twenty-three confirrmed dish varities in Turkish cuisine like; döner kebabı, şiş kebabı, yoğurtlu kebap, Adana kebabı, bostan kebabı, buğu kebabı, çağ kebabı, çoban kebabı, çömlek kebabı, çöp kebabı, fırın kebabı, kağıt kebabı, oltu kebabı, orman kebabı, patlıcan kebabı, saç kebabı, talaş kebabı, tandır kebabı, taş kebabı, testi kebabı, Tokat kebabı, Urfa kebabı, yufka kebabı (T.S, 2005: 1124). The third period is the Ottoman era Turkish cuisine. During this period, Turkish cuisine, which became the imperial cuisine, have received several dishes from all communities within its structure but; also left a significant effect on the food folklore of these communities. Empire's vast geography and the vast opportunities enriched the Turkish cuisine and food supplies arriving from different regions turned the Turkish culinary culture, during the period and for later, into a major kitchen. Enriched with different sub-cultures in this period, Turkish cuisine helped the formation of a deep-rooted kitchen like “Palace Kitchen”. In the Ottoman court a unit called “Matbah-ı Âmire” was created, and this unit; a large building where meals, sweets, grout and drugs like “Has mutfak, Ağalar mutfağı, Divan mutfağı” were prepared (Haydaroğlu, 2003). Turkish cuisine comprised of the three major phases from steppe period, the Seljuk and Ottoman periods till today (Artun, 2008: 401); it acquired the main characteristics of these periods in its structure and Turkish food culture, considering the basic features, has meat, onions and paste in terms of materials; cooking in charcoal and copper pots in terms of cooking(Artun, 2008: 399-402; http://www.kultur.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx). Turkish Cuisine in Bosnia-Herzegovina One of the most important indications of the effect of Turkish culture in Bosnia-Herzegovina is the appearance of the words belonging to Turkish culinary and Turkish nutrition cultures. With Ottoman Empire’s conquest of Bosnia-Herzegovina, since XV. century various food kind had been moved to Bosnia-Herzegovina (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2005: 162). Some of the meals belonging to Turkish cuisine directly entered into Bosnian culture and were called by the same names. In some other Turkish meals, with the historical and geographical effect, changes occurred either in their names or dish's material. For example, ''Sarma'', one of type of dish in Turkish cuisine, settled in the same way in Bosnian folk culture and arrived until today. However, the word 'bey' which passed from Turkish to Bosnian, gained a new identity as in Begova Çorba (Gentleman's soup). The names of some of the food kind, carried from Turkish cuisine to Bosnian cuisine, either partly changed or were completely unaltered. Beside this, various dishes, which are seen almost in every cultures and in Turkish culture, are also available in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Soups Begova čorba (Tur., Bey çorbası; Ing. entleman's soup), is a type of soup consisting heavily of chicken meat and ladyfinger, made for special guests or significant organizations in transition periods. The word beg>bey in Turkish emerged in Bosnia-Herzegovina as a result of the structure of Bosnian community during Ottoman period (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007:41). Šehrija çorba (Tur., Şehriye çorbası; Ing., Noodle soup),is “a kind of soup made from oil, solt, water and noodles'', received its name with the adaption of the word ''Şe'riyye'' in Arabic into Turkish and emerged as a result(T.S, 2005: 1857). The noodle soup is one kind of soup, which is seen in the traditional Bosnian cuisine, is had in daily life (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 57; Škaljić, 1965: 584). Škembe-çorba (Tur., Đşkembe çorbası; Ing., Tripe soup), is a kind of soup made from tripe. It continues its functionality in Turkish cuisine today, but; it also continues its functionality in Bosnian cuisine (Škaljić, 1965: 591). 