38 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/50f74f6fd0734f03e01276845e13aa3c.pdf 780d1f683d0907a1672ad27283b8708f PDF Text Text Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya: Applications And Public Perceptions Hakan Aslan University of Sakarya, Civil Engineering Department, Division of Transportation, Sakarya haslan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: As being one of the main tools in urban transport planning and traffic management, traffic calming is gaining more attention in the recent years. Furthermore, it is expected that its use will be increased significantly in the near future. This paper is mainly assesses the implemantation of traffic calming schemes in Sakarya and the response from the public. A questionnaire based research was designed and undertaken in some traffic calmed areas of Sakarya. The results obtained indicate the factthatthe implemantations and their public perception need to be improved through bettertechnical applications and public consultation process. The results conclude thatthere is a significant dissatisfaction among the people from poorly designed and applied schemes ending up damaging environment and being very unsightly. The paper also discusses the possible recommendations and suggestions about the ways ofimproving the traffic calming schemes and expected benefitsin Sakarya Introduction The term traffic calming is very loosely used and can therefore mean differentthings to different people. Although there is no single com mon definition oftraffic calming accepted by interested authorities[1],it can be defined as the techniques aimed at reducing vehicle speeds in residential areas, without restricting access. As a result of this, vulnerable road users and residents are protected, and the quality of life is improved for those living in the neighbourhood. As one of the main figures in the field of traffic calming, Hass-Klau [2] regarded traffic calming as ‘ the street regulations and combinations of transport policies used for the Dutch woonerven, which enforces the reduction of motor vehicle speeds to walking pace, giving equal rights to allroad users and alleviatesthe adverse environmental safety and severance effects of motor vehicles. The developments and applications of traffic calming schemes all over the world, especially in the Europe, has quite rightly brought the subject into the agenda of the transportation related people; researchers, transport professionals and highway authorities. Although one of the main objectives of the traffic calming schemes is related to the safety of the traffic environment, the degree of danger felt by people using the streets is also another important aspect of traffic calming applications. This research reveals the public perception of the applied traffic calming measures in city of Sakarya, Turkey. Traffic Calming in Europe With the increasing public awareness of environmentalissues in Germany, Federal Ministry of Regional Planning, Housing and Urban Development handled theissues relatedtotraffic calming. The Ministry played the leading role in financing traffic calming related applications and first publication about on the analysis and practical experiences oftraffic calming in 1978/79 was revealed. The two following publications from the same Ministry were Planning Booklet on Traffic Calming (1982) and Cost of Traffic Calming (1983). These publications, along with others, changed the attitutes of people and , accordingly,the organisations in highway and transportation related issues had no longer any question about the need for traffic calming on residential streets.. The recent studies [3] state that German cities obtained 50 percent increase in bicycle use, 57 percent reduction in fatal accidents, 45 percent reduction in severe accidents, 40 percent reduction in slight injuries, 43 percentreduction in pedestrian accidents, 16 percentreduction in cyclistaccidents, 16 percentreduction intraffic accident costs, 66 percent reduction in child accidentsthrough the implementation oftraffic calming projects. 424 �As being the origin country of traffic calming, Woonerf schemes of the 1970's, engineers in Delft demonstrated that the speed of vehicles could be reduced through specific design measures. The first applications became so successful not onlyinterms oftraffic management and design but also public perception. The following years led to new applications in many towns and cities, even villages, and legal legislation was introduced in 1976 [4]. The reliable and steady positive results obtained from the research projects in Netherlands [5] formed the basis forthe evolution oftrafficcalming design of our modern days. Britain was slow to startthe debate and discussion on the notion oftraffic calming as the main objectives of traffic calming was seen to reduce the accidents and Department of Transport claimed that accident levels were relatively low compared the other European countries.Đn the following years, with the changing attitudes, some local highway authorities such as Kent & Hetfordshire took the initiative and started carrying out some traffic calming projects without any clear official approval from the DOT. Britain is now one of the leading countries ofthe Europe to implementthe wide range oftraffic calming schemes successfully [6]. Turkey is stillitsinfancy regarding the traffic calming applications and the reviews ofthe current applied measures. The local authorities have the power to implement the schemes whenever and wherever they think they are necessary. The residents` opinions are frequently neglected inthe process. However,itis quite clearthat the purpose of the proposed schemes need to be communicated to local residents and allinterested parties not only to get their opinions but also to inform them about the technical necessities and possible benefits of the projecttojustify the application in their mind. The main objective ofthisresearch isto determine through a questionareifthe traffic calming schemes in Sakarya are readily acceptable by the general public and make some recommendations based on the analysis of the questionnaire. The Need for Questionnaire Survey A survey is not synonymous with a particular technique of collecting information.[7]. The way of data collection and the analysis method to be employed are the distinguishing features of the surveys. As the measurement of perception of the public attitude is atthe core of this study,itis believed thatthe questionnaire based survey would be most appropriate for giving the freedoom to the people to express theirideas. The same consideration affected the selection of the type of the attitude measurements and, accordingly, The Continuous Rating Scale and Linkert Scale were employed as the type of rating scale. Đt is thought that these two rating scales are quite appropropriateto get atrue and unbaised response by giving the best possible amount of freedom and flexibilitytothe respondents. The questionnaire is designed to get the opinion of the people affected by the traffic calming schemes regarding the main aspects below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. the necessity ofthe project the location and the appearance the effects on journey times the effects on route choice the effects on pedestrian safety the effects on how the streetlook the effect on noise levels the effect on the safety of pedal cyclists whetherthe participants wish to see traffic calming schemes increased. The following sections are related to the presentation and analysis ofthe data obtained. The Selection Criteria of the Applied Projects Đn this study, the Cark street and 503th street were selected as the fields of the study as these two streets are quite busy in terms of vehicle and pedestrian movements along with the intensity of the residential areas. Đn addition,these streets are regarded asthe main projectsimplemented in Sakarya by the local authority. W hile the first street is a two-way district distributor, the second one is one-way local distributor. The applied technique on both streets is speed humps. Humps are located near to schools, mosques, crossings and junctions where it is thought that the vehicle speeds need to be reduced to an acceptable levels if there is a danger for pedestrian safety,.The visuality ofthe humps are enhanced through reflective paints and colouring. The selected streets are heavily used ones asthey arelinking the city centre withthe most developed parts 425 �of the city. Appraisal of Results Đn order to getthe very firstimpression and generalideas of the participants to traffic calming concept, the first question was related whetherthe traffic calming should be increased in the city as a whole. The obtained results areillustrated in Figure 1. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 YES NO Figure 1. Do You Think Thatthe Implementation of TrafficCalming Projects Should be Incresaed Thisresultclearlyindicatesthatthe general attitudes ofthe publictowardstraffic calming schemes are not in favor. The split is very significant and illustrates the fact that the City Council engineers are facing a big challenge regarding their traffic restraint policies in order to reduce in the percentage of population opposing traffic calming schemes. The necessity ofthe projects applied on the selected streetsis perveived by the public given by Figure 2. 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 YES NO Figure 2. Do You Think ThatThe Applied Projectis Necessary The Figure 1 and Figure 2 seem to be showing opposing conclusions. It is belived from Figure 2 that people are intrested in having a better and safer traffic environment, Figure 1, however, indicates that if the applications are not projected and carried out properly,this is what makes the people to be against the general concept oftraffic calming. 426 �Figure 3 illustratesthe public opinion forthe location and appearance ofthe humps. 60 50 40 Location 30 Appearance 20 10 0 Good Bad No idea Figure 3. What Do You Think Aboutthe Location and Appearance ofthe Humps As figures imply, almost 50 per cent of the general public has the idea thatthe location ofthe humps are determined properly. Those against the location are generally the people having their residants or shops in the vicinity of the application area. The respondents` perception towards the appearance of the humps are negative. This is mainly becasuse ofthe factthatthe applied humps do not have proper markings and design features. As the main objective ofthe traffic calming isto slow drivers down,itshould resultin an overallincrease in journey time. The following figures show the results of the survey regarding this point and the effect of the projects on the route choice behaviour ofthe people,respectively. 60 50 40 30 20 10 ed d ge De as c re i gh tly De cr e a se Ch an No Sl Sl i gh tl y Đnc Đn c re a se re a se d d 0 Figure 4. Effect of Traffic Calming on Journey Times 427 �no t er Ca n Ne v W ish bu t So m eti m es 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Figure 5. Effect of Traffic Calming on Route Choice Figure 4 and 5 imply interesting results. As most of the people normally do not perceive increases or decreases in journey times unless they are large and significant, more than 50 percent of the repondents stated that they did not have any impression that the journey time was extended. Although, one of the drawbacks of traffic calming schemes is that drivers seek alternative routes without any measures on them, overwhelming majority ofthe participants expressed thatthey never changed theirroutes. Thisis mainly due tothe nature ofthe selected streets of the study. The streets are the main and possibly shortest routes in time even with applied measures comparetothe other alternative routes. Another explanation ofthisisthat drivers do speed up between the humps in order to offset the lost time due to the speed reductions on humps. A lot of respondents, on the other hand, wish to chance their routes to escape the negative effects of the humps but due to the lack of alternative routesthey cannot change the road thatthey drive on. The perception ofthe public regarding the noise levelis given by Figure 6 below. 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Worst Slightly Worse No Change Slightly Better Better Figure 6. Effect of Traffic Calming on Noise Levels There seems to be significant proportion of people saying that the noise levels had gone up. This is primarily because of the sudden braking noise of the cars when they reach the speed humps, and the sudden accelaration noise for speeding up just after humps. As far as pedestrian and pedalcyclists` safety are concerned,the public perception isformed as below. 428 �70 60 50 40 Pedestrian Safety 30 Cyclists Safety 20 10 0 Đncreased No Change Decreased No idea Figure 7. Effect of Traffic Calming on Pedestrian and PedalCyclist As expected, majority of the people perceived that pedestrian safety was improved. Although only a small percentage of the respondents believe that traffic calming resulted in a decresaed pedestrian safety, it is very importantthatthese people should also be persuaded about the significant contribution thattraffic calming can make to the overall pedestrian safety. Making sense of the combination of these results are not easy, but it can be said that 63 percent of the participants did not want to see an increased traffic calming but 53 percent of them also believed that traffic calming applications are necessary. While the first figure illustrates the reaction of the people to the applied schemes, the second one indicates the fact that people are in favor of the idea of traffic calming if they are designed and applied properly. People are aware of the benefits of the traffic calming measures and can justify them in spite of the disbenefits;increased noise level and traveltime. Conclusions and Recommendations . Đtis obviousthattheimportantrolethatraffic calming plays and willcontinue to play intraffic management and restraint projects, a priority should be given by public authorities to make sure that people are given enough information aboutthe projects and communicated forthe feedback. As the aim of this research has been to evaluate the public perception of the traffic calming schemes in Sakarya and make the recommendations of how to improve this perceptions,the following recommendations are done in the light ofthis study and obtained results. 1. Without any doubt public should be consulted priorto the implementation of traffic calming measures. The current system in Sakarya seems to be not inclusive enough. Public should not be given the impression that decisions are made well before and public consultation exercise done as window dressings afterwards. 2. Questionnaires should be sent outin the early stages ofthe plans in orderto judge ifthe public assume that schemes are necessary. 3. Đnitiatives should be introduced for educating the public on the benefits of traffic calming schemes. Local tv and radio stations along with newspapers may be used for this purpose to make sure that information is given as widely as possible. 4. As majority of the people supportthe idea of traffic calming but criticise the current implementations, the utmost care should be paid for the future applications to be designed and carried out with a predetermined standards. This will surely make the engineers` job in the future easier to get public support as public might chance their perception aboutthe applied traffic calming schemes inthe past. 5. As people are quite keen to change their routes to escape the disbenefits of the applied traffic calming measures, the effects of any implementation should be considered as a package by including the possible alternative routes ofthe streets and roads subjectto implementation. 429 �References 1. MacDonald. (1993). Quantifying the traffic calming effects on vehicle user behaviour. Unpublished MSc Dissertation. University of Newcastle upon Tyne. 2. Hass-Klau. ( 1990). The pedestrian and city traffic, London. Belhaven Pres. 3. http://www.walkablestreets.com/calm1.htm 4. Lines, C.J., & Castelijn, H.A. (1991). Translation of Dutch 30kph zone design manual. TRRL, PA2046/91 5. Traffic Calming, Local Transport Note 1/107, Department of Transport, March 2007 : TSO 6. Wheeler, G.J., Kennedy, J.V., Davies, G.J., & Green, J.M. ( 2001). Traffic calming schemes in Norfolk and Suffolk. TRL Report/500. 2001 7. De Vaus, A.D.(1993). Survey in social research. UCL Pres, London 430 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e29a2ba548e47a24e9f6683d62eb5964.doc 10e90d10d4d8dbd0fb6a765d6e1f5a29 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 522 Title A name given to the resource Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya: Applications And Public Perceptions Author Author Aslan, Hakan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e39e506d4c3f0da0bc1bbbeebd0916f.pdf 55d416cf8424f145d997d5a2dff53581 PDF Text Text Türkiye’de Yabancı Dil Edinim Sorunu ve Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe Mustafa ARSLAN International Burch University, Eğitim Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenliği Bölümü marslan@ibu.edu.ba Özet:Yabancı dil edinimi son yıllarda sıkça tartışılan bir konu olmuştur. Toplum olarak yabancı dil öğrenimine yönelik ön yargılarımızın olduğu bir gerçektir. Bu ön yargılardan kurtulma adına neler yapılabilir? Bir yabancı dil en sağlıklı biçimde nasıl edinilir? Çocukların ve yetişkinliklerin dil edinmede yaşadıkları problemler bu makalede irdelenmiştir. Bir yabancı dil bilen kişinin kendi dili ile öğrendiği yabancı dili kıyaslama imkânı olacaktır. Bu açıdan yabancı dil öğretimi olarak Türkçenin nasıl bir dil olduğu bu bildiride ortaya konmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Dil edinimi, Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe, Öğretim metotları, Motivasyon, Dil öğreniminin problemleri. Giriş Yabancı bir dil bilmenin önemli olduğu günümüzde yabancı dil öğretim yöntemleri de çok çeşitlenmiştir. Bununla birlikte yabancı dil eğitimi bir sektör haline gelmiş ve bu alanda ciddi yatırımlar yapılmıştır. Ayrıca “çağımızda hızla gelişen teknoloji insanların bireysel ve toplumsal düzeyde yakın ilişkiler kurmalarına olanak sağlamış, böylece yabancı dil öğrenimi için öteden beri duyulan gereksinme eskiye oranla alışılmış ölçülerin çok üstünde bir artış göstermiştir. Ancak yabancı dil öğreniminde karşılaşılan zorluklar henüz ortadan kalkmış değildir” (Sebüktekin 1973:95) Toplumuzda özellikle yetişkinler arasında ikinci bir dil ediniminin zor olduğu ön yargısı yerleşmiştir. “Modern dünyanın sakinleri dil öğrenme teşebbüslerinde öyle hayal kırıklığına uğramışlardır ki doğuştan sahip oldukları dil edinme yetisini belli bir dönemden sonra kaybettiklerini zannetmektedirler. Yabancı dil öğretmenleri yöntem bilimcileri arasında yaygın kanılardan biri, ergenlik sonrası genel dil edinme yetisinin kaybolduğu ve bu dönemden sonra yeni bir dilin ancak genel öğrenme mekanizmaları tarafından öğrenilebileceğidir. Yani gramer konularını matematik öğrenir gibi bilinçli olarak irdeleyip bol miktarda alıştırma yapmak suretiyle bilinçaltına yerleştirmek, yetişkinlerin takip edebileceği tek yol olarak gösterilmektedir.”1 Son yıllarda dış dünyaya açılmakta olan ülkemizde yabancı dil (İngilizce, Fransızca, Almanca, Arapça vs…) eğitimi yoğun bir şekilde yapılmaktadır. Ders programlarında ilköğretimden başlamak üzere üniversiteye kadar yüklü bir yabancı dil eğitimi programı göze çarpmaktadır. Ancak bu kadar öneme rağmen neden toplum olarak ikinci bir dili edinmekte çok zorlanılmaktadır? Bu soru gerçekle bağdaşmayacak kolay bir yoldan şu şekilde cevaplandırılmaktadır: “Biz toplum olarak ikinci bir dili öğrenme yeteneğimiz zayıf.” Fakat problemin temel kaynağına öğretim metotlarını sorgulayarak inmek doğru olacaktır. 1.Türkiye’de Yabancı Dil Edinim Sorunu ve Önerilen Çözümler Bugün bir çok Avrupa ülkesinde televizyonlarda filmler orjinal diliyle yayınlanmaktadır. Kendi dillerini ise altyazı olarak vermektedirler. Örneğin Bosna Hersek televizyonlarında dublajlı film bulunmamaktadır. İnsanlar filmleri (genellikle İngilizce) orjinal sesleriyle dinlerken Boşnakça altyazılı olarak okumaktadırlar. Bosna Hersek sokaklarında kime sorsanız mutlaka İngilizce birşeyler konuşabilmektedirler. Filmleri orjinal sesleriyle seyretme olayı çocuklar açısından daha da önemlidir. Çünkü günlük hayatta kullanılan belli kalıplar bu yolla çocukta alışkanlık haline gelmektedir. Olaya bu yönden bakıldığında televizyon başında uzun süre kalan toplumlardan olduğumuz görülmektedir. Bu durum bir zaman öldürme ya da beyni duraklaştırma yerine faydalı bir işe çevrilebilir. 309 �Böylelikle dublaj için harcanan enerji ve para kaybı olmayacak, ayrıca zararlarından dolayı sıkça şikayet edilen teknolojinin sunmuş oladuğu olanaklardan olumlu bir şekilde faydalanılmış olunacaktır. Bu bir zorunluluk, politika haline geldiği zaman toplum mecburen televizyondan dinleyeceği orjinal İngilizce kelimelerden, cümlelerden bazılarını öğrenecektir. Öğrendiği basit cümleleri bir iki defa kullanma fırsatı bulduğunda ise cesareti artacak, motive olacak ve bir yabancı dili öğrenebileceğine kendini inandıracaktır. Türkiye’de televizyon yayınlarının orjinal dilinde altyazı ile verilmesi projesinin bu bu bildiri ile bir gündem oluşturacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu durumun çocukların yeni bir dili edinmeleri açısından daha da önemli olduğu yukarıda ifade edilmişti. Çünkü çocuklar anadillerini çevrelerinden duydukları sesleri taklit ederek edinirler. Uzun süre televizyon seyreden bir toplum olarak çocuklarımızın televizyondan işitecekleri yabancı sözcükler ve cümleler zamanla bir alışkanlık haline dönüşecektir. Dilin aslı da bir alışkanlıktır. “Yeni bir dil edinememenin altında yatan temel sorunlarından biri de iyi motive olamamaktan kaynaklanmaktadır. Motive olamamanın sebebi ise dil edinmede uygulanan yanlış metotlardır. Maalesef hala kimi yerlerde yabancı dil, gramer konuları temel alınarak öğretilmektedir. Hangi topluma gidilirse gidilsin, insanlar anadillerinin dahi gramerini sevmezler. Türkiye’de yıllarca bu metodla İngilizce öğrenen kuşaklar bugün İngilizceden nefret eder hale gelmişlerdir. Toplumların bu konuda kaybettikleri zaman ve maddi kayıplar ayrı bir tartışma konusudur. Barry Farber (25 yabancı dil biliyor) “Yabancı Dil Öğrenme Yöntemleri” adlı kitabında şunları söylüyor: “İlk öğrenmeye başladığım dil Latince idi ve az kalsın bu dersi veren öğretmen yüzünden yabancı dil öğrenmeye karşı olan bütün heyecanımı yitirecektim. Çünkü Latince öğretmeni ağır gramer kalıpları anlatıyordu ve biz hiç anlamıyorduk. Daha sonra Latince derslerine gitmemeye başladım” (Farber1998:3) İyi bir dil edinimine küçük yaşlarda başlanmalıdır. Bununla ilgili adımlar Türkiye’de yeni yeni atılmaya başlanmıştır. Ancak hala öğretim metodu olarak çocukların ilgisini çekecek yaklaşımlar ortaya konamadığından yeni bir dil edinimine erken yaşta çocuklar veda etmektedirler. Fakat dil eğitiminde en önemli işlevi üzerinde bulunduran eğitimcilerin ders içinde ve hatta dışında (koridorda, bahçede) öğrettikleri dili kullanmadıklarından öğrencilerin motivasyon kaybına uğradıklarını bir gerçektir. Yurt dışında farklı ülkelerde ortaöğretim kurumlarını inceleyenler bilirler ki öğrencilerin İngilizceleri, telaffuzları gerçekten iyi derecededir. Çünkü öğrencilerin İngilizce iletişim kurabilecekleri her fırsatı değerlendirdikleri, dikkatleri çekmektedir. Teneffüs aralarında İngilizce öğretmenleriyle İngilizce iletişim kurmaları önemli bir tespittir. Türkiye’de yabancı dil öğreten eğitimciler gramer konularına hakim oldukları kadar pratikte öğrettikleri dili konuşamamaktadırlar. Bir çocuk uygun ortam sağlandığında aynı anda birçok dili öğrenebilir. Bu konuyu Melih Arat’ın gözlemlediği bir olayla daha da somutlaştıralım: Melih Arat araştırmasının sonucunda diyordu ki: “Gelişimini izleme imkânı bulduğum üç dil öğretilmeye çalışılan bir bebek oldu. Söz konusu bebek, yedi yaşına kadar Türkçe, İngilizce ve Almanca öğrendi. Nasıl mı? Anadili İngilizce olan bir dadı tutuldu. Anne baba anadilleri gibi Almanca biliyordu, bebekliğinden itibaren evde Almanca ve Türkçe konuşuluyordu, yazları da çocuk Almanya’da uluslararası bir anaokuluna götürülüyordu. Burada Alman çocuklarının yanı sıra Amerikalı çocuklar başta olmak üzere başka milletlerden de çocuklar vardı. Böylece çocuk hem Almanca hem de İngilizceyi günlük yaşamında kullanmak, Almanca ve İngilizce duyduklarıyla oyunlara katılmak zorunda kaldı. Türkiye’ye geldiğinde de Türk arkadaşları ve ailenin dil bilmeyen büyükleriyle ve tabii anne babasıyla da Türkçe iletişim kuruyordu. Şimdi on yaşlarında üç dili de gayet düzgün şekilde konuşabiliyor, okuyup yazabiliyor.”1 Özel üniversiteler ya da kurumlar yabancı dil eğitimi problemini belli bir ölçüde çözmüşlerdir. Ekonomik imkanlara sahip olan bu kurumlar yabancı dil eğitimini yurt dışından hoca getirmek (anadili İngilizce olan) suretiyle yapmaktadırlar. Yabancı biriyle iletişim kurmak öğrencilerin de zevk aldıkları bir durumdur. Öğrencilerin anadili İngilizce olan biriyle iletişim kurmaları, onunla birkaç cümle konuşmaları onları pozitif yönde motive etmektedir. Ayrıca özel kurumların öğrencileri yaz tatilinde öğrendikleri dilin ülkesinde pratik amaçlı geziler düzenliyor olmaları, dil edinimi açısından önemli bir yaklaşımdır. Bugün en yaygın yabancı dil edinim yöntemlerinden biri de edinilen dilin ülkesinde yaşamakla sağlanmaktadır. Gerçek ortamda edinilen dil kalıcıdır. Sokakta, pazarda, toplu taşıma araçlarında yani doğal ortamda o dil edinilir. Dille birlikte o toplumun kültürünü de inceleme fırsatı yakalanmış olur. Bu tür yabancı dil öğrenme etkinlikleri önceden tespit edilen bir ailenin yanında kalma ya da okullar arası öğrenci değişimi yapmak suretiyle gerçekleştirilir. Ayrıca yurt dışında yüksek lisans ve doktora yapan akademisyenler doğal ortamda akademik yabancı dili edinirler. Yetişkinler için yeni bir dil edinimi daha çok bir ihtiyaçtan kaynaklanmaktadır. “Dünyanın en iyi dil okuluna gitmek, çok yetenekli özel öğretmenlerden ders almak bile, eğer bu işi öğrenmek için gereken sabır, kararlılık ve çaba gösterilmezse, herhangi bir yabancı dilin öğrenilmesini sağlayamaz. Bu bir gerçektir. Ama bunun karşısında bir gerçek daha vardır ki onu da şöylece özetlemek mümkündür: Çağımızda, devlet adamları, bürokratlar, bilim adamları, entelektüel çevreler, ekonomistler, akademisyenler, doktorlar, hukukçular, medya mensuplarının büyük bir kesimi, şirket işletmecileri, pazarlamacılar vs gibi her ülke toplumunun artık vazgeçilmez siyasal, kültürel ve ekonomik erk sahipleri, en azından kendi alanlarıyla ilgili bilimsel, teknolojik ve kültürel gelişmeleri izlemek, global anlamda dünyada olup-biten gelişmeleri zamanında fark etmek ve şartların 310 �gereğini yaparak saygınlıklarını korumak için çok açık bir şekilde yabancı dillere gereksinim duymaktadırlar” (Yolcu 2002:21). Dil öğretiminin üzerinde durulmayan bir de politik yönü vardır. Bugün özellikle sömürge ülkelerinde yerli halk kendi dilinden ziyade sömürgeci devletin dilini kullanmaktadırlar. Sömürgeci durumda olan ülkeler hem maddi olarak hem de kültürel olarak üçüncü dünya devletlerini hükümranlıkları altına almışlardır. Burada konumuza bakan yönüyle sömürgeci devletler kontrolleri altına aldıkları coğrafyaların dillerini de değiştirmişlerdir. Bu değişim çok bilinçli ve programlı bir şekilde yapılmıştır. İşgalci ülkeler kültürün en önemli etkenlerinden dili baskıyla da olsa değiştirmeyi başarmışlardır. Şimdi ise bu ülkelerde insanlar işgalci devletlerin dilini zorlama olmadan, doğal olarak edinmektedir. “Dil, düşünce, kültür ve medeniyet arasında o kadar hassas ve güçlü bir ilişki vardır ki insanların kullandıkları dile hâkim olmak, onların düşüncelerine hâkim olmak demektir. Bir milletin dilini ele geçirenler, o milletin geleceğine de yön vereceklerdir” (Alan 1994:5) Toplumların mayasını oluşturan kültürlerin temel taşı olan anadillerimiz mutlaka muhafaza edilmelidir. Yabancı dil eğitimi ön plana çıkarılarak anadili eğitimi arka plana atılmamalıdır. Konfüçyüs’e sordular: Bir ülkeyi yönetmeye çağrılsaydınız, yapacağınız ilk iş ne olurdu? Büyük filozof şöyle cevap verdi: Hiç şüphesiz, dili gözden geçirmekle işe başlardım. Ve dinleyicilerin hayret dolu bakışları karşısında sözlerini sürdürdü: Dil düzensiz olursa, sözler düşünceyi iyi anlatamaz. Düşünce iyi anlatılamazsa, yapılması gereken şeyler doğru yapılamaz. Görevler gereği gibi yapılmazsa, adetler ve kültür bozulur. Adetler ve kültür bozulursa, adalet yanlış yola sapar. Adalet yoldan çıkarsa, şaşkınlık içine düşen halk, ne yapacağını, işin nereye varacağını bilmez. İşte bunun için hiçbir şey dil kadar önemli değildir” (Emir 1986). Bu bakış açısı doğrudur. Ancak anadilimiz yok olacak endişesi ile yabancı dil eğitimi malzeme yapılmakta ve toplumumuzda psikolojik bir baskı oluşturulmaktadır. Teknolojiyle birlikte değişen dünyamızda dil eğitimi de bu değişimden etkilenmiştir. Artık okula veya bir kursa gitmeden de insanlar yabancı dil öğrenmek istemektedirler. Bilgisayar üzerinden hazırlanmış yabancı dil öğretim programları özellikle teknolojiye yakın olan gençlerin dikkatinden kaçmamaktadır. Sanal ortamda dilin sacayağı olan işitme-anlama, konuşma, okuma ve yazma etkinlikleri programlanmıştır. Bunlardan konuşma hariç diğerleri (işitme-anlama, okuma, yazma) kısmen amacına ulaşmaktadır. Sanal ortamdaki program iyi bir konuşma fırsatı sunsa da doğal konuşma ortamındaki faydayı sağlayamayacaktır. Dil de canlı bir varlık gibidir. Doğal ortamlarda edinilir. Teknolojik araçlar tek başına yabancı dil öğrenmede yeterli olamaz ancak yardımcı olabilir. Yabancı bir dili öğrenmede farklı toplumların İngilizce, Fransızca,Rusça gibi yaygın dilleri çabuk öğreniyor olmalarının üzerimize kurmuş olduğu olumsuz bir baskı vardır. Ancak İngilizce, Fransızca, Almanca, Rusça gibi yeryüzünde çok koçuşulan diller Hint Avrupa dil ailesinin ortak üyeleridir. Hem akrabalık bakımından hem de yapı olarak bu diller birbirine yakındırlar. Dolayısı ile anadili bu dillerden biri olan bu toplumlar Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki başka bir dili öğrenmeleri kolay olmaktadır. Akraba olarak Arapça bu guruba girmese de yapı olarak Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki dillere benzemesi yönüyle Arap toplulukları da bu dilleri edinmede daha avantajlıdırlar. Her ne kadar meslenin böyle bir gerçeklik yönü olsa da başkalarının kolay yabancı ediniyor olmaları tam tersine bizi de pozitif yönde motive etmelidir. 2. Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe Yukarıda bahsedilen yabancı dil öğrenimine yönelik ön yargılar, ülkemizde değişik sebeplerle yurt dışına çıkan yurttaşlarımızın farklı yabancı dilleri öğrenmesiyle kısmen izole olmuştur. Ancak uygulanan mevcut programlar, yabancı dil eğitimcilerinin kullanmış oldukları yöntemler, kullanılan araçlar ve ekonomik boyutu düşünüldüğünde yabancı dil eğitiminde alınan sonuç tatmin edici değildir. Yabancı dillere karşı olan ilgi anadilinin önemini anlama açısından da çok önemlidir. “Bir yabancı dili bilmeyen, kendi dilini de tam olarak bilemez” (Goethe). Yurt dışında yabancılara Türkçe öğretenler, yabancı dil eğitimi olarak Türkçeyi diğer dillerle kıyaslama imkanı bulmuşlardır. Bu karşılaştırma sonucunda Türkçe yabancı dil olarak öğrenilecek en kolay dillerden biri olduğu kanaatine varılmıştır. Bu tezin doğruluğu aşağıda Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki diller ve Türkçenin karşılaştırılmasıyla ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. - Anadilleri Rusça olan öğrencilere Türkçe öğretilirken bazen istisnalardan bahsedilmiştir. Örneğin Türkçedeki şimdiki zaman eki /–Iyor/ eki ünlü uyumuna uymaz ve bir istisna oluşturur. Buna durumda öğrencilerin: “o! Türkçede ne kadar istisna var?” diye, Türkçeyi hafife aldıkları görülmüştür. Böyle davranmalarının asıl sebebi Rusçanın gramer yapsısı incelendikten sonra daha net olarak anlaşılmıştır. Rusçanın yeryüzünde en çok istisnası olan dillerden biri olduğu ortaya konmuştur. Rusça öğrenmek isteyen bir yabancıya gramer anlatarak bu dili öğretmeye çalışmak öğretim yöntemleri açısından diğer dillere göre daha da risklidir. Çünkü Rusçadaki gramer şekillerini, istisnaları gören bir öğrenci bu dili öğrenmek için başka metotlara başvuracaktır. - Türkçe kelimelerde birçok dilde olduğu gibi dişilik, erkeklik ve orta cins gibi şekiller yoktur. Rusçada ise kelimelerin bu şekillerini öğrenmek için iyi bir çalışma yapmak gerekir. Çünkü kelimelerin bu durumlarını bilmeden Rusçayı öğrenmek zordur. Örneğin Türkçede kadın, erkek ve herhangi bir cansız varlığa o diye 311 �- - - - hitap edilebilir. Ama Rusçada kadın için Türkçe okunuşuyla ana, erkek için on ve cansız varlıklar için ano demek gerekmektedir. Bu kelimelerin erkeklik, dişilik ve orta cinslik durumlarını bilmek için Rusçada birtakım kurallar vardır ama bu kuralları bozan bir o kadarda istisnalar bulunmaktadır. Dışarıdan bakıldığı zaman ana dili Rusça olanlar için kelimelerin bu durumlarını bilmek zor gibi görünmemekte ama yabancılar için aynı şeyi söylemek mümkün değildir. Rusçanın düzenli fiilleri diğer Hint Avrupa dillerinde olduğu gibi şahıs ve zamana göre kolayca çekimlenebilir. Ancak Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki diller ve Arapça gibi bazı dillerde olduğu gibi Rusçanın da düzensiz fiilleri vardır. Rusçada düzensiz fiiller çekime girdiği zaman şahıs ve zaman ekleri değişmez ama ses ve yapı olarak fiil değişikliğe uğramaktadır. Rusça fiillerin bir diğer özelliği de eylemin bitip bitmemesine göre farklı şekillerde kullanılmasıdır. Örneğin başlamak eylemi gelecek zaman anlamında hala başlamamışsa Türkçe okunuşuyla naçinat şekli kullanılır, eğer eylem başlamışsa naçat şekli kullanılır. Türkçede ise düzensiz fiil yoktur, zaman ve şahıslara göre düzenli bir fiil çekimi vardır. Türkçe fiiller etken (aktif) halden edilgen (pasif) hale kökün ünlü veya ünsüz ile bitme durumlarına göre /-l/, /-n/ eklerlinden biri getirilerek yapılır. Rusçada fiiller edilgen (pasif) hale geçerken değişmektedirler. Türkçe sondan eklemeli bir dildir ve kök ya da gövdeye getirilen yeni bir ekle kelimenin temel anlamına bağlı olarak yeni anlamda sözcükler türetmek mümkündür. Göz kelimesine /–lIk/ yapım eki getirilerek gözlük kelimesi türetilir. Göz kelimesini bilen öğrenci gözlük kelimesini de kolaylıkla anımsayacaktır. İngilizcede ise bu kelimeleri söylemek için iki ayrı sözcük ezberlemek gerekmektedir. Göz için eye, gözlük için glasses kelimeleri ayrı ayrı öğrenilmelidir. Türkçe kelimeler ünlü uyumuna göre /-ler/ ve /-lar/ eklerinden biri getirerek çoğul yapılmakatdır. Rusçada her ne kadar erkek ve dişi cinslerde kelimenin sonuna Türkçe okunuşuyla /-ı/, / -i/ orta cinste ise /-ya/, / -a/ son ekleriyle çoğul yapılsa bile bir çok yerde bu kural bozulmaktadır. Örneğin anne kelimesinin çoğulu bu kuralların dışında başka bir şekilde yapılır. Anne Türkçe okunuşuyla mama anneler ise materi şeklinde yapılır; ancak kurala göre mamı şeklinde olmalıydı. Rusçaya yabancı dillerden giren kelimelerin çoğulları yine farklı bir şekilde yapılmaktadır. Türkçe kelime veya cümleler nasıl işitilirse öyle de yazılmaktadır. Kelimelerin telaffuzu farklı yazılışları farklı değildir. Hint Avrupa dil ailesinde çoğunlukla bu durum söz konusudur. Örneğin yine Rusçada nerede o, nerede a yazılacağı anadili Rusça olanlar tarafından dahi karıştırılır. Türkçede kelimeler yazıldığı gibi okunmaktadır. Örneğin Türkçede “okul” sözcüğü yazıldığı gibi okunur ancak İngilizcede “school” yazılır “sukul” okunur. Türkçede kelimenin anlamını değiştirecek seviyede vurgu yoktur. Özellikle Çince gibi dillerde vurgu doğru yapılmadığı takdirde sözcükler farklı anlaşılmaktadır. Sonuç Her ne kadar yeni bir dil edinimi için pratik çözümler olsa da “bireyler öğrenme ortamına bilgi ve tecrübe farklılıklarıyla gelmekte ve kendi kapasiteleri çerçevesinde algılayıp öğrenmektedirler. Bu nedenden dolayı dil süreçlerinin kazandırılmasında tek yöntem, tek anlayış ve tek etkinlik fikri asla uygun değildir”(Akyol 2006:i). Yabancı dil edinirken yaşanılan en ciddi problemlerden biri de yanlış yapacağım endişesidir. Birkaç defa öğrenilen dilde hata yapan kişi motivasyon olarak kendini bu konuda mağlup ilan etmiştir. Hâlbuki tüm doğrulara, güzelliklere hata yapılarak ulaşılabilir. Bu açıdan ikinci dil edinen bireyler korkmadan, çekinmeden, kırarak, dökerek hatta alay konusu olsalar bile heyecanlarını yitirmeden meselenin üzerine gitmeleri gerekmektedir. Zamanla hatalarının üzerine giden birey edinilen dili konuşmaya başladıkça bu işten çok zevk alacaktır. Toplumumuza bakan yönüyle yurt dışında genellikle iç içe, yakın yaşanıyor olmaktan dolayı hâkim olan toplulukla iletişim kurmakta zorlanıldığı bir gerçektir. Bunun en temel sebeplerinden biri mahalli dili öğrenip sosyal hayatın içine girmektense kendi içimizde kalmayı tercih ediyor olmaktır. Hatta kimi zaman bu durumdan kurtulmak için birkaç kez dil kurslarına katılma atağı da olmaktadır. Ama bu konuda çabuk pes eden bir yapıya sahip olunulduğunun sayısız örnekleri vardır. Hem kendi hem de yaşanılan toplum içinde mahalli dili konuşma iradesi göstererek bu problemin üstesinden gelinebilir. Bu durumda yerel halk tarafından her defasında vurulan “Şu insanlar yıllardır burada yaşıyorlar ama bizim dili öğrenemediler hala”damgasından kurtulunmuş olunur. Bir dilin dünya dili olabilmesi için aranan en önemli şart köklü ve güçlü bir edebiyatının olmasıdır. Bu açıdan bakıldığında Türkçe temeli çok eskilere dayanan sağlam bir edebiyatın mirasçısıdır. Anadilinin inceliklerini bilenlerin ancak iyi seviyede bir yabancı dil öğrenebileceği yukarıda birkaç kez vurgulanmıştır. Dolayısı ile yetişkinlere yönelik olarak Türkiye’de yabancı dil eğitiminden önce aslı çok eskilere varan Türk dilinin gücü bireylere kavratılmalıdır. Bu bildiride yabancı dil eğitimi olarak Türkçenin ayrıcalıkları da sıralanmıştır. Yabancı dil eğitimi olarak da Türkçenin öğrenilebilen kolay bir dil olduğu bilincine varan yetişkin vatandaşlarımız, başka bir yabancı dili öğrenmede olumlu yönde motive olacaklardır. Son yıllarda toplum olarak yabancı dil öğrenmeye yönelik cesaretimiz artmıştır. Bu konuda ortaya konan yeni ve sonuç alınan programlar uygulanmaya başlamıştır. Değişik yabancı dilleri öğrenen insanımızın Türkçenin 312 �güçlü bir dil olduğuna dair inancı da değişmiştir. Türkçe dünya dili olma yönünde bugün hayal edilemeyen yerlere gelmiştir. Türkçe gelecekte yeryüzünde en çok konuşulan birkaç dilden biri olmaya adaydır. Kaynakça Akyol, H. (2006). Türkçe Öğretim Yöntemleri. Ankara: Kök Yayınları:i Alan, Y. (1994). “Lisan ve İnsan” Sızıntı 16 (185): 5 Emir, S. (1986). Örnekleriyle Kompozisyon Yazma Sanatı. İstanbul: Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakıf Yayını Farber, B. (1998). Yabancı Dil Öğrenme Yöntemleri. İstanbul: geliştir-im kitapları:3 Sebüktekin, H. (1973). “Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Yöntem”, Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Dergisi:95 Yolcu, M. (2002). “Yabancı Dil Öğrenimi”, Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi 2 (3):21 313 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4dbdcb4bad4bbc1cc46062ffef55971d.doc 3121f2f178487d5a76bb281022e84b38 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 373 Title A name given to the resource Türkiye’de Yabancı Dil Edinim Sorunu ve Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe Author Author Arslan, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Yabancı dil edinimi son yıllarda sıkça tartışılan bir konu olmuştur. Toplum olarak yabancı dil öğrenimine yönelik ön yargılarımızın olduğu bir gerçektir. Bu ön yargılardan kurtulma adına neler yapılabilir? Bir yabancı dil en sağlıklı biçimde nasıl edinilir? Çocukların ve yetişkinliklerin dil edinmede yaşadıkları problemler bu makalede irdelenmiştir. Bir yabancı dil bilen kişinin kendi dili ile öğrendiği yabancı dili kıyaslama imkânı olacaktır. Bu açıdan yabancı dil öğretimi olarak Türkçenin nasıl bir dil olduğu bu bildiride ortaya konmuştur Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/064c9eb339743d3fb60b69b55455132a.pdf 2352abbc7e1331acb712aff871c5d3e3 PDF Text Text Turkish University Students’ Perceptions on Bosnia-Herzegovina Mete Alım Atatürk University, Turkey metealim@atauni.edu.tr Serkan Doğanay Atatürk University, Turkey sdoganay@atauni.edu.tr Erdinç Parlak Atatürk University, Turkey parlake@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Bosna-Herzegovina, one of the Balkan countries in southeastern Europe, has declared its independence following the partition of Yugoslavia Federation. Historical and cultural ties between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Turkey are actually very strong. In this context, these two countries have signed various cultural and economic cooperation agreements.This study aims at determining the level of understandingand general knowledge of Turkish university students on BosniaHerzegovina. The samples of the study were obtained from students of Atatürk University Faculty of Education, Department of Geography Teaching. A scale consisted of open ended questions in order to determine the level of knowledge of the sample group on Bosnia-Herzegovina. Moreover, the students were asked to point of the place of Bosnia-Herzegovina and its neighbours on an empty world map. By this way we aimed to determine the situation of this country in the mind map of Turkish university students. Key Words: Bosnia-Herzegovina, Turkey, perception, Turkish university students Introduction Bosnia Herzegovina is one of the countries who declared their independence by the disintegration of Yugoslovia Federation in 1992. The country is bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east and Montenegro to the southeast. It has only 20 km of Adriatic Sea coastline. It has 51.129 km square surface area and has a population of around 4.6 million. Bosnia Herzegovina is ethnically the most distinctive country of all the countries who gained their independence after the demise of Yugoslavia Federation. Slav origin muslims who are also called Bosniaks being the most numerous population group of Bosnia constitutes more than 40% of the whole population. Bosniaks are being followed by Serbs (30%), Croats (17%), Montenegrin, Macedonian and Turks (Gözenç, 1995:107, Güner and Ertürk, 2005:53-54). Bosnia, which makes up the southern part of the country was named after Bosnian River. Herzegovina was named after the land of voivode Stefan Vukçiç who declared himself the Duke of Sava after rebelling against the Bosnian Kingdom towards the end of the medieval age (Herzeg: duke, ovina: land). There is another rumour that Turks named it Herzegovina to delineate the region (Herzeg: stone, ovin:land) (Karaman, 1992:1). There are strong ties between Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina in terms of cultural, political and economic aspects. Though they are slav community, the relations between Turkey and Bosni Herzegovina, which accommodates a substantial number of population (40%) who converted to Islam later on, are thriving day after day. In this sense, this study reflects the general knowledge level of Turkish students about Bosnia Herzegovina and their attitudes towards this country. The sample of the study is drawn from the students who receive geography education in the Faculty of Education of Kazım Karabekir at Atatürk University in Erzurum, Turkey. A survey consisting of open- ended questions was conducted to display Turkish students’ knowledge of Bosnia Herzegovina. Additionally, they were prescribed to mark the location of Bosnia Herzegovina and neighbouring countries on the blank map they were given. Thus, this was also an attempt to assess the position of Bosnia Herzegovina in their mind map. In the 150 �sense that this study reveals Turkish students’ perception of Turkey’s brother country Bosnia Herzegovina and their knowledge of map, the data obtained is thought to be beneficial. Findings The samples of the study are composed of 202 students (64 female-138 male) who study chemistry in the Faculty of Education of Kazım Karabekir at Atatürk University in Erzurum. 31.7% of the respondents are female, 68.3% of the respondents are male (Table 1). Female f 18 6 8 10 11 11 64 First class students Second class students Third class students Fourth class students Fifth class students Non-Thesis Master Total Male % 38.2 20.0 25.8 30.3 34.4 37.9 31.7 f 29 24 23 23 21 18 138 Total % 61.8 80.0 74.2 69.7 65.6 62.1 68.3 f 47 30 31 33 32 29 202 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Table 1: The gender of the students and their conditions in their classes “Where does the name ‘Bosnia Herzegovina” come from?” is the question which is answered right by the least number of Turkish students. 55.4% of the students did not answer the question at all. Almost all the remaining students answered wrong. Some of the responses given by the students are as follows: “The name of the country is named after the cities Bosnia and Herzegovina” (Student:9,81,133,184). “The name of the country comes from the public of Bosnia and Herzegovina” (Öğrenci:20,60,120). “The name comes from Bosniaks” (Student:23,59, 101, 194, 120). Just one student replied that the name ‘Bosnia’ was named after the “Bosnian River”. One of the asked questions in the poll was about the country the unit of which Bosnia Herzegovina was before gaining its independence. It is seen that more than 80% of the students gave the right answer which is “Yugoslavia”. Some of the students replied as “the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Montenegro and Austria Hungary (Table 2). Countries Yugoslavia USSR Montenegro Austria Kosovo Czechoslovakia Hungary No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 35 8 4 f 23 3 f 27 1 % 87.2 3.2 % 84.4 f 25 3 % 86.2 10.4 5 15.6 6.4 3.2 % 76.0 3.0 9.0 3.0 f 27 2 1 f 25 1 3 1 3 9.0 1 3.4 29 100 f 162 16 12 3 1 3 1 4 202 47 % 74.4 17.1 8.5 100 4 30 % 76.6 10.0 13.4 100 31 100 33 100 32 100 % 80.1 8.0 5.9 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 2.0 100 Table 2: The findings related to Bosnia Herzegovina’s gaining its independence after the disintegration of which country Another question towards to students was the ethnic structure of Bosnia Herzegovina. 24.2% of the surveyed group stated Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats as the ethnic groups in the majority. Additionally, what is astonishing is that referring to Bosnians “Turk and muslim population” was mentioned by a great number of students.Beside this, the presence of Albanian, Hungarian, Turk and Bulgarian population was also expressed. Only 5.9% of the students talked of the Slav race, but 24% of the students did not give any answer to the question at all. 151 �Map is one of the most significant equipments used in geograph education. In this sense, students were given a wordless map and they were told to mark the location of Bosnia Herzegovina and write the neighbouring countries. 69% of the students could mark the location of Bosnia Herzegovina (Table 3). The rate of the students who could write the names of the neighbouring countries was too low (16%). Most of the correct responses were received from the 4th year students. The countries which were stated as the neighbours were primarily Serbia, Croatia and Montenegro. However, their locations on the map couldn’t be marked correctly. That Greece and Bulgaria were also indicated as the neighbouring countries is bewildering. True False Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 25 22 47 f 21 9 30 f 21 10 31 f 31 2 33 f 25 7 32 f 18 11 29 f 141 61 202 % 53.2 46.8 100 % 70.0 30.0 100 % 67.7 32.3 100 % 93.9 6.0 100 % 78.1 21.9 100 % 62.1 37.9 100 % 69.8 30.2 100 Table 3:The state of marking Bosnia Herzegovina’s location on the map One more question asked to Turkish university students in the study was the capital city of Bosnia Herzegovina. It is clearly seen that the vast majority of the students (94.1%) gave the right answer which is Sarajevo. True False No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 43 1 3 47 f 29 % 96.7 f 28 % 90.3 f 31 % 94.0 f 30 2 % 93.7 6.3 f 29 % 100 1 30 3.3 100 3 31 9.7 100 2 33 6.0 100 32 100 29 100 f 190 3 9 202 % 91.5 2.1 6.4 100 % 94.1 1.5 4.4 100 Table 4: Reputation of the capital of Bosnia Herzegovina Another question asked to the students was about the short Adriatic Sea coastline Bosnia Herzegovina has (20 km). More than 80% of the students answered right. Tha fact that some students pointed out that it doesn’t have any coastline is remarkable. 5% of the students in the survey did not give any answer to the question (Table 5). Adriatic No maritime Red Sea Baltic No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 41 % 87.3 f 19 10 % 63.3 33.4 f 23 7 f 28 4 f 30 1 f 27 f 168 22 % 83.2 11.0 1 3.3 1 5 2.1 10.6 0.4 0.4 5.0 47 100 100 30 100 % 74.2 22.6 % 84.8 12.2 % 93.8 3.1 % 93.1 1 3.2 1 3.0 1 3.1 2 6.9 1 1 10 31 100 33 100 32 100 29 100 202 Table 5: Findings about the Adriatic Sea coastline of Bosnia Herzegovina It is known that there are strong historical and cultural affinities between Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina. As a consequence of this, there have been collaborations in a variety of fields. However, it is surprising that a great number of Turkish students (35.7%) are not aware of the relations between the two countries adequately.The students gave answers like “the relations are far behind than they should be”, “they should improve.” Around 12% of the students gave no answer (Table 6). The rate of those who regard the relations between the two countries good /very good is 52%. The good relations between Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina are explained mostly as religious, cultural and ethnic affinity. 152 �Good/very good Not good enough No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 25 % 53.2 f 19 % 63.3 f 24 % 77.4 f 12 % 36.3 f 15 % 46.8 f 10 % 34.4 f 105 % 52.0 10 21.2 10 33.4 3 9.7 17 51.5 15 46.8 17 58.7 72 35.7 12 47 25.6 100 1 30 3.3 100 4 31 12.9 100 4 33 12.2 100 2 32 6.4 100 2 29 6.9 100 25 202 12.3 100 Table 6: The relations between the two countries according to students’ views The responses given by the students to the question “what does ‘Bosnia Herzegovina’ evoke first for you?” are analyzed in Table 7. According to the findings, for around 47% of them it evokes “wars and violence”, for 20% of them “Mostar Bridge”, for 10% of them “Ottoman State”, and for 8% of them, it evokes the Turk population living in the country. War and violence Mostar Bridge Otoman Empire Türkish population Football İzzet Begoviç No answer Total f % 95 42 20 18 4 3 20 202 47.0 20.7 10.0 8.9 1.9 1.5 10.0 100 Table 7: The evocations of Bosnia Herzegovina for Turkish students The students who got involved in the study were asked to express the most significant common ground between the two countries. 37% of the students stated “the unity of religion”, 32.6% of them “the unity of culture and history”, and 18.3% of them “ethnic relationship” (Table 8). Religious union History and culture association Ethnic relationship No answer Total f % 73 66 26 37 202 37.0 32.6 18.3 12.1 100 Table 8: The most important common ground between the two countries according to students’ views Conclusion It is possible to say that the general knowledge level of Turkish students about Bosnia Herzegovina is lower than expected in general and the result does not differ a lot in different classes. The question which was answered right by the majority of the students was the question about the capital city of Bosnia Herzegovina and the question answered right by the least number of students was the source of the country’s name. A great number of students 153 �who participated in the survey stated that Bosnia Herzegovina was a unit of Yugoslavia before gaining its independence. Nevertheless, it is very distressing that 20% of the students, who are also receiving geography education answered it wrong. Despite the fact that maps are among the materials utilized intensively in geography education, it is seen that they are not made use of adequately (Doğanay et al., 2001:35). Moreover, it is impossible to perceive the events taking place in a region without knowing the geographical location of the region and its neighbours. Unfortunately, the number of the students who could not mark the exact location of Bosnia Herzegovina on the map is too high to ignore. The rate of those who could mark the neighbouring countries is considerably low. As for this question, though the success of the 1st year students is a bit less than others, it could be stated that there is not much difference between the classes. The reason behind these results might be students’ not making use of maps and atlas while studying lessons with content of countries. Therefore, some measures encouraging the use of map and atlas must be taken. Related to this issue again, the number of the students who pointed out that Bosnia Herzegovina does not have any coastline is not very little either. In addition to the reasons mentioned above, the fact that the country’s having the Adriatic Sea Coastline might not be visible on the commonly used atlas and maps could also have an effect on students’giving wrong answers. Turkish students expressed that the level of the relations between the countries are not as they should be. That the first thing that Bosnia Herzegovina evokes for the students is ‘war and violence” is something remarkable. It has been demonstrated once again how distressing the things that once took place in this region are for humanity. The students mentioned “Mostar Bridge” in the second place. The remark one of the students (Student:156) was quoted saying “Two cities named Bosnia and Herzegovina are located here and Mostar Bridge connects them each other” shows Turkish students misperceptions. ‘The unity of religion’was the very thing mentioned by the students who participated in the survey as the most important common ground between the two countries. Turkish students were able to know that Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats are the ethnic groups in the majority. However, according to the data we have, the students have also a perception which is not true. Muslim Bosniak population of Slav origin is thought to be of Turk ethnic background. This indicates that this has an important impact on students’ understanding of Bosnia. It is a typical example of the misperceptions of Turkish students as well. References Doğanay, H., Zaman, S. & Alım, M. (2001). Ortaöğretim coğrafya eğitiminde klasik ders materyali ve coğrafya öğretmenlerinin bunlardan yararlanma durumu. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 7 (6), 33-44). Gözenç, S. (1995). Ülkeler coğrafyası. Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Güner, I. & Ertürk, M. (2005). Kıtalar ve ülkeler coğrafyası. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara. Karaman, M.L. (1992). Bosna-Hersek ve Bosna-Hersekliler. Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, İstanbul. Özey, R. (2001). Dünya ve ülkeler coğrafyası, Aktif Yayınevi, İstanbul. Tunçel, H. (2008). Türk öğrencilerin zihin haritalarında İslam ülkeleri. Fırat üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12 (2), 83-103. 154 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c7cbe594b7beb0330adefec99f9a88ba.doc aff965f7a096db9a2bfd56431411f405 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 369 Title A name given to the resource Turkish University Students’ Perceptions on Bosnia-Herzegovina Author Author Alım, Mete Doğanay, Serkan Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosna-Herzegovina, one of the Balkan countries in southeastern Europe, has declared its independence following the partition of Yugoslavia Federation. Historical and cultural ties between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Turkey are actually very strong. In this context, these two countries have signed various cultural and economic cooperation agreements.This study aims at determining the level of understandingand general knowledge of Turkish university students on BosniaHerzegovina. The samples of the study were obtained from students of Atatürk University Faculty of Education, Department of Geography Teaching. A scale consisted of open ended questions in order to determine the level of knowledge of the sample group on Bosnia-Herzegovina. Moreover, the students were asked to point of the place of Bosnia-Herzegovina and its neighbours on an empty world map. By this way we aimed to determine the situation of this country in the mind map of Turkish university students. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/821113b7416c2c447cd041aba562be35.pdf ac6fc6028665a7c6eda1a36e900cc75f PDF Text Text Basic and Derived Elements of an Educational System Amel Alic University of Zenica, Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina amel.alic@pf.unze.ba Abstract: Education and the existence of an educational system are compulsory elements of every modern society. The problems of making a unique and a defined educational system, a clear and an identifiable educational policy but also the problems of inequality in education have been the subject of different researches in the social sciences, especially in pedagogy for a long time. By accepting the definition which describes education as a systematical transmission of knowledge, skills and values, the same importance must be given to the questions of institutional organization, systematical and generational aspect of the process. Although every man should have equal rights to education, equal chances are not available to all, and therefore perceptible problems that cause inequality occur. The reasons are not only related to different social and cultural heritage – unequal initial positions are to be related to the nature of the educational system and the goals of the educational policy. Key words: educational system, basic and derived elements of educational system, structure of system interests Draft of the contemporary situation In a very comprehensive study, developed in the scope of the Project of the European Union for regional economic development in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is stated that there is a decline of about 1/3 in a number of children who are at the age to start school in Bosnia and Herzegovina comparing to the past times, and that there are not enough pre-school institutions for the real needs. This report confirms that there is no need for a larger number of primary schools – as the span of generation is quite high – but there is a need for improving standards in them. The span of generation about to start secondary school has increased from 50% to 70%, while the span of the generation about to enter universities has increased from 10% to 25%. It is noticed that there is a tendency for extended education as a result of difficulties in finding jobs after schooling while education and educational system are generally influenced by political currents with an open tendency towards further disintegration and fragmentation. There are still problems in the area of adult education, especially that related to the relevance of the needed knowledge for technological changes in economy; furthermore, there are no institutions for the needs of public sector and the state administration, especially for their management. The opportunities given require a general modernization of educational system in accordance with the trends in Europe. In the scope of the same project, a working sub-group for education has very clearly presented the main forces, weaknesses, possibilities and threats/obstacles which depict the contemporary situation in the educational system. 