39 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46157a416d9d60e83808020c541991cc.pdf 6b310361d1c5399efc9f0b73394a3156 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics “Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” James St. André The University of Manchester, United Kingdom Submitted: 22.04.2014. Accepted: 04.11.2014. Abstract While teaching first in Singapore and now in Manchester, it has come to my attention that there are certain difficulties in teaching translation theory either outside of Europe or, in Europe, to students from outside of Europe who come here to study. This paper concentrates on the role of examples in theoretical works, the problems they pose in teaching theory and the implications for universalism in translation studies. I draw on Edward Said’s discussion of travelling theory, post-colonial critiques of the hegemonic role of English, and skopos theory to propose two courses of action to help overcome the problem: first, the incorporation of the translation of theoretical material both from and into European languages as part of practical postgraduate training; and second, the use of a radical substitution policy for examples, with new examples centred around the target language, rather than preservation of the original examples, which are centred around the source-language. Using the example of China, I will demonstrate how these two strategies push us to reconsider how we approach teaching theory. Firstly, the translation of Chinese theoretical texts into English will allow for a deeper appreciation of writings in Chinese and their wider dissemination. Secondly, the search for examples which involve the target language should lead to an engagement between the target culture and the theory. Translating Vinay and Darbelnet’s path breaking essay on translation processes, for example, immediately raises the question of what exactly is meant by ‘borrowing’ in the Chinese context, and for the need to distinguish between retaining the use of the roman alphabet and transliteration using Chinese characters, a distinction that would never arise between French, English and German. Keywords: translation theory, examples, Chinese Introduction Although not a specialist in foreign language acquisition or in teaching English as a foreign language, I have long been concerned with the teaching of theoretical texts in 131 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” translation studies to non-native speakers of English. These theoretical texts include translations from other languages (mainly German and French) into English, as well as translations from English into Chinese (which is my main foreign language, and the one most commonly shared by my students). Teaching such theoretical texts raises a variety of issues, in particular the question of examples and the problem of historical specificity versus universal applicability. For over a century, we have seen the imposition of Western European theoretical ‘universals’ on the ‘East’, the ‘South’ or ‘the Rest’ (depending on which term you prefer). Tackling the challenge of development of universals today involves making models that come out of a wider range of experience across the humanities and social sciences. In translation studies in particular, there is a need to go beyond the triumvirate of English, French and German studies, and to go beyond East and West. In a postmodern vein, I begin this paper with a story of a young American who went to Asia to teach translation and how that experience changed his perception of his chosen field of study. You should detect in this preamble a very heavy whiff of postcolonialism. After that preamble, I discuss briefly some of the arguments for and against universalism in the humanities and social sciences in general. Then I lay out some of the more recent arguments in favour of universalism, especially in computational linguistics and their application to translation studies. The final section of the paper will be a discussion of how and why we might or might not want to continue looking for universals in translation studies, and how historical specificity might engage with it, taking into account various factors, including: the (non) translation of translation theory East-West; the importance of examples and case studies in translation theory; the importance of religion as a grounding for Universalism; and a modified view of what ‘universal’ means in the field today. Anecdote In 1999 I was hired by the department of Chinese Studies at the National University of Singapore to teach all levels of translation. Since primary and secondary education in Singapore is now in English, with ethnic Chinese students taking Mandarin Chinese as their required ‘Mother Tongue’ subject, there is a large bilingual EnglishChinese population there. Students in the Chinese department thus generally having fairly good skills in both languages, and Singaporean undergraduates are eminently suited for a translation programme. For the advanced module, I assigned three essays from Venuti’s Translation Studies Reader (2000) that I considered to be, if not easy, at least clearly written and engaged 132 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics with specific strategies of translation: Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet, “A Methodology for Translation” (1958/2000), Katharina Reiss “Type, Kind and Individuality of Text: Decision making in translation” (1971/2000) and Hans Vermeer “Skopos and Commission in Translational Action” (1989/2000). To my surprise, the students claimed that the essays were extremely difficult, if not incomprehensible, and my plans for in-class discussion went nowhere. When I pressed them as to what exactly they had trouble following, it turned out that the main problem was the examples that the authors used to illustrate their points. All three essays had been translated: Vinay and Darbelnet from French, the articles by Reiss and by Vermeer from German. More importantly, all three essays contained concrete examples, which I had thought would make the theoretical model easier to understand. However, the translators of all three articles had left these examples in their original form, ie, a combination of French, German, Spanish, and English. Reiss’s article was possibly the most difficult, because most of her examples were of translation between French and German, or German by itself, with no translation into English. Perhaps because I have a reading knowledge of these languages, I had not noticed the oddity of presenting an essay in English where the examples, which were supposed to illustrate the theoretical premises, were all between two foreign languages. The article by Vinay and Darbelnet was slightly better, because all the examples were English-French, so the students could at least understand one half of each example, and the article by Vermeer did not contain as many examples. Subsequently, we worked through each section of the essays, coming up with English-Chinese examples to supplement the texts, which then resulted in the students understanding them much better, but also led to the result (surprising to me at the time) that not all of the points that the theorists had to make were relevant to Chinese-English translation. Yet all of these models were couched in the language of universal applicability. Vinet and Darbelnet are typical in this respect, beginning their article by stating: “At first the different methods or procedures seem to be countless, but they can be condensed to just seven, each one corresponding to a higher degree of complexity.” (1958/2000: 84) The remainder of the article consists of discussing each of the seven types, with examples of how these seven techniques can solve (presumably) any and all difficulties a translator might encounter. There is no indication that there might be exceptions, either in the sense of a text posing a problem that one or more of these seven techniques cannot solve, or in the sense of there being alternative techniques which might produce different but equally valid translations. They end their paper with a table that sets out the seven techniques by ‘level of difficulty”, but which also enumerates how on “the three planes of expression” (ie lexis, structures, and message) these techniques are valid (1958/2000: 92). Here again the use of the 133 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” definite article ‘the” suggests that there are only these three planes, thereby strengthening the universalist claims of their seven techniques to solve all possible problems. Reiss, in turn, says that text-type is a phenomenon going beyond a single linguistic or cultural context, because the following essentially different forms of written communication may be regarded as being present in every speech community with a culture based on the written word and also because every author of a text ought to decide in principle on one of the three forms before beginning to formulate his text. (1971/2000: 163, my italics) Clearly the repetition of ‘every’ suggests that Reiss believes she is describing a universal phenomenon, and she goes on to list exactly three of them. Vermeer, similarly, opens his article with sentences that contain phrases such as “any form of translational action”, “[a]ny action has an aim”, and “[t]he aim of any translational action”. (1989/2000: 221, my italics), all of which demonstrate his belief that skopos theory is valid for all translational activity. Furthermore, the article contains an explicit defense of its universal applicability. Having been criticized (Vermeer does not specify who the critics were), he mounts a two-pronged defense, insisting both that all actions have an aim (1989/2000: 224-5) and that all translations, even of literature, have an intention (1989/2000: 226-7). All three articles make these strong universal claims with the help of examples from just four modern European languages. It was the difficulty I experienced teaching this material in Singapore that first aroused my interest in the relation between the particular and the universal in translation theory. Currently in Manchester, I have noticed again that the non-native speakers of English from non Western-European countries often have similar problems in a module I teach, Translation and Interpreting Studies II. As a result, I now teach a module entitled “Practicum: Translating Theory” in which we address this specific problem. I will return to look at some passages from these texts in more detail later in this paper; in particular, I have a few suggestions as to what might be done about those translations. First, however, I need to make a detour to discuss universalism as a general phenomenon in the human sciences. The urge to universalism Almost all theoretical models aspire to universalism, because all theoretical models are an attempt to generalize from the specific. The more widely applicable a theory is, the more powerful it is. There are many possible examples, but to choose just one, 134 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics we might examine post-colonial theory. Post-colonialism began as a movement among intellectuals living in, originally from, or studying the history of the Indian Subcontinent; an earlier term used to describe it was subaltern studies. That name derives from their attempt to theorize the development of Indian history under colonial rule, when the Indians were subalterns to the British, using Gramsci’s theoretical framework as a basis of their critique (see Guha 1982a, 1982b, and Guha 1983). The term ‘subaltern studies’, which was fairly specific to that historical time and place, was gradually replaced by the more general term post-colonial studies. At the same time, the scope of ‘post’ in post-colonial was expanded (or generalized) in three ways. First, from what was originally conceived rather narrowly as countries which had been colonized by European powers but were now independent, the term came to refer to the entire history of colonial and post-colonial rule in such countries; in this sense ‘post’ meant ‘after the beginning of colonialism’ not ‘after the end of colonialism’. (Robinson 1997: 13) Second, from the originally specific European colonialism, post-colonialism was also used to refer to, and theorize about, the colonial relation in any time period and by any country, not just European. (ibid: 1314) Third, the term was metaphorized so that it could refer to situations where, although there was not strictly speaking a colonial situation (one country controlling another, including sending significant numbers of people to live for a period of time, if not permanently) to many types of unequal power relations (ibid: 14). So for example we can now talk about one culture having a post-colonial relation with another; we can also use the term post-colonial to refer to situations such as Russia’s relation to the Eastern Block during the Cold War. Paulina Gasior’s paper at a recent conference in Prague (2009), which proposes that the relationship between Eastern and Western Europe today can be characterized as post-colonial, and that therefore a post-colonial framework can be used to examine translations between Polish and English or French, illustrates how post-colonialism can be used in such a metaphorical sense. At present, then, post-colonial has developed from what was originally a very narrow historical and temporal period (trying to understand modern India in terms of the after-effects of British colonial rule) to a set of theoretical assumptions and methodological tools that aspires to be universally applicable to an extremely wide array of historical phenomena. In effect, everyone theorist dreams of coming up with something like Newton’s laws of gravity, which are seen as being universally applicable to all physical objects in the universe. Certainly we can say that, in its weaker form (ie, generalization) universalism is a necessary tendency in human thought. It is unimaginable that we could make sense of the world if we could not group things together and say that, for all intents and purposes, these things are identical in respect to certain properties, and therefore can be treated as identical. The problem occurs when that urge to universalize erases important differences, or when a theoretical model can not in fact adequately describe dissimilar phenomena as similar. 135 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” The attack on universalism As my reference to Newton indicates, the ‘gold standard’ for universalism has been the sciences since at least the nineteenth century, if not earlier. The apogee of this valuation of science as providing universal knowledge came perhaps in the first half of the twentieth century with the emergence of logical positivism, or logical empiricism, which tried to exclude all non-scientific knowledge from having any truth value (Uebel 2008). This did not, however, prevent theorists in the humanities from pursuing universal theories; rather, the link between science and truth in logical positivism inspired a decidedly scientific turn in certain fields of the humanities, including linguistics and therefore the emergent field of translation studies, and perhaps an even more ambitious desire to map out universals in those fields. Quine’s work on the philosophy of language, and its influence in translation studies, is but one example.1 However, even as universalism in both the sciences and the humanities tried to make ever more ambitious claims, it came under attack in the twentieth century from a variety of angles. In the sciences, twentieth-century advances in both physics and mathematics were interpreted, paradoxically, as undermining truth claims. In physics, Einstein’s theory of relativity proved that Copernicus’s laws of motion were only special cases under ‘ordinary’ conditions, and that in other situations they did not necessarily hold. The theory of relativity itself claims to be universally valid; however, it was and continues to be interpreted popularly as proving that everything is relative and that therefore there is no absolute truth. In addition, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which states that it is impossible to know both the position and the momentum of a particle (Hilgevoord 2008), was similarly interpreted as meaning that scientific knowledge could not be absolute and therefore could not make universal claims. Yet Hilgevoord states at the beginning of his article on the uncertainty principle that “Quantum mechanics is generally regarded as the physical theory that is our best candidate for a fundamental and universal description of the physical world.” (2008) Thus quantum mechanics itself (for which Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is one of the foundational elements) makes strong claims to universal truth. Turning to mathematics, it was mainly the work of Gödel and Tarski in the 1920s and 1930s that raised problems. Gödel’s two incompleteness theorems and Tarski’s theorem of the indefinability of truth (which builds partly on Gödel’s work; see Gómez-Torrente 2008) led to a radical, if limited, undermining of the definability of 1 Quine 1960; see Uebel 2008 for the way in which Quine was influenced by, but critical of, the Vienna Circle and some of their tenets of logical positivism. 136 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics truth in arithmetic (Kennedy 2008). The ways in which Gödel and Tarski’s work limits truth functions and universal claims in mathematics is limited to axiomatic systems (Shalizi 2009). However, as Shalizi also points out, it has been used fallaciously to argue that there is “some profound limitation on knowledge, science, mathematics” imposed by the theorems (Shalizi 2009). Sokal and Bricmont (1999: 176-81) provide an example of such a use of Gödel’s theorems in the social sciences. Although scholars in the humanities may or may not understand quantum physics and theoretical mathematics, these theories, and the layman’s interpretation of them, have been used to caution against scientific ‘truth’ as absolute or universal. This view of scientific truth as ‘relative’ has been reinforced by the work of historians, sociologists and anthropologists of science. In the history of science, Philip Kuhn, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), proposed the notion of paradigm shift. According to Kuhn, scientists shift from one paradigm to another, with different paradigms capable of explaining phenomena in different ways in varying degrees of usefulness.2 There is thus a strong suggestion that all paradigms are approximations of reality as we observe it, not Truth with a capital ‘T’. More recently, the work of Helen Longino (1990), Bruno Latour and Steven Woolgar (1986), and others have insisted upon the inescapable social element to scientific knowledge, challenging its claims to absolute, universal truth (for an overview see Longino 2008). These developments in history and sociology of science were linked to a more general post-structural trend in the social sciences. In particular, a distrust of ‘master narratives’ emerged. In history, for example, Hayden White (1973) attacked the idea that the historian was an objective collector of facts that were already out there as a myth. Instead, he saw all history as story-telling, often based on archetypal stories or myths. The subjectivity of the historian thus precluded any hope of reaching a description of what ‘really happened’, or an objective Truth. White’s work is only one example of the ‘post’ movement: post-modernism, poststructuralism, post-colonialism, and deconstruction. Key to post-colonialism was the resistance to hegemony and received notions of truth. Post-structuralism sought to challenge the universal theoretical assumptions of structuralism. Post-modernism argued for the disappearance of “Truth” to be replaced by ‘truths’; and Derrida and For example, although scientists may believe that Einstein’s model of the universe is more accurate than Copernicus’s, the vast majority of people, including physicists, live out their daily lives as if in a Copernican universe; moreover, a modern-day physicist sailing in a boat at night out of sight of land, using stars to navigate, is basing her decisions of how to steer on a Ptolemaic universe, wherein the stars are fixed points in the heavens and can thus be used to guide a traveler. Thanks to Douglas Allchin, personal communication, for this example. 2 137 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” others sought to dismantle the entire Western philosophical tradition, upon which claims for scientific and universal truths had been built. Finally, more recently, the New Historicism and Cultural Materialism have again insisted upon the historical situatedness of knowledge. The essay by J. Hillis Miller, “Border Crossings, Translating Theory: Ruth” (1996) is a good example of these trends, demonstrating both the power and the problems of post-structuralist arguments, like the worm Ouroboros. Miller argues that all literary theory is grounded in the interpretation of particular texts, and that therefore literary theory is untranslatable. Miller gives the examples of Derrida’s notion of dissemination as having been developed as a response to the poetry of Mallarmé, and Paul de Man’s “Resistance to Theory” as being rooted in his reading of the word ‘fall’ in Keats’s The Fall of Hyperion (1996: 213). For Miller, there is thus always a tension between the universal pretensions of theory and its origins in specific historical and cultural knowledge. This means that, like any linguistic utterance, a theoretical model is always liable to distortion in the process of transmission from one culture to the next; there is not some meta-language of theory, as there is of mathematics. Yet Miller’s essay itself could be seen as falling prey to the same problem: he claims universal validity for his thesis that all theoretical models are inseparable from their roots. However, that thesis in turn emerges from the reading of a specific text: the story of Ruth in the Bible. Miller’s argument about the impossibility of translating theory is situated at the beginning of an article on traveling theory. While discussing the impossibility of translating theory, Miller also notes that, of course, theory continues to be translated all the time despite the problematic relation between universal and particular in theoretical discourse. This leads him to a discussion of the dangers of doing so, mainly in terms of cultural contamination or cultural colonialism. However, for Miller, there is another danger: that the theorist will lose control of his theory. I use the pronoun ‘he’ advisedly, because Miller is obviously talking about himself; he makes specific mention, more than once, of the fact that his own work has been translated into languages he does not read, like Chinese, and that he does not know what has happened to his theory in this process. There is, then, a contested power relation involved between author and translator, with Miller exhibiting a deep unease at the idea that ‘his’ work is circulating in forms that he cannot control. All in all, developments in mathematics, physics, history and sociology of science, and the ‘post-’ movement in the humanities led to universalism taking quite a beating in the second half of the twentieth century. The emergence of a new universalism 138 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Developing in parallel to some of the events mentioned above, there has been continued interest in universalism, in some cases coming from a new direction: quantitative methods. The modern science of statistics and probability is a relatively young discipline, gradually evolving from several different areas between the seventeenth and early twentieth centuries. Stigler (1986) charts how at least three different impetuses (a flurry of interest in games of chance; the need to record exact measurements in the sciences, especially astronomy; the demands by emergent nation states to understand and control large populations through the collection and interpretation of census data) led to the development of sophisticated mathematical techniques for dealing with information in this new form. Statistics depends on the ability to count large numbers of things, breaking down information into simple, discrete categories that can be quantified. A typical example, and one of the earliest broad uses of these methods as applied to human activity, is the census. In a census, people are not treated as individuals having a history; they are treated as a collection of discrete bits of information (sex, race, age, profession, marital status, number of dependents, etc). Breaking someone down into these categories and quantifying them allows for easy manipulation of information and the generation of statistical knowledge (X% of the population is male; P% are under the age of 20; Q% are married; the average number of offspring is W). Such information could be enormously useful for many reasons. In London, the beginnings of the census were the Bills of Mortality, statistics regarding deaths that were collected to predict new outbreaks of the plague. It quickly came to be used in a variety of hard sciences, and was responsible for the emergence of most of the social sciences, which developed various tools, including mean and standard deviation, the rule of least squares, and regression analysis to help evaluate probability and reliability of data, to name but a few of the most common techniques (Stigler 1986). However, it was expensive and time-consuming to collect and then to process such data. Stigler (1986) mentions two early cases in the nineteenth century which give us an idea of the labour involved: the Incomplete Beta Function of Baye’s equation can be extremely difficult to calculate when certain variables are large numbers; he says that The first extensive tables of this function were not compiled until this century, when the students in Karl Pearson’s laboratory were pressed into reluctant service as ‘computers.’ A story, possibly apocryphal, still circulates in University College London of a student who resigned in disgust after a week, telling Pearson of his plans for a different career and announcing, ‘As far as I am 139 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” concerned, the Table of the Incomplete Beta Function may stay incomplete.’ (Stigler 1986: 130) The second involves the Ordnance Survey of England for 1858: The 1858 Ordnance Survey of the British Isles required the reduction of an immense mass of data through the use of least squares. The main triangulation was cast as a system of 1554 equations involving 920 unknowns. Even though they broke the system into 21 pieces of no more than 77 unknowns each before attempting a solution, the calculations took two teams of human ‘computers,’ working independently and in duplicate, two and a half years to complete (Stigler 1986: 158) Therefore it was not until the advent of computers that such techniques really came into their own, as the labour was prohibitively expensive for most researchers. Computers are ideally suited to do the ‘grunt’ work of statistical analysis, since of course computers are digital technology and therefore are most easily used to manipulate figures, performing in nanoseconds complex operations on huge amounts of data that might take a human being weeks. Along with the growing importance of computing to manipulate ever-larger datasets, sophisticated means of sampling to establish representativeness were established. Since the 1970s in linguistics, corpus studies deal with databases that contain millions of words. These corpora are then manipulated, drawing on the statistical techniques developed in the social sciences and mathematics to draw conclusions about language use. In the mid-1990s, researchers such as Mona Baker, Dorothy Kenny, and Sarah Laviosa began to apply corpus linguistics to translation studies by compiling parallel and comparable corpora. They proposed that lexical simplification, explicitation, and standardization were universals in translation. (Baker 1995; Kenny 2001; Laviosa 1998) On a more theoretical level in linguistics, the proposal by Noam Chomsky that the ability to use language was hard-wired into our brains, and that therefore there must be a limited set of universal, deep structures that generate all the permutations of known languages, also fueled the search for universals in both linguistics and in translation (Chomsky 1965 and 1981). This can probably most clearly be seen in the continued belief that machine translation was perfectible if linguistic structures could be properly understood and transformed into what was variously called a universal deep structure or an intermediary machine language, to and from which all human languages could be translated.3 3 For representative statements, see Andreev 1967; Zelinsky-Wibbelt 1988; and Hutchins and Somers 1992, especially chapters 5, 6 and 13. 140 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Universalism in Translation Studies today? I would now like to explore a bit more in detail how universalism and historical particularism intersect, not just in general in the humanities and sciences, but specifically in translation studies. First, I think one quite interesting phenomenon is the relative dearth of translation of translation theory. Given that translation studies should, of all disciplines, be open to translation, this is a rather paradoxical state of affairs. To take just one example, China, very little theoretical material is being translated either to or from Chinese and French, English, or German. From English into Chinese, two alternative strategies are employed: summaries and descriptions written by Chinese scholars, or the republication of theoretical texts in China in English. In the other direction, very little has been done on any level, the exceptions being the historical presentation of debates regarding translation in Cheung (2006) and Chan (2004). A similar situation holds for Russian; Russia had and has a large field of translation studies, but almost none of it is being made available in Western European languages.4 I am sure that this is true of other languages; to this day, Jiří Levý’s work is known in Western Europe basically from one paper only (Levý 2000).5 This means that theoretical models in the field of translation studies are being developed with very little input from one of the world’s major languages and cultures outside of Europe and North America. This in turn poses a danger in translation studies. We risk our theoretical models not being well understood, or rigorously tested against, the local situation in different parts of the globe and with different linguistic structures. How, then, can we be confident about the universal applicability of those theories? The role of examples and case studies in translation theory This last point brings me back to the role of examples and case studies in translation theory. I want to return now to the English translation of Katharina Reiss’s article, which I mentioned was the impetus for me to start thinking about these matters. Below are two excerpts from her work: Unintentional changes may arise from the different language structures as well as from differences in translating competence 4 Private communication, Sergey Tyulenev. I would like to thank Zuzana Jettmarová (2009) for drawing my attention to some of Levý’s other work. See Gile (2009) on this issue in relation to Japanese. 5 141 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” Ex. 1: Je suis allée à la gare (French: information about a female person; no information about the means of travel) Ich bin zum Bahnhof gegangen (German: no information about the person; information about the means of travel) = Linguistically conditioned communicative difference. Ex. 2: La France est veuve. (Pompidou at the death of de Gaulle) Frankreich ist Witwe — Frankreich is Witwe geworden — Frankreich is verwitwet — Frankreich is verwaist [orphaned] Linguistically conditioned: La France — Witwe [Widow] “Frankreich” is neuter in German. The image of “widow” is odd to a person ignorant of French. “Waise” [orphan] is also neuter; the image of an emotional attachment programmed differently. (pp. 160-61) and further down: Written texts may have single or plural intentions. Plural intentions may be of the same rank and order. Mostly, however, one intention (and, with it, the text function) is dominant: Ex. 3: C vor o und u und a spricht man immer wie ein k; soll es wie ein c erklingen, lässt man die Cedille springen. (mnemo-technical rhyme: Intention 1 — to convey a rule Intention 2 — to facilitate remembering by giving the text an artistic form Intention 3 — to “sweeten” the learning process by giving the text a pleasing form) (p. 161-62) Here in the first example the source language is French and the target language is German, while in the second example, the example is only in German. In neither case did the translator provide an English translation. The vast majority of students in East Asia know neither of these languages (although a small minority will have learned some of one or the other). Moreover, the point on which the first example turns, the problem of mismatched gender of nouns in the two languages, is completely foreign to such students, who may know three or four languages, none of which feature gendered nouns, and will therefore be completely at sea. Such students, if they know English, might know mnemo-technical rhymes, such as “i before e except after c”, but of course cannot make any sense of the German. Instead of helping the students to understand the points Reiss is trying to make, the 142 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics examples thus serve only to frustrate the student, making the theory seem alien, incomprehensible and irrelevant because the example is opaque to her or him. Another, perhaps more ironic example, is the article by Vermeer concerning skopos theory. Skopos theory argues that the skopos, or purpose, of the translation is vital in determining the form that the finished translation should take. The skopos may derive from a variety of factors, including the commissioner, the translator, and the audience. Depending upon the skopos, different translations of even the same text into the same language by the same translator might look radically different from each other, and possibly also depart sharply from the source text. Yet the translation into English of Vermeer’s explanation of this theoretical approach to translation is itself full of examples between German, French, and Spanish, with seemingly no thought given to how the skopos of translating an article about skopos in translation might affect the examples used. In other words, if the skopos of the translation is to make Vermeer’s theoretical model understood by an English reader, how does leaving the examples in the original languages with no explanation help to fulfill the skopos of the translation? What exactly are examples used for anyway in these articles? Reiss, Vermeer, and other theorists use concrete examples for at least three different purposes. First, to demonstrate how their theoretical models function in relation to translation of actual texts. Second, to make the theory more accessible to the readers. Finally, to prove that the theoretical model is in fact valid by demonstrating that it can be applied to a real translation. However, when a student either does not know the source or the target language, then these goals are not being met. When teaching Reiss’s article in Singapore, I eventually came up with my own examples for the first example above that made sense to an audience bilingual in Chinese and English: She went to buy eggs with her brother. 她跟她的弟弟一起去买鸡蛋。 additional information concerning respective age of siblings less information about time and number. 请您把书放在桌子。 Please put the books on the desk. Additional information about number (plural) and object (desk is more specific than the Chinese term, which could also refer to a table) 143 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” Less information about formality of the situation (The Chinese pronoun is the polite form, similar to the way in which French has vous and tu) For the second example, I substituted the English mnemo-technical rhyme “i before e except after c”.6 When explaining this article to students in class and using these as additional examples, no one had a problem with it. However, when I later suggested to students that it would make more sense to substitute these examples for the original ones if the article were to be translated into Chinese, I encountered strong resistance. To the students, such substitution was a betrayal of the original. Taking examples outside of Europe Vinay and Darbelnet list seven techniques which translators can adopt, ranging from word-for-word translation to very extreme forms of adaptation. These seven techniques are illustrated with examples of translation between English and French for obvious reasons: Vinay and Darbelnet are Canadian, and these are the two official languages of that country. These techniques, which are developed in relation to two specific languages with a long history of interaction, are presented as the seven techniques of translation. In other words, they are presented as a complete and universal toolkit for any translator, working with any combination of languages. However, of the seven techniques they list, at least one is not directly applicable to Chinese. Procedure one, “direct borrowing”, is presented as being a ‘direct’ manner of using a word from French in English, as the historic theatre (from théâtre) or more recent borrowings such as déjà vu. This technique, however, actually does not make much sense in the case of English-Chinese translation because they use different writing systems. Instead, we need to distinguish between at least two different techniques. The first technique is Borrowing while retaining the use of roman alphabet, which results in a string of roman letters in the middle of a sentence otherwise composed of Chinese characters: 我不要买Persil, 我要买的是Daz [I don’t want to buy Persil, I want to buy Daz.] Although this technique was seldom used before the twentieth century, since at least the Republican Revolution of 1911 there have been periods when it has been widely practiced, especially by certain authors of the May Fourth Reiss’s second example is the kind of rule (phonetic) she would like to see for her own work - in other words, a rule that is simple, hierarchic, and logical. 6 144 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Movement in the 1920s and 1930s, and writers such as Yu Dafu (Levan 2007). The technique continues to be widely used, especially among bilingual speakers, although it is not in fact simply “direct borrowing”, but rather the creative re-use of English or other European languages in Chinese. Consider, for example the sentence “你 un不understand?” [do you or do you not understand?] Here a native speaker of Chinese has used a typical Chinese grammatical pattern of using the first part of a multisyllabic verb, followed by a marker of negation, and then full verb, to ask a question. In the process, however, the English word is used in a fashion that would be incomprehensible to an English speaker. Transliteration, on the other hand, which Vinay and Darbelnet do not mention, is the more commonly employed method of ‘borrowing’ a foreign loan word in Chinese, and involves finding roughly one Chinese character per syllable for a foreign word. Since the characters are chosen for their sound instead of their meaning, this results in a string of nonsense words, a bit like the famous transliteration of Mother Goose Rhymes into French by Luis d’Antin van Rooten as Mots d'Heures: Gousses, Rames (1980). When transliterating foreign words into Chinese, there are certain considerations to be kept in mind, especially regarding the appropriateness of the characters, either in isolation or in combination. For example, certain characters are avoided; you would not normally use the character “死” [si, to die], although one notable exception was an early transliteration of AIDS was “爱死病” [ai-si bing, love-to-death disease]. Also, certain combinations sometimes may result in unfortunate connotations, so that a company may choose a string of syllables that does not actually sound very close to the original term rather than get something such as “口渴口辣” [kouke koula, (makes you) thirsty and your mouth burn] for Coca Cola, which is instead rendered as “可口可乐” [kekou kele, tasty and pleasing].7 both of these techniques are also used in various hybrid forms, such as the commonly used T-血. (T-shirt), where the letter “T” is actually used as the first half of the word, with a transliteration of ‘shirt’ with the Chinese character “血” which is pronounced ‘xue’. The example of AIDS given above is similar, with the first two characters, ai-si, used for the sound of “AIDS”, and the final character, bing, which means disease, supplied for its meaning. One of the most famous stories of the May Fourth movement, mentioned above is entitled “阿Q正传” [The Story of Ah Q], where Chinese character Ah (阿) and the Roman letter “Q” were used together in the title and throughout the story to refer to the main character, Ah Q. There are in fact several other hybrid forms possible involving some of the other techniques Vinay and Darbelnet discuss. Two of the most common are borrowing and coining, and transliteration and coining. Thus once we begin to consider languages other than the ones originally used to develop Vinay and Darbelnet’s list, 7 : For more detailed discussions of transliteration, see Ching 1966 and Li 2007. 