39 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/68b339b41b80d2b77504816cc99ad279.pdf 5ad3afe110459159875ea1aa99ac16dd PDF Text Text Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Selami AYDIN Balıkesir University, Turkey saydin@balikesir.edu.tr Melih KARAKUZU Atatürk University, Erzurum/Turkey karakuzu@atauni.edu.tr Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University, Turkey genckafkasuni@hotmail.com Abstract: Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety. Key Words: English as a Foreign Language, Teacher, Test Anxiety, Young Learners Introduction Individual differences such as beliefs, attitudes, expectations, motivation levels, and affective states have significant effects on the foreign language learning process (Aydin & Zengin, 2008). Among affective states, test anxiety, an apprehension towards academic evaluation, a fear of failing in tests and an unpleasant experience held either consciously or unconsciously by learners in various situations (Horwitz and Young, 1991), also has considerable effects on learning process whereas language teacher is one of the significant factors in English as a foreign (EFL) teaching and learning. Thus, this paper focuses on the relationship between the levels of test anxiety and the attitudes of young EFL learners. The results of previous studies indicate that tests and teachers are two strong sources of language anxiety (Bailey, 1983; Ellis & Rathbone, 1987; Young, 1991; Aydin, 2008). However, a major problem that forms a background for this study is that studies have mostly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities are fairly limited when young learners are considered as MacIntyre & Gardner (1991) states that foreign language anxiety is more relevant to language learning among adults. In other words, there are a few studies focusing mainly on language anxiety but not specifically on test anxiety among primary school students and teacher – test anxiety relationship (Chan & Wu, 2000; Chan & Wu, 2004). On the other hand, the duration of compulsory primary education was increased to eight years in Turkey by a law put into effect in 1997. Furthermore, foreign language education was made compulsory for students in the fourth and fifth grades in addition to sixth, seventh and eighth-grade students. Another step taken to improve EFL learning in Turkey was the reorganization of the content of sixth-, seventh- and eighth-grade English courses for the leveling exam (SBS), an official and central examination for the selection and placement of primary school students in high schools administered separately for each grade at the end of the academic year. Despite all these developments, dramatically enough, there is still a serious lack of research on test anxiety among young learners. So far, only three studies have been conducted on test anxiety in a broader sense, while test anxiety among young EFL learners and the relationship between teacher and the level of test anxiety have not been properly investigated 141 �(Koçkar, Kılıç & Şener, 2002; Duman, 2008; Erözkan, 2009). Therefore, there is a growing need for investigating the issues relating to test anxiety among young EFL learners. In conclusion, this paper aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners for two reasons: Firstly, it is obvious that test anxiety and teacher effect seem to be significant factors and correlate with each other in EFL learning and teaching. Secondly, studies in Turkey and around the world have mainly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities on young EFL learners seem too limited. Thus, the paper has one research question: Do teachers affect the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners? Method The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners taking English classes at five primary schools in Balıkesir, Turkey. The mean age of the subjects was 11.8 in the range of 9 and 14. As for their genders, 51.3% were female students, while 48.7% were male. Of all the participants, 100 were fourthgrade, 95 fifth-grade, 89 sixth-grade, 92 seventh-grade, and 101 eighth-grade students. The subjects were randomly selected from five primary schools. Data collection instruments consisted of a questionnaire, which interrogated the participants about subject variables such as gender, age, school, grade, mean examination scores, parents’ monthly income, and their attitudes towards their teachers and English classes, and the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS) developed by Sarason (1978). The TAS consisted of 27 multiple-choice items that aimed to measure the students’ levels of test anxiety. Each of the items was assessed on a scale ranging from one to five (never=1, rarely=2, sometimes=3, usually=4, always=5). The procedure of the study included the translation and correction of the TAS, administration of the instruments, and statistical analysis. First of all, the researcher translated the scale into Turkish and a group of five pre-service teachers of English examined each item to correct possible mistranslations. Subsequently, the scale was administered to a group of ten students in order to correct the misconceptions and to obtain the moderation of the items in the scale. Next, after obtaining a written permission from national education authorities, the background questionnaire and the TAS were administered to the participants in the last week of fall semester in 2009. Subsequently, the collected data were analyzed using the SPSS software. In the analysis, the reliability of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha Model. The reliability coefficient of the scale, which was calculated to be 0.901, indicated a high level of reliability. As for the statistical analysis of the research question, the data were examined for two purposes: First, mean scores and standard deviations of the statements in the TAS were given briefly to see the level of test anxiety. Secondly, t-test and ANOVA were carried out to detect the correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. Results In this section, a correlational presentation of the collected data has been provided in order to determine the relationship between the level of test anxiety and attitudes towards teachers. However, before presenting the correlational data, it would be necessary to present the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners. The mean scores on the TAS items indicate that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. As the findings suggest, having good scores increases the learners’ self-confidence for subsequent exams. Moreover, learners usually feel confident and relaxed when they are informed beforehand that they will take a test; they are aware of the fact that the school authorities and teachers should be careful at effects of tense situations on their performance, and they do not suffer anxiety when they have studied sufficiently. Finally, examinations may sometimes cause negative physical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia, and also create some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear. Students may also sometimes believe that other students are brighter during exams, suffer from time pressure and prefer writing papers instead of taking examinations. The research question investigated the correlation between the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners and their attitudes towards their teachers, the findings about which are presented in Table 1. The values presented indicate that the attitudes of learners towards their teachers significantly correlated with seven of 37 items in the TAS. That is, the students who had positive attitudes towards their English teachers felt more confident and relaxed and less nervous even if they forgot what they knew. Moreover, the participants who had positive attitudes towards their teachers were less embarrassed during examinations, felt less uneasy before getting their exam papers, and believed more strongly that it was not possible to learn more without examinations. Finally, positive attitudes towards their language teachers reduced diversions during exams. Conclusively, when the abovementioned items are concerned, the findings demonstrate that positive attitudes 142 �towards EFL teacher decrease the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners, while teacher is not a significant factor when the remaining 30 statements in the TAS scales are considered. Table 1. The relationship between attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. Statements in the TAS If I knew I would take an English test beforehand, I would feel confident and relaxed. During examinations, I find myself thinking of irrelevant things. During an examination, I get so nervous that I forget about the things I know well. I seem to defeat myself while working on tests. I wish examinations did not irritate me so much. If examinations could be done away with, I think I would actually learn more. I start feeling very uneasy just before handing a test paper back. 143 I like my English teacher. N Mean Never 3 1.67 Rarely 4 2.00 Sometimes 12 3.67 Usually 27 3.44 Always 425 3.92 Never 3 3.33 Rarely 4 4.50 Sometimes 13 3.62 Usually 27 2.56 Always 424 2.27 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 4 3.25 Sometimes 13 3.00 Usually 28 2.07 Always 431 2.01 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 4 3.50 Sometimes 13 2.54 Usually 27 2.07 Always 430 1.55 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 3 2.67 Sometimes 13 3.08 Usually 28 2.57 Always 430 1.98 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 3 4.67 Sometimes 13 3.15 Usually 28 2.21 Always 427 1.80 Never 3 4.33 Rarely 3 3.67 Sometimes 13 3.54 Usually 28 2.75 Always 428 2.49 F Sig. 4.95 .00 6.08 .00 3.33 .01 10.67 .00 6.80 .00 7.54 .00 2.98 .02 �Conclusions and Discussion Three main results were obtained from the study, the first of which is that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. In other words, learners have self-confidence when they have good scores, feel confident and relaxed, are aware of the effects of the role of school authorities and their teachers, and do not suffer from test anxiety when they studied sufficiently. On the other hand, examinations have some moderate negative psychical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia. Secondly, teacher is a significant factor that affects only seven of the 37 items in the TAS. Given the significant correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety, as revealed by the seven items in the TAS, it could be underlined that teachers have facilitating effects that decrease the level of test anxiety. That is to say, the results show that most of the students have positive attitudes towards their EFL teachers, and that the students with positive attitudes towards their teachers feel less uneasy, nervous and bothered, and more confident and relaxed. In conclusion, teacher is not a strong source of test anxiety among young EFL learners but a significant factor that decreases the level of test anxiety among their students. The discussion of results in relation with the findings of previous research can be summarized in two headings. Firstly, tests and teachers are not strong sources of anxiety in contrary to the results previously found by Bailey (1983), Ellis & Rathbone (1987), Young (1991) and Aydin (2008). Controversially, the teacher factor has facilitating effects that reduce the level of test anxiety among young ELF learners. Secondly, it should be noted that language proficiency and language background have considerable effects on test anxiety. That is, as the sample group of this study consisted of young learners with a low level of language proficiency, it is obvious that the conclusions of this study differ from those of previous studies in which adult EFL learners were examined. In this sense, test anxiety is not at a high level among young EFL learners while Rasor & Rasor (1998) and Horwitz (2001) suggest that learners have higher levels of test anxiety due to insufficient language learning. Given that examinations sometimes cause some negative physical effects in students such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia as well as some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear, some recommendations can be noted for practical purposes. Teachers should be aware of the physical and affective effects of exams on children. In this sense, EFL teachers need to use some effective strategies before, after and during examinations. For instance, they can inform students that anxiety is quite normal (Campbell and Ortiz, 1991; cited in Aydin, 2008) before exams, and promote a low-stress testing environment during examinations. Additionally, they can use some effective communication techniques such as talking and leading discussions with them about their feelings and present practical solutions through group activities or one-to-one dialogues by cooperating with school counselors. As a final note on the limitations of the research, the subjects of the study were limited to 477 young EFL learners at five primary schools in Balikesir, Turkey. Furthermore, the scope of the study was confined to the data collected using a background questionnaire and the Test Anxiety Scale developed by Sarason (1978). Further studies should focus on the relationships between the levels of test anxiety and some other factors such as age, gender, economic background, and attitudes towards language course. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the authorities of the Research Projects Unit at Balikesir University for their support for the study through the project entitled Test Anxiety among Primary School EFL Learners (2008 / 43). The authors would also like to thank the authorities and English teachers of Karesi, Burhan Erdayı, 23 Nisan, Namık Kemal and Plevne Primary Schools. Finally, the authors thank Saadet Selvi, Zeliha Ciciş, Ökkeş Gedemenli, Gökhan Yoldaş and Rüveyda Er for their valuable assistance in the data collection process and Nagihan Kontaş, Çağla Akgöz and Sevcan Yılmaz for their kind assistance to data processing. 144 �References Aydın, S. & Zengin, B. (2008). Anxiety in foreign language learning: A review of literature: The Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 4 (1), 81 – 94. Aydin, S. (2008). An investigation on the language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation among Turkish EFL Learners. Asian EFL Journal, Teaching Articles, 421—444. Bailey, K. (1983). Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning. In H. W. Seliger and M. H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in language acquisition, (67 – 102), New York: Newbury House. Campbell C. M., & Ortiz, J. (1991). Helping students overcome foreign language anxiety: A foreign language anxiety workshop. In E. K. Horwitz and D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory to research to classroom implications (pp. 153-168). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2000). A study of foreign language anxiety of elementary school EFL learners in Taiwan. Paper presented at the 2000 Educational Academic Conference, 85 – 100. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2004). A Study of Foreign Language Anxiety of EFL Elementary School Students in Taipei County, Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, 17 (2), 287 – 320. Duman, G. K. (2008) A research into the test anxiety level of the senior students (8th grades) of state and private primary schools in Kadiköy district of İstanbul Anatolian side caused by the OKS (secondary school student selection and placement exam). Unpublished MA Thesis. Yeditepe University. Ellis, R. & Rathbone, M. (1987). The acquisition of German in a classroom context. Mimeograph. London: Ealing College of Higher Education. Erözkan, A. (2009). The Predictors of Depression in Eighth Grade Primary School Students, Elementary Education Online, 8(2), 334 – 345. Horwitz, E. K. & Young, D.J. (1991). Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112 – 126. Koçkar, İ. A. Kılıç, B. G. & Şener, Ş. (2002). Test anxiety among primary school students and academic achievement. Çocuk ve Ergen Sağlığı Dergisi. 9 (2), 100 – 105. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning, 41 (4), 513 – 34. Rasor, L. T. & Rasor, R. A. (1998). Test anxiety and study behavior of community college students in relation to ethnicity, gender, and age. Retrieved in September 2008 from ERIC Database (ED415942). Sarason, I.G. (1978). The Test Anxiety Scale: Concept and research. In C.D. Spielberger & I.G. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 5). Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp. Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does the language anxiety research suggest? Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 426-437. 145 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7a86b2e8e8cdad4aec196b7e49bc2598.doc 915e8496952e12fef4e9e31e4cfdd287 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 665 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Author Author AYDIN, Selami Karakuzu, Melih ELKILIÇ, Gencer Abstract A summary of the resource. Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f9928683de63c1965d1a252889b0522.pdf 9db2429a06783e36a98995ff02607361 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Impacts of Religiosity on the Ethical Attitudes of the Prospective Managers Muzaffer AYDEMĐR Assoc. Prof. Dr., Bilecik University, FEAS, Department of Business Administration muzaffer.aydemir@bilecik.edu.tr Ali GÖKSU Assist. Prof. Dr., International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Department of Business Administration goksu@ibu.edu.ba Merdzana OBRALIĆ Research Assistant, International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Department of Business Administration Abstract: In this study, we aimed to explore the relationship between religiosity and business ethics. Two dimensions of religiosity – intrinsic an extrinsic- were studied. We tested mainly one hypothesis: whether ethical attitudes are affected by religiosity. However, we also explored the relationships between ethical attitudes, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity and various demographic measures of the participants such as age, sex, and nationality. In our study, we surveyed students at two different universities -- one is in Turkey and the other is in Bosnia & Herzegovina. Our sample consisted of first year university students. Our survey instruments have three parts. First part included 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994). Second part included 15-item religiosity scale of Allport and Ross (1967) -- adopted version of it by Vitell et al. (2007). Third part contained various demographic measures such as age, sex, and nationality. Key Words: Religiosity, ethical attitudes, business ethics. Introduction Ethics has been one of the principal issues confronting businesses for many years. While they are responsible for maximizing long-term value for the shareholders, they are also expected to adequately monitor their employees’ performance, and to enforce and adhere to certain ethical standards. Business ethics have been the subject of controversy and debate for many years among researchers and practitioners. Not surprisingly, frequent scandals have fostered considerable interest and scholarly work in the business ethics area. Recently, interest in this area was intensified due to widespread media accounts of outbreaks of ethical failing and questionable practices by corporations and corporate executives. Events such as the collapse of Enron, the destruction of documents at Arthur Andersen, questionable CEO compensation packages and other practices at Tyco, and charges of fraud at WorldCom have shaken public confidence in business world. In accordance with these ongoing discussions, scholars and practitioners are wondering what has to be done to assure ethical behaviors in the business environment. Some scholars debate whether religious belief should be an appropriate grounding for business ethics. For example, Fort (1997) claims that rather than excluding religion from business ethics, business ethics ought to consider religion as a healthy ground. He claims that there is no good reason for us to restrict people from relying upon religion in making and justifying economic judgments. This means that theology ought to be a participant in debates about public matters, including business ethics. Theology’s contributions will be as varied as the philosophical alternatives for business ethics. Calkins (2000) also states that business ethic has neglected recently its religious traditions and become construed more narrowly as an applied philosophy and social science. This narrowness has confused business ethics’ role in business education. Therefore, business ethics should become more integrated, interesting, and autonomous as an academic discipline by incorporating its key religious traditions. While the philosophical “world of ideas” is important to business ethics, so is the religious “world of ideals”; and while social science’s deductive analysis is important to business and society, so is religion’s inductive character forming capacity. McMahon (1986) argues that religions make valuable contributions to business ethics. Religions’ values, principles, and practices give sense of responsibility, and guidance to the people of business world. 100 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo This current paper presents the results of a study that investigated the roles that prospective managers’ religiosity play in determining their ethical attitudes regarding questionable business practices. Literature Review Huffman (1988) states that religiosity is one of the strongest determinants of values. Weaver and Agle (2002) say that religiosity is known to have an influence both on human attitudes and behavior. Furthermore, Hunt and Vitell (1993) underline that religion is one of the factors that significantly influences ethical judgments. Allport (1950) perceived religious motivation as differentiated by intrinsic religiosity and extrinsic religiosity. The ‘‘extrinsically motivated person uses his religion whereas the intrinsically motivated person lives his religion’’ (Allport and Ross, 1967: p. 434). Recently, using a student sample, Vitell et al. (2005) found that intrinsic religiosity was a determinant of ethical beliefs. They found that intrinsic religiousness is a significant determinant of ethical attitudes in various situations regarding questionable business practices. Results of Vitell et al. (2006) study indicated again that intrinsic religiousness was significant determinant of most types of ethical beliefs. Vitell et al. (2007) found that an intrinsic religious orientation significantly explains one’s ethical beliefs for the questionable business activities. As expected, the stronger a respondent’s sense of intrinsic religiosity, the more likely he/she was to find various ‘‘questionable’’ business activities as wrong. An intrinsic religious orientation appear to explain ethical beliefs, as expected, with more religiously oriented individuals being more likely to view questionable behaviors as wrong and vice versa. Ibrahim et al. (2008) analyzed the relationship between a person’s degree of religiousness and corporate social responsibility orientation. The statistical analysis showed that religiousness influence students’ orientation toward the economic, ethical, and philanthropic responsibilities of business. Kennedy and Lawton (1998) examined the relationship between dimensions of religiousness (fundamentalism, conservatism, and intrinsic religiousness) and their ability to predict students’ willingness to behave unethically. Results of the study show a negative relationship between the dimensions of religiousness and willingness to behave unethically. They also found relatively high positive correlation between intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness. Phau and Kea (2007) found from their cross-cultural research with first-year university students who practiced their religion tend to consider themselves more ethically minded than those who do not. Singhapakdi et al. (2000) examined the influence of religiousness on different components of marketing professionals’ ethical decision making. The results of the study indicated that the religiousness of a marketer can partially explain his or her perception of an ethical problem and behavioral intentions. Results also suggest that the religiousness significantly influences the personal moral philosophies of marketers. Siu et al. (2000) found that the ethical interest and behavior are related to religiousness. They showed that religiousness has positive impact on ethical interest and behavior in general and the ethical philosophy of contractualism in particular. Clark and Dawson (1996) highlighted the importance of the religiousness construct as an influence on ethical judgments and, possibly, on behavioral intentions. Personal religiousness is a potential source of ethical norms, and consequently, an influence in ethical evaluations. Conroy and Emerson (2004) surveyed university students and empirically showed that religiosity is a statistically significant predictor of responses in seven of the eight vignettes for which religiosity is significant, the effect is negative, implying that it reduces the “acceptability” of ethically-charged scenarios. In sum they found that religiosity is significantly correlated with ethical perceptions. As previous researches showed there is a statistically significant relationship between religiosity and business ethics. Based upon the previously cited theoretical and empirical literature, we proposed the following hypotheses involving religiosity to test here: H1: Intrinsic religiosity is a positive determinant of the prospective managers’ ethical attitudes. That is, those with higher intrinsic religiosity will have much higher ethical attitudes. H2: Extrinsic religiosity is a positive determinant of the prospective managers’ ethical attitudes. That is, those with higher extrinsic religiosity will have much higher ethical attitudes. Methodology This article presents the results of a study that investigated the roles that prospective managers’ religiosity play in determining their ethical attitudes regarding questionable business practices. Two dimensions of religiosity – intrinsic and extrinsic religiousness – were studied. 101 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sample A questionnaire was completed by the students of two universities one in Turkey (public university), and the other one is in Bosnia & Herzegovina (a private university). Students who are participants of this study are likely to be the prospective managers and professional practitioners of their fields in the future. From about 450 first-year students (freshman), 318 students completed the questionnaire correctly. The response rate is 70%. 58.5% of the sample was male and 41.5% of the sample was female. About 88% of the sample was younger than 22 years old and 11% of the sample was older than 22 years old. All the participants were Muslim. 91.8% of the sample was Turkish and 8.2% of the sample was Bosnian. 57.5% of the sample was from university in Turkey, and 42.5% of the sample was from university in Bosnia & Herzegovina. Measures Our survey instruments have three parts. First part included 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994). Second part included 15-item religiosity scale of Allport and Ross (1967). We used the adopted version of the scale by Vitell et al. (2007). Third part contained various demographic measures such as age, sex, and nationality. The dependent construct in the analysis was prospective managers’ ethical attitudes as measured by the 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994). The respondents were asked to rate each vignette on a 5point scale from – definitely believe that it is unethical (1) to definitely believe that this is ethical (5). It is important for the reader to note that a low score on this scale means that prospective managers find these actions as more unacceptable. Overall reliability score of the ethics scale is 0.827. Extrinsic and intrinsic religiosities were measured using the adopted version of Allport and Ross (1967) religiosity scale and using a 5-point Likert type scale (1 = I completely disagree; 5 = I completely agree). Here, high score means high religiosity. Overall reliability score of religiosity scale is 0.718. The intrinsic dimension has 8 items and is exemplified by items such as, ‘‘I try hard to live my life according to my religious beliefs.’’ This dimension exhibited a reliability of 0.769. The extrinsic dimension includes 6 items and has a reliability of 0.683. It is exemplified by items such as, ‘‘I go to religious services because it helps me make friends.’’ Results Correlation and multiple regression analyses were used to test the hypothesis. In addition, the Independent Samples Test is used to compare participants’ ethical attitudes and religiosity levels in terms of age, sex, nationality etc. There is a statistically significant relationship between intrinsic religiosity and ethical attitudes of the participants. Correlation coefficient is -0,290 (p = 0,000). Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). That means participants who have higher intrinsic religiosity score have more positive ethical attitudes than participants who have lower intrinsic religiosity score. There is no significant relationship between extrinsic religiosity and ethical attitudes of the participants. We could not find any significant relationship between dimensions of the religiosity, either. Multiple regression analyses were used to analyze the data and test the hypotheses. Dimensions of the religiosity, ethnicity, age, types of the university and sex were independent variables and the ethical attitudes of the participants were dependent variable. However, multiple regression analyses showed that, there are only statistically significant relationship between intrinsic religiosity, ethnicity, sex and ethical attitudes. Age, types of the university and extrinsic religiosity have no significant impact on the participants’ ethical attitudes. The results of the regression analyses are below (Table 1). The results clearly illustrates that an intrinsic religious orientation, ethnicity and sex significantly explained the participants ethical attitudes. As expected, the stronger a participant’s sense of intrinsic religiosity the more likely they were to find these various ‘‘questionable’’ business activities as wrong and vice versa. Thus, hypothesis 1 was supported, but hypothesis 2 was not supported. 102 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1: Regression Analyses Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 ,422a ,178 ,170 ,45198 a. Predictors: (Constant), Sex, Intrinsic Religiosity, Ethnicity ANOVAb Model 1 Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 13,884 3 4,628 22,655 ,000a Residual 64,146 314 ,204 Total 78,030 317 a. Predictors: (Constant), Sex, Intrinsic Religiosity, Ethnicity b. Dependent Variable: Ethical Attitudes Coefficientsa Unstandardized Coefficients Model 1 Standardized Coefficients t Sig. 11,204 ,000 -,235 -4,511 ,000 ,096 ,208 3,940 ,000 ,053 ,191 3,624 ,000 B Std. Error (Constant) 2,132 ,190 Intrinsic Religiosity -,155 ,034 Ethnicity ,376 Sex ,192 Beta a. Dependent Variable: Ethical Attitudes According to the Independent Samples Test female participants (mean = 2.1120; std. deviation = 0,49880) have more positive ethical attitudes than male participants (mean = 2,3782; std. deviation = 0,45005). This result is statistically significant (F = 0,190; t = -4,880; p = 0,000). Furthermore, female participants (mean = 3.8663; std. deviation = 0,77121) have higher intrinsic religiosity score than male participants have (mean = 3.6761; std. deviation = 0,70575). This result is statistically significant (F = 1,203; t = 2,243; p = 0,026). The Independent Samples Test showed that Turkish participants (mean = 2,1804; std. deviation = ,47967) have more positive ethical attitudes than Bosnian participants (mean = 2,6955; std. deviation = 0,43537). This result is statistically significant (F = 0,254; t = -5,284; p = 0,000). Furthermore, Turkish participants (mean = 3,8215; std. deviation = 0,75874) have higher intrinsic religiosity score than Bosnian participants have (mean = 3,4038; std. deviation = 0,50536). This result is statistically significant (F = 8,330; t = 2,751; p = 0,006) too. In terms of university type, there are no significant differences between ethical attitudes and extrinsic religiosity levels of the participants. However, there is a significant difference between participants of the two universities in terms of intrinsic religiosity. Specifically, participants of the Turkish University have a lower intrinsic religiosity score (mean = 3,6277; std. deviation = 0,71974) than participants of the Bosnian University (mean = 4,0037; std. deviation = 0,73713). This result is statistically significant (F = 0,371; t = -4,557; p = 0,000). Conclusion In summary, hypothesis 1 was generally supported. That is, an intrinsic religious orientation appears to explain, in part, one’s attitude toward questionable business practices. People who have a stronger intrinsic religious orientation tend to be more likely to believe that questionable business activities were wrong or unethical. Hypothesis 2 was not supported. Apparently, extrinsic religiosity is not a factor in determining one’s attitudes toward questionable business practices. However, it is perhaps not surprising that someone who has extrinsic religious orientation might be inclined to support these kinds of activities. Our findings related to the intrinsic religiosity are consisted with the findings of Vitell et al. (2006; 2007). In addition, the finding about the relationship between sex and ethical attitudes is also consisted with the 103 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo other studies’ findings. For example, Aydemir and Demirci (2008) found that female participants have more ethical attitudes than male participants have. As with any study, some limitations exist. Bosnian participants’ size is very limited. In addition, there are clearly other variables that were not included in this study which may help to explain the ethical attitudes of the prospective managers. For example, while the age, sex, nationality factors were examined, it might be interesting to examine other demographic variables such as religious affiliation, job experience, etc. Furthermore, the differences between practicing or non-practicing believers’ ethical attitudes are also interesting to be examined. We believe that this study is an important step toward understanding the relationship between religiosity and ethical attitudes of people in the global business environment. Especially, it is very important to understand people’s attitudes in the multi-ethnic, multi-cultural, and multi-religion environments. In summary, the field of business ethics, religiosity, and the relationship between business ethics and religiosity require further empirical studies. To the extent that current university students are future business leaders, as Conroy and Emerson (2004) suggested that management teams that include more ethnically and sexually diverse, older, and churchgoing (or mosque/synagogue-going) members (holding all else equal) may reduce the probability of future ethics scandals like those involving Enron, Arthur Andersen, WorldCom and others. References Allport, G. W. (1950). The Individual and Religion (Mac Millan, New York). Allport, G. W. and Ross, J. M. (1967). Personal Religious Orientation and Prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 432-443. Aydemir, M., and Demirci, M. K. (2008), Ethical Perceptions of the Future Leaders: A Case of a Turkish University. International Journal of Emerging and Transition Economies, Vol. 1, Issue 1, 163-175. Barnett, T. and Brown, G. (1994). The Ethical Judgments of College Students Regarding Business Issues. Journal of Education for Business, 69, 333-339. Calkins, M. (2000). Recovering Religion’s Prophetic Voice for Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 23: 339-352. Clark, J. W. and Dawson, L. E. (1996). Personal Religiousness and Ethical Judgements: An Empirical Analysis. Journal of Business Ethics, 15: 359-372. Conroy, S. J. and Emerson, T. L. N. (2004). Business Ethics and Religion: Religiosity as a Predictor of Ethical Awareness among Students. Journal of Business Ethics, 50: 383-396. Fort, T. L. (1997). Religion and Business Ethics: The Lessons from Political Morality. Journal of Business Ethics, 16, 3, 263-273. Hunt, S. D. and Vitell, S. J. (1993), The General Theory of Marketing Ethics: A Retrospective and Revision, in N. C. Smith and A. John (eds.). Ethics in Marketing, Quelch (Irwin Inc., Homewood, IL), 775–784. Ibrahim, N. A.; Howard, D. P. and Angelidis, J. P. (2008). The Relationship between Religiousness and Corporate Social Responsibility Orientation: Are there Differences between Business Managers and Students? Journal of Business Ethics, 78: 165-174. Kennedy, E. J. and Lawton, L. (1998). Religiousness and Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 17: 163-175. McMahon, T. F. (1986). Creed, Cult, Code and Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 5: 453-463. Phau, I. and Kea, G. (2007). Attitudes of University Students toward Business Ethics: A Cross-National Investigation of Australia, Singapore and Hong Kong. Journal of Business Ethics, 72: 61-75. Singhapakdi, A.; Marta, J. K.; Rallapalli, K. C. and Rao, C. P. (2000). Toward and Understanding of Religiousness and Marketing Ethics: An Empirical Study. Journal of Business Ethics, 27: 305-319. Siu, N. Y. M; Dickinson, J. R. and Lee, B. Y. Y. (2000). Ethical Evaluations of Business Activities and Personal Religiousness. Teaching Business Ethics, 4: 239-256. Vitell, S. J. and Muncy, J. (2005). The Muncy–Vitell Consumer Ethics Scale: A Modification and Application. Journal of Business Ethics 62(3), 267–275. Vitell, S. J.; Paolillo, J. G. P. and Singh, J. J. (2006). The Role of Money and Religiosity in Determining Consumers’ Ethical Beliefs. Journal of Business Ethics, 64: 117-124. Vitell, S. J.; Singh, J. J. and Paolillo, J. (2007). Consumers’ Ethical Beliefs: The Roles of Money, Religiosity and Attitude toward Business. Journal of Business Ethics, 73: 369-379. Weaver, G. R. and Agle, B. R. (2002). Religiosity and Ethical Behavior in Organizations: A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective. Academy of Management Review, 27(1), 77–98. 104 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e646a555e955e7292152675809449a9f.doc 9c4bc60cbcba1b19ebe267fa9f6e246f Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 152 Title A name given to the resource The Impacts of Religiosity on the Ethical Attitudes of the Prospective Managers Author Author AYDEMİR, Muzaffer GÖKSU, Ali OBRALIĆ, Merdžana Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, we aimed to explore the relationship between religiosity and business ethics. Two dimensions of religiosity – intrinsic an extrinsic- were studied. We tested mainly one hypothesis: whether ethical attitudes are affected by religiosity. However, we also explored the relationships between ethical attitudes, intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity and various demographic measures of the participants such as age, sex, and nationality. In our study, we surveyed students at two different universities -- one is in Turkey and the other is in Bosnia & Herzegovina. Our sample consisted of first year university students. Our survey instruments have three parts. First part included 24-vignette ethics scale of Barnett and Brown (1994). Second part included 15-item religiosity scale of Allport and Ross (1967) -- adopted version of it by Vitell et al. (2007). Third part contained various demographic measures such as age, sex, and nationality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cd44c60f3dbc6a2c158988dc8c230eb6.pdf 9670d1e52d0115a25dd9da820582dde9 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Financial Crisis and Economic Sustainability in South East Europe Nurdan ASLAN Department of Economics, University of Marmara, Turkey nuraslan@marmara.edu.tr Nuray TERZI Department of Economics, University of Marmara, Turkey nurayterzi@marmara.edu.tr Abstract: The global financial system has witnessed rapid growth and substantial structural change during the last ten years leading to globalization of financial markets. The integration of financial markets has accentuated the rapid flow of capital across borders as well as magnified the contagious effects of financial crisis with wide implications for transmission of financial policies on the domestic economy and internationally. The global financial crisis has become a major international event and has spread to developing countries through trade linkages, a reduction of FDI and remittances, and a collapse in commodity prices. The effect of the global financial crisis was worsened by rising global energy prices which pushed up inflation. The global financial crisis has evolved differently from other major crises that have hit the developing world. This paper analyzes the economic sustainability in South East Europe against global financial crisis. Keywords: global financial crisis, economic sustainability Introduction From 2002 until the end of 2007 world economic growth averaged 4.5 per cent per annum compared to 3 per cent in the 1990s. Growth has been particularly strong and broad-based in the developing world, reaching some 7.5 per cent, twice the rate of the 1990s. Real commodity prices rose to levels not seen since the 1970s and developing countries as a whole started to run trade surpluses with advanced countries private capital flows to developing countries recovered strongly and spreads on emerging-market debt fell to historical lows. Price stability in the developing world has been unprecedented for many decades, with single-digit inflation rates being the rule rather than the exception (Akyuz, 2008). As a result of continued deregulation of financial markets and further opening of national borders to international capital flows, economic activity in both advanced and developing countries has come to be increasingly shaped by financial factors. Low interest rates in some other advanced countries, notably in Japan, encouraged cross-currency flows towards countries with higher interest rates, including in the form of highly leveraged carry trades. The very same factors have played a major role in the strong recovery of capital flows to emerging markets, contributing to currency appreciations, asset bubbles and credit expansion, and stimulating spending and growth in the recipient countries (Akyuz, 2008). In recent decades, world trade has shown two important characteristics. First of all, it has tended to expand more rapidly than world production, a process that has been accompanied 2008 by a rapid diversification in the trade structure. Thus, during the recent boom, in 2003-2006, world trade grew at an annual rate of 9.3%, more than twice the rate of growth of world output (3.8%). Second, these rates of growth have been highly elastic to world output through the business cycle and have, therefore, been more volatile than world production (UNDP, 2009). These conditions have been replaced since mid-2008, particularly since September 2008, by the effects of financial turmoil that erupted in mid-2007 in the U.S. which has now become the worst global financial crisis and the worst recession since the Great Depression (UNDP, 2009). This financial crisis quickly spread to emerging market and developing economies. Investors have pulled capital from countries, even those with small levels of perceived risk, and caused values of stocks and domestic currencies to plunge. Also, slumping exports and commodity prices have added to the woes, pushing economies world wide either into recession or into a period of slow economic growth (Nanto, 2009). The current financial crisis has imposed a heavy economic burden on many countries and significantly increased the incidence of poverty and vulnerability. This paper analyzes the economic sustainability in South East Europe against global financial crisis. The following section gives the channels of transmission of the crisis 10 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to developing countries. Third section presents the economic conditions in South East Europe economies. Last section provides a conclusion. The Channels of Transmission of the Crisis to Developing Countries The current economic and financial crisis was driven by the reversal of the three positive shocks that developing countries experienced during the recent boom period: exceptional financing, high commodity prices and large flows of remittances. The initial trigger that contributed to the reversals of these trends was the impact of the bursting of the U.S. housing bubble. The emerging recession in the United States and other developed countries further multiplied the negative impact of the crisis for developing countries (UNDP, 2009). The one of the main channel of transmission of the crisis to exporters of manufactures and services is a decline in trade volumes and exporters of primary goods can be affected by declining prices. Falling energy prices can benefit energy importing countries but they can also lead to reduced investment and economic activity in commodity-dependent developing countries (UNDP, 2009). The deterioration in financing conditions has been most severe for countries with large current account deficits. These countries showed signs of overheating and unsustainably rapid credit growth prior to the intensification of the financial crisis. About half of all developing countries have been running current account deficits of 5 percent of GDP or more, and in some cases the deficits are around 10 percent. Developing countries will be highly vulnerable to swings in various sources in external financing in coming years (Lin,2008). The second channel for transmission of the crisis from developed to developing countries is via capital flows. The effects take place both through volumes and associated costs of such flows (UNDP, 2009). According to World Bank, private capital flows to developing countries are likely to fall significantly in 2009, led by pull-backs in portfolio flows and international bank lending. Large portfolio and foreign bank lending flows have contributed to rapid growth in credit to the private sector and large private-sector driven current account deficits in a number of countries. The sudden deceleration of inflows will force a sharp adjustment in private-sector activity. There is a high probability of balance sheet deterioration and possible banking crises where banks and non-bank financial institutions have expanded credit to the private sector most rapidly. There may be an especially direct channel in economies where there has been substantial borrowing from foreign banks, either through branches in the domestic market or through borrowing by local banks. Central and Eastern European economies, which have experienced especially rapid credit increases, with foreign banks playing a dominant role in the domestic market, could be most at risk (World Bank, 2008). In addition, the current global financial crisis influences firms’ capacity to invest as a result of reduced availability of finance and their propensity to invest due to gloomy economic and markets prospects. Financial factors have negatively affected TNCs’ capacity to invest, both internally and externally, as tighter credit conditions and lower corporate profits curtail TNCs’ financial resources for overseas investment projects. On the one hand, credit has become less abundant and more expensive. The gloomy evolution of markets, including the looming sharp economic recession worldwide and a heightened appreciation of risk, has also reduced firms’ propensity to invest for further expansion both domestically and internationally of production capacity. Companies’ investment plans may also be scaled back due to a high level of perceived risks and uncertainties, in order to develop resilience to possible “worst-case” scenarios regarding financial and economic conditions (UNCTAD, 2009). Investment was the main driving force for developing-country growth over the past 5 years, contributing almost half of the increase in domestic demand. But the crisis will deal a negative shock to investment in developing markets. It is expected investment in middle-income countries in 2009 to grow at less than half the 2007 rate of 13 percent (Lin, 2008). In South East Europe, foreign direct investment is expected to decline sharply in 2009. The Economist Intelligence Unit predicts a decrease in FDI in some South East Europe countries. The last channel of the crisis is remittances. Migrant remittances represent the most direct, immediate and far reaching benefit to migrants and their countries of origin. They are a more constant source of income to developing countries than official development assistance, foreign direct investment and other private flows. Moreover, the emergence of remittances as a new strategy for poverty alleviation in developing countries has spurred multilateral institutions, international organizations, and national governments, among others, to seriously study, identify and implement measures on how these inflows could be maximized and then harnessed for the development of migrants’ countries of origin (Pant, 2008). As labor markets slacken, foreign workers are likely to suffer disproportionate impacts on their earnings, which will reduce remittances. Remittances from host countries are expected to be decline in response to the global slowdown but the impact on flows to recipient countries will depend significantly on exchange rates. According to World Bank (2008) in 28 countries, remittances to developing countries were larger than revenues from the most important commodity export, and in 36 countries they were larger than private and 11 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo public capital inflows. They are also a powerful poverty reduction mechanism. For example, in Nicaragua remittances reduce poverty incidence by four percentage points on average, and five percentage points in urban areas. In Albania, households with migrants to Italy and Greece have an incidence of poverty that is half the national rate (i.e., 15 and 19 percent compared to an average of 32 percent). Remittance flows from host to developing countries, which reached an estimated $295 billion in 2008, began slowing in the second half of 2008 and are projected to slow sharply in 2009. The Economic Sustainability in South East Europe Economic sustainability requires that economic benefits exceed or at least balance costs and conditioned mainly by supply and demand. South East Europe Countries, under the current financial crisis, try to achieve their economic sustainability. Is it possible to achieve this aim for South East Europe countries next three years? Following section tries to answer this question. Before current financial crisis, the growth in real GDP in South East Europe was pretty good. Especially, Montenegro has a high growth rate. But most of them started to have a decrease in their GDP in 2007. According to estimates, the SEE countries are expected to suffer a significant drop in GDP: the Albania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, FYR Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. Graph 1 provides the developments 2005-2008 and outlook 2009-2011. The most of the countries in SEE may start growing again in 2010 and 2011. However, Bosnia and Herzegovina may take this process slower than the other SEE countries (Graph 1). Source: EBRD Transition Report 2007; wiiw 2009. *2009-2011 forecast. Graph 1: Growth in real GDP in South East Europe, 2005-2011 The degree of the financial openness shows integration with the rest of the world. Financial openness has followed a fluctuation during the past decade in the region. Although the financial crises in the end of the 1990s had a negative effect on the capital flows tin SEE countries, the financial openness increased between 2001 and 2005 and the most of the SEE countries experienced an increase in the financial depth in this term. The amount of M2 as a percentage of GDP increased the most of the SEE countries: Albania, Croatia, Romania, Macedonia and Bulgaria. The other important thing is an increase in foreign banks in the region. The amount of foreign banks increased significantly in SEE countries between 1995 and 2006 (Terzi, 2009). The SEE foreign banks and non-bank financial institutions have over the past decade accounted for more than half of the corporate lending market and two thirds of the home-loan business. The countries are strongly dependent on foreign currency lending, which has mainly been provided by foreign banks to their southeastern subsidiaries. With the credit freeze domestic banks and local companies are finding it increasingly difficult to refinance their foreign debt holdings. A lack of credit availability from foreign institutions is particularly dire when it is also affecting successful firms in the region. Export capacity in the region is dependent on trade finance being by local banks at affordable rates. But local credit availability is currently 12 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo drying up. Moreover, the interest rate on export finance loans to Bulgaria, Serbia or Romania has gone from 1.2 percent above libor to about six percentage point higher (Bastian, 2009). In addition, global financial crisis affected the external liabilities in the region. Data from the Bank for International Settlements shows that East, Central and Southeast European Banks accumulated total external liabilities to banks that report to the BIS of USD 1.657 trillion as of September 2008. USD 1.511 trillion of that total amounts is owed to euro-zone commercial banks (Bastian, 2009). Another effect of the current financial crisis is on the consumer prices. Under the impact of the international crisis, the most of SEE countries have reached a point where high inflation is likely to depress credit growth in 2008 (EBRD, 2008). The inflation in the region is expected to decline in 2009. The forecasts in 2010-11 show that the inflation may increase again in this area (Graph 2). Graph 2. Consumer Prices in South East Europe, 2005-2011 (change in % against previous year) Source: EBRD Transition Report 2007; wiiw 2009.*2009-2011 forecast. Current account deficit is important indicator for the countries to see the effect of the crises. All SEE countries, the current account deficit in 2008 exceed 10 % of GDP. It ran as high as 27% in Montenegro, 25% in Bulgaria and 18% in Serbia, while it ranged between 10 and 15 % in Albania, Croatia, Macedonia and Romania. The current account deficits in the SEE are high in general. As many East Europe Countries run large current account deficit, they are dependent on foreign capital and loans to continue their operations. The forecasts show a decrease in their current account deficits in 2010-2011(Graph 3). Graph 3. Current Account in South East Europe, 2005-2011 (in % of GDP) Source: EBRD Transition Report 2007; wiiw 2009. *2009-2011 forecast. 13 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The government deficit in SEE countries will probably increase in both 2009 and 2010. The main reason will be a combination of lower revenues and overextended expenditures. The increase in expenditures will mainly stem from the need to support ailing financial and non-financial companies and pay out higher unemployment benefits. Under such circumstances, the countries in question will hardly be in a position to enact substantial demand-stimulating fiscal policies over a long period (wiiw, 2009). In terms of foreign direct investment, the year 2008 marked the end of a growth cycle in international investment that started in 2004 and saw world foreign direct investment flows reach a historic record of $1.8 trillion in 2007. Due to the impact of the ongoing worldwide financial and economic crisis, FDI flow decline by more than 20 per cent in 2008. A further decrease in FDI flows can be expected in 2009, as the full consequences of the crisis on transnational corporations’ investment expenditures will continue to unfold (UNCTAD, 2009). Romania is one of the most attractive countries in South East Europe in terms of foreign direct investment. Croatia and Bulgaria also attract the foreign direct investment. The rest of the region has less foreign direct investment than the other countries. Until 2007, the flow of foreign direct investment to South East Europe was pretty good (Tab.1). However, foreign direct investment is expected to decline sharply in 2009. The Economist Intelligence Unit predicts a decrease by 46 percent between 2008 and 2009, with FDI considerably declining in Romania, Montenegro, Serbia and Bulgaria. Table 1. Foreign Direct Investment (in US$ million), 2005-2007 2005 2006 2,298 5,016 Bulgaria 1,548 3,516 Croatia 6,587 11,430 Romania 265 300 Albania 667 723 Bosnia and Herzegovina 97 350 FYR, Macedonia 474 550 Montenegro 1,481 4,400 Serbia Source: EBRD, Transition Report, 2007 2007 3,090 2,363 9,600 400 791 150 161 3000 South East Europe countries experienced a high unemployment rates. The unemployment rate in the most of the region is more than 10%. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia have a higher unemployment rate than the others. Moreover, the forecasts show that the unemployment in this region will continue to stay a high rate in next two years (Graph 4). Especially, the unemployment rates in Bulgaria and Romania are expected to come up a high level in 2009. Graph 4. Unemployment, rate in %, annual average, 2007-2011 Source: wiiw, 2009; Labour Force Survey. *2009-2011 forecast. Migrant workers’ transfers in the Southeastern Europe constitute a major economic factor. In 2007 remittances as a share of GDP reached 17.2 percent in Bosnia & Herzegovina, 10 percent in Albania (Tab. 2). Remittances slightly increased in 2008. But the economic crisis will leave its mark on migrant workers’ continued ability to transfer such amounts back home. Many of these labors are employed in sectors adversely affected by the recession in their host countries, in particular in car manufacturing, construction and household 14 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo work. A decline in remittances from relatives working abroad will affect families and their income expectations during 2009 (Bastian, 2009). Table 2. Workers’ Remittances in the SEE (US $ Million) 2007 2008 In % of GDP (2007) 1.071 1.071 10.1 Albania 2.520 2.600 17.2 Bosnia&Herzegovina 2.086 2.200 5.7 Bulgaria 267 315 3.6 Macedonia,FYR 8.533 9.000 5.6 Romania 4.910 5.100 13.8 Serbia + Montenegro Source: World Bank estimates based on the International Monetary Fund's Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook 2008 and World Bank, Migration and Remittances Factbook 2008. Conclusion The world economy is going through difficult times. The turmoil in the international financial markets over the last year is having an increasingly adverse effect on the SEE countries. Under the current financial crisis, the growth in South East Europe will probably decrease and consumer prices will likely go down in 2009. South East Europe countries have been running current account deficits of 5 percent of GDP or more. These economies will be highly vulnerable to swings. The crisis will deal a negative shock to investment in South East Europe. This will lead to a decline foreign direct investment. Unemployment will continue to go up. And as labor market slacken, foreign workers are likely to suffer negative effects on their earnings, will reduce remittances. The full impact of the financial turmoil will depend on the behaviour of the countries economy policies in the next three years. References Akyuz, Y. (2008). The Current Global Financial Turmoil and Asian Developing Countries. TWN, Malaysia. Bastian, J.(2009). Falling Behind Again ? Southeast Europe and The Global Crisis. Eliamep Thesis. March. EBRD (2008). Transition Report. Lin, J.Y. (2008). The Impact of the Financial Crisis on Developing Countries. Korea Development Institute. Nanto, D.K. (2009). The Global Financial Crisis: Analysis and Policy Implications. CRS RL 34742. Pant, B. (2008). Mobilizing Remittances for Productive Use: A Policy-Oriented Approach. NRB Working Paper 4. Terzi, N. (2009). Financial Globalization And Development in SEE. Journal of Academic Studies, Vol.11, No. 40. FebruaryApril. UNCTAD (2009). Assessing the Impact of the Current Financial and Economic Crisis on Global FDI Flows, UNCTAD. UNDP.(2009). The Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Developing Countries”, Working Paper, UNDP. Wiiw (2009). wiiw Forecast for Central, “East and Southeast Europe, Kazakhstan and China: Differentiated Impact of the Global Crisis”. World Bank (2008). Global Financial Crisis and Implications for Developing Countries. G-20 Finance Ministers’ Meeting Brazil. 15 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bac7a9752159c374897bd56294632567.doc c548a96c734e7a52a88c042aa05083cf Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 127 Title A name given to the resource Global Financial Crisis and Economic Sustainability in South East Europe Author Author ASLAN, Nurdan TERZI, Nuray Abstract A summary of the resource. The global financial system has witnessed rapid growth and substantial structural change during the last ten years leading to globalization of financial markets. The integration of financial markets has accentuated the rapid flow of capital across borders as well as magnified the contagious effects of financial crisis with wide implications for transmission of financial policies on the domestic economy and internationally. The global financial crisis has become a major international event and has spread to developing countries through trade linkages, a reduction of FDI and remittances, and a collapse in commodity prices. The effect of the global financial crisis was worsened by rising global energy prices which pushed up inflation. The global financial crisis has evolved differently from other major crises that have hit the developing world. This paper analyzes the economic sustainability in South East Europe against global financial crisis. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2909014f2301a7cf4e20d0ce87f6dafc.pdf 65bb958bdd15d440e20e8024d0ec91d3 PDF Text Text An Investigation of the Effective E-Learning Criteria for Higher Education Institutions Özcan Asilkan Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania oasilkan@epoka.edu.al Fatih Ersoy Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania afersoy@epoka.edu.al Abstract: The recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies affected education industry as well as other industries all over the world. Over the past decade, higher education institutions have been increasingly utilizing e-learning programs. However, some experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems might result in failure and disappointment. Therefore educational institutions should develop and follow the corporate guidelines so that the courses can be taught effectively and students can feel comfortable to adapt quickly to the other e-learning based courses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning for higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University in Spring semester of 2008-2009 academic year. The findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions who are planning to establish e-learning. Introduction The advancement in ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) and the widespread use of computers have generated a remarkable interest in on-line education in the past decade. This advancement led educational institutions search for alternatives to the traditional education. Consequently, they started to offer online education, or simply “e-learning” which aims to eliminate the dependency to the traditional classrooms and/or improve the learning environment (Eastman & Swift, 2001). There are many definitions of e-learning. For example, Zhang et al. (2004) defined it as “technologybased learning in which learning materials are delivered electronically to remote learners via a computer network”. A very comprehensive one was proposed by Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre: “learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communication technologies” (Jenkins & Hanson, 2003). Although e-learning is utilized by many educational institutions and companies today, the major beneficiaries are higher education institutions due to their high number of learners whose ages are very suitable for understanding e-learning. Nowadays, a great number of higher education institutions are providing e-learning courses or complete programs to the students. Besides, the number of those higher institutions is continually increasing. It is becoming evident that on-line education will become an integral part of higher education in the foreseeable future (Nakos et al., 2002). Despite this increasing interest in e-learning, some recent studies claimed that e-learning is less popular amongst learners compared with traditional learning and there is less demand for online study than enthusiasts predicted (Mcleod, 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008). Some other experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems may even result in failure and disappointment. Since e-learning is a new concept and has been popular swiftly, many higher institutions implemented it without determining corporate guidelines and critical success factors, measuring students perception, etc. Actually, an understanding of students’ perception and the factors that drive adoption intention will be very useful to make this mode of learning more acceptable. Additionally, teachers who are experienced in e-learning might be expected to understand what students are looking for when they are choosing their mode of studies (Lam & Bordia, 2008). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University which is located in a transition country, Albania. E-learning issues are comparatively little known in Albania and there seems no relevant study researching e-Learning in the higher 249 �education institutions in this small lovely country. Therefore findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions in Albania or other transition countries to establish their e-learning strategies. E-Learning Models E-learning models used at the higher education institutions can be classified according to various criteria. Three major categories are presented below (Eurybase, 2009): 1. The role of e-learning: a) Full e-learning programs – students obtain access to e-learning contents put on an online platform (like web) or distributed on CDs. Students are usually supported by tutors that use various communication tools (chat, discussion forum, e-mail, virtual classroom, videoconferences). Students take presence at the university several times a year, during which they take exams, participate in kick-off classes. This model is being used successfully only by a small set of universities. b) Traditional learning programs supported by ICTs in the area of communication and collaboration – this model is usually used by institutions that haven’t developed e-learning contents yet. c) Blended learning programs – students attend traditional led classes, which are supported with e-learning contents. This is the most popular model today. 2. E-learning content distribution method: a) Computer based training – it is a popular model in universities who are lack of high Internet access. b) Web based training – it is becoming more and more popular due to some improvements in IT infrastructure, as well as the increased availability of cost-effective e-learning solutions. 3. E-learning solutions used: a) Self-developed platforms – they were quite common a few years ago that universities started to develop own solutions instead of purchasing expensive commercial ones. However due to the need for continuous investment in self-developed platform to follow new standards, decreasing prices of commercial solutions, appearance and popularization of open source platforms (e.g. Moodle), only few universities still continue to develop their own platforms. b) Open source platforms – they are commonly used today in many universities. These platforms are usually free and can be easily adapted to the particular needs of a university. One of the most popular platforms is Moodle. Moodle implementations however are rarely integrated with other university systems and their usages lack standardization and coherence between various courses (Please see http://moodle.org/ for a detailed information on Moodle). c) Commercial platforms – they are usually integrated with other university systems and their usage seems to be the most professional compared to self-developed and open source platforms. These platforms are usually preferred by universities who offer a comprehensive set of e-learning courses. E-Learning Pros and Cons Recent developments in ICTs have made e-learning a feasible alternative to access to educational and training opportunities for learners of all ages, at all levels, and in different environments. In contrast to traditional classroom learning, e-Learning has several advantages for learners. First, e-learning provides time and location flexibility. Second, in the long run, e-learning results in cost and time savings for educational institutions. Third, it supports self-directed and self-paced learning by conducting learner-centered activities. Fourth, e-learning offers a collaborative learning environment by linking each learner with physically dispersed experts and peers. Fifth, it allows unlimited access to electronic learning materials. In addition, knowledge stored in a Web repository can be updated and maintained in a timely and effective fashion (Anaraki, 2004). 250 �On the other hand, superficial e-learning systems can result in frustration, anxiety, confusion, and reduced learner interest. Some of the problems that hinder the effectiveness of e-learning are listed below (Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). • Lack of forms of communication, body language and voice inflection: Compared to traditional classroom teaching, the electronic experience takes away much of the social and diversity aspects in the elearning class. These important skills are important in the business community and in an individual’s success in interacting face-to-face with others. • Text-based learning materials: The learning materials composed of only text may seem boring to learners and cause them to disengage during online learning. • Unstructured and isolated multimedia content: Many multimedia-based e-learning systems simply post content on the Web without any processing. Postings are usually static, passive and unstructured, without any link to relevant materials in different media. For example, instructional videos and PowerPoint slides of the same lecture are presented separately. Learners may even have to go to two different Web sites to view both of them. • Lack of rich content: A number of e-learning systems lack adequate instructions for students. Some systems provide only PowerPoint slides which may not ensure that learners understand the learning content. It is not uncommon for readers of those slides to fail in understanding what an instructor really means by all those bullet points. • Insufficient interactivity or flexibility: Many current e-learning systems are not quite interactive. Learners have little flexibility to adapt learning content and process to meet their individual needs. For example, it may not be possible to find exactly what is wanted or to skip a portion of content that is already known (Hammond, 1995). In other cases, a student may want to ask a question and get an answer right away instead of sequentially going through an entire instructional video or other multimedia content to find an answer. Most multimedia-based e-learning systems do not provide this capability. Table 1 illustrates the pros and cons of e-learning in comparison with traditional classroom learning (Zhang et al., 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). Advantages Traditional Classroom Learning Immediate feedback ƒ Being familiar to both instructors and students Motivating students ƒ Cultivation of a social community ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ Instructor-centered Time and location constraints ƒ More expensive to deliver Disadvantages ƒ Lack of individual interactivity especially in ƒ crowded classes. ƒ ƒ E-Learning Learner-centered and self-paced Time and location flexibility Cost-effective Potentially available to global audience Unlimited access to knowledge Archival capability for knowledge reuse and sharing Lack of immediate feedback in asynchronous elearning Increased preparation time for the instructor Not comfortable to some people Potentially more frustration, anxiety, and confusion Lack of social communication Table 1. Pros and Cons of E-Learning Effective E-Learning Criteria Establishing e-Learning courses is a very complex process that includes many critical success factors. Thus, institutions and educators need to consider these factors to provide effective learning environments. The institution should firstly determine its own corporate guidelines and inform the educators to base their courses on them. This is especially important in order to maintain a common user interface for each course. Here are some examples to corporate guidelines: (Zeidman, 2003; Anaraki, 2004) • • • • • • • Learning objectives must be clearly defined. The course structure must be well thought-out and consistent for each course The user interface must be easy to use and consistent for each course. Courses must be prepared by instruction experts with experience in instructional design. The courses must require regular interaction with the student. The progress must be measured, tracked, and reported. Minimum course materials must be determined (i.e. PowerPoint Slides, Videos, etc). 251 �• • Support tools (labs, references, collaboration, etc.) must be determined. Platform security must be maintained. A very comprehensive and challenging work has been done by Blass and Davis (2003) to explore the eight areas in terms of guiding principles that can be tailored to the needs of the particular student group and faculty. They grouped these principles into four higher order groupings or criteria, with the central concerns of each of these criteria identified (see Table 2). The relationships between the criteria and guiding principles are shown in the flowchart in Figure 1. Guidingprinciples 1Appropriatenessofstafandcontent 2Appropriatenessformarketandstudents .3Learningaspirations 4Cognitveergonomics 5Faculty-studentinteraction 6Student-studentinteraction 7Reinforcementstrategy 8Achievementofpurpose Higherordercriteria Centralconcerns Appropriateness Ise-learningappropriateandsustainable? Design Whatisthetargetpopulationandwhatshouldthee-learninglookandfeelike? Interaction Howwilstudentsandfacultyinteract? Evaluation Howarebothstudentlearningandproduct efectivenessassessed? Table 2. Guiding principles and Higher Order Criteria for E-Learning Development (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Figure 1. Relations between criteria and guiding principles. (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Obeying the guidelines of the institution, instructors must separately evaluate the student satisfaction towards the online course they are providing. Obtaining ‘feedback’ from students about the design and implementation of the learning environment provided is an essential part of identifying what has worked, and where improvements could be made in the future (Pearson & Trinidad, 2005, p. 396). Although educators may create their own survey forms, we can suggest them to use a qualified and effective survey instruments like OLES, one that was used and presented in the methodology section of this study. 252 �Methodology This study utilized an instrument called Online Learning Environment Survey (OLES). OLES is a webbased instrument for evaluating e-learning environments. Participants of the survey are asked to indicate their ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ experiences with components of online learning in a course they take. The data collected and the resultant statistics depict the actual and preferred learning environment of learners giving valuable feedback to educators working in these environments. OLES can be administered totally online by the educators. Using the OLES, educators can gather valuable pre-course and post-course data to evaluate the effectiveness of the e-learning environment. Adjustments can then be made accordingly to improve or adjust the learning environment. OLES instrument was developed by Dr. Sue Trinidad and Dr. John Pearson. Additional information about OLES can be obtained from http://www.monochrome.com.au/oles/survey.htm. OLES contains 54 items arranged in nine scales – Computer Usage (CU); Teacher Support (TS); Student Interaction and Collaboration (SIC); Personal Relevance (PR); Authentic Learning (AL); Student Autonomy (SA); Equity (EQ); Enjoyment (EN); and Asynchronicity (AS). Samples of items in each scale are shown in Table 3. Respondents are asked to rate items using a five-point scale (Almost Never; Seldom; Sometimes; Often; Almost Always). OLES is available in two forms: the student version and teacher version. In this paper, only data on the use of the student version has been used. SCALES SAMPLE ITEMS Computer Usage (CU) (6 items) I use the computer to find out information about the course. (3) I use the computer to take part in online discussions with other students. (6) Teacher Support (TS) (8 items) If I have an inquiry, the teacher finds the time to respond. (7) The teacher gives me valuable feedback on my assignments. (10) Interaction & Collaboration I discuss my ideas with other students. (18) I can collaborate with other students in the class. (19) (SIC) (6 items) Personal Relevance (PR) (5 items) I am able to pursue topics that interest me. (22) I link class work to my life outside of this class. (24) Authentic Learning (AL) (5 items) I work on assignments that deal with real-world information. (28) I apply real world experience to the topic of study. (30) Student Autonomy (SA) (5 items) I work during times I find convenient. (32) I play an important role in my own learning. (34) Equity (EQ) (7 items) I get the same amount of help from the teacher as do other students. (37) I receive the same encouragement from the teacher as other students do. (39) Enjoyment (EN) (6 items) Online learning is exciting. (44) I would enjoy my education if more of my classes were online. (47) Asynchronicity (AS) (6 items) I access the discussion forum at places convenient to me. (49) The process of writing and posting messages helps me to think. (52) Table 3. Guiding OLES scales and sample items (Source: Pearson & Trinidad, 2006) The data were collected from OLES that were applied to 13 MBA students taking Supply Chain Management course in Spring 2009 semester at Epoka University. The course included online discussions, assignments and some visual course materials as an adjunct to classroom presentations given by the lecturer every 3 weeks. Of the students 62% were female (n=8) and 38% were male (n=5). Findings The summarized responses of 13 students who completed OLES are shown in Table 4 and Figure 2. As one would expect, ‘preferred’ scores were higher than ‘actual’ scores. Means of scores ranged from 3.11 to 4.45 for ‘actual’ and 3.81 to 4.67 for ‘preferred’. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) revealed significant differences for the Computer Usage (CU), Teacher Support (TS), Personal Relevance (PR), and Authentic Learning (AL) scales in 95% confidence level. These results are giving opportunity to the lecturer of this course to identify unsatisfied aspects and update the e-learning environment supplied to the students. 253 �OLES Scale Computer Usage (CU) Teacher Support (TS) Student Interaction & Collaboration (SIC) Personal Relevance (PR) Authentic Learning (AL) Student Autonomy (SA) Equity (EQ) Enjoyment (EN) Asynchronicity (AS) Actual / Preferred Actual 3,40 Std. Deviation 0,964 Preferred 4,27 0,516 0,143 Actual 3,58 1,007 0,279 Preferred 4,48 0,788 0,218 Actual 3,35 1,287 0,357 Preferred 3,81 1,367 0,379 Actual 3,11 0,889 0,247 Preferred 4,05 1,120 0,311 Actual 3,37 1,110 0,308 Preferred 4,34 0,685 0,190 Actual 3,45 1,138 0,316 Preferred 4,03 1,183 0,328 Actual 4,45 0,606 0,168 Preferred 4,67 0,513 0,142 Actual 3,13 0,884 0,245 Preferred 3,82 1,039 0,288 Actual 3,72 0,939 0,261 Preferred 4,33 0,670 0,186 Mean Std. Error 0,267 F Sig. 8,243 0,008 6,502 0,018 0,785 0,384 5,598 0,026 7,177 0,013 1,650 0,211 1,005 0,326 3,340 0,080 3,708 0,066 Table 4. Statistics between students’ ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ scores on the OLES scales Figure 2. Graphical Representation of Students’ Actual and Preferred Scores Conclusion This study investigated the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. Elearning environments can not be effective without considering students’ needs and preferences. Obtaining student feedback is thus crucial for the successful design and implementation of e-learning environment. The study presented important findings regarding the students’ feedback on a sample e-learning course. By the help of effectiveness criteria and empirical results, higher education institutions can plan and implement e-learning strategies and thus improve the e-learning courses they offer to satisfy their students. The findings of this study also showed that OLES is a valuable tool to help higher education institutions and lecturers evaluate the effectiveness of their online courses. The results gathered by OLES or similar tools can be used to make changes to the design of actual e-learning environments. 254 �References Anaraki, F., (2004). Developing an Effective and Efficient eLearning Platform, International Journal of The Computer, the Internet and Management, 12 (2), 57-63. Blass, E. & Davis, A. (2003). Building on Solid Foundations: Establishing Criteria for E-learning Development, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 27 (3), 227-245. Eastman, J. & Swift, C. (2001). New horizons in distance education: The online learner centered marketing class. Journal of Marketing Education, 23, (1), 25-34. Eurybase – Retrieved from the web on May 25, 2009. http://www.easy-elearning.net/downloads/e-learning_in_Polonia.pdf Jenkins, M. & Hanson, J. (2003). E-Learning Series No.1: A guide for Senior Managers. Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre, UK, August 2003. Lam, P. & Bordia, S. (2008). Factors Affecting Student Choice of e-Learning over Traditional Learning: Student and Teacher Perspectives, The International Journal of Learning, 14 (12), 131-140. McLeod, D. (2004). Hefce Pulls the Plug on UK e-University. Education Guardian, March 4. Nakos, G. E., Deis, M.H., & Jourdan, L. (2002). Students’ Perceptions of On-line Courses: An Exploratory Study. Turkish Journal of Online Distance Education (TOJDE), 3 (1). Pearson, J. & Trinidad, S. (2006). Evaluating E-Learning environments in initial teacher education using the online learning environment survey (OLES), ACEC 2006 - The Australian Computers in Education Conference, Cairns, Australia. Zeidman, B. (2003). Guidelines for Effective E-Learning. Chief Learning Officer, 24-31. Zhang, D., Zhao, J., Zhou, L., & Numamaker, J. (2004). Can e-learning replace classroom learning?. Communication of the ACM, 47 (5), 75–78. 255 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/19855ede2c836370713ffc64c0d559b7.doc 3302f5ad64b9cd9b5046ed9b62f9041d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 423 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation of the Effective E-Learning Criteria for Higher Education Institutions Author Author ASILKAN, Özcan ERSOY, Ahmed Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. stract: The recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies affected education industry as well as other industries all over the world. Over the past decade, higher education institutions have been increasingly utilizing e-learning programs. However, some experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems might result in failure and disappointment. Therefore educational institutions should develop and follow the corporate guidelines so that the courses can be taught effectively and students can feel comfortable to adapt quickly to the other e-learning based courses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning for higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University in Spring semester of 2008-2009 academic year. The findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions who are planning to establish e-learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0cea774458ca32b1fab5611672512b4b.pdf a374b24983ee910c5033c27aa74343f3 PDF Text Text Learning and Teaching Strategies for Technology Education in Turkey Ahmet APAY Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey, aapay@sakarya.edu.tr Ibrahim YUKSEL Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey, iyuksel@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The main power behind the development of a country can be considered as EDUCATION. Today, due to rapid industrialization, professional and technical education is regarded as locomotive in raising staff to industry equipped with necessary qualifications. Engineering education in developed countries is based on theory and it is design oriented. Engineers participate rarely in implementation, though in some countries they are directly involved. The engineering education in Turkey is given in the faculties of Engineering and it has been observed that the education is mostly theoretical. It has also been observed that there are important shortcomings in transferring the comprehensive theoretical engineering knowledge into practice and that there is a gap between the industry and the universities. An important shortcoming exists in technology education, which actually means the transfer of theoretical knowledge into practice. The Technical Training Faculties do not only give theoretical knowledge but they also provide an important amount of applied education; however the graduates are entitled as technical teachers without clearly defined roles and responsibilities, as a result of which the industrial institutions can not make use of them. The engineering and technology education in developed countries are given by Engineering Faculties, Technology Faculties and Technician Schools. The technology Faculties part of this process is missing in our country. This should be completed by the establishment of the Technology Faculties. 