261 �FORCES Tradition and awareness of people about the importance of education and general tendency towards aquiring knowkedge Completed primary education Existance of the net of educational institutions in the whole area WEAKNESSES Out-of-date equipment, out-of-date curriculums and outof-date educational staff Bad econimical and social situation of the people which prevents education of better quality nad variety High concentration od some educational staff profiles Existance of secondary education in the whole region and in all municipalities Shortage in specific staff profiles (agronomy and public proffesions) Exisatance of a higher education institution in the region Shortage in extracurricular acitvities which could be very helpful and useful in practice Implementation of educational reforms and adaptation to the EU standards Shortage in practical education in specific skills of various trades POSSIBILITIES THREATS - OBSTACLES Development of private educational institutions Complexity of transformation of educational system Accepted concept of 9-year primary educational system Out-of-date educational profiles Adaptation of educational system on the market and in accordance to the EU standards Development of educational menagement Implementation od Bologna treaty Development of new ways of education Non-homogeneity of educational system in relevance to the responsibility in development Lack of affinity of the political structures to adapt educational system to the needs for development and mobility of work force General resistance to changes On the basis of previous pieces of information it is quite useful to remind ourselves of some basic and derived elements of educational system, especially in a case of general anti-dialogue culture and to point at the problem of cultural reproduction and “banking” education as central places of coerced and derived interests of educational system, educational policy and society as a whole. This is especially the case, as it is still not clear what structures, in clearly changeable circumstances, control the distribution of cultural and symbolic capital. In this sense, the elements and the processes confirming the unity of educational system and the defined educational policy in a sense of anti-dialogue, even when evident, deserve the check of its query. Educational policy and educational system In the last quarter of the 19th century, practically, all “developed” regions of the world faced a very important event: an appearance of national educational systems. This notion is also important to understand in the context of developing new trade relations which were not present in the 17th and the 18th century. Simultaneous changes on an economical and educational plan gradually put the question of educational policy in the focus of attention. In what ways could education and educational system be related to the general social trends and requests, and in what ways economic policy and society could determine educational policy and educational system policy? Furthermore, some other important questions were raised: What an educational system consist of? In what circumstances could an educational system be considered as unique? What is a system and how does it function? Is it possible to expect an adequate creation of educational policy by ignoring educational system (and vice versa)? In the second half of the 20th century a number of questions were raised, that put humanistic, emancipative, anti-imperialistic and anti-militaristic goals in the focus of attention, and which are nowadays seen as socio-critical, anti-pedagogical, and alternatively pedagogical conception in the theory of education. All these question educational system and educational policy in the scope of current questions frequently asked in our society as well. Educational policy usually determines the policy of an educational system. If we focus on a formal structure of any educational system including formal and constitutional limits of a country or possible territorial units, we can make a graphical explanation of the relations among basic elementary and secondary schools and a large number of higher education institutions. In order to make lack of structural explanations less severe, we will start from the following hypothesis: We wonder if Bosnia and Herzegovina has the basic national politics. Of course, educational policy does not exist in the same form as monetary, fiscal or defense policy. If we question the authority of people in charge of the implementation of monetary or defense policy we will probably get a precise answer. But, we will confront a totally different answer if we attempt to find out anything about the basic educational policy in Bosnia. Where does it take place? Who defines it? There are no precise answers to these questions but we have 262 �to accept the fact that if we move from one place to another or from one school to another, we will find similar procedures and similar values. It is possible to notice the similarities in buildings, infrastructure and dormitories. How can this happen in an absence of any basic policy? In fact, there is some kind of system. It is obvious that every system has a structure. A system must have a unity of elements which are parts of a whole. Every system will have its structure as well. It is essential to have a law or principles and a set of common beliefs which define behaviour of the society in the system and people who are referred to the unity of the system. According to Green and others (1980), these elements could be marked as the basic, and they are basically in contrast to the derived elements of the system. School and educational system, therefore, have their own basic and derived elements. Basic elements will be defined by: 1. medium of exchange (in order that institutions become a part of an educational system there must exist some relations among schools – certificates, diplomas, etc), and 2. principle of sequence (confirms that the system of schools has been organized on levels, so that person completed n level is considered to have completed n-1 level but it is not certain that the person will enter n+1 level). Derived elements imply: 1. size of the system, 2. system of control, and as a result of it all, 3. distribution of the results. Every educational system is of a specific size. There are different sizes; there are also different ways of expanding and making one system smaller. Systems have their own interests, which should be determined and defined. The structure of interests within an educational system should consist of: - parents’ interests - pupils/students’ interests - teachers’ interests - clerical interests - economical interests and market needs, and - social interests – state interests Basic elements of the system In every society there must be some kind of pattern according to which young people grow up and become a part of the society. This pattern, whatever it is, could be described as a system for education of young people. The word “system”, in this context, means something like “way”, “method” or “pattern”, or “usual procedure of growing-up”. There is no society which can exist without some kind of raising new generations, but there are societies without determined process that could be taken for an educational system. Educational system show up only when a number of processes defer or when they are determined by specific sort of institutions. This notion corresponds with the notions of schools. The conclusion could seem unimportant but it is not. If there were no differences between a system of education and an educational system there would not be possible to raise any important questions of the educational policy. The notion of educational policy means a determined and a defined system of educational institutions. If there is an educational system, there are schools as a part of this system. In the same sense, there must be schools that are not in strong relations with other schools, but even though they function in this way they are still a part of the system. An example for this could be a hypothesis that a subject passed in one of private collages would not be accepted in a state school. But this would not be enough for functioning of the system. In order that institutions become a part of an educational system there must exist clearly determined relations among schools and other institutions of the system. A necessary way of independence is shown through certificates, diplomas and transcripts which although different, in many aspects become similar in their bases. They are instruments by which certain activities could be recognized in a school/college, and be exchanged for similar activities within other institutions. These instruments of the system are”mediums of exchange” (or “connective tissue”; Green et al., 1980). Their existence enables us to speak about a unique educational system in the same way as the existence of a local currency and its exchange for foreign currencies enable us to speak about a unique monetary system. This notion implies a sort of independence or diversity which enables a pupil to complete year 5 in one part and start year 6 in the other part of the country. 263 �There is a question: does the existence of mediums of exchange imply the existence of an educational system?Think, for example, of two schools in the same area, or in a nighbourhood, but under the different supervision, with slightly different educational missions, and let’s imagine that their activities are different so that they could not be recognized in one another. In this situation it would be quite impossible to say that they belong to the same educational system. But, despite this, if they are under the same higher institution, ministry of education for instance, they could still be considered as parts of the same educational system. Therefore, the departments of physics and literature do not have medias of exchange but belong to the same educational system as they are under the authority of the same regulatory agency (institution, university, ministry, …). This example enables us to conclude that a medium of exchange is not necessary for the existence of a system but it also questions in what proportion is the higher institution sufficient for schools of different activities to be parts of the same system. However, the notion of “educational system” does not refer to any system of schools or colleges, but to the system determined on the principles of sequence. This confirms that the system of schools has been organized on levels, so that person who completed n level of the system had obviously completed n-1 level before, but it is not certain that the person will complete n+1 level. Here, we have to accept the fact that the organization of levels are not the same in different schools, so the principle of sequence is different on different levels – primary schools, secondary schools, colleges, academies, universities, etc. (especially in the case of three-year or four-year undergraduate studies). Despite of the different definitions, the absence of the principle of sequence would mean nonexistence of the system and an existence of many other things would be questionable. Derived elements of the system Basic elements of an educational system also require the definition of derived elements: size of the system, system of control, and as a result, the distribution of results and resources. Every educational system has its specific size. There are different types of sizes; there are also different ways of expanding and making a system smaller. The dimensions of a size and the growing modules of a system are determined by the following elements: 1. the increase in number of educational institutions or making new educational outcomes (departments at the universities, professional profiles in secondary schools) 2. increase in the number of pupils 3. vertical expansion – changing the age for education (children start school at the age of 6 instead of 7, or they finish compulsory education at the age of 15 instead of 14) 4. horizontal expansion – the existence of various schools and various educational profiles: music schools, trade schools, medical schools… 5. differentiation – different curriculums among schools 6. increase in efficiency and better success by improving curriculum 7. extending the school year/school day 8. increase in number of employees in the educational system If the system expands in one dimension, it could cause a development and an expansion in its other dimension. There is a connection between different models within one system but that connection is not necessary. Mutual connection and the implication of another, depends on the needs and existing values of the system, formal politics, needs and nature of social influence on the manifestations. Structure of system interests Besides parents’, pupils/students’ and teachers’ interests, of a huge importance is an existence of state interests. There are two types of state interests: coercive and derived. Coercive interests are contained in two needs – each individual reaches economic independence or at least a minimal obedience to civic regulations. Coercive interests are minimally related to educations ideals, and maximally to the power. There is no society which can completely realize a socialization of young people or which can be immune to the crime. Therefore, coercive interests are in the function of a social community and its own survival. In this sense, education, as in the case of the physiological human needs, has a dimension of the urge of survival. A community must pay special attention to the education of young people in order to provide coerced state interests. As a consequence of coerced interests, appear secondary, additional interests, by which we mean a process of deciding who can teach, who will learn and for how long. The state determines control of capital for education, gives various clearances to teachers, specifies curriculum and defines standards. Furthermore, within this system, one of variables is the existence of derived interests. Derived interests should serve to fill up the “pots” of educational system with adequate contents, and educational values. Unfortunately, this content of derived interests is very often a negation of nature and meaning of the education 264 �and the educational system. One of the most common is inequality of educational opportunities for those who want to acquire certain educational achievements. Pierre Bourdieu talks about this phenomenon in the contest of, so called, “cultural capital”. Bourideu developed a thesis on the fact that none of the organized societies drops this defined cultural capital, but it distributes it unequally throughout the society which results in class differences and different academic achievements. Higher values, as certain monopoly of the dominant culture in a society, enable to the socially and economically more powerful to impose their own definition of reality, so every educational system is being founded on these basis. Explaining these processes, he points to a social genesis of behaviour patters and simultaneous thinking and acting on one and the development of the social structures on the other hand. According to Bordieu, for a process of internal changes which could expose this manifestation, the existence of categories such as symbolic power (social groups capable of imposing certain hierarchy in value) is necessary. This symbolic power using symbolic speech (giving diagnosis; determining directions, orders and norms; as well as making reports) and with the help of symbolic forces (which are capable to “re-make” and change the world), should grow into constitutional power (the result of a long period of institutionalizing) (Bordieu, 1998). This sort of understanding educational system is actually what made Bordieu come to conclusion that the basic purpose of education is the contribution to the continuity of social reproduction based on the relations of power and privileges within a society. The notion of the cultural reproduction and the appreciation of the fact that in every society there is a thing called cultural capital, indicates that every family (parents’ and pupils/students’ interests), in a context of its existing quality of life, could feel the pressure and strain if it is not able to become a part of social “struggle” for better status on equal terms. Also, it seems quite appropriate to mention Bordieu’s contribution in the area of understanding constant tensions among the dominant and the inferior groups within a society in which every group strive to establish and confirm its social identity, status and value. In relation to this, Pierre Bourdieu suggests: “dominant groups are capable of defining their own culture as worth of a tendency and a possession and to confirm it as a foundation of the knowledge about the educational system. However, this valuation by the dominant culture is arbitrary… The high value attributed to the dominant culture in a society as a whole is simply an aspiration of the powerful to impose their definition of reality on others”. (Haralambos, 1989, p212) If we refer the definition of education and educational system from the beginning of the text to the needs of a man, general “humanizing” and confirmation of humanity, we would necessarily have to speak about “practice of freedom”, and overthrowing the system which is developing on the basis of “banking education”, “cultural invasion” and “anti-dialogue acting” (Freire, 2002). Within this concept, educational system and all its institutions should serve the development of cultural dialogue, overreaching inequality, especially estranging from a tendency towards expansion of institutions and a development by the principle of “the garrison”. On the contrary, basic and derived elements of the system will confirm further fragmentation and question the notion of unity but it will define education as systematic transmission of knowledge, skills and values in the state of nonfreedom and for non-freedom. Literature Bourdieu, P. (1998). Društveni prostor i simbolička moć. U zborniku: Interpretativna sociologija. (priredila Ivana Spasić), Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva. Freire, P. (2002). Pedagogija obespravljenih. Zagreb: Odraz – Održivi razvoj zajednice. Usher, A. & Cervenan, A. (2005). Global Higher Education Rankings 2005. Toronto, ON: Educational Policy Institute. Gumport, P.J. (2007). Sociology of Higher Education - Contributions and Their Contexts. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Green, T.F., Ericson, D.P., Seidman, R.H. (1980). Predicting the Behavior of the Educational System. Syracuse University Press. Haralambos, M., Heald, R. (1989). Uvod u sociologiju. Zagreb: Globus. Projekt Evropske unije za regionalni ekonomski razvoj u BiH, (april / travanj 2004). Indikatori, trendovi i swot elementi izvještaj. REDAH Asocijacija za ekonomski razvoj. OECD (2008). Trends Shaping Education. Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. 265 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e2f71de7b3c5af83aece18d96d2f1d8.doc d25c8a0a1d9f83545353767a5b78d798 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 425 Title A name given to the resource Basic and Derived Elements of an Educational System Author Author Alic, Amel Abstract A summary of the resource. Education and the existence of an educational system are compulsory elements of every modern society. The problems of making a unique and a defined educational system, a clear and an identifiable educational policy but also the problems of inequality in education have been the subject of different researches in the social sciences, especially in pedagogy for a long time. By accepting the definition which describes education as a systematical transmission of knowledge, skills and values, the same importance must be given to the questions of institutional organization, systematical and generational aspect of the process. Although every man should have equal rights to education, equal chances are not available to all, and therefore perceptible problems that cause inequality occur. The reasons are not only related to different social and cultural heritage – unequal initial positions are to be related to the nature of the educational system and the goals of the educational policy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4ea2953c763ddb1d7364f916f4b02bba.pdf 628a3f746797430f689eac0680a90a89 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Effects Of Concurrent Product Development On Product Development Performance Birol Akyüz Bilecik University Faculty of Engineering Bilecik, Türkiye birol.akyuz@bilecik.edu.tr A. Yeşim Yayla Marmara University, Technical Education Faculty Istanbul, Türkiye yayla@ marmara.edu.tr Abstract: The intensive competition in global world markets has shown that existence of enterprises is only possible by ensuring customer satisfaction. Ensuring customer satisfaction is possible by developing products that can meet expectations of customers. The companies which can determine demands and expectations of customers fastest and most correctly, reflect this information on product development process in a short time and introduce these products designed with a customer-focused approach will be the companies that can succeed in today’s competitive environment. One of the sectors that successfully take place in Turkey’s global competition is Ceramic Sector. This Ceramic Sector is of great importance in world markets with its high quality products with low costs. One of the most important factors affecting product development performances of the companies in the sector is the successful implementation of concurrent product development technique. In this study, the effects of concurrent product development process on product development performance in Turkish ceramic sector were studied by investigating the factors affecting concurrent product development process. Introduction Together with increasing demands and expectations of customers that change continuously, shortening of life time of products and demand for lower costs cause a pressure on product development speed of companies (Eppinger and Chitkara, 2006). Enterprises spend more money from their budgets on product development studies and carry out their product development studies in a systematically and planned way (Brown et al., 2004). This has raised the importance of concurrent product development processes in the enterprises (Goetsch and Davis, 2006; Cooper, 2001). Profits and competitiveness ofthe companies having high product development performances are highly improved (Brown et al., 2004; Swink, 2002). The main features that make companies superior to their rivals in product development studies are; carrying out studies with product development teams which customers and suppliers take part in, aiming concurrent product development approach in order to pass beyond others by means of especially cost and speed (McGrath, 2004; Ulrich and Eppinger, 2003). Product Development Approaches Companies are constantly striving to improve the performance of their new product development activities. Product development approaches are based on two different methods. These are sequential-serial or traditional product development and concurrent product development. W hen entering the global market the companies encounter several difficulties,the most important one being excessive time for new product development. This problem can be solved by transition from sequential product development to concurrent product development. 343 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sequential-Serial Product Development Sequential product development, also known as sequential-serial engineering or traditional product development,isthe term used to describe the method of process and production in a linearformat. The different steps are done one after another, with allattention and resources focused on that one task.Afteritis completed it isleft alone and everything isconcentrated on the nexttask (Prasad, 1996). In sequential product development,the various functions such as design, manufacturing, and customer service are separated. The information in serial product development flows in succession from phase to phase. For example, the prototype model, verified by either simulation or prototyping or both, is reviewed for manufacturing, quality and service. Usually, some changes are suggested after the review. If the suggested changesinthe design are made,they areincreasesinthe costand time to develop the product,resulting in delays in marketing the productlaunching (Maylor, 1997).Ifthe changes cannot be made because of market pressure to launch the product quickly, or the fact that the design is already behind schedule, then specialists in other functional areas or managers from manufacturing, quality, and service, among others, are informed of the impending problems. In sequential product development a department starts working only when the preceding one has finished, and, once a department has finished working on a project, or part of a project,this is not planned to come back,information flow is only one way (Ainscough etal., 2003, p.426; Rosenau, 2000). Sequential product development process was carried out in stages by the various functions in a company. The marketing department would conduct its research and create a new product concept, which it would pass on to the design engineers. They would then design a product with no thought for how it was to manufactured and pass it on to the manufacturing engineers, who would redesign itto be manufacturable. They would then pass the designs on to the purchasing department to buy the necessary components. Because very little communication occurs between functions, even at the handovers, this process has become known as “throwing it over the wall”. This lack of communication led to frequent design changes, for example if the design is dependent on a component that has been discontinued by a supplier, a new component or technology has been developed that willimprove the product, orthe market has changed. Each change requires returning to the early stages of the cycle, extending the time to market and increasing the likelihood of further change. The process was inefficient, expensive and led to badly made, badly designed products that didn’t meet customer’s needs (Otto and Wood, 2001; Prasad, 1996). A flow diagram of the sequential product development organization is shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1: Sequential-serial product development (Hartly, 1998). Sequential product development is characterized by downstream departments supplying information to design only after a product has already been designed, verified and prototyped (Hartly, 1998),in orderto change what design engineering did wrong, or what could have been improved. A flow diagram of the serial design engineering organization is shown in Fig. 2. Figure 2: Sequential-serial product development on design process (Staudacher et al., 2003, p.226). 344 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Concurrent Product Development Concurrent product development approach is a systematic approach enabling possible concurrent development of a product in related processes and its integration with the processes (Koufteros et al., 2001; Ribbens, 2000; Poolton and Barclay, 1998). Concurrent product development applications are based on carrying outthe activitiesin product development processes concurrently and on working of allthe related processes in a concurrent, seen Fig.3., and integrated manner including different departments of the enterprise, design, production and support services (Griffin, 2002; Maylor, 1997). Especially, collaboration of design and production departmentsisimportantfor developing products consistent with customer needs,reducing the costs, enhancing the quality and increasing the speed (Barclay et al,2000; Swink, 1998; Salomone, 1995), Main features of concurrent product development practices are; being surethat process designis parallel and concurrent, realizing all the activities in a coordinated way, teams’ making decisions about product development and processes, using cross functionalteams, gathering of the team members regularly,information sharing and collaboration between the teams, shortening product development and market entry times, reducing the costs and developing products consistent with customer needs (Minderhoud and Fraser, 2005; Kusar at al., 2004). Concurrent product development processes affect product development performance in a positive way (Cooper et al., 2003; Griffin, 2002). Concurrent product development is known as concurrent engineering, modern Product Development, overlapping Product Development,integrated Product Development and cross functional Product Development. Concurrent product development, sometimes called simultaneous engineering, or parallel engineering has been defined in several ways by different authors. One ofthe mostpopular one isthat by Prasad (1996), who statethat concurrent engineering ‘is a systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of products and their related processes,including manufacture and support.’ This approach is intended to cause the developers, from the outset,to consider all elements ofthe productlife cycle from conception through disposal,including quality, cost,schedule, and user requirements (Carter and Baker, 1992). Figure 3: Concurrent productdevelopment (Hartly, 1998) In concurrent product development allfunctional areas are integrated within the design process.In this case information continuously flows back and forth among all functions. During the design process concurrent product development draws on various disciplines to trade-off parameters such as manufacturability,testability and serviceability, along with customer performance, size, weight, and cost (Ainscough et al., 2003). A flow diagram of concurrent product development is shown in Fig. 4. Figure 4. Concurrent productdevelopment on design process (Staudacher et al., 2003, p.226). The decision making process in a concurrent product development environment differs from sequential engineering in that at every stage decisions are taken considering the constraints and the objectives of all stages ofthe productlife cycle,thus taking atthe product design levelissuesthat are usually addressed much later,thus giving the possibilityto achieve a better overallsolution (Prasad, 1996). The integration of otherfunctional areas within the design process helps to discover hard to solve problems at the design stage. Thus, when the final 345 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo design is verified,itis already manufacturable,testable,serviceable,and of high quality. The most distinguishing feature of concurrent product development is the multidisciplinary, cross-functional team approach. Product development costs range between 5% and 15% of total costs, but decisions taken atthis stage affect 60–95% of total costs (Kusar et al., 2004). Therefore itis at the product development stage that the most relevant savings can be achieved. Examples of successful concurrent product development implementations are reported from all over the world (Kusar et al., 2004; Ainscough et al., 2003; Zirger and Hartly, 1996). In concurrent product development, different tasks are tackled atthe same time, and not necessarily in the usual order. This means thatinfo found outlaterinthe process can be added to earlierparts,improving them, and also saving a lot of time. This is a method by which several teams within an organization work simultaneously to develop new products and services and allows a more stream lined approach. The concurrent product development is a non-linear product or project design approach during which all phases of manufacturing operate at the same time - simultaneously. Both product and process design run in parallel and occur in the same time frame. Product and process are closely coordinated to achieve optimal matching of requirements for effective cost, quality, and delivery. Decision making involves full team participation and involvement. The team often consists of product design engineers, manufacturing engineers, marketing personnel, purchasing, finance,and suppliers (Ainscough etal., 2003; Swink, 1998). Concurrent Product Development vs Sequential Product Development Concurrent product development is a simultaneous development of product and process. It is used to achieve “better,faster and cheaper” new productintroduction as it aims to improve the quality of new products as well as bringing them to the market more quickly and cheaply than the serial-sequential product development approach. W hen developing a new product(here we are dealing with development of a product and its production process),itis necessary to harmony all development stages. The product development time can be reduced by concurrent product development time and it is reduced by 50% or more due to the following reasons (Prasad, 1996): * Activities run in parallel, * Team members have regular meetings which allow fast and efficient exchange ofinformation, * Responsibility for all product features is transferred to teams (no time is wasted for searching the person ‘‘who isto be blamed for errors ’’). In the serial-sequential product development the design “wasthrown overthe wall”. On the other hand, in the concurrent product development the departmental barriers are removed. In other words, the designers or cross functional team members have to get involved and discuss the all issues related to manufacturing at the early stage ofthe design process (Kusar et al.,2004; Ainscough et al., 2003). Concurrent product development represents an organisation’s ability to carry out product development as a series of overlapping phases, which delivers product on time, to provide customer satisfaction at the right price (Prasad, 1996). Therefore concurrent engineering can be defined as: • A philosophy of product development:Integrating multiple design issues, • A method of product design: Integration of multidisciplinary folks into design team, • A method to lead people: Design issues are represented by allthe relevantinthe people, The goal of Concurrent Engineering isto improve the interactive work of different disciplines affecting a product. The following are some ofthe benefits(Crowson, 2006; Ribben, 2000): • Well-understood user requirements, • Reduce cycle times, • Firsttime quality producible designs, • Shorter development spans, Eliminate the redesign procedure, • A smoothertransition to production • A new respectfor otherteammates, • Lower cost, decrease production costresultsfrom the minimization ofthe productlife cycle, • Teamwork - Human Resources are working together for a com mon product, • Highly satisfied customers, the company can increase the prospect of delivering a quality producttothe customer. Concurrent product development pays offin (Crowson, 2006; Ainscough at al., 2003; Prasad, 1996): • Product development cycle time reduced 40-60%, 346 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • Manufacturing costs reduced 30-40 %, Engineering change orders reduced more than 50 %, Scrap and rework reduced by as much as 75%. Concurrent product development is a commonsense approach to product design, development, production and support. By collecting and understanding allrequirements thatthe product must satisfy through itslife cycle atthe start of concept definition, we can reduce cost,avoid costly redesign and rework, and shorten the development process. We do this by capturing all customer requirements and expectations and involving all related disciplines from the start. Working as a team on all product related processes, we can provide for a smooth transition from development to production (Crowson, 2006). Primary elements of concurrent product development are voice of the customer, multidisciplinary teams, automation tools and techniques and process management (Backhouse and Brookes,2004). Figure 5: Sequential and concurrent developments of new products (Backhouse and Brookes, 2004) Cost of concurrent product and process development (CE) arelower than sequential product and process development costs (SE) costs,as presented in Fig.6. Figure 6: Sequential and concurrent developments of new products (Kusar et al., 2004). Product Development Performance Only recently has there been a widespread understanding ofthe need to measure the different facts of success using product development performance metrics. A number of studies have attempted to define and categoriesthem. A number of metrics exist atthe firm levelto establish the overallsuccess rate of development programmes. They are as follows (Crowson, 2006; Kusar et al.,2004; Ulrich and Eppinger, 2003; Barclay et al., 2000; Prasad, 1996; Clark and Fujimoto, 1991): • Sale success ofthe products developed in the market, • Satisfaction ofthe customers of our enterprise, 347 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • • Average product development costs, Competition power of our enterprise, Product range (scale) of our enterprise, Number of products developed, Product development speed, A mount saved (%) in the budget for R&D studies. One of the factors that affects product development studies is concurrent product development processes (Brown et al., 2004; Ulrich and Eppinger, 2003; Prasad, 1996; Shina, 1994), see Fig.7. Determining the factors that affect concurrent product development processes will enhance the success of product development processes ofthe companies,leads us to hypothesisthat: Hypothesis: There is relation between product development performance and concurrent product development approach. Methodology The data in this study have been obtained by applying a survey prepared according to the 5-pointlikert scale to the companies in Turkish ceramic sector. The persons were interviewed face to face and the questions were answered by directors in charge of product development, product development team leaders or team members. The data obtained from the questionnaire were studied by making factor analysis,reliability analysis, correlation analysis and regression analysis. Theoretical model ofthe research (see Fig. 7) consists of concurrent product development and product development performance. Product development Performance (PDP) is dependent variables ofthe study. Figure 7: Theoretical model ofthe research. Scope of the Research and Preparation of the Questionnaire The research coversthe companiesin Turkish Ceramic sector.It consists of 60 companies, 52 of which responded positively to our demand forthe survey and answered the survey. In preparing the questionnaire, we used the conceptual information which exists in the references obtained in literature scanning carried outinthe studies while forming the theoretical model ofthe research. The survey sheet consists of questions that evaluate the variables in the theoretical model of the research. All the questionsinthe survey were prepared in such ways that only one answer was valid so thatthe persons answering these questions could give define answers. The persons answering the questions were asked not to leave any question empty. Scales Used in the Questionnaire Scales used in the survey were arranged consistent with theoretical model of the research. Concurrent product development was evaluated with a scale of six questions and product development performance with a scale of eight questions. In answering the scales of concurrent product development on the survey sheet,the 5pointlikertscale was used as;(1)totally disagree,(2) don’t agree,(3) no idea (4) agree,(5) totally agree. Those who answered the survey for product development performance were asked to evaluate product development performance of enterprises in lastthree years according to the sector average. The 5-pointlikert scale was used for evaluation as; (1) much lower than the sector average, (2) lower than the sector average, (3) same as the sector average,(4) higherthan the sector average,(5) much higher than the sector average. 348 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Data Collection As data collection method, companies were visited and company authorities were asked to answer the survey by face to face interview method. By face to face interview method, the questions were understood correctly and answered easily as their demands for additional explanations about the questions were met instantly. Data Analysis and Findings In data analysis, SPSS 11.5 statistics programme was used. Methods used in data analysis are factor analysis,reliability analysis,correlation analysis and regression analysis. Hypothesis was evaluated according to the results obtained from regression analysis. Of 60 companies in Turkish ceramic sector, 52 of them answered the survey. Twenty eight of these companies (53.8%) work in ceramic tileindustry, 16 ofthem (30.8%) in health products industry (sanitaryware), 4 of them (7.7%) in tableware and ornament 4 of them (7.7%) in technical ceramic field. Of the persons who answer the survey, 44.2% were R&D manager, 17.3% technology manager, 13.5% factory manager, 9.6% production manager, 5.8% R& D engineer and 5.8% quality assurance manager. Analyses and Results Reliability analysis was carried out in order to determine the reliability of the survey questions. Reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s coefficient) is α = 0.7439. According to the results of the analysis,the fact thatreliability coefficient(α)has a value higherthan 0.5 shows thatthe survey questions were reliable and valid (Özdamar, 2002; Manly, 1994). Factor loadings were studied by applying factor analysis to the variables in the research model (see Appendix A). According to Appendix A, total variance explained by variables related with concurrent product development characteristicsis 62.206 %. Correlation analysis was applied tothe variablesinthe scope ofthe research and extent and direction of the relation between the variables were investigated (Manly, 1994). Pearson’s correlation coefficients related with the variables, average and standard deviation values are seen in Tab. 1. PDP CPD Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed) Pearson Correlation Sig.(2-tailed) Mean Std.Deviation 3.6226 0.46672 3.6859 0.62418 PDP 1 . 0.246 0.079* CPD 0.246 0.079* 1 . P<0.1*, P<0.05**, P<0.01*** Table 1: Correlations, Mean,Standard Deviation. As seen in Tab. 2, values for regression model of concurrent product development are; p<0.1, F= 3.208 and R2 = 0.060. This shows that variableincluded inthe model defines 6.0 % of variance of product development performance. Concurrent product development affects product development performance at p<0.1 significance level and with beta value 0.246. According to Tab. 2,itis seen thatthere is a positive. This result supports the hypothesis H1. The regression equation is given below. y = β 0 + β1x + ε Independent Variable Standardized Coefficients Beta P Constant F P 0.060 3.208* 0.079 β0 β Concurrent Product Development Constant R2 (0.000) (2.946) 349 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Concurrent Product Development 0.246* 0.079 P<0.1*, P<0.05**, P<0.01*** Table 2: Product development performance regression. Conclusions Continuous and rapid changes in global markets have raised the importance of product development activities ofthe companies.In today’s competitive world in product development studies and concurrent product development processes, it is known that it is important for the enterprises to work by collecting different individuals from different principles, especially by means of product development speed, cost and product development performance. Concurrent product development process is known to be effective on product development performance. Determining the factors that affect concurrent product development processes will enhance the success of product development studies ofthe companies. The companies which succeed in product development will pass beyond theirrivals and launch their products and services earlierthan them. The results obtained from the study briefly are: concurrent product development process has a positive effect on product development performance. Product development is related with allfunctions of the enterprise and it should be seen as a whole. It is not only one department’s or a few persons’ responsibility, but a team work which requires involvement of all employees voluntarily. The factthatteams consist of people who work in different departments of the enterprise affects the speed of product development processes. Reflecting the demands and expectations of the customers and suppliers on product development processes and their existence in product development processes is important for achieving the quality dimensions of the product. It is also important for enhancing com munication, making information sharing easier and coordinating product development activities. Hence,this enables the companies to catch possible opportunitiesin the sector in which they show activity and get a serious advantage in the competition. For success of the companies in product development; carrying out a significant R&D study and providing all sorts of sources for this, determining stronger sides of the company compared to its rivals and taking good advantage ofit, determining weak sides of existing products or processes and seeking ways to solve these, having good knowledge of characteristics and strategies ofthe rivalsinthe sector, having good knowledge of characteristics of the customers, determining target customers successfully, determining the number of new products aimed in one year correctly and using product development tools and techniques effectively are quite importantin the success of product development studies.Itwill be extremely beneficialfor the companiesin the ceramic sector by means of product development performances to evaluate product development studies and plan their product developmentactivities by taking the results ofthis research into account. Co mp. CPD 1 CPD 2 CPD 3 CPD 4 CPD 5 CPD 6 PDP 1 PDP 2 PDP 3 350 Variables C O N C U R RE NT PR O D U C T DEVEL OP M E NT In our enterprise there are electronic data storage systems through which the employees can easily get access toinformation about product development In our enterprise product developmentis a concurrent (parallel) process All sorts of matters and possible problems about product development are discussed in designation stage of product development process In our enterprise designs are made which partially/totally eliminate design changes that may emerge in any stage of product development process In our enterprise great effort and sources are spentinthe firststages of product development process Product development teams (cross functionalteams) which consist of different persons in product development studies and which suppliers and customers also take partin are used PR O D U CT DEVEL OP M E NT PERF O R M A N C E Sale success ofthe products developed in the market Satisfaction ofthe customers of our enterprise Average product development costs Factor Loadin g Total Variance Explained (%) 62.206 % 0.748 0.679 0.829 0.846 0.688 0.741 68.558 % 0.792 0.835 0.828 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo PDP 4 Competition power of our enterprise 0.559 PDP 5 Product range (scale) of our enterprise 0.847 PDP 6 Number of products developed 0.884 PDP 7 Product development speed 0.605 PDP 8 A mount saved (%) in the budget for R&D studies 0.599 PDP: Product Development Performance CPD: Concurrent Product Development Appendix A: Factor Loading References Ainscough, M.; Neaily, K.; Tennant, C. (2003). A Self-Assessment Tool for Implementing Concurrent Engineering through Change Management, Int.Journal of Project Management, 21, (pp.426-430). Backhouse J.C and Brookes J.N. (2004). Concurrent Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. Barclay, I; Dann, Z., Holroyd, P.(2000). New Product Development, CRC Press, New York, USA. Brown, M.; Leavitt, P.; Wright, S. (2004). New Product Development, American Productivity & Quality Center – APQC, Houston, USA. Carter, E.D. and Baker, S.B. (1992). Concurrent Engineering the Product Development Environment for the 1990s, Addison Wesley Publishing Company Inc., USA. Clark, K. B. & Fujimoto, T. (1991). Product Development Performance, Harvard Business School press, USA. Cooper, G.R.; Edgett, J.S.; Kleinschmidt, E.J. (2003). Improving New Product Development Performance and Practices, American Productivity & Quality Center –APQC, USA. Cooper, R.G. (2001). Winning at New Product, 3rd Edition, Published by Basic Books, New York, USA Crowson, R. (2006). Product Design and Factory Development, Second Edition, Taylor&Francis, USA. Eppinger, S.D. and Chitkara, A.R. (2006). The New Practice of Global Product Development, MIT Sloan Management Review, Vol.47, No.4, (pp.22-30). Goetsch, L. D.; Davis, B.S.(2006). Quality Management, Fifth Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, USA. Griffin, A. (2002). Product Development Cycle Time For Business To Business Products, Industrial Marketing Management, 31, (pp.291-304). Hartly, J.R. (1998). Concurrent Engineering, Productivity Press, New York, USA. Koufteros, X.; Vonderembse, M. and Doll, W. (2001). Concurrent Engineering and its Consequences, Journal of Operations Management,19, (pp.97-115). Kusar, J.; Duhovnik, J.; Grum, J. and Starbek, M. (2004). How to Reduce New Product Development Time, Robotics and Computer Manufacturing, 20, (pp.2-6). Manly, B.F.J. (1994). Multivariate Statistical Methods, Second Edition, Chapman-Hall, London, UK. Maylor, H.(1997). Concurrent New Product Development: An Empirical Assessment, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, Vol.17, No.12, (pp.1196-1214). Maylor, H.; Gosling, R.(1998). The Reality Of Concurrent New Product Development, Integrated Manufacturing Systems, Vol.9, No:2,(pp.69-76). McGrath, M.E. (2004). Next Generation Product Development, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., USA. Minderhoud, S. and Fraser, P. (2005). Shifting paradigms of Product development in fast and dynamics markets, Reliability Engineering and System Safety, 88, (pp.127-135). Otto, N. K. and Wood, L.K. (2001). Product Design, Prentice Hall Inc., USA. Özdamar, K.: “Paket Programlamalar ile Đstatistiksel Veri Analizi”, 4.Baskı, Kaan Kitabevi, Eskişehir, (2002). 351 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Poolton, J.; Barclay, I. (1998). New Product Development from Past Research to Future Applications, Industrial Marketing Management, 27, (pp.197-214). Prasad, B. (1996). Concurrent Engineering Fundamentals, Volume I, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, USA. Ribbens, A.J. (2000). Simultaneous Engineering for New Product Development, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA. Rosenau, D.M. (2000). Successful Product Development, John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New York, USA. Salomone, A.T. (1995). Concurrent Engineering, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, USA. Shina, S. G. (1994). Successful Implementation of Concurrent Engineering Products and Process, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA. Staudacher, A.P; Landeghem, H.V.; Mappelli, M.;Redaelli, C.E. (2003). Implementation of Concurrent Engineering: A Survey in Italy and Belgium, Robotics And Computer Integrated Manufacturing, V.19, (pp. 226-235). Swink M. (2002). Product development-Faster, on-time, Research and Technology Management, Jul/Aug V.45, N:4, (pp.5059). Swink, L. M. (1998). A Tutorial on Implementing Concurrent Engineering in New Product Development Programs, Journal of Operations Management, 16, (pp.103-116). Ulrich, K.T. and Eppinger, S.D. (2003). Product Design and Development, Third Edition, McGraw Hill Companies, Inc., New York, USA. Zirger, J.B. and Hartly, L.J. (1996). The Effect of Acceleration Techniques on Product Development Time, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, Vol.43, No.2, (pp.143-152). 352 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f810642a0e0724cb0c523356a0bc38d.doc 4233f2319fad265e2d048904884bfd6d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 502 Title A name given to the resource The Effects Of Concurrent Product Development On Product Development Performance Author Author Akyüz, Birol Yayla, A. Yesim Abstract A summary of the resource. The intensive competition in global world markets has shown that existence of enterprises is only possible by ensuring customer satisfaction. Ensuring customer satisfaction is possible by developing products that can meet expectations of customers. The companies which can determine demands and expectations of customers fastest and most correctly, reflect this information on product development process in a short time and introduce these products designed with a customer-focused approach will be the companies that can succeed in today’s competitive environment. One of the sectors that successfully take place in Turkey’s global competition is Ceramic Sector. This Ceramic Sector is of great importance in world markets with its high quality products with low costs. One of the most important factors affecting product development performances of the companies in the sector is the successful implementation of concurrent product development technique. In this study, the effects of concurrent product development process on product development performance in Turkish ceramic sector were studied by investigating the factors affecting concurrent product development process. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/437ed09086951b4aa36b0c444e31f44d.pdf 706aa5bfac723b738fe647c4aa948849 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Electricity Generation by a Mediator-Less Microbial Fuel Cell Using Mixed Culture Sevil Aktan Fatih University Department of EnvironmentalEngineering Turkey sevil@fatih.edu.tr Ayhan Bozkurt Fatih University Department of Chemistry Turkey bozkurt@fatih.edu.tr E mine Ubay Çokgör ITU Department of Environmental Enginnering Turkey ubay @itu.edu.tr Burcu Irmak Yazicioğlu Fatih University Department of Biology Turkey iburcu@fatih.edu.tr Nurullah Arslan Fatih University Department Genetic and Bioengineering Turkey narslan@fatih.edu.tr Fahrettin Gücin Fatih University Department of Biology Turkey fgucin@fatih.edu.tr Işılay Ulusoy Gebze Institute of Technology Nanotechnology Center Turkey iulusoy@gyte.edu.tr Abstract: A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bioreactor that converts chemical energy in the chemical bonds in organic compounds to electrical energy through catalytic reactions of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. In a MFC, power can be generated from the oxidation of organic matter by bacteria at the anode ,with reduction of oxygen at the cathode. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode. Electrons produced by the bacteria from these substrates are transferred to the anode and flow to the cathode linked by a conductive material containing a resistor, or operated under a load. MFCs have been used to generate electricity from virtually any biodegradable organic matter, including domestic and industrial wastewaters, while at the same time accomplishing wastewater treatment. Using Two Chambered MFC in our laboratory produced 0,8 mW/m2 of anode surface area using pure culture (S.putrefaciens) and acetate. Using Single Chambered Flat MFC, we have recently achieved up to 15 mW/m2 using mixed culture and acetate. A MFC-based treatment plant of the future 200 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo will likely look a lot like a system built today around a fixed-film system such as a trickling filter. The MFC technology is particularly favored for sustainable long-term power applications. Introduction A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bioreactor that converts chemical energy in the chemical bonds in organic compounds to electrical energy through catalytic reactions of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. In a MFC, power can be generated from the oxidation of organic matter by bacteria at the anode, with reduction of oxygen atthe cathode. Proton Exchange Me mbrane (PE M),to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode (Logan et al., 2005) (Du et al., 2007). Electrons produced by the bacteria from these substrates are transferred to the anode (negative terminal) and flow to the cathode (positive terminal)linked by a conductive material containing a resistor, or operated under a load (Logan et al., 2006). Bacteria can be used in MFCs to generate electricity while accomplishing the biodegradation of organic matters or wastes (Oh and Logan., 2005). Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical MFC for producing electricity. It consists of anodic and cathodic chambers partitioned by a proton exchange membrane (PE M) (Gil et al., 2003). Figue 1 Schematic diagram of a typicaltwo-chamber microbialfuel cell Mediator-less Microbial Fuel Cell Electrons can be transferred to the anode by electron mediators or shuttles(Rabaey and Verstraete, 2005). But the toxicity and instability of synthetic mediators limit their applications in MFCs. If no exogenous mediators are added to the system, the MFC is classified as a mediator-less MFC even though the mechanism of electron transfer may not be known (Logan, 2004). Some microbes can use naturally occurring compounds including microbial metabolites (Endogenous mediators) as mediators. A real breakthrough was made when some microbes were found to transfer electrons directly to the anode (Kim et al., 1999a, Chaudhuri and Lovley, 2003). These Shewanella putrefaciens (Kim et al., 2002), Geobacteraceae sulferreducens (Bond and Lovley, 2003), Geobacter metallireducens (Min et al., 2005) and Rhodoferax ferrireducens (Chaudhuri and Lovley, 2003) are all bioelectrochemically active and can form a biofilm on the anode surface and transfer electrons directly by conductance through the membrane. When they are used,the anode acts asthe final electron acceptor inthe dissimilatory respiratory chain ofthe microbes in the biofilm. M FCs was also operated using mixed cultures currently achieve substantially greater power densitiesthan those with pure cultures (Rabaey et al., 2004, Rabaey et al.,2005a). Since the cost of a mediatoris eliminated, mediator-less MFCs are advantageous in wastewatertreatment and power generation (Ieropoulos et al., 2005). How do Microbial Fuel Cells work? To understand how an MFC produces electricity, we must understand how bacteria capture and process energy. Bacteria grow by catalyzing chemical reactions and harnessing and storing energy in the form of 201 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo adenosine triphosphate (ATP).In some bacteria,reduced substrates are oxidized and electrons are transferred to respiratory enzymes by NADH, the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (N A D). These electrons flow down a respiratory chain —a series of enzymes that function to move protons across an internal membrane —creating a proton gradient. The protons flow back intothe cellthrough the enzyme ATPase, creating 1 ATP molecule from 1 adenosine diphosphate for every 3–4 protons. The electrons are finally released to a soluble terminal electron acceptor,such as nitrate,sulfate, or oxygen (Logan and Regan, 2006). Using acetate as substrate,typical electrode reactions are shown below: Anodic reaction : CH3 COO - + 2H2 O microbes 2CO2 + 7H+ + 8eCathodic reaction : O2 + 4H+ + 4e- →2H2 O The overall reaction is the break down of the substrate to carbon dioxide and water with a concomitant production of electricity as a by-product. Based on the electrode reaction pair above, an MFC bioreactor can generate electricity from the electron flow from the anode to cathode in the external circuit(Du et al., 2007). Types of Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) Two-chambered MFC A typicaltwo compartment M FC has an anodic chamber and a cathodic chamber connected by a Proton Exchange Membrane (PE M), to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode (Du et al., 2007). The anode chamber contains the bacteria, and it is tightly sealed to prevent oxygen diffusion into the chamber. The headspace can be flushed with nitrogen gas to exclude air from the chamber. The cathode isim mersed in water, and the wateris bubbled with air(a typical aquarium air pump works well in the laboratory for this purpose). The anode chamber should contain nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and trace minerals) and biodegradable substrate (Logan, 2005). As mentioned above, sucrose, lactose, glucose, starch, pyruvate, xylose or wastewaters (domestic ww, animal ww, starch ww) (Logan, 2005) were used as substrate. Figure 2 shows two-chamber H-type system showing anode and cathode chambers equipped for gas sparging (Logan and Regan, 2006). Figure 2. Example of an H-type microbial fuel cell (a) Schematic showing the anode where bacteria form a biofilm on the surface and a cathode, which is exposed to dissolved oxygen. The two chambers are separated by a proton-exchange membrane (PE M). (b) An example of a simple two-chamber system with the PE M clamped between the ends oftwo tubes,each joined to a bottle. Single Chambered MFC (SCMFC) A simpler and more efficientM FC can be made by omitting the cathode chamber and placing the cathode electrode directly onto the PEM. This set up avoids the need to aerate water because the oxygen in air can be directly transferred to the cathode. Several designs are possible forthis system. In the firstdesign used in Prof. 202 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Logan’s Laboratory in Penn University, used to demonstrate electricity generation from wastewater,the cathode was placed in the center of a cylinder,so thatthe anode chamber formed a concentric cylinder around the cathode (large SC MFC; Liu et al., 2004) (Figure 3). Graphite rods were placed inside the anode chamber, and these rods extended outside of the anode chamber and were connected to the cathode via an external circuit containing a resistor. Air was able to passively flow through the centertube so thatitcould react atthe cathode. The Nafion membrane was hot-pressed onto the cathode, which was wrapped around a perforated plastictube to provide support, with the membrane in contact with the solution in the anode chamber. (C) Figure 3. Schematics of a cylindrical SC-MFC containing eight graphite rods as an anode in a concentric arrangement surrounding a single cathode.