145 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” it becomes apparent that their list is neither exhaustive nor universal. The fact that English and French use the same writing system disguises a problem which emerges when we consider Chinese, Russian, Greek, or any other language that does not use the Roman alphabet. It is only when we look at how their techniques might be applied in a wide variety of cases that we can test their work’s claim to universalism. Moreover, once we have considered the Chinese case, and seen how transliteration results in words that do not actually sound exactly like the original English, we might wish to return to the examples of French and English, and ponder over why in some cases the accent marks have been preserved (déjà vu) or erased (theatre). If the accent marks are erased, is it really direct borrowing? Or what are we to make of their example of ‘direct borrowing’ into French of redingote, from the English “riding coat”, where the spelling has been modified? (1958/2000: 85) Even when the spelling is identical, the pronunciation is often changed; my favourite example is Goethe Street in Chicago, which is pronounced “go-eethy” by locals. Another possibility Vinay and Darbelnet do not mention is summary. This may perhaps be due to their adopting a fairly restricted definition of translation; however, in the world of professional language manipulation, this technique is widely practiced. Again to give a Chinese example, I mentioned that it is not common for European translation theory to be translated into Chinese; however, it is quite common for such theories to be ‘rewritten’, either in summary or adapted form, such as Liu Miqing’s 当代翻译理论 [Contemporary Translation Theory (1993)]. Eugene Nida, although in many ways a very ‘old-fashioned’ theoretician, is actually much better regarding examples than many of his contemporaries, or indeed most recent theorists. His short essay “Principles of Translation as Exemplified in Bible Translating” (1959) uses many diverse examples from little-known languages, to make his case for dynamic equivalence. Moreover, since he cannot assume that his readers will be conversant with all the languages he cites, he carefully explains the linguistic context for each. In teaching Nida, I ask students to come up with examples of the types of things he is discussing in relation to their own language combination. This often reveals that they have not understood the reading, because they either cannot come up with an example, or their example is in fact incorrect. After I have given them several examples, the ideas seem to sink in better. So working through examples can be effective way of learning theory. Conclusion Although universalism has come under attack from various quarters, we should not lose sight of the fact that, without generalization, we are left with atomistic facts that 146 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics do not add up to anything. Newton’s law of gravity is still the ‘gold standard’ against which most theories are measured. The attack by the ‘post’ movements (postmodernism, postcolonialism, poststructuralism) has been fairly effective in denying hope that we can achieve that sort of certainty in the human sciences. Instead, the emergence of computer-based number crunching has seen the emergence of statistical probability disguised as universalism. The challenge now is to build inclusive models that take into account the great range and variety of human linguistic expression and translation practice. Indeed, it would seem to be antithetical for a theoretical model based on statistics, which depends upon the concept of representativeness, not to be constructed on the basis of as wide a range of sample languages as possible. References Andreev, N. (1967) “The intermediary language as the focal point of machine translation” in Machine Translation, edited by A. D. Booth, Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1-27. Baker, Mona (1995) ‘Corpora in Translation Studies: An Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Research’, Target 7(2): 223-243. Chan, Leo (2004) Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Cheung, Martha, editor and annotator (2006) An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation. Volume 1: From Earliest Times to the Buddhist Project, Manchester: St. Jerome Press. Ching, Eugene (1966) “Transliteration or Translation: A Case of Cultural Borrowing” Chinese Culture: A Quarterly Review 7:2 : 107-116. Chomsky, Noam (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chomsky, Noam (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding, Dordrecht: Foris. Gasior, Paulina (2009) ‘Translating between Eastern and Western Europe – postcolonial contexts and parallels’ Paper presented at the 11th Prague 147 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” International Conference in Translation and Interpreting Studies: Translating Beyond East and West. Charles University, Prague 14-16 October. Giles, Daniel (2009) “East and West: Leveraging Stereoscopic Vision in TS” Keynote speech, the 11th Prague International Conference in Translation and Interpreting Studies: Translating Beyond East and West. Charles University, Prague 14-16 October. Guha, Ranajit (1983) Elementary Aspects of Peasant Insurgency in Colonial India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Guha, Ranajit (1982a) “Preface” Subaltern Studies 1: vii-viii. Guha, Ranajit (1982b) “On Some Aspects of the Historiography of Colonial India” Subaltern Studies 1: 1-8. Hilgevoord, Jan, Uffink, Jos, "The Uncertainty Principle", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/qt-uncertainty/>. Accessed 3 Feb 2010. Hutchins, John W. and Harold L. Somers (1992) An Introduction to Machine Translation, New York and London: Hartcourt Brace Jovanovich. Jettmarová, Zuzana (2009) “The Antinomy of the General and the Specific in Mind, Theory and Translation” Paper presented at the 11th Prague International Conference in Translation and Interpreting Studies: Translating Beyond East and West. Charles University, Prague 14-16 October. Kennedy, Juliette, "Kurt Gödel", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/goedel/>. Accessed 3 Feb 2010. Kenny, Dorothy (2001) Lexis and Creativity in Translation: A Corpus-based Study, Manchester: St. Jerome. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Latour, Bruno and Steven Woolgar (1986) Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. 2d ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 148 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Laviosa, Sara (1998) “The English Comparable Corpus: A Resource and a Methodology”, in Lynne Bowker, Michael Cronin, Dorothy Kenny & Jennifer Pearson (eds) Unity in Diversity: Current Trends in Translation Studies, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 101-112. Levan, Valerie M. (2007) “Incorporating the Foreign: Translation in Yu Dafu’s Sinking” in Collected Essays from Translation: East Asian and the West, An International Conference for Junior Scholars, Taipei: Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation, National Taiwan Normal University, 203-220. Levý, Jiří (2000) “Translation as a Decision Process” in The Translation Studies Reader, ed. Lawrence Venuti, 1st. ed. London: Routledge, 148-159. Li, Chris Wen-Chao (2007) “Foreign Names into Native Tongues: How to transfer sound between languages—transliteration, phonological translation, nativization, and implications for translation theory” Target 19.1: 45-68. Liu, Miqing 刘宓庆 (1993) 当代翻译理论[Contemporary Translation Theory], Taipei: Bookman Books. Longino, Helen (1990) Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Longino, Helen, "The Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/scientific-knowledgesocial/>. Miller, J. Hillis (1996) “Border Crossings, Translating Theory: Ruth” in Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser, eds, The Translatability of Cultures, Stanford U. Press, 1996, 207-223. Nida, Eugene (1959) “Principles of Translation as Exemplified in Bible Translating” in On Translation, edited by Reuben Brower, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Universiyt Press, 11-31. Reiss, Katharina (1971/2000) “Type, Kind and Individuality of Text: Decision making in translation”, translated by Susan Kitron, , in The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, London: Routledge, 160-71. Robinson, Douglas (1997) Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained, Manchester: St. Jerome Press. 149 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” Rooten, Luis d’Antin van (1980) Mots d'Heures: Gousses, Rames, London : Penguin. Shalizi, Cosma Rohilla (2009) “Gödel’s Theorem” in his Notebooks http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/godels-theorem.html. Accessed 3 Feb 2010. Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1999) Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern I ntellectuals' Abuse of Science, New York: Picador. Stigler, Stephen M (1986) The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900, Cambridge, MA, and London: Belkap Press of Harvard University Press. Stigler, Stephen M (2000) Statistics on the Table: The History of Statistical Concepts and Methods, Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press. Uebel, Thomas, "Vienna Circle", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/vienna-circle/>. Accessed 3 Feb 2010. Vermeer, Hans (1989/2000) “Skopos and Commission in Translational Action”, translated by Andrew Chesterman, , in The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, London: Routledge, 221-32. Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet (1958/2000) “A Methodology for Translation”, translated by Juan C. Sager and M.-J. Hamel, in The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, London: Routledge, 84-93. White, Hayden (1973) Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in NineteenthCentury Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Zelinsky-Wibbelt, Cornelia (1988) “The transfer of quantifiers in a multilingual machine translation system” in From Syntax to Semantics: Insights from Machine Translation, edited by E. H. Steiner, P. Schmidt and C. ZelinskyWibbelt, London: Pinter Publishers, 187-215. 150 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2790 Title A name given to the resource Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability Author Author St. André, James Abstract A summary of the resource. While teaching first in Singapore and now in Manchester, it has come to my attention that there are certain difficulties in teaching translation theory either outside of Europe or, in Europe, to students from outside of Europe who come here to study. This paper concentrates on the role of examples in theoretical works, the problems they pose in teaching theory and the implications for universalism in translation studies. I draw on Edward Said’s discussion of travelling theory, post-colonial critiques of the hegemonic role of English, and skopos theory to propose two courses of action to help overcome the problem: first, the incorporation of the translation of theoretical material both from and into European languages as part of practical postgraduate training; and second, the use of a radical substitution policy for examples, with new examples centred around the target language, rather than preservation of the original examples, which are centred around the source-language. Using the example of China, I will demonstrate how these two strategies push us to reconsider how we approach teaching theory. Firstly, the translation of Chinese theoretical texts into English will allow for a deeper appreciation of writings in Chinese and their wider dissemination. Secondly, the search for examples which involve the target language should lead to an engagement between the target culture and the theory. Translating Vinay and Darbelnet’s path breaking essay on translation processes, for example, immediately raises the question of what exactly is meant by ‘borrowing’ in the Chinese context, and for the need to distinguish between retaining the use of the roman alphabet and transliteration using Chinese characters, a distinction that would never arise between French, English and German. Keywords: translation theory, examples, Chinese Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d380f0c482d70d82167a67d1617e7bce.pdf cac035bdbed0599832d9fc052c5bc3d2 PDF Text Text LITERARINESS AS FREEDOM OF THINKING Lindita Tahiri University of Prishtina, Kosova1 Article History: Submitted:10.06.2015 Accepted:10.08.2015 Abstract: The study argues about the advantage of the linguistic approach to literature in enabling students become aware of the multiple perspectives of narration giving them the power to do the work that otherwise the supreme interpreter would have done for them, thus sharpening their critical thinking skills. Contemporary novels in Albanian will be examined, by renowned writers such as Ismail Kadare and Ben Blushi. Kadare, probably the most famous Albanian writer ever, will be argued as an example of the author who kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric, and his literature achieved this specifically with impersonal techniques of narration. These texts will be analyzed by pointing out the main linguistic indicators of interior monologue (Cohn), such as features of agency, transitivity, passivization, nominalization, deictic expressions, and free indirect speech. Examples from popular fiction will be discussed, taking into account the negative connotations about popular fiction as a kind of literature associated with industry and entertainment, as opposed to literary fiction which is studied at the academia. Popular fiction will be explored from the perspective of provoking public discussion about important societal issues, such as is the case with the Albanian author Blushi who aroused heated debate and was accused by the Muslim community for ruining the religious harmony of Albanians. This debate will be compared with the initiative to review Kosovar history textbooks due to their negative portrayal of Turkey. As conclusion, the study aims to demonstrate that perspectival narration may be used as teaching strategy to help readers explore the other’s self and develop freedom of thinking. Keywords: pedagogical stylistics, Kadare, critical thinking, literariness “Kosova" is the Albanian name and "Kosovo" is the Serbian name for the country, which institutionally calls itself the Republic of Kosova. The Serbian government does not recognize the state calling it Kosovo. Many international speakers use "Kosovo" without implying that they believe that Kosovo is Serbian. The deliberate choice in this paper is the Albanian form of the lexeme. 1 �1. INTRODUCTION Whereas early stylistics of the 60s stressed the autonomy of literature with attention on stylistically marked texts, regarding study of literature as a branch of aesthetics (Widdowson: 1996), modern stylistics views language of literature in relation to other discourses in terms of continuum rather than polarity. This perspective integrates the linguistic and literary study and develops the awareness of literature as language, which is beneficial both to teaching of language and teaching of literature. The focus of stylistics in the text of literature, rather than in vague and impressionistic judgments, makes it a useful pedagogical tool in language and literature studies (Weber: 1996). Stylistics has pedagogical usefulness because it of its basic principles such as being rigorous, retrievable, and replicable (Simpson: 2004). The teacher does not only interpret messages of the literary work, but analyzes textual features, such as lexicon and syntax, depicting their function towards producing the literariness of a text. This strategy of interpretation based on linguistic analysis avoids for the morally prescriptive language and allows for the plurality of interpretation and readings for the contemporary reader/student, who lives within the uncertainty of the modern age, where everything is opened to redefinition. According to the literary critic Jesse Matz (2004) one of the important developments of the modern novel is the replacement of a belief in absolute, knowable truth with a sense of relative, provisional truths, with the awareness of ‘reality’ as a constructed fiction. Modern writers do not aim to give a full or neutral version of a story, but they emphasize the limited perspective of the personal point of view. As Matz puts it: “…we have to do the work an omniscient narrator would otherwise have done for us, and the participation gives objective knowledge the feel of subjective involvement” (52). Therefore, the perspectival narration appears as an aesthetic strategy of individuality which helps readers grasp the idea of the content of subjectivity in the midst of the information chaos. The teaching strategy based on pedagogical stylistics not only makes literature more approachable for students but also contributes for the development of critical thinking, which is commonly listed amongst the main skills belonging to generic competencies – transferable, multifunctional knowledge, skills and attitudes that people could learn and develop in different ways and learning environments, and apply across a variety of job and life contexts (European Commission, DG Education and Culture, 2006,2012). Generic skills have been capturing growing attention all over the world by education policy makers, and therefore particular attention should be paid to the way literature is taught, as a tool to sharpen the most important competences of the modern citizens. 1.1.Literature as public space for dialogue: Albanian case The Albanian case might not be different from other former communist countries, where a great moral and ideological power was attributed to literature, even to poetry, which although usually �is the elite genre, in these countries enjoyed immense popularity. This trend may be illustrated with one of the Albanian internationally recognized authors of literary fiction, Ismail Kadare, who is a bestseller amongst Albanian readers of all ages. His work kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric. It was his work that refilled with life the drained language of mechanical thought, and it was his language that broke through the walls where the dictatorship could not make the way into. By keeping language creativity alive, Kadare succeeded to give self-dignity to the intimate language of individuals, as readers could find more life in his works than in everyday reality. With the words of the American scholar Peter Morgan (2006:9), “As the voice of an alternative, better Albania, Kadare offered to his countrymen one of the few sources of hope for change”. According to statistics, literary fiction in Albania still sells well and one may argue that literature amongst Albanian culture is not perceived as privilege of academia. Historically Albanian writers have been identified with the national aspirations and the ‘book’ has been considered as the best means to resist occupation and totalitarianism. The ‘death of the author’ is practically impossible within Albanian culture, in spite the effort of Barthes to liberate the reader from the tyranny of the limited interpretation. The Albanian author is very much alive: he has often been a public figure, and even a hero defending the national cause. Is there still need for a mission similar to Kadare’s work, a need to make readers critical towards ideological manipulations of public discourse, in the world of today, in the age of globalization and uncertainty, in the age of democracy as well as of massacres and anxiety? Many works of popular fiction, as ‘Da Vinci Code’ does with religion for example, explore important issues for society and tend to provoke public discussion about problems that preoccupy humankind, and this seems to be the feature that the modern consumer of books wants to find into the reading process- the public space for dialogue, evocative to the possibility for interaction that internet provides for its users. We propose that this need may be efficiently explored by the teacher of literature, who in this fashion encourages and inspires the critical and creative thinking as one of the most essential competences for the modern individual. This skill of critical thinking is crucial within the debates about history textbooks which are taking place in Balkans, and the literature teacher can help students became aware of the editorial, selective, interpretative roles of the historian, as well as of the author of fiction. For instance, in 2011 the Minister of External Affairs in Turkey asked the Kosovar authorities to change history textbooks, because they are “Albanian- centered and portray a negative image of Turkey” (Jazexhi: 2013). What kind of skills do students need in order to maintain the neutral attitude towards ideological maneuvering of any kind? 2. METHOD Contemporary Albanian literature is analyzed from the aspect of linguistic presentation of character’s ‘mind style ’(Roger Fowler: 1977) pointing out the pedagogical advantage of �linguistic criticism. History textbooks are also analyzed from the point of view of linguistic criticism. Linguistic structures present in the respective texts will be approached as expression of social values, based on the functional model developed by M.A.K. Halliday (1973, 1978, 1994 ) and adopted by Roger Fowler (1979, 1991,2003), Hodge, Kress and Trew (1979), referred to as Systemic Functional Linguistics. Fundamental to these models is the belief that the uses of language shape the linguistic system. The language function which will be of primary focus is the interpersonal function , as both interactional and personal, as means whereby social groups are integrated and the individual is identified and reinforced. The indicators for this function, according to Halliday are: lexical register, types of speech and modality, use of person, of modifiers and intensifiers, and in particular comments and evaluative expressions. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) will be used and the concept of van Dijk (1998) about the rhetoric of polarization will be applied. One of the typical analyses that van Dijk does of the media discourse is the polarized representation of the self and the other, which serves the definition of the social identity of the social group, whose interests are represented in respective discourse. As van Dijk claims, regardless of whether they are aware and knowledgeable about an ideology, this ideology underlies language and exists, the way grammar exists. Finally, the vigorous discussion set off by the literary theorist Eagelton (1985) about language conventionally perceived as literature, will be taken into account. Nowadays the study of literature, similarly to the study of modern linguistics, is not positioning itself as normative science prescribing one single correct language variant. Rather than aiming to define a transhistorical essence of literature and originality which is hard to clarify, literature scholars are more and more talking about literariness as a potential of all language which may be present in different kinds of discourse .Furthermore, this potential for creativity in language is considered as closely linked to the basic cognitive processes in language usage and language origin (Lakoff and Turner:1989) 3. RESULTS 3.1. Kadare: the split identity One of Kadare’s rare novels translated in English from the original is the Broken April, whose main character is Gjorg, the young mountaineer, who kills a man to avenge the death of his brother according to the provisions of the ancient Code. The novel starts with the thematic positioning of the possessive third person pronoun (His feet were cold), and throughout the text this kind of usage of the pronoun serves the narrative voice to keeps a distance and to give the impression of showing rather than telling, in particular when internal thoughts and perceptions of the character are transmitted. The thematic positioning of intensifiers, either as adjectives, adverbs, subordinate connectors or deictics, serves as an orientation towards the interior world of the character. Even the syntactic order of clauses follows the chronological experience of the �character and orients the reading process creating an impression of straightforwardness and symbolism. The author uses free direct speech and partially free indirect speech in the psychonarration (Cohn: 1978) of the character, suggesting not only his thoughts but also emotional extra-linguistics processes directly transmitted by the narrator. The literature teachers can draw out these points, focusing on all levels of language, e.g. on the lexical choice which is typical for the character and suggests interior perception with character’s focalization. They can point out the foregrounded transitivity, as typically Gjorg takes verbs denoting factual actions, but without effect on the objects. His verbs denoting physical actions refer to body movements and are self-referential. Verbs depicting his main activity (wait, shoot) are accompanied by modals (had to, must) adding connotations of obligation and involuntary actions. So his verbs show mainly lack of ability to act rather than real actions, which make him a victim more than an actor. The English translation points out the lack of action and will, as is the case in this example, by switching the agency to the object compared to the original Albanian where the agency falls on the character: “Slowly the gun barrel swept over some patches” (7). The translation succeeds to transmit the split identity, the dilemma to proceed with the action of avenge which is imposed due to social norms , and for instance students can be lead to interpret this as an ever existing dilemma of the modern individual. What is significant, students learn to be sensitive to grammatical indicators used to reinforce specific meanings in all kinds of discourses. 3.2. History through lenses of fiction Regarding accuses for nationalism in Kosova history books2, the teacher can provide a textual analysis and explain for instance that when non-factive verbs (Hudelston: 2002)are used such as: “It is thought by the scholars that Albanian language descends directly Illyrian” (History 6:24 ), this creates an impression of doubt about our predecessors rather than nationalism. Or, sentences like “Special feature of the influence and legacy of the Ottoman culture here are the various facilities built during that time” (History 7:130) show multiculturalism rather than hatred towards the ottoman culture, avoiding rhetoric of opposition of evil and righteous. Another case of telling history through fiction, Ben Blushi’s Living in an island has provoked profuse debates within the public opinion, accused by the Muslim community for endangering the religious harmony and tolerance of Albanians. The novel portrays the life of an Albanian family embracing simultaneously two religions, as historical allegory pointing to the challenging subject of the religious background of Albanians. The teacher can approach literature as historical construction, where historical characters have been explored in a different light by the author, amongst them Skanderbeg, the most prominent figure in the history of Albanians, famous for his resistance against the Ottoman Empire: “Skanderbeg fought for power and not for faith “, says Komneni, renown historical figure and one of the main characters in the novel. “The book 2 Translations from history texts and Blushi’s novel are done by the author of the paper . �belongs to the knowledgeable, who are usually the most powerful” declares Isaac to Sara in the closing chapter. “When Turks leave, we will write again the book we have lost.” The teacher may empower the readers by asking them whose word is it, and should the character’s words be taken as presentation of character’s ‘mind style’ or as author’s own judgment and distinct message ?(Wimsatt and Breadsly: 1947). The teacher can point out to the intrusive presence of the author, as in the case when the former Christian entered the mosque and “ he understood that he demonstrated logical superiority even at the very first Islam lesson”. By applying pedagogical stylistics students learn to make difference between impersonal and neutral narrative voices and the intrusive and judgmental ever-knowing story-tellers. CONCLUSION The teaching strategy based on pedagogical stylistics not only makes literature more approachable for students in this age when reading is globally declining, but also contributes for the development of critical thinking, which is commonly listed amongst the main generic skills the modern individual needs in developing life- long learning. Furthermore, the focus on interior monologue technique with the neutral presentation of the internal life of people is of social and political importance, because it is a concrete tool of arousing tolerance and understanding between people (Aurebach, 1968:552). As a result, students learn to enjoy a non-visible, nonintrusive source of narration, rather than a judgmental and evaluative privileged source of information, and this way they are more resistant to authoritarian discourse �References Aurebach, Eric.(1968) Mimesis: The representation of Reality in Western Literature. NY: Princeton University Press. Bicaj, Isa and Salihu, Arbër (2012) Historia 7, Prishtinë: Libri Shkollor Blushi, Ben. (2008) Të jetosh në ishull. Tiranë: Toena Cohn, Dorrit. (1978) Transparent Minds Princeton University Press Demaj, Frashër and Rexhepi, Fehmi (2010) Historia 6, Prishtinë: Libri Shkollor Eagelton, Terry. (1985) Literary Theory, Basic Blackwell Fowler, Roger (1981) Literature as Social Discourse.UK: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. Fowler, R., Hodge, B. , Kress, G. and Trew, T. (1979) Language and Control Routledge &Kegan Paul. Gelder, Ken. (2004) Popular Fiction, The logics and practices of a literary field. NY: Routldedge. Halliday, M. A. K.( 1973) Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold. Huddleston, Rodney and K.Pullum, Geoffrey (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press Jazexhi, Olsi (2013)Rrëfimet e një kombi. Tiranë: Free Media Institute Kadare, Ismail (1980) Prilli i Thyer, Tiranë Kadare, Ismail.(1990) Broken April. Translated by J.Hodgson. NY:New Amsterdam books. Lakoff , George and Turner, Mark.( 1989) More than Cool Reason. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. Matz, Jesse (2004) the modern novel. UK: Blackwell. Morgan, Peter (2006) Modern Homer or Albanian Dissident, World Literature Today: A Literary Quarterly of the University of Oklahoma, 2006 Sept-Oct; 80 (5): 7-11 Simpson, Paul (2004) Stylistics NY: Routledge Weber, Jean Jacque. 1996 ., in “The Stylistic Reader”, ed. J.J. Weber, University Centre Luxemburg Widdowson, H.G. 1996 .“Stylistics: an approach to stylistic analysis”, in “The Stylistic Reader”, ed. Jean Jacques Weber, University Centre Luxemburg, Wimsatt, William K. and Monroe C. Beardsley. "The Intentional Fallacy." Sewanee Review, vol. 54 (1946): 468-488. Education and Training 2020 Work programme Thematic Working Group 'Assessment of Key Competences' Literature review, Glossary and examples November (2012) in: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/school/doc/keyreview_en.pdf � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2956 Title A name given to the resource LITERARINESS AS FREEDOM OF THINKING Author Author Tahiri, Lindita Abstract A summary of the resource. The study argues about the advantage of the linguistic approach to literature in enabling students become aware of the multiple perspectives of narration giving them the power to do the work that otherwise the supreme interpreter would have done for them, thus sharpening their critical thinking skills. Contemporary novels in Albanian will be examined, by renowned writers such as Ismail Kadare and Ben Blushi. Kadare, probably the most famous Albanian writer ever, will be argued as an example of the author who kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric, and his literature achieved this specifically with impersonal techniques of narration. These texts will be analyzed by pointing out the main linguistic indicators of interior monologue (Cohn), such as features of agency, transitivity, passivization, nominalization, deictic expressions, and free indirect speech. Examples from popular fiction will be discussed, taking into account the negative connotations about popular fiction as a kind of literature associated with industry and entertainment, as opposed to literary fiction which is studied at the academia. Popular fiction will be explored from the perspective of provoking public discussion about important societal issues, such as is the case with the Albanian author Blushi who aroused heated debate and was accused by the Muslim community for ruining the religious harmony of Albanians. This debate will be compared with the initiative to review Kosovar history textbooks due to their negative portrayal of Turkey. As conclusion, the study aims to demonstrate that perspectival narration may be used as teaching strategy to help readers explore the other’s self and develop freedom of thinking. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ecbd24d715cbff5716d5ab9199b0f89e.pdf 9948f1f7579dbd9dfff372c5b42ea96c PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Arta Toci South East European University, Macedonia Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 19.11.2014. Abstract Writing as a productive skill isan integral part of the language-learning process. However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.Creative writing normally refers to the production of texts that have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or pragmatic purpose. Creative writing in ESL classes has started developing lately, but only to be incorporated as a supportive skill in teaching writing.Responding to students’ writing is an important issue to discuss when considering teaching creative writing. Response is a process that includes peer review, peer editing and continuous feedback through the stages of creative writing. By providing constructive feedback, the teacherunderstandsa writer’s problems and intentions by making students responsible for finding and analyzing what needs to be improved. Key words: teaching, writing, creativity, feedback, assessment Introduction Writing as a productive skill is an integral partof the language-learning process.However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.According to Reid (1993), many ESL teachers only used writing as a skill to support language learning. This assumption led them to think that writing could be useful as a technique for adding interest or as a testing device for assessing grammar errors. Nowadays, writing has become an important communicative skill as a result of researchin this field. ESL teachers have come to recognize writing as a skill that is equal to other integral language-learning skills and many of them have investigated different approaches to writing. The importance of writing in EFL classes 31 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Like speaking, writing is a key to academic language success.From an early age, students acquire second languagesthrough words, and thencontinuing with sentences, paragraphs and longer papers.They encounter difficulties because most students find it hard to express ideas even though they have basic language knowledge. When taking on a writing assignment, students have little confidence, which leads to different preconceptions and stereotypes about writing. This problem has been a topic for discussion among many language teachers and researchers due to the great importance of writing in language learning. “Each time I am assigned a paper I stuck in my breathas if I had to move a hundred-pound stone from the entrance to my apartment in order to go on living” (Bishop, W., 1990, p.26).Anxiety makes students reluctant to engage themselves in the writing process. The fear of not doing everything right makes them step back and teachers miss out on what students really know. If students are free to express themselves, teachers will be able to see what they know and what they need to learn in order to improve. There are many contradictory opinions on whether controlled instruction should be the prevalent method for teaching writing or ifcreative writing techniques should take over. A group of researchers would prefer to use them interchangeably even though they might prefer one to the other. Having looked at different researchers’ views in this area of study, we teachers can decide to choose which instruction methodis the most useful and fruitful in teaching writing. It is crucial to bear in mind what writing really is and how we can enhance learning through the instruction of writing. “The view of writing as a tool for learning and not just a means to demonstrate learning is one of the major contributions of the research into the writing process” (Elbow, 1998). Therefore, if students are given the opportunity to use the target language in order to build their capacities to write, they will surely acquire the language at the same time. Defining creativity in writing The traditional approaches to writing have had a great impact on both teachers’ and students’ beliefs about how to teach and learn writing. Despite the fact that many researchers have reported positive results from usingcreative writing techniques, many teachers have been reluctant to adoptthis method in the classroom. It must be noted that creative writing existed in theory long before it started to be used in practice. Considering that creative writing differs in many ways from traditional methods of teaching writing, it has been considered a challenge and an unfamiliar method that does not take into account important elements such as accuracy and precision. 32 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The movement from controlled to free or guided writing started in the early 1980s when teachers decided to embrace this new methodology (Reid, 1993).Creative writingas a writing methodology is characterized by the free expression of thoughts and ideas in a supportive and constructive classroom environment. It is also referred to as expressive or creative writing. This approach focuses on enhancing students’ ability to express their creativity and to genuinely practice writing in an anxiety-free atmosphere. Techniques that demonstrate the above-mentioned characteristics of creative writing include: writing a paragraph by describing a person or a place; writing a short story; writing an informal letter to a friend or a report about something you have read; writing about a given topic; and writing by describing a picture. Moreover, there have also been discussions about creative writingas a way of boosting critical thinking. Major (1994) has argued that creative writing activities actually improve critical thinking since they are based on students’ personal and emotional state, which gives them a sense of motivation. Elbow (1998) also supports the use of creative writing by giving arguments for its general application and even recommending it for freshman writing courses, saying that students “need to practice nonacademic writing”. Evaluating creativity in writing “Feedback has long been regarded as essential for the development of second language (L2) writing skills, both for its potential for learning and for student motivation.”(Hyland, K. & Hyland, F., 2006, p.83). Giving the wrong feedback may discourage students’ progress in creativity and decrease their creativity. Responding to students’ writingshould be seen as a process in itself and proper attention should be given to its importance in their language-learning progress. In most cases, a piece of writing is analyzed as a final product and the main focus is on error correction. However, language teachers face a permanent question: Does error correction always help to improve students’ writing in L2? “One line of argument, influenced by process theories, claims that feedback on error to L2 students is discouraging and generally fails to produce any improvements in their subsequent writing.”(Hyland, K. & Hyland, F., 2006, p.84). However, a considerable number of researchers claim the opposite. Feedback is considered a much more difficultapproach to evaluating creative writing.This is because an idea that one person considers creative may not be seen as such by another person. Another problem in measuring creativity is avoiding subjectivity and choosing the right criteria. “Self-report measures of creativity and global assessments of students’ creativity by others (such as teachers) have also failed to demonstrate sufficient validity to be trusted for most uses.” (Baer, J. & Mc Kool, Sh., 2009, p.2) 33 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Giving feedback on creative writing is thought to be very difficult since not everyone rates creativity in the same way. In addition, it is human nature to render judgments based on feelings, and a work that changespeople’s feelings is considered worthier.To better illustrate this idea, Kaufman, Christopher & Kaufman, (2008) claim: It may be the case, then, that we make judgments of a set of work based upon the pieces that made us ‘feel’ the most. If we attach an emotion to a piece of poetry, then we should be able to remember that piece better and, further, to use it as an anchor for our judgments of other works by that artist. (p. 3). What to focus on when giving feedback on creative writing? Thisis the hardest part for language teachers. Creative writing positively affects language expression through writing, which leads to a better general performance in that language. Students need to have access to this writing approach, which seeks to be aesthetic and at the same time offers relaxation for both the reader and writer. Whether approached in a traditional way or in a contemporary one, the teachers’ main aim should be to help their students progress in their language learning. With a lot of care, they should offer feedback so that students can see their strengths and errors and continue striving for optimal performance. The research This study was conducted among 25third-year students at the English department at South East European University in Tetovo. Participantswere givenassignments such as writing a letter, writing a short story, writing by using pictures, etc. All of the inclass activities mentioned above were used according to creative writing techniques and no error correction was provided. The teacher’s role during the course of these activities was to be an observer, a supporter and a guide or a prompter. Students received more peer feedback rather than teacher feedback during the in-class activities. As a result of their group and peer work, students were giving comments to each other related to the structure of ideas and the choice of vocabulary. Students received feedback from the teacher after they read what they had written. The teacher feedback included appraisal for the good and strong points of the writing task and suggestions for improvement on the weaker points. It did not include error correction or correction related to mechanics. The students were evaluated ontheir progress in the following categories: Introduction, support, organization, vocabulary and sentence structure, and grammar and spelling. 34 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Students’ assignments were collected every week. After each class the students received feedback from the teacherbased upon the following criteria: Table 1. Evaluation criteria adopted from ‘The HOT Writing Rubric’ developed by Project Zero at Harvard University and by the Composition Program at the University of California, Irvine. Criteria 5 4 3 2 1 0 Creative Writing Excellent use of imagery; similes; vivid, detailed descriptions; figurative language; puns; wordplay; metaphor; irony. Surprises the reader with unusual associations, breaks conventions, and thwarts expectations. Some startling images, a few stunning associative leaps with a weak conclusion or lesser, more ordinary images and comparisons. Inconsistent. Sentimental, predictable, or cliché. Borrows ideas or images from popular culture in an unreflective way. Cursory response. Obvious lack of motivation and/or poor understanding of the assignment. No response. All three drafts submitted by the students were analyzed according to the analytic scale in order to tracktheir progress through the workshop. Detailed results from drafts are shown in Figure 1. The following figures will show students’ progress throughout the drafts in five categories as separate units and throughout drafts as whole essays. 35 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Chart 1: Draft results for all five categories 10 9 8 grading scale 7 6 5 Draft 1 Draft 2 4 Draft 3 3 2 1 0 Vocabulary Organization and sentence structure Grammar and spelling Introduction Support Draft 1 3.12 3.92 3.2 3.84 4.48 Draft 2 5.36 6.08 5.68 5.76 6.48 Draft 3 6.32 6.56 6.8 7.28 7.84 As shown in Figure 1, students’ introductions scored an average of 3.12 inthe first draft. In the second draft, the average score improved to 5.36. Students showed additional progress in the third draft, with the average score rising to 6.32. In other words, the writers made significant progress between their first and second drafts, with the average score improving by 2.24, whereas the improvement between the second and third drafts was slighter at about 0.96. The overall average increase from the first to the thirddraft was 3.2. In the category of support, students’ performance in writing the first draft was evaluated at an average of 3.92 out of 10. Students’ ability to support their essays improved significantlyby the second draft, where they scored an average of 6.08. However, their progress slowed between the second and third drafts, where the average score was 6.56. In other words, the average score rose 2.16 points between the first and second drafts, while the improvementbetween the second and third draftswas just 0.48. Even though the progress between the second and third draftswas not significant, it must be noted that the difference between the first and third drafts was 2.64, which is a considerable success. 