1. Introduction In Turkey, the occupational and vocational school which levels are same of the primary and middle school has been established by Mithat Pasa on 1860. The number of these school has been increased to meet the needed occupational power in the firstly year of the Republic. The first school of high technical teacher was established to meet the needed teacher in Ankara at 1937. And then these schools were arranged as vocational and technical education faculties in 1983. The number of this school was four at 1983. The number of this school has rapidly increased to 19 in 2007. These faculties have some problem about quality and employment. The basics missions of Technical Education Faculty are to meet the teacher, who would be teacher in Industry Occupational and Technical high school, education centers of the apprenticeship and a teacher graduated from these schools takes a title “Technical Teacher”. The employing of technical teacher is not intent to another working area. The number of the student in Technical Education Faculty is totally 28097 at 2006. However, from 1669 student only 19 students has been assigned to a civil servant. Also, there is no any assigning for years in some expertise area (Strategic report of YOK, 2007). In laws, title of “Technical Teacher” is not defined for industry, for example workmen, technician, engineer or another thing they have to face highly important problems. 2. Current Status of Technical Education Faculties in Turkey These faculties are unique in the world so that the accreditation of these faculties is impossible. It was seen that the attraction and qualification of student or people has reduced from this status. Discussion about the status of Technical Education Faculty, its graduates and solving this problem has highly increased in nowadays. Discussions are based on the four subjects; 111 �1. The employing problem of technical teachers and the increasing number of graduated student. 2. The title, authorization, and responsibility are not defined for technical teachers that have not been assigned as a teacher in industry. 3. Technical Education Faculties hasn’t been accredited by any international accreditation organization and the equality of its diploma is not defined in EU, USA and the other countries in the world. 4. The equality of its diploma is not defined in EU, USA and the other countries in the world changing programme for student and academician hasn’t been realized. In developed country, technology education has been given by Technology Faculty. The basic aim of this faculty is grow up technology engineer with skilled in applications for industry. A student has industry experiences and pedagogic formation graduated from University of Applied Science, School of Technology, College of Technology or Faculty of Technology could be assigned as a technical teacher in EU, USA and the other countries. In our country only conventional engineering education has been given. But, in industry has desire Technology Engineer especially in the application area. Because of this reasons in our country Technical Education Faculties should be revised as Technology Faculty. 3. Which Kind of Workman are Desired by the Place of Employments in Turkey? The result of the report made by ISO Occupation Committees (Istanbul Industry Associated) in May 2007 was shown that the profile of the workman desired from by the entire sector. Which kinds of workman are desired by the place of employments in Turkey was shown as a graph (Fig.1). Figure1. The needing status according to the occupational groups in Turkey (Source: Report made by ISO Occupation Committees in May 2007. As a result of the report according to the needing status based on the occupational group that the desired qualified technical person ratio is about 73% in Turkey. This result is so important for industry and education system in Turkey. . 4. Comparison of the Faculty of Engineering and Faculty of Technology The researcher engineering graduated from faculty of engineering and engineering graduated from Faculty of Technology are named as “Chartered Engineer” and “Incorporated Engineer” respectively in EU countries, and USA. The most important different between the engineers is the first engineering education based on the knowledgetheoretical and conceiving the other one based on the skill and especially application in industry (Tab.1). 112 �Engineering Faculty Technology Faculty Knowledge and theatrical Skill and application Conceiving new product Application engineer Mathematical modeling and theory Applicable mathematic and application of science System arrangement and planning Applications of the current knowing in detailed Researching and Developing Advanced planning, using new technology and developing new product methods. Developing plans based on perspective in the middle and long period Management source and equip Create product quality and service processes Productiveness of product and product system, use of the current technology, developing secure and economical product methods To gain the aims in product developing plans based on the short and middle periods Management source and equip Table1. The differences of education area between faculties of engineering and faculties of technology The other important subject is the ratio of the occupational and other education. While the ratio of the occupational education is about 30-35% and the general education ratio is about 70-65% respectively in Turkey. However, the ratio of the occupational education is about 65-70% and the general education ratio is about 35-30% respectively in Europe and the other countries. . The quality is so important for growing up the qualified person in occupational school, vocational school and Faculty of Technology would be revised again. For this reason in our country; - The esteem of the occupational and vocational education should be increased. The integration of this intuition with the local employments sector should be ensured. The best students should be directed to this institutions, Best carrier for the stuff who is working in this intuitions should be ensured, Technical Education Faculties should be again revised as Technology Faculty 4.1 Differences Between Engineering and Engineering of Technology Differences between engineering and engineering of technology has been compared with together in scope of both generally and possibility of employment and summarized in below (Tab.2 and Tab.3). 113 �General Engineering Programme Programme of Technology Engineering İmpact of Programme Application of the daily engineering Developing new analysis, solving methods knowledge and expertise for solving for conceiving problems some technical problem Aim of the Experting Developing conceptual skills Title of employing The graduation is Engineer. Properties of Programme Engineering Programme Developing application skills The graduation is Engineering of Technology. Programme of Technology Engineering Impact on the Technical Lesson Engineering education is based on Engineering of technology is based on the theoretical and pointed out its potential the application and practice and Solving application in. the problems in industry and applications Impact on the Laboratory Lesson Experimental methods in laboratory lessons, and processing with theories are given In Laboratory for solving industrial problems the practice conceiving, producing and evaluation techniques are given. Impact on the Technical Conceiving General conceiving criteria and different methods are learned and new product, technology and system are developed The current conceiving methods are developed and applied a specific technique area, practice conceiving are made. Table2. Differences Between Engineering and Engineering of Technology (Source: Brochure of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,September 2000) İş imkanları The first typically employ position Technical interest Activity Mühendislik Programı Teknoloji Müh. Programı Works areas are conceptual conceiving in industry, engineering of system, research for product and developing process. Works areas are product and technical subject, developing product, testing, technical operations, service and quality control. Produce with analytical approach for solving technical problem in scope of wide. Experts for a specific area and produce of solving for the specifics problems especially application area. Usually has a management position Usually has industrial management positions After passed from some exam in USA, Acknowledge and membership could be taken Professional Engineer for occupational organization title. After passed from some exam in USA, could be taken Professional Engineer title. Could be studied in the other areas in engineering (Master’s degree or PhD). Could be studied in the other areas in engineering (Master’s degree or PhD). Master’s degree Table3. Comparing engineering and engineering of technology with together in scope of possibility of employment (Source: Brochure of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, September 2000) 114 �The occupational working and responsibilities of the Engineer and Engineer of Technology was shown on a schema (Fig.1). Figure1. Comparing the working area for Engineer and Engineer of Technology (Source: Brochure of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers September, 2000.) 5. Qualifiedness of Graduated from Faculty of Technology The graduated person should be authority by giving assigning authority for making project with your area, conceiving, management, application and control, developing products, testing, analysis, management of quality and production. The graduated person should be taken the title of Engineering of Technology in all of the world. The authorities for the Engineering of Technology could be summarized in below (Tab.4). Engineering of Technology Possible Employing Differences from Engineer Education Programme of Engineering of Technology Works areas are product and technical subject, developing product, testing, technical operations, service and quality control. Application of the daily Skill and application, engineering knowledge and expertise for solving some Application engineer technical problem Experts for a specific area and produce of solving for the specifics problems especially application area. Applicable mathematic application of science Usually has industrial management positions Applications of the knowing in detailed and Developing application skills current The graduation is Engineering of Technology. Engineering of technology is After passed from some exam in based on the application and Creates product quality and USA, could be taken practice and Solving the service processes Professional Engineer title. problems in industry and applications Could be studied in the other areas in engineering (Master’s degree or PhD). Productiveness of product and In Laboratory for solving product system, use of the industrial problems the practice current technology, developing conceiving, producing and 115 �secure and economical product evaluation techniques are given. methods To gain the aims in product The current conceiving methods developing plans based on the are developed and applied a short and middle periods specific technique area, practice Management source and equip conceiving are made. Table4. Qualified ness of Graduated from Faculty of Technology Carrier and positions of person graduated from Faculty of Technology and samples for the graduated degree of Technology Faculty accredited by the kind of accreditation institution in different countries was given below (Tab.6 and Tab.7). Applications Engineer Engineering Technologist Associate Engineer Hardware Engineer Automation Engineer Management Associate Management Trainee Manufacturing Engineer PCB Designer Engineer PCB Manufacturing Engineer Power Supply Test Engineer Product Change Coordinator Controls Engineer Control Systems Coordinator Display Design Engineer Electrical Applications Engineer Electrical Engineer Electronics Systems Engineer Project Engineer Quality Assurance Engineer Sales Engineer Service Engineer Shift Engineer Software Engineer Staff Engineer Systems Engineer Systems Integrator Production Supervisor Embedded Systems Engineer Test Engineer Product Support Engineer Programmer Engineer Field Engineer Validation Engineer Wireless Engineer Table 5. Carrier and positions of person graduated from Faculty of Technology Names of Programme Computer Engineering Technology Automotive Engineering Technology Manufacturing Engineering Electromechanical Engineering Technology Technology Mechanical Engineering Technology Design and Drafting Engineering Technology Electrical Engineering Technology Electronics Engineering Technology Architectural Technology 116 Engineering Mech. Technology Design Aeronautical Technology Engineering Engineering Marine Engineering Technology Telecommunications Technology Engineering Environmental Technology Engineering �Civil Engineering Technology Construction Technology Engineering Laser Technology Electro-Optics Engineering Aircraft Engineering Technology Table 6. Samples for the graduated degree of Technology Faculty accredited by the kind of accreditation institution in different countries 6. Result and Recommendations These faculties are unique in the world so that the accreditation of these faculties is impossible. It was seen that the attraction and qualification of student or people has reduced from this status From 1669 student only 19 students has been assigned to a civil servant in 2006. Also, there is no any assigning for years in some expertise area (Strategic report of YOK, 2007). In laws, title of “Technical Teacher” is not defined for industry, for example workmen, technician, engineer or another thing they have to face highly important problems. The result of the report made by ISO Occupation Committees (Istanbul Industry Associated) in May 2007 was shown that according to the needing status based on the occupational group that the desired qualified technical person ratio is about 73% in Turkey. This result is so important for industry and education system in Turkey. The researcher engineering graduated from faculty of engineering and engineering graduated from Faculty of Technology are named as “Chartered Engineer” and “Incorporated Engineer” respectively in EU countries, and USA. The most important different between the engineers is the first engineering education based on the knowledgetheatrical and conceiving the other one based on the skill and especially application in industry The other important subject is the ratio of the occupational and other education. While the ratio of the occupational education is about 30-35% and the general education ratio is about 70-65% respectively in Turkey. However, the ratio of the occupational education is about 65-70% and the general education ratio is about 3530% respectively in Europe and the other countries. The quality is so important for growing up the qualified person in occupational school, vocational school and Faculty of Technology would be revised again. The engineering and technology education in developed countries are given by Engineering Faculties, Technology Faculties and Technician Schools. The technology Faculties part of this process is missing in our country. This should be completed by the establishment of the Technology Faculties. References 16th National Education Conference Pre-Commission Reports Ankara, 1998. 16th.National Education Conference Pre-Commission Reports, Ankara, 1998. Vocational and Technical Education in National Education Conferences, Ankara, 1998. Çelik, H., Çıtak, R., Bay, Ö.F.,Ş Yücesu, H,S, ve Mahiroğlu,A., Reconstruction Activities for Technical Education Faculties, Gazi University, Technical Education Faculty, 2003. Yücesu, S.H., Bay, Ö.F., Technology Education and Technical Teacher Training in the World and in Turkey, Gazi Üniversity, Technical Education Faculty, 2004. Strategic Report of High Education Instition, 2007, Turkey. 117 �Report of the İSO (Istanbul Industry Association) Occupation Committee, May 2007. Brochure of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, September, 2000. 118 �The Value of Emotional Intelligence for EFL Settings M. Naci Kayaoğlu Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon (KTU) Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: In spite of the proliferation of emotional-intelligence-based research over the past few decades, this concept came only to receive sporadic attention from TEFL circles. The emphasis of the definitions ranges from “ability to engage in abstract thinking; general approach to new problems in life; adjustment to the environment; capacity for knowledge and knowledge possessed; general capacity for independence, originality, and productiveness in thinking; apprehension of relevant relationships; ability to judge, to understand, and to reason; deduction of relationships; and innate, general cognitive ability”. With this emphasis in mind, Emotional Intelligence appears to have potential to contribute substantially to our language students’ intellectual and emotional well-being and growth., which in return, helps create a very interactive, synergic atmosphere for EFL learners. This paper is a experimental follow-up study to investigate how English-majoring students develop emotional intelligence within the existing curriculum Introduction Emotional intelligence developed within the area of psychological research appears to have been well publicized within the business community to the extend that some companies employ people on the basis of test results of the emotional quotient and later popularized by Daniel Goleman’s 1995 known book, Emotional Intelligence: Why it Can Matter More Than IQ. Although emotional intelligence is theoretically a loose concept (Matthews et al 2002), given its practical implications, this can be considered an important reaction and response to the cognition-based approaches, mainly to IQ (intelligence quotient) in determining succes. IQ (intelligence quotient) was widely used for a long time and is still claimed by its advocates to be most effective predictor to account for academic achievement and performance at school. Attempts are painstakingly directed to find substantial relationship between success and IQ. Nevertheless, IQ testing which solely relies on cognitive abilities, reasoning and problem solving capacities fails to include several social, individual, affective, personal and interpersonal factors such as social structure, persistence, self-reliance, encouragement for success from family, teachers, and friends, interest and involvement in school, creativity, managing emotions and interpersonal skills. Intelligence testing, in real sense, began in France in 1904 with Alfred Binet, who was given the job by the French government to find a method to differentiate between intellectually normal children and inferior ones with a purpose to put the latter into special schools to receive more individual attention and subsequently to avoid their destruction to the education of other children. This testing was to be known as Binet-Scale. The scale was designed to serve as a guide for identifying students who need extra help in school. It was not intended to be used to define general intelligence of people. According to Binet, intelligence could not be measured with a single score as intelligence was not fixed and inborn ability. Later Binet Scale was revised, extended and turned to be the standard universally intelligence testing in the United States for the next several decades. There were also times when it was abused against certain groups of people (Siegler 1992; White 2000). As far as school achievement is concerned, IQ came out to detect children of lower intelligence in order to place them in special education programs. So a child’s intelligence was compared to what his or her expected intelligence should be as compared to the child’s age. If the child performed higher than a determined normal child of his or her own age, the child was given a higher score, and if the child scored lower than the expected for a child of his or her own age, the child received lower IQ score. Today IQ testing has been extended to adults with a view to determining an adult’s mental potential. Unlike yesterday, an adult’s test results are compared to other adults and intelligence is defined by comparing each test taker to all other test takers instead of an arbitrary age-based standard Intelligence. 119 �IQ has received strong criticism. From the very beginning the simplest definition that “intelligence is whatever intelligence tests measure” fails to characterize the construct itself, the nature of intelligence and the ability assumed to be measured. Furthermore, there are many different intelligence tests, which seem not to all measure the same thing. From the literature review I have covered, prominent scientists, psychologists and educators appear not to be in line with the definition of intelligence. The definitions range from ability to engage in abstract thinking to understand and to reason; deduction of relationships. It is interesting to note that students, though having high IQ, may have serious problems in terms of interpersonal skills and may not be capable of regulating their emotions and promoting their intellectual growth. Typical example is that most autistic children have high IQ measurements, yet they are unable to communicate in other forms, indicating that IQ is not suitable to measure creative and emotional abilities (Tricia Ellis-Christensen 2009). IQ is also severely criticized for being-culturally-biased as conceptions of intelligence vary from setting to setting and from culture to culture. Western dominated-I.Q tests can not be applied to other cultures with different values and world views. So intelligence tests are claimed to have the capacity to measure only a portion of a person’s ability that could be related to the aspect of intelligence (Gardner 1983, 2008). IQ is considered to be more of a result of an individual’s own conditions and opportunities to acquire skills and learn information in consistent with a particular cultural context. IQ testing is claimed to be deceptive and inadequate as it solely relies on cognitive abilities, reasoning and problem solving capacities to a large extent, ignoring several social and personal factors such social structure, persistence, self-reliance, encouragement for success from family, teachers, and friends, interest and involvement in school, creativity, managing emotions and interpersonal skills (Gardner 1995). Emergence of Emotional Intelligence In response to the limited capacity of IQ to measure a person’s ability, new theories of intelligence have developed in such a way as to include the whole person. Historical roots of EI go back to 1920s when Thorndike (1920) introduced social intelligence as the person's ability to understand and manage other people, and to get involved in social interactions wisely, drawing a distinction between academic ability and social intelligence, which is an essential element in what makes people succeed in life. The concept of social intelligence led to the several kinds of intelligence including multiple intelligences to be formulated by Howard Gardner (1983) who theorized that there were seven intelligences but in recent years more have been added: Verbal Linguistic - the ability to use words and language Logical Mathematical - highly developed ability to use reason, logic and numbers Bodily Kinesthic - capacity to control body movement and handle physical objects Visual Spatial - strong visual capacity to think in pictures and create pictures in their mind Musical Rhythmical - heightened ability to appreciate and produce music and sound Interpersonal - advanced ability to relate to and understand other people Intrapersonal - exhibit a strong sense of self and ability to understand and share their inner thoughts and feelings Naturalist - recognition, appreciation and understanding of the natural world around us Important figures in this area such as John Mayer, Peter Salovey and Howard Gardner were also to highlight the crucial importance of considering the cultural and social context and elements for a better evaluation of performance. Instead of focusing on cognitive aspects of intelligence, social intelligence includes the whole range of mankind’s relationships with other humans and with the world in general. According to John Mayer and Peter Salovey , emotional intelligence "is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions" (Mayer & Salovey, 1993: 433), overlapping with Gardner’s Interpersonal intelligence which involves the the capacity to understand oneself-one’s strengths, weakness, desires, fears and understanding of other persons-how to interact with them, how to understand their personalities (Gardner, 2005). Goleman (1998) also views the concept as the capacity for recognizing one’s and others’ feelings as to manage emotions in relationships with others. In spite of variation and overlapping with similar concepts, emotional intelligence seems to encompass the following five characteristics: 120 �Self-awareness--knowing your emotions, recognizing feelings as they occur, using your feelings to make good decisions, observing yourself, understanding negative thought processes. Managing emotions--handling feelings in appropriate manners and acting and reacting appropriately to a current situation and you react finding way to handle fears, anxieties, anger, and sadness. Self-motivation—Coordinating and channeling your feelings and directing yourself towards a goal, concentrating one’s emotions on the achievement of the goals, despite self-doubt, inertia, and impulsiveness Empathy— recognizing and being sensible to the concerns and feelings of others and taking their perspectives, understanding others, appreciating the differences in the way they take the things Handling relationships—handling interpersonal interaction, social competence, conflict resolution,and negotiations, being adept at managing the emotions and their interactions with others, being in harmony with people (Mayer & Salovey 1993, Goleman 1998). Emotional Intelligence and Turkish EFL Environment It is true to say that with astonishing speed in the advancement of telecommunication technologies and intercultural contacts in a modern global society today many foreign language programs and educational organizations in Turkey have been challenged to prepare students to develop communicative competence for the realization of this dynamic and conversational interaction with the cross-border environment. New policies and procedures set out by the Turkish Ministry of National Education in relation to teaching/learning of a foreign language in primary and secondary education over the last ten years are leading indicators of the efforts to meet this increasing need for the integration of our country with the world. To this end, the Ministry of National Education has designed new coursebooks promoting a communicative perspective. Similar trend can be observed in state-run or private language programs and in textbooks developed for young Turkish adults and university students. For example, Campus Life-English Course for Young Adults, recently designed by a team of Turkish lecturers at Çanakkale 18 Mart University, totally adopts the Common Eurpoean Framwork (CEF) guidelines, namely Erasmusoriented syllabus, most integral aspects of which is to foster the European mobility of students. To be more specific, it is the communicative vaue of the language mostly emphasized in the textbook. Considering the fact that the materials from a coursebook to smartboard are nothing but an aid to an end,which can be summarized as the use of target language for communicative purposes. The current comprehensive literature provides strong evidence that one of the most integral aspects of speaking in target language is to have selfconfidence, motivation and to feel at ease, far from from anxiety (MacIntyre and Gardner, 1994, Daly 1991 Young, 1991 and Horwitz & Young 1991). All of these are affective factors on learning a second/foreign language, and very much to do with the concept of emotional intelligence. It is our everyday classroom observation, as supported by MacIntyre and Gardner, (1991) that learners may avoid taking the neceassary risks to acquire communicative competence in the target language or they may feel deeply insecure in anxiety-provoking language environment. Daly (1991) and Young (1991) find that most students are particularly anxious when they have to speak a foreign language in front of their class. Whether the cause or the result of language learning problems, language anxiety poses a serious barrier on the way to effective language learning/teaching. Without breaking down this seriously hindering psychological barrier, it is very difficult to create an environment for the language learning/acquisition to take place because anxiety is unpleasant emotional state or condition which is characterized by subjective