((A) drawn with modifications after Liu et al.,2004. (B) drawn to illustrate a photo in Liu et al.,2004.)(C) Photo oflaboratory-scale prototype ofthe SC MFC used to generate electricity from wastewater Itis not essentialto placethe cathode in water orin a separate chamber when using oxygen atthe cathode. The cathode can be placed in direct contact with air (Liu and Logan, 2004). Much larger power densities have been achieved using oxygen asthe electron acceptor when aqueous-cathodes are replaced with air-cathodes. The second type of SC MFC was a single tube, with the two circular electrodes placed on opposite ends of the tube (small SC MFC; Liu and Logan, 2004). The end containing the anode is capped in order to prevent oxygen diffusion intothe chamber, whilethe other end is open so that one side ofthe cathode faces air, whilethe otheris bonded to the PE M and faces the solution in the anode chamber. Two platinum wires extend from the top for electrical connections (Figure 4). 203 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4.(a) A schematic and (b) a photograph of a single-chamber microbialfuel cell. The cathode is exposed to air on one side and the solution containing the biodegradable substrateis on the other side. The anode chamber containing the exoelectrogenic bacteriais sealed off from oxygen (Logan and Regan 2006) Materials and Methods Construction of Two Chambered Microbial Fuel Cell (TCMFC) Two Chambered MFCs were constructed using two glass bottles in our laboratory. The fuel cells have electrode compartments of approximately 200 ml capacity.Each cell compartment had three ports atthe top, for electrode wire, the addition and sampling of solutions, and gassing. The two compartments of each cell was separated by a Proton exchange membrane (PE M) (Nafion 117 (Dupont Co., USA)). The anode compartment was loaded with freshly prepared bacterial suspension (suspended in 50 m M Na-phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) containing 0.1 M NaCl),vitamin and mineral solution and substrate. The cathode compartment was loaded with 50 m M Na-phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) containing 0.1 M NaCl. Nitrogen and air were continuously purged through anode and cathode compartments to maintain anoxic and aerobic conditions, respectively. (flow rate: approximately 15 ml per min). The microbial fuel cell was immersed in a water bath to maintain temperature (25°C) (for summer conditions, Julabo FT 200-for winter conditions Julabo heater). Our two chambered MFC system can be seen 204 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 5. Two Chambered MFC in Fatih University (FU) Laboratory Construction of Single Chambered Flat Microbial Fuel Cell (SCFMFC) The MFC consisted of an anode and cathode placed on opposite sides in a plastic (Plexiglas) cylindrical chamber 1,6 cm long by 3 cm in diameter (empty bed volume of 12 mL; anode surface area per volume of 62,5m2/m3). The anode electrodes were made of Ballart carbon paper (without wet proofing) and did not contain a catalyst. The carbon electrode/PE M cathode (CE-PE M) was manufactured by bonding the PE M directly onto a flexible carbon-cloth electrode containing 0.4 mg/cm2 of Ptcatalyst(Vulcan). The PE M (Nafion 115, Dupont) was sequentially boiled in H2 O2 (30%), deionized water, 1M H2 SO 4, and deionized water(each time for 1 h). The PE M was then hot-pressed directly onto the cathode by heating itto 100 °C at 100 Bar for 4 min. Platinum wire was used to connectthe circuit(100 ohm). The SCF MFC can be seen in Figure 6. The anode and cathode are placed on either side of atube, with the anode sealed against a flat plate and the cathode exposed to air on one side, and water on the other. When a membrane is used inthis air-cathode system, itserves primarily to keep water from leaking through the cathode, although it also reduces oxygen diffusion into the anode chamber. 205 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 6. SC MFC in Fatih University Laboratory Construction of Single Chambered Tubular Microbial Fuel Cell (SCTMFC) The SCT MFC consisted of a single cylindrical plexiglass chamber (10 cm long by 2,5 cm diameter; empty bed volume of appr. 63 mL). The anode electrodes were made of Ballart carbon paper (without wet proofing) and did not contain a catalyst (Figure 7). The air-porous cathode consisted of a carbon/platinum catalyst/proton exchange membrane (PE M) layer fused to a plastic supporttube. The cathode/PE M was placed onto a 1 cm diameter plastic (Plexiglas)tube containing 2 m m diameter pores at 2 mm intervals (cathode tube). Air flow through the tube was passive oxygen transfer (no forced air flow). Platin wire was used to connect the circuit. Figure 7.Single Chambered Tubular MFC in Fatih University Laboratory Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) Analysis The wide diversity of bacteria that existin MFC reactors, driven in part by a variety of operating conditions, demonstratesthe versatility of bacteriathat can eithertransfer electrons tothe electrode or can exist inthe reactor as a result of symbiotic relationships with electricity-producing bacteria. Electrochemically 206 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo active bacteria seem to be abundantin a variety of samples used to inoculate MFCs,including wastewaters, sludges,river and marine sediments. Rapid acclimation of an MFC can be seen when using domestic wastewater. Bacteria on the anode were examined using a scanning electron microscope (SE M) (Figure 8,) Figure 8. A scanning electron micrograph (SE M) of bacteria of domestic Potential and Current Measurements of the Microbial Fuel Cell The system was monitored (15 minutes intervals) using a multimeter(Fluke 8846A Dıgıt precision Multimeter) connected to a personal computer. The circuit was completed with external resistances. Cell voltages were measured at various external resistances. Current (i) was calculated at a resistance (R) from the voltage(V) by i= V/R. Power (P) was calculated as P=i2 V. Cyclic voltammogram The cyclic voltammograms of the cellsuspensions were obtained using a potentiostat(Voltalab, PGZ402 Potentiostat 30V-1A) Results Cyclic Voltam mograms In Cyclic Voltammograms (CV) teststhe potentialis gradually increased in this case from (-1 V) to (1.2V) for 207 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo SCF MFC and SCT MFC, respectively. The currentis monitored to see ifthereis peak in current due to oxidation or reduction of chemicalsin solution. The voltage isthen reversed back to the original potential. CV results can be seen figure 9 for SCF MFC and figure 10 for SCT MFC. The scan rate of 50mV/s was employed. Figure 9 shows the cyclic voltammogram (CV) of whole mixed culture cellsuspensions of SCF MFC. The CVs show thatthe bacterial cellsuspensions have a redox potential of around –0.2V, current density appr. 1mA/cm2. CV of SCT MFC results can be seen Figure 10. The redox potential of the cellis around -0.5V, current density appr. 0.05 mA/cm2. Figure 9. Cyclic voltammograms for anode with biofilm and 500 mg/L acetate for SCF MFC. . Figure 10. Cyclic voltammograms for anode with biofilm and 500 mg/L acetate for SCFM FC Power Generation from TCMFC system A membrane MFC inoculated with S.putrefaciens and acetate produced 0,8 m W/m 2.. The circuit was completed with a fixed load of 5kΩ were used to determine the power generation as function ofload. Current (i) was calculated 4µ A. Potential(V)=iR, Power (P) was calculated as P=iV. P=i2.R=(4*10-6)2.(5*103)=0,08 µ W/cm2 =0,8 m W/m2 Power Generation from SCFMFC system Single Chambered Flat MFC inoculated with domestic wastewater(5000 mg/L) and 2000 mg/L acetate then 500 mg/L produced 15,3 m W/m2.. The circuit was completed with a fixed load of 5,1Ω were used to determine the power generation as function ofload. After 50 hours, current(i) neasurement was calculated 7µ A.(Figure 11). Figure 12 shows that maximum power density of SCF MFC was 15.3mW/m2 208 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo current(mikroamper Current generation of mixed culture(5000 mg/L), of SCFMFC using 2000 mg/L acetate 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 time(hours) Figure 11. Current generation as a function of anode Power(miliwatt/m2) Power Density for SCFMFC(2000mg/L- 500 mg/L acetate) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 TĐME(hours) Figure 12. Power density forSCF MFC Discussion MFCs typically produce power at a density of less than 50 m W/m2 (normalized to anode projected surface area) (Bond et al, 2003, Tender et al 2002 and Kim et al 1999). Power generation using a membrane(Nafion) MFC inoculated with G. Metallireducens was 37 to 40 m W/m2 which was similar to that found by others using Geobacter spp. and other pure cultures in two chambered MFCs. Bond et al. (2002) obtained 14m W/m2 using a two chambered fuel cell, while Bond and Lovley (2003) achieved 49 m W/m2 using G. Sulfurreducens and acetate-fed membrane fuel cells. These levels of power are higherthan those reported for M FCs with S.putrefaciens IR-1 and lactate(0,6 m W/m2)(Kim et al,2002) or Rhodoferax ferrireducens and glucose (8m W/m2) (Chaudhuri and Lovley, 2003). Mixed cultures in the same membrane MFC inoculated with wastewater generated a same power density(38 m W/m2 )., In this study, power generation using Nafion MFC inoculated S.putrefaciens using 6M acetate was 0,8 m W/m2 for TC MFC and power generation of SCF MFC inoculated with domestic wastewater using 2000 mg/L acetate and 500 mg/L acetate) was 15,3 m W/m2. The observation that power density is much larger using the single chambered than a two-chambered MFC is consistentwith previous studies. A critical factor in the power density achieved in a two chambered system was the system internal resistance, which was primarily a function of the proton exchange system (Min. B, 2005). We believe that more useful 209 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo mediator-less microbial fuel cell system will be obtained by modifying and improving the fuel cell format, the fuel itself, concentration of bacteria, electrode surface area, electrode material, membranes, contact time, and environmental conditions. Applications Microbial fuel cells are not new – the concept of using microorganisms as catalysts in fuel cells was explored from the 1970s and microbialfuel cellstreating domestic wastewater were presented in 1991. However, it is only recently that microbial fuel cells with an enhanced power output have been developed providing possible opportunities for practical applications (Rabaey and Verstraete, 2005). One of the first applications could be the development of pilot-scale reactors atindustriallocations where a high quality and reliable influent is available. Food processing wastewaters and digester effluents are good candidates. Moreover, decreased sludge production could substantially decrease the payback time. In the long term more dilute substrates,such as domestic sewage, could be treated with MFCs, decreasing society’s need to invest substantial amounts of energy in theirtreatment. The growing pressure on our environment, and the call for renewable energy sources will further stimulate development of thistechnology. MFCs have been proposed as a method to treat wastewater, and thus itisimportantto evaluate the overall performance in terms of (BOD), (COD), or (TOC) removal (Logan et al., 2006). However, MFC power generation is still very low (Tender et al., 2002; Delong and Chandler, 2002),that isthe rate of electron abstraction is very low. One feasible way to solve this problem isto storethe electricity in rechargeable devices and then distribute the electricity to end-users (Ieropoulos et al., 2003). TheMFC technology is particularly favored for sustainable long-term power applications (Du et al, 2007). A MFC-based treatment plant ofthe future willlikely look a lotlike a system builttoday around a fixed-film system such as a trickling filter. The important difference is that this future system could produce not only enough electricity to run the plant, butto help run the town-transforming your local wastewatertreatment plantinto a power plant. References Bond, D. R.; Holmes, D. E.; Tender, L. M.; Lovley, D. R. (2002), Electrodereducing microorganisms that harvest energy from marine sediments. Science, 295, 483-485. Bond DR, LovleyDR. (2003). Electricity production by Geobacter sulfurreducens attached to electrodes. Appl Environ Microbiol;69:1548–55. Du Z, Li H, Gu T. (2007). A state of the art review on microbial fuel cells: A promising technology for wastewater treatment and bioenergy Biotechnology Advances 25, 464–482 Gil GC, Chang IS, Kim BH, Kim M, Jang JY, Park HS. (2003). Operational parameters affecting the performance of a mediatorless microbial fuel cell. Biosens Bioelectron;18:327–34. Ieropoulos I, Greenman J, Melhuish C. (2003). Imitation metabolism: energy autonomy in biologically inspired robots. Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on imitation of animals and artifacts;. p. 191–4. Ieropoulos IA, Greenman J, Melhuish C, Hart J. (2005). Comparative study of three types of microbial fuel cell. Enzyme Microb Tech;37:238–45. Kim, B. H.; Park, D. H.; Shin, P. K.; Chang, I. S.; Kim, H. J. (1999). Mediatorless biofuel cell. U.S. Patent 5976719. Kim BH, Kim HJ, Hyun MS, Park DH. (1999). Direct electrode reaction of Fe (III)-reducing bacterium, Shewanella putrifaciens. J Microbiol Biotechnol;9:127–31. Kim HJ, Park HS, Hyun MS, Chang IS, Kim M, Kim BH. (2002). A mediatorless microbial fuel cell using a metal reducing bacterium, Shewanella putrefaciens. Enzyme Microb Tech. 30:145–52. Liu, H.; Logan, B. E. (2004). Electricity Generation Using an Air-Cathode Single Chamber Microbial Fuel Cell in the Presence and Absence of a Proton Exchange Membrane. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 4040–4046. Logan BE, Murano C, Scott K, Gray ND, Head IM. (2005)Electricity generation from cysteine in a microbial fuel cell. Water Research, , 39: 942–952 210 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Logan BE, Hamelers B, Rozendal R, Schroder U, Keller J, Freguia S, et al. (2006). Microbial fuel cells: methodology and technology. Environ Sci Technol. 40:5181–92. Logan BE, Regan JM (2006). Electricity producing bacterial communities in microbial fuel cells Trends in Microbiology, Vol.14 No.12 Min B, Cheng S, Logan BE. (2005). Electricity generation using membrane and salt bridge microbial fuel cells. Water Res 39:1675–86. Oh SE, Logan BE. (2005). Hydrogen and electricity production from a food processing wastewater using fermentation and microbial fuel cell technologies. Water Res 39:4673–82. Rabaey K, Lissens G, Siciliano S, Verstraete W. (2003). A microbial fuel cell capable of converting glucose to electricity at high rate and efficiency. Biotechnol Lett;25:1531–5 Rabaey K, Boon N, Siciliano SD, Verhaege M, Verstraete W. (2004). Biofuel cells select for microbial consortia that selfmediate electron transfer. Appl Environ Microb 70:5373–82 Rabaey, K.; Boon, N.; Hofte, M.; Verstraete, W.( 2005a), Microbial phenazine production enhances electron transfer in biofuel cells. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 3401-3408. Rabaey K and Verstraete W, 2005(b). Microbial fuel cells: novel biotechnology for energy generation, Trends in Biotechnology, 23 No:6: 291-298 Tender LM, Reimers CE, Stecher HA, Holmes DE, Bond DR, Lowy DA, et al. (2002). Harnessing microbially generated power on the seafloor. Nat Biotechnol 20:821–5. 211 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f2a71023825aba89b932299c720c7f90.doc aa3ad30d5033932d25be9a4f615a222d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 511 Title A name given to the resource Electricity Generation by a Mediator-Less Microbial Fuel Cell Using Mixed Culture Author Author Aktan, Sevil Bozkurt, Ayhan Çokgör, Emine Ubay Yazicioğlu, Burcu Irmak Arslan, Nurullah Gücin, Fahrettin Ulusoy, Isılay Abstract A summary of the resource. A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bioreactor that converts chemical energy in the chemical bonds in organic compounds to electrical energy through catalytic reactions of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. In a MFC, power can be generated from the oxidation of organic matter by bacteria at the anode ,with reduction of oxygen at the cathode. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode. Electrons produced by the bacteria from these substrates are transferred to the anode and flow to the cathode linked by a conductive material containing a resistor, or operated under a load. MFCs have been used to generate electricity from virtually any biodegradable organic matter, including domestic and industrial wastewaters, while at the same time accomplishing wastewater treatment. Using Two Chambered MFC in our laboratory produced 0,8 mW/m2 of anode surface area using pure culture (S.putrefaciens) and acetate. Using Single Chambered Flat MFC, we have recently achieved up to 15 mW/m2 using mixed culture and acetate. A MFC-based treatment plant of the future will likely look a lot like a system built today around a fixed-film system such as a trickling filter. The MFC technology is particularly favored for sustainable long-term power applications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0cc13608ed0edfebfb768026085fc02f.pdf 4146e7ee9ca8aefa2def3964da2f8721 PDF Text Text Public Awareness towards Environmental Issues in Turkey Hasan AKC A Gaziosmanpasa University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Economics Tokat, Turkey akcahasan@yahoo.com Cetin KAPLA N Gaziosmanpasa University Dincerler School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Tokat, Turkey kaplancetin@hotmail.com M urat SAYILI Gaziosmanpasa University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Economics Tokat, Turkey muratsayili@yahoo.com Abstract: This study presents public awareness of environmental issues in Tokat province of Turkey. The effective sample size was 300. Questionnaire was carried out between January and May 2008. Chi-square test (χ2) was used while analyzing the relationship between socioeconomic characteristics and environmental conscious. Statistically significant relationship was found between separating domestic waste at home and education level (χ2 =19.493, df=12, P=0.077). Similarly, there was a statistically significant relationship between gender and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =8.276, df =3, P= 0.041). This study revealed that no statistically significant relationship was found between occupation of the respondents and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =25.039, df=18, P=0.124), nor between area of residence and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =13.640, df=9, P=0.136). Keywords: Environmental issues, public awareness, Turkey Introduction Up to last quarter of 19th century, environmentalimpact of economic activities has been small enough for the natural environment to recover unaided. However, impact of human beings on the environment has grown rapidly and steadily since the industrial revolution. Recently, the environmental impact of human activity has increased beyond the Earth's abilityto recover (RICOH 2003). Atthetime ofthe Stockholm World Environment Congress in 1972, human beings were mainly concerned about environmental pollution damage to nature. Afterwards, people were gradually aware of the damage to human health. Consequently, more and more people became concerned about the environment (Xi et al. 1998). After Chernobyl disasterin 1986, the environmental movement accelerated its global-local responsiveness. Today's environmental movement has matured. It started out saying: Think globally, actlocally. Now it's: Think and actlocally;think and act globally (Warshal 2001). Climate change, desertification, deforestation, depletion of the ozone layer, transboundary air pollution, solid waste management, sea pollution, transport of hazardous waste, over-consumption of natural resources, loss of bio diversity especiallyinthe rain forests ofthe Amazon, Africa and Asia are examples of environmental issues thatthe world faces (Decamps 2000, Joubert 2001). Development of environmental awareness in Turkey has coincided with the development of democracy and human rights. The unifying dimension of environmentalism in Turkey is significant. Under mottos such as “One World” or “We are allin the same boat”, members of different cultural backgrounds have gathered on the same platform to work forthe protection ofthe environment,joining theirforces and energies for a better planet and brighter future (Ozdemir 2005). Tokat province was chosen as research area because it was one of the 17 provincial centres (out of 81 provinces) with high concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in Turkey. According to SO2 concentrations, obtained from the measurement stations in January 2007 compared to the previous January, Target Limit Value (150 µg/m3) was exceeded in Tokat while First Warning Level Limit Value (700 µg/m3 ) was not exceeded 439 �(TURKSTAT 2007). On the other hand, some major projects have been implemented by local governments to solve environmental problems in the city and to live a clean and healthy environment for future generations. Number of studies analysing the relationship between socio-demographic characteristics of both urban and rural dwellers and environmental issues are very limited. Therefore, this study aims at explaining public awareness towards environmentalissues in Tokat province of Turkey. Material and Methods A survey of randomly selected people living in Tokat province (828 027 residents) of Turkey was conducted to determine their awareness and knowledge of sources of environment. The survey delivered 320 questionnaires and the effective sample size was 300. It was conducted in the months of January-May 2008. Chi-square test (χ2) was used while analyzing the relationship between socio-economic characteristics of people and environmental conscious. A 0.05 level of significance was employed for all tests in the study. Algebraically χ2 teststatisticis given as follows (Gujarati 1995, Mirer 1995): χ 2 = ∑i =1 k (Oi − Ei ) 2 Ei W here Oi isthe observed frequency in class orintervali and Ei isthe frequency expected in classi on the basis of the hypothesized distribution, say, the normal. If the null hypothesis is correct, χ2 has a chi-square distribution with (r-1)(c-1) degrees of freedom (df), where r is the number of rows and c is the number of columns in the main body ofthe contingency table. Results and Discussion A mong the sample population, 62.3% were male. The professions of the respondents were government employees (17.7%), retired people (6.4%), housewife (15.3%), workers in industry and manufacturing (15.0%), student (20.3%), people engaged in agriculture/fishing/livestock (12.3%), and business/tradesman (13.0%). Educational backgrounds of the questioned people were primary school (15.7%), secondary school (14.3%), high school (31.7%), vocational college and faculty (31.0%), and postgraduates degrees (Master and PhD) (7.3%). Nearly 70% of the respondents live in city centre. The rest live in district(11%), town (8%), and village (11%). Inthe study, 13 environmental problems werelisted and respondents were asked to selectthe most serious problems atlocal, country and globallevel (Tab. 1). Environmental Problems Tokat Turkey W orld Garbage Problem 81.3 32.3 39.3 Air Pollution 63.3 43.3 50.6 Water Pollution 82.6 47.3 39.0 Noise Pollution 58.3 49.6 39.3 Soil Pollution due to excess agrochemicals usage 47.6 61.6 34.0 Use of Agricultural Lands forDifferent Aims 50.0 64.0 30.0 Unplanned Urbanisation 69.6 59.3 21.0 Destroying Natural Resources 49.0 40.6 41.0 Global Warming 32.0 44.6 82.3 Ozone Depletion 26.3 36.0 81.3 Radiation Problem 18.0 45.0 69.6 Devastation 18.3 30.0 63.0 Erosion 36.0 69.0 51.3 Table 1: Most serious environmental problems atlocal, country and the world level (%) According to respondents, global warming, ozone depletion,radiation problem, and devastation were the most serious environmental problems in the world. As far as Turkey is concerned, erosion, use of agricultural lands for different aims, and soil pollution due to excess agrochemical use are main environmental problems at country level while water pollution, garbage problem, and unplanned urbanisation were severe environmental problems atlocallevel. These resultsare paralleltotheliterature. For example, Onder(2006) statedthatthe most serious environmental problems are ozone depletion and global warming in the world; unplanned urbanisation and depletion of natural resources in Turkey. Esengun et al. (2006) questioned 16 governmental and NGOs in 440 �Tokat province to determine their views on environmental problems. Findings indicated that air pollution is the most environmental concern,followed by domestic waste,soil pollution,lack of a centralcontrol system, illegal construction, unplanned organisation,lack of green areas, water pollution, waste water, use of agriculturallands for unsuitable aims, deforestation, and noise pollution. Inadequate financial resources,lack of trained personnel and inadequate environmentallegislation are the main weaknesses in dealing with environmentalissues. The authors asked people whetherthey know “World Environment Day (June 5)” or not.More than threefourths of respondents answered with “no” and only 22.7% with “yes”. Another question was “whether being heard a campaign thatis a pine treefor people who collect20 batteries” or not?. Only 37.7% ofthe respondents said they heard this campaign but 62.3% did not heard. Respondents were asked to identify reasons for water pollution in “Yesilirmak River” in Tokat province. According to respondents, water pollution is associated with litter storing place along the river (41.3%) and waste ofleather processing plants established nearthe river (32.0%). Other pollutants were animal wastes caused by livestock farms (12.0%) and domestic wastes (9.3%). The remaining (5.4%) said they had no idea. A significant number of interviewees say that obeying hunting rules (74.3%), destruction of forest areas (58.3%), agrochemicals(52.0%) and decreasing number of wetland (22.0%) are mostimportantfactors affecting decrease inthe number of wild animalsinthe research area. People were asked: “Which actions can be active in environmental conscious?” People chose more than option for this question. Education within the family (74.6%) and at school (71.3%), and television & radio programs (68.6%) came first,second and third on the list. Otherimportant actions were determined as magazine & newspaper (38.0%), NGO activities (32.6%), legal regulations (20.0%), and training at working place (20.3%). Respondents were asked to identify the actors having power for environmental conservation. Questioned people ranked them as municipality (1st), governorship ofthe province (2nd),family (3rd),N G Os (4th),and Media (5th), University (6th), and Health Organisations (7th). Only 4.6% said they had no idea. To determine the attitudes of the people towards environmental issues following question “How would you liketo be a part ofthe environmental conservation activities?” was asked. More than half ofthe respondents (52.7%) indicated thatthey could attend environmental protection activities voluntarily. Nearly one-fifth (22.3%) of the people do not want to attend any environmental conservation activities. In the sample, 21.3% answered “donation”. Only 3.7% of the sample said they could pay extra tax. In a study of rural population and environmental relations, Gokce (1997) found that 57.9% was willing to donate part of his income, 35.0% is willing to give extratax and 68.1% thought government should meetthe expenses. The question “whatis your reaction against people who pollutethe environment?” was asked the sample in order to probe their environmental attitude towards environmental issues. Nearly two-thirds of the respondents (64.7%) said that they prefer warning the people polluting the environment politely while 22.7% do not warn the polluters. The rest(12.6%) preferto make formal complaintsto government administrators orlegal institutions. Television, newspaper, and internet were the most com mon used information sources towards environmental issues by respondents (Tab. 2). This was line with previous studies (Onder 2006, Ostman & Parker 1985, Chan 1998, Haron et al. 2005). Information Source (*) Number % Newspaper 195 65.0 Journal 60 20.0 Television 281 93.6 Radio 98 32.6 Extension staff 30 10.0 Internet 125 41.6 Friend 84 28.0 Governmental Organisations 18 6.0 N G Os 34 11.3 School 43 14.3 Brochure 33 11.0 Table 2: Information sources about environmentalissues (*) More than one answer Particularly television was shown to be a powerful instrument for changing public attitudes (AbdulWahab 2008). Christine (1990) found that news programs were effective at increasing level of environmental knowledge among those who watched the program. Schultz (1994) reported the role of mass media in recognition of environmentalproblems. Respondents were asked to whetherthey heart and know meaning of 11 environmental concepts (Tab. 3). 