36 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics In the category of organization, students scored an average of 3.2 in the first draft. The second draft showed a considerable difference, with the average rising to 6.68. A slighter difference was detected between the second and third drafts, where the average score was 6.8. Nevertheless, students’ progress in organizing their essays from the first draft to the second showed a very significant difference of 2.48, while the third draft improved on the secondby just 1.12. It should also be noted that in all three categories discussed so far, students made greater progress between their first and the second drafts than between their second and third drafts. In the organization category, total progress between the first and third draftswas 3.6, which is higher than the total improvement in the first two categories, especially support. Vocabulary and sentence structure is the fourth category that was analyzed in the three student drafts. In the first draft, students’ performance with respect to the vocabulary they used and their sentencestructure resulted in an average of 3.84. The second draft showed an average increase to 5.76, while the students’ average scores rose to 7.28 in the third draft. In this category, students’ progress between the three drafts was more equal than in the first three categories. There was a difference of 1.92 between the first and the second draft, while the progress between the second and the third drafts showed a difference of 1.52. The overall progress from the first draft to the last one in this category was 3.68, slightly higher than the total progress in the organization category. The fifth category, grammar and spelling,presented the following outcomes:The average score in the first draft was 4.48 – the highest first-draft average in all five categories. The average scoresin the second and the third draftswere 6.48 and 7.84, respectively. The difference between the first and second draft was 2 points, whereas the difference between the second and the third drafts was 1.36. Overall, students’ scores improved by 3.36 points between the first and third drafts, which is approximately the same as theirrate of progress in the introduction category. Conclusions The findings of this research not only reflect the expected outcomes,but also provide insight into some interesting points with respect to writing instruction. Research on students’ progress in writing has been an issue for decades and has covered many important aspects of writing. The interpretation of the findings is similar to the results of some research projects, but different from others. This may reflect the different nature of the sample that each researcher uses. The results of this research point toa need for other related studies. If EFL students respond positively to creative writing instruction, it would be interesting to find out whether adult students of English as a foreign language respond in a similar manner. 37 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Other in-depth investigations into feedback and its effects on language learningmightprovide more interesting insights on the proper way to respond to student writing. Teachers and educators should practice creative writing so that students can produce a ‘self work’. The outcomes of teaching creative writing are enormous for language learners. In addition to practicing new vocabulary, students practice structure deductively and at the same time concentrate on the content. Writing drafts and peer feedback are closely connected to the final evaluation. Teachers have the main say when evaluating creative writing. Using an evaluation chart is helpful both for the teacher and the student writer. This study answers several questions. Clearly, creative writing makes students better writers. This does not mean that students who practice creative writing are able to do well in other writing approaches, but it helps in creating writing habits. Creative writing is also an approach to writing that finds a good place in literature.Creative writing, also known as a poetic or artistic writing, can help students become better writers. References Baer,J. & Mc Kool, Sh. (2009). Assessing creativity using the consensual assessment technique. USA, IGI Global. Black, Paul and Wiliam, Dylan (1998). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, Vol. 5. Issue 1. pg. 7-74. Print Bishop, W.(1990). Released into a language: options for teaching creative writing. Printed in USA, National Council of Teachers of English 1111Kenyon Road, Urbana, Illinois 61801. Elbow, P. (1991).Reflections on Academic Discourse: How It Relates to Freshmen and Colleagues. College English, Vol. 53. No. 2. pg. 135-155. Elbow, P. (1998). Writing without teachers. New York City: Oxford University Press, Inc. Emërllahu, D.(1998). Bazat e MetodikëssëPunësEdukative FakultetiiMësuesisëiUniversitetittëPrishtinës. 38 .Prishtinë: �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Harasim, L.&Hiltz, S. R. &Teles, L. &, Turoff, M. (1997) A field guide to teaching and learning online;Learning Networks. London, England:The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Hyland, K. & Hyland, F. (2006) Language Teaching. Feedback on second language students’ writing.USA:Cambridge University Press. Retrieved on March 25, 2014 from: http://epi.sc.edu/ar/AS_4_files/Hyland%20and%20Hyland,%202006.pdf Kaufman, S. B. & Christopher, E.M. & Kaufman, J.C. (2008). The Genius Portfolio: How do poets earn their creative reputations from multiple products.Empirical Studies of the Arts, Vol. 26. No.2. pg.181-196. Retrieved on 27 March 2014 from: http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/06/Kaufman-Christopher-Kaufman-2008.pdf Leki, I. (1998). Academic writing-Exploring processes and strategies, New York City: Cambridge University Press Lillis, Th. M. (2001). Student Writing: Access, London:Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, EC4P 4EE. Regulation, Desire. Langan, J. (1997).College writing skills with readings (4th Ed.) United States of America: McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc. Major, W (1994). Freewriting: A Means of Teaching Critical Thinking to College Freshmen. Retrieved on April 3, 2014 from: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/composition/major_freewritin g.htm Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (1998). Writing Academic English. New York City: Addison Wessley Longman. Reid, J. M. (1993). Teaching ESL writing. United States of America:Prentice Hall Regents Steinberg, M. (2000) Peninsula: Essays and Memories from Michigan. Michigan: Michigan State University Press 39 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2783 Title A name given to the resource Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Author Author Toci, Arta Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing as a productive skill isan integral part of the language-learning process. However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.Creative writing normally refers to the production of texts that have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or pragmatic purpose. Creative writing in ESL classes has started developing lately, but only to be incorporated as a supportive skill in teaching writing.Responding to students’ writing is an important issue to discuss when considering teaching creative writing. Response is a process that includes peer review, peer editing and continuous feedback through the stages of creative writing. By providing constructive feedback, the teacherunderstandsa writer’s problems and intentions by making students responsible for finding and analyzing what needs to be improved. Key words: teaching, writing, creativity, feedback, assessment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),LT Textbooks https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fb32c6dea4cd08dbe198d7df5a4219b6.pdf a9108b186e492ed5e5c5f0ba28c40f96 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Gabriela Tucan West University Timisoara, Romania Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 10.11.2014. Abstract Fauconnier and Turner (2002, pp. 389-396) provide an overview of how blending affects the course of a human life, and more specifically, how young children are engaged in building complex blends in very early stages of their lives. Their detailed analysis shows that only after the young child is able to master culturally recognized blends will s/he be effectively ‘living in the blend’ and prove capable of further achieving other blends with more flexibility. During early childhood, it appears that learning and mental development are intrinsically linked to our human ability to blend and deblend. Besides engaging in direct cultural blends, the young child can operate on conceptual blends that are not physically (biologically) given. For instance, this may happen when their imaginative processes are at work in a wide variety of games or fun activities, starting with Lego construction sets to fictive interactions with imaginary companions. In such games and activities, children manifest an extraordinary capacity for double-scope blending. Therefore, by playing games or getting involved in free activities, young children will bring to mastery mental integrations that are essential for their lives as adults. In this light, the paper examines a set of children-designed games and activities that can all account for cases of fictive or potential reality. That is, the mental spaces created do not refer directly to entities in the outside world. I argue that an analysis of such fantasy mental spaces (with the tools of the mental space theory) can shed new light on learning and human creativity. While playing and blending mental spaces with their counterfactual counterparts, the young subject has to manipulate his/her ‘split self’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1999) or counterfactual self. With the knowledge of early evolution of conceptual blending in children’s games, I propose that educators may apply the results in diverse areas of instruction and learning in order to better deal with the cognitive side of learning, and eventually come to terms with human creativity. 99 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Keywords: blends, early childhood, mental development, children-designed games Introduction In the exceptional and emotionally charged story of his autobiographical memoir, Joseph Anton, Salman Rushdie (2012) fights the crucial battle for writer’s freedom and – at all costs – for freedom of speech. He instructs us that in an era when we are being pushed toward “ever-narrower definitions of ourselves” (p. 576), and hence toward narrower identities, literature ought to encourage a multiplicity of identities. The human self is heterogeneous rather than homogenous: “not one thing but many, multiple, fractured and contradictory” (p. 576). Writers and readers with broad identities will always find common ground with fictional characters and, most importantly, using that knowledge, they find points of identification with their fellow beings. Rushdie’s distinction between ‘narrow’ and ‘broad’ identities shows one of the most fundamental features of our inner lives: the distinction between the human Subject and our multiple selves. If the Subject makes what we uniquely are, the self is the sum total of our thoughts, experiences, and actions. In order to construct the sense of self, the human being changes social roles and becomes acquainted with multiple personal histories. The Subject or ‘our essence’ as the locus of human consciousness differs from the self in many different aspects. Admittedly, as Rushdie explains in his memoir, “the person you were for your parents was not the person you were with your children, your working self was other than your self as a lover, and depending on the time of day and your mood you might think of yourself as tall or skinny or unwell or a sports fan or conservative or fearful or hot” (p. 575-576). It is as if the ‘home self’, the ‘lover self’, the ‘work self’, or the ‘moody self’ were various facets of different individuals, but still they all define one unique body. The split self It seems that our multiple fractured selves are under the direct control of others and our constructed identity is the reflection of external realities. If this is true, we grow up learning to constantly adapt to stories created outside our self. More specifically, this is how we actually learn how to behave and act like others; which means that from the very beginning we start to experience ourselves as split identities. This is not to say, however, that infants are blank slates written on by others, since they are all born with a set of representational and perceptual capacities. While we are generally perfectly willing to admit that parents or adults are the prime source for imitation, we have yet to address the question of imitation more pointedly 100 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics in order to show that learning by imitation largely defines our understanding of the split self. With this goal in focus, my thesis is that early imitation is a foundation for the emergence of more selves in the subject. I contend that it is precisely in early childhood forms of entertainment, as expressed in a host of imitation games (pretend play, make-believe, fantasy or imaginative play, etc.) that our sense of self begins to take a bifurcating shape. But the analysis will also go one step further in arguing that an examination of children’s fantasies provides insight into the imitative mind. Early imitation – a way to learning and communication The recent interest of theorists in the theme of imitation from across disciplines has given rise to diverse lines of inquiry (see the edited collections by Nehaniv & Dautenhahn, 2007; Meltzoff & Prinz, 2002). In this study, the term ‘imitation’ is broadly used to refer to types of imitation used in pretend games in which young children reproduce behaviours that they have witnessed prior to the instance of reproduction. Very early evidence of imitation can be found in infants. In a series of studies, Meltzoff and Moore (1994, 1998) demonstrate that imitation allows infants to determine the identity of others by replaying an imitative game they had played before with the same person. In time, this predominantly nonverbal communication realized in infant imitation develops into more mature and more abstract manifestations that will retain a sense of others. By imitating adults, infants of different ages may start to recognize what they share with other people and later this realization can open the door into the social world. The interpersonal or social relationships with parents and household members from birth force us to continually evaluate our actions in the light of how others evaluate what we do and how others choose to perform the same actions. It is this interplay between personal experience and external influence that will shape our self as adults. As the human brain develops, so does the mind– but this can only happen in the presence of others. Young children depend on others to such a great extent that their early experience of self mirrors a cluster of influences that have touched their lives until that moment. Therefore, juveniles are able to evolve through different social interactions and only through continually receiving socially relevant information. By imitating the social models around us, young children continually shape and reshape their selves in order to adjust to new changing contexts and novel roles. However, compelling scientific evidence proves that the brain is primarily responsible for who we are. Any dysfunctions of the brain caused by accidents, drugs, or aging processes may temporarily or definitely alter our perceptions of the 101 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities self. The individual radically becomes a different person. But yet brains do not live in isolation – rather “each brain exists in an ocean of other brains that affect how it works” (Hood 2012, p.17). This ultimately indicates that the self is not only modelled by our brains but is equally influenced by the external world that assaults us at all times and sends signals that are to be interpreted and internalized by our brains. Most importantly, the development of our socially created self is a long modelling process that takes place throughout our lives and occupies the largest part of early childhood. These last points highlight imitation as a social tool serving multiple purposes. At various levels, imitation can be used to initiate and maintain social interaction; it can be a mode of inter-personal communication. My paper also works on the same assumption that early imitation has a significant social function. The split self engages in pretend play In this section I propose that young children not only imitate to engage socially with others and to create their social selves, but imitation is seen as a cognitive ability to project oneself onto another or other entity in a hypothetical situation. Being able to simultaneously hold more than one identity in different mental spaces develops the concept of separate conceptual selves. I argue that pretend play or fantasy games can account for the cognitive function of imitation. Why do children construct online fictions? How do minds construct and share such imaginative mental constructs? In addressing these questions, I will rely on G. Fauconnier’s mental space theory (1994, 1997) that convincingly advances the view that humans are able to integrate two or more mental spaces as they speak, listen to a string of speech, or read texts. Mental spaces are partial mental constructs set up as the conceptualizer perceives, understands, remembers, or imagines a particular scenario. In short, mental space theory is a useful tool for analysing how individuals interpret sequences of spoken and written language. In this light, the paper examines instances of mental space mapping in children’s fantasy plays. In most pretend games, children share a communicative situation as the starting point and then project themselves onto another imaginary entity trying to imitate its behaviour and actions. As such, play companions inhabit the body of fictive participants in an imaginary scenario that may not correspond to the one in the real situation of communication. Importantly, the playfellows are physically present but the verbal interaction takes place strictly in the fantasy world. It is interesting to examine how such imaginary verbal interaction is represented in the minds of the participants. More specifically, how they can make mental contact with potential realities that would otherwise have a non-interactional relationship. The type of face102 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics to-face communication carried out during a fantasy play bears resemblance with what Pascual (2002, 2008) and Brandt (2008) call “fictive interaction”. Such interactional structure does not mirror the observable communicative situation and “constitutes an invisible – although equally present and critical – channel of communication between fictive participants, who may or may not correspond to those in the actual situation of communication” (Pascual 2008, p. 81). The examples selected for detailed analysis come from V. Gussin Paley’s A Child’s Work: The Importance of Fantasy Play. While playing, pre-school children are able to create with spontaneity highly imaginative stories and carry the plot and characters to places they have never visited. Let us look at the case of a child who engages in a fantasy play: Pretend I’m your baby dinosaur and I’m lost, and then you call me but I don’t come because I have a different name now and then you hear a noise and you think it’s a wolf but you can’t call me because you don’t know my name now. (p. 16) As revealed in the example above, in this fascinating pretend game, the child is split into two individuals in the GAME space and the FANTASY mental space. It involves simultaneously the split of the self into two parts. The same individual in actuality is referred to both as a playmate in reality and as a ‘baby dinosaur’ in the fictional scenario. The child in the REALITY space is safe from any worries and dangers and begins to stage an exciting story with a real play companion. They seem to know each other well and both enjoy the suspense of the pretend play. On the other hand, his counterpart in fiction takes a new identity (‘the baby dinosaur’) and a new name, gets lost and is unable to help his friend. He speaks as if he were the metamorphosed baby dinosaur. In the scenario of the pretend game, there is no direct reference to the other playfellow, but one may assume he is also in an altered condition. In their fictitious setting, the wolf impersonating the danger cannot be stopped because the fictional counterparts, bearing small resemblance to the playfellows in reality, do not know each other by name. All these fictional elements in the pretend play do not directly mirror the world. The wolf and the increasing tension are only present in the game and the two playmates with their counterparts in fiction contradict what they experience in actuality. In brief, the world defined by the children’s fantasy game not only splits the referents into two dissimilar parts but it also provides insight into the playmates’ cognitive capacities for representing such imaginary worlds. It seems, then, that fantasy play entails imagining a fictive identity and engaging in fictive interaction. In their imagined interaction, there are two metamorphosed interactants (the baby dinosaur and perhaps another animal) who engage in imaginary topics of conversation, but the speech and the bodies correspond to the 103 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities actual playmates. True, the fictive communication of the represented entities does not necessarily relate to the experiential domain but undeniably it has a physical grounding (the playing ground, the playmates, etc.). The child departs from the REALITY space or the BASE space to construct a potential or a hypothetical space, set up by the space builder pretend. The playfellows no longer talk about what they do in their actual world but what they pretend they share in their imaginary world. With respect to the previous factual space, the second mental space sets up a counterfactual scenario in an alternative situation, with characters behaving as if they were something else. In this hypothetical space, the fictional counterpart of the second companion hears a noise and interprets it as danger. He thinks it is a wolf, which partitions the discourse into a further BELIEVE space, but he can’t call his fictional companion because he doesn’t know his name. The conjunction but clearly shows the contrast between the need for help and the impossibility to ask for it. For further analysis, let us look at another example of a pretend game: “Pretend I’m the good mother.” “Is there a mean one?” “The step one? No, only one mother, the nice one.” “Let’s both be baby sisters and our nice mother isn’t lost yet.” “Was she lost or are we lost?” “Not yet. No one is lost. This is the part where we’re still happy.” (p.19) As in the other fantasy game, the space builder ‘pretend’ represents an overt indicator that opens up a new virtual mental space. The dialogue script shifts focus to a space in which the fellow companions become ‘baby sisters’ watched by their ‘nice mother’ who has not been lost yet. The final scenario is set up gradually after the participants hesitantly evaluate the other options: who could be the ‘good mother’ and whether there is ‘a step mother’. In this fictive address, the interactants also evaluate their new roles and, in this way, they can learn what they think of the individuals talked about in real situations of communication. This means that the underlying configuration of their fictive interaction bears the mark of the participants’ social experience and of their exposure to similar situated exchanges. The pretend space builder not only requires the conceptualization of a hypothetical mental space but it also requires the integration of incompatible structure. Even though ‘the baby sisters’ know that they and their ‘good mother’ may be lost in the real story, they set up potential realities in which nobody is lost and time is halted to a never-ending happiness. It is interesting to look at the following engaging fantasy play in which children rewrite the story of The Little Red Riding Hood: 104 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics “You be the mother,” she tells Cora. “You have to come with me in case there’s a wolf.” “First we see the hunter,” Cora decides. “He already banged at the wolf.” “But you didn’t tell me don’t talk to the wolf!” “No, see, this is the first real way it goes. The wolf sees the mother and so he runs away.” (21) Clearly, children enjoy such fantasy games for their entertainment value. But more significantly, nevertheless, they do not simply participate in the game with the purpose of enjoying the imagined stories as such: they play out concepts and beliefs from experience, animate entities, and present imaginary scenarios affectionately. The alternative framework of the story allows for complementary improvement of the original storyline: the bad wolf sees the mother and runs away. Interestingly, in their fictive interaction the fictional mother and girl incorporate conversational cues from the original story: ‘But you didn’t tell me don’t talk to the wolf!’The speaker seems to suggest that they need to repeat exactly the lessons learned experientially or taken directly from the original story. In other words, the desire to imitate the behaviours and beliefs of the original scenario takes them back to the BASE space of actuality. However, the other communicative participant presents her suggestion to keep the virtual space because it seems safe and ‘the first real way’ for a turn of the story. Blending and double-scope creativity in (pretend) games The various case studies presented in the previous section give evidence of the fact that, when involved in fantasy games, participants set up mental spaces as imaginary scenarios, interconnect them, and modify them as discourse unfolds. On the other hand, this is not the whole story of the imitative mind. For instance, the sentence “pretend I’m your baby dinosaur and I’m lost...” requires not only the conceptualization of a hypothetical mental space, but it also requires the mapping of incompatible mental spaces. Even though in the BASE space the playmates are real individuals who feel safe from any trouble, they can still imagine themselves as nonhuman figures facing danger and risking their lives. The discovery that individuals are able to imagine such a situation contrary to facts with essential consequences for thinking led cognitive scientists G. Fauconnier and M. Turner (2002, 2006) (see also Turner 1996) to advance the theory of conceptual blending. This pretend game is a double-scope network (Fauconnier and Turner 2002, p. 131139) that has input spaces with clashing structures. There is disanalogy between the safe playmate in the BASE space and the lost baby dinosaur in the second input. Further, in the space of reality both companions know each other well whereas in the counterfactual space there is no communication. If the first input is free of danger, 105 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities the presence of the wolf in the second input emphasises the clashing differences. But the inputs are not simply juxtaposed. The imagined situation in which the second playmate cannot call for help and thus may be caught by the wolf is understood as the blended space. Evidence of blending or conceptual integration can be found in other similarly engaging children’s activity. For instance, when a two-year-old picks up a banana and talks into it as if it were a mobile phone, s/he proves to have collected important pieces of cultural information to be later used for making other useful connections. With the highly imaginative Lego construction sets, the child can play, build and rebuild. The player constructs towers, castle, cars, or other miniature objects replicating physical objects from the surrounding reality. When the building is finished, players may want to change pieces, move one tower to another place, or make the castle taller; all these additions are only limited by the physical characteristics of the building blocks that cannot be divided or changed into a different size or shape. Gravity may sometimes spoil the fun. Otherwise, no one really instructs children on such physical constraints but they will know quite precisely what rules satisfy their constructions. Endowed with the capacity for integration, the child will take that information from the surrounding cultural stimuli and use that knowledge in their play. The fact that they may have already experienced boat trips and bridge crossings, they may have seen pictures of towered castles, or they may have witnessed different actions and behaviour gives them enough stimuli to reproduce them out of Lego sets. Such construction games are much more than simply imaginative imitation games: they are useful applications of early forms of human imagination. Building and rebuilding construction sets creatively and resourcefully reflects the making and unmaking of conceptual integration networks. Concluding remarks In this paper I have argued that early imitation constitutes a form of social engagement that also helps infants develop the concepts of self and others. Analysis suggested that through multiple forms of imitation, the self is largely shaped by people around us. It is through imitation that we experience ourselves as split. I further proposed that every sort of fantasy game that children play can express a sense of others and reveal the split in the self. The manifestations of imitation in fantasy or pretend games may be concerned with the social function of imitation, but most importantly, with how the self and the other are coded in the minds. More generally, children engage in fantasy games for their immensely entertaining value but, at the same time, they begin to act out theatrically on the stage of their creative 106 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics minds. By projecting themselves onto someone else or something else, the self of the young individual takes a bifurcating shape that allows them to develop broad identities. Such a fundamental cognitive activity involving the dramatization of the self helps us later understand such puzzling language: “If I were you, I'd hate me too” (Johnson & Lakoff 1999, p. 281). If fantasy games seem to impact upon the individual’s identity, they can be used as valuable teaching tools. References Brandt, L. (2008). A semiotic approach to fictive interaction as a representational strategy in communicative meaning construction. In Oakley, T. & Hougaard, A. (Eds.). Mental spaces in discourse and interaction (109148).Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Fauconnier, G. (1994).Mental spaces: Aspects of meaning construction in natural language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in thought and language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The way we think: Conceptual blending the mind’s hidden complexities. New York: Basic Books. and Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2006). Mental spaces: Conceptual integration networks. In Geeraerts, D. (Ed.). Cognitive linguistics. Basic readings (303-371). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gussin Paley, V. (2004). A child’s work: The importance of fantasy play. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Hood, B. (2012). The self illusion. London: Constable. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind its challenge to western thought. New York: Basic Books. and Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, M. K.(1994). Imitation, memory, and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 83–99. Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1998). Object representation, identity, and the paradox of early permanence: Steps toward a new framework. Infant Behavior and Development, 21,201–235. 107 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Meltzoff, A. N., & Prinz, W. (2002). (Eds.) The imitative mind: Development, evolution, and brain bases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nehaniv, L. C., & Dautenhahn, K. (Eds.) (2007). Imitation and social learning in robots, humans and animals . Behavioural, social and communicativedimensions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pascual, E. (2002). Imaginary trialogues: Conceptual blending and fictive interaction in criminal courts. Utrecht: LOT. Pascual, E. (2008). Fictive interaction blends in everyday life and courtroom settings. In Oakley, T. & Hougaard, A. (Eds.). Mental spaces in discourse and interaction (79-108).Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Rushdie, S. (2012). Joseph Anton. A memoir. New York: Random House. Turner, M. (1996). Conceptual blending and counterfactual argument in the social and behavioral sciences. In Tetclock, T. &Belkin, A. (Eds.). Counterfactual thought experiments in world politics: Logical, methodological, and psychological perspectives (291-295). Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. 108 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2787 Title A name given to the resource Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Author Author Tucan, Gabriela Abstract A summary of the resource. Fauconnier and Turner (2002, pp. 389-396) provide an overview of how blending affects the course of a human life, and more specifically, how young children are engaged in building complex blends in very early stages of their lives. Their detailed analysis shows that only after the young child is able to master culturally recognized blends will s/he be effectively ‘living in the blend’ and prove capable of further achieving other blends with more flexibility. During early childhood, it appears that learning and mental development are intrinsically linked to our human ability to blend and deblend. Besides engaging in direct cultural blends, the young child can operate on conceptual blends that are not physically (biologically) given. For instance, this may happen when their imaginative processes are at work in a wide variety of games or fun activities, starting with Lego construction sets to fictive interactions with imaginary companions. In such games and activities, children manifest an extraordinary capacity for double-scope blending. Therefore, by playing games or getting involved in free activities, young children will bring to mastery mental integrations that are essential for their lives as adults. In this light, the paper examines a set of children-designed games and activities that can all account for cases of fictive or potential reality. That is, the mental spaces created do not refer directly to entities in the outside world. I argue that an analysis of such fantasy mental spaces (with the tools of the mental space theory) can shed new light on learning and human creativity. While playing and blending mental spaces with their counterfactual counterparts, the young subject has to manipulate his/her ‘split self’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1999) or counterfactual self. With the knowledge of early evolution of conceptual blending in children’s games, I propose that educators may apply the results in diverse areas of instruction and learning in order to better deal with the cognitive side of learning, and eventually come to terms with human creativity. Keywords: blends, early childhood, mental development, children-designed games Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),LT Textbooks https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a0d32274e9842b6e4a87ccb2d2b57987.pdf 0efe7a3fe9e186c688017a4cb7cef379 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Luis Armando Villalobos Nájera Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 12.11.2014. Abstract The objective of this paper is to share the experiences regarding the design and implementation of a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course (TIDC) in a public university located in central Mexico.The main point of designing and implementing the diploma course was to produce a new generation of translators and interpreters, since a number of BA in ELT graduates from local universities,as well as many other translators from the region, wish to grow professionally in both translation and interpretation areas.Moreover, the implementation of this diploma course was necessarybecause no institutions in this region offer a course of this kind. The TIDCwas designed taking into account the demand for professional translators and interpreters derived from the industrial and commercial growth in the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico. The curriculum for the TIDCconsists of 14 modulescentered on thetheoretical aspects of translation and thetranslation practice of financial, scientific, technical and legal texts. Spanish writing, terminology, and CAT tools training are also part of the curriculum.The students are also introduced to Consecutive and Simultaneous Interpretation using theappropriate interpretation equipment.Allacademic staffinvited to collaborate in this program hold an MA in Translation and Interpretation. They are also certified translators and currently teach translation and interpretation in various universities. Most of them belong to translators and interpreters associations. Key words: translation theory, translation training, interpretation, syllabus, design, implementation. The idea of designing theTranslation and Interpretation Diploma Course (TIDC) emerged from the increasing demand for professional translators and interpreters derived from the industrial and commercial boom in the state of Aguascalientesthat started a few decades ago. Numerous national and international companies established in Aguascalientes, mostly related to the automotive industry, demand translation and interpretation services in order to succeed in today’s global economy. 157 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course In addition to the business and industry sectors, academic institutions also need professional translation and interpretation services in their diverse activities. Moreover, consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting have become a necessity for the different congresses, seminars, and meetings that continuously take place in the state of Aguascalientes. The Current Situation of Translation and Interpretation Studies in Mexico Translation and interpretation studieshave evolved along with globalization in Mexico, the fifth-largest country in the Americas. However, this evolution does not seem sufficient to cover the demand for translation and interpretation services of a country with an estimated population of 118 million. According to a research conducted by the author, a total of nine Master’sdegree programs in Translation and Interpretation are offered in only six of Mexico’s 32 states, while only10 institutionsin states including Mexico Cityoffer degrees in Translation and Interpretation.Finally, only seven institutionsconcentrated in Mexico City offer diploma courses in translation and/or interpretation. As a consequence,mainly due to the lack of availability in their place of residence, a number of students interested in Translation and Interpretation studies find it difficult to enroll in translation and/or interpretationcourses. The situation is quite similarin Aguascalientes, since no academic institutions offer programsor courses related to Translation studies. The Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Curriculum In this paper, the term “curriculum” refers to the academic content taught in a specific course or program that also includes learning objectives, materials and assessment methods.It is important to mention that according to Nunan (1988), all elements contained in a given curriculummust be integrated in order to avoid conflicts when making decisions at different levels of such curriculum. In this particular case, the author attempted to interconnect the elements of the curriculum for the purpose of integrating and applyingthe students’ technical, professional, and ethical skills acquired throughout the development of the diploma course. On the other hand, Li(2006) claims that there is a “gap between translation training and the real world of professional translation” (p. 615). In other words, students who graduate from translation courses are not really prepared to face the challenges of professional translation as most translation-course contents do not provide students with enough translation practiceby employing authentic materials. Moreover, sometimes translation teachers do not have enough professional experience in certain specialized areas of translation. In light of the above, the author considered it necessary to adopt amore suitable approach in order to meet students’ expectations. 158 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The main idea was to develop a curriculum that provided students with translation practice in the technical, scientific, financial and legal areas, as well as to includesome Terminology management and CAT tool training. Furthermore, Beeby (2004) and Mackenzie (2004) suggest that since new technologies have revolutionized translation, it is of great importance to provide the students with translation-memory tools and terminology software in order to develop the future professional translators’ competencies. Moreover, the correct use of such tools is essential to guarantee quality in translation work, as asserted by Esmaieli (2009)and Savelová (n.d.). In view of the above, the contents of the TIDCcurriculum include authentic translation tasks and simulated interpreting activities in an effort to integrate both the process-oriented approach suggested by Gile (1995) and the practice-oriented approach proposed byWilss(1996). This combination of approaches has been suggested by Li (2006), who argued thatteachers currently focusmainlyon a productand/or practice-oriented approach because such approaches provide students with many different types of translation tasks aimed at preparing them to face the real world of professional translation.In addition to practice in translation skills, one of theTIDC’s main objectives is to develop translation competencies in students, taking into account the premise expressed by Mackenzie (2004) “Learning by doing, knowing-how rather than knowing” (p. 33),which refers to using translation skills in real or simulated situations as an essential part of translation training. Translation and Interpretation Diploma courses in Mexico However, it was necessary to make a comparison among other translation and interpretation diploma courses offered in Mexicowith respect to their curricula structure and contents in favor of obtaining more ideas for designing a practical translation and interpretation diploma course. After having conducted an Internet search, the author gathered information from six translation diploma courses and two translation and interpretation diploma courses offered by various higher education institutions in the country (see Table 1). The main purpose was to find out the types of learning objectives established, the methodologies used, and the assessment criteria employed. It was also important to know about tuition costs, thelength of the courses and thenumber of modules. The results showed that the translation and interpretation diploma courses offered by private institutions were not affordable tomiddle-class students due to the high cost of tuition, whereassimilar diploma courses offered by public universities were more affordable. It was also found that the criteria followed in the admission requirements varied a lot, but it was evident that prospective students needed to have a good command of English andalso had to beproficient in their mother tongue. 