feelings of tension, apprehension, and worry, and by activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system” (Spielberger, 1983, cited in Horwitz, 1986, p. 125). Anxiety is usually classified into three divisions: trait, state and situational. Trait anxiety is relatively stable personality trait. A person who is trait anxious is likely to feel anxious in a variety of situations. The source which creates anxiety is not the event or the state, but the personality. ”People with high levels of trait anxiety are generally nervous. They lack emotional stability.” (Goldberg, 1993 cited in McIntyre, 1999) Second type anxiety is classified as situation-specific anxiety, the most common examples of which are test anxiety, math anxiety, language anxiety, stage fright and communication apprehension. This anxiety recurs in specific situations and can be stable over time; nevertheless, it is not distinguishing personality characteristic but specific to a particular situation. For example, talking before audience, talking to a native speaker, taking an exam, taking an oral interview can be given examples of this type anxiety. State anxiety, on the other hand, is different from trait and situation-specific anxieties in that it shows fluctuation and its intensity changes over time. It is a temporary condition experienced at a particular moment. Situation specific anxiety reflects a trait that recurs in a specific situaton (MacIyntre, 1995). While people with trait and situation anxieties feel nervous in general or in certain situations, people with state anxiety are much more 121 �sensitive about what other people are thinking of them. The observable symptoms of this type of anxiety are sweaty palms, wringing hands or faster heartbeats. However, state anxiety is the anxiety itself. It is a temporary negative emotional change that affects emotions, cognition and behaviours. Anxiety can be either facilitating or debilitating. Facilitating anxiety motivates learners to adopt an approach attitude and is willing to confront the new learning task. Debilitating anxiety motivates learners to assume an avoidance attitude and therefore tends to escape from the learning task (Scovel, 1991). Krashen’s Monitor Model also provides further evidence for the role of affective factors in that learner raise their “filter” when they have anxiety and fear of making mistakes, preventing them from learning and acquiring the target language as fear and anxiety. A burgeoning body of literature has provided adequate evidence on the impact of language anxiety on language learning but failed to suggest sound ways to overcome this problem. Given the fact that people having EQ are assumed to exhibit common attributes such as managing emotions, self-awareness, self-motivation, empathy, interpersonal relationship skills., then, it would be possible to reduce language anxiety in teaching foreign through developing emotional intelligence as this concept primarily appears to focus on the relation between cognition and emotions. And “minds without emotions are not really minds at all. They are souls on icecold, lifeless creatures devoid of any desires, fears, sorrows, pain or pleasure” (LeDoux 1996: 25) People proficient, for instance, in managing emotions are well prepared to overcome negative feelings, anxiety, and irritability. Through EI implications an anxietyfree classroom atmosphere can be established. Techniques Developing Emotional Intelligence Drama is a very powerful tool to be utilized to develop emotional intelligence. Teachers tend to be skeptical about the role of using drama in classes although many are quite familiar with the uses of skits to teach and reinforce material. Drama offers the students a way to interact with the physical environment and interaction with other people, which is critical in cognitive and emotional development and this moves the learners outside of the limits of the normal classroom environment. This is where the traditional classroom system appears mostly to fail. As drama employs a multi-sensory approach to language acquisition by involving second language learners physically, emotionally, and cognitively in the language learning, students are led to explore and experiement with the boundary of their anxiety and emotions, developing a sense of awareness of self in the target language culture. Students get involved in free flowing extemporaneous conversations as they interact with one another prior to the dramatizations and during the improvisations working cooperatively to orchestrate the dramatizations and improvisations. This naturally creates immense opportunity for interaction and interrelation communication among students. It becomes a matter of realizing themselves and producing something which they would be very proud of. Students are able to channel their emotions to achieve a goal, generate initiative for their own will. Drama activities provide not only variety, curiosity and enthusiasm to traditional run of courses but also a unique chance for the students to overcome the sources of language anxiety summarized by Young (1994) as Low self-esteem, Competitiveness, Self-perceived low ability levels Communication apprehension, Social anxiety, Existential anxiety, Lack of second language group membership, Learners’ beliefs about language learning. Another technique which can be used to develop learners’ emotional intelligence is Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT), developed in the early 1950’s by Albert Ellis. The rationale behind this techniques is that most of emotional disturbances stem from our irrational beliefs, and human being is capable of cognitively controlling illogical emotional responses as there is a strong relation between our thoughts, beliefs and emotions whether they are based on facts or not. So, our emotional disturbances such as anxiety and depression can be reduced through the changes in the way of thinking. Rigid thoughts and beliefs may well lead us to unrealistic expectations, resulting in dissapointing outcomes. For example, people with anxiety disorders perceive situations more disturbing than their actual level. Their fear of failure poses a considerable obstacle that prevents them from making progress. According to the Rational Emotive Behavioural Therapy, humans are capable to get rid of their irrational beliefs and thoughts and replace them with rational ones which establish and maintain being emotionally well (Avcı 2008). REBT is claimed to have an empirical evaluation of the events and consists of some therapeutic processes. In a study by Avcı (2008) aiming to reduce language anxiety through Rational Emotive Therapy techniques and Emotional Intelligence implications with 27 adult university students in an intensive English Program at Karadeniz Technical University in Turkey, REBT was found to reduce language anxiety and develop emotional intelligence. 122 �Research This is a follow-up study carried out one year after the original study done on the use of drama with English majoring 3rd year students at university level (Kayaoglu 2006). In the initial research a structured questionnaire was used to assess whether the incorporation of drama into the existing curriculum developed the students’ emotional intelligence. Quantitative data from the initial research gave strong support to the fact that getting students involved in performing drama was very effective in bringing about needed social changes that could result in a freer human development. This study followed the same procedure that a total of 46 English-majoring students were involved in performing drama as term Project. The students were again divided into groups of 5 to 9 and given freedom to perform any play in their own way. They were also allowed to use their creative imagination to modify the plays, creating an atmosphere for different ideas to be discussed. Having been encouraged, the students performed the plays in front of audience, most of whom were again students and teachers in the department. Instead of using a structured questionnaire, students were, this time, asked to keep diary of their experience and given an open ended questionnaire to gain more in-depth data for content analysis. This also served to provide triangulation. Findings Content analysis of students’ diaries and self-reports of the open ended questionnaire resulted in the following themes: Handling Feelings - I used to be anxious in speaking in front of my classmates but I have overcome this anxiety. At least there is no more excitement or blush that I felt once. Thanks to drama courses, I have found the opportunity to be more creative and productive, which let me be more self-confident and self- controlled. I think I was successful in overcoming my excitement after the first play. Acting as if there was no audience increases my motivation. Performing on the scene causes excitement; however, after experiencing this for many times, excitement turns into pleasure. It was impossible to experience such an excitement somewhere else rather than on the stage. Since no one considers the “grades”, there follows good performances. I gain the ability to overcome my excitement in front of a community and to develop self-confidence. It was very important for me to control my anxiety. By this way, we can get rid of the stress of being a student. I’ve acted 3 different characters in 3 different plays. I experienced their lives, their feelings and shared their cautions in a way; and this helped to me learn how to react in such conditions. I get excited easily; therefore, I cannot feel comfortable in a community. Thanks to these plays, I learnt how to behave in front of a community. Of course, there are disagreements among the group members but dealing with the disagreements isn’t too difficult for us. I am an excited person; I couldn’t perform as I wished to do. Yet, as the time passed I managed to overcome my excitement to a considerable extent. There was uncertainty and some obstacles at first… It was a two-person play. And we got excited. After the play started, we became so preoccupied with the performance that we didn’t recognize the crowd. You get tired and stressed. Also you have the chance to experience things yourself. It was impossible not to get excited when the time came. Yet after a while I overcame that anxiety. It will be more useful in the future as we are going to address students in classroom environment or to address a larger community. It is still not easy for me to control my excitement and stress. I thought that I would never overcome those. Yet after sometime I overcame that, as well. It is not easy to make a speech in front of a group yet we overcome this in time. I am not so excited when compared to the past. We get used to feel comfortable in a community. 123 �- I become more stressful in addressing a community. I can easily control my excitement I couldn’t behave in this way in front of anybody else before. Yet I overcame this in time. Generally, I don’t feel comfortable while speaking in front of the audience. This excitement causes me to make more mistakes. With the help of the drama courses, I can cope with this handicap. Although it is very a bit stressful to act alone in front of a community and to be aware that they are watching you, I learnt how to control this. It is very important to be patient in these plays. You learn that. In the following plays we overcome our excitement. We sometimes laughed, sometimes discussed. No matter how many presentations we made it is very different to act in front of our teachers and friends. Firstly, drama improved my ability to overcome my excitement. The rehearsals help us overcome stress. It helped me overcome my excitement. Drama is to control myself and construct unity. Drama helps me to become more self-confident and self-controlled. I got very excited yet what I expected didn’t come true. Acceptance of Others - Thanks to these plays that we had the opportunity to notice the real face of people. We have learnt to overcome some unimportant problems through these plays. We try to do our best in order to understand the way of group work and each other. I think it is very useful to know and develop ourselves. Knowing how to work in groups and have a voice in the group contributed to my personality very much. During our rehearsal of the first play we had some problems within the group and these problems, of course, were reflected in the play. However, all these were experiences for all of us. During our rehearsal of the second play, we didn’t have any problems. Unlike the first one, the rehearsals were enjoyable because we know each other better and we behave accordingly. By doing their duties in the group the individuals figure out what “responsibility” is. I can say that I see many people who obtained their self-confidence. There grew intimate relationship among the students in the classroom. We welcome correcting each other’s mistakes. We are tied to each other more closely. Sharing ideas among each other leads to the fact that people know and welcome each other better. I realized the importance of group work. As I was reading man (woman) I had more responsibility. I had to understand and motivate my friends. I learned how to behave in group, noticed my friends’ characteristics better and learned that I had to have social relationships with other people. It was enjoyable but difficult. It is not easy to work within group with different people. Everyone has different characteristics. While some do their best for their play some do nothing Sometimes there are some disagreements within group but this is quite normal because different people with different characteristics come together. We correct each other’s pronunciation mistakes. This is not an individual work but a group work. Despite problems, group work was fantastic. We learned how to be patient. This was difficult because different people have different perspectives in terms of perspectives. I sometimes observed that how some people can be irresponsible without thinking the others. If individuals have a sense of responsibility within a group there is success. The more sense of responsibility one has the more successful he will be. You have to work hard individually because the success can be obtained by group work. Self-confidence - 124 I used to have no self-confidence; however, I have it now I gained the ability and courage to speak in front of public. You learn how to overcome your anxiety and gain-self-confidence. It improved one’s self-confidence, since it put responsibility on individuals. I got very anxious in my first play but it was a great experience for my next play. It enabled me to have more self-confidence. It proved that we could be successful in different fields. �- It gives the opportunity to see your self-confidence since it leaves you alone on the scene. My self- confidence has improved much. It enabled me to have self- confidence. Before drama class, I used to be very anxious even in my presentations. Now, I am more confident. My self- confidence has improved very much The ability to speak in public has improved my self- confidence. Thanks to the drama classes, my self- confidence has improved, I think. Your self-confidence improves. I gained my self-confidence in time. These plays improved my self- confidence. I gained self-confidence. My self- confidence is improved very much Acting in front of audience and reflecting the emotion in the play are very challenging and achieving this enable me to gain self- confidence. I had no self- confidence in the first plays. Day by day I gained self- confidence. Social development - - I had no close relation to the majority of the class except “hi” and “good morning”. I had new close friends thanks to these plays. I gained a different perspective to look at my friends. I felt happier. We spent more time than ever. The more we shared the closer we got. We gained social status in front of the crowded class by performances. Although I have been in this department for five years, there were some people I did not communicate with, but by means of the play “Of Mice and Men”, I had the chance to improve my relations with them. I have five new friends thanks to this play. I had the chance to get to know the people to whom I only said “hi” by means of these plays and I was good with them. I got rid of all my prejudice about them. Working in groups helped us get rid of social fear and I was conscious not only for myself but also for my friends. Sometimes it was hard to come together by group but we succeeded. I followed my friends’ lines besides mine. We added things from ourselves. I think our relations improved a lot by these plays Students’ interaction with others has positive effects. It is a great opportunity in terms of creativity and sociability. You share something with others and improve social relations. We acted our first play with the failed students. We did not know each other before the plays but we became good friends with the help of these plays. We had the chance to get to know each other closely. We felt we were much interacted. The friendship ties got stronger thanks to these plays. We became close friends with the people to whom I only said “hello” before. Now I have many close friends. We used to do our rehearsals in canteens, homes, dormitories and outdoor places. These are suitable places to improve friendships. I believe that drama helped me to improve my creativity and sociability. A person may be anti-social but these kinds of performances give great chances. You can be very good friends with the people whom you did not know before. We had some problems as we first acted in a play. The disagreement resulted from working principles and not being able to come together. We had little arguments from nothing. By this way, we have the chance to know each other very well. However, we had no problem in the second plays. Contrary to the other play, the rehearsals were much more enjoyable because we knew each other and we behaved accordingly. It is hard to work with people whom you do not know and I think we succeeded this with drama. There were many people with whom I did not have any interaction although we were in the same class. We got good interactions by these plays. The people whop were anti-social had close relations and got rid of social fears with the help of these plays We worked day and night because we had to perform our plays in front of audience and had to do our best. I was a commander in the second play. I met a commander in the campus because we needed a uniform of a commander. We met new people and strengthened our relations. Friendship, expressing yourself in public and socialization. I think it strengthened our relations in the class. I got to know the people whom I said “hi” up to now more closely. 125 �- It improves friendship, teaches us the benefits of working as a group ( co-operatively). We improved our dialogues with our friends and experienced benefits of group work Beside all, it provides socialization. I got to know the people whom I had little sincerity before. We learned many things in terms of socialization. It enables us to work within a group Beside all, it provides socialization. I got to know the people whom I had little sincerity before It is easy to be successful individually but not in groups. I got to know the people whom I said “hi” up to now more closely. I got close interaction thanks to these plays. You can make new friends by working in groups. It helped us have new friends. We got close friendship with many different people. It provided social activities and enabled group work apart from the courses. First of all, it enabled me to be active and neat in a group. I reflected this into my social relations. Now I can be more active and successful in a social environment. I met new friends thanks to drama. Classroom interaction and social relations got better and better. We improved our friendship It affects relations in a positive way. It provides interaction in the department Individual development - Thanks to drama I am more creative. I have become more social. I think it affects everybody positively. To me, it enables us to speak comfortably to an audience and to improve our creativity when necessary. I had no idea that I would be able to perform in such an activity Working in groups has triggered our individual development. Feeling comfortable in community is the leading factor. In other words, you become a creative individual. We learned to work in groups. Drama has affected our success positively in other courses. The crucial contribution is self-development. Thanks to drama, I feel more creative. I discovered my capabilities. I’ve made progress. I’ve gained the ability and the courage to speak in public. I became more interested in drama after this play. Although I am not a social person, it has improved my individual development. Thanks to these performances, I became more creative. It is necessary to bring about creative ideas. I’ve seen that the sense of responsibility is an important virtue. Thanks to these performances, we are more creative. These performances have improved my personal development at a great degree. Unlike other courses, it contributes to my personal development It has an indispensable role in my self- development. I feel I‘ve developed myself in many respects. Conclusion Considering the fact that the statements under each category were recorded from individually different subjects, the use of drama within the traditional education system developed students’ emotional intelligence and enabled them to cope with stress and anxiety-provoking situations.The students were found to recognize, monitor and manage their emotions for positive change. Perhaps, one of the most significant results of the study was that the students, having improved their self-esteem and self-confidence, were able to develop social competence in their interpersonal relationships. This is likely to have very positive effect on their future performance in EFL classes as they appear to develop the ability to tolerate many disturbances. Using drama as a medium for developing emotional intelligence in EFL settings is a viable choice for us to recognize and monitor. 126 �References Avcı, Ö. (2008) An Experımental Study on Reducıng Language Anxıety in Speakıng Classes Through Ratıonal –Emotıve Behavıoural Technıques Wıth Reference To Emotıonal Intellıgence.Unpublished MA thesis, KTU. Trabzon, Turkey. Daly, J. (1991). Understanding communication apprehension: An introduction for language educators. In E.K. Horwitz & D.S. Young (Eds.) Language anxiety: From theory and practice to classroom implications. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on multiple intelligences. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(3), 200-208. Gardner, H. (2008). The 25th Anniversary of the Publication of Howard Gardner’s Frames on Mind: The theory of Multiple Intelligence. Retrieved May, 01, 2008 from http://pzweb.harvard.edu/PIs/HG.htm Gardner, H. (2005). Multiple Lenses on the Mind. Retrieved May, 01, 2008 from http://pzweb.harvard.edu/PIs/HG.htm Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books. Horwitz, E. K. (1986). “Preliminary Evidence for the Reliability and Validity of a FL Anxiety Scale” TESOL, Vol 21, No 21. pp. 559-62. Horwitz, E. & Young, D. (2001) Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications. Englewood LeDoux, J. (1996). The Emotional Brain. New York: Simon and Schuster. Kayaoğlu. M. N. (2006) Incorporating “Drama” into Emotional Intelligence in EFL Classes.The 2nd International English Language Teaching Conference ELT Profession: Challenges and Prospects, May 2-5, 2006 Eastern Mediterranean University Famagusta, North Cyprus McIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. (1994). The Subtle Effects of Language Anxiety on Cognitive Processing in the second Language. Language Learning 44:2, June 1994,pp.283-305. McIntyre, P. D. & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Language anxiety: It’s relationship to other anxiety and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning 41 (2): 513-534. MacIyntre, P. D. (1995). On Seeing Forest and the Trees: A Rejoinder to Sparks and Ganshow. The Modern Language Journal, 79, 2, 245-48. MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). Language Anxiety: A Review of Literature for Language Teachers. Young, D. J. (Ed.). Affect In Foreign Language and Second Language Learning. Mc Graw Hill Companies, 24-43. Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., & Roberts, R. D. (2002). Emotional intelligence: Science and myth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Scovel, T. (1991). The Effect of Affect on FLL: A Review of the Anxiety Research. In Horwitz, E.K. and Young, D.J. Language Anxiety. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK), 15-23. Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1993). The Intelligence of Emotional Intelligence,17, 433-442. Siegler, R. S. (1992). The other Alfred Binet. Developmental Psychology, 28, 179-190 Thorndike, E. L. (1920). Intelligence and its uses. Harper’s Magazine, 140, 227-235 Tricia Ellis-Christensen (2009) What is the Difference Between EQ and IQ? . Retrieved May, 10 from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-difference-between-eq-and-iq.htm 127 �White, S. (2000). Conceptual foundations of IQ testing. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6(1), 33-43. Young, D. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest?. Modern Language Journal 75 (4): 426-39 Young, D. J. (1994). New Directions in Language Anxiety Research. In Klee, C. A. Faces in a Crowd: the Individual learner in Multisection Courses. Issues in Language 128 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e727aa8df930d22ae88da0558f18a415.doc 5115c868c05a64f2e0d7498c2a2427aa Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 350 Title A name given to the resource Learning and Teaching Strategies for Technology Education in Turkey Author Author APAY, Ahmet YUKSEL, Ibrahim Abstract A summary of the resource. The main power behind the development of a country can be considered as EDUCATION. Today, due to rapid industrialization, professional and technical education is regarded as locomotive in raising staff to industry equipped with necessary qualifications. Engineering education in developed countries is based on theory and it is design oriented. Engineers participate rarely in implementation, though in some countries they are directly involved. The engineering education in Turkey is given in the faculties of Engineering and it has been observed that the education is mostly theoretical. It has also been observed that there are important shortcomings in transferring the comprehensive theoretical engineering knowledge into practice and that there is a gap between the industry and the universities. An important shortcoming exists in technology education, which actually means the transfer of theoretical knowledge into practice. The Technical Training Faculties do not only give theoretical knowledge but they also provide an important amount of applied education; however the graduates are entitled as technical teachers without clearly defined roles and responsibilities, as a result of which the industrial institutions can not make use of them. The engineering and technology education in developed countries are given by Engineering Faculties, Technology Faculties and Technician Schools. The technology Faculties part of this process is missing in our country. This should be completed by the establishment of the Technology Faculties. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6c4c808e860f83d2cdd97dc335ff0f14.pdf fdb1ff193142f5e49dbee70ef1165751 PDF Text Text Sanat, Ahlâk Ve Eğitim İlişkisine Dair M. Fatih ANDI Edebiyat Fakültesi İstanbul Üniversitesi Türkiye andifatih@gmail.com Özet: Sanat, ahlâk ve eğitim üç toplumsal etkinlik alanıdır. Bunlardan sanat “güzelçirkin”, ahlâk ise “iyi-kötü” kavram ikilisine dayanır ve kendi ilkeleri ve zeminleri üzerinde oluşur. Ancak her iki alan da birbirleri hakkında kendileri açısından değer yargıları geliştirebilirler. Dolayısıyla bu durum, “ahlâk açısından sanat” yahut “sanatın gözüyle ahlâk” gibi yaklaşımları mümkün kılar. Bu iki alanın aralarındaki bu ilişki, eğitim için de geçerlidir. Bilhassa ahlâk ve eğitimin kesiştiği “ahlâk eğitimi” alanında sanattan faydalanma gereklidir. Bu “iyi”nin “güzel”le örtüşmesi olacaktır ki, etkisi de daha kuvvetli ve kalıcıdır. Ahlâk ve sanat iki toplumsal etkinlik alanıdır. İkisi de kurallar, kabuller ve normlar üzerine inşa edilirler. Bütün toplumsal kurum ve faaliyetler gibi birbirleriyle kesiştikleri alanlar vardır. Fakat bu kesişme kümeleri belki de diğer pek çok alana göre daha fazladır. Bu biraz da üzerinde yükseldikleri temel kavram ve kriterlerin birbirine yakınlığından ve aralarında kolayca kurulacak etki-tepki mekanizmasından neş’et etmektedir. Sanat “güzel ve çirkin”, ahlâk ise “iyi ve kötü” temel kavram kutupları etrafında teşekkül eder. Bu temel kavramlar, insanlık tarihi boyunca tartışılmış, toplumlara yön vermiş, çevresinde saflar tutulmuş kavramlardır. İnsanlar hayatı bu kavram kutupları çevresinde tuttukları saflara, bu kavramları algılayış tarzlarına göre yaşarlar demek yanlış olmaz. Bu açıdan, aynı zamanda bunlar hayatı yaşayış ve algılayışta çok önemli değer yargılarıdır. Ve bu ikili kavram kümesi, birbirlerinin alanlarına sarkmaya, müdahil olmaya, daha doğrusu birbirlerinin yerine konmaya, karıştırılmaya çok müsaittirler. İnsanoğlu güzeli isteyip çirkinden yüz çevirmeye, iyiyi isteyip kötüden uzak durmaya fıtraten yatkındır. Bu yatkınlık onun yapıp ettiklerine, tercihlerine ve kabullerine de yansır. Bu kavramlar ve besledikleri değer yargıları, geleneksel toplumlarda inancın/dinin şekillendirdiği bir kriterler süzgecinden geçerek oluşmaktaydı. Bu kriterleri yapan, daha doğrusu kontrol eden temel kavram “kutsal” idi. Geleneksel sanat ve ahlâk telakkileri Mutlak Hakikat’in belirleyiciliği ile bu iki alanın kurallarını oluşturmakta ve kabullerini bu mutlak ölçü ile yoğurmaktaydılar. Bu noktada ya Mutlak Hakikat’e uygunluk yahut daha ideal bir hedef olarak, bizde Necip Fazıl’ın dediği gibi, “Mutlak Hakikat’i arama” ana gaye olmaktadır. Ancak Batı’da Aydınlanma Çağı ve sonrasında bu durum değişmeye başladı. Bu, Batı’nın tarihi içerisinde “kutsaldan kopuş” süreci idi ve bu süreçte yukarıda andığımız kavramlar ve bunların dayandırılacağı ölçüler de sıkı bir şekilde sorgulanmaya, bu sorgulayış sonrasında ise değişmeye başladı. Yani iyi-kötü, güzel-çirkin kavramlarına da yeni anlamlar yüklenmeye çalışıldı. Yüklenmeye çalışılan yeni anlam yüklerini belirleyici üst ölçütler olarak da modern düşüncenin önemli bir yanını teşkil eden “yenilik” ve “özgünlük” kavramları rölativist ve ilerlemeci mantığa paralel bir biçimde öne çıktı. Rölativizm, bağlanılacak mutlak, değişmez ve evrensel bir ölçünün bulunmadığı düşüncesidir.. Bu düşünceye göre “doğru” ve buna bağlı olarak, güzel ve çirkin, iyi ve kötü kişiden kişiye, toplumdan topluma, çağdan çağa değişmektedir. Bu ise değerler skalasının sınırlarını çizen mutlak bir ölçünün bulunmadığını kabul etmek demektir. İlerlemeci anlayış ise insanlık tarihinin, “zaman” içinde her zaman basitten mükemmele uzanan bir seyir takip ettiğini söyler. Bu durum, gelişmeci ve değişimci zihniyeti doğurur. Burada insanın gelişme yolunda değişimini sağlayan tek etken zaman/çağdır. Zamanın akışı içinde "yeni" şeyler daima iyi, eskiden kalan veya eskiye ait olanlar ise kötüdür. Bu takdirde denilebilir ki, norm'ları belirleyen zamandır. İyiye ve kötüye anlam veren de odur. Modern dünya görüşlerinin sırtını dayadığı bu iki yaklaşım tarzı, geleneksel toplumların süregelen sanat kriterlerini de değiştirmiş, tartışılır kılmıştır. Bunun neticesinde meselâ sanatta aykırının, kötülüğün, çirkinin bir değer olarak öne çıkarıldığı örnekler görmemiz mümkün olmaya başlamıştır. Buna paralel bir tutumla geleneksel ahlâk telakkileri de tartışılmış, ahlâkın göreceliliği ele alınmış, ahlâkî kural ve kabullerin uyulması gereken şeyler olup olmadığı üzerinde durulmaya başlanmıştır. 376 �Geçmişlerinden itibaren mahiyetleri ve algılanışları itibarıyla zaten birbirine yakın ve geçişken iki kavram kutbuna sırtını yaslayan bu iki alan, yani ahlâk ve sanat böylelikle modern zamanlarda daha kaypak bir zeminde kaymaya, çok daha “farklı ve değişken” görünüm ve yaklaşımlarla ortaya konmaya, bunun bir uzantısı olarak da birbirinden çok farklı teorik yorumlara, pratik uygulamalara ve kabuller yelpazesine sahip olmuştur. Baştan itibaren söylediklerimiz çerçevesinde, sanat ve ahlâk ilişkisini bugünün modern(leşmiş) toplumunun bir mensubu sıfatıyla, sanata ve ahlâka muhatap olan modern bireyler olarak, her şeyden önce bu değişken ve kaypak ilgi, beklenti ve yorumlar eşliğinde ele almamız gerektiği vurgulanmalıdır. Modern toplumlarda tek bir sanat ve ahlâk anlayışı ve modern düşüncede tek bir iyi-kötü ve güzel-çirkin kutuplaşması yoktur. Bu durum, tartışacağımız konuyu çok boyutlu, çok yönlü ve yoruma fazlasıyla açık bir hale getirmektedir. Nitekim bu konuda kendisini gösteren teorik çeşitlilik her iki alanda da göze hemen çarpar. *** Sanat ve ahlâk geçmişten bugüne sürekli bir etkileşim ve alışveriş içinde bulunmuştur dedik. Geleneksel toplumlarda, ahlâk ve onu yapan inanç sistemi sanatın da belirleyici üst kurallarını ortaya koymuştur. Yani sanat, ahlâka uygunluğu ölçüsünde değer taşımıştır, ahlâk ise kutsala... Bizde ve Müslüman-Doğu sanat geleneği içerisinde bu durum kendisini en fazla edebiyatta belirgin olarak ortaya koyar. Bu, biraz da edebiyatın İslâm sanatının ağırlık noktasını teşkil etmesiyle de ilgilidir. Edebiyat bizde sürekli, kelimenin iştikakından da hareketle, ahlâklı olmanın bir vasfı olan “edeb”le ilişkilendirilmiş, edebiyata edepli olmayı öğreten, “ahlâka hâdim” bir sanat alanı gözüyle bakılmıştır. Genel toplumsal ahlâkın dışına çıkmayan bir edebiyat anlayışı, bizim klasik edebiyatımızın yaygın ve baskın niteliği idi. “Şairiz, şeyn verir şânımıza Giremez fâhişe dîvânımıza.” diyen eski şair, bunu dile getiriyordu. XIX. yüzyıldan itibaren, modernleşme süreci içerisinde, edebiyatta en çok üzerinde durulan konulardan birisi bu olmuştur. Fakat ilginçtir ki, bu süreçte Batılı Romantizm, özellikle de Realizm ve Naturalizm akımlarının gölgesinde sahiplenilen “yeni” ahlâkîlik anlayışı eşliğinde en çok sorgulanan ve çoğu kez de dışlanan Divan Edebiyatının metinleri ve geleneksel temâşâ sanatları olmuştur. XIX. yüzyılın edebiyatçı aydını, değiştirmek istediği toplumsal yapıyı, oluşturmak istediği “yeni insan” modelini edebiyatın yardımı ile ortaya koymaya çalışıyordu. Edebiyatın adeta entellektüel olmanın vazgeçilmezlerinden kabul edildiği bu çağlarda, modernleşmeci Türk entellektüeli edebiyata da bu doğrultuda bir pay biçiyor ve yaptığı tanımlamalara, misyon ve vizyon belirleme çabalarına hep eskinin edebiyat-edeb, edebiyat-ahlâk bağlamında, fakat “yeni”nin ahlâk ve insan modelleri arkasından bakmaya çalışıyordu. Ne de olsa “dualite” dönemin aydınının genel karakteristiğiydi. Sözgelimi Yeni Türk Edebiyatının öncülerinden Şinasî, yapmaya çalıştığı edebiyat tanımının belirleyici paydası olarak “edeb” kavramının üzerine bastırıyordu: “Fenn-i edeb bir marifetdir ki, insana haslet-âmûz-ı edeb olduğu için edeb ve ehli edîb tesmiye kılınmıştır.” Devrin bir başka önemli ismi Ahmed Midhat Efendi, pek çok yazısında edebiyata ahlâk noktainazarından bakmış ve bilhassa romanları ve romancılığı bu açıdan sorgulamıştır. 1297 (1880) tarihli “Romancı ve Hayat” adlı yazısında sorduğu soru ve aradığı cevap şudur: “Roman ve hikâyeler ahlâk-ı umûmiyye için muzır mıdır, müfîd midir?” (Bu arada, bu dönem içinde, ucu XX. yüzyıla kadar sarkan bir dilimde, edebiyat-ahlâk ilişkisinin kendisini en çok da modern birer tür olan roman ve tiyatroda gösterdiğini vurgulayalım). Midhat Efendi’nin bu konudaki yaklaşımı, devri için oldukça kapsamlı ve dikkat çekicidir. Bu hususta iki farklı görüşten söz açar: Bazı üdebaya göre romanlar eğer insanların “ahlâk-ı hasene ve melekiyyesi”ne dair olursa faydalı, “ahlâk-ı seyyie”sine dair olursa muzırdır. Bir başka görüşe göre ise, insan ahlâkındaki kötülük ve çirkinlikler roman suretinde insanlara sunularak insanların bu çirkinliklerden sakındırılması mümkündür O, bir romancı olarak tavrını bu ikinci görüşten yana kor ve şöyle der: “Eğer ahlâk-ı umûmiyye yine kendisi için nâfi veyahut yine kendisi için muzır ise, bu iki rengin ikisi dahi muharrir tarafından bi-hakkın tasvir edilmek ahlâk-ı umûmiyyeyi yine olduğu gibice kendi erbabına irae eylemek demektir. Beğendiğine imtisal, beğenmediğinden ictinab o romanları okuyanlara ait olup…” Edebiyat-ahlâk ilişkisine dair benzer bir tutum da Namık Kemal’de görünür. O da “Lisân-ı Osmanînin Edebiyatı Hakkında Bazı Mülâhazâtı Şâmildir” başlıklı meşhur makalesinde edebiyatı “nef’-i nâs ve hayr-ı nâs” işleviyle muttasıf kılar, edebiyatın milletin ‘hüsn-i terbiyetine’ hizmet etmesi gerektiğini iddia eder. Şöyle der: “Hakikat-i hâlde lafzen edebiyatın me’haz-ı iştikâkı edeb ise, ma’nen edebin masdar-ı intişârı edebiyattır.” Mizancı Mehmed Murad’dan Muallim Naci’ye dönemin diğer edebiyatçılarında da durum pek farklı değildir. Bu dönem edebiyatçılarının ortak özelliği edebiyatı ahlâkîlik açısından değerlendirmeleri ve ona toplumsal değişim açısından bir misyon yüklemeleridir. Bu misyon yükleme çabası özellikle Servet-i Fünûn (1896-1901) ve ardından gelen II. Meşrûtiyet nesilleri içerisinde değişir. XX. yüzyıla böyle gireriz. XIX. yüzyıl sonu, XX. yüzyıl başının Servet-i Fünûn ve Fecr-i Âtî gibi edebiyat oluşumları için artık edebiyat, ağırlıklı olarak, “tehzîb-i ahlâka hâdim” bir araç değil, yalnızca estetik ilkeler ile gerçekleştirilen bir amaçtır. Onlar “poesie pure” (saf şiir) ve “san’at-ı hakîkî”nin peşindedirler. Millî Edebiyat akımı bu gidişten farklı bir tavırla, bir bakıma tekrar XIX. yüzyıl edebiyatçılarının görüşüne yakınlaşır. Ziya Gökalp, Mehmed Emin Yurdakul gibi kimi milliyetçi yazarların kaleminde “litterature engage” (angaje 377 �edebiyat) kavramına yakın duran bir tutumla edebiyatı ideolojik düşüncelerin “şârih”i, millî ahlâkın yayıcısı olarak görürüz. Âkif, sanatını inancının ve milletinin emrine veren, bu uğurda hatta sanatını ikinci plana atan bir “misyoner” ve idealisttir. “Ne irfandır veren ahlâka yükseklik, ne vicdandır Fazilet hissi insanlarda Allah korkusundandır.” çığlığı tam da bu noktada dilimize takılmalıdır. Cumhuriyetin ilânıyla birlikte, yeni kurulan rejim, ilkelerini ve sosyal, siyasal düşüncelerini yaymak için edebiyatı da önceki dönemlerden çok daha fazla önemser ve hatta “kullanır”. Bu doğrultuda, edebiyat, eğitimde önemli bir görev üstlenir, yeni nesillerin “yeni ahlâk ve bilinç”le yetişmeleri için edebiyata ve edebiyatçıya biraz daha eğilinir. CHP Halkevleri bünyesinde gerçekleştirilen edebî yarışmalar, ödüllendirmeler, ortaöğretim kurumlarında gerçekleştirilen ve önemsenen mektep temsilleri, şiir, hikâye yarışmaları, müfredatı belirleyen metinlerin niteliği bize bunu çok açık bir şekilde gösterir. 1940’lı yıllardan sonra ise Türkiye’nin edebî, fikrî ve entellektüel ortamındaki renklenme ve çeşitlenmeye paralel bir şekilde, her düşünce, inanç yahut ideoloji kendi söylemini edebiyata da yüklemeye çalışmış, bu söylem içerisinde bir “bilinç ve ahlâk edinimi” vurgusu kendisini hep hatırlatagelmiştir. Fakat bir yandan bunlar olagelirken, bir yandan da edebiyat ve son dönemde onun yanı sıra müzik ve bilhassa, hâlâ hatırlardadır, heykeltraşlık gibi diğer sanat alanlarında da sanat-ahlâk ilişkisi; sanat ve özgürlük, sanat ve özgünlük, sanat ve gerçeklik, sanat ve müstehcenlik gibi başlıklar altında okur-yazar çevrelerde yeniden sorgulanmaya başlandı. *** Çok hızlı ve ana hatlarıyla bir dökümünü yapmaya çalıştığımız, tarihsel sürecini işaret ettiğimiz bu ilişki ve tartışmalar silsilesinde üzerinde durulan belli başlı sorular ve tartışma odakları şunlardır: - Sanat ahlâk kurallarına uymak zorunda mıdır? - Sanatın belirleyici ölçütleri arasında ahlakîlik vasfı da var mıdır? - Toplumun ahlâk anlayışı, sanatkârın özgürlüğünü ve eser ortaya koyma sürecini belirlemeli midir? - Sanat ve sanatkâr bu açıdan özgür olmalı mıdır? - Sanat, ahlâk için bir araç olarak kullanılabilir mi? - Ahlâk eğitimi açısından sanatın yeri ve rolü nedir? Tartışılmayı gerektiren sorular yahut başlıklar bunlardır ve bizce bu türden soruların arkasında ideoloji ve dünya görüşü angajmanları, sosyal fayda beklentileri, “kutsal”la irtibat, pratik hayatla örtüştürme gayretleri yatmakta, itirazları ise özgürlük ve özgünlük söylemleri, bohemlik ve dokunulmazlık arayışları, dünyayı ve hayatı algılayış farklılıkları, sanatı tabulaştırma tutumları gibi çıkış noktaları belirlemektedir. Bu tartışmaların ve konumuzla irtibatlı olarak sanat-ahlâk ilişkisinin işaret levhalarından birisini ise o meşhur ve bugüne kadar tartışılagelen “Sanat, sanat için midir, yoksa toplum için mi?” sorusu oluşturmaktadır. Bizce bu yaklaşımlar ve takınılacak tavırlardan biri de şu olmalıdır: Sanat ve ahlâk, birbirinden ayrı iki insanî etkinlik alanıdır. Her ikisinin dayandığı temel kavramlar, oluşum ölçütleri, kurallar ve ilkeler vardır. Bütün sosyal oluşumlar gibi birbirlerine yaklaştıkları, birbirlerini etkiledikleri alanlar mevcut ise de, her ikisi kendi sınırları içerisinde var olurlar. Sanatın temel ilkesi estetik olma, yani güzelliktir. Ahlâk ise toplumsal platformda “iyi”nin peşindedir. Sanat, ahlâkı sınırlayamadığı gibi, ahlâk da sanatı sınırlamamalıdır. Ancak elbette her iki alan da birbirlerini sorgulayabilirler. Kendileri açısından “değerli” veya “değersiz” hükümlerini verebilirler. Sanata, sanat (estetik) açısından baktığımızda değerli veyahut değersiz olma özelliği başkadır, ahlâk açısından baktığımızda başka. Bir sanat eseri, bir toplumda mevcut ahlâk kuralları çerçevesinde değerlendirildiğinde “sakıncalı” görülebilir, ancak bu onun estetik açıdan da değersizliği olarak anlaşılmamalıdır. Nitekim, bir sanat eseri bir toplumda carî düşünce kabulleri açısından değersiz, hatta sakıncalı olduğunda bu onun estetik kıymetini azaltmadığı gibi... Bakış açımız yahut çıkış noktamız ahlâk olduğunda durum başkadır, estetik olduğunda başkadır. Bu hüküm estetik ve ahlâk ilişkisinin tartışılmasını ortaya çıkarır. Güzel olan ahlâk dışı olabilir mi? Yahut ahlak dışı olan mutlaka çirkin midir? Her iki alanın temel kavramları ile ifade edersek, güzel olan her şey iyi midir? Çirkin olan her şey de kötü müdür? Estetik olma, çirkin olmayı dışladığı gibi, ahlâkî açıdan kötü olmayı da dışlayan bir ölçüt müdür? Göz önünde bulundurulması gereken sorular bunlardır. Ve bizce güzel, çirkinin; iyi de kötünün mefhum-ı muhalifi olarak ele alınıp, bunlar birbirine karıştırılmamalıdır. Ancak bu takdirde Van Gogh’un yırtık-pırtık, kokmuş postal tablosu yahut Boticelli’nin “Venüs’ün Doğuşu” tablosu “güzel” olarak değerlendirilebilir. Sanatkâr, ahlâkî açıdan kötü olan bir durumu veya olayı, estetik açıdan, işlediği sanatın kriterleri açısından (meselâ edebî bir eserde dil ve üslûp, yapı, biçim ve kurgu başarısı açısından) çok başarılı ve sanatsal bir nitelikle anlatabilir. O eser, sanat açısından başarılı bir eserdir. Fakat anlattığı olay, özü ve uyandıracağı etkileri açısından ahlakî (yahut siyasî, fikrî, pedagojik, yasal vs) bakımdan riskli ve hatta zararlı olarak değerlendirilebilir. O takdirde eserin sanat dışı faktörler tarafından değerlendirilmesi, kendi sınırları içinde ayrı bir kategori teşkil eder. 378 �Konuya tersinden baktığımızda da durum bir bakıma benzer özelliklerle karşımızdadır. Ahlâkî bir konu, durum veyahut olay, çok kaba, çirkin ve hiç de estetik olmayan bir tarzda, bir dayatma ve ilkel bir zorlama ile hayatımıza dahil edilmeye çalışılabilir. Bu da o olgunun “iyi” olmadığını bize göstermez. Yukarıda ortaya koyduğumuz sorunlardan birisi de sanatın ahlâkî ve pedagojik amaçlar için kullanılıp kullanılamayacağı idi. Bizce bu sanatın bizatihî kendisi ve gerçekleşme sürecinin dışında düşünülmesi gereken ikincil planda kalacak bir durumdur ve elbette eser ortaya konulduktan sonra insanlar onu günlük hayatın kabul ve istekleri doğrultusunda değerlendirir ve kullanırlar. Nitekim sanat da (meselâ bir roman veyahut tiyatro oyunu içerisinde) ahlâkı kendisi için kullanılabilen bir “malzeme”, bir tema yahut konu olarak ele alabilmektedir. Kaynakça Ayvazoğlu, Beşir, İslâm Estetiği ve İnsan, İstanbul 1989, Çağ Yayınları, 511 s. Kaplan, Mehmet vd., Yeni Türk Edebiyatı Antolojisi, c. I-IV, İstanbul 1974-1982, İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları. Koç, Turan, İslâm Estetiği, İstanbul 2008, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslam Araştırmaları Merkezi Yayınları, 208 s. Kuçuradi, Ionna, Sanata Felsefeyle Bakmak, Ankara 1999, Ayraç Yayınları, 133 s. Redeker, Horst, Edebiyat Estetiği, Ankara 1986, Kuzey Yayınları, 256 s. Shiner, Larry, Sanatın İcadı, İstanbul 2004, Ayrıntı Yayınları, 496 s. Tunali, İsmail, Sanat Ontolojisi, İstanbul 1884, İstanbul 1974-1982, İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları. 379 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f09f30a0af53a0085290594f809d41a.doc b16b59657c4539b7ab1702236e8c4680 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 420 Title A name given to the resource Sanat, Ahlâk Ve Eğitim İlişkisine Dair Author Author ANDI, M. Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Sanat, ahlâk ve eğitim üç toplumsal etkinlik alanıdır. Bunlardan sanat “güzelçirkin”, ahlâk ise “iyi-kötü” kavram ikilisine dayanır ve kendi ilkeleri ve zeminleri üzerinde oluşur. Ancak her iki alan da birbirleri hakkında kendileri açısından değer yargıları geliştirebilirler. Dolayısıyla bu durum, “ahlâk açısından sanat” yahut “sanatın gözüyle ahlâk” gibi yaklaşımları mümkün kılar. Bu iki alanın aralarındaki bu ilişki, eğitim için de geçerlidir. Bilhassa ahlâk ve eğitimin kesiştiği “ahlâk eğitimi” alanında sanattan faydalanma gereklidir. Bu “iyi”nin “güzel”le örtüşmesi olacaktır ki, etkisi de daha kuvvetli ve kalıcıdır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46bcb0863afadfcba97a271de7780597.pdf 0caed0c4f940d55485f593669ba9db48 PDF Text Text Ortaöğretim Edebiyat Derslerinde İşlenecek Metinlerin Eğitim Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Kübra ANDI Üsküdar İmam Hatip Lisesi, İstanbul kubraandi@gmail.com Özet: Ortaöğretimde öğrencilere verilen derslerin elbette herbirinin ayrı ve gerekli işlevleri ve yerleri vardır. Ancak bunlar içerisindeki edebiyat derslerinin fonksiyonları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, dersin yeri ve önemi bir kat daha öne çıkar. Edebiyat dersleri, hem edebî bilgi, hem estetik eğitim, hem de içerdiği konular ve açılımlarla öğrenci için bir “hayat bilgisi ve tecrübesi” edinme dersi niteliğindedir. Bunun için bu derslerin, Türk eğitim sistemi içerisinde maruz kaldığı sorunların ciddiye alınması, aksaklıkların giderilmesi eğitim adına şarttır. Bunların başında ise TC Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı edebiyat dersi müfredatı içerisine alınan edebî metinlerin seçimi ve bu metinlerin eğitim açısından daha da dikkate alınması gelmektedir. Ortaöğretim kademesinde yer alan derslerin her biri, şüphesiz ki ayrı ayrı önemli ve doğru aktarım sağlandığında öğrenciyi hayata hazırlayacak, donanımlı hale getirecek derslerdir. Fakat bunların içinde edebiyat, dil ve anlatım derslerini biraz daha ayrı bir yere koymak ve bu noktada daha da hassas davranmak gerekir. Bu dersleri ayrı bir yere koymak zorundayız, çünkü anadili öğrenme ve bu dil aracılığıyla oluşturulmuş edebî eserler yoluyla kültürel mirasın nesillerden nesillere aktarımını sağlama ve öğrencinin ruhsal ve sosyal gelişimine katkıda bulunma noktalarında bunların ayrıcalıklı bir yeri vardır. (Türk ortaöğretim programı içerisinde bugün bu ders grubu Türk Edebiyatı ve Dil ve Anlatım adlı iki başlık altında ele alınmaktadır.) Fakat maalesef bugün bu edebiyat ve dil ve anlatım dersleri öğretmenler tarafından yeterli özeni, önemi görememekte, öğrencinin gözünde hâlâ sıkıcı dersler sıralamasında ilk başlarda yer almaktadır. Bunun çok çeşitli sebeplerini sayabiliriz. Fakat bunların en başında yer alan problem ders kitaplarıdır. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Eğitim Bakanlığının 2005 yılında yaptığı müfredat değişiklikleri doğrultusunda yeniden hazırlanan edebiyat kitaplarıyla ilk etapta bu sıkıcılığın ortadan kaldırması hedeflenmiştir. 2005’ten bu yana hazırlanan bu yeni kitaplarla yürütülen edebiyat eğitiminin öncekine oranla daha iyi olduğunu söyleyebiliriz, ama bu kitaplarda da çeşitli aksaklıklar söz konusu olmaktadır. Bu konuyu gündemine alan TC Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı da, yenilenen lise ‘Türk Edebiyatı’ dersindeki eksikleri, branş öğretmenlerine sorarak müfredata ve hazırlanan kitaplara yönelik sıkıntıları ortaya koymaya çalışmıştır. Türkiye’nin 28 ilindeki 310 Türk dili ve edebiyatı öğretmeni, ‘Türk Edebiyatı’ dersinin müfredatı ile ders kitabını inceleyip, program ve kitaplara dair eleştirilerini ortaya koymuşlardır. MEB Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu müfredata dönük bir eleştiri almadıklarını, eleştirilerin ‘yerinde görülenler’ine dair değişikliklerin mümkün olabileceğini bildirerek yerinde bir adım atmıştır. Öğretmenlerin, Türk Edebiyatı dersine ilişkin eleştirilerinden bazıları şunlardır: - Aynı dönemden seçilen ve hemen hemen aynı tür eserlerin verilmesi gereksiz. Örneğin Danişmendname, Battalname… Öğrencilerin ilgisi dağılıyor, hatta bıkıyorlar. - Şairleri ve yazarları tanıtan metinler, sanatçının edebî kişiliğini yansıtmıyor. Meselâ Bakî ve Fuzulî’den alınan gazeller, bu şairlerin daha maruf gazelleri ile değiştirilebilir. - İlköğretimden mezun olup dokuzuncu sınıfa başlayan bir öğrencide sanat zevki ve estetik duyarlılığı yok denecek kadar az. - Verilen metinlerde dil ağır olduğu için öğrenci metni anlamıyor ve karşılaştırma yapamıyor. - Programın içerdiği yeni yaklaşımların tam olarak gerçekleştirilebilmesi için öğrencinin, öğretmen, idareci ve velilerin hâsılı toplumun bir zihniyet değişimine ihtiyacı var. - Metinler, öğrenci seviyesinin üstünde ve öğrenciler anlamıyor. - Kimi metinler çok uzun. Kazanıma uygun bazı bölümler alınmalı. Buna göre, derste işlenen 100 metin, ‘çok uzun ve dili ağır, öğrenciler anlamıyor, öğrenci seviyesine uygun değil, ilgisini çekmiyor, seçilen parça konuyu yansıtmıyor, değiştirilmeli’ gibi eleştirilerin muhatabı. Öğretmenleri, özellikle divan edebiyatı metinlerinin ağırlığı ve yanlış metin seçimi nedeniyle öğrencilerin ‘sıkıldığını’ belirtiyor. Bazı öğretmenler ise edebiyat ders kitaplarında ‘akademik düzeyde bilgi ağırlığı’ olduğunu, ‘ilköğretimden gelen öğrencinin bu bilgilerle Türk edebiyatını sevmesinin mümkün olmadığını’ savunuyor. 417 �Türk orta eğitim sisteminin temel derslerinden biri olan ‘Türk Edebiyatı’nı öğrencilerin gözünde sıkıcı gösteren zannımca sadece kitaplara seçilen metinlere dönük eleştirilerin yansıttığı gerçekler değildir. Önemli problemlerden biri budur. Fakat bunun yanı sıra - Ders işleme biçimlerinin sıradanlığı, - Her ne kadar öğrenci odaklı bir eğitim amaçlansa da kitaplarda hiç bir bilginin yer almaması, her konuyla ilgili bilginin öğrencinin araştırma sonuçlarından beklenmesi, ancak öğrenci seviyesinin ve hali hazırdaki kaynakların beklenilen/istenilen araştırma sonucunu sağlamanın çok gerisinde kalması, - Anlatımın görsel materyallerle zenginleştirilip pekiştirilmesi gerekirken okullarda teknik alt yapının buna müsait olmayışı, Velhasıl öğretmen, öğrenci, veli ve okul şartlarının bu müfredatı olması gereken şekilde uygulama noktasında yetersiz kalışı henüz Türkçe dersi mantığından yeni çıkan sanat ve estetik zevki yeteri kadar gelişmemiş öğrencilerin dersi sıkıcı ve zor bulmalarının belli başlı sebepleri arasında sıralanabilir. Bütün bu söylediklerimizden hareketle Türk Edebiyatı ve Dil ve Anlatım derslerinin öğretimi açısından ortaya çıkan problemleri dört başlık altında toplayabiliriz: 1.Velilerin, öğrencilerin, okul yöneticilerinin ve kamuoyunun gözünde dersin ehemmiyetine dair giderilmesi gereken sıkıntılar 2. Eğitim kurumlarının teknik alt yapı sorunları 3. Eğitimcileri ve okul yöneticilerini ilgilendiren problemler 4. Ders kitaplarına alınan metinlere dönük problemler Şimdi bunların üzerinde biraz duralım: 1. Her ne kadar çeşitli toplantılarda, panel, sempozyum gibi etkinliklerde ve medya ortamlarında, Türkçeyi doğru kullanmanın ne kadar önemli olduğunun altı çizilmekte ise de iş, üniversite eğitimine gelince zihinlerin yanlış yönlendirilmesiyle sözel dersler ve bilhassa edebiyat dersleri ‘önemsiz’ sıfatını üzerine alır. Bunun sebeplerinin başında toplumumuzda paraya ve maddî kazanca endeksli eğitim anlayışı doğrultusunda, tıp, mühendislik gibi dallardan birinde eğitim gören kişinin daha iyi bir iş imkânı ve yaşam kalitesi yakalayacağına dair zan gelir. Bu nedenle veliler çocuklarını ders seçimi konusunda yönlendirirken sayısal derslerin yoğun işlendiği alanlara yöneltir. Bunun doğal bir sonucu olarak edebiyat dersi ‘laf kalabalığı’ ile dolu lüzumsuz bir ders görüntüsü kazanır. Çoğu kez okul idarecileri de sayısal alanlardaki öğrenci başarısını daha öne çıkararak belki de farkında olmadan sözel derslerin üzerindeki bu olumsuz etiketi pekiştirir. Mühendis olan, tıpta okuyan hayatını kurtarmıştır. Bu yanlış zan dolayısıyla çocukların da itibar etmediği bir ders konumuna düşen edebiyatı el birliği ile yeniden ayağa kaldırmalı ve onu bu olumsuz sıfatlardan kurtarmalıyız. Bugün sözel zekâların ülke yönetimindeki katkılarını -devletin her kademesinde sözel alanlarda eğitim almış yararlık gösteren şahsiyetleri de örnek göstererek- eğitim aşamasındaki genç zihinlere anlatmalı, onları bir yanlış değerlendirmenin eşiğinden geri çevirmeliyiz. Bu konuda sadece velilere değil, okul yöneticilerine ve bilhassa okul rehberlik servislerine önemli görevler düşmektedir. Velev ki öğrenci sayısal alanlarda daha başarılı olsun ve bu alanlara yönelik üniversite tercihlerinde bulunsun. Sanat ve estetik bilinci kazanmış, yüksek duyarlık sahibi, sanatın biricik müsebbibi insanı ve insanî değerleri idrâk edebilen mimarların, mühendislerin, doktorların ülkelerine ve insanlığa hizmet noktasında diğerlerinden çok daha farklı bir duruş sergileyecekleri de gözden kaçırılmaması gereken gerçekler arasındadır. 2. Problemlerin içinde belki de en kolay aşılabilecek olanı, okullardaki teknolojik yetersizliklerdir. Öğrencilerin görerek öğrenmekten zevk aldıkları bir dönemde görsel ve işitsel materyallerle zenginleştirilmiş bir ders çok daha keyifli olacaktır. Maalesef okullarımızın pek çoğunda teknik yetersizlikler sebebiyle öğrenciler bu imkânlardan mahrum kalmaktadır. Şüphesiz ki teknolojinin imkânlarının, eğitim araç ve gereçlerinin kullanıldığı bir ders sıkıcı olmaktan daha kolay kurtulacak ve dersin kalitesi artacaktır. 3. Edebiyat dersini ‘ sıkıcı’laştıran bir diğer unsur ise dersin işleniş biçimidir. Hiç şüphesiz ki burada en büyük pay öğretmene düşmektedir. Her ne kadar bu durumun bir ucu, -bir kısır döngü olarak- yine eğitime gelip dayansa da; okumayan, yazmayan, yayın dünyasından haberi olmayan, sanat ve edebiyat faaliyetlerine kayıtsız, aktüelle bağlantısını koparmış, teknolojik gelişmelerden uzak ve öğretmenliği sadece bir meslek olarak yapan edebiyat öğretmenlerinin sıkıcı ve tek düze ders anlatımları maalesef bu olumsuzluğu pekiştirmektedir. Öğretmenlik mesleği, yapısı gereği vericiliği gerektirir. Öğrenciye en doğruyu, en kolay biçimde verebilmek için öncelikle öğretmenin verilecek bilgiyi özümsemiş olması ve öğrettiği alanın güncel seyrinin izleyici ve belki de oluşturucusu olması gerekir. Öğrenciyi ders sırasında kolayca yönlendirebilmek, ders süresini etkin bir şekilde kullanabilmek için öğretmenin dersi önceden hazırlayıp, programlaması, derse uygun anlatım teknikleriyle eğitim ve öğretimi daha kalıcı hale getirmesi şarttır. Bunun yanı sıra sadece ders kitabına bağlı kalmayan, zevkli, nitelikli, farklı metinleri derse taşıyan, çeşitli sosyal etkinliklerden öğrencileri haberdar eden, sanatsal faaliyetlere zaman zaman öğrencileriyle birlikte iştirak eden öğretmen elbette ki öğrencinin gözünde farklı bir yer tutacaktır. Edebî zevke sahip, bu zevki seslendiği öğrenci kitlesine de yansıtmayı başaran idealist öğretmenlerin elinde edebiyat dersi hak ettiği ilgiyi yeniden bulacaktır. 4. Ders kitaplarına alınan metinlere dönük problemler: 418 �Hiç şüphe yok ki en çok eleştirilecek ve çözüm önerisi getirilecek hususlar bu konuda yoğunlaşmaktadır. Çünkü seçilen metinlerin ve bu metinlere yaklaşım tarzının edebiyat dersinin sıkıcı olup olmamasında katkısı büyüktür. Ders kitaplarına alınan metinlerde öncelikle amaç iyi belirlenmelidir. Edebi metnin amacı okuyucunun iç dünyasını zenginleştirmek, ona estetik bir duyarlık kazandırmak olmalıdır. Her ne kadar metinler üzerinden sözcük bilgisi, dil bilgisi, teorik edebiyat bilgisi, edebiyat tarihi bilgisi aktarımı yapılsa da temel espri asla gözden kaçırılmamalıdır. Edebiyat eğitimi her şeyden evvel bir sanat eğitimi olarak algılanmalıdır. Ortaöğretimde edebiyat derslerinde öğrenciye kazandırılması gereken, edebiyatla, yazarla ve edebiyat tarihiyle ilgili bilgileri öğretmek değil; öğrenciyi metinle muhatap kılabilmek, metnin estetik değerini algılatabilmek olmalıdır. Bu nedenle ders kitaplarına alınacak parçalarda öncelikle bu kıstas göz önünde bulundurulmalı, öğrenciye bu zevki aşılatabilecek metinler seçilmelidir. Ders kitaplarına alınacak metinlerde şu kriterlere özellikle dikkat etmek gerekir: 1. Seçilen metinler öğrenciyi ana dili doğru kullanabilme ve dil zevki kazandırabilme özelliği taşımalıdır. 2. Öte yandan edebi metinler yazıldığı dönemin sosyokültürel ortamının tanığı, kültürel bir birikimin aktarım aracıdır. Seçilen metinlerin kendi devirlerini iyi yansıtması, bağlı bulunduğu edebî geleneğin özelliklerini iyi temsil etmesi gerekir. 3. Türünü, devrini, temayı en iyi örnekleyebilecek kaliteli metinler seçilmelidir. 4. Seçilen metinlerin aynı zamanda yazarın edebî serüveni göz önünde bulundurulduğunda yazarı ve onun edebiyat anlayışını doğru aktarması gerekir. 5. Metinler hayata hazırlayıcı, bireylerin ve toplumun içinde yaşadıkları çevreye duyarlılıklarını arttırıcı nitelikte olmalıdır. 6. Sınıf içerisinde öğrencilerin derse hep birlikte katılımını sağlayacak ilgi çekici temalar seçilmeli, özellikle zihinsel gelişimleri ve ilgi duyacakları konular göz önünde bulundurmalıdır. 7. Öğrencinin bilgi birikimi, okuma alışkanlığı ve yaş düzeyi göz önüne alınmalıdır. 