441 �The issues people heart and knew most were recycling (80.00%) and organic farming (79.33%). Sustainable development (39.67%), rain forests (39.33%), acid rain (39.33%), and Rio Conference (38.67%) were issues which a high proportion of questioned people heard but did not know its meaning. Great majority of the respondents (85.33%) had notheard of externality before. I heart and know I heart but do not know Concepts its meaning its meaning I did not heartit Sustainable Development 44.67 39.67 15.66 Organic Farming 79.33 11.67 9.00 Rain Forests 17.67 39.33 43.00 Green Peace 24.00 32.67 43.33 Acid Rain 19.33 39.33 41.34 Externality 4.67 10.00 85.33 Recycling 80.00 9.33 10.67 Brundland Report 4.33 27.00 68.67 Rio Conference 9.33 38.67 52.00 Ecosystem 56.67 10.33 33.00 Biodiversity 54.33 24.00 21.67 Table 3: Whether knowing meaning of some words related to environmentalissues (%) People were asked to choose between scenarios where (A) establishment of a factory first,considering the environment later;(B) considering the environment first, establishment of a factory later; and (C) establishment of a factory and environmental protection have the same priority. The results showed that 62.67% of the respondents consider the environment a high priority, while 21.00% of the people chose establishment of a factory as a top priority. Only 16.33% of the sampled people chose both first. This means that most of the questioned people reject approaches based in ignoring environmental conservation while establishment of a factory in orderto produce new products and create new employment opportunity for unemployed people. Literature review shows that public awareness of environmental problems has typically been associated with different socio-demographic variables such as age, income, social statutes, gender, education, area of residency (rural or urban), occupation, origin (immigrant or non-immigrant), and political ideology (Girdner & Akis 1996, Stern et al. 1993, Guagnano & Marke 1995, Swarnakar & Sharma 2006, Akca et al. 2007). It was hypothesized that there is a relationship between separating domestic waste at home and four demographic variables (gender, residence area, occupation and education). Statistically significant relationship was found between separating domestic waste at home and education level of respondents (χ2 =19.493, df=12, P=0.077). This was line with literature. Scott & Willits (1994) found that environmental attitudes and behaviour are strongly related to education. Similarly, there was a statistically significant relationship between gender and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =8.276, df=3, P=0.041). However, Girdner & Akis (1996) did notfind any relationship between sex of the respondent and reusing empty bottles. No statistically significant relationship was found between occupation of the respondents and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =25.039, df=18, P=0.124), nor between area of residence and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =13.640, df=9, P=0.136). Conclusion Today, people living in both urban and rural areas are paying more attention to activities that reduce damage to the global environment,including the sorting of waste,recycling, and prevention of global warming. Manufacturers face such challenges as promoting smaller products with longer lifecycles, energy conservation, and resource recycling, as well as providing the maximum benefit to society and companies with minimum resources. Global companies as well are expected to support and promote the awareness of environmental conservation in developing countries and regions so that they can achieve economic progress with minimum environmental impact (RICOH 2003). In this context,there is a need to explain what the situation is in Tokat province in terms of environmental protection. In 2005, three Municipalities in Tokat province prepared Infrastructure Projects focusing on “Rehabilitation of Old Landfill and Left Flow Direction of Yesilirmak River in Central County of Tokat”; “Rehabilitation and Extension of Drinking Water Supply, Transmission and Storage Facilitiesin Turhal County”; and “Elimination of Nitrogen inthe Refuse Waterin Erbaa County through Research and Design”. They were awarded by the EU in the context of Regional Development Program me in 2006. Another study isto establish a Solid Waste Storing and Processing Plantin Tokat province. Municipalities signed a finance agreement through credit with international sources. In addition, project related to supplying natural gas to Tokat started in April 2007 instead of using coal and wood for heating. Itis expected that use of natural gasinthe future willsignificantly reduce pollution in terms of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2 ) and Particulate 442 �Matter(PM). On the other hand, Turkish government started toimplement KOYDES Projectin ordertoincrease environmental quality of rural areas.In the context, many projectsthat cover supplying clean drinking water to 148 villages, development of soil and small waterresources in 12 villages,sewerage systems in 33 villages have been carried outlocal administrations.It can be said that Tokat province would solve biggest parts of the major environmental problems and breathe clean airifthese projectsimplemented successfully in both rural and urban areas in the short or medium terms. References Abdul-Wahab, S.A. (2008). A preliminary investigation into the environmental awareness of the Omani Public and their willingness to protect the environment. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 4 (1), 39-49. Akca, H., Sayili, M., & Yilmazcoban, M. (2007). Rural dwellers’ awareness to environmental issues: the case of Turkey. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 16 (2), 177-182. Chan, K. (1998). Mass media and environmental cognition in Hong Kong. Proceeding of ICA/NCA conference, Rome, July 15-18. Christine, C. (1990). The impact of television on public environmental knowledge concerning the Great Lakes. Master’s Thesis, Ohio State University. Decamps, H. (2000). Demanding more of landscape research (and researches). Landscape and Urban Planning, 47 (3), 105109. Esengun, K., Sayili, M., & Akca, H. (2006). Perceptions of environmental issues in a Turkish province. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 15 (4): 635-642. Girdner, E.J., & Akis, S. (1996). Environmental attitudes in Northern Cyprus. METU Studies in Development, 23 (4), 477508. Gokce, O. (1997). Rural population-environment relations and a case study from Turkey. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 21, 413-418. Guagnano, G.A., & Marke, N. (1995). Regional differences in the socio-demographic determinants of environmental concern. Population and Environment, 17, 135-150. Gujarati, N. (1995). Basic Econometrics, NY: McGraw-Hill Inc. Haron, S.A., Pain, L., & Yahaya, N. (2005). Towards sustainable consumption: an examination of environmental knowledge among Malaysians. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 29 (5), 426-436. Joubert, F. (2001). The need for harmonisation between sustainable development and the implementation of a global environmental law regime. In Sustainable development international, London: ICG Publishing Ltd. Mirer, T.W. (1995). Economic statistics and econometrics. NY: Prentice-Hall Inc. Onder, S. (2006). Environmental pollution and solution recommendations of Konya city, Turkey. Journal of Applied Sciences, 6 (4), 864-871. Ostman, R.E., & Parker, J.L. (1985). Awareness of, concern for, and perceived lifestyle effects of environmental messages in television and other mass media. Proceedings of the Popular Culture Association. Ozdemir, I. (2005). The development of environmental consciousness in modern Turkey. In Environmentalism in Muslim World. NY: Nova, 17-36. RICOH (2003). Pursuing the ideal society (www.ricoh.com/environment/management/earth.html). Schultz, C.J. (1994). The role of the mass media in extension and interpretation. International Journal of Environmental Education, 13 (4), 371-384. Scott, D., & Willits, F.K. (1994). Environmental attitudes and behaviour: A Pennsylvania survey. Environment and Behavior, 26 (2), 239-260. Stern, P.C., Dietz, T., & Kalof, L. (1993). Value orientations, gender and environmental concern. Environment and Behavior, 25, 322-348. 443 �Swarnakar, P., & Sharma, A.K. (2006). Understanding environmental concern: A study using new environmental paradigm scale (www.iipsindia.in/abstractfiles/200682123437_01_swarnakar_sharma_IIPS2006.doc). TURKSTAT (2007). Press release of Turkish Statistical Institute on air pollution. Available on 29 March 2007. (www.turkstat.gov.tr/SONIST/CEVRE/290307.doc). Xi, X., Fan, L., & Deng, X. (1998). Public environment awareness in China: An analysis of the results of public surveys. The Centre for the Integrated Study of the Human Dimensions of Global Change, Carnegie Mellon University. Warshal, P. (2001). A whole earth view of the environmental movement. GBN Global Business Network Inc. (www.gbn.com/ArticleDisplayServlet.srv?aid=1125). 444 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6759f447993572815d30ac06f5385e9b.doc c1b4f51bacd10f705085148dbf0090cb Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 525 Title A name given to the resource Public Awareness towards Environmental Issues in Turkey Author Author Akca, Hasan KAPLAN, Cetin SAYILI, Murat Abstract A summary of the resource. This study presents public awareness of environmental issues in Tokat province of Turkey. The effective sample size was 300. Questionnaire was carried out between January and May 2008. Chi-square test (χ2) was used while analyzing the relationship between socioeconomic characteristics and environmental conscious. Statistically significant relationship was found between separating domestic waste at home and education level (χ2 =19.493, df=12, P=0.077). Similarly, there was a statistically significant relationship between gender and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =8.276, df =3, P= 0.041). This study revealed that no statistically significant relationship was found between occupation of the respondents and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =25.039, df=18, P=0.124), nor between area of residence and separating domestic waste at home (χ2 =13.640, df=9, P=0.136). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/67174917f6bd1315059f73679c731c87.pdf 8b2a795322c4a69316a7cc74f9c0e69d PDF Text Text The Substantive Universals in the Relationship between Language Ideology and Language Education Azamat Anvarovich Akbarov International Burch University/Sarajevo Abstract: While we need to problematize the notions of development and sustainable development, we are also faced by a particular challenge related to language: what models of language in the world are we using to understand the role of language education in development? I shall discuss a range of possible understandings of English in the world in order to see how they relate to questions of development. In recent years, work in critical linguistics has begun to have an impact on theory and practice in second language learning and teaching. Particularly influential has been work in language policy, the role of language in identity formation, and analyses of ideologies of language. One question that deserves particular attention is how implicit assumptions about language and about language learning and teaching impact language teaching practices. In part, this question foregrounds the importance of naming. Indeed, commonly accepted terminology can determine our experience. I do not mean this in the traditional sense of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis1, in which our language determines our sense of reality (though that may be true in some ways). What I mean instead is that our experience, particularly our emotional experience of events, is fundamentally shaped by our beliefs about these events and by the language we use to describe the events. In this paper, I will examine how our beliefs about language and second language learning and teaching shape our professional experience. The major claim explored here is that our beliefs about language fundamentally determine our interpretations of the reality of language classrooms, including students, teachers, what we should teach, how we should teach, and virtually everything that matters in language education. The search for underlying assumptions takes us into the study of ideology. Therefore I will briefly define what I mean by language ideology, and then I will examine some important ways that it shapes what we do in language education. I am especially interested in what I will call "standard language ideology,"2 which refers to a cluster of beliefs about the value of linguistic homogeneity. I explore the impact of standard language ideology upon common language teaching practices and how those practices often are in the service of social and political agendas. Finally I will consider one pedagogical alternative to standard language ideology. 1. Introduction The term language ideology refers to a shared body of commonsense notions about the nature of language in the world, including cultural assumptions about language, the nature and purpose of communication, and "patterns of communicative behavior as an enactment of a collective order" (Woolard,1992)3. This means that the ways we communicate play a crucial role in shaping and reflecting fundamental assumptions about identity, including who we are as members of collective identities. Ideology has become something of a buzzword, and it risks losing meaning 1 Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf developed a theory of linguistics which claims that language shapes thought. http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?SapirWhorfHypothesis 2 In his article "Critical Inquiries into Language in an Urban Classroom" Bob Fecho describes a scene in his urban Philadelphia high school English classroom where students engaged in a personal, open-ended exploration of language usage and language legitimacy in their lives as played out in the American academic setting. In his classroom, Fecho has his students use critical inquiry to explore the impact language and learning has on their lives. 3 In sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology, a language or linguistic ideology is a systematic construct about how languages carry or are invested with certain moral, social, and political values, giving rise to implicit assumptions that people have about a language or about language in general. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_ideology 32 �as it becomes so pervasive in our professional vocabulary. But it is important to keep in mind what the term tries to capture, namely the implicit, usually unconscious assumptions about reality that fundamentally determine how human beings interpret events. In her important book English with an Accent1, about linguistic discrimination in the United States, Rosina Lippi-Green (1997)2 defines standard language ideology as "a bias toward an abstract, idealized homogenous language, which is imposed and maintained by dominant institutions and which has as its model the written language, but which is drawn primarily from the spoken language of the upper middle class." An example of standard language ideology is the commonsense belief that communication is more efficient if everyone speaks a uniform language variety. Another example is the belief that uniform language varieties are typical and normal. I am interested in exploring some of the ways that language education (especially English language teaching) is shaped by standard language ideology. Many of the tools of the profession of language education are instruments of standard language ideology. Grammar books, dictionaries, most teaching manuals and methods textbooks generally sustain the illusion of a uniform standard language (a "target language"), "persuading English language teachers and learners against all evidence to the contrary that uniformity is normal and desirable"(Milroy and Milroy, 1985). The obsession with errors and error correction in language teaching is probably the most striking manifestation of standard language ideology, along with the related belief that students' lack of motivation, their carelessness, and merely their failure to learn are the reasons for the non-standard linguistic forms that learners produce. Standard language ideology shapes our work in many ways. For instance, when I teach, I notice that I often delete the auxiliary "have" in sentences such as "I have been thinking about language ideology for a long time." In other words, I often say "I been thinking about language ideology for a long time." In producing this structure, I am typical of speakers of American English in most informal and formal contexts, including university lectures. The current trend in American English is for the unstressed auxiliary "have" (even it's contracted form) to disappear altogether in normal spoken English. Yet in teaching English, virtually everyone continues to insist that students produce the full or the contracted form of "have." Any English language learner who deletes "have" is considered to have produced an error. In other words, most English teachers continue to insist that students produce forms that many teachers themselves no longer produce with any consistency. 2. Language Ideology A key component of standard language ideology is the myth of the uniformity of languages. In other words, standard language ideology entails an ideology of variation. Deborah Cameron3 points out that standard language ideology assumes that "variation is deviant; and that any residual variation in standard English must therefore be the contingent and deplorable result of some users' carelessness, idleness or incompetence" (Cameron, 1995: 39). This myth of uniformity has two parts. First, each separate world variety of standard English, such as British or American English, is assumed to be uniform, with any variation a form of deviance. Second, the output of learners is expected to conform to this uniform standard. The job of language teachers is to teach students to produce Standard English. I would like to examine each of these beliefs, beginning with the uniformity of standard languages. Everyone of course acknowledges dialect variation. That is not the issue. Many also recognize that everyone has an accent, even people who speak prestigious standard varieties, though the word "accent" in popular usage is usually limited to non-standard varieties. Yet virtually everyone also believes that standard varieties are essentially uniform, homogeneous and fixed. Despite this belief, all linguists agree that variation is normal and intrinsic to all spoken 2 English with an Accent: Language, Ideology, and Discrimination in the United States (1997) 3 Rosina Lippi-Green, née Rosina Lippi (b. January 14, 1956 in Chicago, Illinois, USA) is an American writer. She writes under the names Rosina Lippi-Green (linguistics). 4 Deborah Cameron (born 1958) is an English feminist philologist, who currently holds the Rupert Murdoch Professorship in Language and Communication at Worcester College, University of Oxford. She is mainly interested in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. A large part of her academic research is focused on the relationship of language to gender and sexuality. 33 �language, even to standard varieties. In William Labov's1 words, "heterogeneity is an integral part of the linguistic economy of the community, necessary to satisfy the linguistic demands of everyday life" (Labov, 1982). What this means is that human beings recognize and exploit variation in order "to send a complex series of messages about ourselves and the way we position ourselves in the world" (Lippi-Green, 1997: 30). We vary our languages, even standard languages, in order to mark social, geographical, and other forms of associations and identities. Human beings are remarkably attuned to variation. Seemingly miniscule linguistic features can have tremendous social importance. For example, in the city of St. Louis2, Standard English includes two variants: the difference between [u] and [ju] in words like "duke," pronounced either [duk] or [djuk]. This single difference is used consistently to distinguish socioeconomic classes (see Murray, 1986; also Lippi-Green, 1997), with the variable [u] marking lower socioeconomic status. Yet both forms are Standard English, and most residents are not consciously aware of this form of variation. All individuals also vary their speech style in Standard English as a way of expressing their position in relation to social groups that are not socioeconomic. For instance, studies of the speech style of upper middle class California teen-agers show that the use of the intrusive "like," as in "It was, like, a too crowded at the mall," increases when they are speaking about their friends and activities they enjoy, and it decreases when they are speaking about topics such as going to college (California Style Collective, 1993). Again, we find speakers using variation in Standard English in order to position themselves in a web of personal and collective relationships. There is no way to know in advance which particular features of a language will be used to mark the speaker's social position. Only members of the speech community know, and linguists who analyze the community can often figure it out. But it is significant, in my opinion, that the language teaching profession largely ignores these subtle yet powerful forms of variation. Rather than confront the issue and acknowledge the variational features that communities use for social purposes, particularly for creating social hierarchies, we act as though communities that speak Standard English are essentially uniform, with a uniform language. A second key component of the myth of uniformity is that language learners' output is the result of their success, or lack of success, in learning English. In other words, language learning is widely seen as the process of attempting to produce increasingly close approximations to Standard English. The measure of a learner's success is his or her ability to approximate standard forms. Is this an accurate picture of the process of language learning? Do learners produce non-standard forms because they fail to learn the correct ones? The answer to this question depends on one's perspective. If we view language learning as essentially something that individuals do, then perhaps it makes sense to view the language they produce as a measure of their relative success at learning the forms they are studying. But if we view language learning as a social phenomenon, a process in which groups of people are engaged, with consequences for social relations and identities, then we get a different picture. Jay Peterson at Portland State University in Oregon has been interested for several years in the KoreanAmerican community in the States, particularly efforts within the community to learn English. Peterson's research (Peterson, 1998) sees English language learning as a process affected by two competing forces in the KoreanAmerican community. One is the shift to English; the other is the effort to retain the community's ethnocultural identity. In order to understand language learning in this community, Peterson asks questions such as the following: How do Korean-Americans conceptualize their own ethnic and cultural identity? What attributes, including language, are important for the various ethnic and cultural identities central to Korean-American life? How are these identities linked with particular domains, such as the family, work, and school? What ethnic and cultural sub-groups are important within the community? Much of the existing research on language and identity assumes that individuals normally have a single dominant ethno-cultural identity, with secondary identifications being weaker add-ons, and with a relatively straightforward connection between particular languages and particular identities. In addition, most research assumes that language learning and language shift among immigrants involve cultural and psychological conflict and confusion, called "culture shock." Peterson argues that these beliefs reflect standard language ideology, what he calls "linguistic monism." 1 William Labov (IPA: /lə bo v/, lə-BOEV[1]; ) is an American linguist, widely regarded as the founder of the discipline of variationist sociolinguistics.[2] He has been described as "an enormously original and influential figure who has created much of the methodology" of sociolinguistics. http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~wlabov/home.htm l 2 St. Louis is a city in the U.S. state of Missouri, located near the confluence of the Mississippi River and the Missouri River. http://stlouis.missouri.org/ 34 �An alternative approach is to expect complex, fluid, changing, and even contradictory identities, with different languages playing multiple and varying roles in these identities. Peterson has found that "Korean" is not always the most important aspect of identity for Korean-Americans. More central in some contexts is a sense of Asian appearance, Confucian family values, preference for living in the United States, or certain positive group attributes. He has also found that Korean identity entails several levels of abstraction, so that individuals have flexibility in the intensity and direction of their identities, depending on the demands of domain and circumstance. People can have multidimensional identities, such as English language with Korean culture, or Korean language with American culture. Moreover, different identifications may be simultaneously available, depending on particular domains, and identities may work at different levels of abstraction. Individuals may feel that they are Koreans, or Chinese, or more generally Asian, while simultaneously accessing multiple levels of American identity. 3. Language Education What does this have to do with language learning? One aspect of the process of identity formation taking place within the Korean-American community in the States is the creation of new varieties of English: Korean English1, if you will, that’s what I noticed in Korea as well2. These new varieties are not merely imperfect attempts to learn standard English. They are newly forming varieties of English that are appropriate for particular domains and identities. They are, in this sense, new target languages. Anyone teaching English in this Korean-American community must understand that many members of the community are involved in the process of learning and creating these new varieties of English, and this process fundamentally shapes the language that these learners produce in their English classes. Yet the picture is even more complex. While some learners are acquiring or creating new varieties of Korean English, other learners acquire existing non-standard varieties of American English. Many immigrants from Southeast Asia and Latin America live in city neighborhoods in close proximity to large populations of African Americans, who speak varieties of African American English, also called Ebonics. Many of the young people in these immigrant communities are powerfully affected by African American culture, both in terms of their interpersonal interactions day to day at school and in the neighborhood, and in terms of such cultural forces as popular music, video and film. As a result, many immigrants, particularly between the ages of five and twenty, acquire many features of African American English as their dominant language. This process has profound implications for language teaching. Consider two examples from pronunciation. Most varieties of African American English permit deletion of final consonants in word-final consonant clusters, when both consonants in the cluster are either voiced or voiceless. So "test" becomes [tos], and "fold" is pronounced [fol]. But "pant" remains [paent], because the cluster "n-t" has a voiced and a voiceless consonant. Vietnamese has no consonant clusters in final position, and Vietnamese learning English often have difficulty with these clusters in English. Therefore English teachers often spend a lot of time on this issue, assuming that the problem is interference from the Vietnamese language. But for some learners, what is really going on is acquisition of a variety of English that systematically deletes many final consonants in word-final consonant clusters3. Unless teachers understand this process, their students may simply not be able to make sense of their teacher's efforts. Another example is the interdental fricatives, spelled as TH- in English, both voiced and voiceless. In African American English, the initial TH- becomes either voiced [d] or voiceless [t]. So "those" becomes [doz], and "think" becomes [t I?k]. Many Vietnamese learning English make similar substitutions. But it would be a mistake for 1 Konglish (Korean: 콩글리시) is the use of English words (or words derived from English words) in a Korean context. The words, having initially been taken from English language, are either actual English words in Korean context, or are made from a combination of Korean and English words. Much Konglish appeared following the Korean War when US troops mixed with Korean troops and English vocabulary, real and slang, permeated Korean. ex.a-pa-teu (아파트; "apartment, te-re-bi (테레비; "television"; a-reu-ba-i-teu (아르바이트; "part-time job", from German Arbeit. 2 The author of this paper lived in South Korea, 2004-2009 years. 3 During my doctorate studies at Hanyang University, Seoul/South Korea my labmate was from Vietnam, and it was a great chance to discover peculiarities of English used by Vietnamese. . 35 �teachers to assume that the substitutions are simply due to the impact of Vietnamese phonology. Equally important may be the fact that the main target language for some learners is African American English. Examples from grammar also may be found. I mentioned deletion of the auxiliary "have," as in "I been running all day." In such sentences, "been" is unstressed. In African American English1, we find similar sentences, but "been" sometimes may be stressed, as in "He been running." The meaning of this sentence is "He has been running for a long time, and still is doing so." In other words, unlike many other varieties of American English, African American English marks aspect grammatically. Consider the sentence "She been married," with stressed "been." Most white Americans mistakenly interpret that sentence as meaning that she was married, but is no longer married, while nearly all African Americans correctly interpret the sentence as meaning that she is still married (Rickford, 1997). This difference is due to the fact that most varieties of English spoken by white Americans permit only the unstressed form, while African American varieties include both stressed and unstressed forms, with different meanings. Therefore when an immigrant to the United States is learning English, two kinds of complexity affect output: First, deletion of the auxiliary "have" by speakers of all varieties, including standard spoken English, and second, the two forms of "been" used by African Americans. When young immigrants learn English in settings with many African American speakers, they may acquire either or both systems. How do books about teaching pronunciation and grammar accommodate this sort of variation? In general, they ignore it. In reviewing some of the most popular books about teaching English pronunciation, I found that four types of variation are acknowledged. The first type includes different levels of achievement, as different learners achieve different levels of conformity to the standard. A second type of variation mentioned in texts is due to first language interference, which especially affects pronunciation. A third type of variation is degree of accent, which is often seen by teaching manuals as a measure of the learner's orientation to assimilation. Only the fourth form of variation is relevant to here: dialect variation. Yet even in this case, most textbooks about teaching mention only a few specific issues, such as differences between British and American English or matters such as the pronunciation of "cot" and "caught." Dialect is generally seen as quaint and interesting, but largely irrelevant to the task of teaching the uniform standard. One book says "Foreign accents can be very charming as long as the person speaking is able to communicate" (Orion, 1988: xxiii), a view that ignores the powerful role of accent and dialect in linguistic discrimination. 