470 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Tarhana, tarana (Škaljić, 1965: 601); mixed cereal soup, prepared with mixed cereals,is one of the important soup in Turkish cuisine, entered into Bosnian folk culture in the same way. It is a soup kind which is seen in every phase of daily life specially in village and town communities (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 52-57). Tutmać is a kind of “soup with yoghurt made from the squarely-cut dough pieces” (T.S, 2005: 2012). Tutmaç, with its style of preparation and its Turkish name, passed into Bosnian culture (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 46). Dishes Sarma (Tur., Sarma; Ing., stuffed vine leaves), is a kind of dish “made from cabbage, chard and grape leaves wrapped with the filling prepared'' (T.S, 2005: 1706). Sarma, with its name and style of preparation, is seen, unaltered, in Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 61-65; Škaljić, 1965: 551). In addition to its consumption in daily life in Bosnia-Herzegovina, it is one of the socially significant dishes prepared in special occasions. Sarma, specially in iftar (fast-breaking) tables in Bosnia-Herzegovina, is among indispensable dishes. There is a kind of dish called jalan Sarma or jalandži dolma found in the Herzegovina region. This sarma type is preared by putting rice inside the vine leaf. It is called jalan(bare) sarma because it does not contain any meat inside (R1, R2, R4, R6, R10, R15). Đmam-bajildi (Tur., Đmambayıldı), is a sort of dish made from “the eggplant fried in whole, split in the middle and stuffed inside with the filling consisting of onions, garlic and tomatoes(T. S, 2005: 960). This dish, belonging to Turkish cuisine, can be seen in traditional Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 69; Škaljić, 1965: 345). Consumed at every phase of daily life, this dish type, specially seen; Zenica,Travnik and Herzegovina regions (R1, R4, R9, R14, R15, R16, R17). Kadun-butući (Tur., Kadınbudu köfte), is a kind of “meatball made from either one sort of rice or pounded wheat by frying them in oil after dredging them in eggs” (T.S, 2005: 1027). This dish, belonging to Turkish cuisine, can be seen in traditional Bosnian cuisine with the same name. Reshaped according to Bosnian taste, this dish is, specially, seen in tradition life in Bosnia-Herzegovina(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 82; Škaljić, 1965: 379). Sogandolma, sagandolma (Tur., Soğan dolma; Ing., Stuffed onions), It is a kind of stuffed vegetable dish made by empyting onion’s inside and filling it with rice and minced meat(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 69; Škaljić, 1965: 569). Although this dish is not very common in Turkish cuisine, its name comprises of two Turkish words’ combination and it became national dish of Bosnia. It is a kind of dish which is consumed, specially, at the introduction of national meals, at the tables of Ramadan and weddings. Ćevapčić (Tur., Kebab), is a kind of meatball resembling to meatball from Inegol among Turkish dishes. It is widely consumed in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Within Turkish popular culinary culture, in terms of functionality, presentation and generality, ćevapčić meets the function of “Döner” in Bosnia-Herzegovina. In Bosnia-Herzegovina’s publicity, touristic and folkloristic organizations, it is a dish which comes in the foreground. Šišćevap, Šišćevap (Tur., Şiş kebab; Ing., shish kebab), is a sort of kebab made by arranging in kebab in skewers (T.S, 2005: 1871). It is seen in Bosnian traditional cuisine, particularly in restaurants that serve Bosnian traditional dishes. It is consumed in dially life as well as in special occasions (Hadžiosmanovıć, 2007: 90; Škaljić, 1965: 590). This dish is eaten widely in Sarajevo and it is called Sarajevski mač (Saraybosna KılıcıSword of Sarajevo) when prepared with vegetables. Bungur, Bulgur Pilav (Tur., Bulgur pilavı; Cooked pounded wheat), is a sort of rice made from the pounded wheat. Various sorts are prepared in Bosnia-Herzegovina by adding different materials to pounded wheat. For this sort of rice, the word “Bulgur”, which was taken from Turkish, is used and the word “Bungur” is made use of (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 163; Škaljić, 1965: 154). Keške, ćeške, kekšek (Tur., Keşkek; Ing., Pounded meat and meat), is a kind of dish made from “boiling well-pounded wheat with meat for a long time”(T. S, 2005: 1148). It passed from Turkish traditional cuisine to Bosnian traditional cuisine but the functionality of this dish decreased. Today, it became a sort of dish prepared rarely in Central Bosnia mostly (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 151; Škaljić, 1965: 407). Pirjan (Tur., Biryan; Ing., Pit roasted lamb),is a sort of meat dish cooked in tandoor and is seen in Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 127; Škaljić, 1965: 518). Nowadays, meat dishes, prepared in electric and stone ovens, too, are called pirjan. Dolma (Tur., Dolma; Ing., Vegetable stuffing),is a kind of dish prepared by putting rice, minced meat or other materials into either bell pepper or tomatoes. Dolma is also a general name for the dishes like leaf-filling, leaf-wrapping and bell pepper-stuffing (T.S, 2005: 557). Dolma dish is a widely eaten dish in BosniaHerzegovina (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 61-65; Škaljić, 1965: 223). The most widespread region of Dolma is 471 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Travnik and its surroundings (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2005: 162). Common in daily life as well as in transition periods, dolma is one of the main dishes of ceremonies. Đulbastija, ćulbastija(Grilled cutlet), is dish made from the boneless meat cooked on embers and grills(T.S, 2005: 1280). Although this is the same dish in Bosnia-Herzegovina, it is also prepared with bony or boneless meat (Škaljić, 1965: 254). Ćufte (Tur, Köfte; Ing., Meatball), is a kind of dish “generally made from minced meat, and sometimes chicken, fish and potatoes.k türüdür (T.S, 2005: 1227) It is pretty common in Bosnian culture (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R8, R9, R10, R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, R7). Sweets Baklava (Tur., Baklava; Ing., Sweet pastry), is a sort of sweet, which is made by various dry fruits wrapped in dough sheets and by pouring grout over it (T. S, 2005: 155). Baklava, is a sweet kind which is functional in traditional life in Bosnia-Herzegovina. It is offered to people coming for a visit during Ramazan festival. In Bosnian weddings, “The girl, who is about to get married, would enter with her veil into a room full women, sit in front of a femal teacher to recite verses from the Qur’an. Then grout was offered to the women in the room. The Marriage ceremony would come to an end after coffee and baklava were offered” (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2005: 164-166) It is a kind of sweet specially consumed in weddings, religious festival and was offered to special guests(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 262; Škaljić, 1965: 116). Kadaif (Tur., Kadayıf; Ing., Shredded pastry), is a kind of sweet “made from flour and consumed as sweet” (T. S, 2005: 1026). The most consumed kind in Turkish cuisine are, shredded pastry and bread pastry. The word “Kadaif” in Bosnia-Herzegovina is used for shredded pastry. Apart from this shredded pastry kind, bread pastry,too, is also kind of sweet found in Bosnian cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 273; Škaljić, 1965: 378). In terms of importance, shredded pastry, although not as significant as baklava, is one of the crucial sweets of the transition period and special occasions. (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R8, R9, R10, R11, R12, R13, R14, R15, R17). Halva, alva, halvuša, alvuša (Tur., Helva; Ing.; Halwa), is a sort of sweet made from oil, sugar, flour, and sometimes, from semolina (T.S, 2005: 875). Halwa is a sort of sweet widely seen in Bosnian traditional cuisine (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 290; Škaljić, 1965: 306). Halwa is definitely prepared during Prophet’s Birth Ceremony and it is made sure that the smell surrounds the entire house. (R2, R4, R8, R12, R15, R16, R17). Gulač (Tur., Güllaç; Ing., Stuffed rice wafers), is a kind of sweet made from starchy thin dough sheets. Although quite known in Bosnia-Herzegovina; it is a type of sweet which is rarely made(Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 294). Đulbešečer (Tur., Gulbeşeker; Ing., Rose Jam), is a type of sweet prepared with rose and sugar(T.S, 2005: 805). Although quite known in Bosnia-Herzegovina; it is a sort of sweet whose functionality decreased at a great deal (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 301; Škaljić, 1965: 255). Tulumbe, Tulumba (Tur., Tulumba; Ing., Fried pastry with Syrup), is a dessert made by“giving shape to dough” (T.S, 2005: 2007). Fried pastry with Syrup, is widely consumed dessert kind in Bosnian cuisine. It is eaten in Religious Festivals and weddings as well as in daily life (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 301; Škaljić, 1965: 255). Hurmadžik, hurmašica, hurmadžici (Tur., Hurmacık; Ing., Date Sweet); is a type of dough sweet made by “shaping dough like a date” (T.S, 2005: 904). Beside traditional community life, it is a kind of sweet consumed in the cities too (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 278). Ašure, hašure (Tur., Aşure; Ing.,Noah’s Pudding), is a type of sweet made by “boiling ingredients like wheat, chickpea etc., and dry fruits along with sugar” (T. S, 2005: 139). It is a type of sweet prepared on the 10th day of the month of Moharrem to commemorate the martydom of Excellency Hossain (Prophet’s grandson) and with the same function and ingredients it is also made in Bosnia-Herzegovina (Hadžıosmanovıć, 2007: 301; Škaljić, 1965: 255). Conclusion Starting to become active in the Balkans