159 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Another objective of this research was to find out if CAT-tool subjects and terminology subjects formed partof the Diploma Courses’ curricula (see Table 2). Contrary to what the author expected, only twoprivate universities included CATtool training in their courses. This is probably due to the fact that CAT-tool training implies the purchase of licenses and,equally importantly,the availability of translation teachers withCAT-tool knowledge. By contrast, seven institutions include at least one Terminology subject in their course programs. This indicates that such institutions are aware of the importance that Terminology management plays in the translation process. In this respect, Palou (2012) supports the idea that the management of terminological databases helps the translator to render translations with language quality, accuracy, and consistency. The Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Subjects It is important to point out that the TIDC consists of introductory subjects aimed at providing students with the basic skills and knowledge of different areas of Translation and Interpretation. The TIDC also aims to broaden students’ perspectives and encourage them to become skilled translators and interpreters through their own continuing professional development. Another aspect of the TIDC that needs to be highlighted is that the teachers were asked to apply translation theory to translation practice and to help the students integrate and transfer the skills and knowledge theygained in one subject into the subsequent subject in order to improve their translation and interpretation competencies. TIDC DeliveryMode The author chose the Face-to-Face delivery method for the TIDC subjects with the purpose of creating a positive classroom environment as a way to foster cooperative learning. According to the author’s own teaching experience, Face-to-Face instruction promotes a more effective interaction between the teacher and the students, which makeslearning more effective. Another advantage of having the students physically together is that they can make use of Language Department facilities such as classrooms equipped with Internet access and LCD interactive screens, the Lecture Hall for Simultaneous Interpreting practices, and the Language Lab. Considering that most of the prospective students are translators and English teachers and in order to facilitate their attendance at the TIDC, classes will take place on weekends: Friday afternoons from 4 to 8 pm and Saturdays from 8 am to 1 pm. 160 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics TIDC Evaluation The instruments for evaluating the TIDC are currently in the design process. The evaluation instruments will consist of questionnaires and interviews for both teachers and students. The feedback obtained will serve for further improvement of the TIDC. Academic Staff Anumber of studieshave shown that there is a strong relationship between teacher quality andstudent achievement. For example, Buddin and Zamarro (2009),affirm that“Teacher quality is a key element of student academic success” (p. 1). Likewise, King (2003)states that “Teacher quality matters. In fact, it is the most important school-related factor influencing student achievement”(v).Taking into account the previous considerations, the author contactedqualified teachers in translation and interpretation studies and invited themto participate in the TIDC.Five of the teachers have the following profile:    Currently working as certified translators and interpreters. Hold a Master´s degree in Translation and Interpretation Currently teaching translation and interpretation at higher academic institutions. The rest of the academic staff consists of a PhD in Law teacher, an MA in Education teacher, an MA in Philosophy teacher, an MA in Translation and CAT tools teacher, and a BA in Hispanic Letters teacher. The author considered that the quality of teaching offered in the TIDC was a more effective way of attracting prospective students since quality in teaching may improve the quality-of-learning outcome. The Approval of the Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course The proposal for the TIDCwas submitted, in accordance with the regulations of the Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, to the University Executive Board and wasapproved on November 13, 2013. Implementation Afteritsapproval, it was really important to develop a plan of action to promote the TIDC with the purpose of attracting prospective students. The staff from the 161 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Continuous Education Department at the university designed a flyer announcing the TIDCand a number of copies were distributed in the main commercial areas of the city. Additionally, the Communication Department also designed a poster announcing the TIDCand copies were posted throughout the Central Campus. In addition, the Communication Department also invited the author to participate in a university radio program to give general information about the TIDC.TheTIDCwas also promoted ata Language Department meeting attended by approximately 100 teachers in December 2013. The poster announcing the TIDCappearedon the Language Department’sFacebook page. Finally, the author sent e-mail messages to local certified translators. Before the end of the second semester of 2013, the Department of Continuous Education set the dates for the Registration period. A total of 20 students, mostly English teachers and translators, signed up for the TIDC. The staff from the Continuous Education Department was in charge ofarranging travel expenses, accommodation, and transportation for the external teachers. The Language Department also organized the assignment of classrooms and labs for the TIDCclasses. Finally, the TIDC was inaugurated by the Humanities and Social Sciences authorities. The ceremonywas held at the Lecture Hall of the Language Department on February 7, 2014. Conclusion The author is aware that theTIDC will not fully satisfy the increasing demand for translation and interpretation services in the state of Aguascalientessince it differs from a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree in Translation and Interpretation. However, it will probably mark the beginning of a new generation of translators and interpreters in this region.Furthermore, the authorities of the Autonomous University of Aguascalientes are considering using the TIDC as a starting point for a Master’s Degreeprogram in Translation and Interpretation. 162 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics References Beeby, A. (2004). Language learning for translators. Designing a syllabus. In Malmkjaer, K. Editor (2004).Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programs. (p. 41). Amsterdam/Philadelphia. John Benjamins Publishing Company. DIPLOMADO EN TRADUCCIÓN INGLÉS-ESPAÑOL. ORGANIZACIÓN MEXICANA DE TRADUCTORES, A.C. Retrieved from http://www.omt.org.mx/diplomado1.htm Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados (DTTE). Universidad Autónoma de México. Retrieved from http://cele.unam.mx/index.php?categoria=3&subcategoria=22&contenido=7 9 Diplomados: Traducción. Metodología. Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua. Retrieved from http://www.uacj.mx/sa/asc/CELE/Paginas/Diplomados.aspx Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados. Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México. Retrieved from http://desarrolloejecutivo.itam.mx/extension/files%5CTemarios%5CProgram a%2000002794%5CP_2794_TEM_953.PDF Diplomado en Traducción e Interpretación. Universidad Iberoamericana. Retrieved from http://www.uia.mx/diplomados/default.html Diplomado en Traducción. Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. Retrieved from http://www.ujat.mx/interioradentro.aspx?NODO=123&ID=3491 Diplomado Intérprete – Traductor. Berlitz Mexico. Retrieved from http://www.berlitz.com.mx/cursos-idiomas/Diplomado-Int-rpreteTraductor/Caracter-sticas-del-programa/146/guiseid--2/ 163 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Doherty, S. (2013) The Value of Effective Training in Translation and Localization.Galaxy Newsletter Q3 2013.Retrieved from https://www.gala-global.org/node/84770 Esmaieli, S. (2009).Necessity of tech integration into translation training programs.Translation Directory.Com. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2043.php King, J. (2003) Teacher Quality. Understanding the Effectiveness of Teacher Attributes. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from http://www.epi.org/publication/books_teacher_quality_execsum_intro/ Li, D. (2006) “Translators as Well as Thinkers: Teaching of Journalistic Translation in Hong Kong” Meta : journal des traducteurs / Meta: translators’ Journal, vol. 51, nº 3, 2006, p. 611-619. Mackenzie, R. (2004). The competencies required by the translator´s roles as a professional. InMalmkjaer, K. (Ed.)Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programs. (p. 32-33). Amsterdam/Philadelphia. John Benjamins Publishing Company. National Research Council.(2014) Educating Teachers of Science, Mathematics, and Technology: New Practices for the New Millennium. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2000. (p. 44) Nord, Ch. (1991). Text Analysis in Translation.Theory, Method, and Didactic Application of a Model for TranslationOriented Text Analysis. Translated from the German by Christiane Nord and Penelope Sparrow. Amsterdam/Atlanta GA, Rodopi, 250 p. ISBN : 9051833113. Nunan, D. (1988) Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Palou, M. (2012) Managing Terminology for Translation Using Translation Environment Tools: Towards a Definition of Best Practices. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Ottowa. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/en/handle/10393/22837 164 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Appendix A Table 1. Translation and Interpretation Diploma Courses in Mexico Diplomado Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-español Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados Diplomado Traducción Textos Especializados Diplomado en Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-español Diplomado en Traducción Diplomado Traducción (InglésEspañol) Berlitz Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua, Mexico Organización Mexicana de Traductores Jalisco, Mexico Universidad Autónoma de México CELE Mexico City Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico Universidad Intercontinental Mexico City Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico Universidad Iberoamericana Mexico City Tuition Admission Requirements Duration (months) Hours/ Credits Diplomado enTraducción Institution Modules Name 4 576 $58,500.00 MX (4,300.00 USD) High School 80% English 12 7 280 $11.550.00 MX (850.00 USD) 500 pts. TOEFL ITP 16 10 160 30,000.00 MX (2,200.00 USD) Entrance Examination 12 11 544/68 - BA or BS degree (4 semesters minimum) Advanced English Level 12 6 180 $56,750.00 MX (4,200.00 USD) Good command of English and Spanish 10 14 300/30 $16,000.00 MX (1,185.00 USD) 79 pts. TOEFL iBT or 550 pts. TOEFL ITP - 10 8 60 $27,680.00 MX (2,050.00 USD) 2 120 $6,000.00 MX (440.00 USD) 10 300 $51,100.00 MX (3,785.00 USD) 8 Intermediate English Level Advanced English Level/Advanced Reading and Writing Skills in Spanish 5 5 165 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Note. Data contained in this table was collected in 2014 and may change due to updates. Diplomado IntérpreteTraductor Diplomado Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-español Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados Diplomado Traducción Textos Especializados Diplomado en Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-Español Diplomado Traducción Diplomado Traducción 166 en Berlitz Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua, Mexico Organización Mexicana de Traductores Jalisco, Mexico Universidad Autónoma de México CELE Mexico City Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes Aguascalientes, Mexico Universidad Intercontinental Campus Sur Mexico City Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco Tabasco, Mexico Universidad Iberoamericana Totalof Subjects CAT Tools Subjects Terminology Subjects Practical Subjects Institution Theoretical Subjects Name Modules/Subjects Table 2. Characteristics of Translation and Interpretation Diploma Courses in Mexico 4 5 11 - - 16 7 3 4 - - 7 10 - - 1 - - 11 9 2 1 - 11 6 3 3 3 - 6 14 5 9 1 1 14 8 3 5 1 1 8 2 - - 2 - 2 (T/P) 10 2 8 1 1 10 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (InglésEspañol) Mexico City Note. Although recently created, the Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course of the Autonomous University of Aguascalientes is included in this table for comparison purposes. Table 3. Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Schedule 2014 Credits 1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY TRANSLATION THEORIES 2. INTRODUCCIÓN TO TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES 3. INTRODUCCIÓN TO CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETATION 4. INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH-SPANISH CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 5. SPANISH WRITING WORKSHOP 6. INTRODUCTION TO TERMINOLOGY 7. INTRODUCTION TO CAT TOOLS 8. INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL TRANSLATION 9. INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC TRANSLATION 10. INTRODUCTION TO LEGAL TRANSLATION 11. INTRODUCTION TO SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETATION 12. INTRODUCTIOON TO SCIENTIFIC TRANSLATION 13. INTRODUCTION TO TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION COPYRIGHT 14. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Teaching Dates Hours Professors M. en T. I. Michelle Cecilia Arriola de la Mora 20 2 February 7, 8, 14 y 15 M. en C. E. Karla Valdez 20 2 February 21, 22 y 28 de ; March 1 M. en T. I. Michelle Cecilia Arriola de la Mora 30 3 March 7, 8, 14, 15, 21 and 22 M. en T. I. Annie Smyrna Hernández Zárate 20 2 March 28 and ; April 4 and 5 L. en L.H. José Alberto García Ventura M. en T. I. Annie Smyrna Hernández Zárate M. en C. E. Laurent Slowack R. 20 2 20 2 20 2 M. en C. E. Laurent Slowack R. 20 2 M. en T. MezaCuervo Elena 20 2 April 11 and ;May 9 and 16 May 17, 24, 30 and 31 June 6, 7, 13 and 14 June 20, 21, 27 and 28 July 4, 5, 25 and 26 M. en T. I. Karen Bibiana Camarena Gutiérrez M. en T. I. Michelle Cecilia Arriola de la Mora 20 2 30 3 M. en T. I. Katina Fernández Cedi Dr. en D. Miguel A. Marmolejo Cervantes 20 2 20 2 Mtra. Ma. Bautista 20 2 I.Beatriz Teresa De Lira August 1, 2, 8 and 9 August 16, 22, 23, 29 and 30; September 5 September 6, 12, 13 and 19 September 20, 26, 27; October 3 October 4, 10, 11 and 17 167 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Note. Some teaching dates are not consecutive due to holidaydates and holiday periods. 168 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2792 Title A name given to the resource Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Author Author Villalobos Nájera, Luis Armando Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this paper is to share the experiences regarding the design and implementation of a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course (TIDC) in a public university located in central Mexico.The main point of designing and implementing the diploma course was to produce a new generation of translators and interpreters, since a number of BA in ELT graduates from local universities,as well as many other translators from the region, wish to grow professionally in both translation and interpretation areas.Moreover, the implementation of this diploma course was necessarybecause no institutions in this region offer a course of this kind. The TIDCwas designed taking into account the demand for professional translators and interpreters derived from the industrial and commercial growth in the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico. The curriculum for the TIDCconsists of 14 modulescentered on thetheoretical aspects of translation and thetranslation practice of financial, scientific, technical and legal texts. Spanish writing, terminology, and CAT tools training are also part of the curriculum.The students are also introduced to Consecutive and Simultaneous Interpretation using theappropriate interpretation equipment.Allacademic staffinvited to collaborate in this program hold an MA in Translation and Interpretation. They are also certified translators and currently teach translation and interpretation in various universities. Most of them belong to translators and interpreters associations. Key words: translation theory, translation training, interpretation, syllabus, design, implementation. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LE Individual institutions (America except United States) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/aa35ba8552d8bb72de17e357748a452a.pdf 3804bc3972309bd6e6ad447ba88b7c16 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu Yasar University Izmir, Turkey emel.kursunluoglu@yasar.edu.tr Abstract: The purpose of this study is to show the requirement of industry-specific national service quality indices for measuring quality in both traditional and electronic services in various industries in a country. In this study, the literature about service and e-service quality measurements was reviewed, and a threedimensional framework was developed. It was found out that the dimensions of each service quality measurement were all different from each other due to the different characteristics of the industries that each study has been conducted in. The study showed that there is a need for an industry-specific national service quality index and suggested that national customer satisfaction indices which have existed in the literature can be a model for industryspecific national service quality indices. An industry-specific national service quality index enables national companies to understand their unique industrial characteristics that needed to be improved continuously in order to increase service quality and gain competitive advantage. The index which was proposed to develop in the future was suggested for the first time in this study. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 Keywords: Service Quality; E- Service Quality; Service Quality Dimensions; National Customer Satisfaction Indices; Turkish Customer Satisfaction Index (TCSI). JEL Classification: M31 Article History Submitted: 11 June 2014 Resubmitted: 3 September 2014 Resubmitted: 17 December 2014 Accepted: 25 December 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOS S115110 169 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu Introduction The techniques of measuring service quality have become a major area in the marketing literature during the past few decades since the increasing importance of service industry. The share of service industry in the economy has been increasing for years. The importance of services has been growing rapidly since the services account for more than 60 percent of GDP worldwide, almost all economies have a substantial service sector, and most new job is derived by services (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2011). Increasing competition in the service industry has led many companies to consider service quality as a strategic tool. As well as service quality, e-service quality has been becoming more important nowadays. Measuring e-service quality was highly developed after 2000s with the increasing usage amount of e-services. The researches about measuring and improving e-service quality have been continuing sharply. Service quality affects customer satisfaction and loyalty which have strong influences on customer behavior. Since service quality is one of the antecedents of customer satisfaction (Parasuraman et al., 1988; Boulding et al., 1993; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Athanassopoulos, 2000) and there are many relations among service quality, satisfaction, loyalty, perceived value, and behavioral intentions (Leonard and Sasser, 1982; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Chang and Chen, 1998; Gummesson, 1998; Silvestro and Cross, 2000; Cabuk et al., 2013), the measurement of service quality has been a valuable concept that should be analyzed. E-service quality has also positive impacts on customer satisfaction (Chang and Wang, 2008; Barutcu, 2010; Liang, 2012). It was shown that e-service quality has a positive effect on satisfaction and satisfaction has a positive effect on loyalty (Chang et al., 2009). E-service quality has a significant and positive effect on perceived value; and perceived value increases the loyalty (Fuentes-Blasco et al., 2010; Pearson et al., 2012). Pearson et al. (2012) also showed that loyalty intentions can be affected by perceived e-service quality. There have been many studies that developed scales and dimensions for measuring service and e-service quality in the literature. This paper reviewed the service and eservice quality measurements and showed the need of an industry-specific national service quality index for each various service industry in a country. The aim of the study is to show the requirement of developing industry-specific national service quality indices. In this study, firstly service and e-service quality scales and their dimensions were examined, criticisms about service and e-service quality scales were analyzed, and a three-dimensional framework was developed according to the 170 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension literature review. This framework showed that each service quality dimensions were all different from each other due to the different characteristics of the industries that each study has been conducted in. It was highly suggested that there is a need for an industry-specific national service quality index and customer satisfaction indices which have existed in the literature can be a model for industry-specific national service quality indices. National customer satisfaction indices from different countries were explained and Turkish Customer Satisfaction Index was focused on. In conclusion, it was highly recommended to develop an industry-specific national service quality index since it enables national companies to understand the unique industrial characteristics that needed to be improved continuously in order to increase service quality and gain competitive advantage. Service Quality (SQ) Measurements Service quality concept was defined by seven service attributes such as security, consistency, attitude, completeness, condition, availability, and training of service providers (Sasser et al., 1978). Lehtinen and Lehtinen (1982) defined three dimensions of service quality such as physical quality, interactive quality, and corporate quality. Physical quality refers to tangible appearance of the service; interactive quality relates to the interactions between customers and service personnel; corporate quality involves the image of service provider. The first model for measuring service quality was developed by Grönroos in 1984 (Dotchin and Oakland, 1994; Seth et al., 2005; Bulbul and Demirer, 2008). He developed a service quality model and measured perceived service quality. Technical quality, functional quality, and corporate image were used in the model as the dimensions of service quality. Technical quality is about customer evaluations about the service delivered. Functional quality is seen to be more important dimension than technical quality. It refers how consumers take the service and it is the important variable for consumer perceptions and service differentiation. Technical quality is interested in what was delivered such as the knowledge about product and services whereas functional quality is interested in how the service was delivered such as the importance of the service personnel manners. Corporate image has a positive impact on customer perceptions. Parasuraman et al. (1985) analyzed the dimensions of service quality and constituted a GAP model that provides an important framework for defining and measuring service quality (Saat, 1999). They conducted an exploratory investigation and Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 171 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu developed the GAP Service Quality Model. It shows the key insights gained through the executive interviews and focus group interviews about the service quality concept. The gaps revealed by the executive interviews are shown in the marketer side (GAP1, GAP2, GAP3, GAP4), and the GAP 5 which was formed by the focus group interviews is in the consumer side of the model. The GAP names were shown below (Parasuraman et al., 1985; Lovelock, 2011): The Knowledge Gap (GAP 1): Customer expectation-management perceptions gap; The Policy Gap (GAP 2): Management perception-service quality specifications gap; The Delivery Gap (GAP 3): Service quality specifications-service delivery gap; The Communications Gap (GAP 4): Service delivery-external communications gap; The Service Quality Gap (GAP 5): Expected service-perceived service gap. Lovelock (1994) added the sixth gap to the model as The Perceptions Gap between Service Delivery and Perceived Service. After the gaps modeling, ten determinants of service quality that consumers used when interpreting the quality were described (Parasuraman et al., 1985) as follows: Reliability involves consistency of performance and dependability and provides right service in right time. Responsiveness includes the willingness or readiness of employees to provide service. Competence shows skill and knowledge the service personnel. Access means accessibility and ease of contact. Courtesy involves politeness and friendliness of service personnel. Communication keeps customer informed, for example explaining the service and its cost. Credibility contains trustworthiness and honesty. Security involves physical safety and financial security. Understanding/Knowing the Customer means learning the customer's specific requirements and providing them individualized service. Tangibles show the physical evidence of the service. Service quality has been conceptualized with different numbers of dimensions and generally it has been explained with two or three dimensional models. Rust and Oliver (1994) proposed a three dimensional model which was not tested in a conceptual way. In this model service quality is a function of service product, service delivery, and service environment. Hedvall and Paltschik (1991) identified service quality dimensions as willingness and ability to serve, and physical and psychological access. Haywood-Farmer (1988) discussed a service quality model including three basic attributes such as physical facilities, people behavior and conviviality, and professional judgment. These attributes were related to Parasuraman et al.’s (1985) service quality determinants. Physical facilities are related to Tangibles; People Behaviour and Conviviality are related to Reliability, Responsiveness, Access, 172 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension Courtesy, Communications determinants; and Professional Judgment is related to Competence, Credibility, Security, Understanding the consumer determinants. Parasuraman et al. (1988) developed SERVQUAL scale which is an advanced model for measuring service quality. In SERVQUAL model, there are five dimensions and 22 items presented in seven-point Likert scale. They measured service quality especially functional service quality via empirical studies in banking, credit card, repair and maintenance, and long-distance telephone services. The five dimensions of SERVQUAL are: tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy. Service quality can be measured by a performance-based SERVPERF scale as well as the gap-based SERVQUAL scale (Cronin and Taylor, 1992). SERVPERF scale was developed from the same items in SERVQUAL but it has also the performance statements. Scale consists of items about expectation (22 items-same as SERVQUAL), performance (22 items-same as SERVQUAL), importance (22 itemssame as SERVQUAL), future purchase behavior (1 item), overall quality (1 item), and satisfaction (1 item). This study has shown that service quality is measured as an attitude, the marketing literature supports the performance-based measures, and the SERVPERF explains more of the variation in service quality than SERVQUAL. SERVPERF which is a performance-only model for measuring service quality was developed via empirical studies in the sectors of banking, pest control, dry cleaning, and fast food. SERVQUAL had a good fit in banking and fast food sectors whereas SERVPERF had an excellent fit in all four industries. Dabholkar et al. (1996) developed and empirically validated the multilevel model called Retail Service Quality Scale (RSQS) in order to measure retail service quality that consists of five dimensions such as physical aspects, reliability, personal interaction, problem solving, and policy. The scale has been viewing as a generalized scale to measure the service quality in retail stores such as department and specialty stores. Philip and Hazlett (1997) proposed a hierarchical structure model called P-C-P for measuring service quality in service organizations. The model is based on pivotal, core, and peripheral attributes. Pivotal attributes which are the most important attributes that affect service quality are seen as end product or output whereas core and peripheral attributes are seen as inputs and processes. These attributes are shown in a triangle. Pivotal attributes are at the top, core attributes are at the second stage, and peripheral attributes are at the bottom side of the triangle. The degree of importance decreases from top to bottom of triangle. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 173 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu Brady and Cronin (2001) developed a model for measuring service quality. According to this model; service quality is affected by personal interaction quality, physical service environment quality, and outcome quality. Attitude, behavior, expertise form interaction quality; ambient conditions, design, social factors constitute physical environment quality; and waiting time, tangibles, valence form outcome quality. Martinez Caro and Martinez Garcia (2007) used this model in their empirical research for measuring perceived service quality in urgent transport service industry. They claimed that Brady and Cronin (2001) developed this hierarchical conceptualized and multidimensional model by combining the Rust and Oliver model (1994) and Dabholkar et al.’s RSQS hierarchical model (1996). E-Service Quality (e-SQ) Measurements E-services are distinguished from traditional services in terms of their characteristics such as the cost structure of services, the high degree of outsourcing, the rapid development of new services, the availability of transparent service feedback, and the continuous improvement of services (Riedl et al., 2009). Because of these distinguished characteristics between services and e-services, measuring e-service quality is different from measuring traditional service quality. Before developing eservice quality scales, the research have concentrated on determining three points such as technical quality of websites, the factors that influence e-satisfaction, and service quality of websites (Akinci et al., 2009). Hence, the criteria that should be used for designing an effective website have been the focus points of researchers. Abels et al. (1999) determined the six criteria that website designers need to use for designing a successful website: 1) use - easy to use, 2) content - having useful information, 3) structure - displaying of website, 4) linkage - providing link to the information at the website and other websites, 5) search - providing search button in website itself, 6) appearance - being attractive. Yoo and Donthu (2001) aimed to develop a psychometrically measure of service quality of online shopping websites and developed SITEQUAL. According to the model, there are four important factors that affect web site design such as ease of use of website and ability for information search; aesthetic design - the creativity of website in terms of excellent multimedia and colour graphics; processing speed online processing promptness and interactive responsiveness to consumers’ requests; and security - of financial and personal information. 174 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension Loiacono et al. (2002) measured B2C website quality through WebQual™ in the websites that sell products such as CDs, books and services such as hotel reservations and airline reservations. It showed that buying and revisiting intentions of consumers and the value of website. The model has been seen as more suitable for website designers to design better websites for users rather than measuring service quality (Zeithaml et al., 2002). WebQual™ has 36 items and 12 constructs. These constructs are: Informational fit-to-task: finds the information that consumers want; tailored communications: consumer-website interaction; trust: improves security and privacy policies; response time: supports communication capacity; ease of understanding: designs the pages; intuitive operations: develop an intuitive navigation system; visual appeal: enhances colors, graphics, and text; innovativeness: finds creative approaches; emotional appeal: is used to gain online customer experience; consistent image: reflects the image of the company; online completeness: performs over the website; relative advantage: makes the website easier for interacting. Barnes and Vidgen (2002) developed WebQual 4.0 to assess the perceived service quality of online bookstores such as Amazon, BOL, and IBS in UK and found 3 dimensions and 5 subdimensions for measuring e-service quality of websites. Usability (Usability and Design as subdimensions): appearance, ease of use, ease of navigation; Information Quality (Information as sub dimension): accuracy, format, and relevancy of information; Service Interaction Quality: (Trust and Empathy as subdimensions) transaction/information security, product delivery, personalization and communication with website. Zeithaml et al. (2002) showed that a number of studies have examined some criteria that identified customers’ evaluations about website quality. These are information availability and content; ease of use; privacy/security; graphic style; fulfillment/reliability; and other criteria such as access, responsiveness, personalization. They developed e-SERVQUAL in 2002 for measuring e-service quality. This model has been conceptualized in two parts: core e-service quality scale with four dimensions such as efficiency, reliability, fulfillment, privacy; and recovery eservice quality scale with three dimensions such as: responsiveness, compensation, contact. Another scale for assessing service quality of e-tailers was developed as PIRQUAL Perceived Internet Retail Quality Model (Francis and White, 2002). The scale consists of six dimensions such as web store functionality, product attribute description, ownership conditions, delivery, customer service, and security. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 175 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu Wolfinbarger and Gilly (2002) suggested .comQ for the measurement of service quality delivery through websites. They found that reliability/fulfillment is the strongest factor that affecting customer satisfaction, website functionality is a strong factor that affecting loyalty, and customer service is a strong predictive of loyalty and customer satisfaction. They have developed this valid and reliable scale for the measurement of etailer quality named eTAilQ (Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2003). Service quality of etailers was measured within four factors such as website design, fulfillment/reliability, privacy/security, customer service. These four factors are shown in Table 5 and can be defined as follows: Website design includes customer experience elements such as navigation, information search, order processing, and personalization. Fulfillment/reliability includes display and description of a product and right delivery of the product on time. Privacy/security includes information about customers and credit card payments are secure. Customer service includes being helpful and responsive towards customer requests. Santos (2003) proposed e-service quality dimensions that can be classified in two ways as incubative dimensions and active dimensions. Incubative dimensions developed before website is launched are ease of use, appearance, linkage, structure and layout, and content. Active dimensions which can raise customer retention are developed after launching of a website. They are reliability, efficiency, support, communication, security, and incentive. Parasuraman et al. (2005) proposed E-S-QUAL and E-RecS-QUAL scales for measuring e-service quality. E-S-QUAL is a core service quality scale for measuring core service attributes of websites and E-RecS-Qual is an e-recovery service quality scale which measures the quality of recovery services provided by websites. These scales which adapt to psychometric properties are reliable and valid scales. The E-SQUAL scale has 22 items and four dimensions such as efficiency, fulfillment, system availability, and privacy. E-RecS-QUAL contains 11 items in three dimensions: responsiveness, compensation, and contact. E-S-QUAL scale is a leading model for the measurement of e-service quality just as SERVQUAL in service quality. Existing e-service quality scales were seen as goal oriented and utilitarian-based by Bauer et al. (2006). They suggested that utilitarian and hedonic e-service quality dimensions should be integrated; hence they developed eTransQual scale. It is a transaction process based approach to integrate utilitarian and hedonic elements in 176 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension measuring e-service quality. This scale has 25 items and five dimensions such as: functionality/design, enjoyment, process, reliability, and responsiveness. E-service quality provided by online travel agencies were investigated by different researchers such as Park et al., 2007; Kaynama and Black, 2000; Shchiglik and Barnes, 2004; Chen and Kao, 2010. According to the study of Park et al. (2007), the dimensions of e-service quality are as follows: ease of use that includes functionality and accessibility of website and it is the most important item that affects willingness to buy over the internet, and it is followed by information/content that includes upto-date and reliable information; responsiveness that includes solving customer problem quickly and on time; fulfillment that includes accuracy of billing, ordering, online transaction, and services promise; security/privacy that includes to keep customer personal information, credit card information, and shopping behavior data safe. The studies explained about measuring e-service quality above were related to B2C companies. Since C2C auction websites have been becoming more important as ecommerce business type (Zhang, 2006), a service quality measurement was needed for C2C auction websites like eBay. Liu et al. (2010) developed a scale called OASQ (online auction service quality). It included 24 items and seven dimensions as: efficiency, system availability, privacy/security, compensation, personalization, playfulness, and reputation. Three-Dimensional Framework on SQ and e-SQ Measurements Parasuraman et al. (1988) claimed that SERVQUAL measures perceived service quality in a wide range of service industries. SERVQUAL also has been widely used in many service industries such as education (Atrek and Bayraktaroglu, 2012; Owlia and Aspinwall, 1996; Okumus and Duygun, 2008), communication via GSM operators (Hotamisli and Eleren, 2011), hotels (Akbaba, 2006; Yaprakli and Saglik, 2010), and transportation (Cati and Yildiz, 2005; Aydin and Yildirim, 2012). The applicability of SERVQUAL to the health care service industry was tested by Babakus and Mangold (1992). According to them; SERVQUAL is a reliable and valid scale for measuring functional service quality in hospitals, however hospital management need to measure both functional and technical quality for a long-term success. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 177 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu On the contrary, Finn and Lamb (1991) did not support that SERVQUAL is valid for every service industry, thus they suggested that the validity of SERVQUAL in a variety of service industries should be examined industry by industry (Akbaba, 2006). SERVQUAL dimensions may not fit in every industry which needs its own quality dimensions. Ekiz and Bavik (2008) also showed that some researchers who conducted SERVQUAL in different industries confirmed the model (Gabbie and Neill, 1996; Bojanic and Rosen, 1994; Mehta and Durvasula, 1998; Lam and Zhang, 1998) whereas some others did not confirm the model (Carman, 1990; Babakus and Boller, 1992; Brown et al. 1993; Ryan and Cliff, 1996). Carman (1990) suggested that the requirement of the adaptations of items in SERVQUAL for each industry. Babakus and Boller (1992) emphasized the requirement of industry-specific measures of service quality. Brown et al. (1993) found some problems in SERVQUAL and suggested the requirement of a new method to have psychometric properties. SERVPERF another most known and used scale was tested and found as appropriate for different sectors whereas there were some problems in SERVQUAL. Since the requirement of industry-specific service quality scale (Babakus and Boller, 1992), Karatepe et al. (2005) developed an industry-specific (banking) and a countryspecific (Northern Cyprus) model called SQUAL consisting of dimensions as: service environment, interaction quality, empathy, and reliability. They measured service quality by using SERVPERF (perceptions-only approach). Besides this, Brady et al. (2002) also performed a replication and extension of SERVPERF, and they supported the results of Cronin and Taylor (1992) in different sectors such as spectator sports, entertainment, health care, long-distance carriers, and fast food. Also, they claimed that SERVPERF is the superior model among all service quality models. As it was explained above, some industry based scales such as SQUAL were derived by SERVPERF since it was seen as more valid and reliable scale for different service industries. On the contrary, some of the industry-specific service quality scales were based on SERVQUAL dimensions such as RENTQUAL (Ekiz and Bavik, 2008) in car rental services, TISQ (Sangeetha, 2012) in retail banking, SQFS (Chang and Chelladurai, 2003) in fitness services, DINESERV (Stevens et al., 1995) in restaurants, SYSTRA-SQ (Aldlaigan and Buttle, 2002) in retail banking, MS-QUAL (Hosseini et al., 2013) in mobile telecommunication industry, ECOSERV (Khan and Su, 2003) in ecotourism, and INTSERVQUAL (Frost and Kumar, 2000). Even though these scale development studies were concentrated on the specific 178 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension industry, they are inadequate with regard to forming a general industry-specific national index that measures service quality. For assessing quality of e-services, E-S-QUAL as a main scale for measuring e-service quality was adapted to different industries in many studies. It was used in the sectors such as online shopping (Rafiq et al., 2012; Ingle and Connoly, 2006; Meng and Mummalaneni, 2010; Türk et al., 2012), and online banking (Marimon et al., 2012; Akinci et al., 2010). Besides this, there were many researches in the literature about measuring e-service quality in different industries such as internet banking service quality (Jun and Cai, 2001; Yang et al., 2004; Ho and Lin, 2010; Jayawardhena, 2004; Siu and Mou, 2005; Zhu et al., 2002; Wu et al., 2012; Kayabasi et al., 2013); mobile service quality (Ozer et al., 2013; Kuo et al., 2009; Lu et al., 2009); online shopping (Ilter, 2009; Celik and Basaran, 2008; Li et al., 2012; Seethamraju, 2006). Assessing of online service quality was analyzed in different sectors with different scales; however there were no industry-specific national measurements. After considering the criticisms in the literature about service quality measurements, a three-dimensional framework was developed and shown in Table 1 below. In the first part of this framework, the service quality measurements which contain the main scales such as SERVQUAL and SERVPERF were shown. In the second part, scale development studies deriving from the main service quality scales with the techniques of replication or adaptation were shown. Even though they focused on a specific industry more, they were inadequate of developing an index in national based. In the third part, e-service quality studies which show the general development of e-service quality measurements in different industries and countries were shown. Table 1: Three-Dimensional Framework on SQ and E-SQ Measurements SQ Studies Parasuraman et al., 1985 GAP Model Parasuraman et al., 1988 SERVQUAL Cronin and Taylor, Industry-Country Dimensions Reliability, Tangibles, Access, Banking, credit card, securities Responsiveness, Competence, brokerage, repair and Courtesy, Credibility, Security, maintenance-USA Communication, Knowing Customers Banking, credit card, repair Tangibles, Reliability, Empathy, and maintenance, telephoneResponsiveness, Assurance USA Banking, pest control, dry Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 Same as SERVQUAL but with 179 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu 1992 SERVPERF Dabholkar et al., 1996 RSQS Philip and Hazlett, 1997 PCP Model Brady and Cronin, 2001 Service Quality Scale Development Studies in SQ Stevens et al., 1995 DINESERV Frost and Kumar, 2000 INTSERVQUAL cleaning, fast food-USA Department stores-USA Particular service organizations-UK Amusement parks, restaurants, health and automobile care facilities, hair salons, dry cleaning, jewelry repair, photographUSA performance only statements Physical aspects, Reliability, Personal interaction, Problem solving, Policy Pivotal, Core, Peripheral attributes Personal interaction, Service environment, Outcome Industry-Country Dimensions Restaurants-USA Reliability, Tangibles, Assurance, Responsiveness, Empathy Airline-Australia Reliability, Tangibles, Assurance, Responsiveness, Empathy Aldlaigan and Buttle, 2002 SYSTRA-SQ Banking-UK Service system quality, Behavioral service quality, Service transactional accuracy, Machine service quality Khan and Su, 2003 ECOSERV Ecotourism-USA Chang and Chelladurai, 2003 SQFS Fitness services-USA Karatepe et al., 2005 SQUAL Ekiz and Bavik, 2008 RENTQUAL Sangeetha, 2012 TISQ 180 Banking-Northern Cyprus Car rental services-Northern Cyprus Banking-Oman Eco tangibles, Assurance, Reliability, Responsiveness, Empathy, Tangibles Service climate, Management commitment, Programs, Interpersonal interactions, Task interactions, Physical environment, Other clients, Service failures and recovery, Perceived service quality Service environment, Interaction quality, Empathy, Reliability Comfort, Delivery, Safety, Handing over, Ergonomics, Accessibility ATM, Telephone banking, Internet banking, Call center services, Queue systems, Price, Core product Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension Hosseini et al., 2013 MS-QUAL Mobile telecommunicationIran e-SQ Studies Yoo and Donthu, 2001 SITEQUAL Industry-Country Online shopping websitesUSA Loiacono et al., 2002 WebQual™ CDs, books, hotel-airline reservations-USA Barnes and Vidgen, 2002 WebQual4.0 Bookstores-UK Zeithaml et al., 2002 e-SERVQUAL Online shopping websitesUSA Network quality, Value-added service, Pricing plans, Employee competency, Billing, Customer services, Service convenience Dimensions Ease of use, Aesthetic design, Processing speed, Security Informational fit-to-task, Tailored communications, Trust, Response time, Ease of understanding, Intuitive operations, Visual appeal, Innovativeness, Emotional appeal, Consistent image, Online completeness, Relative advantage Usability, Information quality, Service interaction quality Efficiency, Reliability, Fulfillment, Privacy, Responsiveness, Compensation, Contact Web store functionality, Product attribute description, Ownership conditions, Delivery, Customer service, Security Website design, Fulfillment, Privacy, Customer service Ease of use, Appearance, Linkage, Layout, Content, Reliability, Efficiency, Support, Incentive, Communication, Security Francis and White, 2002 PIRQUAL Online shopping websitesAustralia Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2003 eTAilQ Books, CDs and videos-USA Santos, 2003 E-service quality Online shopping websitesUK Parasuraman et al., 2005 E-S-QUAL Apparel, books, CDs, computer software& hardware, drugs, electronics, flowers, groceries, toys-USA Efficiency, Fulfillment, System availability, Privacy Parasuraman et al., 2005 E-RecS-QUAL Apparel, books, CDs, computer software& hardware, drugs, electronics, Responsiveness, Compensation, Contact Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 181 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu Bauer et al., 2006 eTransQual Park et al., 2007 Website quality flowers, groceries, toys-USA Online shopping websitesGermany Online travel agencies (OTA)-USA Liu et al., 2010 OA-SQ C2C auction websitesTaiwan Functionality, Enjoyment, Process, Reliability, Responsiveness Ease of use, Information, Security, Responsiveness, Fulfillment Efficiency, System availability, Security, Compensation, Reputation, Personalization, Playfulness. Source: Author’s own work Following a review of service quality scales, the study proposed a three-dimensional framework. The dimensions of service quality measurements both in traditional and electronic environments can be varied in different industries. As it was shown in Table 1 above, the dimensions of all scales have been changed according to the various industries in which each study was conducted. It was required to add different dimensions to the scales to measure service quality in each industry. Since every service industry has unique characteristics and requires unique dimensions for measuring service quality, there is a requirement for the industry-specific national index in assessing of service and e-service quality in different industries in a country. The discussion in this research is about the need for industry-specific national indices in measuring both traditional and electronic service quality in different industries and countries. The industry-specific national service quality indices can be developed such as the national customer satisfaction indices which were developed to measure customer satisfaction level in different countries. National customer satisfaction indices from the literature were shown below as a model example for developing the industry-specific national service quality index. National Customer Satisfaction Indices: A Model Example for the Proposed Index There has been a requirement for industry-specific national service quality indices due to the unique characteristics of various industries and the different cultural environment of countries. Since service quality is one of the components of customer satisfaction (Ghobadian et al., 1994; McDougall and Levesque, 2000; Demirci Orel et al., 2012; Chu et al., 2012), there are positive relations between service quality and customer satisfaction. Because of these relations, national customer satisfaction 182 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension indices which have existed in the literature can be a model for industry-specific national service quality indices. Many different countries have developed their national customer satisfaction indices which help the practitioners to be able to understand their positions in an industry in terms of customer satisfaction. The most known and used national customer satisfaction indices are such as: the Swedish Customer Satisfaction Barometer-SSCB (Fornell, 1992; Anderson et al., 1994), the American Customer Satisfaction Index-ACSI (Fornell et al., 1996), and the European Customer Satisfaction Index-ECSI which was developed by the EOQ (European Organisation for Quality) and EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management) and inspired by the SCSB and the ACSI (Kristensen et al., 1999; Sahin, 2009). Except these indices, there have been many other national customer satisfaction indices such as the German Customer Barometer (Meyer and Dornach, 1996), the Danish Customer Satisfaction Index (Martensen et al., 2000), the Norwegian Customer Satisfaction Barometer (Andreassen and Lindestad, 1998), the Pan-European Customer Satisfaction Index (Eklof and Westlund, 2002), the Jordanian Customer Satisfaction Index (Al-Nasser et al., 2011), the Mexican User Satisfaction Index (Calleros et al., 2012), the Chinese Customer Satisfaction Index (Huang et al.,2011), the Turkish Customer Satisfaction Index (Turkyilmaz and Ozkan,2007). The American Customer Satisfaction Index was developed by Fornell et al. in 1996 and measures customer satisfaction level across the United States. The Turkish Customer Satisfaction Index (TCSI) was developed by KA Research Limited (KARL) in cooperation with Turkish Society for Quality under the license agreement with the American Customer Satisfaction Index (KA Research Limited, 2011; Turkyilmaz and Ozkan, 2007; Zaim et al. 2010). The TCSI measures customer satisfaction in various industries of Turkey. Industrial Annual Measurement Plan is developed in order to measure customer satisfaction level of various companies from different industries in the four quarters of the year. The TCSI Industrial Annual Measurement Plan measures customer satisfaction levels of companies from these industries (Kalder, 2014): 1st quarter: LPG gas distributors, mobile phones, GSM operators, credit cards, fast food restaurants, telecommunication; 2nd quarter: packaged waters, small household appliances, fruit juices, petrol stations, airlines; 3rd quarter: margarine, liquid oil, milk and milk products, canned foods, cleaning products, ice cream, meat and poultry products, personal care; 4th quarter: television as electronic products, white Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 183 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu goods, personal automobiles, health and automobile insurance, food retailer chains, cargo companies, consumer banking. The sectoral based rankings according to the TCSI indices and the industries’ most successful companies between the third quarter of 2013 and the second quarter of 2014 were shown in Table 2 below. Table 2: TCSI Ratios According to the Industries and Leading Companies 2013 3rd Quarter Industry Margarine:85 Liquid Oil:83 Milk Product:82 Canned food:82 Cleaning Product:82 Ice cream:80 Meat&poultry:78 Personal care:78 2014 1st Quarter Industry LPG distributor:82 Mobile phone:76 GSMoperator:73 Credit card:71 Fast food restaurant:71 Telecommunication:70 Company Unilever Ana Gıda Pınar Tat P&G Algida Erpiliç Evyap Company Aygaz Iphone Vodafone Maximum card Domino’s Pizza Türk Telekom 2013 4th Quarter Industry Television:82 White Goods:80 Personal automobile:78 Insurance:76 Food retailer chain:76 Cargo company:75 Consumer banking:71 2014 2nd Quarter Industry Packaged water:79 Small home appliance:79 Fruit juice:77 Petrol station:77 Airlines:72 Company Samsung Arçelik Volkswagen Axa insurance Bim MNG cargo Public: Ziraat Private: İşBankası Company Erikli Beko Pınar Opet Turkish Airlines Source: compiled from TMME 2013 3rd Q, 2013 4th Q, 2014 1st Q, and 2014 2nd Q. In the service industry, since services are intangible it is hard to measure quality. The industry-specific national service quality indices should be formed for each industry and country similar to these national customer satisfaction indices. The main difference between national customer satisfaction index and industry-specific national service quality index is that national customer satisfaction index focuses on just one country and it does not have any different dimensions for different industries. It eliminates the diversities among industries. But industry-specific national service quality index should have different dimensions for each unique industry. Otherwise, it would become just national service quality index, not industry-specific national service quality index. 184 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension Conclusion The importance of service quality is already well known (Lewis and Booms, 1983; Grönroos, 1984; Parasuraman et al., 1985; Mangold and Babakus, 1990). In the emerging service industry, it is important to measure the service quality. The first finding of this study was the requirement of an industry-specific service quality index. Since SERVQUAL was not valid for every industry, it was suggested that the validity of SERVQUAL should be examined in a variety of service industries and the adaptations of items in SERVQUAL for each industry should be organized (Finn and Lamb, 1991; Carman, 1990; Babakus and Boller, 1992; Brown et al. 1993; Ryan and Cliff, 1996). Moreover, Babakus and Boller (1992) emphasized the requirement of industry-specific measures of service quality. In order to measure service quality effectively in different industries, an industry-specific service quality index should be developed since every industry has its different unique characteristics. For example, the dimensions that measure the supermarket service quality can be differed from the dimensions of service quality in car washing services or health care services. The measurement of service quality in the retail industry requires different scales since retail stores offer products and significant services together. The Retail Service Quality Scale was developed to measure the service quality in retailers. However, this scale is not sufficient for an industry based index. This scale should be diversified for various retail types such as a scale for department stores and another scale for supermarkets since department stores and supermarkets offer different level of service due to their natures. Because of the differences among the characteristics of each industry, it was highly suggested developing an industryspecific service quality index in this research. The second finding of this study was the requirement of national service quality index. Service quality can be differentiated in different countries since countries’ cultures affect customers’ perceptions on quality (Laroche et al., 2004). For example, researchers from different countries (Siu and Cheung, 2001; Nakip et al., 2006; Celik; 2011) have investigated service quality in retailers for years and the results showed that there was significant differences on quality perceptions. Furrer et al. (2000) argued that perceptions of service quality varied across cultural groups and proposed Cultural Service Quality Index by testing SERVQUAL dimensions correlated with Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (1980, 1991). Because of these developments that show the importance of cultural differences, it was highly suggested developing a national service quality index in this research. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 185 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu The main comprehensive result of this study was that a service quality index that consists of both industry-specific and national dimensions should be developed based on every different industry in a country since the unique characteristics of these industries and cultural differences among countries. This review study suggested that there is a general need for developing an industry-specific national service quality index to be able to measure the unique service quality dimensions in each industry. The index which was proposed to develop in the future was suggested for the first time in this study. Another result was that the national customer satisfaction indices which have existed in the literature have been recommended as a model example for industry-specific national service quality indices. After defining the problem with the help of the literature review, national customer satisfaction indices were proposed as a solution of the problem. Because of the close relations between service quality and customer satisfaction, national customer satisfaction models can be taken as a fundamental basis for developing industry-specific national service quality index. In the case of taking the national customer satisfaction models as a basis for industry-specific national service quality index, it would be helpful to show the relations between the models. The measurements at the second part of Table 1 called Scale Development Studies in SQ are the most suitable examples for industry-specific national service quality index since they focused on a specific industry in a country such as car rental services (RENTQUAL) in Northern Cyprus, restaurant services (DINESERV) in USA, and fitness center services (SQFS) in USA. However these measurements focused on a specific industry in a country, they were inadequate in forming an industry-specific national service quality index. They need to be improved in terms of creating industry-specific national service quality index. Developing an industry-specific national service quality index helps service companies to find their unique industrial characteristics that should be improved continuously in order to increase the service quality and serve the customers better. E-service quality is an essential strategy for online retailers, and more important than low price and web presence (Zeithaml et al., 2002). In order to develop e-service quality, industry-specific national e-service quality index should be created. Discovering the main dimensions that increase the service quality of online companies enables them to gain competitive advantage in forming the websites and offerings. 186 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension Limitation and Further Research Directions The limitation of the study was that the only limited numbers of studies (6 service quality measurement studies, 9 replication or adaptation studies in service quality, and 12 e-service quality measurement studies) from the literature could be reviewed and grouped into three dimensions. 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Measuring customer satisfaction in Turk Telekom Company using structural equation modeling technique. Journal of Global Strategic Management, 4(1): 89-98. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 199 �Emel Kursunluoglu Yarimoglu Zeithaml, V. A., Parasuraman, A. & Malhotra, A. (2002). Service quality delivery through web sites: a critical review of extant knowledge. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30(4), 362-375. Zhang, J. (2006). The roles of players and reputation: Evidence from eBay online auctions. Decision Support Systems, 42(3), 1800-1818. Zhu, F. X., Wymer, W. & Chen, I. (2002). IT-based services and service quality in consumer banking. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 13(1), 6990. 200 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2837 Title A name given to the resource A Review of Service and E-Service Quality Measurements: Previous Literature and Extension Author Author Yarimoglu Kursunluoglu, Emel Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The purpose of this study is to show the requirement of industry-specific national service quality indices for measuring quality in both traditional and electronic services in various industries in a country. In this study, the literature about service and e-service quality measurements was reviewed, and a three-dimensional framework was developed. It was found out that the dimensions of each service quality measurement were all different from each other due to the different characteristics of the industries that each study has been conducted in. The study showed that there is a need for an industry-specific national service quality index and suggested that national customer satisfaction indices which have existed in the literature can be a model for industry-specific national service quality indices. An industry-specific national service quality index enables national companies to understand their unique industrial characteristics that needed to be improved continuously in order to increase service quality and gain competitive advantage. The index which was proposed to develop in the future was suggested for the first time in this study. Keywords: Service quality; E-service quality; Service quality dimensions; National customer satisfaction indices; Turkish Customer Satisfaction Index (TCSI). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/57332698d08a66a280b77d942d854f87.pdf 66cf9d05abb300d0a5224d4136b67c71 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana Thomas Yeboah Centre of Development Studies, University of Cambridge United Kingdom thomasgh32003@yahoo.co.uk Lucy Owusu Department of Geography and Rural Development, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana luci.owusu@gmail.com Albert A. Arhin Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom aaa72@cam.ac.uk Emmanuel Kumi School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, United Kingdom kumiandy3@gmail.com Abstract: Over the last three decades or so, complex factors including the Keywords: Hawking; implementation of neoliberal economic reforms has led to a decline in formal Gendered Poverty; Informal sector employment in the Ghanaian economy. This together with increasing Sector; Surviving Strategies; feminization of poverty has driven many, especially young women, to seek Ghana. livelihoods in the informal sector mainly as hawkers and head porters. Drawing on qualitative interviews with approximately 40 urban poor women (aged 6-25 years), this paper reports the gendered aspects of poverty and the surviving strategies of young women on urban streets. The cameos presented herein highlight the experiences of poverty among street workers and how their livelihood portfolios contribute to overcoming the poor socio-economic conditions facing them. The paper shows that hawking and head portering significantly provides income for upkeep of young women and their families through meeting consumption and other needs. However, vulnerabilities manifested in unfavourable weather conditions, vehicular dangers, exploitation from employers and customers often due to lack of written work contracts are the major risks sturdily connected with these surviving strategies. The paper concludes by arguing for policy interventions such as subsidized credit schemes and organization of formal and informal forms of capacity building for the urban street workers to enhance their livelihoods. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 JEL Classification: I32, I14, I31 Article History Submitted: 15 November 2013 Resubmitted: 28 March 2014 Accepted: 7 May 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JE COSS11511 239 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi Introduction Over the past three decades or so, globalization and widespread economic restructuring fuelled by the adoption and implementation of neoliberal economic reforms have facilitated an increase in the growth of the informal employment sector and has also changed the way people are connected to the formal labour market (Bacchetta et al., 2009). At the same time, the world has witnessed increasing political and resource attention to poverty reduction (which is seen as the primary development objective of the century), particularly following the adoption of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Much of the global efforts towards poverty reduction are embedded in the market-based Structural Adjustment Packages in the 1980s and the subsequent Poverty Reduction Strategy Programmes in the early 2000s (Kumi et al., 2014). While private sector-led policy strategies of the neoliberal thinking are making some modest strides in relation to economic growth, the increasing emphasis of reduced role of government in directly creating employments has contributed significantly to the growth of the informal economy of several developing countries (Aryeetey et al., 2000; Bryceson and Pol8tts, 2006). Ghana has a large informal sector which is said to constitute approximately 90% of its over 7.7 million labour force (Clarke, 2005). This sector consists of varied industries comprising enterprises which are normally categorized as small or medium based on their asset base, number of employees and turnover (Aryeetey, 2008; OseiTutu et al., 2010). It has been observed that the implementation of structural adjustment policies have marginalized the urban poor resulting from declines in formal employment and provisions of subsidized social services, and the widening wage gaps between skilled and unskilled employments (Konadu-Agyemang, 2000; Briggs and Yeboah, 2001; Owusu, 2012). Additionally, the production of agricultural in many rural economies has also been impinged on by the neoliberal reforms as “the growing of export crops divert subsidies, land and labour from traditional subsistence agriculture to the modernized sector while opportunities for nonfarm employment has also decreased” (Briggs and Yeboah, 2001:5). This has not only resulted in driving many urban women to seek multiple and diverse sources of livelihood in the informal sector but has also led to increasingly unceasing flows of young girls from rural areas who migrate with an idealized vision of securing employment in the already choked informal sector in urban areas (Charmes, 2011). A multiplicity of economic activities can be found in the informal sector. In the Ghanaian context, participants of this sector are 240 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana essentially low-skilled and are involved mainly in activities such as shoe mending, hairdressing, photography, commercial pay phone services, barbering, mechanical repairs, dressmaking, food preparation and sales, manufacturing and repair work including garment, watch and clock repairs as well as hawking and head portering (Heintz and Pickbourn, 2012). While street hawking and head portering as components of the informal sector contribute immensely to the development of the social and economic lives of people all over the world, systematic research exploring ways through which they contribute to livelihood strategies for urban poor youth remain very inadequate (Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008; Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011). This study aims to address this knowledge gap. This paper examines the gendered aspect of poverty and how hawking and head portering, an informal sector activities serve as livelihoods for urban poor young women in the streets of Kumasi, the second largest city in Ghana. In particular, the paper pays attention to examining the poverty conditions of urban poor women engaged in street hawking and how their livelihood portfolios and surviving strategies contribute to overcoming household poverty. We draw mainly on qualitative interviews with some 10 female head porters and 30 urban poor women hawking to secure their basic needs. We make no claims of generalizability of our data due to the small nature of our sample and as such the findings reported herein should be interpreted with some caution. However, we are particularly interested in learning from young women themselves how they understand and experience poverty as well as how their livelihood portfolios contribute to overcoming the gendered dimension of poverty in urban Ghana. The next section presents a brief literature on head porters and hawkers in Ghana. We then present our conceptual framework/model underpinning the study. This is followed by the research methodology. The findings and discussions of the study predominantly feature in section four while the last section concludes by summarizing our main arguments and its broad policy ramifications for future development. Poverty, Street Hawking and Head Porterage in Ghana: A Short Literature Review Ghana is a tropical country located on the west coast of Africa. It has 10 administrative regions and 216 decentralized districts. According to the most Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 241 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi recently held Population and Housing Census, in 2010 the country has a population of 24.87 with females accounting for 51.2 per cent and 48.8 million being males. The country is administered by a democratically elected executive president with an elected parliament and independent judiciary. A map of Ghana showing the regional boundaries is shown in figure 1. Figure 1: Map of Ghana showing administrative regions. The blue area indicates where the field aspect of the research was undertaken 242 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana Ghana has made exciting progress in growth and poverty reduction in the last two decades, and has met or has a chance of meeting the MDGs on income poverty and education (Annim et al., 2012). The Ghana Living Standard Survey 5 report shows that poverty rates in Ghana is falling, having fell from 52% in 1991/92 to 28.5% in 2005/06 while extreme poverty rates also fell from 36.5% to 18.2% during the same period (GSS, 2008). It is further argued that between 2000 and 2006, the nation had recorded a 90% rate of progress in halving the number of people subsisting on less than US$1.25 per day (Coleman, 2012). Additionally, a significant improvement in other non-income related MDG indicators such as gender equality, education and access to safe water has also been recorded in the Nation (World Bank, 2011), and in some quarters, Ghana has been labelled as the ‘star’ of Africa in terms of poverty reduction and human development (Nicola et al., 2009). This significant progress achieved in the country has partly been through various (social) policy initiatives by the Government. Archetypal of these include the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) established in 2003 which provides equitable health insurance for all; the Education Capitation Grant (ECG), the School Feeding Programme (SFP), the National Youth Employment Programme (NYEP)1 which provides jobs for the unemployed and underemployed youth; and the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) (Nicola et al., 2009). However, a cursory look at these policy initiatives shows that the informal sector has largely been sidelined in terms of benefitting from these Governments interventions. As a result, about four of every ten Ghanaians, mostly in the informal sector, still lived in poverty (GSS, 2000). Many of them are young women who work in micro and small enterprises, or finding a survival income as hawkers in the informal economy. Others are also engaged in the agricultural sector, mostly as food crop farmers. Indeed, two-thirds of the working population outside agriculture is active in the informal economy. Many are unremittingly poor, particularly women (ILO, 2004). Amuzu et al. (2010) aptly show that poverty and vulnerability in terms of lack of opportunities in the formal sector and deprivation in Ghana has a gendered dimension. Thus the incidence and severity of poverty in the country are higher among females compared to their male counterparts. Many poor women in Ghana lack access to productive resources and asset. Moreover, many also are confronted by heavier time burden of going about their domestic activities while others have not had the opportunity to complete formal Senior High School. Researchers such as Ardayfio-Schandorf argues that feminization of poverty in the Ghanaian context is rising having risen from 25.7% to 33% between 1960 and 2003 (ArdayfioVolume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 243 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi Schandorf, 2006 cited in Amuzu et al., 2010). Thus, it is right to argue that many young women continue to experience the burden of poverty and vulnerability especially female headed urban households in Ghana even though statistics indicate gradual decline in the occurrence of poverty (GSS, 2008; Annim et al., 2012; Coleman, 2012). Over the past half century or so, street trade hawking and head portering have emerged as surviving strategies for many youth especially in the era where there is virtually little government support for many young women in terms of gaining employment in the formal sector. Street hawking is primarily about selling retail goods directly on busy city streets while the business of head (load) porterage involves carrying goods of a customer on heads for a negotiated fee. Head porterage is almost entirely practiced by young women and teenagers migrating from the northern to the southern part of Ghana (Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008). While hawking and head porterage are distinct and separate economic activities, it is largely the informal nature of them and frequent engagement with the street that connect the two businesses (Anarfi and Kwankye, 2005). In this study, we have used street hawking and head porters interchangeably due to the fact that large number of the children spoken to also worked as head porters. Usually, it is the economically active youth and in many cases children who move from rural areas to urban areas to engage mostly as hawkers and head porters. For many, these activities provide a source of livelihood as well as opportunities to supplement their families' income although their activities are often done in the most hazardous circumstances. While a number of factors such as minimal role of government in directly creating employment, the lack of employable skills and rural-urban migration have been identified as the causes of both street hawking and head porterage (Aryeetey et al., 2000; Boafo-Asare, 2010), poverty is seen as the fundamental driving cause (Anarfi et al., 2003; Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schanorf, 2008). The gendered nature of street hawking and head porterage has been marginally explored by some researchers (e.g. Mitullah, 2005; Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008). In one comparative study, Mitullah (2005) finds that, the majority of street hawkers are women made up of all marital status groups – the married, single, widowed and divorced. Head (load) porterage is almost exclusively reserved for girls, although the recent times have seen boys/men briskly engaging in it. While both men and women are involved in the activities of street hawking, men tend to join street hawking while young and leave early for other jobs, women join the street trade later in life and 244 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana continue. Of course, children of both sexes are now increasingly engaged in both economic activities. In one extensive study, Anarfi (1997) found that more than a third (36%) of street children was involved in street hawking. These children often migrate independently to urban centres for street hawking or begin as hawkers for other people including relatives and thereafter decide to remain on the street to take care of themselves when they could no longer live on the wages paid to them by those they worked for. At present, several city authorities in Ghana including the Accra and Kumasi Metropolitan Assemblies are investing huge resources in evicting street hawkers in particular from the street on the ground that they cause danger, traffic, and obstruction to pedestrians and motorists alike. Whether these eviction exercises will be effective and their implications on poverty are now gaining considerable research attention (Boafo-Asare, 2011), and thus remain outside the scope of this research. In this study, our emphasis has been on highlighting the experiences of poverty among street workers as well as how their livelihood portfolios contribute to overcoming the poor socio-economic conditions facing them. Conceptual Framework for the Study Our framework for understanding the poverty conditions and livelihood activities of head porters and hawkers dwell largely on the concept of multi-dimensionality of poverty and the reasons adduced for how peoples participation/engagement in informal work remain an effective strategy in reducing poverty levels. Broadly conceived, poverty - from a macroeconomic policy perspective - has conventionally been measured mainly in terms of income and consumption dimensions with poverty threshold indicators, such as living on less than $1.25 a day (Kiely, 2005), which have been widely used to define who is poor and who is not as there is a presumed high correlation between income and other measures of human wellbeing such as health status and educational outcomes (White, 2008). This approach is deeply rooted in classical economics of utilitarianism, which conceptualizes poverty primarily in monetary terms and views less productivity and low economic growth as the main structural cause of poverty. This tradition views the causes of poverty from an individual and micro level perspective, arguing that the most influential factor in producing poverty in many economies is low productive capacity of people which results in low income and consumption - and hence low economic growth. However this approach fails to capture other elements of human wellbeing and thus have received criticisms in explaining the nature, causes and extent of people’s poverty. Indeed poor people may not always use income in conveying what poverty actually means to them. Gordon et al (2003) for instance argue that setting an arbitrary Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 245 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi income threshold is somehow untenable and would lead to erroneous policy conclusions due to the fact that the extent of people’s poverty is not just dependent on income but also on the provision of certain important services, such as health, education, sanitation and vulnerability to shocks. A new approach which embraces diverse aspect of human wellbeing has therefore emerged. For instance recent World Bank work on the voices of the poor together with Sen’s philosophical works on capability approach in particular have unequivocally broadened our understanding of poverty and as such poverty has been recognized as a multidimensional phenomenon (Sen, 1999). Poverty in its broader sense is now conceptualized in terms of vulnerability, participation, limited economic opportunities and resources, assets, social exclusion and discrimination (Nayaran et al., 2000; Brett, 2003). Poverty is therefore not just an issue of living on less than $1.25 a day but in broader sense reflects lack of access to public goods and services including social security and good health; non-ownership of housing or other assets; little or no education and training; and lack of free time for educational activities, recreation and rest (Arriagada, 2005). Sen (1999) for instance makes the point that, poverty is a multidimensional concept describing not just low income and consumption but deprivation of basic human capabilities, resulting in poor health, reduced life expectancy, illiteracy and inadequate access to material and nonmaterial social goods and resources which contribute to improved well-being. This study relied extensively on the multi-dimensional poverty concept which focuses on several dimensions of wellbeing to assess the poverty conditions of the head porters on the streets of Ghana. By this approach, poverty level of people is seen not just in a uni-dimensional manner of income but the combined effect of the political, environmental, social and economic elements (Nayaran et al, 2000). With respect to reducing the poverty conditions of marginalized groups, participation in informal sector work as been ‘recognized as an effective strategy which helps people gain improvement in their living status especially in the era of neoliberalism which has reduced the role that Government could play in providing formal employment for the youth . The theoretical justification for marginalized people especially women participation in informal work is embedded in works of structuralism. Structuralist thinkers argue that people’s participation in informal work is central to appreciating vibrant and diverse forms of economic activities (Debrah, 2007). Participation of women in informal work has also been noted to promote entrepreneurial dynamism that has the latent power to generate employment and economic growth as well as income for these groups in meeting 246 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana their basic needs (Debrah, 2007).Thus, from this perspective, the marginalized population needs to be empowered through substantial investment and training for them to engaged in activities in the informal sector in order to engineer growth and development. The paper dwell on this view to ascertain the extent to which females’ participation in the informal sector work particularly hawking and head portering is contributing to improving the difficult socio-economic circumstances that confronts them. Data and Research Methods The qualitative methods and design was used in conducting this research. According to Sarantakos (2005), the central principles of the qualitative methodology include the fact that its aims are open and explorative; it involves communication between researchers and respondents and its flexibility with regard to choice of research instruments and procedures. The qualitative research methodology is based on certain research foundations and these are: its perception of reality as existing in a naturalist setting, and its interpretive, communicative and qualitative nature (Cresswell, 2006; Denzin and Lincoln, 2005). Creswell (2006) further opines that the focus of qualitative research is based on deriving the meaning participants hold about a problem or issue, not what the researchers bring to the research, nor what writers have concluded in the literature. We employed the qualitative design and methods based on our research aims to understand how head porters and hawkers perceive and experience poverty as well as how their livelihood portfolios contribute to overcoming their difficult circumstances. Our aim for conducting interviews was basically to learn from our respondent’s concerning their perceptions about their realities on the street rather than establishing statistical evidence and causal relations (Bryman, 2008; Creswell, 2006; Sarantakos, 2005). Sarantakos (2005) argues that qualitative research mostly employ semi-structured and unstructured interviews during data collection. In this way, an in-depth semi structured interviews technique was used largely in collecting the data from some 30 female street hawkers who were engaged in selling all sorts of items, including ice water, polythene bags and a range of food stuffs for a period of two (2) months in Kumasi in 2012. Additionally, our sample included 10 head porters (Kayeyei1) who carried all sort of items on their heads for people who come to do shopping in the Central Business District of Kumasi. Participants were drawn from Kejetia, Anloga Junction, Osei Tutu Bolivad Street and Ofori Krom Junction. Indeed, researching the lives of urban street trade hawkers and head porters may be difficult, resource Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 247 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi demanding and challenging exercise given the busy schedule of these groups who mostly go about their normal business especially during the day. As a result, initial agreement was made with the respondents which allowed us to carry the interviews in the evenings around 5-7pm when most of them are closing from work. Data collected covered the demographic characteristics of the respondents such as their age, educational attainment, gender and ethnicity. The meanings and experience of poverty by these young women together with how their surviving strategies serve as a means to improving their living conditions were also covered in the data collection. Lastly challenges associated with street workers were also collected. Transcripts from the in-depth interviews and field notes were coded and analyzed qualitatively, supported with the quantitative data which were inputted into the Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) Statistics 20.0. This enabled us to generate percentages for some of the variables. At the same time, content analysis was used to group, compare and examine findings through positioning the results in the lens of similar works conducted in the Ghanaian context. Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios of Urban Poor Women: Experience of Street Hawkers This section presents the results of the study based on field work conducted with participants and drawing on the relevant scholarly works on street workers in Ghana. First the analysis looks into the demographic characteristics of the respondents. We then move on to present the young women’s understanding and experience of poverty and how their surviving strategies and livelihood portfolios contribute to overcoming the poor socio-economic conditions that confronts them. We conclude by outlining policy suggestions from Government and other non-state actors for street trade hawkers and head porters in reducing poverty. Demographic Characteristics of Respondents The demographic characteristics of the respondents covered in the survey included their age, ethnicity, gender and educational attainment. In terms of age, the respondents sampled aged between 6 to 25 years with majority (42.9%) falling within the age group of 6-18years. This high proportion of respondents in the age category of 6-18 years highlights the youthful nature of people engaged in hawking and head portering. It is important to draw attention to the fact that our sample covered a 6year old girl who was found selling water to support household income. The six year old Maame Ama explained: 248 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana „My mother sent me here to come and sell water so that she can use the money to buy my school books and pencil. I come here only after school. Sometimes when I get home in the evening, I feel so tired that I cannot study and do my homework”. The above narrative from Maame Ama suggests that selling on the street may offer a means for her mother to get money to provide for her educational needs. However, such a decision to push young girls at that tender age to sell on busy urban streets may be exploitative on the part of parents and may also have negative implications on the education and academic performance of children. Additionally, she may be at the risks of vehicular accidents as the streets in the Central Business District in Kumasi always remain busy especially during the day. Another important demographic variable of the respondents is their ethnicity. The ethnicity of the respondents is essential, as it serves as a social indicator of the regional inequities that espouse outmigration from remote areas, especially in the Northern Regions (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011). Almost all the participants surveyed in this study with the exception of about 5 young women, were from the northern parts of Ghana. These young females had migrated from the Northern Regions to Kumasi with the aim of finding a survival strategy given the lack of economic prospects and the inability of their relatives to cater for their school needs which made them dropout of school. Thus the ethnicity covered in the study includes Dagomba, Sisala, Gonja and Mamprusi. Indeed, street hawking and kayayei in Southern urban Ghana, precisely Kumasi and Accra has been reported as an occupational niche for females who migrate from the North to the South (Awumbila, 2007). Gender wise, our focus was on young women. Thus, our survey covered 69% females with the remaining 31% being males. Earlier research had shown that hawking and pottering in Ghana is predominantly a female occupation (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011). In terms of education, none of respondents sampled had attained education up to the secondary level. They were all either primary school goers or drop outs from school. In one study by Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandorf (2008), it was reported that among street hawkers and porters in Accra, a total of 61% have not had any formal education, 35% have had Primary education while only 5% have attained Junior Secondary School education. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 249 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi The lack of higher formal educational attainment among these marginalized groups is largely attributed to lack of financial resources and account for the increasingly unceasing flows of young females from rural Northern Ghana to the South to seek multiples sources of livelihoods in the informal sector in the face of declining agricultural and agricultural- related employment in the northern parts of the country. Poverty: Understanding its Dimensions and Experiences from Young Women’s Perspective Our survey on how street trade hawkers and porters understand and experience poverty points to four main issues. Thus, low income from work, lack of access to productive resources and decent economic opportunities, vulnerability to diseases and the lack of access to and utilization of health facilities (social exclusion) are the main dynamics of poverty as indicated by the young women during our field work. To begin with, the hawking and head portering business as a means of livelihood for the young females does not require much skill or any huge capital outlay to start. However, some of our respondents (4 young women) who were selling various food items argued to have started their business through bank loans from microfinance institutions. Notwithstanding the little resources needed to commence their activities, it was discovered that low income from work seems to be a common experience among all the street trade workers. Indeed, many of the activities undertaken by young women in the informal sector such as head portering, selling of items and working in shops/restaurants continue to attract low and irregular income (Awumbila, 2007). As illustrated by Kwankye et al. (2007a), poverty among street trade hawkers manifest in low earnings from work which does affect the capacity of these young women to cater for their basic needs. Our survey indicates that, per the experience of poverty among these poor young women, a minimum threshold of US$1.25 is woefully inadequate for them to be considered not poor. Similar situation has been recorded by earlier researchers. In their study of reproductive health implications of street hawking in Accra, Kwankye et al. (2007a) sought from hawkers the amount they considered to be adequate for them to meet their basic daily basic needs. Their results point out that more than half of the female hawkers in Ghana suggested an amount ranging between GH¢1.8- GH¢8.66 (US$0.91-US$4.33) to be their daily required income in order for them to meet their basic needs. This conflicts with normative understanding of what would be 250 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana needed in order to classify one as non-poor as demonstrated in the global hegemonic project. As noted already, mainstream understanding as seen in the MDGs set $1.25 per day as the absolute poverty line. However, from the perspective of the hawkers and porters, this amount remains woefully inadequate. Thus, income poverty from these young women perspective and their experience ‘2transcends the international poverty line of $1.25 a day. This may largely be attributed to the context specificity with regards to the living circumstances. Beyond this, there were concerns about irregularity of income earned from work. In our in-depth, interview a 15-year old Mamuna professed: “I come here always to sell rubbers. This economic activity I am doing is nothing to write home about. On a very good day I get about GH¢12 (US$5.6). On bad days I get just GH¢1 (US$0.46) and sometimes I do not get any while I walk under this scorching sun. Meanwhile, what I am doing is not my own business; I only get more income (commission) from my Madam if I am able to sell more. My income from this work shows that I am poor. The government must come to our help”. The above statement from Mamuna does not only highlight the difficulty associated with her source of income but more importantly how irregular her income source could be from her livelihood. Indeed, many of the hawkers in the Metropolis sampled mostly do not own what they sell. Many have largely been employed by people who own big supermarkets in the Metropolis and thus get commission from their employers based on how well they are able to sell for these supermarkets. Those hired by shop owners also undertake task such as running errands, cleaning and washing dishes as well as refilling shelves (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011). Consequently aside the 4 women who indicated to have started the business through loans suggesting that they own their business, the remaining were employees working for supermarkets. Inability to sell much on the day means that they get little income from their employers. It is imperative however to note that working relationship between these hawkers and their employers is seen as healthy and cordial (Berg, 2007). Moreover, the head porters also argued that in recent times, they find it difficult to get loads to carry, thus, limiting the opportunity for them to earn higher income. A 15 year old who migrated from Northern Ghana to pursue head portering had this to say during a focus group discussion: “Nowadays, business is not good. Sometimes I do not get any load to carry. This forces me to borrow money from my friends to buy food”. Worryingly, daily earnings are mostly spent on basic necessities, such as food, sanitary Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 251 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi facilities and water with little left for savings (Berg, 2007). In effect, low and irregular income from hawking and portering as experienced by our survey participants is a major dimension of poverty strongly associated with young women working in the informal sector”. At the same time, the experiences of poverty among female informal sector hawkers evident from our interviews indicate that lack of access to resources and decent economic opportunities remain a key dimension. Indeed, in many contexts, “gendered inequality manifested in unequal distribution of economic resources and power at the intra-household levels are key factors which do push and keep households especially female headed ones in poverty” (Amuzu et al., 2010:20). Interview data suggest that lack of formal, decent and sustainable employment opportunities remain elusive to these poverty-stricken young females. Their exclusion from gaining decent employment has undeniably pushed them to resort to hawking and head portering. Reasons cited by the participants of this study for the lack of decent employment opportunities included their low educational attainment (drop out from school), lack of employable skills and generally, the lack of Government support in creating industries in the formal economy which could have absorbed them. In Ghana, the major Government initiative providing economic opportunities for young people has largely been exprel2ssed through the National Youth Employment Programme (NYEP), which seeks to provide jobs for underemployed and unemployed youth. There is ample justification for focusing on the youth given the high youth unemployment rates in the country, which drives migration of young people from rural areas to Southern cities in search of non-existing jobs (World Bank, 2011). However, given the low level of educational attainment and drop out among these young street trade hawkers and porters, it could be argued that the NYEP largely discriminate against these poorer young women on the street as the programme employs young people with at least Junior Secondary School education (World Bank, 2011). Additionally, the lack of the access to resources has been linked to inequality and socio-cultural practices, as females by the standards of the Ghanaian society are mostly limited when it comes to owning productive resources. This differential access to resources has resulted in the females facing heavy burdens and stressful socio-economic conditions (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011). Added to the lack of resources and economic opportunities, our survey results indicate that vulnerability to diseases and the lack of access to and utilization of 252 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana health services is another pathway in which young women working in the informal sector experience poverty. In fact, the youth and mobile populations especially those working as hawkers and porters are considered at higher risk of becoming infected with sicknesses (Garenne, 2003:17). Almost all of our survey participants argued that, the high levels of susceptibility to diseases considerably represent a major dimension of their vulnerability. The major health problems facing the head porters and street trade hawkers include malaria, headache, diarrhea and cholera. This is attributed to the tedious nature of their work and the insanitary living conditions in which many of them find themselves. Despite the high propensity to falling sick and exposure to risks due to their living conditions, the majority of these hawkers and porters do not take proper medication. In Ghana, the major health intervention initiated by the Government to ensure adequate access to and utilization of health service is the (NHIS). The purpose for implementing the scheme is for the government to cater for health treatment of the aged, the poor as well as children of parents who both subscribe to the scheme (Arhin, 2013). However per the operations of the scheme, , as dependent minors, many of these young porters and hawkers are supposed to be insured by their parents as there is fixed charge of GH¢ 5 (US$2.28) for processing and registration. Unfortunately, most of them stated that their parents are poor and thus have not been able to afford initial charge. This suggests that these young females cannot be covered under the NHIS as their parents’ have failed to provide the amount needed for processing their registration. This means that, they have to be registered on their own and have failed to register. Information elicited indicates that, through the financial assistance of Street Children Development Foundation (SCDF), which is a non-governmental organization; about 3000 head porters in the study area have been registered under the NHIS. Though this initiative is commendable, a lot still needs to be done considering the current estimate of over 30,000 street trade hawkers and porters in Southern Ghana (UNICEF, 2007). Moreover, even those porter girls who have been registered under the NHIS may not be able to utilize public health services. The reason for this could be summed up in a comment by a 14 year head porter, Zenabu: “I am privileged to have been registered under the NHIS by the SCDF. However I receive little attention from health personnel’s when I visit the hospital for treatment when sick because the nurses don’t look after me since they say I am wearing dirty dress”. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 253 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi The above comment highlights some important issues that need careful scrutiny. First it suggests that aside the high propensity of falling sick as a dimension of poverty, many of these young women experience exclusion from mainstream society demonstrated in the lack of attention on the part of health personnel’s who are supposed to rather provide protection and security for these young ones. This in effect may reinforce their feeling of powerlessness and ruling out from society. Indeed ‘‘poverty is gendered in its predisposing factors, processes and impact and that the ways in which young women experience poverty are related to their position and situation in society’’ (Awumbila, 2006:17). Additionally, the lack of proper attention from health personnel’s when these young porters visit hospital could make them resort to self-medication. Certainly, Kwankye et al. (2007b) have reported that self-diagnosis and self-medication seem to be commonplace among these young women on the street, often relying on friends who have suffered similar symptoms beforehand. Thus, when the porters and hawkers visit the local chemist, they have already determined what they want, and buy the drugs over the counter from shop attendants, who may not ask any questions. Such practices may further complicate the health situation of these hawkers and porters and push them into ever poorer health; most of them seem to be unaware of the implications of this or indifferent to what happens to them. Overall, it could be argued that poverty among these poor youth hawking and carrying various loads on their heads is a visible condition with manifold manifestations as evident in diverse aspects of their socio-economic circumstances. Nonetheless, generalizing these dimensions of poverty for all informal sector workers would be simplistic, insufficient and problematic. Indeed, the association between poverty and informal sector workers does not hold uniformly across space. This is because the self-employed, particularly micro-enterprise owners, are found to have average earnings far above the minimum wage, allowing an inference, a lower likelihood of poverty among such people (Charmes, 2012). Consequently, in many cases, it might be incorrect to claim that the various dimensions of poverty reported by the porters and hawkers in our study are the defining characteristic of the whole informal sector. Nevertheless, the experiences reported herein have far wider implications for social protection and poverty reduction strategies. Surviving Strategies and Poverty Reduction 254 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana The preceding discussions have highlighted the various dimensions of poverty experienced by young people, finding a survival strategy in urban highways of Ghana. This section presents how the livelihood portfolios of these young people contribute to overcoming their poverty conditions and the difficulty circumstances that confront them. We also highlight the difficulties associated with their surviving strategies. As noted already, the activities undertaken by porters and hawkers require little or no capital to begin. Field observations revealed a considerable degree of the organization of the work undertaken by the street trade workers. Many have adopted the strategy of moving in groups, often providing information on available opportunities for their acquaintances while ensuring that there is no struggle among them in the quest to get a load to carry (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011). Undeniably, many of the street trade workers often do not operate in haphazard manner but in well-defined spaces, largely based on ethnicity (Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008). This confirms the assertion that the livelihoods portfolios of urban poor street workers are often embedded in social relationships although searching for load to carry is done independently (Berg, 2007). Thus, in their day to day work, ethnic spaces have been developed among specific ethnic groups, serving as a mechanism to avoid any potential conflict. However, not much recognition is given by the porters regarding the load they carry. Thus, in the quest to earn more income, many of these young women give very little or no consideration to their age but take on loads according to their perceived ability to carry the load. The activity undertaken by our participants show considerable gender variations. While the males are able to do multiple sources of activities, females were only confined to transporting goods from shops to lorry stations for customers. Aside carrying loads with trucks, males are also engaged in other activities such as serving as shop assistants, working in restaurants, washing dishes and selling of goods such as coconut and various assorted items. In effect, the activities undertaken by street trade workers is highly gendered with males involved in the remunerative loads while their female counterparts are mostly limited to carrying smaller loads of petty traders and travellers which attract little pay (Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008). The gendered disparities with males carrying heavier loads and engaging in multiple activities compared to their female counterparts may be attributed to the strong physical strength of the males. As a way of contributing to poverty reduction and the difficulties confronting the urban poor, particularly the females, hawking and portering serve as a means of earning income. Our survey indicate that, on a very good day, porters and hawkers Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 255 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi could earn on the average between GH¢20-40 (US$9.11-US$18.21). However, in bad times, some earn absolutely nothing and had to rely on acquaintances in order to meet daily basic needs such as buying food and water, an indication that earnings fluctuate with the fortunes of the markets and clients. Moreover, earnings also differ with respect to gender. Oberhauser and Yeboah (2011) argue that income distribution among street trade hawkers and porters are gendered as males are able to earn higher income compared to their female counterparts. They show that on the average, females earn between GH¢15–105 (US$6.83-US$47.81) weekly whereas the males earn GH¢86–145 (US$39.16-US$66.02) per week. Similar situation has been documented by other scholars. In their study of gendered poverty, migration and livelihood strategies of female porters in Accra- Ghana, Awumbila and ArdayfioSchandorf (2008) found that males earn on the average GH¢3 per day (US$1.37) compared to GH¢1-2 (US$0.46-0.91) for the females. “The multiplicity of work by males, together with their ability to enter into long-term arrangements with clients as well as the ability to transport higher volume of goods more efficiently; and therefore serving more clients mainly account for the gender differences in earnings” (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011:31). Gender differences in earnings has also been linked to the higher bargaining power and capability of the male workers who are able to bicker payments for the services they render depending on the size and weight of the load and distance to be covered. For the females, payment mostly depend on the kind heartedness of clients who pay any amount they consider suitable (Awumbila and Ardayfio-Schandorf, 2008). This reinforces the argumentation of Beneria (2003), who forcefully maintains that societal perceptions regarding females working in the unrecognised informal sector as ready to settle for any payment for their services often contribute to their exploitation and social exclusion in society. Notwithstanding the gendered disparities in terms of earnings, overall, income earned from the various activities contribute significantly to reducing the poverty conditions among street workers and their household. Earnings from low paid onerous work help to meeting basic needs. While there were complains of lack of decent sleeping places, it was discovered that food to eat was not a major issue. Many have even adopted the strategy of eating once or twice in order to be able to save from their earnings. Thus, we discovered that hawking and portering serve as means of contributing to household income in supporting other relatives. Significantly too, the porters who are migrants from the relatively poorer Northern Regions argued to occasionally send remittances and other items to their families up North. Participatory and much anecdotal evidence shows that some especially the males are 256 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana able to remit in kind and send items such as imported rice, soap and other household provisions to their families up North (Anarfi and Kwankye, 2005). The means through which the porters send these items are basically through relations and other fellow migrants who are going back. Sewing machine, clothes, utensils among other things were the material possessions that have been acquired by the hawkers and porters through income from their work. Some have also been able to open micro- businesses such as selling drinks, food stuffs and home appliances. Additionally, while some are not able to save any earnings, others manage to save some part of their earnings with the SCDF. In an interview, the director of SCDF argued that about 4000 porter girls were saving some part of their earnings with the foundation at the time of the survey. There is no interest charge for rendering this service to the porters. This informal system through which these young females save their earnings offer the merit of low transaction cost, little bureaucracy and paper works, no interest charge and the flexibility to adjust and ability to get their savings back in times of difficult financial situation compared to the formal banking systems which may require some level of financial literacy (Berg, 2007). This informal system of saving some part of their earnings afforded the porter girls the opportunity to gain access to their money when confronted with any extremely difficult situation when they could receive no assistance from anywhere. It has also afforded many the opportunities to buy material possessions which cost relatively higher such as the sewing machine. Overall, our findings suggest that hawking and portering significantly serve as an important livelihood strategy (employment and income) engaged by the urban poor particularly females especially in the era of neoliberal economic reforms which has largely limited the possibility for young people to gain employment in the formal sector. Thus, many through hawking and portering continually, are able to meet their consumption needs, acquire material possessions while others have also moved beyond into micro enterprise development, thus directly improving household welfare. Additionally, a good number of porters who migrated from the rural savannah zones to the Southern cities, sometimes without the knowledge of their familial relations, have been able to acquire the needed financial resources in preparation towards their marriage life and transition into adulthood (Kwankye et al., 2007b). Notwithstanding the potential role of these activities in contributing to overcoming poverty, several factors were identified which serve as great deal of challenge for the Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 257 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi porters and hawkers. Vehicular dangers, insult and cheating from pedestrians and difficulties associated with the vagaries of the weather were mentioned as particularly important factors facing hawkers and porters while going about their activities on the streets. Of particular relevance is the insult and robbery from customers. It was discovered that many of the porters who carry load are given amounts that do not commensurate the load they carry and any attempt to express their dissatisfaction in their own language is often misconstrued as insult, which attract reproach, insult and intimidation. Indeed, head porters and street trade hawkers are liable to face discourteous treatment and insults from customers to whom they render services (Kwankye et al., 2007b). The conflicts, disagreements and quarrels between the porters and their customers is mainly attributed to the lack of clarity surrounding fees charged for carrying loads (Awumbila, 2006). In this way, the lack of standards for hawkers and porters to rate their services in monetary terms and non-existing ‘formal structures that protects their livelihoods contributes to their vulnerability in today’s broadening marketization’ (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011:33). Moreover, extremely hot sunny conditions that they are exposed to, causes severe headache among these porters and hawkers who work for more than eighteen (18) hours under the scourging sun. In the evident of rainfall, especially at night, the porters were seen helpless as they do not have decent accommodation. These complexities with regards to the difficulties confronting the livelihood portfolios of young people on the street (hawker and porters) point to urgent policy responses. The next section sums up the study and proposes a set of policy options. Conclusion and Implications for Poverty Reduction Our study on the gendered aspect of poverty and livelihood portfolios in Ghana has shown the interlocking dimensions of poverty experienced by young women and how their surviving strategies contribute to overcoming poverty. Growing body of research has shown that economic restructuring following the neoliberal economic reforms and socio-cultural practices largely account for pushing many of these folks to find their livelihoods on urban highways due to their limited access to resources, productive assets and sustainable employment in the formal sector (Oberhauser and Yeboah, 2011). Poverty reduction strategies have become the cardinal policy focus for several countries including Ghana in recent times. Although poverty is now recognized in many quarters to have a multiple dimensions policy prescription and strategies are still firmly rooted in the idea of money-metric $1.25 a day aspect of it. One of the 258 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana consistent measures to track progress on poverty reduction in the wake of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has been the ability of countries to reduce the number of people living on less than two dollars a day. By 2010, Ghana was already a 'star performer' as far as achieving the MDGs goal on poverty reduction were concerned as, ahead of the target date of 2015, the country was able to have reduced the number of its population living on $2 a day from 52% in 1991/92 to 28.5% in 2005/06 while extreme poverty rates of those living on about a dollar also fell from 36.5% to 18.2% during the same period (Ghana Statistical Service, 2008; UNDP Ghana and NDPC/GOG 2010; 2012). Yet, as this study shows, poverty has different dimensions which need to be factored into the determination of the progress of poverty reduction effort. Our study therefore contributes to the growing body of research emphasizing the multi-dimensionality of poverty (Sen, 1999; Anand & Sen, 1997; Nnarayan et al, 2000). The paper demonstrates that poverty is therefore not just an issue of living on less than $1.25 a day but in broader sense reflects lack of access to public goods and services including social security and good health; non-ownership of assets and little or no education, susceptibility to diseases and social exclusion of the marginalized populations. While income is very important for poor people, it is not the sole determinant to enable them enjoy wellbeing and quality of life. Issues such as access to public goods and resources, creation of opportunities for participation in productive ventures are all determinants of poverty. Thus, poverty has many facets with multiple manifestations, often revolving around living circumstances and situations. While portering and hawking provide income in meeting consumption and other material needs, it cannot serve as a sustainable means of livelihood given the fluctuations in earnings and the various identified challenges associated with it. We also take note of the fact that, a huge number of people are involved in the hawking and portering businesses thus attempts to bar them from engaging in such activities will be counter-productive. In view of this, the following set of policy options are being proposed in efforts towards improving the situation of street trade workers. First, this paper adds voice to the calls for more gender-based policies and programmes in livelihood development through the provision of decent and sustainable employment programmes. Government, NGOs and other stakeholders whose mission are consistent with the welfare of the urban poor could come to the aid of these young women by providing decent employment especially in the area of Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 259 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi micro enterprise development. This must be complemented with practical trainings and capacity building programmes which will enable these young people the opportunity to manage their own micro enterprises. Additionally, the Ministry of Women and Children Affairs in Ghana could team up with human right-based NGOs in providing healthcare and safety nets for these young people. Moreover, these agencies could make their offices open or could possibly establish an accessible centre where these young women could seek advice and report any abusive and exploitative act that confronts them. At the same time, Government could come to the aid of the growing number of hawkers, organize them and provide them with subsidized micro loans in order to help them expand their livelihood portfolios while others could also diversify into more stable income earning activities. There are schemes such as the Micro-finance and Small Loans Centre (MASLOC) and the Hawkers Empowerment Programme, which basically aim at equipping hawkers, head porters and food vendors with skills and start-up capital and to better improve their standards of living and to properly engage them in some economic activity that adds value to the nation needs. Such schemes need to be revitalized and scaled up to reach the throngs of young people finding their livelihoods on urban highways. Of fundamental to the solution of street hawking also lies in the expansion of access to education, skills development and the need to bridge the rural-urban divide which serve as a primary motivation for migration of young people from rural to urban streets. While our recommendations are not necessarily new, we are of the view that they will be accorded with the urgency and the attention they deserve by the respective Authorities mandated to do so. References Amuzu, C., Jones, N. & Pereznieto, P. (2010). Gendered Risks, Poverty and Vulnerability in Ghana: To What Extent is the LEAP Cash Transfer Programme Making a Difference? Overseas Development Institute, UK. Retrieved on 13 March 2013 from http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publicationsopinion-files/6252.pdf. Anarfi, J. K. (1997). Vulnerability to sexually transmitted disease: street children in Accra. Health Transition Review,7(1), 281-306. 260 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana Anarfi, J.K. Kwankye, S.O. (2005). The Costs and Benefits of Children’s Independent Migration from Northern to Southern Ghana. A Paper Presented to ‘Children and Youth in Emerging and Transforming Societies Childhoods. 29 June3 July, Oslo, Norway. Anand, S., & Sen, A. (1997). Concepts of human development and poverty: a multidimensional perspective. New York: UNDP. Anarfi, J.K., Kwankye, S., Ofuso-Mensah, A. & Tiemoko, R. (2003). Migration from and to Ghana: A background paper. Country Background Paper C4. Migration DRC, University of Sussex, Brighton. Annim, S. K., Mariwah, S. & Sebu, J. (2012). Spatial inequality and household poverty in Ghana. Economic Systems, 36, 487-505. Arhin, A. A. (2013). Promising Start, but bleak future? Progress of Ghana's National Health Insurance Schemes towards Universal Health Coverage. Developing Country Studies, 3(13), 151-159. Arriagada, I. (2005). Dimensions of poverty and gender policies. CEPAL REVIEW, 85, 99-110. Aryeetey, E., Harrigan, J.T. & Nissanke, M. (2000). Economic reforms in Ghana: The miracle and the mirage: Africa World Press. Aryeetey, E. (2008). “Need for a Small and Medium Enterprise Charter in Ghana”, In: 50th Anniversary Lecture of the Association of Ghana Industries, Accra, Ghana. Awumbila, M. (2006). Gender equality and poverty in Ghana: implications for poverty reduction strategies. 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Qualitative Inquiry And Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches Author: John W. Creswell, Publisher: Sage Publica Debrah, Y. A. (2007). Promoting the informal sector as a source of gainful employment in developing countries: insights from Ghana. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18(6), 1063-1084 Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. Garenne, M. (2003). ‘Migration, Urbanisation and Child Health in Africa: A global perspective’, Paper prepared for Conference on African Migration in Comparative Perspective, Johannesburg, South Africa. Ghana Statistical Service (2000).Ghana living standards survey: Report of the Fourth round. Accra: Ghana. Retrieved on 28 March 2013 from http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/ nada/index.php/catalog/14/export. Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). (2008). Ghana living standards survey: Report of the Fifth round. Accra: Ghana. Retrieved on 8th August, 2013 from http://www.statsghana. gov.gh/docfiles/glss5_report.pdf. Gordon, D., Nandy, S., Pantazis, C., Pemberton, S & Townsend P. (2003). Child poverty in the Developing World, The Policy Press, UK Heintz, J. & Pickbourn, L. (2012). The Determinants of Selection into Nonagricultural Self employment in Ghana. Margin: The Journal of Applied Economic Research, 6, 181-209. International Labour Organisation (ILO). (2004). Working out of poverty: The Ghana Decent Work Pilot Programme. Retrieved on 7 February 2013 from http://www. ilo.org/public/english/bureau/dwpp/download/ghana/ghbooklet.pdf. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 263 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi Kiely, R.A.Y (2005): Globalization and Poverty, and the Poverty of Globalization Theory. Current Sociology, 53, 895 914 Konadu‐Agyemang, K. (2000). The best of times and the worst of times: structural adjustment programs and uneven development in Africa: the case of Ghana. The Professional Geographer, 52, 469-483. Kumi, E., Arhin, A.A & Yeboah, T. (2014). Can Post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals Survive Neoliberalism? A Critical Examination of the Sustainable Development Neoliberalism Nexus in Developing Countries: Journal of Environment, Development and Sustainability, 16,539-554. Kwankye, S. O., Nyarko, P & C. Tagoe. (2007a). Reproductive Health Implications of Street Hawking in Accra. Union for African Population Studies. Fifth African Population Census, Arusha, Tanzania: 10-17 December, 2007. Kwankye, S. O., Anarfi, J.K., Tagoe, C.A & Castaldo, A. (2007b). “Coping Strategies of Independent Child Migrants from Northern Ghana to Southern Cities.” Working Paper T-23, Sussex, UK: Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty, University of Sussex. Mitullah, W.V. (2003). Street vending in African cities: A synthesis of empirical finding from Kenya, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Uganda and South Africa. Background Paper for the 2005 World Development Report. Nicola, J. Ahazie, W. & Doh, D. (2009). “Social Protection and Children: Opportunities and Challenges in Ghana” UNICEF, GHANA-Ministry of Employment and Social Welfare. Retrieved on 9 October, 2103 from http://www.odi.org.uk/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinionfiles/4935.pdf. Narayan, D., Patel, R., Schafft, K., Rademacher, A. & Koch-Schulte, S. (2000). Can anyone hear us? : Oxford University Press New York. Oberha’user, A. M. & Yeboah, M. A. (2011). Heavy burdens: Gendered livelihood strategies of porters in Accra, Ghana. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography, 32, 22-37. Osei-Tutu, P., & Nhancale, B. (2010). Hidden forestry revealed: Characteristics, constraints and opportunities for small and medium forest enterprises in Ghana: 264 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana International and International Institute for Environment and Development, London. Owusu, F. Y. (2012). Organizational culture and public sector reforms in a postWashington consensus era: Lessons from Ghana’s good reformers. Progress in Development Studies, 12, 135-151. Sarantakos, S. (2005). Social Research, Third Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2007). At a Glance: Ghana Statistics. Retrieved on 23rd February, 2103 from http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/ghana_ statistics .html. United Nations (2000). United Nations General Assembly: United Nations Millennium Declaration. A/RES/55/2. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly. Retrieved on 12 September, 2013 from http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/ 55/2&Lang=E. UNDP Ghana and NDPC/GOG (2012). 2010 Ghana Millennium Development Millennium Development Goals Report: Accra UNDP Ghana and NDPC/GOG (2010). 2008 Ghana Millennium Development Millennium Development Goals Report: Accra White, H. (2008). The measurement of poverty. In The companion to development studies. 2nd ed. V. Desai and R. Potter, 25–39. London: Hodder. World Bank. (2011). Tackling poverty in Northern Ghana. Washington D.C. The World Bank. Retrieved on 15 January 2013 from http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 2011/03/14238095/tackling-povertynorthern-ghana. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 265 �Thomas Yeboah, Lucy Owusu, Albert A. Arhin, Emmanuel Kumi i Kayayei (Sing. Kayayoo) is the local term for a female porter or bearer from Ghana, and is a person who carries objects for others. The term can be broken down into two words, Kaya, meaning load/luggage/goods in Hausa language, and Yei, meaning women/females in Ga language, as the role is almost exclusively carried out by females. Ii NYEP is now known as the Ghana Youth Employment and Entrepreneurial Development Agency (GYEEDA). Appendix 1: SURVEY/CHECKLIST ON UNDERSTANDING OF POVERTY, ITS EXPERIENCE AND SURVIVING STRATEGIES AMONG HEAD PORTERS IN GHANA This is an interview guide scheduled to assess the perceptions, understanding, causes and experience of poverty as well as how the surviving strategies of head porters and hawkers working in the informal sector contribute to overcoming their poverty conditions in Kumasi, Ghana. The researcher would be very grateful if you could provide answers to these questions. All information given shall be treated confidentially. Part One: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 1. Sex (a) Male (b) Female 2. Name of respondent....................................................................................... 