4. Language Variation and Dialects I am suggesting that a language ideology perspective reveals that pedagogical descriptions2 of English grammar and pronunciation are mechanisms for justifying conventions of language teaching and interpretations of those conventions. Grammar and pronunciation texts are two of the ways in which we as language educators forge norms that we follow in our work and in our programmatic roles. My concern is that language variation, dialects, and the status of different varieties of English are too often defined as being outside the core professional concerns of English language teaching. This is an important manifestation of the power of standard language ideology. The result is that we as language teachers may become enforcers of the dominance of standard English ideology and ultimately we may fail to serve as effectively as we can the needs of language learners, many of whom are involved not in the process of learning standard English, but rather in something quite different and profound, namely the learning or even the creation of other varieties of English that have enormous social value within their communities. 1 Bidialectalists postulate that Black English is equal to Standard English but not quite equal enough. They acknowledge that the language variety is not inferior linguistically or conceptually but, claiming to be pragmatic, they feel that Standard English must be mastered by Black children in the schools so that these children can keep the possibility of upward mobility alive. This latter option, code-switching (also known as bidialectism or bidialectalism), has become the teachers standard response to linguistic variety in the American college composition classroom. (Rebecca Moore Howard. The Great Wall of African American Vernacular English in the American College Classroom) 2 Within the critical framework of language and literary studies, disability becomes a representational system more than a medical problem, a discursive construction rather than a personal misfortune or a bodily flaw, and a subject appropriate for wide-ranging intellectual inquiry instead of a specialized field within medicine or science. (ROSEMARIE GARLAND THOMSON The New Disability Studies: Inclusion or Tolerance?) 36 �One of the most important consequences of standard language ideology is its impact on language policies. In the United States, England, Australia, and elsewhere, national language policies are adopted that explicitly invoke standard language ideology as their primary justification. Lippi-Green points out that policies requiring linguistic uniformity are no more rational or practical than a policy that requires everyone to be the same height. Certainly if everyone were the same height, much about life might be more efficient. Furniture, clothing, and buildings could be standardized. No doubt vast sums of money could be saved. But of course that policy goal is an irrational fantasy, because people cannot be the same height. A policy requiring linguistic uniformity is equally irrational, just as much a fantasy, because all people cannot speak the same language variety, even if they try to do so. Language variation is universal, inevitable, and necessary for complex social communication. Yet the power of standard language ideology makes such policies seem like a good idea, and quite practical if everyone who does not speak the standard would just try a little harder to learn it. The failure of the language teaching profession to incorporate an adequate notion of variation would not be too problematic, except that social agendas call our language ideologies into service. In other words, social agendas, which determine which groups get particular economic and political benefits, make use of language ideologies. The best example in the United States is the issue of language and race. Standard language ideology is used by dominant white social groups as a justification for restrictions on the use of the home language of African American children in the educational system. The rigid exclusion from most schools of African American vernacular English, as well as the home languages of most immigrants, is routinely justified by standard language ideology. When the Oakland California School Board in 1996 proposed a new policy requiring teachers to take their students' home language, African American English, into account when teaching standard English, there was a firestorm of protest that blocked the policy. Even this minimal effort to permit the schools to accommodate African American English was overwhelmed by the power of standard language ideology, which in this case was in the service of racism. A second way in which social agendas shape teaching practice is in programs for immigrants. In the United States, the overwhelming emphasis in immigrant language education1 is on employment, particularly on the imperative that immigrants get a job - any job - as quickly as possible. This imperative fundamentally determines curriculum, materials, teaching practices, program structures, and funding. Much of the pedagogy of English education in the United States is determined by the social agenda of keeping immigrants off welfare and moving them into low paid jobs in the peripheral economy. The English teaching profession has largely gone along with this agenda, producing a vast array of textbooks, materials, tests, and other artifacts in a new segment of the language education industry, called survival ESL. A third way that social agendas shape our work is in our notions of research and critical reflection on teaching practices. The rise of second language acquisition as a distinct discipline since the 1970s has been accompanied by the desire to ensure that the field is scientific. Thus we see a great concern for research methodology. As scientists, we like to believe that we challenge our assumptions, we argue with each other, and we work hard to meet the norms of the scientific method. As a result, current theories of second language acquisition and commonly recommended teaching practices appear to be based on a kind of scientific consensus. Concerns about equity, about the status of minority languages in schools, and about language rights are defined as outside the scope of the science of second language acquisition In effect, we have developed a narrative about our work (see Stephan, 1999). In this narrative, we work in a field in which claims about language and teaching are empirically tested. Weak ideas are rejected while the ones with solid foundation survive. This version of our history has an important social and political function. It limits the possible contexts that can be drawn upon to give meaning to teaching practices. The scientific process that creates theories and practices is the only context that matters. The wider social context in which immigrants, refugees, linguistic minorities, and speakers of non-standard dialects are fighting for full civil rights is not part of the core concerns of the field. Research and the professionalism of teachers are paramount. In other words, language teaching is separate from social action. Indeed, theories and teaching methods based upon the explicit social agenda of achieving economic, political or linguistic equality for language minorities are defined as "political" rather than 1 In a 1998 survey, the foundation Public Agenda posed the question: "With students who are new immigrants, which is more important for the public schools to do? Teach them English as quickly as possible, even if this means they fall behind in other subjects, or teach them other subjects in their native language, even if this means it takes them longer to learn English?" Foreignborn parents favored "English as quickly as possible" by 75 percent to 21 percent, while Hispanic parents supported that option by 66 percent to 30 percent. Read more: "Immigrant Education - UNITED STATES, INTERNATIONAL" http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2077/Immigrant-Education.html#ixzz0FxxnYcOZ&A 37 �"scientific" or "educational," and therefore they are suspect, unreliable, and not a legitimate source for decision making in the classroom. Teachers, we are told, have no right to impose their own political agenda on their students. 5. Language Process Another way of saying this is that second language acquisition (SLA) theory and formal teaching methods are a set of rules for determining the situational meaning of teaching practices. SLA theory and teaching methods determine the pragmatic value of teaching acts in classroom contexts. This is the ideological function of theory and method: They combine with social values such as participation, student involvement, and individualism to enshrine particular practices as objective, as scientific, as effective, or, to use a currently popular term, as "best practice." Thus ideologies of language, including standard language ideology and ideologies about the English teaching profession, are fundamentally involved in the process of setting up contexts that construe meaning for particular teaching acts. Thus, for example, the teacher's job is to reduce errors, to move language learners' speech closer and closer to the ideal standard. Output that differs from the ideal standard is an error. Accepting these errors ultimately is bad teaching. Ideologies about standard language and about second language acquisition are not the only ideologies implicit in most English language teaching. Another is the assumption that language is a system divisible into parts that work in their separate ways, and that it is the semantic in language that supplies meaning and is the home of ideas (see Stephan 1999). This assumption is implicit especially in student centered approaches, which profess that students must be encouraged to express meanings that they intend to convey. The assumption is that the students have the meanings inside themselves, and the task of the teacher is to help the students find ways to express those meanings in the new language. This belief entails the central belief that teachers' regulation of language structure poses no restrictions on content. Within the bounds of good taste, we are told, students are free to express their own meanings. Yet is content neutrality of language structure really possible? Laurie Stephan (1999) examines Henry Louis Gates' examples of racist speech1. In the first example, a white professor says to his African American student: "LeVon, if you find yourself struggling in your classes here, you should realize it isn't your fault. It's simply that you're the beneficiary of a disruptive policy of affirmative action that places underqualified and often undertalented black students in demanding educational environments like this one." Gates' second example of racist speech is much shorter: "Out of my face, jungle bunny." "Jungle bunny" is an intensely negative expression used by white racists and directed against African Americans Only this second example is regulated by the U.S. legal system. As Stephan points out, the legal system, with its limits on hostile and inflammatory speech, cannot respond to the power of speaking that comes from a polished style. The first example of racist speech, which upper middle class and highly polished, is free from legal restrictions. The second example, which is more likely to be working class or lower class in origin, can be illegal in specific contexts. Indeed, the legal system in the U.S. in many ways protects some styles, particularly speech that is considered refined language, but not other styles. Yet power in speech is largely a function of style, not merely of propositional content, and style is one of the aspects of language that the English language teaching system is most ill equipped to teach. In this sense, the English teaching profession, despite its professed concern with empowering students through language learning, rarely provides the linguistic tools of power (mainly stylistic) recognized by the U.S. legal system and essential for real verbal authority. How might they offer language programs that provide the linguistic tools of power? Perhaps the most important effort is that of the participatory approach to teaching, an approach that places control of classrooms in the collaborative hands of students and teachers. A lot has been written about the participatory approach, but I fear that it is too often seen merely as a set of techniques for getting students involved in classroom decision making. It is, in my view, far more than this, with consequences for teachers and students that extend well beyond the classroom. The underlying ideology of the participatory approach is the antithesis of standard language ideology. The participatory approach is not merely about acknowledging students' native languages and cultures, or about involving students in decisions about course content and method. Rather, it entails a critique of theories and practices that value uniformity, and a critique of some of the key constructs in our field, including "target language," "native speaker," 1 In his 1925 dissent in Gitlow v New York, Justice Holmes wrote: If in the long run the beliefs expressed in proletarian dictatorship are destined to be accepted by the dominant forces of the community, the only meaning of free speech is that they should be given their chance and have their way 38 �and "error." It entails also an ongoing effort to undermine the forces of linguistic discrimination that require speakers of stigmatized varieties, including African American English, Korean-English or Vietnamese-English, and immigrant languages, to acquire the so-called standard. Of course learners have powerful practical reasons for learning standard languages, based upon the fact that languages are pervasively used to channel individuals unequally into different occupational, social, and economic groups. For those of us in the language teaching profession, a central concern should be our response to these forms of linguistic discrimination. Do we devise teaching practices that reinforce the power of standard language ideology? Or do we work actively to undermine that power? It is important to note that liberal notions about "valuing diversity" in education have little effect on standard language ideology. Lippi-Green argues that asking children who speak non-standard languages and dialects to come to school in order to find validation of their home communities and to speak their own stories in their own voices at school is a little like asking the fly to knock at the spider's door in hopes of having a rational discussion about changing the structure of the food chain. Standard language ideology in the schools entails two main processes: devaluing language varieties other than the dominant one and valuing the dominant language variety. The power of ideology is in the ability of the school system to present this process as necessary and good for the greater society. It is unrealistic to expect children to effectively alter this situation. Ultimately, I think that standard language ideology leads us to miss much of what is important in second language learning and teaching, namely the experiences of learners and teachers themselves. I mentioned earlier the role of research and theory in second language acquisition. Teachers are not necessarily thinking about where they stand in relation to a theory of second language acquisition or a set of teaching practices prescribed by methodology. They are concerned with how to get through each class, each day, and with how their participation in their profession might help them to make connections with other people around them. Similarly, outside of class, learners are not necessarily thinking about what learning strategies they should adopt or the type of motivation they exhibit or even the grammatical structures they do not know. They are concerned with how to produce utterances that accomplish their communicative goals. Unfortunately, theory and methodology too often seek to discover a kind of perfect world, an alternative to the messy everyday reality of real people in teaching and learning languages. In this search for the best theory or the right method, we often try to lay out rules that teachers should follow. In this quest, theory and method more closely resemble a religion than useful guidelines for practicing teachers. Theory and methodology should provide a steady and continual source of principles, ideas, suggestions, and inspiration. They should help teachers understand the fluctuating and contradictory experiences of their everyday teaching lives. In a sense, teaching is performance. Performance1 which entertains is an opportunity for spectators to think through and experiment with, that is, to play with, roles and identities. Language teachers are engaged in a performance not with an audience of spectators, but rather with an audience of language learners who in fact participate in the performance. For learners/performers, language is a fundamental determiner and reflection of individual and collective identities and of the social order in which they live. In this sense, language learners are being challenged to form new identities and new social relations by virtue of their participation in the language class. Daniel Cavicchi (1998) argues that theatrical performance presents times when the structure of society is temporarily suspended, and a new structure substituted that permits people to reconsider their roles, their institutions, and their social divisions. Language classes also provide this opportunity. But for most teachers, language teaching is more than theatre. It is not merely a temporary suspension of normal reality that ends when the class period is over. Many language teachers continually examine themselves and their place in the world by engaging in teaching and in the continual discussion of teaching practice that characterizes the profession. Many teachers, perhaps most, extend their roles as teachers beyond the classroom, into their daily life situations. Yet these teachers are continually urged to avoid imposing their values on their students, and thus separate their teaching from their social concerns and activism. It is here, in the intersection of the professional and personal lives of teachers, that the participatory approach offers a powerful alternative ideology. What is important about the participatory approach is that it explicitly tries to extend teachers' capacity for analysis and feeling beyond the classroom, into the rest of their everyday lives, so that teaching and learning are for both teachers and students a continual source of meaning, a 1 Performance-based assessments are based on classroom instruction and everyday tasks. You can use performance-based assessments to assess ELLs' language proficiency and academic achievement through oral reports, presentations, demonstrations, written assignments, and portfolios. These assessments can include both processes (e.g., several drafts of a writing sample) and products (e.g., team projects). You can use scoring rubrics and observation checklists to evaluate and grade your students. These assessment tools can help document your ELLs' growth over a period of time. Using Informal Assessments for English Language Learners By: Colorín Colorado (2007) 39 �continual force for the examination of values, and a continual catalyst for social action. Within the participatory framework, the profession of language teacher (that is, becoming a teacher and being a teacher) extends performance beyond the class period, so that language teachers are forever participating in activities in which personal, cultural, and social values are made explicit and subject to scrutiny. In this sense, teaching is not about the application of theories to specific situations or the use of particular techniques or practices. It is instead about devotion, about creating meaning out of daily life through sustained attention to teaching performance. Conclusion I do not believe that theory and research are unimportant, but I do believe that their capacity for having something significant to say depends upon an ongoing dialogue with and among teachers and learners. Academic theories must engage in a continual dialogue with teachers' and learners' own theories. Through the use of diary studies, intensive interviews, ethnographies, and other qualitative forms of action research, researchers can begin with the lived experience of teachers and students, moving then to scholarship that sheds light on and challenges that experience, and then back again to the participants themselves (see Cavicchi, 1998). We need theory that locates meaning in people rather than in research methodology or cleverness of interpretation. The field of language education needs to critically examine some of the key names we use in the language teaching profession, including native speaker, the standard norm, error and error correction, and achievement and progress. As this paper suggests, many of these names reflect standard language ideology. A new vocabulary is needed in order to alter our perceptions, our interpretations, our understandings of the work of language teaching and learning. Much of the challenge ahead is to develop this new vocabulary. I believe the best place to look for it is in the first person accounts of teachers and learners themselves. Of course, giving teachers and learners a central voice in their own representations, in theory and method, complicates matters of knowledge and truth. In many ways, researchers on the one hand and teachers and students on the other hand speak different languages. In addition, not all teachers agree on teaching practices. Who is qualified to speak about language learning and teaching? Whose knowledge of these processes counts? Addressing such messy issues is the only way to achieve knowledge of second language learning and teaching that is relevant, useful, and ultimately meaningful to those who find it intellectually significant and those who participate in it, including both learners and teachers. In Cavicchi's words, "we need fewer scholars speaking for others and more speaking with others" (Cavicchi 1998, p. 189). Only then will research, theory, and methodology become what teaching itself is for those who love it: a continual source of excitement and occasionally of frustration, of provocation and fulfillment, of identity and meaning, something that brings people together and makes sense of their world. References: California Style Collective. (1993). Variation and personal/group style. New Ways of Analyzing Variation (NWAVE) 22. Palo Alto: Stanford University. Cameron, D. (1995). Verbal hygiene. London: Routledge. Cavicchi, D. (1998). Tramps like us. New York: Oxford University Press. Labov, W. (1982). Building on empirical foundations. In W.P. Lehmann and Y. Malkiel (Eds.) Perspectives on historical linguistic (pp.17-92).Amsterdam:John Benjamins. Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge. Milroy, J., & Milroy, L. (1985). Authority in language. London: Routledge. Murray, T.E. (1986). The language of St. Louis, Missouri: Variations in the gateway city. New York: Peter Lang. Orion, G. F. (1988). Pronouncing American English. New York: Harper and Row. Paine, R. (Ed.), (1981). Politically speaking: Cross-cultural studies of rhetoric. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues. 40 �Peterson, J.O. (1998). Ethnic and language identity among a select group of Vietnamese- Americans in Portland, Oregon. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Portland State University. Rickford, J. (1997). Suite for ebony and phonics. http://www.stanford.edu/~rickford/papers. Stephan, L. (1999). Political correctness versus freedom of speech: Social uses of language ideology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Washington. Woolard, K.A. (1992). Language ideology: issues and approaches. Pragmatics 2/3, 235-250. 41 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/160eb867d43d891b07a5ebf5ac5995ed.doc b575e338673a9c0971fe3c6ef92453b2 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 316 Title A name given to the resource The Substantive Universals in the Relationship between Language Ideology and Language Education Author Author Akbarov, Azamat Anvarovich Abstract A summary of the resource. While we need to problematize the notions of development and sustainable development, we are also faced by a particular challenge related to language: what models of language in the world are we using to understand the role of language education in development? I shall discuss a range of possible understandings of English in the world in order to see how they relate to questions of development Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a0daa9510f417517cf93c2ff890b629c.pdf aca8db373125f2358569cff483218f8c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Determination of Macro and Micro Elements Uptake from Soil by Different Densities of Corn Poppy (papaver rhoeas l.) Causing Damage on Wheat Ayşen Akay Selcuk University,Agricultural Faculty, Department of Soil Science,Konya, Turkey aakay@selcuk.edu.tr M urat Karaca Selcuk University,Agricultural Faculty, Plant Production Department,Konya, Turkey Abstract: The present study was conducted in order to determine the macro and micro elements uptake from the soil by corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas L.) depending on its existence in different densities.The study was carried out on Karahan-99 type wheat-cultivated field in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of central Selcuklu Konya in 2007.The trial was carried out having corn poppy problem on wheat cultivated fields which exemplified the Province of Konya. During the trial, each of the plots was allocated as 1 m2 and the trial layout consisted of random plots with four repetitions. The number of corn poppy in the plots was determined as 1, 3, 5, 7 number/m2. At the harvesting time, corn poppy samples were taken to the laboratory. After the necessary pre-treatments were analysed. Depending on the increasing corn poppy numbers,it was determined to uptake more macro and micro elements from the soil(N, P,K, Ca, Mg, Na, S, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu) (P<0,01). Keywords: Wheat, corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas L.), macro and micro elements. Introduction In Turkey, wheat is especially grown on the lands of Konya Plain and among other cities Konya has 8,34 % of all wheat cultivation lands in Turkey. According to the data from 2007, wheat production is 17.234.000 ton in Turkey and itis 1.026.565 ton in Konya,the land of cultivation is 80.977.000 da in Turkey and 6.751.320 da in Konya (Anonymous, 2008). As in many countries, the main vermin of wheat are weeds. Weeds get in competition with wheat in terms of nutrient, water,light and place and every yearitleads to about 25-35 % yield loss (Özer, 1993; Vencill et al.,1993; Rodosevich ve Holt, 1984). Because of weed competition,the average cerealloss all overthe world isabout 20-40 % (Koch, 1970). The wheat yieldlossin world because of weeds isreported to be 9.8 % (Cramer, 1967). The wheat yield loss because of weeds was researched in different regions of Turkey, and it was found outthatthelossis 30 % in Aegean region (Bilgir,1965; Tepe,1998), 24 % in East Anatolia (Güncan, 1976), 22,5 % in Central Anatolia (Güncan, 2006 referring to FAO) and 20 % in Cukurova region (Uygur et al.,1986). According to these data, the average wheat loss is 24 % in Turkey. This statistical information indicates the importance of weeds in wheatcultivation fields. In a survey study carried out in Central Anatolia, 76 species were determined. It was reported that the most common types are Galium tricornutum Dandy (rough bedstraw) 3.75 number/m2, Boreava orientalis (yellow weed) 3.48 number/m2 , Centaurea depressa Bieb. (dark blue bottle) 3.48 number/m2 and B. radians Bieb. (bifora) 2.16 number/m2 , respectively(Taştan and Erciş, 1994). The level competition of weed have in grain cultivation fields and to what extent these weeds use nutrients in soil or nutrient elements applied to the soilfor culture plants is not known for every type of weed. With this aim,this study was carried outin 2007 to determine different amounts of nutrient uptake by weeds as a result of wheat-weed competition in different densities of corn poppy. 34 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Material and Method All This study was carried out in Ardıçlı village (arid) of central Selcuklu-Konya-Turkey, which can represent Konya province. Corn poppy trial was set up in a wheat (Karahan 99 type-arid) field. The trial plots were 1 m² each and securitylines of atleast 25 cm were drawn between them. The plots setincluded weeds. The density of corn poppy varies between 1, 3, 5 and 7 number/m². Allthe other wide and narrow leafed weed in the plots were manually extracted atintervals often days atthe latestand plots of desired density were arranged. All weeds in plots were harvested together with their roots in the time of harvest, the sample weeds whose roots were cleaned off soilin laboratories were burned in a microwave device (200 PSI) (CEM- Mars -5 model) after necessary pre-processes, and filtrates were obtained. The element analyses of these were carried out with ICPOES devices (Varian, Vista model). The statistical analyses ofthe results obtained were done with of MINITAB and Mstat packet programs. Conclusions Some physical and chemicalfeatures of wheat field soil on which the trialis applied are given Table 1. The soil ofthetrialfield has a clay loam texture, and is slightly alkaline, unsalted, highly limy and a low amount of organic substances. The potassium, calcium, magnesium and copper levels of the soil are sufficient, phosphorus is low (compared to values given for wheat cultivation in Central Anatolia (Yurtsever, 1975), and the level of manganese islow, zinc levelis very low and iron contentis at medium level. Depending on the number of corn poppies,the weight of weed left on the plot(g/plot) and the N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S contents uptake from the soil by weeds are given in Table 2. Depending on the number of weeds in plot,the difference between amount of N, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn and Cr contents uptake from soil by corn poppies are significant at P<0.01 level and the difference between P and Mo contents uptake from soil by corn poppies are at significant level P<0.05. As the number of corn poppy in the plotincrease,the amount of element uptake increases significantly.Itisinteresting to note thatthe increase in the number of the weeds in a plot and the increase in the amount of nutrient uptake are not simply correlated. In other words, the increase in the amount of nutrient uptake is much more than the increase in number. For example,the amount of nitrogen uptake by 1 weed is 11.02 g/da and the amount of nitrogen uptake by 7 weeds is 222.16 g/da. While the amount of Ca for 1 weed/plotis 91.9 g/da,itraised up to 1435 g/da in 7 weeds/plot. This shows us that the increase in the number of weeds in plots increase the amount of element uptake 15-20 folds. In wheat cultivation fields in Tokat, the nitrogen uptake by corn poppy is 0.023 kg/ha, phosphorus is 0.0037 kg/ha and potassium is 0.0371 kg/ha (Sırma and Güncan, 1997). The weed element contents depending on the number corn poppies leftin trial plots are given in Table 3. As it can be seen from the table, K content ranges between 2.39-2.53 %, phosphorus content ranges between 0.19 -0.27%, Ca content ranges between 2.09-2.71 %, Mg content ranges between 0.19-0.22%. In a study conducted by Güncan (1980) in Erzurum on 76 types of weed,the P contentin weeds ranged between 0.10-1.15 % and K content ranged between 0.66-4.56 %. In a study conducted by Tepe et al.(1997), when the amount of nutrients are considered in terms proportion, it is seen that the weeds suffer from N, P, Ca, Mg, Fe and Zn insufficiency, and the weeds are in a better situation. The Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn content of corn poppies ranges from 423-1178 mg/kg, 1.71-3.58 mg/kg, 28.04-47.38 mg/kg and 5.77-15.07 mg/kg, respectively. In a study conducted by Kadıoğlu et al. (2005), found Mn content of S.halepense 96.5 µg/g and C.regalis 95.0 µg/g. Mendil et al.(2004) found iron and manganese contents as 714-1206 µg/g in weed samples. Ajasa et al.(2004) reported iron and copper contents as 35-241 µg/g and 2.96-24.4 µg/g in some weeds. In Table 3, the sufficient nutrient element contents of wheat before earring stage are also given (Alpaslan et al., 2004). When these values are compared with nutrient elements of corn poppy, itis seen that especially K, P, Ca and Fe contents are highly above the sufficiency limit values for wheat. As a result,it is found out that corn poppy which is one the outstanding weeds causing problems in wheat cultivation uptakes significant amount of nutrient element from the soil. It was designated that as the number of corn poppy -which competes with wheat- per m2 increase,the amount of nutrient element it uptakes from soil increases at a higher speed. These results reveal the importance of combat against weeds in wheat cultivation. 35 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters Values Clay (%) 37.50 Silt(%) 26.96 Sand (%) 35.54 Texture class Clay Loam (CL) pH (1:2,5) 7.80 EC (1:5)(µS/cm) 136.5 CaC O3 ( %) 44.9 Organic matter (%) 1.10 Available P2 O5 ( mg/kg ) 11.89 Soluble Ca ( mg/kg ) 6578 Soluble K2 O ( mg/kg ) 214.25 Soluble Mg (mg/kg) 217.45 Soluble Na ( mg/kg) 8.87 DTPA-extractable Cu ( mg/kg) 0.849 DTPA-extractable Fe ( mg/kg ) 4.16 DTPA-extractable Mn ( mg/kg ) 9.97 DTPA-extractable Zn ( mg/kg ) 0.122 Table 1. Some Physical and Chemical Features of Experiment Area Soil 36 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The amount of element uptakes from soil by corn poppy(g/da) Corn poppy number in plot(number/m2) Weed weight in trial plot (g/plot) N P K Ca Mg S 1 3,87±2,43 11,02±8,49 8,88±4,66 88,5±51,1 91,9±53,0 7,36±4,79 1910±903 3 22,29±8,94 76,46±31,67 41,42±13,51 559,1±265,9 577,2±228,7 50,54±22,64 10293±4117 5 35,03±11,37 124,47±44,63 96,30±37,68 886,0±289,3 722,8±233,1 68,60±20,21 16317±5389 7 Corn poppy number in plot (number/m2) 68,41±19,80 222,16±68,41 184,83±62,42 1718,0±607,6 1435,0±444,9 150,41±47,83 31684±9406 Fe Cu Mn Zn Mo(mg/da) B Na 1 4,3±4,2 0,007±0,005 0,164±0,114 0,045±0,034 1,18±0,69 0,022±0,0152 3,42±1,77 3 9,08±2,7 0,077±0,040 0,618±0,235 0,125±0,050 9,55±5,91 0,021±0,0169 20,12±11,65 5 33,81±6,0 0,090±0,031 1,556±0,655 0,286±0,172 20,36±4,99 0,008±0,0122 35,39±16,34 The amount of element uptakes from soil by corn poppy(g/da) 81,64±30,3 0,245±0,093 2,828±0,886 0,455±0,103 30,17±23,92 0,089±0,1178 77,6±27,11 7 Table 2. Depending on the Number of Corn Poppy in Plot, Weed Weight in Trial Plot (g/plot) and the Amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Na Uptakes From Soil by Corn Poppy ( ± Se, N = 4) Corn poppy number in plot(number/m2) % N K P mg/kg Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn B Na Mo 1 0,27 2,39 0,26 2,71 0,19 1167 1,71 42,45 15,07 5,53 1057 0,37 3 0,34 2,46 0,19 2,60 0,22 423 3,35 28,04 5,77 1,05 854 0,43 5 0,35 2,53 0,27 2,10 0,20 1005 2,70 47,38 8,28 0,20 991 0,65 7 0,32 2,47 0,27 2,09 0,22 1178 3,58 41,09 7,05 1,24 1122 0,41 Wheat(Triticum aestivum)(wintery) N K P Ca Mg Fe Cu Mn Zn B Na Mo * The sufficient nutrient element contents of wheat before earring stage 1,75-3,00 1,51-3,00 0,21-0,50 0,21-1,00 0,16-1,00 10-300 5-50 16-200 21-70 Table 3. The Amount of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, B and Na of Corn Poppy and Nutrient Element Contents of Wheat Before Earring Stage *Alpaslan et al.,2004. 37 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Ajasa, A.M.O., Bello, M.O.,Đbrahim, A.O., Ogunwander,I.A. & Olawore, N.O. (2004). Foot Chem.; 85, 67 Alpaslan, M., Güneş, A. & Đnal A. (2004). Gübreleme Çalışmalarında Bitki Analizlerinin Yeri ve Farklı BitkilerĐçin Bitki Besin Maddesi Kritik Düzeyleri. Türkiye 3. Ulusal gübre Kongresi, Tarım-SanayiÇevre, No: 1215-1312, Tokat. Anonymous, (2008). TUIK, Türkiye Đstatistik Kurumu Verileri Bhaskar, A. & Vyas, K., G. (1988). Studies on competition between wheat and Chenopodium album L., Weed Research. Vol. 28, 53-58 Bilgir, S.(1965). Ege Bölgesihububattarlalarında görülen önemli yabancı otlar ve savaş imkanları üzerinde bazıincelemeler. Tarım Bakanlığı Yayınları Tek. Bül. No: 14 Cramer, H.H. (1967). Pflanzenschutz und welterente. Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten “Bayer”,20:1-523. Aus der abteilung beratung Pflanzenschutz der farbenfabriken, Bayer A. G., Leverkusen. Güncan, A. (1976). Erzurum Çevresinde Bulunan YabancıOtlar ve Önemlilerinden Bazılarının Yazlık Arpa ve Buğdayda Mücadele Đmkanları Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Atatürk Üniv. Yay. Araşt.Serisi No:135, 79 s. Weed Abst. 27 (8): 271. (Doktora Tezinden) Güncan A.,(1980). Die unkrautdicthe in der umgebung von Erzurum im getreidanbau und der naehrstoffe durch eininge unkraeuter aus dem boden. Journal of Turkish Phytopathology Vol. 9, Num: 1,1-19. Güncan, A. (2006). Yabancı Ot Mücadelesi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Kitabı, Konya. Kadıoğlu,Đ., Mendi, D., Sarı,H., & Hasdemir, E.(2005). Determination of heavy metallevelsin some weeds collected from Tokat, Turkey. Asian Journal of Chemistry Vol. 17. No: 1, 564-568. Koch, W. (1970). Unkrautbekampfung. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart. Mendil D., Tuzen M., Sarih H. & Hasdemir E.(2004). Trace elements and electrolytes (impress) Özer, Z.(1993). Niçin Yabancı Ot Bilimi (Herboloji)? Türkiye I. Herboloji Kongresi. 3-5 Şubat 1993. Adana, s. 1-7. Radosevich, S.R., & Holt,J.S. (1984). Weed ecology implications seof vegetation management. John Wiley and Sons. Newyork. Sırma, M., & Güncan, A. (1997). Tokat Yöresinde Buğday Ekim Alanlarında Sorun Oluşturan Yabancı Otlar ve Önemlilerinden Bazılarının Topraktan Kaldırdıkları N, P, K, Miktarı Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Türkiye II. Herboloji Kongresi. 1-4 Eylül 1997. Ayvalık/Đzmir. Taştan, B., & Erciş, A. (1994). Orta Anadolu Bölgesi buğday ekim alanlarında gözlenen yabancı otların yayılış ve yoğunlukları üzerinde araştırmalar. Bitki Koruma Bülteni Cilt: 31, No: 1-4, 39-60. MartAralık 1991. Tepe I., Tüfenkçi Ş., Kaya Đ.,& Ceylan Ş.(1997). Van’da Bitki Besin Maddesi Alınımı Açısından Buğday-Yabancı Ot Rekabeti. Türkiye 2. Herboloji Kongresi. No: 359-368. Bornova-ĐZMĐR Tepe, I.(1998). Türkiye’de Tarım ve Tarım Dışı Alanlarda Sorun Olan Yabancı Otlar ve Mücadeleleri. Y. Y. Ü. Yayınları No: 32. Ziraat Fakültesi Yay.No:18, Ders Kitabı. Van 1998. Turan, M., Kordali, Ş., Zengin, H., Dursun, A., & Sezen, Y.(2003). Macro and micro mineral content of some wild edible leaves consumed in Eastern Anatolia.Acta Agri. Scan. Sec. B, Soiland Plant 38 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Science. Vol. 53- Num: 3-2003 Vencill, W.K., Girayda, L.J.,& Langdole, G.W. (1993). Soil moisture relations and critical period of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.(coastal bermudagrass) competition in conservationtillage cotton (Gossypium hirsitum L.). Weed Research, Vol. 33, Number, 89-96. Uygur, F., N., Koch, W. & Walter, H.(1986). Çukurova Bölgesi Buğday-Pamuk Ekim Sistemindeki Önemli Yabancı Otların Tanımı. PLITS, 1986/4 (1), 169. Yurtsever,N.(1975).Güneydoğu Anadolu Bölgesi Şartlarında Buğday Bitkisine Verilecek Ticari Gübre Miktarları Üzerine Araştırma. http://www.tgae.gov.tr/webeski/ensyay/tvtkyn1.html. 39 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d73c92a84dd52e7c73ed498dbfc4da59.doc c0a35654435f83fdf8e0da4a1ecf7dfe Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 466 Title A name given to the resource The Determination of Macro and Micro Elements Uptake from Soil by Different Densities of Corn Poppy (papaver rhoeas l.) Causing Damage on Wheat Author Author Akay, Aysen Karaca, Murat Abstract A summary of the resource. The present study was conducted in order to determine the macro and micro elements uptake from the soil by corn poppy (Papaver rhoeas L.) depending on its existence in different densities.The study was carried out on Karahan-99 type wheat-cultivated field in Ardıçlı Village (arid) of central Selcuklu Konya in 2007.The trial was carried out having corn poppy problem on wheat cultivated fields which exemplified the Province of Konya. During the trial, each of the plots was allocated as 1 m2 and the trial layout consisted of random plots with four repetitions. The number of corn poppy in the plots was determined as 1, 3, 5, 7 number/m2. At the harvesting time, corn poppy samples were taken to the laboratory. After the necessary pre-treatments were analysed. Depending on the increasing corn poppy numbers, it was determined to uptake more macro and micro elements from the soil (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, S, Mn, Fe, Zn, Cu) (P<0,01). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a7341123ec029c5d24b446681332e545.pdf be49f34a0885e1744d6871b0634e1440 PDF Text Text Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Selami AYDIN Balıkesir University, Turkey saydin@balikesir.edu.tr Melih KARAKUZU International Burch University, Bosnia Herzegovina mkarakuzu@hotmail.com Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University, Turkey genckafkasuni@hotmail.com Abstract: Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety. Key Words: English as a Foreign Language, Teacher, Test Anxiety, Young Learners Introduction Individual differences such as beliefs, attitudes, expectations, motivation levels, and affective states have significant effects on the foreign language learning process (Aydin & Zengin, 2008). Among affective states, test anxiety, an apprehension towards academic evaluation, a fear of failing in tests and an unpleasant experience held either consciously or unconsciously by learners in various situations (Horwitz and Young, 1991), also has considerable effects on learning process whereas language teacher is one of the significant factors in English as a foreign (EFL) teaching and learning. Thus, this paper focuses on the relationship between the levels of test anxiety and the attitudes of young EFL learners. The results of previous studies indicate that tests and teachers are two strong sources of language anxiety (Bailey, 1983; Ellis & Rathbone, 1987; Young, 1991; Aydin, 2008). However, a major problem that forms a background for this study is that studies have mostly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities are fairly limited when young learners are considered as MacIntyre & Gardner (1991) states that foreign language anxiety is more relevant to language learning among adults. In other words, there are a few studies focusing mainly on language anxiety but not specifically on test anxiety among primary school students and teacher – test anxiety relationship (Chan & Wu, 2000; Chan & Wu, 2004). On the other hand, the duration of compulsory primary education was increased to eight years in Turkey by a law put into effect in 1997. Furthermore, foreign language education was made compulsory for students in the fourth and fifth grades in addition to sixth, seventh and eighth-grade students. Another step taken to improve EFL learning in Turkey was the reorganization of the content of sixth-, seventh- and eighth-grade English courses for the leveling exam (SBS), an official and central examination for the selection and placement of primary school students in high schools administered separately for each grade at the end of the academic year. Despite all these developments, dramatically enough, there is still a serious lack of 190 �research on test anxiety among young learners. So far, only three studies have been conducted on test anxiety in a broader sense, while test anxiety among young EFL learners and the relationship between teacher and the level of test anxiety have not been properly investigated (Koçkar, Kılıç & Şener, 2002; Duman, 2008; Erözkan, 2009). Therefore, there is a growing need for investigating the issues relating to test anxiety among young EFL learners. In conclusion, this paper aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners for two reasons: Firstly, it is obvious that test anxiety and teacher effect seem to be significant factors and correlate with each other in EFL learning and teaching. Secondly, studies in Turkey and around the world have mainly focused on test anxiety among adult EFL learners while research activities on young EFL learners seem too limited. Thus, the paper has one research question: Do teachers affect the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners? Method The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners taking English classes at five primary schools in Balıkesir, Turkey. The mean age of the subjects was 11.8 in the range of 9 and 14. As for their genders, 51.3% were female students, while 48.7% were male. Of all the participants, 100 were fourth-grade, 95 fifth-grade, 89 sixth-grade, 92 seventh-grade, and 101 eighth-grade students. The subjects were randomly selected from five primary schools. Data collection instruments consisted of a questionnaire, which interrogated the participants about subject variables such as gender, age, school, grade, mean examination scores, parents’ monthly income, and their attitudes towards their teachers and English classes, and the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS) developed by Sarason (1978). The TAS consisted of 27 multiple-choice items that aimed to measure the students’ levels of test anxiety. Each of the items was assessed on a scale ranging from one to five (never=1, rarely=2, sometimes=3, usually=4, always=5). The procedure of the study included the translation and correction of the TAS, administration of the instruments, and statistical analysis. First of all, the researcher translated the scale into Turkish and a group of five pre-service teachers of English examined each item to correct possible mistranslations. Subsequently, the scale was administered to a group of ten students in order to correct the misconceptions and to obtain the moderation of the items in the scale. Next, after obtaining a written permission from national education authorities, the background questionnaire and the TAS were administered to the participants in the last week of fall semester in 2009. Subsequently, the collected data were analyzed using the SPSS software. In the analysis, the reliability of the scale was assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha Model. The reliability coefficient of the scale, which was calculated to be 0.901, indicated a high level of reliability. As for the statistical analysis of the research question, the data were examined for two purposes: First, mean scores and standard deviations of the statements in the TAS were given briefly to see the level of test anxiety. Secondly, t-test and ANOVA were carried out to detect the correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. Results In this section, a correlational presentation of the collected data has been provided in order to determine the relationship between the level of test anxiety and attitudes towards teachers. However, before presenting the correlational data, it would be necessary to present the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners. The mean scores on the TAS items indicate that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. As the findings suggest, having good scores increases the learners’ self-confidence for subsequent exams. Moreover, learners usually feel confident and relaxed when they are informed beforehand that they will take a test; they are aware of the fact that the school authorities and teachers should be careful at effects of tense situations on their performance, and they do not suffer anxiety when they have studied sufficiently. Finally, examinations may sometimes cause negative physical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia, and also create some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear. Students may also sometimes believe that other students are brighter during exams, suffer from time pressure and prefer writing papers instead of taking examinations. The research question investigated the correlation between the level of test anxiety among young EFL learners and their attitudes towards their teachers, the findings about which are presented in Table 1. The values presented indicate that the attitudes of learners towards their teachers significantly correlated with seven of 37 items in the TAS. That is, the students who had positive attitudes towards their English teachers felt more confident and 191 �relaxed and less nervous even if they forgot what they knew. Moreover, the participants who had positive attitudes towards their teachers were less embarrassed during examinations, felt less uneasy before getting their exam papers, and believed more strongly that it was not possible to learn more without examinations. Finally, positive attitudes towards their language teachers reduced diversions during exams. Conclusively, when the abovementioned items are concerned, the findings demonstrate that positive attitudes towards EFL teacher decrease the levels of test anxiety among young EFL learners, while teacher is not a significant factor when the remaining 30 statements in the TAS scales are considered. Statements in the TAS If I knew I would take an English test beforehand, I would feel confident and relaxed. During examinations, I find myself thinking of irrelevant things. During an examination, I get so nervous that I forget about the things I know well. I seem to defeat myself while working on tests. I wish examinations did not irritate me so much. If examinations could be done away with, I think I would actually learn more. I start feeling very uneasy just before handing a test paper back. I like my English teacher. N Mean Never 3 1.67 Rarely 4 2.00 Sometimes 12 3.67 Usually 27 3.44 Always 425 3.92 Never 3 3.33 Rarely 4 4.50 Sometimes 13 3.62 Usually 27 2.56 Always 424 2.27 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 4 3.25 Sometimes 13 3.00 Usually 28 2.07 Always 431 2.01 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 4 3.50 Sometimes 13 2.54 Usually 27 2.07 Always 430 1.55 Never 3 4.67 Rarely 3 2.67 Sometimes 13 3.08 Usually 28 2.57 Always 430 1.98 Never 3 3.67 Rarely 3 4.67 Sometimes 13 3.15 Usually 28 2.21 Always 427 1.80 Never 3 4.33 Rarely 3 3.67 Sometimes 13 3.54 Usually 28 2.75 Always 428 2.49 F Sig. 4.95 .00 6.08 .00 3.33 .01 10.67 .00 6.80 .00 7.54 .00 2.98 .02 Table 1. The relationship between attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety. 192 �Conclusions and Discussion Three main results were obtained from the study, the first of which is that young EFL learners have a low level of test anxiety. In other words, learners have self-confidence when they have good scores, feel confident and relaxed, are aware of the effects of the role of school authorities and their teachers, and do not suffer from test anxiety when they studied sufficiently. On the other hand, examinations have some moderate negative psychical effects such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia. Secondly, teacher is a significant factor that affects only seven of the 37 items in the TAS. Given the significant correlation between the attitudes towards teachers and the level of test anxiety, as revealed by the seven items in the TAS, it could be underlined that teachers have facilitating effects that decrease the level of test anxiety. That is to say, the results show that most of the students have positive attitudes towards their EFL teachers, and that the students with positive attitudes towards their teachers feel less uneasy, nervous and bothered, and more confident and relaxed. In conclusion, teacher is not a strong source of test anxiety among young EFL learners but a significant factor that decreases the level of test anxiety among their students. The discussion of results in relation with the findings of previous research can be summarized in two headings. Firstly, tests and teachers are not strong sources of anxiety in contrary to the results previously found by Bailey (1983), Ellis & Rathbone (1987), Young (1991) and Aydin (2008). Controversially, the teacher factor has facilitating effects that reduce the level of test anxiety among young ELF learners. Secondly, it should be noted that language proficiency and language background have considerable effects on test anxiety. That is, as the sample group of this study consisted of young learners with a low level of language proficiency, it is obvious that the conclusions of this study differ from those of previous studies in which adult EFL learners were examined. In this sense, test anxiety is not at a high level among young EFL learners while Rasor & Rasor (1998) and Horwitz (2001) suggest that learners have higher levels of test anxiety due to insufficient language learning. Given that examinations sometimes cause some negative physical effects in students such as fast heart beating, trembling, and anorexia as well as some affective problems in some specific situations such as panic and fear, some recommendations can be noted for practical purposes. Teachers should be aware of the physical and affective effects of exams on children. In this sense, EFL teachers need to use some effective strategies before, after and during examinations. For instance, they can inform students that anxiety is quite normal (Campbell and Ortiz, 1991; cited in Aydin, 2008) before exams, and promote a low-stress testing environment during examinations. Additionally, they can use some effective communication techniques such as talking and leading discussions with them about their feelings and present practical solutions through group activities or one-to-one dialogues by cooperating with school counselors. As a final note on the limitations of the research, the subjects of the study were limited to 477 young EFL learners at five primary schools in Balikesir, Turkey. Furthermore, the scope of the study was confined to the data collected using a background questionnaire and the Test Anxiety Scale developed by Sarason (1978). Further studies should focus on the relationships between the levels of test anxiety and some other factors such as age, gender, economic background, and attitudes towards language course. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the authorities of the Research Projects Unit at Balikesir University for their support for the study through the project entitled Test Anxiety among Primary School EFL Learners (2008 / 43). The authors would also like to thank the authorities and English teachers of Karesi, Burhan Erdayı, 23 Nisan, Namık Kemal and Plevne Primary Schools. Finally, the authors thank Saadet Selvi, Zeliha Ciciş, Ökkeş Gedemenli, Gökhan Yoldaş and Rüveyda Er for their valuable assistance in the data collection process and Nagihan Kontaş, Çağla Akgöz and Sevcan Yılmaz for their kind assistance to data processing. References Aydın, S. & Zengin, B. (2008). Anxiety in foreign language learning: A review of literature: The Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 4 (1), 81 – 94. Aydin, S. (2008). An investigation on the language anxiety and fear of negative evaluation among Turkish EFL Learners. Asian EFL Journal, Teaching Articles, 421—444. 193 �Bailey, K. (1983). Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning. In H. W. Seliger and M. H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in language acquisition, (67 – 102), New York: Newbury House. Campbell C. M., & Ortiz, J. (1991). Helping students overcome foreign language anxiety: A foreign language anxiety workshop. In E. K. Horwitz and D. J. Young (Eds.), Language anxiety: From theory to research to classroom implications (pp. 153-168). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2000). A study of foreign language anxiety of elementary school EFL learners in Taiwan. Paper presented at the 2000 Educational Academic Conference, 85 – 100. Chan, D. Y. C. & Wu, G. C. (2004). A Study of Foreign Language Anxiety of EFL Elementary School Students in Taipei County, Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, 17 (2), 287 – 320. Duman, G. K. (2008) A research into the test anxiety level of the senior students (8th grades) of state and private primary schools in Kadiköy district of İstanbul Anatolian side caused by the OKS (secondary school student selection and placement exam). Unpublished MA Thesis. Yeditepe University. Ellis, R. & Rathbone, M. (1987). The acquisition of German in a classroom context. Mimeograph. London: Ealing College of Higher Education. Erözkan, A. (2009). The Predictors of Depression in Eighth Grade Primary School Students, Elementary Education Online, 8(2), 334 – 345. Horwitz, E. K. & Young, D.J. (1991). Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Horwitz, E. K. (2001). Language anxiety and achievement. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 21, 112 – 126. Koçkar, İ. A. Kılıç, B. G. & Şener, Ş. (2002). Test anxiety among primary school students and academic achievement. Çocuk ve Ergen Sağlığı Dergisi. 9 (2), 100 – 105. MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second languages. Language Learning, 41 (4), 513 – 34. Rasor, L. T. & Rasor, R. A. (1998). Test anxiety and study behavior of community college students in relation to ethnicity, gender, and age. Retrieved in September 2008 from ERIC Database (ED415942). Sarason, I.G. (1978). The Test Anxiety Scale: Concept and research. In C.D. Spielberger & I.G. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 5). Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp. Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does the language anxiety research suggest? Modern Language Journal, 75(4), 426-437. 194 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 393 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Effect on the Level of Test Anxiety among Young EFL Learners Author Author AYDIN, Selami Karakuzu, Melih ELKILIÇ, Gencer Abstract A summary of the resource. Related literature indicates that teachers and tests are strong sources of test anxiety among adult language learners while there exists a serious lack of research on the relationship between teachers and test anxiety in terms of young learners. Thus, this study aims to investigate the teacher effect on the level of test anxiety among young English as foreign language learners as the findings of the previous studies indicate that teachers and tests are strong sources of language anxiety. The sample group of the study consisted of 477 young EFL learners from five primary schools. In order to collect data, a background questionnaire and the TAS were used to assess learners’ attitudes towards teachers and their test anxiety levels. The collected data were used to provide a descriptive and correlational analysis to address the research question. The results of the study demonstrate that positive attitudes towards teachers have facilitating effects on test anxiety among children while students experience some physical and affective problems. In the light of the findings of the research, it is recommended that language teachers should use effective communication techniques to ensure moderate levels of test anxiety. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)