before the Ottoman and with the Ottoman’s conquest of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Turkish culture left a significant effect on Bosnian culture. Remaining under the Ottoman rule nearly 450 years and with the effect of Islamization, Bosnia-Herzegovina has become a major carrier of Turkish culture. Many soup, dish and dessert kind of Turkish cuisine passed on to Bosnian cuisine. Some of the kinds of dish in Turkish cuisine have entered into Bosnian cuisine with their own names and densities and others with different names. Nowadays, various dish types, belonging to Turkish cuisine, were adapted by Bosnian cuisine and these dishes constituted a significant part of Bosnian cuisine. In our study, a major part of the 472 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Turkish dishes found in Bosnia-Herzegovina are seen to perform functions in the transition periods of Bosnian folkloristic culture like important occasions and events, increasing holiness, showing the significance of things done. References ARTUN, Erman (2008), “Adana Mutfak Kültürü ve Adana Yemeklerinden Örnekler”, Halk Kültürü Researches, Kitabevi Pub., p.399-433. Âşıkpaşazade (1882), Tevârîh-i Âl-i Osmân, Prepared by; Prof. Dr. Kemal Yavuz- Prof. Dr. A. Yekta Saraç, Gökkubbe pub., Đstanbul. HADŽIOSMANOVIĆ, Lamija (2007), Bosnian Cook, Sejtarija pub. Sarajevo. HADŽIOSMANOVIĆ, Lamija (2005), “Geçmişten Günümüze Bosna Mutfağı”, Mostar Magazine, Trans., Emini Şentürk, Year.1, Issue. 6, p., 162-166. HAYDAROĞLU, Đlknur (2003), http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/18/30/210.pdf “Osmanlı Saray (Date of access: 3.05. 2010). Mutfağından Notlar”, http://www.kultur.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster.aspx (Date of access: 3.05. 2010). FRĐEDMAN, Francine (1996), The Bosnian Muslims Denial of a Nation, Westview press, Oxford. HAMZAOĞLU, Yusuf (2004), Sırbistan Türklüğü, Lagosa Pub., Üsküp HAMZAOĞLU, Yusuf (2000), Balkan Türklüğü, Kültür Bak. Pub., Ankara. IMAMOVIÇ, Mustafa (1998), Historiya Bošnjaka, Bošnjančka Zajednica Kulture Preporod, Sarajevo. KAFESOĞLU, Đbrahim (2009), Türk Milli Kültürü, Ötüken Pub., 28.edition, Đstanbul. MALCOLM, Noel(2002), Bosnia A Short History, Pan Book, London. ŠKALJĐĆ, Abdullah (1965), Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom Jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo. TURKISH DICTIONARY; 2005, Türk Dil Kurumu pub., Ankara Oral Resources Resource No, Name and Surname, Date of Birth, Place of Birth, Education, Profession (R1), Sanela ARDOVĐĆ, 29.03. 1969, Butmir- Sarajevo, High School, Typist (R2), Aziza KADRĐĆ, 6. 5. 1935 Sjenica-Sancak, illiterate, Housewife (R3), Berina TĐRO 08.07.1963, Sarajevo, High School, Typist (R4), Teacher Ruvejda BĐLĐÇ, 31.01.1943, Ljubuşki, (R5), Zümreta PEPĐ Ć, 1. 1. 1959, Sjenica- Sancak, (R6), Samiya KARĐÇ, 17.03.1937, Sarajevo, 473 University, High School, … Retired Housewife Housewife �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo (R7), Mehrima PALJEVAC, 10.05.1962, Sarajevo, High School, Housewife (R8), Taiba BUDNJO, 26.12.1964, Olovo, University, Businessman (R9), Amra BIRZINA, 27.09.1985, Stolac, University, Journalist (R10), Dentist (R11), (R12), Member Hatica HASĐÇ, 25.12.1935, Mehida UVEYZOVIÇ, 20.07.1978, Hanifa OBRALIĆ, Sarajevo, College, Retired Bratunac/Srebrenica, High School, 21.05.1954, Mrkonjić Grad, Housewife University, (R13) Nera BARUČĐJA, 29.11. 1951, Kotorsko, (R14), Šerifa SMRIKO, 16.02. 1952, Zenica, High School, Housewife (R15), Špago DINKA, Mostar, High School, Broker (R16), Mehmed MUJKĐĆ, Žepa, Madrasah, Imam (R17), Nasiha ALĐĆ-KLĐPĐĆ, 09.09.1960, Kozarac, High School, Housewife 18. 12. 1951, 1928, 474 High School, Faculty Housewife � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 736 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of Turkish Culture on Bosnian Culture Exemplified by Food Culture Author Author İYİYOL, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper discusses the effect of Turkish Culture, which enhanced its existence in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the historical period, on Bosnian Culture by providing examples from the food culture. The purpose of this paper is to discover Turkish food that continues to exist in Bosnia-Herzegovina till today. Paper, being a folkloristic study, made use of dictionary resources apart from the written resources. Paper was examined with the functional method which is one of the methods of Folklore. At the end of study, it is seen that dishes, soups and desserts kind belonging to the Turkish culinary culture continues to function even today. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)