8. Seçilen metinlerin, yeteneği olan öğrencileri harekete geçirebilecek etkiye sahip olması gerekir. Yazma, okuma ve ifade kabiliyetlerini güçlendirebilmelidir. 9. Kültürümüzün inanç, bilgi ve zevk inceliklerini kavratarak duygularını terbiye edecek, ahlakî açıdan ve kişiliğinin gelişimi açısından öğrencinin eğitimine katkıda bulunabilecek metinler seçilmelidir. 10. Kitaplara alınacak metinlerin çok uzun olmaması, bütünlüğünün muhafaza edilmesi, dilinin anlaşılır olması; metinlerin hem tema, hem yapı, hem de dil ve üslup açısından kavranabilmesi için son derece önemlidir. Sonuç olarak şunu yeniden belirtmeliyiz ki edebiyat eğitiminin pek çok kazanımı olmakla birlikte hedefi öğrenciye bir sanat ve estetik bilinci kazandırmaktır. Her sanat eğitimi alan elbette ki sanatçı olamaz. Zaten sanat eğitimindeki temel amaç daha iyi sanatçılar yetiştirmek değil, estetik zevki yüksek, duyarlık sahibi insanların oluşturduğu daha sağlıklı toplumlar; düşünen, sorgulayan, mücadele eden, yaşamın bizzat içinde yer alan sağlıklı nesiller yetiştirebilmektir. Bunun pek çok yolu vardır. Tam da bu noktada üzerinde durduğumuz konunun ehemmiyeti artmaktadır. Sanat ve estetik eğitim yanı sıra edebiyat dersleri öğrencinin ahlakî ve kültürel eğitimi ve farklı alanlarda bilgi edinimi için de bir araç olarak devreye girmektedir. Bu nedenle edebiyat eğitimi göründüğünden çok daha ciddiye alınmalıdır. Kaynakça Akçay, Tahsin, Hayalimdeki Öğretmen, Yağmur Yayınları, İstanbul 2008. Aktaş, Şerif, Edebiyatta Üslup ve Problemleri, Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara 1986. Başar Hüseyin, Sınıf Yönetimi, MEB Yayınları Öğretmen Kitapları, İstanbul 1999. Bilkan, Ali Fuat, “Liselerde Divan Edebiyatı Öğretimi”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/ali.pdf Büyükkantarcıoğlu, Nalan, “Bilgi Toplumu Oluşturma Bağlamında Türk Edebiyatı Dersleri Üzerine Düşünceler”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/nalan.pdf Coşkun, Menderes, “Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretimindeki Sorunlara Batı Üniversiteleri Temelinde Çözüm Önerileri”,http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/DILBILIM/menderes_coskun_turk_dili_ve_edebiyati_ogretimi_sorunlar.pdf 419 �Çalışkan, Nihal, “Edebiyat Ders Kitapları Üzerine Edebiyat Eğitimi Açısından Bir Değerlendirme”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/nihal.pdf Çetişli, İsmail, “Edebiyat Eğitiminde Edebi Metnin Yeri ve Anlamı”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/ismail.pdf Dökmen, Üstün, İletişim Çatışmaları ve Empati, Sistem Yayınları, İstanbul 2003. Ertuğrul, Halit, Öğretmenlikte Yeni Teknikler, Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul 2002. Filizok, Rıza, “Edebiyat Eğitim ve Öğretiminde Terim Sorunu”, http://www.ege-edebiyat.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=60 Gökalp, G.Gonca, “Derslikten Günlük Yaşama Edebiyat Eğitimi”, http://www.turkbilig.hacettepe.edu.tr/index.php?sayfa=dergi&islem=yazigoster&islem=yazdir&no=55 Küçükahmet, Leyla, Sınıf Yönetimi, Nobel Yayıncılık, İstanbul 2003. Saraç, Cemal, “Sözlü İletişim Becerileri Açısından Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Eğitimi”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/cemal.pdf Sartre, J.Paul, Edebiyat Nedir?, Tayel Yayınları, İstanbul 1982. UÇAN, Hilmi, “Edebiyat Eğitimi, Estetik Bir Hazzın Edinimi, Okumanın Alışkanlığa Dönüştürülmesi ve Yazınsal Kuramlar”, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/169/hilmi.doc 420 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b3e2f09e1925115fd9ad6f6e35dc2ac2.doc 936705d6bfe3fa42eb388c392d291024 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 434 Title A name given to the resource Ortaöğretim Edebiyat Derslerinde İşlenecek Metinlerin Eğitim Açısından Değerlendirilmesi Author Author ANDI, Kübra Abstract A summary of the resource. Ortaöğretimde öğrencilere verilen derslerin elbette herbirinin ayrı ve gerekli işlevleri ve yerleri vardır. Ancak bunlar içerisindeki edebiyat derslerinin fonksiyonları göz önünde bulundurulduğunda, dersin yeri ve önemi bir kat daha öne çıkar. Edebiyat dersleri, hem edebî bilgi, hem estetik eğitim, hem de içerdiği konular ve açılımlarla öğrenci için bir “hayat bilgisi ve tecrübesi” edinme dersi niteliğindedir. Bunun için bu derslerin, Türk eğitim sistemi içerisinde maruz kaldığı sorunların ciddiye alınması, aksaklıkların giderilmesi eğitim adına şarttır. Bunların başında ise TC Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı edebiyat dersi müfredatı içerisine alınan edebî metinlerin seçimi ve bu metinlerin eğitim açısından daha da dikkate alınması gelmektedir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/efce99bc7010265c099920cf53b46c17.pdf f2c31f69d22220b93a75ec5ef4db29f2 PDF Text Text Teachers’ Automatical Thoughts Birol ALVER Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey balver@atauni.edu.tr Şükrü ADA Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey sukruada@atauni.edu.tr Mücahit DILEKMEN Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey dilekmen@atauni.edu.tr Sırrı AKBABA Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi Turkey sakbaba@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: In this study it was aimed to analyze automatic thoughts of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of ErzurumTurkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding automatic thoughts of teachers was obtained through Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) which was designed by Hollan and Kendal (1980) and adapted to turkish first by Aydın ve Aydın (1980) and then by Şahin and Şahin (1992) to measure the occurance the frequency of automatic negative thoughts associated with depression. It is a 30-item with 1-5 score margin likert type scale (ATQ-30). Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that above mentioned assumed precursor variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. Introduction Automatic thoughts are repetitive, automatic self-statements that individuals always say to themselves in certain situations. They can be positive or negative. Psychological problems develop when an individual’s automatic thoughts are consistently negative (Franklin, 2002) In related literature, eleven irrational beliefs or opinions have been defined. Some of those beliefs and opinions are stated below : • Past experiences are the determinants of today’s behaviors of an individual. Things/events having strong effects on our past lives will definitely have similar effects in future life. • Some people are evil-minded and baleful and that’s why they deserve to be blamed and punished. • Unhappiness is caused by external factors which individuals have little control of. • I must be liked and approved by everyone in society. • I must be perfectly successful, efficient and competent to consider myself as a “gem”. 266 �• There are the definite and perfect solutions to human problems. If they cannot be found, the result is disaster (Ellis, 1962; Ellis, 1973; Jones, 1982; Dryden ve Ellis, 1988). Having positive thoughts plays important role for mental health. It is widely believed that those thoughts are developed within childhood period. Individuals who cannot develop proper cognitive behavioral skills within socialization process, develop feeling of helplessness, fail to succeed academically and socially and tend to develop negative automatic thoughts and depression. Positive automatic thoughts are important attributes that give an individual the opportunity arranging negative feelings and behaviors such as; anxiety, depression, anger, loneliness and poor self-worthiness (Güloğlu ve Aydın, 2007). In a study conducted by Çiçek, Tatari, Kasap and Karaırmak (2009) on university students, a positive relation between psychological symptoms and automatic thoughts of students was found at a significant level. Furthermore, it was also revealed within the scope of the same study that females’ automatic thoughts are higher than that of the males at a significant level. In one of his studies, Özgüven (1999) revealed that frequency of negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes observed in crisis cases are significantly higher than other cases. Özgüven (1999) revealed in his study that negative automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes were significantly higher when compared to control group. Moreover, falling apart of the family; losing someone dearest; experiencing mental traumas; verbally, physically and sexually have been or being harrassed and having committed suicade before are asserted to be the risk factors in developing negative automatic thoughts. It was also emphasized that automatic thoughts ascertain long term thoughts and attitudes; not the immediate behaviors. Frequency level of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes in crisis cases are observed to be significantly higher compared to other cases. Furthermore, there are those finding which have revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes tend to be more depressive and anxious (Palabıyıkoğlu et al. 1995; Azizoğlu 1993; Tschacher 1996). In two other different studies it was also revealed that improper automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes should be accepted as a risk factor for crisis rather than be considered as the result of crisis (Abramson, L.Y.,Seligman, MEP., Teasdale, J.D. 1978; Peterson and Seligman 1984). Karahan, Sardoğan and Özkamalı (2006) revealed in their study that individuals with poor social competence expectancy and with dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts, needs more psychosocial support than the others. It is attained as result that automatic thoughts do not vary in accordance with gender. In the study conducted by Bulut (2007) there was found a negative relation between life satisfaction and negative automatic thoughts of guidance counselors; whereas a positive relation was found between avoidance and negative automatic thoughts. Problem Statement In this study it was aimed to analyze automatic thoughts of teachers from the aspect of different variables. The following question is tried to be answered in parallel with this purpose. “Do the automatic thoughts of teachers differentiate in accordance with the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication ?” Method Population and Sampling Population of this study consist of the teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. 215 teachers were chosen randomly out of the population as the sample of the study. Data Collection Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) Data regarding automatic thoughts of teachers was obtained through Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) which was designed by Hollan and Kendal (1980) and adapted to turkish first by Aydın ve Aydın (1980) and then by Şahin and Şahin (1992) to measure the occurance the frequency of automatic negative thoughts associated with depression. It is a 30-item with 1-5 score margin likert type scale (ATQ-30). It can be applied to both teenagers and adults. Internal consistency cronbach alfa reliability coefficient of the original questionnaire was found as. 94, .89, and .91 in turn; split half reliability coefficient for depressive group was found as r=.91, and for 267 �nondepressive psychopatological group was found as r=.59 and for other patients as r=.87. Internal consistency cronbach alfa reliability coefficient of the adapted questionnaire was found as. 93, .95, .94, .89 and .91 in turn; split half reliability coefficient for depressive group was found as r=.91, and for nondepressive psychopatological group was found as r=.59 and for other patients as r=.87. Re-test test reliability was found as r=.77. Correlation of the original form of the questionnaire with Beck Depression Inventory was found as .87 and the correlation with MMPI-D scale was found as .85. Correlations of the adapted form of the questionnaire with Beck Depression Inventory was found as .75, .70, .87 and the correlation with MMPI-D scale was found as .85. Correlation of the adapted form with Multiple Depression Scale was found as .60 whereas its correlation with Dysfunctional Attitude Scale was found .27. Each item of the scale is viewed one by one and all 30 items were found to have validity discriminate between depressed and nondepressed subjects (Şahin ve Şahin, 1992). Personal Information Form Teachers of the sample group were given Personal Information Forms developed by the researchers concerning information about the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach at, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through this form. Data Analysis SPSS 16.0 packaged software was used for statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. Findings Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Genders t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their gender were given in table 1 below : Gender n X sd Female 100 44,51 12,82 Male 115 47,86 14,76 t p -1.764 .079 sd: 213 p>0.05 Table1. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Gender As seen in table 1 above, there was found a significant difference between automatic thought scores of male and female teachers (t213= -1.764, p=.079). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status were given in table 2 below : 268 �Marital Status n X sd Single 65 47,04 14,22 Married 150 45,98 13,88 t p 0.513 . 608 sd: 213 p>0.05 Tablo 2. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values Of Automatic Thought Scores Of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status As seen in table 2 above, there was found a significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status (t213=0.513, p=.608). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type Institution They Teach In Or They Work For Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the type of institution they teach in or they work for were given in table 3 below : n Type of Institution They Teach At X sd Automatic Thoughts Primary Education 92 45.73 14.68 Secondary Education 106 46.43 13.70 Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğü 17 48.52 11.92 Total 215 46.30 13.96 Table 3. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type of Institution They Teach At The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding the type of institution they teach at are shown in table 4 below : Automatic Thoughts Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 115.337 41618.012 41733.349 s d. 2 212 214 Mean of Squares 57.668 196.311 F .294 p .746 Table 4. Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Type Institution They Teach At As seen in table 4, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the type institution they teach at (F(2,212)= 0.294, p=.746). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their service period were given in table 5 below : 269 �n X Sd 122 81 12 215 45.36 48.27 42.58 46.30 13.52 14.40 14.76 13.96 Service Period Automatic Thoughts 1-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years Total Table 5. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding their service period are shown in table 6 below : Automatic Thoughts Sum of Mean of Source of Variance Squares s d. Squares F p 588.276 2 294.138 1.516 .222 Inter-groups 41145.073 212 194.081 In-groups 41733.349 214 Total Table 6. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding Their Service Period As seen in table 6, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their service period (F(2,212)= 1.516, p=.222). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving ınservice training were given in table 7 below : n X sd 32 67 18 98 215 47.90 44.89 50.61 45.94 46.30 15.53 13.35 16.86 13.27 13.96 Status of Receiving Inservice Training Automatic Thoughts Never received Received only once Received twice Received three times and more Total Table 7. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding the status of receiving inservice training are shown in table 8 below : 270 �Automatic Thoughts Sum of Mean of Source of Variance s d. F p Squares Squares 561.339 3 187.113 .959 .413 Inter-groups 41172.010 211 195.128 In-groups 41733.349 214 Total Table 8. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers Regarding The Status of Receiving Inservice Training As seen in table 8, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving inservice training (F(3,211)= 0.959, p=.413). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught o For The Longest Period Standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught o for the longest period were given in table 9 below : n sd X The Settlement They’ve Taught o For The Longest Period Automatic Thoughts Village 19 52.21 15.70 Town 29 45.96 13.24 City 60 45.65 12.58 Metropolis 107 45.71 14.50 Total 215 46.30 13.96 Table 9. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught oFor The Longest Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between automatic thought scores of teachers regarding the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period are shown in table 10 below : Automatic Thoughts Source of Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 729.557 41003.792 41733.349 s d. 3 211 214 Mean of Squares 243.186 194.331 F 1.251 p .292 Table 10. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period As seen in table 10 above, there was found no significant difference between nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period (F(3,211)= 1.251, p=.292). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing are given in table 11 below : 271 �Sports Playing n X sd Playing Sports 91 46.73 13.69 Not Playing Sports sd: 213 p>0.05 124 45.98 14.20 t p 0.390 .160 Table 11. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing As is seen in table 11 above, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing (t213= 0.390, p=.160). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with artiness are given in table 12 below : Artiness n X sd Sanatla Uğraşanlar 168 46.82 13.70 Sanatla Uğraşmayanlar sd: 213 p>0.05 47 44.42 14.86 t p 1.043 .298 Table 12. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness As seen in table 12, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with artiness (t213= 1.043, p=.298). Findings Regarding Automatic Thought Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication t-value, standard deviation and mean values of automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication are given in table 13 below Perceived Communication Style Olumlu Algılayanlar (insancıl, yapıcı ve anlayışlı) Olumsuz Algılayanlar (eleştirel, yargılayıcı, duyarsız) sd: 213 p>0.05 n X sd 179 45.83 13.84 36 48.63 14.51 t p -1.101 .272 Table 13. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication As seen in table 13, there was found no significant difference between automatic thought scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication (t213= -1.101, p=.272). Findings Regarding Precursor Variables of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers The results of multiple regression analysis applied to determine the nonfunctional attitude score predictive strength of the variables of gender, marital status, type of institution they teach at or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived type of communication are given at table 14 below : 272 �Precursor Variables Gender Marital Status Type of institution they teach at or work for Service Period Status of receiving inservice training En Uzun Süreyle Görev Yapılan Yerleşim Yeri Sports playing Artiness Perceived Communication Style B Predictive Error β t p 3.112 -.736 1.234 1.880 .097 1.947 1.159 1.627 1.727 .884 .111 -.049 .055 .081 .008 1.599 -0.635 0.758 1.088 0.109 .111 .526 .449 .278 .913 -1.263 1.029 -.088 -1.228 .221 .123 2.070 .004 0.059 .953 -2.277 2.411 -.068 -0.944 .346 2.362 2.647 .063 0.892 .373 2 R=.197 R =.039 F(9-205)=0.916 p=.512 Table 14. The Results of Multiple Regression Analysis Regarding Precursor Variables of Nonfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Considering the findings obtained from table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (R=0.143, R2=0.039, F(9-205)=0.916, p=.512). This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 3,9% of variance of the nonfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.111) is the strongest variable to predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers yet without being at significant level (t=-1.599, p=.111) whereas other variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at significant level. Discussion Considering the findings obtained from table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 3,9% of variance of the nonfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.111) is the strongest variable to predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers yet without being at significant level (t=-1.599, p=.111) whereas other variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at significant level. Negative automatic thoughts’ not varying significantly from the aspects of variables of this study, demonstrates their having almost no effect on varying them from. According to Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) theory, individuals inherit most of the opinion/belief structures leading their lives in their childhood period, imitating the persons they’ve perceived to be respectful (Corey, 2001). This assumption makes the reserchers to think that participative teachers developed automatic thoughts in their childhood period and that marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and their communication styles have had no effect on developing or changing automatic thoughts in their adulthood period. Overall score margin obtained from automatic thought scale is 30-150. Considering this range, there are those automatic thoughts of teachers at a certain level despite its not varying in accordance with above mentioned variables. Karahan, Sardoğan and Özkamalı (2006) revealed in their study that individuals with poor social competence expectancy and with dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts, needs more psycho-social support than the others. Negative automatic thoughts are ascertained to be significantly higher in crisis cases than other cases. There are also findings obtained, revealing that people having nonfunctional attitudes tend to be more depressive and anxious (Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; Azizoğlu 1993; Tschacher 1996). Considering the scores obtained pertaining automatic thoughts together with automatic thoughts score range, it can be inferred that teachers may need psycho-social support to a certain extent and that they might experience some problems with social competence expectancy and tend to experience crisis as well as their becoming depressed and anxious to a certain extent. 273 �Conclusions and Recommendations Considering the findings obtained from table 14, it can be affirmed that despite teachers’ having negative automatic thoughts, assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.111) is the strongest variable to predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers yet without being at significant level (t=-1.599, p=.111) whereas other variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at significant level. Overall score margin obtained from automatic thought scale is 30-150. Considering this range, there are those automatic thoughts of teachers at a certain level despite its not varying in accordance with above mentione variables. Going through literature review, it has been ascertained that automatic thoughts result from erroneous cognitive schemas formed within the childhood period of an individual and that it may cause some certain psychological problems afterwards. Considering those assignations, following recommendations could be suggested : 1. Particular inservice training programs should be arranged in order to raise teachers’ awareness on automatic thought, its sources and its effects. Different effective authorities such as Guidance Research Centers (GRC) and guidance counselors should be made use of in this studies. 2. Informative education pertaining automatic thoughts should be given to families. 3. Studies on automatic thoughts and their effects in life can be conducted in educational faculties on behalf of prospective teachers. 4. Confirming teachers with negative automatic thoughts, necessary therapeutic studies could be conducted. References Abramson LY, Seligman MEP, Teasdale, J.D. (1978) .Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformu- lation. Journal Abnormal Psychology, (87, pp. 49-74). Aydın,G. ve Aydın, O. (1990). Otomotik düşünceler ölçeğinin geçerlilik ve güvenilirliği [Reliability and validity of automatic thoughts questionnaire (ATQ-30)]. Psikoloji Dergisi (7 (4), pp.51-57) Azizoğlu S (1993) Psikolojik yardım arama davranışını etkileyen bazı faktörler açısından kriz merkezine başvuran ve başvurmayan bireylerin karşılaştırılması. Kriz Dergisi (1(3), pp. 143-149). Bulut, N. (2007). Okul psikolojik danışmanlarının yaşam doyumu, stresle başa çıkma stratejileri ve olumsuz otomatik düşünceleri arasındaki ilşkiler. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, (27, pp. 11-13). Corey, G. (2001). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotheraphy. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Çiçek, P., Tatari B., Kasap, S. ve Karaırmak, Ö. (2009). Üniversite öğrencilerinin gösterdikleri psikolojik belirtiler ile sahip oldukları otomatik düşünce arasındaki ilişki. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Bölümü Öğrencileri Poster Bildirileri. http://egt.kocaeli.edu.tr/bolum/ebb/pdr/otom.ppt Eisen, A.R.& Kearney, C.A. (1995). Practitioner's Guide to Treating Fear and Anxiety in Children and Adolescents: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach, Jason Aronson, Northvale. Dryden, W. ve Ellis, A. (1988). Rational-emotive therapy. (Ed. Keith S. Dabson.) Handbook of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (pp. 214–272), London: Hutchinson. Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and Emotion in Psychotheraphy. New York: Springer. _____ (1973). Rational-emotive psychotheraphy. (Ed: Patterson, C.H.) Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy (pp. 49– 57). New York: Harpe and Row Publishers Franklin, D. J. (2002). Cognitive therapy for depression. http://www.psychologyinfo.com Güloğlu, B., Aydın, G. (2007). İlköğretim 5. sınıf öğrencilerinin öğrenilmiş güçlülük ve otomatik düşünce biçimi arasındaki ilişki. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (H. U. Journal of Education) (33, pp. 157-168) Jones, N. (1982). The theory and practice of counseling psychology, (Çev: F.Akkoyun ve ark.), Ankara. Karahan, T.F., Sardoğan, M.M.ve Özkamalı, E. (2006). Lise öğrencilerinde sosyal yetkinlik beklentisi ve otomatik düşüncelerin, yaşanılan birim ve cinsiyet açısından incelenmesi. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, (26, pp. 3545). Özgüven, H.D.( 1999). Psikiyatrik kriz vakalarında hatalı otomatik düşünceler ve fonksiyonel olmayan tutumların sıklığı. Kriz Dergisi, (7(2), pp. 9-16). Palabıyıkoğlu, R.,Berksun, O.E., Güney, S.,Yaza, H, Duran, A. (1995) Krize müdahale merkezine başvuranların değerlendirilmesi: Demografik özellikler, sorun alanları, yaklaşım. Kriz Dergisi, (3(1-2), pp. 118-123). Peterson, C, Seligman MEP. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and Evidence. Psychological Review; (91, pp. 347-374). Şahin, N. H. & Şahin, N. (1992). Reliability and Validity of the Turkish Version of the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire. Journal of Clinical Psychology, (48, pp. 334 – 340). Tschacher, W. (1996) The dynamics of psychosocial crises: Time courses and causal models. J Nerv Ment Dis, (184, pp. 172179). 274 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cc3d1b2637ad02a9867ade8974caefe3.doc 1ed3180e94aa1ff5962910705ef9d4d8 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 426 Title A name given to the resource Teachers’ Automatical Thoughts Author Author ALVER, Birol ADA, Şükrü DILEKMEN, Mücahit AKBABA, Sırrı Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study it was aimed to analyze automatic thoughts of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of ErzurumTurkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding automatic thoughts of teachers was obtained through Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire (ATQ) which was designed by Hollan and Kendal (1980) and adapted to turkish first by Aydın ve Aydın (1980) and then by Şahin and Şahin (1992) to measure the occurance the frequency of automatic negative thoughts associated with depression. It is a 30-item with 1-5 score margin likert type scale (ATQ-30). Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that above mentioned assumed precursor variables couldn’t predict nonfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/58d6501f5e07eb436dc10c0371636642.pdf f7f14dea20ba4db41baacbe4012e46fe PDF Text Text The Effects of Globalisation and Technological Improvements on Vocational and Technical Education Birol AKYÜZ Bilecik University Faculty of Engineering TÜRKİYE birol.akyuz@bilecik.edu.tr Gülşen ÇETİN AKYÜZ Bilecik University Vocational and Technical Education TÜRKİYE gulsen.cetin@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: At the beginning of the 21st century, it’s seen that countries find themselves in a competition of information and technology and that they have taken a long distance on the way of becoming communities of knowledge. In line with the added to the importance of the need for education “Globalisation”, “re-construction” and “integration with the world” are among concepts which are used to describe especially post-industry information societies. The fact that information gains importance adds to the responsibilities of the whole educational organisation from the sources where information is produced to the structure, operation, administration and programs of educational institutions. Educational organisations must lead to the modernisation of the society because educational organisations have the chance to have influence on other systems by the way they lead. Main condition of rapidly improvements of developing countries depends on improving education qualifications and training qualified person. In this study, the effects of globalisation and technological improvements on the quality of vocational and technical educations were examined and given some suggestions about the subject. Introduction Today the world is in a process of rapid change and development. The main force of the improvement is the industrial technology which is changing every day related to knowledge (TÜBİTAK 1990). Human, education and technology are in a harmony today. In the 21st century, the professional human source will be the main rivalry reason for the companies (MESS 1997). The most significant features of the companies which are not effected from these rapid changes having the high quality workforce (Ceyhun ve Çağlayan, 1997). It is a fact that in the developing world, the education system should meet the new demands of technology, economy and the structural changes and it should assist to these processes. Today the innovations in the communication and transportation areas accelerate the international rivalry (Erkan, 1997). For the reason of the others before they join the cost of knowledge that has an economic value. For this reason, the investment on the education is the most expensive investment (Drucker, Trans.:Üçcan,1996). Technology is the mass of knowledge that changes raw materials, energy and information into goods and it serves to people. global developments, the vocational and technical education schools should give their students the ability of rivalry skill and the necessary knowledge (TİSK, 1997). In today's world, there is a very close relation between the success in education and the increase in economy (The Economist, 1997). The main condition of development for the developing countries is that they have to give more importance to the quality of education and to educate skilful personnel for the industry. Knowledge is one of the important values in the developing world (Erkan, 1997). Steam machines are the engines of industrial society and the computers are the main devices of knowledge and technology. New computer technologies are developed to use, store and create new information (Balkır, 1992). 234 �Today, the knowledge is the biggest force. The countries that produce technology and knowledge do not give these two elements to Technology and qualified work force are two main factors in production (Kozlu, 1996). The Innovations of the Knowledge Period and Globalisation Globalisation means the grooving interdependence and interconnectedness of modern world. Economic globalization is precisely defined within international trade theory as the ever increasing integration of national economies into a giant one size fits all global economy through trade and investment rules and privation, aided by technological advances, and driven by corporate power (Woodin and Lucas, 2004; Beck, 2000). Global integration has led to substantial economic growth and, at the same time, an uneven allocation of the fruits from economic growth. Supporters of globalisation focus on productivity and growth (Homann et al., 2007; Williams, 2001). Globalisation is the process of corporate structuring that focus a company’s core competency on a single worldwide market, creating growth and profit opportunities (Held, 2004). According to globalisation, in the worldwide market, customer requirements and satisfactions are getting improved day by day. Customer’s expectations are always bigger than customer’s perceptions. Because of this, customer satisfactions are important for competitive economies or firms (Özevren, 1997). The developments in the communication technologies not only make the knowledge transfer quicker and simpler for industrial production but also it increases the effectiveness and efficiency of production (Cooper, 2000). For this reason, the companies management systems are changed, too. The use of robots in industry are became widely-known by microelectronic and computer technologies. All these developments are also effected the mechanic technologies used in industry (Erkan, 1997). Within the innovations in technology, new materials (plastics, ceramics), new processing methods (Computer Numerical Control CNC, Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing CAD/CAM) and new jobs are appeared, too. Some qualities of workforce have changed in the period of knowledge if we compare it within the past. The qualities that are wanted in the workforce of producing goods and services are increased the level of skills and responsibilities. It is important to give a necessary education. These determine the human force profile: To be in a harmony with the technological developments and the changes and always renew yourself, To have life-long learning, To have good relation with others, To join the group works, To take responsibilities and risks, To have not only the job qualifications but also the knowledge of socials subjects. The developments in communication technology caused some changes in the methods, techniques, principles and the sources of education. The main targets of vocational and technical education schools are to create a high performance workforce (Moran and Rumble, 1996). The industry of future is needed qualified workforce (The Economist, 1997; Güleç, 1994). The past three decades have seen a dramatic transformation in the world of work, changing not only the foundations of economies and social life but also the knowledge, skills and competencies that people require in almost very field of endeavour (Şimşek, 2002). Vocational and technical education occupies a central place in social and economic policy throughout the world (Moran and Rumble, 2004). The driving forces are familiar; dramatic shifts from agrarian or industrial eras to a knowledge age, accompanied by equally dramatic changes in the nature and structure of work; the progressive globalisation of trade and communications; technological advances that encourage constant and rapid change in economic and social life (Şimşek, 2002). As the world moves ineluctably into a technology dominated knowledge age the nature of work is changing profoundly. The skills of learning, the ability to process information, and the capacity to adapt rapidly change, are fast becoming determining factors in personal, corporate and national survival and prosperity (Uzun ve Vatansever, 2005; Moran and Rumble, 2004). The constant state of turbulence in employment and the world of work, means that education system cannot educate and train people in the expectation that their work activities will remain stable or that they will remain in the one job throughout their working life (Moran and Rumble, 2004). The World Competitiveness Scoreboard presents the 2008 overall rankings for the 55 economies covered by the WCY. The economies are ranked from the most to the least competitive and the results from the previous years scoreboard (2007) are shown in brackets. The Scores shown 235 �to the left are actually indices (0 to 100) generated for the unique purpose of constructing charts and graphics, seen Fig.1. Figure 1: World Competitiveness (The World Competitiveness Year Books, 2008) Defining Vocational And Technical Education In this study, we use the term “vocational and technical education”, or VTE, to describe the acquisition of knowledge, skills and competences for job performance. Use of this term is different for the countries, such as South Africa and the United Kingdom “further education and training”, Pacific “technical and vocational education and training”, an Australian “technical and further education” and elsewhere, terms such as “technical education”, and “training” are common vocational and technical education is the preferred appellation of bodies such as the World Bank and European Union (Moran and Rumble, 2004).. Vocational and technical education comprises all more or less organized or structured activities, whether or not they lead to recognized qualification, which aim to provide people with knowledge, skills and competences that are necessary and sufficient in order to perform a job or set of jobs (Özsoy, 2007). Trainees in initial or continuing training thus undertake work preparation or adapt their skills to changing requirements. Vocational and technical education is independent of its venue, the age or other characteristics of participants, and of their previous level of qualification. The content of vocational and technical education could be job specific, directed to a broader range of jobs or occupations, or a mixture of both, vocational and technical education may also include general elements (Moran and Rumble, 2004). The Factors That Effects the Quality on Vocational and Technical Education What can be done to improve the quality of education in vocational and technical education schools? First of all, we have to define the word quality: the property of a product qualification that reacts to the customer needs at the present or future. According to this definition, the customer determines the dimensions of quality (Öztürk, 1996). The qualities in vocational and technical education schools are that to educate the technical educated employers for the needs of industry (Güleç, 1994). The present or the new knowledge used in industry should be easily used by these people. The success of vocational and technical education schools are correlated with the qualifications gained with the help of education and the qualification that the job required. 236 �‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ The quality of the students and the teachers The quality of technical equipments and the physical environments The management system The capacity of social-cultural academic activities Finance. The Effects of Technologic Developments to the Quality of Vocational and Technical Education To improve of the vocational and technical education quality, the following subjects are important: ‰ The machines and devices used in workshops and laboratories must be developed and renewed according to the new technologies, ‰ Use the computer technologies for the new product signs and their productions (Computer Aided Engineering CAE, Computer Aided Design/manufacturing CAD/CAM, Computer Numerical Control-CNC, and Computer Integrated Manufacturing-CIM) to search the new production methods and to teach its usage, to use the new technologies about the production design, ‰ Reaching the knowledge by using the communication technologies, ‰ The development in educational devices (TV, Video, Computer, CD-DVD etc.), ‰ The developments in education technologies (Internet, Tele-Conference, Simulation Programs), ‰ Determining the standards of job, ‰ Changing the management system, ‰ Improving the opportunity of using libraries and the sources. Suggestions Some suggestions for improvements of the quality on vocational and technical education quality are those: • Duties, authorities and the responsibilities should be determined, • The problems of titles should be solved, • The standards of job should be determined, • It should be given importance to the system of certificate, • Industry should be participate in all steps of education training, • The system of education should be changed according to the changes at work and also the possibilities of finance should be provided, • Seminars should be held, • The physical quality of education properties should be developed, • The changing education methods should be followed, • There should be information offices or foundations that is made up off representatives of industry, • To form a database and have to cooperate with other vocational and technical education schools should be financed by the companies The personnel of education should be used in industry as on advisor, • Have to make necessary changes in the curriculum of colleges that is available for the expectations of industry, • The teachers should be encouraged to make researches, • The quality systems that are used by the companies should be also used in education, • The students should make practices in industry, • The graduates of technical colleges should be followed by a central system. 237 �Result Knowledge is the main factor of production in today's world. The companies that are using the technology created by knowledge on the companies which have the personnel using the technology should stay forever in the global world. If the vocational and technical education schools are interested in more closely to the developments of technology and develop suitable education programs and methods that they should easily graduate the personnel that is looked for the companies. The developed societies are called the society of knowledge. For this reason it is necessary to educate a human who knows the universal values, works and uses the technology in useful way for the knowledge society. Education is the most important factor in becoming developed society. As a Vocational and Technical Education schools, we have to go forward to become a developed society by using the knowledge and technology. References Balkır, N.(1992). Türkiye’de Çağdaş Eğitim ve Çağdaş Üniversite, T.C Başbakanlık Yayınları. Beck, U.(2000). What is Globalization?, Polity, UK. Ceyhun, Y. ve Çağlayan, M.U. (1997). Bilgi Teknolojileri Türkiye İçin Nasıl Bir Gelecek Hazırlamakta, Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, Ankara. Cooper, R. G. (2001). Winning at new products: accelerating the process from idea to launch, New York, Basic Books, USA. Drucker, F.P.(1994). Gelecek İçin Yönetim, (Çev: Üçcan, F.)Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları. Erkan, H. (1997). Bilgi Toplumu ve Ekonomik Gelişme, Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, Ankara. Güleç, K.(1994). Türkiye’de ve Dünyada Teknolojik Gelişmeler, DPT, Ankara. Held, D.(2004). A globalizing world? Culture, economics, politics, Routledge, UK. Homann, K.; Koslowski, P. and Luetge, C. (2007). Globalisation and Business Ethics, Ashgate UK. Kozlu, C.(1996). Türkiye Mucizesi için Vizyon Arayışları ve Asya Modelleri, Türkiye İş Bankası Yayınları, Ankara. Moran, L. and Rumble, G.(2004). Vocational Education And Training Through Open And Distance Learning, RoutledgeFalmer, New York, USA. Özevren, M. (1997). Toplam Kalite Yönetimi ve Temel Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar, Alfa Basım, İstanbul. Özsoy, C. (2007). Türkiye’de Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitimin İktisadi Kalkınmadaki Yeri ve Önemi, A.Ü. Yayın No.1780, Eskişehir. Öztürk, S. A. (1996). Hizmet İşletmelerinde Kalite boyutları ve Kalitenin Artırılması, MPM yayını, 1996/2. Şimşek, M.(2002). Toplam Kalite Yönetiminde Başarının Anahtarı, Babıali Kültür Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Uzun, A. ve Vatansever F.(2005). Eğitimde Kalite ve Sanayicinin Beklentileri, MTET2005, İstanbul. Williams, O. F.(2000), Global codes of conduct, University of Notre Dam Pres, Woodin, M. and Lucas, C. (2004), Gren alternatives to Globalisation, Pluto press, London. -----: (1990). TÜBİTAK, 1.Bilim ve Teknoloji Şurası, 1990. -----: (1997). MESS, Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Rekabet, Mayıs 1997 -----: (1997). The Economist, “Education and The Wealth of Nations”, Vol:342, March 29th- 4 April 1997. -----: (1997). Türkiye’de ve Dünyada Mesleki Eğitim, TİSK Raporu , İnceleme Yayınları, No:20, Ankara. -----: (2008). The World Competitiveness Year Books, USA. 238 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 406 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Globalisation and Technological Improvements on Vocational and Technical Education Author Author AKYÜZ, Birol ÇETİN AKYÜZ, Gülşen Abstract A summary of the resource. : At the beginning of the 21 st century, it’s seen that countries find themselves in a competition of information and technology and that they have taken a long distance on the way of becoming communities of knowledge. In line with the added to the importance of the need for education “Globalisation”, “re-construction” and “integration with the world” are among concepts which are used to describe especially post-industry information societies. The fact that information gains importance adds to the responsibilities of the whole educational organisation from the sources where information is produced to the structure, operation, administration and programs of educational institutions. Educational organisations must lead to the modernisation of the society because educational organisations have the chance to have influence on other systems by the way they lead. Main condition of rapidly improvements of developing countries depends on improving education qualifications and training qualified person. In this study, the effects of globalisation and technological improvements on the quality of vocational and technical educations were examined and given some suggestions about the subject. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d553df72c0706f584d9470ffd36b4c84.pdf 4db6b4af4080e1c6984daad736a0e7be PDF Text Text Effects of Knowledge on Nutrition and Eating Habits of Bilecik University Students Alev AKPINAR BORAZAN, Caglayan ACIKGOZ Engineering Faculty, Chemical and Process Engineering Department, Bilecik University, Bilecik-Turkey e-mail:alev.akpinar@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: A problem facing youth today is the lack of available healthy fast foods or easily prepared foods. During adolescence, young people are assuming responsibility for their own eating habits, health-related attitudes and behaviours and their growing independence is often associated with unconventional eating patterns. The aim of this study was detecting the effect of knowledge on nutrition and affecting healthy food choices in Bilecik University students. Researching data were collected from 471 of Bilecik University students in 2 campuses. In the present study which was done the method of simple randomized sampling and completed questionnaires to nutritional knowledge, eating habits and behaviours of them. 209 (%44.4) of male students and 262 (%55.6) of female students were examined. It was found that the average weights of the male and female students, who were at the ages of 17-23, were 60.85 kg and the average heights of them were 168.03m.Applied questionnaires before and after giving nutritional training, the results demonstrated that students improved their eating habits and behaviours; consumption ratio of fruits-vegetables for everyday was increased from %36.7 to%46.2; sugary foods consumption ratio was decreased from %91.7 to %88.7. At breakfast, drinking tea-coffee ratio was also decreased from %81 to %73.9; drinking fruits / vegetable juices -milk ratio was raised to %26.1 from %19 .The lunch and dinner choices of students were seemed to develop; eating nick nack frequency was reduced from%18.1 to % 15.8, consumption meat with unhealthy fats was down %38.3 to %27.7. On the other hand eating vegetables frequency was getting increase %9.8 up to %16.6. Nutrition education for students should incorporate self-efficacy, relevant health values and barriers-to-change, education about nutrients, and improved access to healthy foods. Student smoking and drinking should also be targeted. Keywords: Nutrition, knowledge, eating habits, University student Introduction University students living away from home had developed more unfavourable eating habits than students living at the family home. These findings suggest that moving away from the family home and assuming responsibility for food preparation and purchasing for the first time affect dietary habits in this sample of University students. Students living at home did not show major changes in their eating habits since starting University [1,2]. University students living away from the family home have little time and space when it comes to meal preparation within the confines of dorms, apartments, or shared housing. An additional concern is the knowledge needed to determine which food items to select[3,4]. Students living away from the family home had made some changes; they decreased their weekly consumption of fresh fruit, cooked and raw vegetables, oily fish, seafood, pulses and olive oil, and increased their sugar, wine, alcohol and fast food intake [5-7]. During adolescence, young people are assuming responsibility for their own eating habits, health-related attitudes and behaviours and their growing independence is often associated with unconventional eating patterns[8,9]. Healthy eating related negatively to television watching and alcohol, and positively to selfefficacy, nutrition knowledge, considering weight control [10,11]. Recognition of barriers to change, the extent of social support and the development of skills, e.g. in selecting low-fat foods, are among enabling factors affecting food choices. Assessment of the costs and benefits of dietary change and dealing with feelings of deprivation from restriction of favourite foods also influence dietrelated behaviour [12-15]. Sufficient knowledge about diet is needed for an individual to assess the quality of their own diet and their perception of dietary norms, particularly in regard to people whose opinions they 256 �consider significant, influences their classification with regard to stage of change. Motivation to adopt healthy eating patterns and self-efficacy are important determinants of behavioural change . The aim of this study was detecting the effect of knowledge on nutrition and affecting healthy food choices in Bilecik University students. Materials and Method In this study was chosen one faculty and one Higher Education School of Bilecik University. A selfreported questionnaire was administered to 471 students, ranging in age from 19-23 years. 209 (%44.4) of male students and 262 (%55.6) of female students were examined. It was found that the average weights of the male and female students, who were 60.85 kg and the average heights of them, were 168.03cm. An interviewing form consisting of 15 questions about eating habits and nutrition was applied to these students. Questionnaire data were analysed with the method of simple randomized sampling and completed questionnaires to nutritional knowledge, eating habits and behaviours of Bilecik University students. Results Applied questionnaires before and after giving nutritional training, the results demonstrated that students improved their eating habits and behaviours. Figure1. shows that the consumption ratio of fruitsvegetables for everyday. It was increased from %36.7 to %46.2 . Consumption ratio of vegetables-fruits For everday 80.0 60.0 % 40.0 20.0 0.0 Before Knowledge After Knowledge yes no Figure 1. The consumption ratio of fruits-vegetables for everyday Sugary foods consumption ratio data is given in Figure 2 as a block diagram. As you seen, the sugary foods consumption ratio was decreased from %91.7 to %88.7. Sugary foods consumption ratio 100.0 80.0 % 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 yes no Before Knowledge After Knowledge Figure 2. Sugary foods consumption ratio 257 �As drinking tea-coffee ratio was decreased from %81 to %73.9 , drinking fruits / vegetable juices -milk ratio was raised to %26.1 from %19 at breakfast. (Fig.3.) Which drink do you prefer for the breakfast? 80 70 60 50 40 % 30 20 10 0 tea coffee or any dairy fruits- products vegetable other cafein juices drink Figure 3. Most preferred beverages at breakfast The lunch and dinner choices of students were seemed to develop; eating vegetables frequency was getting increase %9.8 up to %16.6, on the other hand eating nick nack frequency was reduced from%18.1 to % 15.8 (Fig.4(a)), and also consumption meat with unhealthy fats was down %38.3 to %27.7(Fig.4(b)) What kind of foods do you prefer to consume to healthy digestive system for body? 35.0 30.0 25.0 % 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 a b a) always eating of rice/macaroni for three times per a week c) always eating of fresh fruits for twice per a day e) eating nick nack frequently 258 c (a) d e f b) always eating of cereals at least two times per a week d) always eating of fresh vegetables for three times per a day f) eating vegetables frequently �What kind of foods do you prefer to consume to keepaway to be cancer? 50.0 40.0 % 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 a b c (b) a) always eating of fruits-vegetables at least five times for everyday b) reject or reduced the meat with unhealthy fats c) always prefer to seafood, poultry, cereals Figure 4(a,b) Most preferred foods to healthy body To enable the young generations to gain healthy dietary practices and to provide the access to healthy food are the main measures. Conclusion Although students have adequate knowledge about nutrition, they eat frequently junk food. But the best thing is that the students prefer mostly healthy food after knowledge on nutrition and eating habits. Habits involving regular eating patterns and vegetable intake were reported and represent practices that ought to be encouraged. Knowledge about healthy food choices can be a predisposing factor for the adoption of a healthy diet but it is insufficient to motivate healthy eating and psychosocial factors must also be considered. Nutrition interventions in this young population should be encouraged to promote healthier diets and lifestyles, as well as adherence to the traditional Mediterranean diet. Current research indicates that as the students’ knowledge increases, nutritional quality of food choices improves. 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(2007), Consumer Attitudes And Factors Affecting Buying Decision For Functional Foods, Gıda, 32 (1) ,: 25-32 • http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html, The Nutrition Source, Healthy Eating Pyramid 260 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9394e9b95567b92ebf5a2b6fbd95b869.doc 8abd42564ee41acaa8de416daa7bf1cf Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 424 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Knowledge on Nutrition and Eating Habits of Bilecik University Students Author Author AKPINAR BORAZAN, Alev ACIKGOZ, Caglayan Abstract A summary of the resource. A problem facing youth today is the lack of available healthy fast foods or easily prepared foods. During adolescence, young people are assuming responsibility for their own eating habits, health-related attitudes and behaviours and their growing independence is often associated with unconventional eating patterns. The aim of this study was detecting the effect of knowledge on nutrition and affecting healthy food choices in Bilecik University students. Researching data were collected from 471 of Bilecik University students in 2 campuses. In the present study which was done the method of simple randomized sampling and completed questionnaires to nutritional knowledge, eating habits and behaviours of them. 209 (%44.4) of male students and 262 (%55.6) of female students were examined. It was found that the average weights of the male and female students, who were at the ages of 17-23, were 60.85 kg and the average heights of them were 168.03m.Applied questionnaires before and after giving nutritional training, the results demonstrated that students improved their eating habits and behaviours; consumption ratio of fruits-vegetables for everyday was increased from %36.7 to%46.2; sugary foods consumption ratio was decreased from %91.7 to %88.7. At breakfast, drinking tea-coffee ratio was also decreased from %81 to %73.9; drinking fruits / vegetable juices -milk ratio was raised to %26.1 from %19 .The lunch and dinner choices of students were seemed to develop; eating nick nack frequency was reduced from%18.1 to % 15.8, consumption meat with unhealthy fats was down %38.3 to %27.7. On the other hand eating vegetables frequency was getting increase %9.8 up to %16.6. Nutrition education for students should incorporate self-efficacy, relevant health values and barriers-to-change, education about nutrients, and improved access to healthy foods. Student smoking and drinking should also be targeted. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)