3. Age of respondents......................................................................................... 4. Educational level (a) Primary (b) JHS (c) Drop out d) No formal education 5. Where do you come from? a) Northern region b) Upper east c) Upper west (d) other Part two: Understanding of poverty and its experience among informal workers 6. What is your understanding of the term poverty? 7. Based on your living situation, how would you rank living conditions? a) Very poor (b) poor (c) non-poor (d) rich 8. Can you explain the reason for your answer? 9. How does poverty manifest in your life? 10. What are the various difficulties facing you here? 266 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana 11. What has accounted for your poor living situation? Part three: Surviving strategies and livelihood activities 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. What kinds of activities are you involved in here? How long have you been hawking here? How many hours do you spend on the street daily? On the average, how much money are you able to make in a day? In what ways do your activities contribute to improving your living circumstances? 17. How does the activities you do help you and your family? 18. What are the major challenges facing you here while hawking? 19. What do you think should be done to improve upon your business? Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 267 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2416 Title A name given to the resource Fighting Poverty from the Street: Perspectives of Some Female Informal Sector Workers on Gendered Poverty and Livelihood Portfolios in Southern Ghana Author Author Yeboah, Tomas Owusu, Lucy Arhin, Albert. A Kumi, Emmanuel Abstract A summary of the resource. Over the last three decades or so, complex factors including the implementation of neoliberal economic reforms has led to a decline in formal sector employment in the Ghanaian economy. This together with increasing feminization of poverty has driven many, especially young women, to seek livelihoods in the informal sector mainly as hawkers and head porters. Drawing on qualitative interviews with approximately 40 urban poor women (aged 6-25 years), this paper reports the gendered aspects of poverty and the surviving strategies of young women on urban streets. The cameos presented herein highlight the experiences of poverty among street workers and how their livelihood portfolios contribute to overcoming the poor socio-economic conditions facing them. The paper shows that hawking and head portering significantly provides income for upkeep of young women and their families through meeting consumption and other needs. However, vulnerabilities manifested in unfavourable weather conditions, vehicular dangers, exploitation from employers and customers often due to lack of written work contracts are the major risks sturdily connected with these surviving strategies. The paper concludes by arguing for policy interventions such as subsidized credit schemes and organization of formal and informal forms of capacity building for the urban street workers to enhance their livelihoods. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e3623ff8d78633c6eaf4435523208c6.pdf e2b6bdfbdb66f29ac5e8a8c963e7eaba PDF Text Text PRIKAZ Prikaz međunarodne naučno-stručne konferencije: „Izgradnja modernog pravnog sistema“ International Scientific Conference: „Establishment of a Modern Legal System“ – Review Mensur Zoletić, MA Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta e-mail: mensur.zoletic@ibu.edu.ba (Internacionalni Burč univerzitet, Sarajevo, 24. oktobar 2014. godine) (International Burch University, Sarajevo, 24th of October, 2014) Dana 24. oktobra 2014. godine, na Internacionalnom Burč univerzitetu u Sarajevu održana je međunarodna naučno-stručna konferencija na temu: „Izgradnja modernog pravnog sistema“. Konferenciju su zajednički organizirali Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta, pravni fakulteti iz Bosne i Hercegovine (Sarajevo, Bihać, Zenica, Tuzla, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta „Džemal Bijedić“ u Mostaru i Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Mostaru), te fakulteti za kriminalistiku i sigurnosne studije Univerziteta u Sarajevu i Mariboru. Tendencija Centra za društvena istraživanja kao voditelja projekta upravo i jeste u stvaranju čvrste veze među predstavnicima pravnih fakulteta u našoj zemlji, a sukladno tome organiziranju zajedničkih događaja koji će okupljati istaknute pravne praktičare i akademske radnike. Već na prvoj zajedničkoj konferenciji učešće je uzelo preko 250 pravnih stručnjaka i istaknutih imena iz BiH, regiona i država Evropske unije (u daljem tekstu: EU). Na ovom mjestu, prije svega, osjećamo potrebu istaći dolazak vrhunskih stručnjaka poput g. Renate Winter, sudije Specijalnog suda Ujedinjenih nacija za Sierra Leone i članice Komiteta za prava djeteta UN, prof. dr. Alenke Šelih, profesorice sa Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Ljubljani i članice Akademije nauka i umjetnosti Slovenije, prof. dr. Friedera Dünkela sa Univerziteta u Greifswaldu, SR Njemačka, prof. dr. Cirila Ribičiča sa Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Ljubljani, kao i brojnih drugih istaknutih profesora iz BiH i regiona. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 301 �Mensur Zoletić, MA Prema programu rada, nakon svečanog otvaranja konferencije u kojem su se obratili direktor Centra za društvena istraživanja g. Esad Oruč, dekani pravnih fakulteta iz BiH, potom g. Ismet Trumić, direktor Centra za edukaciju sudija i tužilaca FBiH, te g. Meddžida Kreso, predsjednica suda BiH, otvoren je radni dio konferencije sa četiri tematska paralelna panela: a) Restorativna pravda: kretanja u svijetu i Bosni i Hercegovini – prvi panel, b) Zakon o obligacionim odnosima i Konvencija UN o međunarodnoj prodaji robe: dosadašnja iskustva i mogući putevi razvoja - drugi panel, c) Uloga međunarodne zajednice u implementaciji Dejtonskog mirovnog sporazuma - treći panel i, d) Uloga i značaj pravne države u procesu evropskih integracija – četvrti panel. U okviru prvog panela, organizirano je pet sesija u okviru kojih se raspravljalo o različitim aspektima restorativne pravde. Prvom sesijom je moderirala prof. dr. Alenka Šelih, te se u ovom dijelu govorilo o svjetskim tendencijama i kretanjima u oblasti restorativne pravde. Tako je g. Renate Winter govorila na temu restorativne pravde za maloljetne učinioce krivičnih djela, dok je prof. dr. Dünkel pružio osvrt na temu restorativne pravde i medijacije u krivičnim pitanjima u Evropi. U okviru druge sesije, svoja izlaganja su imali prof. dr. Hajrija Sijerčić-Čolić na temu: restorativna pravda za punoljetne učinioce krivičnih djela – stanje u BiH, mr. iur. Dino Pivac koji je govorio o aspektima restorativne pravde u Republici Hrvatskoj, te g. Nedžad Smailagić na temu kriminalnopolitičkih mogućnosti restorativne pravde. Treća sesija je započeta moderiranjem sudije Suda BiH g. Jasmine Kosović i raspravljanjem o pitanjima vezanim za Zakon o zaštiti i postupanju sa djecom i maloljetnicima u krivičnom postupku – aspekti restorativne pravde. U tom smislu g. Kosović je istakla neophodnost harmonizacije pomenutog zakona sa propisima koji ovu oblast reguliraju u entitetima i Brčko distriktu BiH, te edukacije ključnih aktera krivičnog postupka u kontekstu pravilnog odabira i primjene odgojnih preporuka, posebnog onih restorativnog karaktera. Nakon toga, uslijedila su izlaganja doc. dr. Vedada Gurde sa Pravnog fakulteta u Tuzli (novine u oblasti alternativnih mjera i sankcija u maloljetničkom krivičnom pravu u BiH), g. Smiljke Gavrić, medijatorke Udruženja medijatora BiH (medijacijska praksa u BiH), g. Dragana Uletilovića, sudije Osnovnog suda u Banjoj Luci (primjena medijacije prema Zakonu o zaštiti i postupanju sa djecom i maloljetnicima u krivičnom postupku u RS: normativno i stvarno), g. Aleksandre Jovanović (istraživanje u području restorativne pravde u radu s maloljetnicima: iskustva iz SAD), te g. Merise Nurkić, tužiteljice Kantonalnog 302 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Prikaz međunarodne naučno-stručne konferencije: „Izgradnja modernog pravnog sistema“ tužilaštva TK (osvrt na Zakon o zaštiti i postupanju sa djecom i maloljetnicima u krivičnom postupku u FBiH). U okviru posljednje dvije sesije, svoja izlaganja su imali doc. dr. Dževad Mahmutović (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli) na temu restorativne pravde i prava oštećenog u bosanskohercegovačkom okviru, dr. sci. Sanja Ćopić (Institut za kriminološka i sociološka istraživanja Beograd) koja je govorila o zaštiti žrtava i konceptu restorativne pravde sa tog ugla gledišta, mr. sci. Vildana Vranj (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu) na temu GRIP programa kao modela primjene restorativne pravde u zatvorima u BiH, prof. dr. Irma Kovčo Vukadin (Edukacijskorehabilitacijski fakultet Sveučilišta u Zagrebu) o prevenciji nasilja u zatvorima, te doc. dr. Darko Dimovski koji je govorio o restorativnog pravdi u zakonodavstvu Republike Srbije. U završnoj diskusiji prvog panela, doneseni su određeni zaključci u vidu preporuka i to: 1) opšte preporuke:      donošenje odgovarajućih zakonskih i podzakonskih propisa o primjeni elemenata restorativne pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini, primjena restorativne pravde za čitavo područje Bosne i Hercegovine, razvijanje potrebne infrastrukture u oblasti krivičnog pravosuđa (policija, tužilaštvo, sud, kazneno-popravni zavodi), razvoj infrastrukture u centrima za socijalnu rad, sticanje posebnih znanja i kontinuirano stručno osposobljavanje i usavršavanje iz oblasti restorativne pravde. 2) posebne preporuke:     približavanje restorativne pravde javnom mnijenju, primjena restorativne pravde u preventivnom djelovanju u reakciji na kriminalitet, dosljedna primjena postojećih zakonskih rješenja o primjeni restorativne pravde za maloljetne učinioce krivičnih djela, razvijanje zakonskih rješenja o primjeni restorativne pravde za punoljetne učinioce krivičnih djela, Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 303 �Mensur Zoletić, MA      adaptacija ideje mirovnih vijeća u današnjim uslovima, razvijanje saradnje između medija, krivičnog pravosuđa i Udruženja medijatora u Bosni i Hercegovini, primjenu medijacije treba uključiti u normative i standarde u radu tužilaca i sudija, zapošljavanje stručnih savjetnika suda i tužilaštva (socijalni pedagozi – defektolozi, socijalni radnici, specijalni pedagozi–defektolozi i psiholozi koji imaju aktivnu ulogu u predmetima maloljetničke delinkvencije), podržavanje projekata o primjeni restorativne pravde u kaznenopopravnim zavodima (npr., GRIP program). Drugi panel započeo je izlaganjem prof. dr. Abedin Bikić ispred Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Sarajevu pružanjem generalnog osvrta o pitanjima Zakona o obligacionim odnosima i Konvencije UN o međunarodnoj prodaji robe. U okviru prve sesije, učesnici su imali priliku saslušati prof. dr. Ratka Brnabića (Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Splitu) koji je govorio na temu sklapanja ugovora o međunarodnoj kupoprodaji prema Bečkoj konvenciji i ostalim izvorima prava kupoprodaje Republike Hrvatske, prof. dr. Melihu Povlakić (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu) – aktuelna pitanja zaštite korisnika finansijskih usluga u pravu BiH, i doc. dr. Almedinu Šabić (Pravni fakultet u Sarajevu) koja je zaključila prvu sesiju izlaganjem o raskidu ugovora prema UN konvenciji. U okviru druge sesije, učesnicima su izloženi teoretski aspekti odgovornosti dobavljača za ispunjenje obaveza iz posla finansijskog lizinga u domaćem pravu i praksi (prof. dr. Enes Bikić i mr. sci. Alaudin Brkić), kao i uloga i značaj načela povjerenja u procesu reforme zemljišnoknjižnog prava (doc. dr. Hamid Mutapčić). Sa praktičnog aspekta svoje izlaganje je predstavio g. Almir Gagula, advokat, na temu zloupotrebe prava u obligacionom pravu BiH. Na konferenciji je održan i jedan oblik „sajma knjige“. Naime, više od 10 izdavača iz Bosne i Hercegovine uključujući i pravne fakultete kao suorganizatore događaja, predstavilo je i promoviralo pravnu literaturu iz okvira svoje izdavačke djelatnosti. Treći panel je ponudio zanimljive i aktuelne referate iz oblasti ustavnog prava. Tačnije, rasprava se vodila o ulozi međunarodne zajednice u implementaciji Dejtonskog mirovnog sporazuma, a panelom je moderirao doc. dr. Zlatan Begić sa Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Tuzli. Prof. dr. Ciril Ribičič je analizirao presudu 304 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Prikaz međunarodne naučno-stručne konferencije: „Izgradnja modernog pravnog sistema“ Sejdić-Finci i njeno mjesto u kontekstu cjelovite ustavne reforme, pri čemu je istakao razloge nemoći/nepostojanja volje međunarodne zajednice da „primora“ BiH vlasti na implementaciju navedene presude. U okviru prve sesije, još su referate izložili prof. dr. Dejan Pavlović (Fakultet političkih nauka Univerziteta u Beogradu) na temu mogućeg doprinosa Ustavnog suda BiH u implementaciji presude Sejdić-Finci, doc. dr. Dženeta Miraščić (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli) o pitanju odgovornosti Visokog predstavnika međunarodne zajednice za BiH kao pitanju pravne ili političke prirode, i mr. sci. Jasminka Džumhur (Ombudsmen za ljudska prava BiH) na temu uloge međunarodne zajednice u implementaciji Dejtonskog mirovnog sporazuma sa aspekta ljudskih prava. Druga sesija je započela referatom prof. dr. Zlatana Delića sa Univerziteta u Tuzli. G. Delić je govorio o sociološkopravnim aspektima i razmišljanima o razlozima (ne)implementacije Dejtonskog mirovnog sporazuma. U okviru ovog dijela, učesnicima su izlaganja predstavili i doc. dr. Zlatan Begić o perspektivama ustavne pozicije konstitutivnih naroda u BiH u kontekstu odluka Evropskog suda za ljudska prava, te mr. sci. Elmida Burina na temu Schmittovog suverena u kontekstu konstelacije odnosa u BiH. U završnoj diskusiji, ponajviše se govorilo o pojmu i opsegu prava konstitutivnih naroda u BiH, i problemima koji su konstantno prisutni u pogledu blokade implementacije presude Sejdić-Finci. Na četvrtom panelu pod nazivom „Uloga i značaj pravne države u procesu EU integracija“, izložen je najveći broj referata o različitim aspektima usklađivanja BiH zakonodavstva kao preduslova pristupu Evropskoj uniji. Panelom je moderirao prof. dr. Enes Hašić sa Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Zenici. Prva sesija je započela izlaganjem prof. dr. Zijada Hasića (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Travniku) o aspektima jačanja uloge parlamenata u BiH u kontekstu jačanja pravne države u EU integracijama. Izlaganja temeljena na sličnoj problematici su nastavili mr. sci. Maja Rimac-Bjelobrk (Direkcija za evropske integracije Vijeća ministara BiH), prof. dr. Nedžad Bašić (Pravni fakultet Bihać), dr. sci. Sanja Bazina (Direkcija za evropske integracije Vijeća ministara BiH), dr. Jadranka Polović (Visoka škola multimedijskih i komunikacijskih tehnologija, TV Akademija, Split) o iskustvima Republike Hrvatske na putu ka EU, prof. dr. Edin Rizvanović (Pravni fakultet „Džemal Bijedić“ u Mostaru) na temu normativne funkcije države u okviru procesa integracije, dok je sesiju zaključio doc. dr. Benjamin Flander (Fakultet za kriminalistiku i sigurnosne studije Univerziteta u Mariboru) na temu Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 305 �Mensur Zoletić, MA postmodernizacije i krize prava: pravni sistem i pravna država u „vrlom novom svijetu“. U okviru druge sesije, referate su predstavili prof. dr. Tadija Bubalović (Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Rijeci) o pojmu i oblicima međunarodne krivičnopravne pomoći, prof. dr. Adnan Duraković (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici) na temu: uloga i značaj krize na funkcionisanje pravne države i njenih politika, doc. dr. Eldan Mujanović (Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije Univerziteta u Sarajevu) o pitanjima oduzimanja imovinske koristi pribavljene krivičnim djelom u BiH. Također, izlaganja su imali i doc. dr. Nataša Deretić (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Novom Sadu), doc. dr. Amila Ferhatović (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Sarajevu), dr. Milica Kovačević (Fakultet za specijalnu edukaciju i rehabilitaciju Univerziteta u Beogradu), mr. sci. Ajdin Huseinspahić (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici), i Selma Stočanin-Hrustemović (Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije). Posljednja sesija je također ponudila nekoliko referata. Prof. dr. Halil Kalač je otvorio završni dio izlaganjem o socijalnoj tržišnoj ekonomiji EU, a u nastavku su uslijedili referati dr. Gorana Obradovića (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Nišu), doc. dr. Spahije Kozlića (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici), mr. sci. Aide Mulalić (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici), mr. sc. Uroša Zdravkovića (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Nišu), dok je sesiju zaključio Haris Hasić, MA (Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Travniku) na temu problema u mehanizmima provođenja zaštite intelektualnog vlasništva kao prepreke evropskoj integraciji Bosne i Hercegovine. Nakon diskusija i zaključaka na pojedinim panelima, učesnici su prisustvovali zajedničkom zatvaranju konferencije. U završnom obraćanju, domaćin i organizator se zahvalio svima na participaciji i značajnom doprinosu konferenciji, a suorganizatorima su dodijeljene zahvalnice. Također, izražena je želja da konferencija na temu: „Izgradnja modernog pravnog sistema“ postane tradicionalna, što će Centar za društvena istraživanja nastojati i ispuniti. 306 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2884 Title A name given to the resource International Scientific Conference: „Establishment of a Modern Legal System“ – Review Author Author ZOLETIC, MENSUR Abstract A summary of the resource. Dana 24. oktobra 2014. godine, na Internacionalnom Burč univerzitetu u Sarajevu održana je međunarodna naučno-stručna konferencija na temu: „Izgradnja modernog pravnog sistema“. Konferenciju su zajednički organizirali Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta, pravni fakulteti iz Bosne i Hercegovine (Sarajevo, Bihać, Zenica, Tuzla, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta „Džemal Bijedić“ u Mostaru i Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Mostaru), te fakulteti za kriminalistiku i sigurnosne studije Univerziteta u Sarajevu i Mariboru. Tendencija Centra za društvena istraživanja kao voditelja projekta upravo i jeste u stvaranju čvrste veze među predstavnicima pravnih fakulteta u našoj zemlji, a sukladno tome organiziranju zajedničkih događaja koji će okupljati istaknute pravne praktičare i akademske radnike. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ebbd9a820b08f57ab3bdbcb75eb8566e.pdf eb587bc4bbd0396eea38965f92453e91 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Implementing a Listening and Speaking Curriculum in a Linguistically Homogenous English for Academic Purposes Program Clare J. Zuraw Michigan Technological University, United States of America Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 01.11.2014. Abstract Linguistic homogeneity in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programs can be a challenge to curriculum design and implementation. In university EAP programs where the majority of students share an L1 with classmates, instructors sometimes struggle to balance the use of the L1 and L2 in class. Despite the potential for immersion, students in these settings may also socialize primarily in their L1 rather than English, the target language. These factors demand special consideration in courses focused on oral production and comprehension where sustained interaction and negotiation of meaning is crucial. Ninety percent of the students in the Intensive English as a Second Language Program at Michigan Technological University come from China and share an L1. In this context, the classroom provides important opportunities for interaction and negotiation of meaning in the target language. The program recently redesigned, piloted, and evaluated a new curriculum. Using examples from the curriculum and the classroom to present this case, I argue that linguistically homogeneous classrooms focusing on oral and aural communication require different curricula than more diverse EAP settings. Examples from the development and delivery of the new listening and speaking curriculum are potentially applicable in both ESL and EFL settings. Keywords: Curriculum development, EAP, EFL, oral communication, higher education Introduction In the United States, 64% of students inIntensive English Programs (IEP)came from the top four sending countries: Saudi Arabia (29.9%), China (15.9%), South Korea (9.4%), Japan (9.1%). In American universities more the 28% of international students came from China in 2012, a 21.4% increase from the previous year (Farrugia& Bhandari, 2013).In this context, it is not uncommon for university IEPs 51 �Implementing a Listening and Speaking Curriculum in a Linguistically Homogenous English for Academic Purposes Program to have large groups of students who share a first language. Linguistic homogeneity in IEPs can be a challenge to curriculum design and implementation. For many IEP students, the stakes of language learning are high, with admission to and success in degree programs hinging on their ability to communicate in English. Concerns over money and time may be distracting stressors that can influence students in and out of the classroom (Yang & Berliner, 2013).Despite the immersion setting of an American university campus, students with networks of friends who share their L1 may get their primary exposure to English in the classroom. For their instructors, negotiating the use of L1 and L2 in the classroom can be challenging. The Intensive English as a Second Language Program (IESL) at Michigan Technological University (MTU) serves international students conditionally admitted to degree programs. Ninety percent of the studentsin the program between 2011 and 2014came from China. The faculty recently redesigned, piloted, and evaluated a new curriculum. The listening and speaking courses in this new curriculum were developed to address the specific needs of linguistically homogenous classes that are typical in the program. This case is an illustration of how linguistically homogenous classrooms focusing on oral and aural communication skills require curricula designed specifically with the role of interaction in mind. Mackey (2012) suggests that the connections between instructors and researchers studying interaction are strong andencourages engagement between the two groups. This paper will explore some of the ways that interaction research has informed the design and delivery of the curriculum. The examples of activities and assessment tools from the new listening and speaking curriculum could be adapted to fit both EFL and other ESL settings. IESL at Michigan Technological University Students in the IESL program at MTU are required to study English and meet standardized testing benchmarks before they can enroll exclusively in academic courses. Internal needs analyses have shown that to succeed in academic classes, students must be able to use English to write academic research essays, read extensively, understand lectures, and actively collaborate as group members. As a pipeline program, students are under pressure from family-members and peers to complete English training as quickly as possible in order to move on to academic classes to save money. Instructors are seen as gatekeepers and their decisions to pass a student out of the IESL program indicates that he/she has a high enough level of English proficiency to begin academic classes. 52 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics During the 2013-2014 academic year 97% of IESL students were from China and over the last three years 90% of all students in the program were Chinese. In most cases students share Mandarin Chinese as an L1.1 The linguistic homogeneity in this setting is similar to many English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms. As in some EFL settings, the students’ learning goals are usually not oriented towards community integration as they might be in other North American ESL settings (Nayar, 1997). While some students hope to work in the United States after graduation, many plan to return to China with their degrees.In other ways the situation is unique. While EFL instructors often grapple with the challenge of finding authentic language, real-world applications, and opportunities for students to interact with English speakers, most students in an IESL program in the United States are surrounded by campus communities who use English daily. Despite these opportunities for immersion, not all students seek them out. At MTU students spend 18-24 hours each week in a classroom with other IESL students and often form friendships within this group. For students who socialize and study in their L1, the IESL classroom can be their primary opportunity for sustained interaction in the target language. Research has shown that English only policies in the classroom do not necessarily enhance language learning and that attempting to eliminate L1 from the classroom would be ineffective (Auerbach, 1993; Levine, 2003). At the same time, there is strong evidence that L2 interactionsupports language learning (Mackey, 2012). The IESL program at MTU does not have an English only policy and each instructor balances L1 and L2 differently to achieve the program mission of preparing students for academic success. Along with tasks like essay writing and extensive reading, some of that success is based upon their ability interact in English with both NS and NNS. Listening and speaking instruction in the programseeks to prepare students for communicative academic tasks in the target language and as a result, some classroom tasks, particularly those focused on interaction, requires the use of L2. It is in this context that the faculty redesigned and implemented the new curriculum during the 2013-2014 academic year. The Curriculum: Task design and the Role of Interaction Before the curriculum was redesigned, the faculty conducted a needs analysis to determine what skills students would need to use in academic classes after exiting the IESL program. Long and Norris (2009) categorizeneeds analysis to identify “target tasks” as the first step in task-based language teaching program design, writing that 1 There have been some exceptions, with a handful of students identifying Cantonese or Tibetan as their first language. However, these students typically speak Mandarin Chinese in addition to their L1 and English. 53 �Implementing a Listening and Speaking Curriculum in a Linguistically Homogenous English for Academic Purposes Program these tasks are “the real-world things people do in everyday life” (p. 137). Course goals, objectives, and outcomes were written with these real-world tasks in mind. In the case of MTU students, everyday life is focused on the university.In surveys of university faculty,one of several skills identified as important was the ability to communicate and collaborate with members of a group. For this reason, one of the exit outcomes for students leaving the IESL program was dedicated to this skill: Students will be able to participate actively and mediate communication breakdown in classroom discussions and small group settings.All listening and speaking curriculum documents include objectives and outcomes related to group work and/or the negotiation of meaning. Research and the Curriculum in the Classroom Like many EAPcurricula, the listening and speaking courses at MTU include a focus on listening comprehension, particularly academic lectures. The role of input in these courses is an important part of curriculum and classroom activity design. To prepare students for lectures and lab courses, the IESL program includes listening practice ranging from simple modified texts through complex authentic oral texts. But listening comprehension is only one aspect of the course and Long (1996) asserts that “comprehensible input alone is insufficient” (p.422). Research shows that interaction in the target language is crucial for learners and plays an important role in the ESL classroom (Mackey, 2012; Pica, Young, & Doughty, 1987). Interaction and the negotiation of meaning cause the learner to make “interactional adjustments” and draw their attention to form (Long, 1996 p. 451). The type and context of the interaction is also important and can be adapted to fit learner needs (Mackey, 2012). In the IESL program interaction plays an important role in the listening and speaking curriculum and in classroom work. Onefactor influencing the design of interactive tasks is the cultural background of students. Some research suggests that students coming from educational systems that do not focus on communicative classroom techniques can be skeptical of interactive activities (Rao, 2002). Our experience at MTU has been that some students do struggle to adapt to a more interactive classroom environment, but that most of them come to see the interaction as an important part of their learning. In an anonymous program evaluation survey conducted in fall 2013, students identified positive results from interactive activities. Students commented that they can speak more confidently, better comprehend NS, and that they “liked communications with teachers and classmates.” A key to getting learners to accept student-centered interaction is to design activities that they find engaging and to explain the purpose and goals of interactive tasks. The best examples of are graded formal student discussions. 54 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Formal Student-led Discussions At all levels of listening and speaking, students participate in graded classroom discussions. These are designed to motivate students to interact and negotiate meaning in the target language. Sustaining discourse in the TL can be difficultin linguistically homogenous classrooms, especially at lower proficiency levels, but students have responded well to these activities.Students prepare a text – oral or written – before class. In class they hold a discussion on that text with little or no input from the instructor. How the discussion is organized depends on the level. Early on, code-switching is common. As students build confidence they are better able to maintain interaction in English. At the intermediate level, discussion questions are “crowd-sourced” from the group. All students submit questions for discussion which the instructor organizes and distributes at the beginning of the activity. At the advanced and transitional levels, one student is responsible for preparing and leading the discussion but the complexity of the text is differentiated. Students are graded on their participation, ability to make connections to the text, turn-taking and negotiation, and their production of comprehensible output. In these student-led discussions the task is open; consensus is not necessary (Mackey 2012). Open tasks give students the chance to spend time exploring a topic and controlling discourse (Willis, 2004). Willis points out that SLA researchers have typically favored closed tasks, but that open tasks may have their place: When planning a TBI program, teachers would need to decide which kinds of tasks best reflect target language use or which kinds best help students achieve an established language-acquisition goal. In the case of language for academic purposes, this is certainly likely to involve open tasks. (p. 24) Gass, Behney&Plonsky (2013) emphasize that “conversational interaction in an L2 forms the basis for the development of language, rather than being only a forum for practice of specific language features” (p.378).Graded formal classroom discussions engage students in the L2 rather than L1, which can benefit their language development while strengthening their ability to navigate American classroom culture. The kind of task and interaction in the classroom matters not only to the students’ learning but also their perception of the learning experience. In the fall 2013 surveys students again gave positive feedback on classroom discussion and identified personal language development related to fluency and comprehension. Interaction with Native Speakers 55 �Implementing a Listening and Speaking Curriculum in a Linguistically Homogenous English for Academic Purposes Program Student-led discussions focus on NNS-NNS interactions, but research has shown that interactions with a NS can be even more valuable for student noticing and modification (Gass&Varonis, 1994). In a study by Gass and Varonis (1994) NNS who were allowed to interact were able to give clearer directions, especially after interacting with a NS. Interaction with NSs must be incorporated into classroom activities and teacher-fronted work sometimes plays a role. In addition to student-led discussions, teachers may lead discussions, especially when the focus is on form or when consensus is necessary. Teachers also interact with students in one-on-one conferences for formative assessment purposes. These conferences are typically designed around a task like editing a presentation, but also provide students opportunities to interact with a NS. Another setting for program-organized interaction is the Conversation Partners Program. Each semester, IESL faculty match volunteers from the campus community with an IESL student or small group. They are required to meet for a minimum of ten hours each semester and their participation counts as part of their listening and speaking course grade. This interaction is typically between a NS and a NNS. The guidelines encourage participants to avoid doing using the time as a tutoring session. Instead, the goal of the program is for students to practice authentic interaction with a native speaker. Presentational skills also play an important role in the curriculum. The presentations themselves are primarily a performance rather than interactive task, but it is possible to design the requirements for a presentation to involve interaction. Group presentations can provide an opportunity for L2 interaction with partners to accomplish a series of tasks in preparation for a presentation, but if all students share an L1 they are unlikely to primarily use English to accomplish the tasks. One way to ensure interaction in the L1 is to require students to conduct interviews as part of their research for a presentation. In Intermediate Listening and Speaking, students give informational presentations about either their academic major or introducing the audience to the local community. If they choose to present on their major they are required to interview one professor or two students who do not share their L1. Those giving a presentation about the local community conduct interviews with employees of local businesses, students, or other community members. This turns out to be a motivational experience for many students who have reported that they felt better prepared to communicate with native speakers after the project. Conclusion Interaction is an important part of language learning and should play a central role in the design of EAP curricula, particularly in courses where the focus is on listening 56 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics and speaking. This is especially important, and potentially challenging, in linguistically homogenous classrooms where students can interact easily in their shared L1. Through carefully designed interactive tasks like those described in this paper, instructors can provide learners with authentic opportunities for L2 interaction. Several issues have come up in this case study that cannot be addressed adequately in this forum. More research into the trend towards Chinese majority EAP programs in the U.S. and how this influences curriculum design and classroom practice will be important for program administrators and faculty.Further research into roles of motivation and social integration in linguistically homogenous EAP programs could also contribute to a better understanding of student learning. The more accessible and relevant that interaction research is the more likely instructors will be to incorporate findings into their curriculum and their classrooms. References Auerbach, E.R. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom.TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32. Farrugia, C.A. & Bhandari, R. (2013).Open doors 2013 report on international educational exchange. New York: Institute of International Education. Gass, S. M., Behney, J., &Plonsky, L. (2013).Second language acquisition: An introductory course. New York: Routledge. Gass, S.M. &Varonis, E.M. (1994). Input, interaction, and second language production.Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 283-302. Levine, G. S. (2003). Student and instructor beliefs and attitudes about target language use, first language use, and anxiety: Report of a questionnaire study. The Modern Language Journal, 87(3), 343-364. Long, M.H. (1996).The Role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition.In W.C. Ritchie & T.K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition(pp. 413-468). San Diego: Academic Press. Long, M. & Norris, J.(2009). Task based teaching and assessment. In K.van den Branden, M. Bygate, & J.M Norris. (Eds.) Task-based language teaching: A reader (pp. 135-142). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 57 �Implementing a Listening and Speaking Curriculum in a Linguistically Homogenous English for Academic Purposes Program Mackey, A. (2012). Input, Interaction, and Corrective Feedback in L2 Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Nayar, P.B. (1997). ESL/EFL Dichotomy today: Language politics or pragmatics? TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 9-37. Pica, T., Young, R., & Doughty, C. (1987).The impact of interaction on comprehension.TESOL Quarterly, 21(4), 737-758. Rao, Z. (2002). Chinese students’ perceptions of communicative and noncommunicative activities in EFL classrooms.System, 30(1), 85-100. Willis, J.R. (2004). Perspectives on task-based instruction: Understanding our practices, acknowledging different practitioners. InB.L. Leaver& J.R. Willis(Eds.) Task-based instruction in foreign language education (pp.3-44). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Yan, K., & Berliner, D. C. (2013).Chinese international students' personal and sociocultural stressors in the United States.Journal of College Student Development, 54(1), 62-84. 58 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2785 Title A name given to the resource Implementing a Listening and Speaking Curriculum in a Linguistically Homogenous English for Academic Purposes Program Author Author Zuraw, Clare J. Abstract A summary of the resource. Linguistic homogeneity in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programs can be a challenge to curriculum design and implementation. In university EAP programs where the majority of students share an L1 with classmates, instructors sometimes struggle to balance the use of the L1 and L2 in class. Despite the potential for immersion, students in these settings may also socialize primarily in their L1 rather than English, the target language. These factors demand special consideration in courses focused on oral production and comprehension where sustained interaction and negotiation of meaning is crucial. Ninety percent of the students in the Intensive English as a Second Language Program at Michigan Technological University come from China and share an L1. In this context, the classroom provides important opportunities for interaction and negotiation of meaning in the target language. The program recently redesigned, piloted, and evaluated a new curriculum. Using examples from the curriculum and the classroom to present this case, I argue that linguistically homogeneous classrooms focusing on oral and aural communication require different curricula than more diverse EAP settings. Examples from the development and delivery of the new listening and speaking curriculum are potentially applicable in both ESL and EFL settings. Keywords: Curriculum development, EAP, EFL, oral communication, higher education Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LD Individual institutions (United States) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a97116320d786ae59722d197c7a4aa2f.pdf e696e430c6163f34a0b2b71fa0ee21cc PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Melek Çetinkaya Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey mlcetinkaya@hotmail.com Veysel Ağca Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey agca@aku.edu.tr Hatice Özutku Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey hozutku@aku.edu.tr Abstract: This study is based on “stakeholder theory” in order to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities in Corporate Social Responsibility Report of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies from Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index were selected as the sample of the study. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. The data obtained from the annual reports, sustainability reports and corporate governance compliance reports of these 48 companies were subjected to content analysis. According to the findings, economic and legal responsibilities were found to have priority for shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. While philanthropic responsibility was found to have priority for community stakeholder group, economic responsibility is important for suppliers stakeholder group. Legal responsibility, on the other hand, is important for environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities have priorities in all stakeholder groups other than community stakeholder group. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 Key words: Corporate Social Responsibility; The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility JEL Classification: M10, M14 Article History Submitted: 21 May 2015 Resubmitted: 21 August 2015 Resubmitted: 10 September 2015 Accepted: 14 September 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/ JECOSS15525 1 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Introduction An early definition of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) by European Commission was “a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis” (Commission of the European Communities, 2001: 3). The Commission modified this definition in 2011 as “the responsibility of enterprises for their impacts on society”. In order to fulfil corporate social responsibility, business organizations must have a process that integrates social, environmental, ethical and human rights, and consumer expectations into their business operations and core strategy to get close relationships with social partners (Commission of the European Communities, 2011: 6). According to this definition, it is clear that business organizations have more duties than the official expectations, such as investing in human capital and the environment. Global environmental problems such as climate change, vanishing natural resources and pollution have made corporate social responsibility an important agenda of business world (Harrison and Freeman, 1999; Dincer and Dincer, 2007). The definition and content of CSR change in different contexts. A company should take its stakeholders’ needs into consideration when planning its CSR programmes. Since CSR will always have a location-based nature, a company should understand the priorities of local stakeholders (Welford, Chan and Man, 2007: 52). Environmental concerns of the consumers and the increasing interest in CSR since the 1970’s brought CSR into the discussion of the academic and business world (Harrison and Freeman, 1999; Dincer and Dincer, 2007). Although the term ‘corporate social responsibility’ is still widely used, terms such as corporate citizenship, business ethics, stakeholder management and sustainability offer competing, complementary and overlapping concepts to cover the field (Carroll and Shabana, 2010: 86). The purpose of this study is to analyse the nature of CSR. A descriptive analysis based on CSR Pyramid developed by Carroll was used for the Turkish context. The CSR Pyramid which can be labeled as to be the most well known model for corporate social responsibility emphasize the importance of economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities with its four levels. None the less, analysis of CSR in Turkey may provide an opportunity to examine the relevance of CSR Pyramid priorities in Turkish context to the conventional American ordering when Carroll’s basic four part model is taken into consideration. Corporate Social Responsibility and Organizational Stakeholders The content and definition of CSR has always been a most debated subject (Dahlsrud, 2008: 2; Moir, 2001: 19). As a result of these debates, different perspectives flourished in the field of CSR. Among these perspectives on CSR, Ozuem et al. (2014: 400) put forward some theoretical perspectives as agency theory, the stakeholder theory, the stewardship theory, a resource-based view of the firm, the institutional theory and the strategic leadership theory. 2 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange The history of CSR goes a long way back. The modern era of CSR is dated back to 1950s by Carroll (1999: 268). Although the attempts to define CSR flourished during the 1960s and especially in 1970s, the definitions of CSR became more specific while different approaches on corporate social responsiveness and corporate social performance (CSP) began to flourish. However, the 1980s saw fewer new definitions, more empirical research, and an increase on alternative themes such as corporate social performance, stakeholder theory and business ethics theory. In the 1990s, CSR continued to serve on the same basis but it was transformed through alternative thematic frameworks such as stakeholder theory, business ethics theory, CSP, and corporate citizenship. The analysis of definitions showed that these concepts were appealing to the same dimensions of CSR (Dahlsrud, 2008: 4). Grouping the phrases which refer to the same dimensions gave out five dimensions, namely as the environmental dimension (The natural environment), the social dimension (The relationship between business and society), the economic dimension (Socio-economic or financial aspects, describing CSR in terms of business operations), the stakeholder dimension (Stakeholders or stakeholder groups) and the voluntariness dimension (Actions not prescribed by law). Acting responsibly is important for any firm doing business. Two theories of CSR offer definitions for responsibility. According to the definition based on shareholder theory managers should make decisions that maximize the wealth of their firms’ stockholders. On the other hand, the definition based on stakeholder theory argues that rather than maximizing the prosperity of their owners, firms have duties towards the society. Ultimately, this debate on the definition of responsibility changed its direction towards deciding the amount a firm should spend for acting responsibly (Wu, 2014: 286). The concepts of corporate citizenship, corporate sustainability, stakeholder management, environmental management, business ethics and corporate social performance are studied under CSR. Carroll defines social responsibility as the entire range of obligations a business has towards the society in terms of the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary categories of business performance (1979: 497). According to this definition, there are four dimensions of CSR namely as economic, legal, ethical and discretionary (philanthropic) responsibilities. Although these four constituent parts of CSR reflect the viewpoints related to earlier definitions, it represents the social responsibilities of businesses in more details. Thus Carroll’s definition has been the most widely accepted one among a vast number of definitions in the literature of CSR (Visser, 2005: 33). Carroll presents economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic dimensions of CSR on the model of “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” and argues that not only economic and legal responsibility dimensions have been a part of CSR but all four responsibility dimensions have always existed to some extent while ethical and philanthropic functions have taken a significant position just in recent years (Carroll, 1991). Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 3 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku The pyramid of corporate social responsibility is presented in Figure 1. As can be seen, economic responsibilities component is the foundation block of the other three components. Obeying the laws, or playing by the rules, is the second most important dimension because the law is society’s codification of acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Ethical responsibilities lies on the next level and covers being just and fair, discern what is right or wrong in order to avoid doing harm or to protect the stakeholders which are the employees, consumers, the environment, and others. Ultimately, philanthropic responsibilities focusing on being a good corporate citizen lie at the top of the CSR pyramid. These benevolent activities include contributing financial and human resources to the community and improving the quality of life. No CSR pyramid is perfect without one of these four components. They cannot be separated from one other but here and elsewhere, they are taken into consideration individually in order to discuss their specific nature. Moreover, as Carroll argues (1991: 42), “a consideration of the separate components helps the manager see that the different types of obligations are in a constant but dynamic tension with one another”. Figure 1. The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Source: Carroll, A. (1991), “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of Organizational Stakeholders”, Business Horizons. According to recent literature on CSR, it is important to have a dialogue with stakeholders in order to protect the interests of stakeholders and to have conformity between the stakeholders and schemes of sustainable development and business strategy. In their study, Romolini et al. (2014: 67) argue that stakeholders, in turn, are less influenced by an entity’s financial performance alone and more influenced by their perception that sustainability is critical to an entity’s financial performance and to fulfilling the 4 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange implicit contract between the entity and society. In this study, theoretical perspectives of stakeholders have been taken into consideration. According to a stakeholder-oriented perspective, organizations exist within networks of stakeholders and face potentially conflicting demands from these stakeholders and have to adapt stakeholders’ demands into the core policies of CSR. In his study on CSR, Dahlsrud (2008: 4) argues that the stakeholder dimension covers “interaction with their stakeholders”, “how organizations interact with their employees, suppliers, customers and communities” and “treating the stakeholders of the firm”. First proposed by Freeman in 1984, stakeholder theory focuses on the strategic management of organizations in the late twentieth century. Numerous studies in literature, especially those of Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995), Mitchell et al. (1997) helped the theory to flourish and develop (Mainardes et al., 2012: 1862). Although they may offer different definitions and interpretations, all these studies, in their core, follow the definition of Freeman (1984) and reflect the same principle to a greater or lesser extent: the company should take into consideration the needs, interests and influences of people and groups, who either impact on or may be impacted by its policies and operations. According to Freeman’s (1984) definition, individuals or groups may influence or be influenced by the scope of organizational objectives. Within this concept, a person, an informal group, an organization or an institution may all be stakeholders (Mainardes et al., 2011: 228). Moir (2001: 19) argues that the stakeholder theory can be used as a basis to analyse those groups to whom the firm should be responsible. A literature review reveals various proposals for classifying stakeholders by their respective level of importance (Clarkson, 1995: 106; Donaldson and Preston, 1995: 68; Mainardes et al., 2012: 1865; Ozuem et al., 2014: 400; Trebeck, 2008: 352). Stakeholders are important for companies in some sense because they have an influence on company performance. For this reason, companies try to respond to their stakeholders’ demands in economic, formal or political frames. Stakeholders may have different levels of priorities for companies at different times but according to literature, there is some stability in the pattern of priority of stakeholders. Also, the stage of business and expectations of businesses may be different in different countries although they may be in the same field. Moreover different orientations can be observed in corporate environments of different countries. Pinkston and Carroll (1994: 165), who studied the conditions of markets in England, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland and the US, argue that stakeholders have different levels of importance in different countries. For example, while the focus is on economic responsibilities to owners in England, the focus shifts to company-employee relations in France and Germany, and to nurturing the business-community relationships in Japan. Naturally, because of the differences in these business relationships, stakeholder priorities can also be different. Thus, the stakeholder groups studied in the samples appeared to be prioritized in the same order while communities and government stakeholders ranked lower than the other threestakeholder groups of employees, consumers, and owners (Pinkston and Carroll, 1994: 161). Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 5 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku The terms of “stakeholder” and “social responsibility” have close relationships in terms of corporate social responsibility. The connection between these two terms derives from the vague content of the term “social” and the concept of “stakeholder” denotes to social or societal responsibilities of a company (Carroll, 1991: 43). Ozuem et al. (2014: 400) argue that according to stakeholder-oriented perception, organizations exist within networks of stakeholders and they aim to meet potentially conflicting demands of these stakeholders in terms of CSR objectives and policies. The duty of the management of a stakeholder oriented business is difficult because the managers have to make a settlement between their objectives and the expectations and demands of the stakeholders. While doing this, they have to meet the demands of main stakeholders in the first place and the remaining groups later. Although it is not always possible to satisfy all the parties at the same time, it is important for a company to protect its long-term interests. Carroll (1991: 43) assumes that the functions of stakeholder management are to describe, understand, analyse, and finally to manage. Carroll poses five questions to understand stakeholder management: 1. Who are our stakeholders? 2. What are their stakes? 3. What opportunities and challenges are presented by our stakeholders? 4. What corporate social responsibilities (economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic) do we have to our stakeholders? 5. What strategies, actions, or decisions should we take to best deal with these responsibilities? These questions can be discussed in details but attention must be given to what kind of responsibilities does a company have towards its stakeholders (Carroll, 1991: 43). A conceptional framework of stakeholder/responsibility matrix on this topic is presented in Figure 2. Figure 2. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Types of CSR Economic Legal Ethical Philanthropic Stakeholders Owners Customers Employees Community Competitors Suppliers Social Activist Groups 6 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Public at Large Others Source: Carroll, 1991: 44 By looking and working on this matrix, a manager can decide on how to act in different types of corporate social responsibility environments by taking different stakeholder groups into consideration. For each cell, the manager can gather analytical data and use them “for developing priorities and making both long-term and short-term decisions involving multiple stakeholders’ interests” (Carroll, 1991: 44). However, Pinkston and Carroll (1994) made a little alteration on this classification regarding the stakeholder groups in one of later studies. In their study on international businesses in different countries, Pinkston and Carroll (1994: 161) renamed stakeholder groups as owners, consumers, employees, communities and government. They argued that the perceived relative importance of the organizations’ stakeholder groups will differ across firms by countries-of-origin. Purpose and Importance of the Research Most of the research on Carroll’s (1991) CSR Pyramid has been in an American context. Nevertheless, several of the empirical studies already discussed suggest that culture may have an important influence on perceived CSR priorities (Visser, 2005). Within the framework of Carroll’s CSR Pyramid (1991), this study aims to find out CSR priorities of companies listed in the Corporate Governance Index of Borsa Istanbul (BIST) which apply corporate management principles. In order to realize this aim, economic, legal, ethical and philantrophic responsibilities are placed on stakeholder/responsibility matrix based on Carroll’s Corporate Social Responsibility Pyramid and the distribution of stakeholder groups according to their responsibility fields is investigated. It has been observed that no previous study in the literature of the field has attempted to place these four responsibilities on stakeholder/responsibility matrix. From this perspective, it can be said that this study is of great importance with its pioneering aspects. Methodology of the Research The research in this study was carried out using the qualitative research method. Extreme case sampling (Patton, 2002) was carried out by selecting Turkish companies with the best corporate social responsibility performance. A similar criterion for selecting companies was used by previous studies in order to analyze CSR (Collison et al., 2008; Lankoski, 2008; Romolini et al., 2014). The sample of the research is composed of 48 companies, which trade in Borsa Istanbul (BIST) and listed in Corporate Governance Index. BIST Corporate Governance Index (XKURY) is an index which includes the companies that apply Corporate Governance Principlesi. Corporate Governance Principles in Turkey are constituted by Capital Markets Board by taking primarily the “OECD Corporate Governance Principles” of 1999 into consideration. Corporate Governance Principles are made up of four parts: (1) Shareholders, (2) Public Disclosure and Transparency, (3) Stakeholders, (4) Board of Directors. An important portion of corporate governance Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 7 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku principles are about the responsibilities of companies towards stakeholdersii. For this reason, sampling for the study has been chosen from companies within Corporate Governence Index which lists companies with high corporate social responsibility performance. In the attainment of data, “Annual Reports”, “Sustainability Reports”, and “Corporate Governance Compliance Reports”, which are presented as “public domain” information in the websites of the so-called companies, were taken as a basis. Content analysis method was used in the analysis of the data. Content analysis necessitates the information in the content of a text (or report) to be coded within the framework of pre-described categories, as quantitatively and qualitatively (Guthrie and Abeysekera, 2006: 117). With this method, percentage distribution of the information presented in a report (or a text) is measured, by being classified (coded) according to categories (Loberet et al., 1997: 59). Quantitative measurements obtained as a result of coding can be used as data in other kinds of analyses (Hackston and Milne, 1996: 84). For information related to corporate social responsibility which will be coded in content analysis, categories need to be formed and corporate social responsibility information types which will be included in these categories need to be determined. Carroll’s (1991) study was taken into consideration for defining the social responsibility areas in the content analysis. Business practices defined by Spiller (2000) were taken into consideration in order to identify the business practices related to the expectations of stakeholder groups. Content Analysis Process In order to determine the categories and classifications of corporate social responsibility information types according to these categories, which will be used in the execution of this research and application of content analysis technique, literature review was completed and the following basic and sub categories were formed based on the information and categories in the studies of Carroll (1991) and Spiller (2000). Moreover, studies of Carroll (1991), Pinkston and Carroll (1994), Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995) and Trebeck (2008) were considered for the identification of stakeholder groups. Accordingly, stakeholder groups were taken into account as shareholders, consumers, employees, communities, suppliers, governments and others. Social Responsibility Areas of Business Organizations To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic (Figure 3). 8 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Figure 3. Economic, Legal, Ethical and Philanthropic Responsibilities Economic Components (Responsibilities) Legal Components (Responsibilities) 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with maximizing earnings per share. 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with the expectations of government and law. 2. It is important to be committed to being as profitable as possible. 2. It is important to comply with various federal, state and local regulations. 3. It is important to maintain a strong competitive position. 3. It is important to be a law-abiding corporate citizen. 4. It is important to maintain a high level of operating efficiency. 4. It is important that a successful firm be defined as one that fulfils its legal obligations. 5. It is important that a successful firm be defined 5. It is important to provide goods and services as one that is consistently profitable. that at least meet minimal legal requirements. Ethical Components (Responsibilities) Philanthropic Components (Responsibilities) 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with expectations of societal mores and ethical norms. 1. It is important to perform in a manner consistent with the philanthropic and charitable expectations of society. 2. It is important to recognize and respect new or evolving ethical/moral norms adopted by society. 2. It is important to assist the fine and performing arts. 3. It is important to prevent ethical norms from being compromised in order to achieve corporate goals. 3. It is important that managers and employees participate in voluntary and charitable activities within their local communities. 4. It is important that good corporate citizenship be defined as doing what is expected morally or ethically. 4. It is important to provide assistance to private and public educational institutions. 5. It is important to recognize that corporate integrity and ethical behavior go beyond mere compliance with laws and regulations. 5. It is important to assist voluntarily projects that enhance a community’s “quality of life”. Source: Carroll (1991) Business Practices Related to the Expectations of Stakeholder Groups In order to determine the expectations of stakeholder groups within the context of corporate social responsibility in content analysis, the study of Spiller (2000) was taken into consideration. This study of Spiller (2000), which defines important business practices regarding each important stakeholder group, is one of the most detailed studies conducted about stakeholder groups’ expectations as part of corporate social Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 9 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku responsibility practices. Spiller (2000) specified stakeholder groups that constitute primary priority for a business and claimed that organizational practices, which appear in accordance with the expectations of these groups, can be used in determining the corporate social responsibility performance of a business. This study has been beneficial for many researches about corporate social responsibility practices. To guide implementation, Spiller (2000: 153-154) has identified ten key business practices for each of the six main stakeholder groups: community; environment; employees; customers; suppliers, and shareholders (Figure 4). The list of 60 practices summarised below is neither exhaustive, nor uncontroversial. However, it does provide a starting point, a menu from which companies can choose, preferably in conjunction with their stakeholders, the areas on which to focus. Figure 4. Key Business Practices for Each ofthe Six Main Stakeholder Groups 1. Community 1.1. Generous financial donations 1.2. Innovative giving 1.3. Support for education and job training programmes 1.4. Direct involvement in community projects and affairs 1.5. Community volunteer programmes 1.6. Support for the local community 1.7. Campaigning for environmental and social change 1.8. An employee-led approach to philanthropy 1.9. Efficient and effective community activity 1.10. Disclosure of environmental and social performance 2. Environment 2.1. Environmental policies, organization and management 2.2. Materials policy of reduction, reuse and recycling 2.3. Monitoring, minimising and taking responsibility for releases to the environment 2.4. Waste management 2.5. Energy conservation 2.6. Effective emergency response 2.7. Public dialogue and disclosure 2.8. Product stewardship 2.9. Environmental requirements for suppliers 2.10. Environmental audits 3. Employees 3.1. Fair remuneration 3.2. Effective communication 3.3. Learning and development opportunities 3.4. Fulfilling work 3.5. A healthy and safe work environment 3.6. Equal employment opportunities 3.7. Job security 3.8. Competent leadership 3.9. Community spirit 3.10. Social mission integration 4. Customers 4.1. Industry-leading quality programme 4.2. Value for money 4.3. Truthful promotion 4.4. Full product disclosure 4.5. Leadership in research and development 4.6. Minimal packaging 4.7. Rapid and respectful responses to customer comments, complaints and concerns 4.8. Customer dialogue 4.9. Safe products 4.10. Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition 10 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange 5. Suppliers 5.1. Develop and maintain long-term purchasing relationships 5.2. Clear expectations 5.3. Pay fair prices and bills according to terms agreed upon 5.4. Fair and competent handling of conflicts and disputes 5.5. Reliable anticipated purchasing requirements 5.6. Encouragement to provide innovative suggestions 5.7. Assist suppliers to improve their environmental and social performance 5.8. Utilise local suppliers 5.9. Sourcing from minority-owned suppliers 5.10. Inclusion of an environmental and social element in the selection of suppliers 6. Shareholders 6.1. Good rate of long-term return to shareholders 6.2. Disseminate comprehensive and clear information 6.3. Encourage staff ownership of shares 6.4. Develop and build relationships with shareholders 6.5. Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends 6.6. Corporate governance issues are well managed 6.7. Access to company’s directors and senior managers 6.8. Annual report and accounts provide a comprehensive picture of the company’s overall performance 6.9. Clear long-term business strategy 6.10. Open communication with the financial community Source: Spiller, 2000: 153-154. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Business practices devoted to meet the expectations of stakeholder groups for corporate social responsibility areas defined by Carroll and which responsibilities become prominent in which stakeholder groups were defined in the content analysis, based on the Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix of Carroll (1991). None the less, besides Carroll’s (1991) study, stakeholder groups to be considered in the matrix were identified by considering Pinkston and Carroll (1994), Clarkson (1995), Donaldson and Preston (1995), Spiller (2000) and Trebeck’s (2008) classifications. According to this, stakeholder groups were taken into consideration as shareholders, consumers, employees, communities, suppliers and others. As a result of the assessment done by the authors of the study, business practices related to the expectations of the stakeholder groups (Spiller, 2000) were placed in economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic areas in the stakeholder/responsibility matrix. By this way, a framework was formed in order to evaluate the findings obtained from the content analysis. Figure 5: Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix Types of CSR Economic Legal Ethical Philanthropic Stakeholders Shareholders Customers Employees Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 11 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Community Suppliers Others Findings of the Research and Evaluation of Findings The data attained from the content analysis was analysed with the help of SPSS 20.0 Windows program. How often and at what level the information about corporate social responsibility took place in the related report was determined as number and percentage, and emerging frequency tables were interpreted. During the process of putting data into codes, “1” was used for coding the practices present in the categories considered in the content analysis and “2” was used for coding the practices which are not present in the businesses. Additionally, in terms of sector information, service sector was coded as “1” and manufacturing sector was coded as “2”. 27 of the businesses taking place in the sample operate in service sector, while 21 of them operate in manufacturing sector. Frequency and percentage values belonging to business practices about the expectations of stakeholder groups are presented in Figure 6. Hereunder, business practices falling within shareholders groups are seen to be over 90%. Businesses perform their legal responsibilities against their shareholders to a large extent. Of the practices in economic area, “Open communication with the financial Community” is seen to be over 65% and others are seen to be over 83%. Economic practices of companies as “Clear long-term business strategy” and “Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends” oriented to shareholders stakeholder group ate at 90% level. Among the economic practices taking place in customers stakeholder group, “Customer dialogue” is seen to be at level 87.5%, “Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition” is seen to be at level 83% and “safe products” is seen to be at level 79%. Businesses perform their responsibilities against their customers in the economic area. Of their responsibilities in legal area, “Truthful promotion” is at level 67% while “Minimal packaging” is at the level of 33%. The fact that this practice is used only in manufacturing businesses should be considered in minimal packaging radio to be low. Ethically, “Rapid and respectful responses to customer comments, complaints and concerns” is at level 79% and “Value for Money” is at level 44%. It is observed that businesses do not stress on the “Money” concept much, which is directed to customers stakeholder group. Of the practices falling within employees stakeholder group, economically “Learning and development opportunities” was emphasized as 96% and legally “A healthy and safe work environment” was emphasized as 94%. In the ethical responsibility area, “Fulfilling work” and “Competent leadership” were mentioned at 60%, “Community spirit” at 75%, and “Fair remuneration” and “Equal employment opportunities” were mentioned over 83%. It is regarded that practices in employees stakeholder group were given a quite high importance. 12 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Business practices in community stakeholder group are seen to be at 35% in the economic area with “Disclosure of environmental and social performance” at 35% and at 73% in the ethical area of “Innovative giving”. In the philanthropic area, the practice that has the highest level is “Direct involvement in community projects and affairs” with 88% and the practice that has the lowest level is “An employee-led approach to philanthropy” with 48%. It can be stated that businesses act sensitive about philanthropic practices in community stakeholder group. Businesses do not seem to give much place to information related to suppliers stakeholder group. The most emphasized practice in economic area is “Encouragement to provide innovative suggestions” with a level of 48%. The most emphasized practice in ethical area is “Inclusion of an environmental and social element in the selection of suppliers” with a level of 40%, and the most emphasized practice in philanthropic area is “Assist suppliers to improve their environmental and social performance” with a level of 40%. Other practices seem to be even lower than this level. Practices under the title of Environment were encountered mostly in the stakeholder group named as Others. The most mentioned practice in economic practices area is “Environmental policies, organization and management” with a level of 83%. “Environmental requirements for suppliers” is seen to be at level 37% and “Environmental audits” is seen to be at level 35%. The practice in legal area is “Public dialogue and disclosure” at a level of 60%. Whether a difference exists between expectations of stakeholder groups and related business practices from the point of sectors of the businesses taking place in the research was analysed via t-test. As a result of the analysis, business practices falling within stakeholder groups did not show a significant difference between service sector and manufacturing sector. Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 13 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku Figure 6. Stakeholder/Responsibility Matrix in Turkey Sample 14 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange According to findings obtained from this research, economic and legal responsibilities were determined to have priority in shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. Philanthropic responsibility was determined to be primary in community stakeholder group, economic responsibility was seen to be primary in suppliers stakeholder group, and legal responsibility was seen to be primary in environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities were observed to have priority in all stakeholder groups, except community stakeholder group. Findings obtained reveal that corporate social responsibility practices of businesses taking place in Turkey research sample are wide enough to include stakeholder groups, other than suppliers. In Turkey, companies traditionally perform corporate social responsibility practices for long years within the framework of philanthropy. As a matter of fact, many businesses materialize their politics in this direction through various projects, such as awarding scholarships to students, sponsoring sports and art activities. Although social responsibility programs do not improve in private sector as fast as in the world, they have a different status lately. Non-governmental organizations, which developed quickly especially in 1990s, lead the supports of companies in social areas, in which education projects comes first on a more substantial ground with sustainability. On the other hand, especially in previous years, many companies head towards professional support for social responsibility programs. Non-governmental organizations enable the support given to social-oriented projects in private sector to increase quickly. Nongovernmental organizations, which work with a transparent administrative mentality and responsibility mission, establish a ground for the creation of social projects with the leading companies of private sector. Social responsibility projects, which are realised through a co-operation with non-governmental organizations, are seen to be executed in areas such as education, sports, health, elderly, children and environment. Besides this, several consultancy institutions are seen to function with the purpose of supporting businesses in identifying social responsibility projects and in the process of putting them into practice (Akgeyik, 2007: 82). As the obtained findings are compared to the findings of prior studies in different countries, similar results were attained in some aspects, while different ones were obtained in others. For instance, in their study which includes England, France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, Switzerland and the US, Pinkston and Carroll (1994) put forward that the importance given to stakeholders differed according to countries. England has been shown to emphasize economic responsibilities to owners in its business community. France, on the other hand, has been understood to focus on company employee relations, as has Germany. The Japanese environment has appeared to nurture the business-community relationships. Since these relationships can be noticeably different in any given business environment, the stakeholder priorities were expected to be different for the sample organizations. One of the conspicuous findings of the study is the lack of corporate social responsibility practices regarding the suppliers stakeholder group. A similar situation exists in the findings of the studies that were conducted in other countries. For example, several Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 15 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku empirical studies in Europe, North America and Asia have investigated how firms work with CSR-related issues in their supply chains. Most of these studies are not only confined to large multinational corporations, but also include SMEs. According to the results attained, despite many companies’ efforts to engage in CSR-related activities in their supply chains, there is often a gap between the ethical standards expressed and the actual conditions at the suppliers (Andersen and Larsen, 2009: 78). In today’s competitive business environment, it has become imperative for firms to find ways to work collaboratively with suppliers. Moreover, it has been shown that firm-supplier cooperation and partnership can help all supply-chain members to increase performance. Additionally, ethical behavior in the firm-supplier relationship will generate trust and better communication – attributes which can result in greater competitiveness and wealth creation (Gonzalez et al., 2013: 373). Conclusion This study is based on “stakeholder theory” to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility levels in Turkey. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities (highlight issues and areas) in Corporate Social Responsibility of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies were selected as the sample of the study in the Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index. The research was carried out using the qualitative research method. In the attainment of data, “Annual Reports”, “Sustainability Reports”, and “Corporate Governance Compliance Reports”, which are “public domain” information published in the websites of the so-called companies, were taken as a basis. Content analysis method was used in the analysis of the data. According to the findings of this study, economic and legal responsibilities were determined to have priority in shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. Among the companies which fall into the scope the study, responsibilities outstanding in the field of economic responsibilities for shareholders are: “Good rate of long-term return to shareholders”, “Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends”, “Clear long-term business strategy”, “Open communication with the financial Community”. The important topics for shareholders in terms of legal responsibilities are: “Disseminate comprehensive and clear information”, “Corporate governance issues are well managed and access to company’s directors and senior managers”, “Annual report and accounts provide a comprehensive picture of the company’s overall performance”. For customers stakeholder group, social responsibility topics on economic level are: “Industry-leading quality programme”, “Customer dialogue”, “Safe products”, “Environmentally and socially responsible production and product composition”. Legal responsibilities which are important for customer stakeholder group are: “Truthful promotion” and “Minimal 16 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange packaging”. While the economic responsibilities which stand out for employees stakeholder group are “Learning and development opportunities”, legal responbilities which are important for the same group are “A healthy and safe work environment”. Corporate social responsibility practices reflecting ethical and philanthropic responsibility understanding were not seen to take place in shareholders stakeholder group. Philanthropic responsibility mentality was seen not to fall within customers and employees stakeholder groups. In community stakeholder group, on the other hand, it is conspicuous that most of the corporate social responsibility practices are performed within the context of philanthropic responsibility understanding and ethical and economic mentalities remain in the background. It has been realised that social responsibility practices taking place in suppliers stakeholder group are not common, and current social responsibility practices reflect economic responsibility. On the other hand, in the environment stakeholder group, legal responsibility was identified to be primary. In general, economic and legal responsibilities were seen to have priority in all stakeholder groups, except the community stakeholder group. The findings obtained reveal that corporate social responsibilities of large companies in the research sample of Turkey are wide enough to include all stakeholder groups other than suppliers, and economic and legal responsibilities have priority in the corporate social responsibility understanding. As a result, many companies embrace a CSR program as a way to promote socially responsible actions and policies, and effectively respond to stakeholder demands. According to stakeholder theory, companies can achieve more positive results by paying more attention to corporate social responsibility programs. Stakeholder theory suggests that organizational survival and success is contingent on satisfying both its economic (e.g. profit maximization) and non-economic (e.g. corporate social performance) objectives by meeting the needs of the company’s various stakeholders. The stakeholder management concept serves to ensure that organizations recognise, analyse and examine the individual and group characteristics that influence or are influenced by organizational behaviours and actions. Future studies may include analyses of which stakeholder groups must be paid more attention in the value creation process of organizations within the context of stakeholder theory, what the contributions the stakeholders provide are and what the possible risks related to stakeholders are, expectations of stakeholders and how processes that will meet these expectations will be developed. Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 17 �Melek Çetinkaya, Veysel Ağca, Hatice Özutku References Akgeyik, T. (2007). The human resource management dimensions of corporate social responsibility in Turkey: A survey. http://www.journals.istanbul.edu.tr/iusskd/article/ view/1023000164. Andersen, M. & Larsen, T.S. (2009). Corporate social responsibility in global supply chains. 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Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 21, 286–300. i. ii. (http://www.borsaistanbul.com/en/indices/bist-stock-indices/corporate-governance-index) (http://www.spk.gov.tr/indexcont.aspx?action=showpage&menuid=10&pid=0) Volume 5 Number 1 Fall 2015 21 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2945 Title A name given to the resource Priorities for Corporate Social Responsibility Reporting: Evidence from Listed Turkish Companies in Istanbul Stock Exchange Author Author ÇETİNKAYA, Melek AĞCA, Veysel ÖZUTKU, Hatice Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This study is based on “stakeholder theory” in order to explain the concept of corporate social responsibility. To examine the social responsibility areas of business organizations, “The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility” model developed by Carroll (1991) was used in this study. According to this model, entire range of business responsibilities can be considered in four groups: economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic. Within the framework of Carroll’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) Pyramid, the aim of this study is to illustrate priorities in Corporate Social Responsibility Report of the leading companies in Turkey. In this context, 48 companies from Borsa Istanbul (BIST) Corporate Governance Index were selected as the sample of the study. Qualitative research approach was used in the study. The data obtained from the annual reports, sustainability reports and corporate governance compliance reports of these 48 companies were subjected to content analysis. According to the findings, economic and legal responsibilities were found to have priority for shareholders, customers and employees stakeholder groups in terms of corporate social responsibility levels. While philanthropic responsibility was found to have priority for community stakeholder group, economic responsibility is important for suppliers stakeholder group. Legal responsibility, on the other hand, is important for environment stakeholder group. In general, economic and legal responsibilities have priorities in all stakeholder groups other than community stakeholder group. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance