37 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/394d7d5a7ddaf4ef8c0a79fe17f3becb.pdf f46c908c315f99bf3742c9e09f0d02d1 PDF Text Text Çocuklara Tarih Şuuru Kazandırmada Tarihi Hikayelerden Yararlanma Üzerine Bir Deneme Nesîme CEYHAN Bildiri Özeti: Toplumlar da fert fert insanlar gibi ortaya çıkışlarını, hayat maceralarını, var oluş mücadelelerini, eşik dönemlerini, mutluluklarını, parlak sayfalarını bir sonraki nesle aktarma ihtiyacı içindedir. Tarih’in henüz bir bilim olma iddiasına girişmediği dönemlerde edebiyat ve tarih, insanın/insanlığın hikâyesini aktarmada müşterek hareket ediyorlardı. Bugün, eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklarımıza, gençlerimize aktarmaya çalıştığımız tarihî bilgiyi, kazandırmaya çalıştığımız tarih şuurunu edebî metinlerden destek alarak gerçekleştirmeye yönelik bir anlayış, ülkemizde de yer etmeye başlıyor. Biz bu çalışmamızda tarihî hikâyelerin örgün eğitimle birlikte yaygın eğitim içerisinde farklı yaş guruplarındaki çocuklara ulaştırılmasının gerekliliğine, seçilecek/yazılacak hikâyelerin hüviyetine ve yayın dünyasının yapması gereken hamlelere dair fikir geliştirmeye çalışacağız. Anahtar Sözcükler: tarih, edebiyat, eğitim, tarihî hikâye, tarih bilinci Modern zamanların, bilimleri birbirinden kalın hatlarla ayıran ve her dalı kendi içinde onlarca şubeye bölen tavrı, problemler üzerinde bütüncül bakışı ve bütünden hareketle çözüm önerisi sunma imkânını ortadan kaldırmıştır. Bu bağlamda sosyal bilimlerin kaynağı sayılan dil, tarih ve edebiyatın, aynı kaynaktan doğdukları ve bir sacayağı hâlinde diğer sosyal bilimleri ve birbirlerini besledikleri adeta unutulmuştur. Tarih ve edebiyat bilimleri, birçok yanlarıyla birbirini tamamlayan; diğer yanda gerçeklik tartışmalarında birbirinden ayrılan iki disiplindir. Tarih bilimi, edebî metni fiktif âlemin mahsulü sayarak gerçeklik düzleminden uzaklaştırır ve kaynak göstermede ciddiye almaz; oysa tarih yazıcılarının da mutlak gerçekliği yansıtıp yansıtamadıkları tartışma konusudur. Tarih metni, insan topluluklarının başlarından geçmiş olaylardan hareketle ortaya çıkmışken, edebî metin insanların başlarından geçmiş ya da geçmesi muhtemel hadiselerle, insanların duygularından hareketle şekillenir. İkisi de dille var olur. Dil, tarihî yaşanmışlığın ve duygulanımların taşıyıcısıdır. Tarih yazıcıları, olanı kaydetmekle görevli olsalar da bilhassa devletlerin tarih yazıcılarından devletin kabul ettiği doğruları gelecek nesle aktarmalarından başka bir şey beklenemez. İnsanlar kaleme aldığı müddetçe objektif tarih yazıcılığı hiçbir zaman mümkün olamayacaktır. Edebî metni ortaya koyan sanatkâr ise, içinde bulunduğu toplumun yaşadıklarından etkilenmekle birlikte hadiseleri ve duyguyu aynıyla aktarma imkânına sanatın mahiyeti gereği zaten sahip değildir. Her toplum, ortaya çıkışını, hayat macerasını, var oluş mücadelesini, eşik dönemlerini, mutluluklarını, parlak sayfalarını bir sonraki nesle aktarma ihtiyacı içindedir. Destan devirlerinin varlığı bunu ispatlar. İnsan, hikâyesini anlatma ihtiyacı taşıyan bir varlıktır. Tarih’in henüz bir bilim olma iddiasına girişmediği dönemlerde edebiyat ve tarih insanın/insanlığın hikâyesini aktarmada müşterek hareket ediyorlardı: Destanları, İlyada ve Odisse’yi hatırlamalıyız. Bugün eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklarımıza, gençlerimize aktardığımız tarihî bilgiyi, kazandırmaya çalıştığımız tarih şuurunu salt tarih metinlerinden elde etmeye çalışmak yerine edebî metinlerden destek alarak gerçekleştirebileceğimize dair bilhassa Tarih Eğitimi ile meşgul olan araştırmacılar dikkat çekmeye başlamışlardır.46 Biraz Tarih, Çokça Hikâye: Tarihî Hikâye 46 Bu konuya son yıllarda dikkat çeken bazı çalışmalar şunlardır: Kurtuluş Kayalı, “Edebiyatı, Tarihi Zenginleştirici Bir Malzeme Olarak Algılama Gerekliliği”, Kültür,Nu:103, 1994, s.14-17./ Bahri Ata, “Tarih Öğretiminde Bir Araç Olarak Tarihî Romanlar”, Türk Yurdu, Nu:153-154, s.158-166./ Dursun Dilek, Gülçin Soğucaklı Yapıcı, “Öykülerle Tarih Öğretimi Yaklaşımı”, I. Sosyal Bilimler Eğitimi Kongresi (15-17 Mayıs 2003), Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi, İzmir/ Ahmet Şimşek, “Tarih Eğitiminde Efsane ve Destanların Rolü”, Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Nu:2 (3), 2001./ Ahmet Şimşek, “İlköğretim Sosyal Bilgiler Dersi Tarih Konularının Öğretiminde Hikâye Anlatım Yönteminin Etkinliği”, XI. Eğitim Bilimler Kongresi, Yakındoğu Üniversitesi, Lefkoşa, 2002./ Ahmet Şimşek, “Tarihsel Romanın Eğitimsel İşlevi”, bilig, Bahar 2006, Nu: 37, s.65-80./ A.Cüneyt Issı, Ahmet Şimşek, “İsmayıl Hakkı Baltacıoğlu’nun Çıkardığı Çocuk Hikâyeleri Dergisinin “Tarihi Fıkralar” Özel Sayısının Çocuk Edebiyatı ve Tarih Öğretimi Açısından Değeri”, htp:w3.gazi.esu.tr/web/asimsek/ismayilbalta.htm 337 �Bilhassa son yıllarda ülkemizde tarihe duyulan ilgi tarihî romanla ilgili tartışmaları edebiyat gündemine taşımıştır. Tarihî romanla ilgili değerlendirmeleri büyük ölçüde tarihî hikâye için de söyleyebiliriz; ancak iki türün uzunluk-kısalık, tek omurgalı kurgu-karmaşık kurgu, şahıs kadrosunun fazlalık ve azlığı gibi farkları tahkiyedeki kurgunun tarihî gerçekliği yansıtıp yansıtmayışı ile ilgili kısmen de olsa farklılık ortaya çıkarır. Tarihî hikâye, spesifik tek bir vak’a etrafında okuyucuya daha gerçekçi bir aktarım sunduğu izlenimi uyandırabilir. Tarihî vak’a’dan edinilen malzeme tarihî hikâye yazarının kurguyu tamamlayacak ilâveleri ile edebî metin düzlemine geçer. “Tarihî hikâye” de “tarihî roman”da olduğu gibi en az bir kuşak gelecekten geçmiş bir zamana ait oluşturulan tahkiyelerdir. Bu hikâyelerde yaşanmış ya da yaşanmış olması muhtemel olaylar, devrin yaşam tarzı, döneme uygun mekân ve dekor içerisinde, tarihî bazı simalar ya da kurgulanmış kimseler etrafında gelişir. Yazarın yazdığı dönemi yaşamamış olması tarihî roman ya da hikâye için önemli bir ölçüdür. Bu bağlamda tarihî hikâyeler için örnek olmak üzere Ömer Seyfeddin’in Eski Kahramanlar adı altında Yeni Mecmua’da yayımladığı Ferman, Kütük, Vire, Pembe İncili Kaftan, Başını Vermeyen Şehit, “Kızılelma” Neresi?, Büyücü, Teke Tek, Topuz, Diyet adlı hikâyeleri anabiliriz. Hikâyeler 1917’de yazılmıştır; ancak hadiseler birkaç asır öncesinde yaşanmış ya da yaşanması muhtemel olaylardan seçilmiştir. Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın devam ettiği, ümitlerin her geçen gün azaldığı zor zamanlarda kaleme alınan bu hikâyeler için Hülya Argunşah şu değerlendirmede bulunur: “Destânî bir ruhla dolu olan bu hikâyeler, savaşın devam ettiği dönemde halkın ve askerin maneviyatını yükseltmek, tarihten getirilen örneklerle mücadele azmini artırmak ve ona yeni ufuklar kazandırmak fırsatını verdikleri gibi bu yıllarda tartışılan modern zamanlarda destanın olup olmayacağı konusundaki şüpheleri de cevaplar.”47 İnsanın hikâye ile bilgilendirilişi, yönlendirilişi, eğitilişi; insana hikâye ile nasihat edilişi destan devirlerinden bu yana süregelen bir hâldir. Geçmiş hadiselerden hareketle topluma kahramanlık hisleri kazandırma, toplumun ümidini yeniden tesis etme, kuvvetli vakitlerden hareketle topluma “sen bir kez daha bunu gerçekleştirebilirsin” mesajını verme mümkün görünüyor. Bugünden hareketle geçmiş devirlere ait yazılan “tarihî hikâyeler” yanında, “çağ hikâyesi/tanık hikâye” de diyebileceğimiz, yazarın şahitliklerinden doğan hikâyeler de vardır. Bugün tarihî hikâyeler arasında zannettiğimiz/gördüğümüz; ancak yazarının devrini aktardığı hikâyeler de bizim için kullanılabilecek niteliktedir. Yakup Kadri’nin Millî Savaş Hikâyeleri, yahut Hâlide Edib’in İzmir’den Bursa’ya adlı kitapta yer alan hikâyeleri, Aka Gündüz’ün Türk’ün Kitabı’ndaki hikâyeleri yaşananların hemen akabinde hikâyecilerin kaleminden çıkmıştır. Yakup Kadri, kitaba düştüğü “Hâşiye”de şunları söyler: “Küçük Hikâye, adı altında neşrettiğim bu yazılar gerçek vakalara müstenittir. Bunlar, açıktan açığa, doğrudan doğruya “Anadolu Hatıraları” ser levhasıyla çıkabilirdi. Fakat ben, onların bazılarını kendi arzu ve muhayyileme göre değiştirmek ve canlandırmak zorunda kaldığım için hepsinin birden tamamıyle edebiyata mâl olmalarını müreccah buldum.”48 Bu açıklama ile hikâyelerin kurguyla ve gerçekle ilişkisi yazarı tarafından net bir biçimde ortaya koyulmuştur. Yayımlandığı gün için “çağ anlatımı”dır bu hikâyeler, bugünden bakınca “tarihî anlatım”. Tanık hikâyeler diyebileceğimiz bu metinlerin okuyucu üzerinde, mutlak yaşanmış olduklarını düşünmekten doğan tesirleri daha kuvvetli olabilir. Tarih Şuuru ve Tarihî Hikâye Her toplum, gelen nesillerin ayaklarını ülke ve milletine dair kuvvetli bir tarihî zemine bastırarak ferde önce, bir grubun parçası olduğunu hissettirir. Bu his bireyin dünya üzerinde zaman ve mekân bağlamında varlığını temellendirebilmesini sağlar. Hiçbir millete, sosyal gruba, dîne mensubiyeti kabul etmeyen fertler bile sonuçta insanlığın ortak hikâyesine bağlılıkla bir mensubiyet taşırlar. Geçmiş, hâl ve gelecek ilgisinin sağlıklı kurulması tarih şuurunun oluşumu için temel unsurdur. Bugün orta öğrenimini tamamlamış her Türk genci Türklerin Orta Asya’dan Anadolu’ya geldiğini, Osmanoğullarından üç kıtaya yayılmış bir imparatorluk kurulduğunu, İstanbul’un fethi ile Orta Çağ’ın kapanıp Yeni Çağ’ın açıldığını, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin Osmanlı Devleti’nin çöküşü ardından kurulduğunu tarih derslerinin bir neticesi olarak kaba hatlarıyla bilir. Bu sürekliliği bilmenin yanında Türklerin devlet kurma kabiliyetine, karşılaştıkları yeni insan topluluklarıyla hoşgörülü birlikteliklerine, aile hayatlarında gösterdikleri karakteristik özelliklere, İslâm’ın bayraktarlığını yapmaya dair hizmet anlayışlarına ve mukaddes değerlere gösterdikleri hürmete, başka dinlere ve inançlara tanıdıkları toleransa,diğergâmlıklarına, adalet anlayışlarına, tabiatla münasebetlerine dair her gencin zihninde uyanması gereken karelerin tamamı tarih şuurunun bir parçasını teşkil eder. Bu şuuru hiçbir tarih kitabı Tarık Buğra’nın Osmancık’ında ifadesini bulan ruhla okuyucuya aktaramaz. Örneğin romanda bütünüyle kurgu olan Osman Gazi’nin Şeyh Edebalı evindeki rüyası, üç 47 48 Hülya Argunşah, Ömer Seyfettin Bütün Eserleri, Hikâyeler2,Dergâh Yay., İst.1999. Yakup Kadri, Millî Savaş Hikâyeleri, Varlık Yayı., İst.1947, s.91. 338 �kıtaya yayılan Osmanlı çınarını okuyucunun şuuraltına yerleştirir. Yahut hiçbir tarih kitabı Zigetvar’ın fethini, başını küffara bırakmayan Deli Mehmed’in Ömer Seyfeddin kaleminden çıkan Başını Vermeyen Şehid’indeki hikâyesi gibi aktaramaz. Fertlerin, cemiyetlerinin tarihlerinin bir bölümünü benimseyip bir bölümünü reddetmeleri, o toplumda tarih bilincinin oluşturulamadığının bir işareti sayılır. Bilhassa çocukların/gençlerin tarihe salt savaşlar, zafer ve yenilgiler olarak bakmalarının önüne geçmek; tarihin bir kısmını benimseyip bir kısmını reddeden bir algıdan onları korumak; tarihi, milletin varlık serüvenini insanî bir şekilde algılama aracı olarak görmelerini sağlamak hedeflenmelidir. Toplumumuzun gençlerde tarih şuuru oluşturma noktasındaki hassasiyeti çok eskiye dayanmaktadır. Halk meclislerinde destanlara ek olarak, gazavatnâmelerin, menkıbelerin, cenknâmelerin, okunma alışkanlığı, Türk toplumunda bu şuurun oluşturulmasındaki hassasiyeti gösterir. Yakın zamanlarda bu alışkanlığın tamamen yok olduğuna dikkat çekmeliyiz. Bunda teknolojinin olumsuz tesiri birinci derecede söylenmelidir. Bunun yanında günlük alışkanlıklarımızın, misafirlik, akşam oturması, sohbet mantığımızın değişimi, şehrin ihtiyaçlarının ve zorunluluklarının baskısı da önemlidir. Eski kültürde çocukların, çocukluktan gençliğe geçenlerin model kimlik olarak bu metinlerde/anlatılarda alp, gazi, velî, ahi tipleriyle karşılaşmaları ve toplumlarının var oluş, ayakta kalış hikâyelerini öğrenmeleri önemlidir. Toplumun, gençlerin terbiyesinde bu tiplere ihtiyacı vardır.49 Model kimlik olan bu şahıslar, cömerttir, gözü pektir, doğruluktan ayrılmaz, namusludur, inançlıdır, vatanperverdir, hükümdarına sadıktır, dar zamanda kişilerin imdadına koşan ve imdadına koşulan tiplerdir. Toplumun model kimliğe olan ihtiyacı bugün de farklı değildir. Bilhassa gençler arasında Deli Yürek ve Kurtlar Vadisi dizilerinde “Yusuf” ve “Polat” karakterlerinin gördüğü ilgi, bu ihtiyacın bir yansıması sayılabilir. Bugün tarihî hikâyeler ve romanlarla toplumun bilhassa model kimliğe olan ihtiyacı karşılanabilir. Tarihî hikâyelerle çocuklara başka ne gibi hasletler kazandırılabilir? Tarihî hikâyeler vasıtasıyla çocuklarda insan varlığının devamlılığı hissi, geçmiş, hâl ve istikbal algısı daha somut hâle getirilebilir. Vatan, millet, ülke, devlet gibi olguların toplum hafızasına tabii dahli, hayatla kaynaşması tarihî hikâyeler yoluyla temin edilebilir. Çocuklarda vatan ve yurt sevgisi oluşturma; vatan için, fedakârlıkta bulunma, gerektiğinde hayatını verebilecek bir ruha sahip olma, özellikle küçük yaşlarda bu hikâyeler aracılığıyla oluşturulabilir. Milletinin temel özellikleri sayılabilecek bazı hasletler çocuklara bu hikâyelerle kazandırılabilir: Büyüklere saygı, âlime hürmet, her hâl ü kârda doğrunun yanında olma, haklıya hakkını verme… Tarihî hikâyelerle tarihin büyük isimleri tabii birer insan olarak algılatılarak empati hissi oluşturulabilir ve bu yolla tarihî kahramanlarla çocuk, birbirine yaklaştırılarak çocuğun kendine ve toplumuna güveni arttırılabilir. Bu hikâyelerle önceki nesillerin yaşama biçimleri, teknoloji ile münasebetleri, zenginlikleri yahut fakirlikleri, eğitim anlayışları, başka insanlarla, hayvanlarla ve bitkilerle ilişkileri çocuğun gündemine getirilerek önceki nesillerle ortak tavır geliştirme imkânı, bir tür gelenek taşıyıcılığı mümkün olabilir. Günümüzde artık aile büyüklerinin milletin ortak hikâyelerini anlattığı ortamlar kaybolmuştur; dolayısıyla bu hikâyeler, bu eksikliği de giderebilir. Çocuklara Yönelik Tarihî Hikâyelerin Hüviyeti Öncelikle söylememiz gereken şey, tarihî hikâye üretiminin artması gerekliliğine dairdir; çünkü, bu sahada büyük bir kısırlıkla karşı karşıyayız. Üstelik sadece tarihî hikâye yayımlanması boyutunda değil, tarihî hikâyelerin çizgi filmi, çizgi hikâye kitapları oluşturulması boyutunda da büyük eksiklik vardır. Çocukların bu sahada ağırlıklı olarak fantastik hikâyeler, yahut bilim kurgu metinlerle ya da çizgilerle karşılaşmaları zihinlerinde köksüz bir hayal ağacı oluşturulması anlamına gelecektir. Tarihî roman gündemini kısmen yaratabilmiştir; ancak tarihî hikâyede oldukça gerilerdeyiz. Çocuklara yönelik tarihî roman yazmada da yine eksiklik vardır ve çocuklara yönelik tarihî hikâyelerde ihtiyaç büyüktür. Öncelikle evvelden yazılmış tarihî hikâyelerin çocuklara uyarlanması söz konusu olabilir. Bir kez daha Ömer Seyfeddin, bir kez daha Halide Edib ve Aka Gündüz, Ahmet Hikmet Müftüoğlu, Yakub Kadri hikâyelerine yönelebiliriz. Bu hikâyelerin dilleri mümkün olduğunca hadiselerin eskiliği ile paralel tutulmalıdır. Yazılacak yeni hikâyelerde dil yine hadiselerin eskiliğini hatırlatacak özellikleri hâiz; ama sade; ayrıca bugünün çocuklarına önceki devirlerin hayatına dair ipuçları taşıyacak zenginlikte olmalıdır. 49 Bu tiplerle ilgili olarak bkz. Mehmet Kaplan, Tip Tahlilleri, Dergâh Yay., İst.1996. 339 �Bilhassa hatırat kitapları taranarak tarihin çeşitli evrelerine dair değerler eğitimine uygun, tarihî şuuru inkişaf ettirecek hadiseler çıkarılmalı ve bunlar hikâyeleştirilmelidir. Kahramanı çocuk olan hikâyeler tercih edilmelidir. Yeni hikâyelerin yazılması teşvik edilmeli; ancak hikâyeler, yeni tarihselciliğin yapı bozumcu tavrı yerine klâsik hikâye tarzında yazılmalıdır. Çocukta kahramanlık hissi oluşturmaya çalışırken şiddet içeren sahnelerden uzak durarak zekânın kuvvetten önemli olduğunu vurgulayan metinlere yönelmekte fayda vardır. Çocukta, insan varlığının dünyadaki devamlılığı hissini oluşturma; geçmişin, hâlin ve istikbâlin varlığı idrakini kolaylaştırma, hikâyelerin temel işlevlerinden biri olmalıdır. Çocukta millî şuur, kahramanlık duygusu ve vatan sevgisi hislerini oluşturmaya yönelik metinler tercih edilmelidir. Çocuğun modern dünyada kendine model olarak aldığında sıkıntı yaşamayacağı model tipler, kahramanlar teklif eden hikâyeler oluşturulmalıdır. Tarihin sadece başarılar ve kahramanlıklardan ibaret olmadığına işaret eden hatanın insanlara göre olduğunu; ancak bazı yanlışların milletlerin kaderini belirleyebildiğini gösteren metinler seçilerek çocuklarda toplumuna karşı sorumluluk hissi oluşturmaya çalışılmalıdır. Çocukta kendisinin varlığını temin için hayatlarını tehlikeye atmış eski insanlara karşı minnet ve hürmet hissi oluşturma; geçmişe vefa ve gelecek nesilleri de sahiplenme hislerini uyandırmaya yönelik metinler tercih edilmelidir. Bütün bunların yanında çocuğun, varlığı bir mekâna bağlı olarak algılamasını kolaylaştıracak, milletinin yaşadığı diğer toprak parçalarını idrak edebileceği farklı coğrafyalarda geçen metinleri de ihmal etmemek gerekiyor. Orta Asya, Balkanlar, Arap Yarımadası, Avrupa, Orta Doğu ve Afrika’da yaşanan devirlere dair hikâyelerle bu geniş coğrafya ile çocuğun/gencin ünsiyetini temin edecek metinler oluşturulmalıdır. Sonuç Zamanın getirdiği yenilikler, teknolojik imkânlar, küreselleşme, bir bütün hâlinde çocukları ortak dünya ve insanlık algısı içerisine çekerken, ülkelerinin gerçekleri, ihtiyaçları ve ideallerinden uzaklaştırmaktadır. Ortak hayalleri olmayan insanlar bir ülkeyi kalkındıramazlar, bağımsızlıklarını koruyamazlar. Bu bağlamda, bir arada yaşayan ve aynı ülkenin vatandaşları olan insanların ortak bir geçmiş, ortak bir hâl ve ortak yaşanacak bir istikbalde fikren birleşmeleri şarttır. Tarih şuuru, bu bakımdan lüzumludur. Örgün eğitimde yakalanmaya çalışılan hedeflerden biri olmakla birlikte tarih şuuru’nun dış hayattan, yaygın eğitim unsurları ve aile çevresinden edinilmesi de önem arz eder. Bu hususta yayınevlerinin programlarına tarihî hikâye ve romanları ilâve etmeleri, televizyon ve radyonun, çocuk programlarının desteği; görsel, işitsel ve yazılı medyanın gayreti ve ailelerin desteğiyle hedefe daha sağlıklı ulaşılacaktır. 340 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 389 Title A name given to the resource Çocuklara Tarih Şuuru Kazandırmada Tarihi Hikayelerden Yararlanma Üzerine Bir Deneme Author Author CEYHAN, Nesîme Abstract A summary of the resource. Toplumlar da fert fert insanlar gibi ortaya çıkışlarını, hayat maceralarını, var oluş mücadelelerini, eşik dönemlerini, mutluluklarını, parlak sayfalarını bir sonraki nesle aktarma ihtiyacı içindedir. Tarih’in henüz bir bilim olma iddiasına girişmediği dönemlerde edebiyat ve tarih, insanın/insanlığın hikâyesini aktarmada müşterek hareket ediyorlardı. Bugün, eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklarımıza, gençlerimize aktarmaya çalıştığımız tarihî bilgiyi, kazandırmaya çalıştığımız tarih şuurunu edebî metinlerden destek alarak gerçekleştirmeye yönelik bir anlayış, ülkemizde de yer etmeye başlıyor. Biz bu çalışmamızda tarihî hikâyelerin örgün eğitimle birlikte yaygın eğitim içerisinde farklı yaş guruplarındaki çocuklara ulaştırılmasının gerekliliğine, seçilecek/yazılacak hikâyelerin hüviyetine ve yayın dünyasının yapması gereken hamlelere dair fikir geliştirmeye çalışacağız Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1027350b8ad07f075df4b003ac2e067a.pdf da104684109213ab1a362559245fc153 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters of the Islamic Economic System Mehmet CAN International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Engineering Paromlinska 66, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mcan@ius.edu.ba Abstract: The Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of March 4, 2009 reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. To understand economics and economic aspects of human beings in the light of Islamic Shariah, we should explain its objectives. All business and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of helping to achieve the aims of the Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law or divine injunctions that regulate the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of these injunctions which are: matters of belief and worship; ethic, socioeconomic and legal systems; obligations; and prohibitions. Banking and finance are parts of economics or the economic system, as the rules governing activities of banks and financial institutions stem from the overall economic framework in which these institutions operate. It is, therefore, worthwhile to discuss the structure of Islamic economics under which the Islamic financial system is supposed to work. In this paper we discuss the fundamentals of the Islamic economic worldview having direct or indirect impact upon the business of Islamic financial institutions and markets. Keywords: Islamic Finance, Parameters 1. Introduction Recently the Vatican advised Islamic finance principles to Western banks as a solution for worldwide economic crisis. Daily Vatican newspaper, 'L'Osservatore Romano, reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. "The ethical principles on which Islamic finance is based may bring banks closer to their clients and to the true spirit which should mark every financial service," the Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of march 4, 2009 (see webpage rassegnastampa.mef.gov.it). Author Loretta Napoleoni and Abaxbank Spa fixed income strategist, Claudia Segre, say in the article that "Western banks could use tools such as the Islamic bonds, known as sukuk, as collateral". Sukuk may be used to fund the "'car industry or the next Olympic Games in London," they said. They also said that profit share, gained from sukuk, may be an alternative to the interest. They underlined that sukuk system could help automotive sector and support investments in infrastructure area. Islamic sukuk system is similar to bonos of capitalist system. But in sukuk, money is invested concrete projects and profit share is distributed to clients instead of interest earned. Pope Benedict XVI in an October 7, 2008 speech reflected on crashing financial markets saying that "money vanishes, it is nothing" and concluded that "the only solid reality is the word of God." The Vatican has been paying attention to the global financial meltdown and publishing articles in its official newspaper that criticize the free-market model for having "grown too much and badly in the past two decades." Islamic finance is not only a remedy for the crises of capitalism, for countries with Muslim majority; it is also the most beneficiary financial system to be adopted by administrative and legislative bodies of the states. For the Muslim minorities in Europe and in all other continents in which the followers of various religions live in intermingled communities without physical political borders, for Muslims and others who may choose it as a better option, there must be alternative Islamic financial institutions. The need for alternative Islamic financial legislations and institutions necessitates a broad religious freedom that supports a life along the Shariah. Starting from this post modern era, believers will not be satisfied by any level of religious freedom that supports less than living in accordance with the Shariah of their religion. For the Muslims scattered throughout the world as minorities, the minimums of living in accordance with the Shariah are 1. Alternative education at all levels, 24 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Alternative jurisprudence, Shariah courts, 3. Alternative financial system, and supporting financial institutions, 4. Alternative health care. This global need necessitates the evolution of a system that could lead to a balanced, sustainable and equitable economic order in the world at large for the benefit of individuals and societies. Islamic economic principles are a basis for promoting a balance between the social and economic aspects of human society, the self and social interests, and between the individual, family, society and the State. Islamic finance has to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law that regulates the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives along Islam. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of this code which are: Aqaid, or matters of belief and worship; Akhlaq, or matters for disciplining one's self; Ahkam, or socio-economic and legal systems; Fraidh, or obligations; and Nawahi, or prohibitions. Islamic economics directly or indirectly deals with all these disciplines (see Eyub 2007). 2. Sources of the Shariah The primary source of the Sharia is the Qur'an and Sunnah of the Prophet (pbuh). The Holy Qur'an says: “Whoever obeys the Messenger, he indeed obeys Allah, and whoever turns back, so We have not sent you as a keeper over them. (4: 80).” The other sources are Ijma'a (consensus) and Qiyas (analogy). Ijma'a of the Companions of the holy Prophet is considered by the Muslims an important source for the derivation of laws subsequently. The general welfare/interest (Maslaha-e-Mursalah) of human beings and Urf (tradition) are also important tools in the hands of Islamic jurists that are kept in mind for deciding the Shariah position of various contracts and activities without compromising on the basic principles contained in the Qur'an and Sunnah. Shariah rules can be divided into Dos, orders to undertake any act; and Don'ts, prohibition from some acts, which can further be divided into the rituals (matters of worship) that are considered as rights of Allah (SWT) and the matters for disciplining human life that constitute the rights of human beings. While the former acts, rituals or matters relating to belief and worship in the form of Fraidh or obligations have to be accomplished strictly according to the Shariah codes, the latter matters that pertain to socio-economic rights and obligations are governed by the rule of "General Permissibility", Ibahatul Asliyah, which means that all acts and things which have not been openly prohibited by the original sources of Shariah are permissible. It is pertinent to observe, however, that while Allah (SWT) may like to forgive any of the lapses by Muslims in respect of His rights (first category), lapses in respect of the rights of human beings would have to be forgiven only by the aggrieved person(s). Further, it is a cardinal principle of Islam that everyone is accountable for his acts and the accountability is individual, both in rituals and in socio-economic contracts. The Holy Qur'an says: “Namely, that no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another. That man can have nothing but what he strives for (53:38-39).” Knowing the objectives of the Shariah helps jurists in determining the prohibition or permissibility of any matters on the basis of Ijtihad and Qiyas. The primary objectives that Shariah tends to realize are the protection and preservation of: 1. Religion. 2. Life. 3. Progeny - family unit. 4. Property. 5. Intellect. 6. Honor. The above primary objectives of Shariah lead to a number of secondary objectives, which are: 1. The establishment of justice and equity in society. 2. The promotion of social security, mutual help and solidarity, particularly to help the poor. 3. The maintenance of peace and security. 4. The promotion of cooperation in matters of goodness and prohibition of evil deeds and actions. 5. The promotion of moral values and all actions necessary for the preservation of the nature (see Chapra 2000). Hence, from the study of the Qur'an and Sunnah, some basic socio-economic rights of human beings have been identified. These rights are: 1. The right to safety. 2. The right to be informed. 3. The right to choose. 4. The right to be heard. 5. The right to satisfaction of basic needs. 25 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. The right to redress. 7. The right to education. 8. The right to a healthy environment (see Eyub 2007). Islam requires rulers and various regulators in the system to protect the masses from harm and hardship caused by unscrupulous factors in society through strong and effective laws, and they should be respected in the sense of fulfillment of all socio-economic rights. The State must also curb institutional and other malpractices. 3. The Necessity for Islamic Finance and Economics Studying economics is important for the dual purpose of having better sustenance and religious imperatives. Islam does not separate "pious" and "worldly" life. Holy Qur'an says: "But seek, with the (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on thee, the Home of the Hereafter, nor forget thy portion in this world: but do thou good, as Allah has been good to thee, and seek not (occasions for) mischief in the land: for Allah loves not those who do mischief." (28:77) As the main theme of the Islamic economic system revolves around care for the poor and socioeconomic justice, studying Islamic economics should be a strategic activity for Muslim economists and policymakers. The Islamic economic system can be studied properly only in the context of the Islamic way of life as a whole. The Holy Qur'an gives broad principles of values regarding the economic aspects of man's life, like an owner's attitude towards his property, society's attitude towards the needy, the cooperative basis of the economic relationship and the bias against a concentration of wealth. The individual must be mindful of other ends while planning for economic ends. He has to subject each and every activity to thorough scrutiny, avoiding all those forms which are injurious to social interest. The early Islamic jurists mainly advised individuals and rulers on behavior in economic matters and economic policies (see Yusuf 969). In the later period, they also analyzed such economic thoughts as trading, prices, money, profit-sharing, taxes, development, etc. They gave special importance to ethics and moral purposes and focused on justice, need fulfillment, efficiency, freedom, growth and development. Those who did work of outstanding nature included Imams of juristic schools of thought like Abu Hanifa (see Makhnisawi 2007 ), Malik (see Abdarahman 2007), Shafii, Ahmad ibn-e-Hanbal, Zaid bin Ali, and others like Muhammad bin Hasan al Sheibani, Abu Yusuf (see Yusuf 1969), Yahya bin Adam, Abu Ubaid, Qudama bin Jafar, Ali ibn Muhammad Al Mawardi, Nizamul Mulk Tusi, Nasiruddin Tusi, Abu Hamid Muhammad Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyah, Ibn Qayyim, Ibn Khaldun (see Dawood 1989), al Maqrizi and Shah Waliullah. Abu-Yusuf's book of al-Kharaj is important for various reasons: (a) it was the first book to be published on Islamic economics, (b) it was necessary to look, in some detail, into the work to gain an insight into the thinking of the first Muslim writer in the field, especially as (c) the book was a first serious work on Islamic economics, particularly when (d) the book provided a comprehensive framework, almost a constitution, on the state finance and public administration, of (e) a considerable magnitude, and (f) the book could still be regarded as a reference book by the standards of today. (As an example) “Abu-Yusuf focused on leasing of fields and palm orchards, with a particular reference to the cultivation of barren land on a lease basis. Abu-Yusuf explained that the jurists in al-Hijaz (the Màlikì) had a different view from that of the jurists in al-Kufa. In al-Hijaz and al-Medìnah, jurists, did not allow the lease of barren land on a sharing basis, one half or one third, as they argued that barren land was not like orchards and other gardens for which they allowed sharing leases. Some of the jurists in al-Kufa allowed sharing in orchards and other trees and permitted sharing of crops in barren land at a half and one-third ratio, while others did not allow sharing in orchards or other fruit trees and did not permit sharing of crops in a barren land. Abù-Hanìfah was against the validity of the lease. Those jurists who did not allow the transaction relied on the juridical argument against uncertainty; the yield from the lease of the barren land was uncertain and any involvement in such a transaction could be harmful to either partner. On the other hand, those who allowed leasing depended strictly on the practice of the Prophet when he let the lands of Khyber to the inhabitants of Khyber on a yield sharing basis. Abu-Yusuf's view was that all such leases were allowed and valid. He regarded them as sharing in partnership contracts in which one partner participates in the partnership with his capital and the other with his labor and expertise. The profit, even if it was still unknown to them, was divided on the basis of profit-and-losssharing. This form of partnership is unanimously acceptable by jurists. In Abu-Yusuf's view, leasing of barren land, orchards and other trees was like a partnership: the land was similar to the capital in the partnership contract. To enforce his view, Abu-Yusuf relied on the precedent of the Prophet in the lands of Khyber. The ahadith in support of permission were more reliable and general than the ahadith in support of inhibition, he argued. Abu-Yusuf elucidated different forms of lease contracts in which he clarified the relationship between 26 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the partners in the contract, and the tax position of each. It is apparent from his classification that Abu-Yusuf widened the scope of leasing by allowing several structures. He perhaps had in mind a special consideration for public interest without sacrificing the basic principle that the partners should be clear before the start of the transaction as to the conditions of the contract. His thought on the classification coincides with the classification as known in modern time and the differentiation between a financial lease and other types of lease”. (see elAshker and Wilson 2006). After the start of the Renaissance movement in the late 19th century, Islamic economics started reemerging as an intelligent academic pursuit. Scholars like Syed Qutb (see Qutb 1953), Syed Abul A'ala Mawdudi (see Mawdudi 1996) , Hifzurrehman Sweharvi, Muhammad Yusufuddin, Syed Baqar Sadre, and Dr M. Hamidullah (see Hamidullah 1992) can be considered pioneers and scholars of the first generation in the Modern World who initiated the process of defining modern economic thought in the light of the principles of Islam. Formal work on Islamic economics in the modern world that has led to a vigorous revival of Islamic economic thought has been done by a large number of economists, notable among which are Anwar Iqbal Qureshi, Ahmad al Najjar, Nejatullah Siddiqi, Sheikh Mahmud Ahmad, Mahmud Abud Saud, Muhammad Umar Zubair, Monzar Kahaf, S.M. Hasanuz Zaman, Anas Zarqa, M.A. Mannan, Mohamed Ali Elgari, M. Umer Chapra (see Chapra 2000), Abbas Mirakhor, Mohsin S. Khan, Fahim Khan, Munawar Iqbal, Khurshid Ahmad and many others. Considerable work has been done by well-known economists including Mohsin Khan (See Khan and Abbas 1987), Abbas Mirakhor, Zuber Iqbal, Nejatullah Siddiqi, Anas Zarqa, Monzar Kahaf and other Islamic economists of the second and third generations, as mentioned above, on various segments of economic management. These works largely pertain to interest-free banking and interest-free investment and production. Also, a good deal of work has been done on fiscal policy, Zakat, auditing and accounting, banking regulations and supervision. But all of these are segments and have not been put together into a comprehensive model. These segments (with variations) are being practiced/implemented in several countries. However, even in the contents and implementation of these segments, there is a lack of uniformity. This is yet another problem which needs to be addressed both at scholarly and operational levels. Therefore, Islamic rules of economics make it binding for human beings not only to abide by the Shariah codes relating to dos and don'ts but also to keep in mind the impact of their activities on others and society as a whole. To realize the goal, the State should try to control the requirements and needs of the people through a filtering process, motivate the people to abstain from activities injurious to others and restructure the socio-economic system for the transfer of resources from one use/sector to others to ultimately realize the dual objective (see Chapra 2000). The vision of Islam in this regard is different from the role models of present market systems which have become outdated with the march of events. The Shariah indicates the directions of transformation towards a social order of justice, well-being, security and knowledge, but it does not impose these laws. It tends to provide equal chances to all for earning a livelihood leading to equitable, not equal, distribution of income and wealth. It is also because of the no coercive nature of Shariah that the market is relied upon as a natural phenomenon of ethical human transformation. The holy Prophet (pbuh) categorically discouraged intervention for price fixation as long as price fluctuations occurred due to market forces alone. But when undue monopolistic and unjust pricing, production and distributional practices were existent, Al-Hisbah (the institution of the ombudsman) was empowered as a social regulatory body to check these imbalances for purposes of reestablishing a better semblance of market-driven exchanges in the light of the just order that Shariah aims at in society at large. Islamic economics has been defined differently by different economists/scholars, keeping in mind specific aspects of human life. To Ibn Khaldun, economics meant the desire for food and other requirements and efforts to obtain them; and a science which deals with management of households and cities in accordance with dictates of reason as well as ethics, so that the masses may be directed towards a behavior that leads to the preservation and performance of their species (see Dawood 1989). Mohsin S. Khan, a senior economist at the IMF, says: "Broadly speaking, the term 'Islamic Economics' defines a complete system that prescribes a specific pattern of social and economic behavior for all individuals. It deals with a wide-ranging set of issues, such as property rights, incentive system, allocation of resources, types of economic freedom, system of economic decision-making and proper role of the government. The overriding objective of the system is social justice and specific patterns of income and wealth distribution and consequently economic policies are to be designed to achieve these ends. (see Khan and Abbas 1987)" Zaman gives his own definition: "Islamic Economics is the knowledge of application of injunctions and rules of the Shariah that stop injustice in the acquisition and disposition of material resources in order to 27 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo provide satisfaction to individuals and enable them to perform their obligations to Allah and society (see Zaman 1991)." This implies that Islamic economics is a social science which studies the economic problems of people in the light of the values of Islam. One way of looking at Islamic economics would be the use of resources for the welfare of the people within the framework of Shariah. Once a framework of the Shariah has been adopted, it will determine various aspects of economic management like the contents of production, trade, finance, distribution. The integrated model of the Islamic social framework is based, among other things, on the following criteria, which provide a positive motivation for economic activities, steered by the concept of a fair balance between material and spiritual needs and between the individual's and social needs: 1. Equilibrium between work and worship. 2. Human equality. 3. Mutual responsibilities in society. 4. Distributive justice. 5. Balanced and beneficent use of the "bounties of God". 6. Limited sovereignty of individuals in terms of "self interest" for the benefit of fellow beings and society. 7. The principle of co-existence. 8. The freedom of conscience. 4. Objectives of Islamic Economics The objective of the Islamic economic system, like any other economic system, is the realization of efficiency and equity in allocation and distribution of resources, for which it recognizes the role of market forces and the freedom of individuals. But it also recognizes the possible adverse impact of the totally unregulated market on various sections of society, particularly the poor and the disadvantaged. Thus, the system comprises the following three main elements: 1. Ownership of commodities and wealth. 2. Transfer of the ownership. 3. Distribution of wealth among the people (see Nabbani 1997). The abolition of interest (Riba), promotion of trading and other real business activities, establishment of profit-sharing as a tool, the application of Zakat and avoidance of wasteful consumption (Israf) along with an effective overseeing role of the State constitute the key macroeconomic features of an ideal Islamic economy. The Holy Qur'an says: "Those who swallow down usury cannot arise except as one whom Shaitan has prostrated by (his) touch does rise. That is because they say, trading is only like usury; and Allah has allowed trading and forbidden usury. To whomsoever then the admonition has come from his Lord, then he desists, he shall have what has already passed, and his affair is in the hands of Allah; and whoever returns (to it) these are the inmates of the fire; they shall abide in it." (2:275). “Men whom neither merchandise nor sale beguileth from remembrance of Allah and constancy in prayer and paying to the poor their due; who fear a day when hearts and eyeballs will be overturned." (24:37). “O Children of Adam! wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer: eat and drink: But waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters." (7:31). Study of these variables would indicate the state of any Islamic economy, its stability, weaknesses and strengths and various relationships among producers and users of resources. Ownership by man is thus Divine permission for utilizing the goods and assets. The Holy Qur'an says: "And give them from the Mai of Allah, which He gave to you." (24: 33). It also says: "And spend from what He put you in charge of" (57: 7). As such, Islam has set the limits and the means through which individuals, groups, the public and the State can possess property in such a way that acquisition in varying degree is within reach of all the people, despite disparities in their abilities. These limits are in terms of the quality or the means of acquiring and not in terms of quantity of wealth, as this resists human beings' strife to work diligently. Limits in terms of quality are necessary; otherwise human greed could corrupt the economy and cause chaotic relationships in society. It also conforms to human nature so as to satisfy their basic needs and enable people to benefit from comforts (see Eyub 2007). The following are the means of possessing goods: work, inheritance, and purchasing/obtaining property for sustenance, properties granted as gifts and the State granting possession of something to the citizens. To facilitate the acquisition of property and wealth, Islam has indicated legal means of ownership and its transfer through a variety of contracts. General rules for these contracts have also been defined in detail with the possibility of resolving any contemporary issues through Ijtihad, subject to observance of allowed limits. These rules allow man to utilize the resources by consuming them, benefiting from them or exchanging them via a number of contracts like sale, loan, lease (see Yusuf 1969) or gift. Rules pertaining to investment of wealth/property have also been laid down. The Holy Qur'an says: "Allah (thus) directs you as regards your 28 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Al-wise." (4:11). Along with property rights, income and profit entitlement are established in Islamic economics. This must occur through the effort, work or taking responsibility (Dhaman) and distribution by means like partnership, trade, joint ventures, loans, and various vehicles of transfer incomes like grants and Zakat and the control of waste. The Holy Qur'an says: “O ye who believe! When ye deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them to writing Let a scribe write down faithfully as between the parties: let not the scribe refuse to write: as Allah Has taught him, so let him write. Let him who incurs the liability dictate, but let him fear His Lord Allah, and not diminish aught of what he owes. If they party liable is mentally deficient, or weak, or unable Himself to dictate, Let his guardian dictate faithfully, and get two witnesses, out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as ye choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her. The witnesses should not refuse when they are called on (For evidence). Disdain not to reduce to writing (your contract) for a future period, whether it be small or big: it is juster in the sight of Allah, More suitable as evidence, and more convenient to prevent doubts among yourselves but if it be a transaction which ye carry out on the spot among yourselves, there is no blame on you if ye reduce it not to writing. But take witness whenever ye make a commercial contract; and let neither scribe nor witness suffer harm. If ye do (such harm), it would be wickedness in you. So fear Allah; For it is Good that teaches you. And Allah is well acquainted with all things. If ye are on a journey, and cannot find a scribe, a pledge with possession (may serve the purpose). And if one of you deposits a thing on trust with another, let the trustee (faithfully) discharge his trust, and let him Fear his Lord conceal not evidence; for whoever conceals it, - his heart is tainted with sin. And Allah knoweth all that ye do. (2:282)” Hence, the Islamic economy has a linkage between the market functions of productive involvement and growth and the institutional functions of policy and control. 4.1 Islamic Welfare Approach The concept of welfare in Islam is neither exclusively materialistic nor absolutely spiritual. It has rather dovetailed the spiritual and material aspects of life so that they may serve as a source of mutual strength and as the foundation of true human welfare and happiness. In order to meet the basic needs of each and every member of a society, Islam urges all to earn and seek the provisions for use by mankind. Islamic economy achieves this objective by obliging each capable person to work, enabling him to fulfill his and his dependents' basic needs. A number of verses of the Holy Qur'an and traditions of the holy Prophet (pbuh) reveal that Islam obliges individuals to earn and use the wealth so as to develop the economy for the betterment of society. It is the State's responsibility to take measures and adopt policies to enable those who are willing to work and anxious to work to find employment. As regards basic needs, there is total agreement among Islamic economists that it is the most important objective of the Islamic distributive policy. However, there may be some difference of opinion as to which needs should be guaranteed and how these should be fulfilled. Nevertheless, maximization of Falah (welfare in this world and the Hereafter) has firm relevance with the Islamic concept of development, which can be achieved through obedience to Allah (SWT) in worship (Ibadat) as well as Mu'amalat, including all kinds of economic activities related to production, consumption, exchange and distribution. As long as seeking the pleasure of Allah is set as the final goal, the latter will be in perfect conformity with the former (see Eyub 2007). 4.2 The Factors of Production Land, labor and capital jointly create value. As a result, the land-owner, the laborer and the owner of capital should jointly share the produce. The distinctive feature of the Islamic system is that capital has to bear the loss, if any. In addition to this, Islam compulsorily retains a portion of the produced wealth as Zakat for those who are prevented from contributing their share in production due to any social, physical or economic handicap. The factors of production in Islamic economics are: 1. Capital - includes those means of production which cannot be used in the process of production until and unless they are either wholly consumed or completely altered in form during the production process; it cannot fetch any rent. "Profit" is compensation of capital in the Islamic framework, but it comes with 29 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo responsibility or liability. So the profit on any capital is the residual revenue of a business conducted with that capital after making payment to all other parties; if the residual is negative, the capital owner has to suffer a loss that is the shortfall in the principal employed in the business. 2. Land - all such means of production which is used in the process of production in such a way that their corpus and original form remains unaltered. Their compensation is rental; these can be lent or leased. For example, an owner of a factory would claim rent of land and that of the installed machinery and plant; similarly, owners of houses, vehicles, machines, etc. are entitled to rent. 3. Labor - that is, human exertion, whether physical or mental and also includes organization and planning. Its compensation is wages (see Eyub 2007). 4.3 Restrained Individual Freedom There are certain curbs and some checks imposed by Shariah on consumers' behavior. Individuals are not at large to exercise their own will in terms of choice. Some basic rules have been laid down to govern intensity of wealth-gaining and income-consuming activities of society. It does not stand neutral as regards ends and means. It is religion-based, valuation-oriented, morality-judged and spiritually-bound. It is positive and normative science, as it links materialistic and moralistic requirements of changing nature. Thus, the scope of Islamic economics is the administration of scarce resources in human society in the light of the ethical concept of welfare in Islam. All types of work except those leading to indecency or socio-economic loss to other individuals and society are permissible. A basic principle of the Islamic legal system is that an activity or a commodity that is not prohibited through the Shariah texts is permissible. Thus, man has to observe the prohibitions only. Islamic economics would mean undertaking all activities individually or collectively that are not prohibited and that could add to the welfare and happiness of human beings (see Eyub 2007). Holy Qur'an says: " O ye who believe! Squander not your wealth among yourselves in vanity, except it be a trade by mutual consent, and kill not one another. Lo! Allah is ever Merciful unto you" (4:29). The most important prohibitions in the field of economics are the prohibition of interest, hazard and gambling due to their extremely harmful impacts on society. Such limitations are necessary for the fulfillment of the overall objectives of the Shariah for making society happy and satisfied, both materially and spiritually. The Holy Qur'an says: "O ye who believe! Strong drink and games of chance and idols and divining arrows are only an infamy of Satan's handiwork. Leave it aside in order that ye may succeed." (5:90). 4.4 Liberalism versus State Intervention The literature on Islamic economics emphasizes four types of action by government in economic life. These are: 1. Ensuring compliance with the Islamic code of conduct by individuals through education and, whenever necessary, through compulsion. 2. The maintenance of healthy conditions in the market to ensure its proper functioning. 3. Modification of the allocation of resources and distribution of income affected by the market mechanism by guiding and regulating it as well as direct intervention and participation, if needed, in the process. 4. Taking positive steps in the field of production and capital formation to accelerate growth. The Islamic State can impose some limitations with a view to avoiding distortions and keeping in mind the well-being of society as a whole. All members of a society, regardless of differences in gender and religion, are allowed to undertake any of the permissible (Halal) businesses, but this is subject to the condition that it should not harm others. Once the Pious Caliph, Umar Farooq (Allah be pleased with him) asked a person who was selling a commodity at a much lower price than the market price to increase the price/rate or to leave the market (see Eyub 2007). 5. Summary All economic and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules, with the objective of helping to achieve the well-being of people in the worldly life as well as in the Hereafter. Hence, studying economics is important for the dual purpose of having better sustenance and the religious imperatives. The sources of rules dealing with economic aspects of human beings are the Holy Qur'an and Sunnah of His last Messenger, Muhammad (pbuh). In addition to the Qur'an and Sunnah, Ijma'a, Qiyas and Ijtihad provide a hierarchical framework of sources of rules governing Islamic economics and finance. 30 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References http://rassegnastampa.mef.gov.it/mefnazionale/PDF/2009/2009-03-04/200903... Eyub, M. (2007). Understanding Islamic Finance. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Chapra, M. U. (2000) The Future of Economics: An Islamic Perspective, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester. Makhnisawi A. I. M. (2007) Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained, Al-Rashad Books. Abdarahman A. (2007) Translation of Malik's Muwatta, http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/muwatta/ Yusuf A. Y. (1969) Abu Yusuf's Kitab al-kharaj (Taxation in Islam), Luzac. Dawood, N. J. (1989) The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History by Ibn Khaldun (Author), Princeton Univ. Press. El-Ashker A. A. F. and Wilson R. (2007) Islamic Economics a Short History, Leiden Boston. Qutb S., Tr: Algar H. (1953) Social Justice in Islam, Islamic Publications International, NJ. Mavdudi, S. A. A. (1996) Economic System of Islam, Kazi Publications. Hamidullah M. (1992) The Muslim Conduct of State, Kazi Pubns Inc. Khan M. S. and Abbas, M. (1987) Theoretical Studies in Islamic Banking and Finance, Iris Books. Abbas, M. (2007) An Introduction to Islamic Finance: Theory and Practice, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Nabhani, T. (1997) The Economic System of Islam. Al-Khilafah Publications, London. Zaman S. M. H. (1991) Economic Functions of an Islamic State, The Islamic Foundation. 31 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 131 Title A name given to the resource Parameters of the Islamic Economic System Author Author CAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of March 4, 2009 reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. To understand economics and economic aspects of human beings in the light of Islamic Shariah, we should explain its objectives. All business and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of helping to achieve the aims of the Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law or divine injunctions that regulate the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of these injunctions which are: matters of belief and worship; ethic, socioeconomic and legal systems; obligations; and prohibitions. Banking and finance are parts of economics or the economic system, as the rules governing activities of banks and financial institutions stem from the overall economic framework in which these institutions operate. It is, therefore, worthwhile to discuss the structure of Islamic economics under which the Islamic financial system is supposed to work. In this paper we discuss the fundamentals of the Islamic economic worldview having direct or indirect impact upon the business of Islamic financial institutions and markets. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/29644d5fcdac64ccf6fbedee93f563c8.pdf c98ff7b2b7352c162ec100f45b393af2 PDF Text Text Balkan Savaşı Hikâyelerinden Yansıyan Çocuk ve Kadınlar Şeyma BÜYÜKSAVAŞ KURAN Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Samsun. bkavasseyma@hotmail.com. Özet: Osmanlı hâkimiyetinde iken huzur içinde yaşamalarına rağmen Sırp, Bulgar, Rum, Arnavut ve Karadağlılar, milliyetçilik akımının yayılması ve bazı büyük devletlerin kışkırtmasıyla farklı zamanlarda Osmanlı’ya karşı ayaklanırlar, savaş açarlar. Bu süreçte 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı ve 1912-1913 Balkan Savaşları ile Balkanlar Osmanlı’dan kopar. Bu kopuş sırasında yaşanan savaşlarda eli silah tutan Türk ve Müslüman erkekler vatanlarını, namuslarını kurtarmak amacıyla cephelere koşarken arkalarında savunmasız yaşlılar, analar, hamile taze gelinler ve her yaştan çocuk bırakmak zorunda kalmışlardır. Erkekler savaşta bin türlü vahşetin içinde şehitliğe ererken arkada açlık, korku ve gözyaşıyla bıraktıkları kişiler, asırların görmediği soykırımı ve sürgünü yaşarlar. Balkan Savaşları sırasında yaşanan bu olaylar belli başlı yönleriyle tarihin kanlı ve tozlu sayfalarında yerlerini alırken edebiyat da bu yaşananları fert düzeyinde bir taraftan ve daha çok da şiirle, diğer taraftan da hikâye ve romanla dile getirmekte, bu insanlık dramını nesilden nesile anlatmaya devam etmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Balkan Savaşı yıllarında kaleme alınmış hikâyeler, cephe gerisinde kalan çocuk ve kadınların durumları açısından ele alınacaktır. Yüzyıllar boyunca savaşın en çirkin yüzüne maruz kalan kadın ve çocukların Balkan Savaşındaki durumları, o döneme ait hikâyeler yardımıyla resmedilecektir. 1908-1918 yılları arasında kaleme alınan bu hikâyelerin bazılarında; babaları, eşleri ya da oğulları savaşa gittikten sonra yurtlarında kalan kadın ve çocukların yaşadıkları binbir çeşit eziyet ve yok edilme konu edilmektedir. Yine bu kadın ve çocuklardan yurtlarından kopup Anadolu’ya sığınmak üzere sürgün yolculuğuna çıkan ya da Anadolu’ya ulaşmayı başarabilenlerin de ölüm, korku, açlık ve kimsesizlik uçurumunda kayboldukları dile getirilmektedir. Annesini, kardeşlerini korumak zorunda kalan on üç yaşında çocuk erkekler, Anadolu’ya geldiklerinde çeşitli sebeplerle hayal kırıklıkları yaşayan göçmen hanımlara da yine bu sayfalarda tesadüf edilmektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: Balkan Savaşı, hikâye, kadın, çocuk . Balkan savaşı hikâyelerinden yansıyan Çocuk ve kadınlar Osmanlı bilindiği gibi çok uluslu bir devletti. Milliyetçilik akımının ortaya çıkmasına kadar bu uluslar Osmanlı Devleti’nde milli varlıklarını koruyarak memnun bir halde yaşamakta idiler. Milliyetçilik akımının yayılmasıyla birlikte Balkanlarda yaşayan farklı uluslar ayaklanmaya başlamışlar Balkanlar’da ayrı bir politikası olan Ruslar tarafından da kışkırtılmışlardır. Bu süreçte bağımsızlıklarını kazanan Bulgaristan, Yunanistan, Karadağ ve Sırbistan birleşerek Türkler’i Avrupa’dan kovmak amacıyla Osmanlı’ya savaş açarlar. 1912-1913 tarihlerinde gerçekleşen bu savaşın sonunda Londra Barış Antlaşması’yla Osmanlı Devleti Trakya’daki topraklarını kaybeder. Savaş sonunda çıkar kavgasına düşen Balkan Devletleri’nin arasındaki savaşı fırsat bilen Osmanlı Devleti II. Balkan savaşına katılarak İstanbul Antlaşması’nı imzalar ve I. Balkan Savaşı’nda kaybettiği bazı toprakları geri alır. Görüldüğü gibi tarihi olaylar başlangıç, bitiş ve sonuç itibariyle özetlendiğinde bir iki paragrafa sığabiliyor. Oysaki bu dönemde insan, fert düzeyinde yaşananların tahminlerimizden ve anlayışımızdan yazık ki çok uzak olduğunu ve tam anlamıyla, gerçek boyutlarıyla dile getirilemediğini söylemek gerek. Günümüz dünyasında yaşanan ve neredeyse naklen izleyebildiğimiz savaşların içler acısı görüntüleri bu hali bir parça olsun yansıtabilmektedir. 93 Harbi olarak bilinen 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı’yla Balkanlar’da başlayan soykırım hiç aralık vermeden Balkan Savaşları’yla devam etmiş “Osmanlı’nın, Balkanlar’daki altı yüzyıllık tarihinin evlatları olan Balkan Türkleri, bu iki harpte insanlık tarihinin en kanlı etnik temizliğine ve sürgününe maruz kalmışlardır.”37 Erkeği, kadınıyla yaşlısı çocuğuyla binlerce insan vatanlarından sürülmüş, binlercesi insanlığı utandıracak vahşetle, katliamla karşı karşıya kalmışlardır. Bugün tarihi belgelere dayandırılmadan, araştırma ve incelemeye yanaşılmadan Türkler aleyhine ortaya iddialar atılırken Balkan Savaşı öncesinde ve sonrasında yaşananlar ne sorgulanmakta ne de gündem işgal etmektedir. Tarihin tozlu sayfaları bu konuda derin bir suskunluk yaşarken bu 37 Nesîme Ceyhan, Balkan Savaşı Hikâyeleri, s. 18. 413 �katliamı yaşayan milletin fertleri de ateşten ateşe atıldığı, beladan belaya uğradığı için hangi bir derdine yanacağını şaşırmış bir halde gözyaşları içinde kalmıştır. Tarihin sustuğu noktada konuşmaya başlayan edebiyat, Balkan Savaşı yıllarında yaşanan acıyı, çekilen çileyi, şiir ve hikâye gibi türlerle günümüze dek anlatmaya devam eder. Özellikle bu dönemde -az sayıda olsa da- yazılmış hikâyelerde Balkan Savaşları’nın sıradan insana yansıyan yüzünü görebilmek mümkündür. Evini, ocağını yaşlı anasını, eşini ve yeni doğmuş çocuğunu bırakıp giden nice Türk gencinin çilesi, kahramanlığı bu hikâyelerde dile gelirken savaş cehenneminde kavrulan nice kadın ve çocuk da “enkaz-ı beşer” gibi bu hikâyelerin sayfalarında savrulur. Bu çalışmada bahsi geçen hikâyelerdeki kadın ve çocuklar ele alınacaktır. Oğlunu, kocasını, damadını, nişanlısını savaşa gönderen; namusunu, çocuklarını korumak amacıyla cephe gerisinde ayrı bir savaş veren, kimsesizlikle, açlıkla, hastalıkla, bin bir çeşit korku ve tehlikeyle mücadele eden kadınların ve yaşamak, güvende olmak, bir ana babaya sahip olmak, beslenmek, barınmak gibi temel ihtiyaçlarından mahrum kalan çocukların savaş denilen canavarın dişleri arasından nasıl kayıp gittiği hikâyelerden seçilen örneklerle gösterilecektir. Savaşın Şahitleri ve Kurbanları: Çocuklar Balkan hikâyelerine çocuk konusu çerçevesinde bakıldığında bu hikâyelerde yer alan çocukların dünya yüzünde gördükleri ve yaşadıkları tek gerçeğin savaş ve onun sonuçları olduğunu söylemek gerekir. Neler olup bittiğini pek anlamasalar da yaşananlardan en fazla etkilenen çocuklardır. Daha Balkan Savaşları başlamadan önce Osmanlı’nın elinden çıkmış topraklarda yaşanan şu olayları korku dolu gözlerle izlerler: Göçe zorlanan insanlar eşyalarını satılığa çıkarmışlardır. Bulgarlar kaleleri yıkmaya devam eder. Kimsesiz ve korumasız kalan Türkler birbirlerine sığınırlar. Kahvelerde hicret edenlerden bahsedilir, gelen mektuplar okunur. Her akşam birileri daha vedalaşır, helalleşir, gidenlerin ardından dualar edilir. Camilerde kalabalık cemaatle namazlar kılınır, Allah’a yalvarılır, hazin sureler okunur, Fatiha’yla ruhlar teselli bulur. Bir gün kalelerdeki toplarını almak için İstanbul’dan Türk askerleri gelir ve Vidin kalesi dibinde boru çalar. Çaldıkları borudan yükselen ses ile Vidinliler, Osmanlı günleri geri geldi, Tuna tekrar Osmanlı Devleti’nin oldu sanıp bir dakikalığına sevinip, heyecanlanır, çocuklar koşturur. Fakat bir anlık sevinçten sonra bunun gerçek olamayacağını, Vidin’de tekrar Türk sancağının dalgalanamayacağını ve bu kale dibinde böyle bir borunun bir daha çalınamayacağını fark ederek ümitsizlik ve matem içinde kalırlar. Tüm bu yaşananlara bir çocuk şahit olmakta ve onları dile getirmektedir. Balkan Savaşı hikâyelerinde babası savaşa gidince anneleriyle ve evin yaşlılarıyla kalan bebekler ve çocukların fazlalığı dikkat çeker. Savaşı, toprağı, vatanı, idrak edemeyecek yaşta olan bu çocuklar ya annelerinin kollarından zorla kopartılarak fırınlarda yakılır, süngü ya da dipçik darbeleriyle annelerinin gözleri önünde öldürülür, ya da boğazları kesilir. Bunlar arasında daha dünyaya gelmeden annesinin karnında iken öldürülen ya da yakılan çocuklar da vardır. Pek çok çocuk düşman askerleri tarafından çeşitli yollarla öldürüldükten sonra şefkatli bir mezar toprağına dahi kavuşamaz ve cesetleri yırtıcı hayvanlar tarafından parçalanır. Yaşı biraz daha büyük olan çocuklar; annelerini, köylerini savunmak için gayret ederler. Ama onlar da kardeşlerinin akıbetinden kurtulamazlar ya samanlığın içinde yanarak ya da düşmanın çok çeşitli silahlarıyla vurularak şehit olurlar. Sekiz yaşından küçük kızların çirkin ve zayıfları öldürülür, güzel ve kuvvetlileri vaftizlenerek Bulgaristan’a gönderilir. Hikâyelerde çok sayıda çocuğun zehirlenerek öldürüldüğü Yunanlı bir askerin defterinde şöyle anlatılır: “Bütün bakkallar Türk çocuklarına şeker satarken içine selimani pastilleri karıştırıyor. Çocuklar da bu suretle derhal sancılanıyor, ölüyor. Ne yapalım, kolera!” (Kanlı Sahifeler, s.162) Görüldüğü gibi çocukların biyolojik silah yöntemiyle öldürüldüğü bir Yunan askerinin ağzından alaycı bir biçimde anlatılmıştır. Dul analarının tek ümidi ve neşesi olan, yıllar yılı tüm zorluklar göğüslenerek büyütülen ve gün gelip anaları yaşlandığında onlara bakacak olan çocuklar, anaları ne kadar karşı çıksa da elleri silah tutunca eğitimlerini, işlerini bırakıp cepheye koşarlar. Kimi gözlerinin önünde katledilen kardeşlerinin ve babasının intikamını almak için, kimi vazife, kimi vatan, namus diyerek, kimi de sadece Müslüman ve Türk olduğu için yok edildiklerini anlayarak eğitimlerini, işlerini bırakıp cepheye koşarlar. Bu çocukların durumunu bir şehidin mezar taşına yazılmış şu mısralarda bulmak mümkündür: Yetim idim, anam beni büyüttü Evimizde kara baykuşlar öttü Kulübemiz viran kaldı, inledik Mezarcığın nerededir bilmedik Türk oğlunun ölüm okşar başını Akıtmadan babası için yaşını. (Bir Şehidin Kitabesi, s.68) Ölüm saçan düşman askerinden evlerini ocaklarını bırakıp Edirne’ye, İstanbul’a, Bursa’ya kaçan Türk ailelerinin çocukları bu sürgün yolculuğunda şöyle resmedilir: “Bindiğimiz vapur son derece kalabalıktı. Muhacir aileleri, çocukları kundaklarında bütün güverteyi kaplamışlardı. O mini mini yavrucakların ihtimal bakılamamaktan ihtimal sayısız dolduruldukları binaların havasızlığından yüzleri gözleri hep çıban içinde idi. 414 �(Edirne’den Bursa’ya s.192.) Küçük çocuklar deniz tutmasından sapsarı olmuş, soğuk rüzgârın tesiriyle titreşiyorlardı ki, işte orada genç bir kadın on günlük yavrusunu yere bırakmış, onun açlık feryatlarını işitemiyor bile, muttasıl başını koyacak bir yer arıyor ve soğuk bir rüzgâr bu sefillerin üstüne kim bilir o esnada hangi hastalığın tohumlarını serperek geçiyordu. (Edirne’den Bursa’ya s.193.) Sürgün yolculuğundan sonra ulaştıkları yerlerde de yine yokluk, açlık, kimsesizlik devam eder. Mezar taşları arasında saklambaç oynayan çocuklar, evlere besleme alınmak üzere kendilerine göz dikilen küçük kızlar, sığındıkları medreselerin loş ve isli odalarında ip beşikte avaz avaz ağlayan yolda doğmuş bebeklerle onları susturmak için ellerini çırpan akraba çocukları hikâyelerde yer alır. Bu çocukların bir kısmı sürgünden sonra geldikleri Edirne’de, Bursa’da, İstanbul’da hicret günlerini ve ondan öncesinde yaşananları bir dev masalı gibi korka korka dinleyerek büyürler. Yine bu çocuklardan bazıları da soğuğa, kimsesizliğe, açlığa dayanamaz ve tek dayanağı olan anasının da kör olmasıyla birlikte dilenciliğe başlar. Çocuklar muhacir olarak geldikleri topraklarda vatan nedir, vatan hasreti nedir bu duyguları da son haddinde yaşarlar. Sıla Hediyesi’nde anlatıcı konumunda olan çocuk, vatana duyulan özlemi babasının Tuna’dan bir testi içinde gelen hediye suyu, zemzem gibi, şifalı bir şurup gibi içmesinden anlar ve Tuna’nın artık bizim olmadığını öğrendiğinde boğazı düğümlenir. Namusu Canından Önce Gelenler: Kadınlar Balkan hikâyelerinde savaşın en çirkin yüzüne maruz kalan kişiler kadınlardır. Onlar öncelikle savaşa asker gönderen ana ve eştirler. Oğullarını yetiştirmek, okutmak için her türlü çileye katlanan, gece gündüz dikiş diken ve günü geldiğinde yine oğulları tarafından bakılacağını uman, evladının mürüvvetini görmeyi hayal eden dul analar ne kadar karşı çıksalar da oğullarının savaşa katılmasına engel olamazlar. Tek ümidi ve yaşama sebebi oğlu, şehit olunca da bir meczup gibi onun mezarı başında ağlayarak ömürlerini geçirirler. Bu kadınlardan bazıları da açlıkla ve torunlarının bakımıyla savaşmak zorunda kalır. Eşlerini askere, savaşa gönderen hanımlar da “Yavrum, babacığın vatanın hizmetine gitti. İnşallah şan ve şerefle döner ve o zamana kadar senin sevgili varlığına kendi hayatımı siper koyarak ben seni muhafaza ederim” diyerek kendilerini evlatlarını korumaya adarlar. (Edirne’den Bursa’ya, s. 189) Analar da, gelinler de evlatlarını ve eşlerini savaşa göndermek istemezler. Ama onlardan biri yan çizer ve gönüllü olarak askere gitmekten vazgeçerse “muharebeden firar eden bir kocaya, bir evlada malik olmanın utanç verici olduğunu idrak edip, hakiki bir Türk kızı olduklarını ispat ederek” evlatlarına ve eşlerine kızarlar, kin beslerler ve onları savaşa gitmeye zorlarlar. (Baba-Oğul, s. 259.) Balkan hikâyelerinde oğulları ve eşleri askere gittikten sonra çocuklarla ve yaşlılarla kalan kadınların karşılaştıkları felaketler korkunçtur. Kimi kılıçtan geçirilir, kimi fırınlarda yakılır, kiminin çocuğu gözü önünde katledilir. “Bir genç kadını öldürmek on beş düşmanı öldürmektir” (Beyaz Lâle, s. 221) diyen düşman askerleri “İslam unsuruna evlat, Türk ordusuna asker yetiştiren” (Kanlı Sahifeler, s. 165) Türk kadınlarına büyük bir öfke ve düşmanlık beslerler. Barış zamanlarında kendilerine yüz vermeyen nazlı ve vakur şehirli hanımların intikamını gittikleri köylerdeki hanımlardan çıkarırlar. İslam hanelerindeki kadınların muayene bahanesiyle çarşaflarını, peçelerini yırtarlar. Onları döverek, sırtlarında beş altı sopa kırarak soyarlar. Türk subaylarının İstanbullu hanımlarını ve kızlarını da kendilerine iğrenç bir eğlence vasıtası yaptıktan sonra süngülerler. Geldikleri yerlerdeki kadınları, renklerine göre gruplara ayırır ve askere dağıtırlar, sekiz yaşından kırk beş yaşına kadar olan kadınları kesip cesetlerini şehrin dışındaki hendeklere gömerler, çok ihtiyar kadınları Hıristiyan olmaya zorlarlar. Düşman askerinin en büyük eğlencelerinden biri de Türk ve Müslüman dolu camileri yaktıktan sonra caminin içinde saçları tutuşan kadınların pervane gibi dönüşünü izlemektir. Kadınlar karşılaştıkları bu tür vahşet, gördükleri hunharca eziyetlerden sonra korkudan, acıdan, utançtan ağlarlar, yüzlerini kapatırlar, akıllarını, dillerini kaybederler. Vücutları paramparça olur, kan ve saç yığınında, yanık kokusu içinde o çok geç gelen kurtuluşa, ölüme kavuşurlar. Ölüm, namusu canından önce gelen bu kadınlar için en büyük kurtuluştur. Bu kadınlardan bazıları “Öldürün beni… Allah’ın, Peygamberin huzuruna bakire ve mazlum olarak çıkıp sizi şikâyet edeceğim” (Kanlı Sahifeler, s. 165) diyerek inancına sarılır ve onurunu koruyarak, dik durmaya çalışır. Bütün bu zulümlerden kaçmayı başarıp sürgün yolculuğuna çıkan kadınlardan bir kısmı yolculuk sırasında düşman askeri tarafından yakalanırlar. Zorlukla bulabildikleri arabaları yaylım ateşine tutulur. Çocukları gözleri önünde öldürülür. Bazıları kemerlerle boğulur, bilezikleri kolları kesilerek alınır, yüzükleri parmaklarının derisi soyularak çıkartılır; çorapları, ayakkabıları bile alınır. Kendilerini zorlukla bir gemiye atabilmiş kadınlar da öncelikle hastalıkla sonra da daha vapurda iken başlayan çevrenin baskısıyla ve kötü muamelesiyle karşılaşırlar. Edirne’den Bursa’ya adlı hikâyede hastalıktan titreyen, ter içinde kalan ve biraz nefes alabilmek için peçesini kaldıran bir göçmen hanım hem polis hem de diğer insanlar tarafından “Hanım yüzünü kapa, edebini takın, burası İstanbul değil, Anadolu” gibi sözlerle uyarılır. Bu yolculuğun sonunda İstanbul’a, Edirne’ye ya da Bursa’ya gelebilmiş olan kadınları da buralarda ayrı zorluklar bekler. Geldikleri bu topraklarda yeterli ilgiyi bulamazlar, medreselerin köhne odalarında açlıkla, hastalıkla, soğukla, çocuklarının ya da torunlarının bakımıyla savaşırlar. Kendilerine yardım eli uzatılmaz ama kız çocuklarına hizmetçi alınmak üzere 415 �göz dikilir. Halkın gereken ilgiyi göstermemesi ve içinde bulundukları imkânsızlıklar sonucunda sağlıklarını kaybederler. “Samatya’da Bir Gece” adlı hikâyede böyle bir kadının sonunda kör olduğu ve çocuğuyla beraber dilenmeye başladığı görülür. Rumeli’den İstanbul’a ya da Anadolu’ya sığınabilmiş kadınlar, buralardaki Türk ve Müslüman soydaşlarının Balkanlarda yaşanan vahşetten habersizmiş gibi davranmaları karşısında büyük hayal kırıklığı yaşarlar. Bu hayal kırıklığı yaşayanlardan biri, babası Makedonya çetelerinin eliyle vahşice öldürülen, kocası ve çocukları da düşman ayakları altında inleye inleye ölen Selanikli Ayşe Hanımdır. Selanik’in teslimi sırasında bir zamanlar müşterisi olduğu mağazanın Rum sahibi tarafından saldırıya uğrar ama namusunu kurtarmayı başararak İstanbul’a canını atar. İstanbul’a geldiğinde Rumeli’de mahvedilen yüz binlerce Müslüman’ın, Türk’ün haberinin sanki buraya gelmemiş gibi İstanbul bey ve hanımlarının zevk ve eğlencelerine devam etmesine şaşırır. Yine Müslüman ve Türk hanımlarının Rum mağazalarından alışveriş etmesine dayanamaz ve şöyle haykırır: “İşte kardeşçiklerim siz böyle kanlı katil bir herifin kardeşinden mal alıyorsunuz. Bu paraların nereye gittiğini bilmiyorsunuz. Hep işte benim ve sizin gibi Müslüman ve Türk hanımların alın teri döken kocalarınızdan alıp bu hınzır heriflere döktüğümüz paralarla Averoflar, toplar, tüfekler alındı. Analarımız, babalarımız, evlatlarımız hep bizim paralarımızla alınan toplarla, tüfeklerle şehid edildi. Averof zırhlısını Yanyalı bir Rum’un verdiği para ile aldılar. O ölenler…şehid edilenler sizin kardeşleriniz değil mi? Yüreğiniz bu heriflerle alışverişe nasıl razı oluyor? Sizde Müslüman kalbi, Türk yüreği yok mu?” (Selanikli Ayşe Hanım, s.206) Rumeli’den gelen hanımlar, muhacirlerin yaşadığı sıkıntılar ve onlara ilgi gösterilmemesi, Türk mahallelerinin çamurdan, tahtadan evleri, taşları bozuk kaldırımları, kirli fakir dükkânları, kahvelerdeki işsiz güçsüz insanları karşısında da hayal kırıklığına uğrarlar. Buna karşın Ermeni mahallelerindeki temizliğe, düzene ve kahvehanelerin azlığına şaşırırlar. Bu zıtlık karşısında “Niçin her şey Türklüğün küçüldüğünü böyle gösteriyor?” diye dertlenen muhacir hanımlardan biri güneşin altında gösterişi, inceliği ve güzelliği ile parlayan Yeşil Türbe ile karşılaşır. Muhitinin sefaleti arasından sıyrılan bu yüksek ve ulvi güzelliğe sahip türbeden içeri girer. Çinilerin latif renkleri, hatların güzel şekilleri karşısında içi iftiharla dolar. Böyle bir eseri meydana getiren Türk dehasına hayran olur, biraz önce Türk mahallelerinde gördüğü sefaleti, küçüklüğü unutur. “Bu nefis eseri vücuda getiren âlî zevkli millet asla ölmez” diyerek, milletinin bir gün eski ulviyetini, eski büyüklüğünü hatırlayacağına emin olur. Bütün olumsuzluklara rağmen Yeşil Türbe sayesinde gelecek günler için ümitlenir. (Edirne’den Bursa’ya, s. 199) Sonuç 1908-1918 yılları arasında yazılan Balkan hikâyeleri çocuk ve kadın bağlamında incelendiğinde, Balkanlar’da yaşanan savaşın, soykırımın ve sürgünün en çirkin yüzüne çocuk ve kadınların maruz kaldığı görülür. Masum ve çaresiz anne karnındaki bebekler, küçük çocuklar yakılarak, süngülenerek, kesilerek, dini ve geçmişi unutturularak yok edilir. Çok sayıda çocuk, yetim, öksüz kalır. Bir kısmı da sürgün yolcuğunda öldürülür. Hicret ettikleri topraklarda da açlık, kimsesizlik, perişanlık içinde kalırlar. Bütün bu yaşananlar sırasında hikâyelerin arka planında hiç dinmeyen bir çocuk ağlaması duyulur ve mini mini ellerini semaya kaldırarak dua eden çocuk silueti gözler önünden gitmez. Balkan Savaşı’nı konu eden hikâyelerde kadınların karşılaştığı durumlar hikâyeleri okuyanları insan olmaktan utandıracak özelliktedir. Ömer Seyfettin’in çok bilinen Beyaz Lâle adlı hikâyesi bu durumların derecesini ve korkunçluğunu gözler önüne serer. Kadınlar Türk ve Müslüman halkın bekasının temeli oldukları için ayrı bir düşmanlıkla karşı karşıya kalırlar. Sadece canları değil canlarından çok daha fazla değer verdikleri namusları, evlatları, eşleri, vatanları ellerinden alınır. Bu kadınlar için ölüm bir şanstır, en temiz ve kolay bir kurtuluştur. Fakat onlar özellikle namusları paramparça edilmeden, gözleri önünde evlatları süngülenmeden bu kurtuluşa eremezler. Hicret ettikleri topraklarda da yalnızlık, açlık, hastalık ve kimsesizlik içinde kalırlar. Balkan Savaşı yıllarında toplumsal gerçekçilikle kaleme alınan bu hikâyeler baştan sona okunduğunda hepsinin de aynı tarihi gerçekleri yansıttığı görülür. Yazarların aynı gerçekleri ya da hayali üstelik birbirini tamamlayacak şekilde dile getirmeleri dikkat çekicidir. Bahsi geçen hikâyeleri Balkan savaşı yıllarında Türk ve Müslüman halkın yaşadığı soykırımın bir aynası kabul etmek ve özellikle tarih öğretiminde kullanmak yerinde olacaktır. 416 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 432 Title A name given to the resource Balkan Savaşı Hikâyelerinden Yansıyan Çocuk ve Kadınlar Author Author BÜYÜKSAVAŞ KURAN, Şeyma Abstract A summary of the resource. Osmanlı hâkimiyetinde iken huzur içinde yaşamalarına rağmen Sırp, Bulgar, Rum, Arnavut ve Karadağlılar, milliyetçilik akımının yayılması ve bazı büyük devletlerin kışkırtmasıyla farklı zamanlarda Osmanlı’ya karşı ayaklanırlar, savaş açarlar. Bu süreçte 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı ve 1912-1913 Balkan Savaşları ile Balkanlar Osmanlı’dan kopar. Bu kopuş sırasında yaşanan savaşlarda eli silah tutan Türk ve Müslüman erkekler vatanlarını, namuslarını kurtarmak amacıyla cephelere koşarken arkalarında savunmasız yaşlılar, analar, hamile taze gelinler ve her yaştan çocuk bırakmak zorunda kalmışlardır. Erkekler savaşta bin türlü vahşetin içinde şehitliğe ererken arkada açlık, korku ve gözyaşıyla bıraktıkları kişiler, asırların görmediği soykırımı ve sürgünü yaşarlar. Balkan Savaşları sırasında yaşanan bu olaylar belli başlı yönleriyle tarihin kanlı ve tozlu sayfalarında yerlerini alırken edebiyat da bu yaşananları fert düzeyinde bir taraftan ve daha çok da şiirle, diğer taraftan da hikâye ve romanla dile getirmekte, bu insanlık dramını nesilden nesile anlatmaya devam etmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Balkan Savaşı yıllarında kaleme alınmış hikâyeler, cephe gerisinde kalan çocuk ve kadınların durumları açısından ele alınacaktır. Yüzyıllar boyunca savaşın en çirkin yüzüne maruz kalan kadın ve çocukların Balkan Savaşındaki durumları, o döneme ait hikâyeler yardımıyla resmedilecektir. 1908-1918 yılları arasında kaleme alınan bu hikâyelerin bazılarında; babaları, eşleri ya da oğulları savaşa gittikten sonra yurtlarında kalan kadın ve çocukların yaşadıkları binbir çeşit eziyet ve yok edilme konu edilmektedir. Yine bu kadın ve çocuklardan yurtlarından kopup Anadolu’ya sığınmak üzere sürgün yolculuğuna çıkan ya da Anadolu’ya ulaşmayı başarabilenlerin de ölüm, korku, açlık ve kimsesizlik uçurumunda kayboldukları dile getirilmektedir. Annesini, kardeşlerini korumak zorunda kalan on üç yaşında çocuk erkekler, Anadolu’ya geldiklerinde çeşitli sebeplerle hayal kırıklıkları yaşayan göçmen hanımlara da yine bu sayfalarda tesadüf edilmektedir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9abd7525aa9d7024a3303c5f5788130c.pdf 04b737e855c4e1ec2672e3cfaa9d04b2 PDF Text Text Evaluation of a Vehicle Acceleration Behavior through Decision Tree Learning Đhsan Ö mür Bucak Fatih University, Engineering Faculty, Computer Engineering Department, 34500 Buyukcekmece,Istanbul, Turkiye ibucak@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The faster that a motor vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucial to its performance and handling. The acceleration of the vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the car handles during merging and evasive maneuvering. Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. The attractiveness of decision trees is due to the fact that, in contrast to neural networks, decision trees represent rules. Rules can readily be expressed so that humans can understand them after a brief explanation. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. Keywords: Vehicle Acceleration, Vehicle Dynamics, Decision Tree Learning, Machine Learning. Introduction A vehicle can go faster if it has more horsepower. In reality, there are many aspects to a vehicle acceleration besides it's horsepower. One other major aspectis vehicle weight.Ifthe vehicle weightislowered, itsacceleration, braking, and handling capabilites will beincreased. Given the same power and adequatetraction, a light vehicle will accelerate quicker than a heavier vehicle. Figure 1 shows such an acceleration performance, specifically 0-60 mph (=26.66 m/s) passing time, for various vehicle weights from 1100 kg to 1700 kg with all other parameters unchanged on a simple vehicle dynamics modelrealized on Matlab-Simulink (Matlab, 2008). A very quick street or race car usually combines excellent power with less weight. The most current vehicle dynamics controllers attempt to ensure stability by keeping lateral acceleration, sometimes, longitudinal acceleration, and yaw within reasonable bounds (Bauer, 1999a; 1999b; Jurgen, 1999; Karri and Butler, 2002). The faster that a vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucialto its performance and handling. The acceleration of a vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the vehicle performs during merging and evasive maneuvering. The launching performances are the acceleration performance with variousthrottle positions and the transient characteristics of vehiclecreep and throttletip-in. Every time a new or redesigned performance car enters the marketplace,itis accompanied by a number; specifically,the number of seconds it takes to reach 60 miles per hour (26.66 meters per second) from a standing start. So many drivers want to push that pedal allthe way to the metal, as much of the time as possible; because they do not want to have trouble merging into an expressway or take endless seconds to pass another vehicle on a two-lane road. Weak acceleration is an issue that needs to be addressed when minicars,including those powered by batteries, begin to emerge into the world market. What matters is not the ability to reach 60 miles per hour in a few seconds. Allthat countsisthe abilityto accelerate at midrange speeds:from 30 to 50 mph, or 50 to 70 mph. That is where energetic acceleration has a valid purpose, and is essential for safe motoring. Charts display acceleration times not only from 0 to 60 mph, but for a selection of useful speed ranges. Road tests include a broad set oftimed acceleration runs. Excess acceleration and deceleration need to be detected and mitigated within the required response time particularlyinthe case of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).There are a variety of simulation programs developed toinvestigatethelaunching performance in variouslaunching conditionsthrough the use of mathematical models of each driveline component (Kim, 2005). Automotive manufacturers use such performance programs to evaluate their vehicles during product design and development stages so that they can meet the stringent govermentalregulations on performance,fuel economy, and emissions before the vehicleis actuallylaunched to the marketplace. Practical evaluation of acceleration behavior through the rulistic expression of decision trees helps to expose the major factors that affectthe performance-related design parameters so thatthe redesign can be made more productively and effectively in orderto prevent vehicle recalls and/or customer dissatisfaction. 395 �0-26.66 m/s passing time for various vehicle weights 100 90 80 1100 kg 1300 kg 1500 kg 1700 kg Vehicle speed m/s 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time s 60 70 80 90 100 Figure 1. Acceleration performance for various vehicle weights. This paperis based on decision tree learning used to evaluate vehicle dynamic parameters for describing an accelerating vehicle behavior. The remaining of the paper is arranged as follows. Section 2 briefly explains the basics of the decision tree learning including the definition, the construction, attributes as classifiers, entropy and information gain. Section 3 describes the method. Section 4 presents the numerical experiments and simulations. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 5. Decision Tree Learning Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. One of the several advantages of decision trees is that they are simple to understand and interpret. This is mainly due to the fact that,in contrastto neural networks, decision trees represent rules. These rules can readily be expressed so that people can understand them after a brief explanation (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Decision tree learning, used in data mining and machine learning, uses a decision tree as a predictive model which maps observations about an item to conclusions about the item's target value. More descriptive names for such tree models are classification tree (discrete outcome) or regression tree (continuous outcome). In these tree structures, leaves represent classifications and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those classifications (Breiman et al., 1984; Yuan and Shaw, 1995; Mitchell, 1997; Berikov and Litvinenko, 2003; Menzies and Hu, 2003, Wikipedia, 2009). Decision tree is a classifier in the form of a tree structure, where each node is either (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001): • a leaf node -indicatesthe value ofthe target attribute (class)of examples, or • a decision node - specifies some test to be carried out on a single attribute-value, with one branch and sub-tree for each possible outcome ofthe test. A decision tree can be used to classify an example by starting atthe root ofthetree and moving through it untilaleaf node, which providesthe classification oftheinstance. Most algorithms that have been developed for learning decision trees are variations on a core algorithm that employs a top-down, greedy search through the space of possible decision trees. Decision tree programs construct a decision tree from a set of training cases (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). The estimation criterion in the decision tree algorithm is the selection of an attribute to test at each decision node in the tree. The goalisto selectthe attribute thatis most useful for classifying examples. A good quantitative measure of the worth of an attribute is a statistical property called information gain that measures how wella given attribute separatesthetraining examples according totheirtarget classification. This measure is used to select among the candidate attributes at each step while growing the tree.In orderto define information gain precisely, we need to define a measure commonly used in information theory, called entropy, that characterizes the (im)purity of an arbitrary collection of examples. Given a set S, containing only positive and negative examples of some target concept (a 2 class problem), the entropy of set S relative to this simple, binary classification is defined as: Entropy( s ) = − p p log 2 p p − pn log 2 pn , (1) where pp is the proportion of positive examples in S and pn is the proportion of negative examples in S (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). One interpretation of entropy from information theory is thatit specifies the minimum number of bits of 396 �information needed to encode the classification of an arbitrary member of S (i.e., a member of S drawn at random with uniform probability). For example, if pp is 1, the receiver knows the drawn example will be positive, so no message need be sent, and the entropy is 0. On the other hand, if pp is 0.5, one bitis required to indicate whether the drawn example is positive or negative. If pp is 0.8, then a collection of messages can be encoded using on average less than 1 bit per message by assigning shorter codes to collections of positive examples and longer codes to lesslikely negative examples (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). If the target attribute takes on c different values rather than the special case discussed above where the target classification takes on 2 different values, i.e., binary, then the entropy of S relative to this c-wise classification is defined as c Entropy( S ) = ∑ − pi log 2 pi , (2) i =1 where pi isthe proportion of S belonging to classi. Note the logarithm is still base 2 because entropy is a measure of the expected encoding length measured in bits. Note also that if the target attribute can take on c possible values,the maximum possible entropy islog2 c (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Given entropy as a measure of the impurity in a collection of training examples, we can now define a measure of the effectiveness of an attribute in classifying the training data. The measure we will use, called information gain,is simply the expected reduction in entropy caused by partitioning the examples according to this attribute. More precisely, the information gain, Gain (S, A) of an attribute A, relative to a collection of examples S,is defined as Sv Gain( S , A ) = Entropy( S ) − Entropy( Sv ) (3) ∑ v∈Value( A ) S where Values(A)isthe set of allpossible values for attribute A, and Sv isthe subset of S for which attribute A has value v (i.e.,Sv = {s  S | A(s) = v}). Note the firstterm in the equation for Gain isjustthe entropy of the original collection S and the second term isthe expected value ofthe entropy after S is partitioned using attribute A. Gain (S,A) is therefore the expected reduction in entropy caused by knowing the value of attribute A. Put another way, Gain(S,A) is the information provided about the target attribute value, given the value of some other attribute A. The value of Gain(S,A) is the number of bits saved when encoding the target value of an arbitrary member of S, by knowing the value of attribute A (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). The process of selecting a new attribute and partitioning the training examples is now repeated for each non-terminal descendant node,this time using only the training examples associated with that node. Attributes that have been incorporated higher in the tree are excluded, so that any given attribute can appear at most once along any path through the tree. This process continues for each new leaf node until either of two conditions is met: 1. every attribute has already been included along this path through the tree, or 2. the training examples associated with this leaf node all have the same target attribute value (i.e.,their entropy is zero). Practical issues in learning decision trees include determining how deeply to grow the decision tree, handling continuous attributes, choosing an appropriate attribute selection measure, handling training data with missing attribute values, handing attributes with differing costs, and improving computational efficiency. Overfitting is a significant practical difficulty for decision tree learning and many otherlearning methods. There are several approaches to avoiding overfitting in decision tree learning (Schaffer, 1991; Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Method and Data Vehicle dynamics describes the forces acting on the vehicle that resultin its motion. Tractive effort and resistance are the two primary opposing forces that determine the performance characteristics of road vehicles. The engine in the vehicle supplies the tractive-effort force, and the magnitude of this force is restricted by internalfriction losses. The difference between thetractive effortand the resulting resisting forceisthe netthrust Fnet available for accelerating vehicle. The forces of air resistance, rolling resistance, grade resistance, and friction resistance oppose the engine tractive force and limit the acceleration capability of the vehicle (Wong, 1978; Snare, 2002). Maximum tractive force, Ftotal,isthe maximum amount of force thatthe engine can supply to the tires of the drive axles. Therefore,the maximum tractive force delivered to the tires ofthe drive axlesinthe chosen gear combination can be expressed as follows: Ftotal = ( Tm .Tr .Rr .Rn .Grx ) / Ts , (4) where Tm represents maximum torque (Nm), Tr transfer case or auxiliary gear box ratio, Rr final drive ratio, 397 �Rn drive axles efficiency (%),Gr1 gear ratio forthe first gear (i.e.,x=1), and Ts tire size (radius) (m). Required pullforce, Freq,isthe force required to cause the vehicleto roll. Hence,the required pullforce is calculated by the following equation: Freq = overcome friction + Accelerate+ C lim b slope or, (5) Freq = µ R .W g . cos( sl ) + ( W g / g ).a + W g . sin( sl ) , where µ R represents coefficient of rolling friction, Wg gross vehicle weight (mTon), g gravitation ( m / s ) ,and sl maximum slope in route (degree). In this paper acceleration behavior is evaluated based on the 37500 data, which are formed by the combination ofthe maximum torque, weight, gear ratio,finaldrive ratio, maximum slope and tire size variables. These variables,also known as attributes,are expressed inthe form of one-dimensional arrays. The same number of elements of each attribute array represents a dynamic parameters of a unique vehicle. Thereforethe number of different vehicletypesinthe evaluation processis determined by the size ofthe arrays, allin equallength. Drive axles efficiency is taken constant that is set at 90%. The efficiency slightly reduces due to internal friction although the absolute traction between tires and road surface increases. Coefficient of rolling friction is also considered constant,and is set at 0.03 valid for most ordinary cartires on asphalt pavements. The other constant parameter is transfer case. Transfer case or auxiliary gear is intended to select two wheel drive or four wheel drive operations and may contain one or more sets of low range gears. Low range gears slow down the vehicle and increase the torque available at the axles. Therefore, they are used during slow speed or extreme off road maneuvers. Although on all drive sports cars this feature is absent, we still consider the equations that include the transfer case ratio, but we decide to setthe ratio 1:1 for allthe vehicle types considered. However,transfer case ratio has had no effect on our conclusions when we setit at 2:1 for the purpose to exhibit and observe its role in describing the complete acceleration behavior. Itis assumed thatthe first gear is engaged as the lowest gear and used as such in the entire calculations. The limits of acceleration variable forthe evaluations have been determined through acceleration vs speed charts (Snare, 2002). The speed calculations have not taken into account any environmentalforces such as wind or state (and incline) ofthe road. 2 Numerical Experiments and Simulations In this study there are seven determined attributes used to evaluate the vehicle acceleration behavior. These attributes are maximum acceleration, weight,torque,gear ratio,final drive ratio,tire size, and slope. The attributes are used to calculate the leaf and decision nodes, and the branches in the tree are formed by the attribute values, which are simply one-dimensional array elements. Each element holds a unique branch value. For each and every acceleration value in the acceleration array, the difference between the total tractive force and the required pullforce is checked whetherthe resulting difference between the forces is sufficient enough to accelerate the vehicle when needed on the road. If the difference is positive, the further analysis is done to determine the effects ofthe variables mentioned previously and hence evaluate acceleration behavior(usually for maximum acceleration) as the acceleration is varied between its predetermined minimum and maximum limits. Therefore,the objective ofthis paperisto develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of personal motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. In this study we use the ID3 algorithm (Quinlan, 1986) to learn the decision tree by constructing them topdown, beginning withthe root node ofthetree. The bestvariable (attribute) has been selected and used as the test at the root node of the tree. A descendant of the root node is then created for each possible value of this attribute, and the training examples are sorted to the appropriate descendant node. The entire process is then repeated using the training examples associated with each descendant node to selectthe best attribute to test at that point in the tree (greedy search policy) (Mitchell, 1997). We must note that the gain can be negative. A negative gain indicates thatthe cost of using the statisticalinformation is more than the cost of determining the path at each node (Rontogiannis and Dimopoulos, 1995). The decision tree in Figure 2 shows the entire tree to classify by sorting the problem through the tree to the appropriate leaf node, then turning classification associated with this leaf (in this case Yes or No). Figure 3 shows the 30% post pruned decision tree (Mitchell, 1997; Esposito, Malerba, and Semeraro, 1997). Both figure sets the depth of the tree to three to view the tree better since the branch numbers getintermingled as the depth isincreased. Yes in the tree indicates the value of thetarget attribute (class) of examples, which, also means thatthe difference between the totaltractive force and the required pullforceis sufficient enough to acceleratethe vehicle when needed on the road, and the magnitude of this difference will always be positive. No indicates that no such force for a given acceleration can be produced by the engine and therefore vehicle cannot accelerate for a given conditions, and the magnitude ofthis difference will always be zero or negative. 398 �The leaf and decision nodes receive their values, which, in this case, are shown in numbers by the program, according to the variable organization sequence during the software loop execution and represent attributes. Therefore, ‘1’ represents maximum acceleration, ‘2’ maximum slope, ‘3’ gross vehicle weight, ‘4’ maximum torque, ‘5’ gear ratio,‘6’ final drive ratio, and finally ‘7’ tire size. The numbered branches indicate the valuesinthe attribute array in the order from lefttothe rightthatthe specific branches belong to as shown in Table 1. 1 2 3 4 Accel (m/s^2) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 W (mTon) 1.0728 1.696 1.999 1.379 1.192 sl (deg) arctan(0.0 1) 145.1 arctan(0.03 ) 332.2 atctan(0.0 5) 375.6 244.1 173.6 3.615 4.056 0.2997 4.484 3.16 0.34544 3.06 3.42 0.3746 3.50 3.812 0.3327 3.143 4.765 0.317 5 Tm (Nm) Gr1 Rr Ts (m) 5 Table 1. Branch numbers and their values forthe selected attributes. Conclusions In this paper the most effective parameters or variables for describing an accelerating vehicle behavior have been assessed by using decision tree learning. Having analyzed the 37500 data by the fully complete and post pruned decision tree, we conclude that the maximum torque that the engine can produce is the main significantfactorin determining an accelerating vehicle behavior and always ends up atthe root node ofthe tree regardless of the several trials with different initial parameters. Moving down the tree branch, the maximum acceleration comes up asthe second significant variableto describe an accelerating vehicle behavior.Inthe third subtree level,the vehicle weight, and in the fourth, the final drive ratio seem to emerge other most significant ones. Lastly, gear ratio,tire size, and maximum slope in route are the least significant ones, depending on their defined ranges, as compared to others. These conclusions have been obtained after many runs with different initial set-ups for mainly train size, test size, and prune size parameters of the decision tree algorithm. Of the 37500 data, 50% to 80% has been chosen as train size, 3% to 10% as test size, and 30% to 50% as prune size in different occasions to come to the above conclusion. For a vehicleto be really quick,these conclusions suggestthatitisimportantto pay attention to variables like torque, horsepower, desired maximum acceleration, gear ratios, transmission selection, traction, weight. Specifically, maximum performance in longitudinal acceleration of a motor vehicle may be determined by tire traction limit atlow speeds other than engine power which may be accounted at high speeds (Gillespie, 1992). All of these factors work in harmony with each other to create a signature acceleration rate. Once the major components arein place,the nextthing would be to tune the combination to create an optimu m acceleration. 399 �References Bauer, H. (1999a) ESP Electronic Stability Program, Technical Instruction, Robert Bosch GmbH, Society of Automotive Engineers. Bauer, H. (1999b) Driving Safety Systems, Robert Bosch GmbH, Society of Automotive Engineers. Berikov, V. and Litvinenko, A. (2003) Methods for statistical data analysis with decision trees, Sobolev Institute of Mathematics, Novosibirsk. Breiman, L., Friedman, J., Olshen, R. A. and Stone, C. J. (1984) Classification and regression trees, Wadsworth. Esposito, F., Malerba, D. and Semeraro, G. (1997) ‘A Comparative Analysis of Methods for Pruning Decision Trees’, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 19, pp. 476-491. Gamberger D. and Šmuc, T. (2001) Data Mining Server Available at http://dms.irb.hr/, Zagreb, Croatia: Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Laboratory for Information Systems. Gillespie, T. D. (1992) Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. Jurgen, R. K. (1999) Automotive Electronics Handbook, 2nd Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers. Karri, V. And Butler, D. (2002) ‘Using artificial neural networks to predict vehicle acceleration and yaw angles’, In: Wang, L., Rajapakse, J.C., Fukishima, K., Lee, S. And Yao, X. (eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Neural Information Processing (ICONIP'02) , Vol. 4. Kim, J. (2005) ‘Launching Performance Analysis of a Continuously Variable Transmission Vehicle With Different Torsional Couplings’, Journal of Mechanical Design, 127, pp. 295-301. Matlab (2008), Matlab Inc. R2008b. Menzies, T. and Hu, Y. (2003) ‘Data Mining For Very Busy People’, IEEE Computer, pp. 18-25. Mitchell, T. M. (1997) Machine Learning, McGraw-Hill International Editions. Quinlan, J. R. (1986) ‘Induction of decision trees’, Machine Learning, 1, pp. 81-106. Rontogiannis A. and Dimopoulos, N. J., (1995) ‘A probabilistic approach for reducing the search cost in binary decision trees’, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 24, pp. 362-370. Schaffer, C. (1991) ‘When does overfitting decrease prediction accuracy in induced decision trees and rule sets? Machine Learning’ — EWSL-91, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, pp. 192-205. Snare, M. C. (2002) Dynamics model for predicting maximum and typical acceleration rates of passenger vehicles, M.Sc. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA. Wikipedia (2009). Decision tree learning. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_learning 31/3/2009]. Wong, J. Y. (1978) Theory of Ground Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Yuan, Y. and Shaw, M. J. (1995), ‘Induction of fuzzy decision trees’, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 69, pp. 125–139. 400 [accessed �3 4 2.5 1 2 1 1.5 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 1 1 3 3 3 3 0.5 12345 12345 12345 12345 yes 0 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes nonoyes yes nonononononononono 0 10 20 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1234 1234 1234 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 30 yes yes 2 3 4 1 1 1234 1234 1 5 yes 1 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 50 40 60 yes 2 3 1 4 1 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes noyes yes nonoyes yes yes yes yes yes yes noyes yes nononoyes nononono 70 80 90 100 Figure 2. The decison tree output for an accelerating vehicle. 3 4 2.5 1 2 1 1.5 yes 3 4 yes 5 yes 1 12 3 4 1 yes 3 0.5 0 2 1 2 34 3 no yes 3 12345 12345 0 yes no no yes yes yes no no no no 10 20 3 3 12345 12345 12345 30 40 50 60 70 80 yes yes no yes yes yes no no yes yes yes no no no no 90 100 Figure 3. The output ofthe 30% pruned decison tree for an accelerating vehicle. 401 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 518 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of a Vehicle Acceleration Behavior through Decision Tree Learning Author Author Bucak, İhsan Ömür Abstract A summary of the resource. The faster that a motor vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucial to its performance and handling. The acceleration of the vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the car handles during merging and evasive maneuvering. Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. The attractiveness of decision trees is due to the fact that, in contrast to neural networks, decision trees represent rules. Rules can readily be expressed so that humans can understand them after a brief explanation. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/54a1eb16effc25e9e93924fda4500dfc.pdf 50084f3872cae99e3b63793f85e2f367 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Arsenic Removal By Electrochemical Treatment Process Recep Boncukçuoğlu Department of EnvironmentalEngineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Berrin Z. Can VIIIst Regional Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSĐ), Erzurum, Turkey Alper E.Yilmaz Department of EnvironmentalEngineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey M. Muhtar Kocakerim Abstract: In the present study, electrocoagulation (EC) has been evaluated as a treatment technology for arsenic (As) removal from aqueous solutions. Iron plate electrode was used in experiments. The experiments was used were carried out in a batch reactor. The effects of operational parameters such as current density, initial pH, electrolysis time and initial arsenic concentration were investigated. The obtained experimental results showed that efficiency of arsenic removal increased with increasing current density and decreased with increasing arsenic concentration in the solution. It has been established that the pH has a considerable influence on the performance of electrocoagulation process. Under the optimum conditions of an initial pH of 4, current density of 1,07 mA/cm2, stirring speed of 150 rpm, electrolysis time of 30 minutes, Arsenic was removed from aqueous solutions including arsenic concentration of 50 mg/L, at a rate of 99,50%. Keywords: Arsenic removal, electrocoagulation, water treatment, iron electrode 1. Introduction Arsenic, a toxic trace element present in natural waters (ground and surface water), has become a major unavoidable threat for the life of human beings and useful microorganisms. Arsenic concentration in water can become elevated due to several reasons like, mineral dissolution, use of arsenical pesticides, disposal of fly ash, mine drainage, and geothermaldischarge [1]. Arsenic contamination in potable water suppliesis a serious health problem in many countries around the world. As is a cause for skin,liver,lung and kidney or bladder cancer,itis a big headache to the nation. Due to carcinogenic nature of arsenic compounds, the purpose should now be to reduce the exposure of arsenic-contaminated water to a level as close to zero as possible [2.] . According to theWorld Health Organization (WH O), the maximum contamination level of arsenic in drinkingwater is 50 and 10 µg/L as a provisional guideline value [3]. This standard has been retained by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and is currently the maximum contaminant level. The range of values under consideration by USEPA is from 2 to 20 µg/L for total arsenic. Several methods have been investigated for removal of arsenic,including ion exchange [4, 5],coagulation and precipitation withiron and aluminum salts[6, 7], adsorption [8, 9], electocoagulation [10, 11], membran techniques like ultrafiltration [12, 13], Nanofiltration [14],electrodialysis,reverse osmosis [15]. EC (electocoagulation) is an emerging watertreatmenttechnology and could be a good choice to remove As (III)from water:the amount ofrequired chemicalsis much lower,a smaller amount of sludge is produced, no mixing of chemical is required, coagulant dosing as well required overpotentials can be easily calculated and controlled, operating costs are much lower when compared with most ofthe conventionaltechnologies [16,17]. W hen iron is used as electrode material, the chemical reactions which occur on electrode and in the solution, are shown in Table 1. The following mechanisms describe the formation of the iron hydroxides Fe(OH)n where n = 2 or 3. The Fe(OH)n(s) formed remains in the aqueous stream as a gelatinous suspension, which can remove the pollutants from wastewater either by complexation or by electrostatic attraction, followed by coagulation [18]. 194 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Mechanism Mechanism 1: Anode : In the solution Cathode: Overall: Reactions 4Fe(s) → 4Fe2+ (aq) + 8e4Fe2+(aq) +10H2 O(1) + O(2) →4Fe(OH)3(s) + 8H+ (aq) 8H+ (aq) + 8e- → 4H2(g) 4Fe(s) + 10H2 O(1) + O2 (q) → 4Fe(OH)3(s) + 4H2(g) Anode : Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2eIn the solution Fe2+(aq) + 2OH- (aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) Cathode: 2H2 O(1) + 2e- → H2(g) + 2OH -(aq) Overall: Fe(s) + 2H2 O(1) → Fe(OH)2(s) + H2(g) Table 1. The reactions occurred atiron electrode and in the solution Mechanism 2: The H2 produced as a result of the redox reaction may remove dissolved organics or any suspended materials by flotation. The purpose of the present study is to assess the performance of EC on the treatment of arsenic, by exploring the effects of various operational parameters such as current density, initial pH and initial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal efficiency. 2. Experimental 2.1. Materials All chemicals were of analytical grade. Stock arsenic solutions of 1.32 g/l were prepared according to the EPA standard method by dissolving arsenic oxide (As2 O3) in 2N NaOH and then diluting the solution up to 1 liter with de-ionized water. Solutions of lower concentrations were prepared by proper dilution. The pH of the solution was adjusted by adding either sodium hydroxide or sulfuric acid. 2.2. Analytical methods The concentration of As was determined by a Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer model Shimadzu AA 6800 equipped with a hydride generation. Hydride generation is, perhaps, the most popular sample derivatization method used for inorganic arsenic detection. Initially it was developed as a method for AAS, whereby sodium or potassium tetrahydroborate (III) is used for arsine production (Eq 4,5). The reduction reagents NaBH4 and KBH4 have proved to be exceptionally reliable reagents forthe conversion ofthe sample to volatile forms [19]. The hydride generation procedure can be also used for differential determination of As (III) and As (V), based on the fact that As (III) reacts with tetrahydroborate at a higher pH than As (V).Thus tetrahydroborateis acting as a reductantfor As (V) as wellas a hydride source. The inclusion of on-line hydride generation generallyincreasesthe sensitivity of detection and reducesthe possibleinterferences from the sample matrix. In this study sodium tetrahydroborate (NaBH4) was of analytical grade and was dissolved in sodium hydroxide solution just before use. − As(OH) 3 + 3BH4 + 3H + → AsH3 + 3BH3 + 3H 2 O (1) 3BH3 + 3H 2 O → H 3 BO3 + 3H 2 (2) Electrocoagulation was conducted at different electrolysis time, different pH, different current density, and differentinitial concentrations,different stirring speed using Fe electrodes. 2.3. Electrocoagulation test The experiments carried outin a 1600 mL3 laboratory-scale batch reactor made of plexiglass. Two groups of alternating electrodes being cathodes and anodes (by six plates of each type) made ofiron with total area of approximately 700 cm2 were arranged vertically. The net spacing between the iron electrodes was 5 mm. They were treated with the solution of HNO3 for cleaning priorto use. At the end of run,the electrodes were washed thoroughly with water to remove any solid residues on the surfaces, and dried. Electrodes were connected to a digital DC power supply characterized by the ranges 0.36–2.14 mA/cm2 for current and 0–30V for voltage in monopolar mode. G W GPC -3060 D was used as a power supply. Cell current was measued using WT W Multiline 340i multimetre. During the experiments, the electrocoagulation unit was stirred at 150 rpm by a magnetic stirrer. (Heidolph M R-3004). The pH and conductivity were measured by a multimeter (WT W, 195 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Multiline 340 i), which was freshly calibrated by 2 points (4.01, 7.00) before each test. The experimental apparatus is given in Fig. 1. The reactor was fed with 1500 mL of arsenic containing solution atthe beginning of each run performed at constanttemperature (293 K). After each run was timed starting with switching the DC power supply on,the residual arsenicinthe samples filtered and taken from the reactor was measured. Concentrations of arsenic were measured spectrophotometrically before and after electrolysis. The samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy (Shimadzu A-A 6800) by the standard method (APHA). 1. Water Circulator, 2. D.C. Power Supply, 3. Ampermeter,4. Voltmeter, 5. Reactor, 6. Magnetic Stirrer Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. The effect ofinitial pH The initial pH is one of the important factors in affecting the performance of electrochemical process. It has been established thatthe pH has a considerable influence on the performance of electrocoagulation process. To investigate this effect, a series of experiments performed using aqueous solution containing arsenic of 50 mg/L were carried out atinitial pH of 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0 8.0 under conditions in which current density of 1,07 mA/cm2 and stirring speed of 150 rpm were kept constant during experiments. After the removal experiment, we observed 99% removal,in the water samples with initial Arsenic concentration at 50 mg/L and initial pH at 4.0, 3.0 and 5.0 respectively. In the study initial pH was chosen as 4 and other experiments were done at pH 4. 196 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 100 As removal, % 80 60 pHi=2 pHi=3 40 pHi=4 pHi=5 pHi=6 20 pHi=7 pHi=8 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 time, min Figure 2. Effect of pH on arsenic removal 3.2. The effect of current density The current densityis defined asthe ratio of currentinputto the electrolytic celltothe surface area of the electrode. It is well known that current not only determines the coagulant dosage rate but also the bubble production rate, size and the flocks growth, which can influence the treatment efficiency of the electrocoagulation. Thus,this parameter should have a significant impact on removal efficiencies of pollutants. To investigate the effect of current density on the energy consumption, a series of experiments were carried out under the experimental conditions of current density being varied from 0.36 to 2.14 mA/cm2 solution pH of 4.0, temperature of 293 K and stirring speed of 150 rpm. 100 As removal, % 80 60 0,25 amper 0,50 amper 0,75 amper 1,00 amper 1,25 amper 1,50 amper 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 time, min Figure 3. Effect of current density on arsenic removal Increasing the current density 0.36 mA/cm2 to 1.07 mA/cm2 the removal efficiency isfurtherimproved. A higher current density means a higher Fe3+ and OH- dosage, and a better removal should therefore be the result. On the other hand,increasing the current density to 2.14 mA/cm2 no real difference in As removal. 197 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3.3. The effect ofinitial arsenic concentration The effect of initial arsenic concentration on the arsenic removal was examined with solutions including arsenic of 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg/L. Current density of 1.07 mA/cm2, optimum pH of 4.0 and stirring speed of 150 rpm were kept constant in the experiments. The solution conductivity increased with increasing arsenic concentration. As a result ofthis situation, applied potentialand energy consumption decreased. On the contrary, arsenic removal efficiency decreased with increasing arsenic concentration. This can be explained as following; although the same amount Fe3+ passed to solution atthe same current density for all arsenic concentration, Fe3+ was insufficient for solutions including higher arsenic concentration. Because of increasing arsenic concentration, potential applied to solution and energy consumption decreased. The results obtained were shown graphically in Fig. 4. 100 As removal, % 80 60 40 10 mg/L As 25 mg/L As 20 50 mg/L As 100 mg/L As 0 0 10 20 30 40 time, min 50 60 70 Figure 4. Effect ofinitial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal. 4. Conclusions The present study clearly demontrated the applicability of electrocoagulation process using the iron electrode for arsenic removal. The effects of operational parameters such as current density, initial pH, electrolysistime,initial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal efficiency were studied in detail and explained as well. It has been observed that the pH is an important operating factor influencing the performance of electrocoagulation process. Optimal initial pH was found as 4 in the use of iron as sacrificial electrode material inthetreatment. Oxidation of As(III)to As(V) was occured asthe firststep and then subsequent adsorption on to hydrous ferric oxides. As(III)is more mobile and more toxic than As(V), so itis an advantage to convert As(III) to As(V).Increasing the current density 0,36 mA/cm2 to 2,14 mA/cm2,the Fe3+ and OH- dosage isincreased too, and thereby favouring the removal of As. On the other hand,itseems thatincreasing the current density beyond a maximum value,the electrocoagulation process would notimprove further. This could probably be explained by passivation of the anode. When effect of initial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal efficiency was investigated,the obtained results shown thatincreasing arsenic concentration increased conductivity of solution. Thus, solution with higher arsenic concentration had more ions atthe same volume. As a result under the optimum conditions of an initial pH of 4, current density of 1,07 m A/cm2, stirring speed of 150 rpm, electrolysis time of 30 minutes, As was removed from aqueos solutions including arsenic concentration of 50 mg/L, at a rate of 99,50. It can be concluded from this study that electrocoagulation is a promising technique for arsenic removal. 198 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References [1] Kumar, P.R., Chaudhari, S., Khilar, K.C., Mahajan, S.P., (2004) Removal of arsenic from water by electrocoagulation, Chemosphere 55 (9) 1245-1252. [2] Basha, A., C., Josephine Selvi, S., Ramasamyc, E., Chellammal, S., (2008). Removal of arsenic and sulphate from the copper smelting industrial effluent, Chemical Engineering Journal 141, 89–98. [3] World Health Organization (WHO), Guidelines for DrinkingWater Quality, WHO, 1993, p. 41. [4] Greenleaf, J.E., Lin, J.C., Sengupta, A.K., (2006) Two novel applications of ion exchange fibers: arsenic removal and chemical-free softening of hard water, Environ. Prog. 25 (4) 300–311. [5] Anirudhan, T.S., Unnithan, M.R., (2007) Arsenic(V) removal from aqueous solutions using an anion exchanger derived from coconut coir pith and its recovery, Chemosphere 66 (1) 60–66. [6] Edwards, M., 1994. Chemistry of arsenic removal during coagulation and Fe–Mn oxidation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 86, 64–78. [7] Hering, J.G., Chen, P.Y., Wilkie, J.A., Elimelech, M., (1996). Arsenic removal by ferric chloride. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 88, 155–167. [8] Manning, B.A., Goldberg, S. 1997. Arsenic(III) and arsenic(V) adsorption on three California soils. Soil Sci. 162: 886895. [9] Bajpai, S., Chaudhuri, M., (1999) Removal of arsenic from ground water by manganes dioxide-coated stand, J. Environ. Eng. 125(8) 782-784,. [10] Parga, J.R., Cocke, D.L., Valenzuela, J.L., Gomes, J.A., Kesmez, M., Irwin, G., Moreno, H., Weir, M., (2005), Arsenic removal via electrocoagulation from heavy metal contaminated groundwater in La Comarca LaguneraM´exico, J. Hazard. Mater. 124 (1–3) 247–254. [11] Hansen, H.K., Nunez, P., Grandon, R., (2006) Electrocoagulation as a remediation tool for wastewaters containing arsenic, Minerals Engineering 19 (5) 521. [12] Weng, Y.-H., Chaung-Hsieh, L.H., Lee, H.-H., Li, K.C., Huang, C.P., (2005) Removal of arsenic and humic substances (HSs) by electro-ultrafiltration (EUF), J. Hazard. Mater. 122 (1–2) 171–176. [13] Iqbal, J., Kim, H.J., Yang, J.S., Baek, K., Yang, J.W., (2007) Removal of arsenic from groundwater by micellarenhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF), Chemosphere 66 (5) 970–976. [14] Kim, D.H., Kim, K.W., Cho, J., (2006) Removal and transport mechanisms of arsenics in UF and NF membrane processes, J.Water Health 4 (2) 215–223. [15] Ning, R.Y., (2002) Arsenic removal by reverse osmosis, Desalination 143 (3) 237–241. [16] Rajeshwar, K., Ibanez, J. G., 1997 Environmental Electrochemistry, Fundamentals and Applications in Pollution Abatement Academic Press, San Diego, , pp. 410. [17] Ihoş, M., Negrea, A., Lupa, L., Ciopec, M., Negrea, P., (2005) Comparative Study of As (III) Removal Efficiency from Water by Electrocoagulation and Conventional Coagulation, Chem. Bull. "Politehnica" Univ. (Timişoara) 50 (64) 1-2. [18] Mollah M.Y.A., Schennach R., Parga J.R., et. al., (2001) Electrocoagulation (EC) – science andapplication, Journal of Hazardous Materials, B84, 29-41, [19] Howard, A.G., (1997) (Boro)hydride techniques in trace element speciation, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 12 267-272. 199 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 509 Title A name given to the resource Arsenic Removal By Electrochemical Treatment Process Author Author Boncukçuoğlu, Recep Can, Berrin Z. Yilmaz, Alper E. Kocakerim, M. Muhtar Abstract A summary of the resource. In the present study, electrocoagulation (EC) has been evaluated as a treatment technology for arsenic (As) removal from aqueous solutions. Iron plate electrode was used in experiments. The experiments was used were carried out in a batch reactor. The effects of operational parameters such as current density, initial pH, electrolysis time and initial arsenic concentration were investigated. The obtained experimental results showed that efficiency of arsenic removal increased with increasing current density and decreased with increasing arsenic concentration in the solution. It has been established that the pH has a considerable influence on the performance of electrocoagulation process. Under the optimum conditions of an initial pH of 4, current density of 1,07 mA/cm2, stirring speed of 150 rpm, electrolysis time of 30 minutes, Arsenic was removed from aqueous solutions including arsenic concentration of 50 mg/L, at a rate of 99,50%. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/87a3067196164679cb268bb9d0161811.pdf db5a24ff924928c1e05d8abf1eb8666e PDF Text Text Production Of Banana In Turkey Beyza Biner Meliha Temirkaynak Meh met Oten West Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey Abstract: Banana, the production of which is restricted in some regions in both the world and in Turkey, is a rather demanded product as it is delicious, exotic and nutritious. The production, consumption and trade of banana is in high volumes in the world. Banana is the fourth most important crop species in the world and is critical for food security in many tropical countries. Bananas have been cultivated economically for a long time in subtropical regions of Turkey where production and productivity per hectare have significantly increased due to the adoption of protected cultivation. In Turkey, banana is mainly cultivated in Anamur and Bozyazı, where protected cultivation is common, and Alanya and Gazipaşa, where open cultivation is widely used. The area of protected cultivation in Alanya has lately been increasing. The objective of the study was to evaluate sustainability in banana production of Turkey. Keywords: Banana, production, sustainability, Turkey. Bananas are grown mostly between 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South latitude. It is grown in nearly 107 countries, the major banana growing regions are India, China, Brazil, Ecuador, Philippines, and Indonesia in tropics (FAO, 2006). Although banana is a fruit of tropical climate,it can be grown in subtropical climate belt countries like Spain, Israel, Morocco, Egypt, Portugal, and Turkey which have microclimate characteristics. Banana growing in Turkey is made in Mediterranean Region, in Mersin-Antalya coast line and especiallyin Alanya, Gazipaşa, Anamur and Bozyazı counties which are protected by the Taurus Mountains and have microclimate features, between 36. and 37.latitudes.(Türkay, 2007). Banana was first brought to our country in 1750 from Egypt as an ornamental plant to Alanya. It has been grown for commercial purposes after 1930’s for its fruit.(Anonymous a 2009). Banana production, which has been just hobby gardens for the first years, has reached to an importantlevelin terms of area and amount of production. In 12 000 da area with a production of 30 000 tones, productivity per da was 2500kg in 1994. In 2008, production areas raised to 40 000 da and production amount raised to 200 000 tones, and the fruit quality was at world level (Anonymous b 2008).In our country, with the numbers of 2008, 200 000 tones of banana is produced and 100 000 tones is imported (Anonymous c 2008). Therefore, our total banana production has still not to met the domestic demand. Nonetheless, with some betterment as a result of both the growing system and some technical and cultural applications, our banana production willincrease at places which show microclimate characteristics. As our country is out of the main banana production areas,itis seen that at such times, cold affected banana plantation negatively. For this reason, especially in Anamur and Bozyazı bananas are grown in greenhouses instead of open areas.In spite ofthis, protected cultivation cannot be adopted to Gazipaşa because of its slope areas. In these areas,terracing is being used. In Alanya some of the plantation areas are sloping??? and some ofthem are plain.In plain areas itis not possibleto build tall greenhouses because ofthe strong wind. Under the subtropical conditions, watering is one of the major subject in banana producing. In our country, while drip irrigation is widely used in closed areas,in open areas 50% drip irrigation and 50 % furrow irrigation systems are used. Especially in terracing areas of Gazipaşa with the effect of recent drought water of the well withdrew. As the wells are 80-140 meters depth, it is difficult to use them for watering. Watering is done by carrying water by tankers. In our country, when looked atits planting area, yield, production, quality and potential,Anamur and its zone has become a trade mark of banana producing. For the sake of natural conditions, with itstaste and odor, banana of Anamur became a brand name. Moreover,in our marketing domestic banana is being soldin the name ‘Anamur banana’. Banana production in Turkey has been initiated by clonal production of Dwarf Cavendish that is intensively used for dominant material. This variety has been known since many years due to its dwarfness and is convenient for protected cultivation. The growers are used depth shoots to proliferate the young plants or 437 �meristematic shoots in establishing of the new plantations. As in the world, many growers also have initiated to plantation by cultivars comm only used in our country to increase yield in banana production (Türkay, 2007). It has been informed that Grand Nain and Williams are convenient cultivarsto be produced in protected cultivation and, Grand Nain, Willams and Basrai for open fields according to adaptation test plots conducted in Bozyazı town. These varieties have been recommended as alternative to Dwarf Cavendish in view of quality and yield (Gübbük vd 2003). These banana however, clones have different agronomic properties. For instance; Dwarf Cavendish isresistantto Panama disease, Grand Nain heightis moderatelevel, Williams shows more yield butit is high plants. On the other hand, Dwarf Cavendish variety is produced by 90% ratiointotal production fieldsin which the plantation has been established by banana clones. This case results in increase individuals having remarkable bunch weight and quality from time to time resulted from unexpected mutations occurred in plants (Türkay 2007). The heating systems aren’t used in banana greenhouses.In stead of that,the systems which can change the temperature and humidity of the greenhouses such as misting and sprinkler irrigation are used. During the summer season especially when the temperature is over 34o C, greenhouses temperature get lower by using misting system. Natural vantilation systems are used through all of the banana greenhouses in Turkey (Türkay 2007). Bananas harvesting becomes dense in certain periods in our country. Harvesting is done densely between November and March. However banana production in greenhouses extends the harvesting period. As bananas are climacteric fruits,they are harvested in green ripe and then are matured. In our country after bananas were harvested,they were directly sent to consuming areas in wooden chestsin the past and they were being matured according to the need. Recently, bananas are matured with ethylene in ripening rooms for consuming. If bananas are to be storage for a long time, they are stored at 12-13 o C, % 90-95 ratio of humidity (Paydas and Pekmezci 1983). As a result bananas are produced in extreme conditions in Turkey. Banana production areas are sharp slopes surrounded by mountains on the north, and by sea on the south. Mountainous lands are being terracing for banana production. Although bananas need plenty of irrigation, production areas are lack of water. Moreover, these production areas making transportation of the crop to the market difficult. In spite of these negative conditions,inthese areasthere is no alternative productto banana to grow. According to the statistical data, our recent banana producing covers the 2/3 of our consuming. However, our country’s production potential is enough to correspond to the consumption if assessed enough. References Anonim a 2009. http://www.bahce.biz/bitki/meyve/muz.htm Anonim b 2008. tüik.gov.tr Anonim c 2008. http://www.muz.gen.tr/yayin/MUZ%20RAPORU%20-%202008.pdf FAO 2006. FAO Statistical Databases. Available at http://www.fao.org Gübbük, H. 1990. Cam Serada Yetiştirilen Cavendish ve Basrai Muz Klonlarının Beslenmesi, Muhafazası ve Olgunlaştırılması Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Bahçe Bitkileri Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi. 1990. Adana. Gübbük, H., Pekmezci, M. and Erkan, M. 2003. Meristem Kültürü ile Çoğaltılan Değişik Muz Klonlarının Açıkta ve Örtüaltında Yetiştirme Olanakları Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Anadolu, J. of AARI, 13(2), 73-87. Lahav, E., Turner, D.W. 1983. Fertilising for High Yield Banana, IPI Bulletin 7, 62 p. Türkay, C., Öztürk, H. H., Pınar, H. and Hocagil, M. M. 2006. Anamur Yöresindeki Muz Seralarının Yapısal ve Đşlevsel Özellikleri. Alatarım, 5 (2):17-22 Türkay, C. 2007. Anamur Yöresindeki Muz Seralarının Özellikleri ve Doğal Havalandırma Etkinliğinin Belirlenmesi Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Tarım Makinaları Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi. 2007. Adana. Padaş, S. and M. Pekmezci, 1983. Muzların Depolanması ve Olgunlaştırılması Üzerinde Araştırmalar. TÜBĐTAK-TOAG Türkiye'de Bahçe Ürünlerinin Depolanması Pazara Hazırlanması ve Taşınması Simpozyumu, Tübitak Yayınları 587, TOAG 118, 306-321. 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 524 Title A name given to the resource Production Of Banana In Turkey Author Author Biner, Beyza Temirkaynak, Meliha Oten, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Banana, the production of which is restricted in some regions in both the world and in Turkey, is a rather demanded product as it is delicious, exotic and nutritious. The production, consumption and trade of banana is in high volumes in the world. Banana is the fourth most important crop species in the world and is critical for food security in many tropical countries. Bananas have been cultivated economically for a long time in subtropical regions of Turkey where production and productivity per hectare have significantly increased due to the adoption of protected cultivation. In Turkey, banana is mainly cultivated in Anamur and Bozyazı, where protected cultivation is common, and Alanya and Gazipasa, where open cultivation is widely used. The area of protected cultivation in Alanya has lately been increasing. The objective of the study was to evaluate sustainability in banana production of Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/95d6e28b17f6270c8ecdeab7988eb137.pdf 7572812c058f28ee0796067ff64b751c PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Which Way is More Suitable for Turkey's Real Estate Market? Erhan BĐRGĐLĐ Assoc.Prof., The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Sakarya University Turkey birgili@sakarya.edu.tr Fatih GÜMÜŞ Researcher, The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Sakarya University Turkey, fbgumus@sakarya.edu.tr Ali AKAYTAY Lecturer, Cilimli Vacational School, Duzce University, Turkey, akaytay@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Real Estate Finance or mortgage finance is more popular economic issue around the World and Turkey. Real estate markets are more productive markets than other markets. This market energize nearly 200 other main and submain sector. Because of that, after the economic crises and recessions countries start going to vitalize this sector for accelareting other sector and whole economy. Nowadays, Mortgage finance’s negative effects have been shocked to economies. Turkey is among to countries which effected less than other countries. The question of “ Which strategy is more sutiable and useful for Turkey’s real estate market?” is more controversial now adays in Turkey. Because of that we prepared a survey and studied to detemine more sutiable strategy for vitalizing to real estate market of Turkey. We applied to survey to certificated or working in any bank 200 real estate specialists. After the survey, we entered the data to SPSS program and we found the econometric market, credit structure, funding, demand, strategy models which suitable to Turkey. Keywords: real estate, mortgage, Turkey, Survey, models Introduction Housing market has an effect on national economies more than other markets. Housing market is directly connected to other sectors which are supposed to exceed 600. In addition, housing market has a direct or indirect stimulant effect on other sectors (Klein and Bestani, 2004:77). Housing sector is not only a technical application, but also is a sector which has some aims to control system risks, labour market and macro economic conditions (Stephens, 2006:60). According to a research conducted in USA in 1984, USA housing sector increased in value exactly seventeenfold from 1947 to 1982 (Koh and Edward, 2005:2). This show us the importance of housing sector in countries` development. States attaches priority to housing sector at the time of economic stagnation and economic crisis to restore their economies (Arslan, 2008:29). Housing sector has quite different attributes than other sectors. One of the important one of these attributes is that housing sector is accounted of a development indicator of other sectors. That is, sanitary housing sector means sanitary other sectors. On the contrary, unsanitary housing sector means unsanitary other sectors (Kirecci, 2005:7). Housing sector is an indicator and cause of prosperity. Housing sector gives us information about national economies. If looked at developed countries, it can be seen easily that housing market is quite in good condition in terms of economic indicators. Housing sector also gives us information about socio-cultural attributes of states as well as their economic conditions. The housing sector reflects personal preferences of citizens, their domestic attributes as well as attributes of human capital of states (Bicakova and Serminska, 2008:7). 331 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Mortgage System Mortgage system is the transfer of an interest in property to a lender as a security for a debt - usually a loan of money. Mortgage system is the lender's security for a debt. It is a transfer of an interest in land (or the equivalent) from the owner to the mortgage lender, on the condition that this interest will be returned to the owner when the terms of the mortgage have been satisfied or performed. In other words, the mortgage is a security for the loan that the lender makes to the borrower (Deloitte,2005:3). Since long term funds are provided by capital markets, mortgage system serves as bridge between housing markets and capital markets (Mufad,2007;126). In mortgages system, the agreement is that the loan is repaid in fixed periodic payments, typically monthly. The contract interest rate is the interest rate that the borrower pays the lender in exchange for having the money today. There are two risks connected with lending. The first, named default risk, is the prospect that the borrower fails to refund the loan. The second, named market risk, appear when interest rates change over time. The possibility of default has led societies to create laws and mechanisms to protect the lender. One of these is collateral. In the case of mortgages, the collateral is almost always the property being purchased. Loan agreements can also comprise a variety of restrictions. Some of these are aimed at protect the lender, while others protect the borrower. For instance, in the past, many mortgages were “assumable,” meaning that if the borrower sold the house, the mortgage could be assumed or transferred to the new owner. This harm lenders when interest rates increased as the new owner could get a “below market interest rate” by assuming the previous mortgage. Now, mortgages are typically not assumable. There was also a time when many mortgages had a prepayment penalty. Today, mortgage contracts typically stipulate that there is no penalty for paying the loan off before its maturity date. Mortgage System in the World Financial markets has been experiencing significant changes especially within the last 20-25 years. Today` financial markets, which base on technology, comprise of banks, insurance companies as well as hundreds of other financial institutions and financial instruments instead of banks and insurance companies of 1960s and 1980s. The market has been varied and deepened. In the world, the biggest and the most developed mortgage market is in the USA. The ratio of mortgage in GDP in 1949 was %20 and %73 in 2001 (Green and Watcher,2005:93). Prosperity of many people in this country comes from their investment in real estate sector and it constitute %50 of total assets (Klein and Bestani,2004:77). Citizens spends %25-30 of their incomes on their mortgage loans (Englund et.al, 2002:167). The application of mortgage systems goes back to the beginning of 1900`s, especially to the great depression in 1929. Before the great depression, the mortgage market of the USA was the market which could provide loan for 5 to 10 years and up to %50 of house` value (Green and Watcher,2005:93). House prices decreased significantly in 1930 as a result of the crisis leaving mortgager in a situation that they could not sell their houses as well as pay their debts (Green and Watcher,2005:94-95). In order to mitigate the effects of the great depression on financial markets, the Federal government founded financial institutions in the beginning 1930s. These were Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae and Ginnie Mae. These financial institutions afford implicit guaranty to banks in the case of default. By these institutions, banks reach the secondary markets and keep cash flow open as well as remove risks from their balance sheets (Covan,2003:2). That is, banks in the USA provide housing loan with the help of these financial institutions to market and sell their receivables converting them into property under the guaranty of these institutions. The customers of mortgage backed securities are mostly index directors, pension funds, banks and hedge funds (Heidari and Wu,2004:6). As a result of the balance between supply and demand, around the half of volume of security is provided by this market. (Heidari and Wu,2004:6) Mortgage System in Turkey Turkey’s dynamic economy and attractive demographical feauters show that real estate sectors future will be brilliant. Half of the population is under 25 in Turkey with 1,5 % of population increase rate, 2,7 % of urbanization rate and 2,8 % of household expanding level, is quite more when compared with the other countries. Its shown that in a recently research, close to half of the Turkey’s people’s first investment choice is to real estate market (www.gyoder.org.tr). Turkey begin mortgage system to put into practice in 2007 with a mixture of two different mortgage system thats are applied in the world. But with the global financial crisis and the absence of appropriate substructure conditions of mortgage system, it could not be applied efficiently in Turkey. 332 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo This system planned to setup secondary markets and work it together with international markets. Also in primary markets there are many regulations that the bank and the customer come face to face. Its called as “mortgage financing agency” that buy or take over the receivables of “mortgage credit establishments”. These establishments will obtain of funding these establishments that are acting in primary markets like, banks, special financing agencies, real estate developers, leasing companies, Housing Development Administration of Turkey (TOKĐ), by lending or by buying these receivables with guarantee of receivables got from given credits. These agencies that are acting in the secondary markets and buy or take over the receivables will find new funds by exporting bonds or mortgage-backed securities with a guarantee of receivables that they lend or buy. There are 2 kinds of securities in the system. First one is “mortgage-backed securities” that are exported by banks by showing their receivables in their balance sheets and showing them with their financial power as guarantee without lending them to secondary market enstitutions. The second one is “mortgage-based securities” that banks lend their receivables to intermediaries or secondary market establishments that give possibility to show their balance sheets less risky and more liquid. With the mortgage law two different funds are formed. “Housing Finance Fund” for whom wants to invest to mortgage-backed securities, “Assets Finance Fund” for whom wants to invest to assets-backed securities. These funds can be called as “special aimed establishments” as we know from the samples in other countries. Methodology In this study, We aimed to design a real estate finansing model for Turkey’s real estate market using a survey and we think over carefully to be special to Turkey’s culturel, social and economical condition Our survey paper was filled by 200 real estate specialist working in a bank or not. Survey expressions designed like ; 1: I strongly agree……5: I do not strongly agree in accordant to 5 likert scale. Survey took into practise usinng witk 2 different style. One of them is by telephone and other web page. The data recorded by cd and limevire survey program. Our web site was www.mortgageanket.com The survey took 3 month ( february, march, april) and analyses of survey took nearly 1 week. Results of Survey In accordane to survey result, we constitute 5 factor. First of all is finding fund factor. Finding Fund Factor Analyses: Our first factor is divided to 3 secondary factor. These are encouragement, state assistance and small funds aid. Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,599. This means that our factor passed to reliability test. The result of KMO test is %73. becauese of 0,73>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses Constitution Of Statistical Model With Multiple Regression Model Multiple regression model is like this: y = β 0 + β 1 x1 + L + β n x n + ε Factors represent to variables of Model. We found this opinion using with R Square test. R Square test was found % 97. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below; FF = 3,69 + 0,38 .ENC + 0,32 SA + 0,24 SFA + e FF: Finding fund ENC: Encouragement SA: State Assistance SFA: Small Funds Aid This means; When the encouragement subfactor increase 1unit, finding fund factor will increaes 0,38 unit. This means; When State Assistance subfactor increase 1unit, finding fund factor will increaes 0,32 unit. This means; When : Small Funds Aid subfactor increase 1unit, finding fund factor will increaes 0,24 unit. Credit Sructure Factor Analyses: Our second factor is divided to 2 secondary factor. These are personel credit and personel peciluarities. Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,584. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with low degree 333 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The result of KMO test is %58. becauese of 0,58>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 99. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below; CS = 3,77 + 0,54 .PC + 0,35 PP + e CS: Credit Structure PC: Personel Credit PP: Personel Peciluarities This means; When the Personel Credit subfactor increase 1unit, credit structure factor will increaes 0,54 unit. This means; When Personel Peciluarities subfactor increase 1unit, credit structure factor will increaes 0,35 unit. Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor Analyses : Our thirth factor is divided to 6 secondary factor. These are market organisation, adequacy, REIP ( Real estate investment partnership) , local market, central establishment and foreign partner . Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,701. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with strong degree. The result of KMO test is %70. becauese of 0,70>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 99. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below; RS _ MS = 3,85+ 0,28 MO + 0,20 REIP + 0,17 AD + 0,13 LM + 0,15 CE + 0,10 FP + e RS_MS: Role Of The State And Market Structure MO: Market organisation LM: Local Market REIP: Real Estate Investment Partnership CE: central establishment FP: Foreign Partner AD: Adequacy This means; When the Market organisation subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,28 unit. This means; When the REIP subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,20 unit This means; When the Adequacy subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,17 unit This means; When the local market subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,13 unit This means; When the central establishment subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,15 unit This means; When the Foreign Partner subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,10 unit Demand Factor Analyses Our fourth factor is divided to 2 secondary factor. These are decrease to cost and increaes to demand. Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,687. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with strong degree The result of KMO test is %67. becauese of 0,58>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 37. This means that independent variables explain to model with %37 rate The estimation result of model is below; DM = 3,85+ 0,23 DC + 0,13 ID + e DM: Demand Factor DC: Decrease To Cost ID: Increaes To Demand This means; When the decrease to cost subfactor increase 1unit, demand factor will increase 0,23 unit This means; When the demand subfactor increase 1unit, demand factor will increase 0,13 unit 334 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Other Alternate Suggestion factor Analyses: Our fifth factor is divided to 8 secondary factor. These are HDAT ( Housing Development Administration of Turkey), Turkey’s condition, Market Data, rent prices, Istanbul finance center, dual structure, European Union, partnership Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,745. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with strong degree. The result of KMO test is %77. becauese of 0,70>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 97. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below OAS = 3,91+ 0,23 HDAT + 0,21TC + 0,19 MD + 0,17 RP + 0,15 IFC + 0,11 DS + 0,11EU + 0,10 PA + e OAS: Other Alternate Suggestion HDAT: Housing Development Administration of Turkey TC: Turkey’s Condition MD: Market Data RP: Rent Prices IFC: Istanbul Finance Center DS: Dual Structure EU: European Union PA: Parthnership This means; When Housing Development Administration of Turkey subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,23 unit This means; When the Turkey’s Condition subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,21 unit This means; When the Market Data subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,19 unit This means; When rent prices subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,17 unit This means; When the Istanbul Finance Center subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,15 unit This means; When the Dual Structure subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,11 unit This means; When the European Union subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,11 unit This means; When the parthnership subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,10 unit Conclusions Turkey’s real estate market is very strong structure. Turkey is the country which has alot of advantages which more country have not these advantages. For example, house demand is very high, builder sector is very strong, building resource is very plentiful. This is the most importtant work is that advantegeus must be used productive and thinking of common benefit. Turkey is in the financial crises of which its effects feel less in accordant to other countries like USA and developed european countries. It is not true that to behave fast and in panic.This conditions mark to recession period all of world. Turkey’s real estate market is stable period. This period must be though to solve this problem “ How we will set a new and strong real estate market and finance?” There is no a concensus on optimal real estate market and finance. Every country had established to real estate market in accordance to their culturel, sociel, geographic, economic conditions. In according to our survey and last financial cirises, turkey need to new real estate structur and finance. Common benefit, working together inside or outside of Turkey will be most important issues in near future. At this important point, new conditions must be read very carefully and true. This period is open to new financial and economic period. References Klein, Johanna and Robert Bestani (2004), “Housing Finance In Asia”, Asian Development Bank Working Paper. Koh, Winston and H. K. Edward (2005), “Investing in Real Estate: Mortgage Financing Practices and Optimal Holding Period” February, www.ssrn.com. Arslan, Cenk Murat (2008), “Konut Finansmanının Uygulaması ve Birlikte Getirilen Vergisel Teşvikler”, Vergi Dünyası Dergisi, Yıl: 27, Sayı: 320, Nisan 335 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Kireççi, Tebernüş (2005), Emlak Yatırım Rehberi, Neden Kitapçılık, Temmuz, Đstanbul Bicakova, Alena and Eva Sierminska (2008), “Mortgage Market Maturity and Homeownership Inequality among Young Households: A Five-Country Perspective” April, www.ssrn.com Ceylan, Ali (2002), Finansal Teknikler, 4. Baskı, Ekin Kitapevi, Bursa Stephens, Mark (2006), “The Role of Housing Finance in the Housing Policy of Transition Countries” Open Society Instıtute, Housing finance Congress, Hungary, Edited By Jozsef Hegedus And Raymond J. Struyk, 12-26 March 2006, pp.43-63 Green, Richard; Watcher, Suzan M. ; “The Amerıcan Mortgage In Hıstorıcal And Internatıonal Context ” Journal of Economic Perspectives; Volume: 19, Number: 4 Fall 2005—Pages 93–114 Covan, Cameron (2003), “Hearing On Protecting Homeowners, Preventing Abusive Lending While Preserving Access To Credit, American Securitization Forum, November 5 Klein, Johanna and Robert Bestani (2004), “Housing Finance In Asia”, Asian Development Bank Workig Paper. Heidari, Massud and Louren WU (2004), “What Constitutes a Good Model? An Analysis of Models for Mortgage Backed Securities”, August, www.ssrn.com. IMF Country Report (2007), “Denmark: Financial Sector Assesment Program - The Danish Mortgage Market: A comparative Analyses”, International Monetary Fund March. www.deloitte.com (www.gyoder.org.tr). 336 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 241 Title A name given to the resource Which Way is More Suitable for Turkey's Real Estate Market? Author Author BiRGiLi, Erhan GÜMÜS, Fatih AKAYTAY, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Real Estate Finance or mortgage finance is more popular economic issue around the World and Turkey. Real estate markets are more productive markets than other markets. This market energize nearly 200 other main and submain sector. Because of that, after the economic crises and recessions countries start going to vitalize this sector for accelareting other sector and whole economy. Nowadays, Mortgage finance’s negative effects have been shocked to economies. Turkey is among to countries which effected less than other countries. The question of “ Which strategy is more sutiable and useful for Turkey’s real estate market?” is more controversial now adays in Turkey. Because of that we prepared a survey and studied to detemine more sutiable strategy for vitalizing to real estate market of Turkey. We applied to survey to certificated or working in any bank 200 real estate specialists. After the survey, we entered the data to SPSS program and we found the econometric market, credit structure, funding, demand, strategy models which suitable to Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44db670e2b855d596593b7a5a4efb994.pdf 0e10bc9a6c40fddd9d2c2376e1e80d74 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Consumer Willingness to Pay for Pesticide Free Tomatoes in Turkey Zeki Bayramoğlu Selcuk University Faculty ofAgriculture Depertmant of Agricultural Economics Konya, TURKEY Ziya Gökalp Göktolga Gaziosmanpasa University Faculty of Agriculture Depertmant of Agricultural Economics Tokat, TURKEY Abstract: Willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes were calculated and its effects of socio-demographic and risk variables were measured. The data were obtained from 666 consumers by survey method in May 2005. The surveys are conducted in Ankara and Tokat Provinces at same time. Ordered probit model was used to determine the probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes. The findings showed that 34.23 % of Turkish consumers not willing to pay, are 77.02 % willing to pay less than 30 percent premium and 22.97% are willing to pay more than 30 percent premium. This is shown that Turkish consumers will accept to pay only a small premium for pesticide free tomatoes. Furthermore, gender, education, statue of mother, acknowledges of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index factors are impact on willingness to pay. Keywords: Willingness to pay; Consumer Preferences; ordered probit. Introduction The main use of pesticides is in agriculture to ensure that crops remain healthy and wastage through disease and infestation is prevented. According to the FAO data, 4046 metric tons of fungicides and bactericides, 5946 metric tons of herbicides and 13169 metric tons of insecticides were used in Turkey. In addition total pesticides use by per hectare was calculated in Turkey as 0.56 kg. Although, this amount is low when compared with some developed countries,for example cost of 48221 tons of fungicides and bactericides, 9982 metric tons of herbicides, and 8874 metric tons of insecticides were used in Italy. Total pesticides use by per hectare in Italy is 4.32 kg.This amountis 1,73 in UK (FA O, 2005). In this study, tomato was selected to determine consumer’s willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh vegetables. In the Turkey, consumers commonly think that tomato has highest level residues pesticide and hormone (Akmaz, 2005). In addition,in another study tomato was chosen since tomatoes are widely purchased by Turkish consumer (Akgungor et al., 1999). Consumers are very concerned about pesticide residues on food in recent years. In some researches shows that consumers are very concerned about pesticide residues on food and are willing to pay a significant premium to purchase food they perceive to be less risky. There are a lot of studies connected with pesticide residues at food in developed country. For examples (Buzby et al. 1995; Misra, et al. 1991; Fu, et al. 1999; Boccalettiand Nardella 2000). Thereis only one study made on this areain Turkey (Akgungor et al.,1999). Our study is a example for consumer’s willingness to pay free pesticide residues in developing country. This study can provide a comparison between developed and developing country about consumer’s attitude. The purpose of this study is to calculate the effects of socio-demographic and risk variables on willingnessto pay for pesticide freetomatoes.Itis believed thatthisstudy will produce some results which could provide importantinformation for producers and retailers and help them. Material and Methods The data were obtained from 406 householdsin Ankara province and 260 householdsin Tokat province by survey method in May 2005. The surveys were made face to face by technique. Total 666 surveys were conducted in Ankara and Tokat provinces. We used ordered probit model to analyze willingness to pay. To see this, consider the following 98 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo regression (Greene, 2000): WTP * = β ' x + ε (1) * where WTP isthe an unobserved latent variable, X is a vector ofindependent variables effecting WTP (age, gender, education, household size,income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, Healthy food, risk index), ß is a vector of parameters demonstrating the relationship between dependent variable (WTP) and independent variables, ε is an unobserved disturbance term. The relation between the unobserved WTP* and observed outcome for respondenti, WTP (WTP=0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) can be summarized as follows: W TP = 0 if WTP*≤ 0, (2) =1 if µ 0< WTP*≤ µ 1, = 2 if µ 1< WTP*≤ µ 2, … … … ….. = 7 if µ 6 ≤ WTP*, W here µ is a parameter representing a threshold separating the categories in the observed variable. The probability can be written following equations (3): Prob (wtp=0)=Φ(-β … … … ….. ' x ). Prob(wtp=7)= 1- Φ( µ 6 – β x ). For the probabilities,the marginal effects ofthe repressors are ' ∂pr ( wtp = 0) = −φ ( β ' x) β , ∂x ∂pr ( wtp = 1) = φ (− β ' x) − φ ( µ − β ' x) β , ∂x [ ] (3) (4) … … … …. ∂pr ( wtp = 7) = −φ ( µ 6 − β ' x) β . ∂x Inthe study,thresholds are ranked eight categories. Thisisfollowing: Not willing to pay (0), willing to pay one to five percent premium, willing to pay six to ten percent premium, willing to pay 11-15 percent premium, willing to pay 16-20 percent premium, willing to pay 21-25 percent premium, willing to pay 26-30 percent premium, willing to pay more than a 30 percent premium. Survey design Respondents were asked to answer several questions grouped in the three main sections. In the first section, we asked to respondent’s socio-demographic characteristic such as age, gender, education, household size,income, statue of mother.In the second section, we asked to questions related to respondent’s risk attitude. For design of the risk index follow question was asked. “According to you, how many percent peoples damage because of pesticide residues in no certificated tomatoes (regular tomatoes)?” The maximum value was standardized at 100. In addition, we asked to questions about healthy food. “Which alternative is the most importantto you in food?” The alternatives are healthy food, price of food,taste of food, promotion of food. In the section we asked acknowledge of ecologic agriculture. “Do you know the ecologic agriculture?” In the last section we asked to questions related to WTP. Willingness to pay (WTP) was used the dependent variable. We elicited WTP by asking respondents to indicate how much above regular prices they would be willing to pay for pesticide free tomatoes. Answers of the consumers about WTP for pesticide free tomatoes are collected and they are as follows: 1-No (0%), I would never pay above regular prices 2-Yes,I would pay between 1% and 5% more for pesticide free tomatoes 3-Yes,I would pay between 6% and 1%0 more for pesticide free tomatoes 4-Yes,I would pay between 11% and 15% more for pesticide free tomatoes 5-Yes,I would pay between 16% and 20% more for pesticide free tomatoes 6-Yes,I would pay between 21% and 25% more for pesticide free tomatoes 7-Yes,I would pay between 26% and 30% more for pesticide free tomatoes 8-Yes,I would pay more than 30% more for pesticide free tomatoes. 99 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Results Variables Definition and code Number of Responde nts Percentage (%) 58 130 221 158 99 8.71 19.52 33.18 23.72 14.86 Gender Male =1 Female =0 458 208 68.77 31.23 Education Primary school =1 Middle school = 2 High school = 3 University =4 Graduate =5 111 98 273 173 11 16.67 14.71 40.99 25.98 1.65 Household size 1-2 =1 3-5 =2 6-8 =3 9-+ =4 75 501 87 3 11.26 75.23 13.06 0.45 Income - 500 YTL =1 501 - 1000 YTL =2 1001 – 1500 YTL =3 1500 - + YTL =4 49 284 174 159 7.36 42.64 26.13 23.87 Statue of mother Employed mother=1 Unemployed mother=0 234 432 35.14 64.86 Age - 25 = 1 26-30 = 2 31-40 = 3 41-50 = 4 51 + = 5 Acknowledge of ecologic agriculture If know of ecologic agriculture 295 before survey =1, 371 otherwise=0 Healthy Food 398 If selectthe healthy food as 1 st.=1 If other alternative( price, shape, 268 taste, promotion) select as 1 st. =0 Code Mean Variable Mean 3.16 39.04 0.68 0.68 3.03 3.03 2.02 4.17 2.66 1329.24 0.35 0.35 0.44 0.44 0.40 0.40 44.29 55.71 59.75 40.25 Risk Index 666 100 -Consumer’s risk perceive in regular tomatoes. (100 %) 1YTL= 1, 37$ in May 2005. Table1. Definition ofindependent variables and its base statistics 26.24 Definition of independent variables and its base statistics have showed in Table 1. According to the 100 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo survey results,average age of consumersis 39.04. The male respondents constitute 68.77 % of totalrespondents while female respondents constitute 31.23 % of it. The survey results have showed that 16.67% of households are primary school graduates, 14.71% are middle school graduates, 40.99% are high school graduates, 25.98% are university graduates, and %1.65 are post graduates. The average household size has been found as 4.17 people that is lower than the average household size (4.9 people) in Turkey [9]. Average monthly income of households has been found as 1329.24YTL. Mother of households 35.14% are study in any work, 64.86% are unemployed. The respondents 44.25% have got acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, but 55.71% haven’t got acknowledge of ecologic agriculture. Risk difference variable calculateimpact of health risk perception. Table 2 shows distribution of dependent variable (WTP). Respondent’s 34.23% not willing to pay, 77.02% willing to pay less than 30 percent premium. 22.97% of respondents are willing to pay more than 30 percent premium. This is shown thatthe respondents will acceptto pay only a small premium for pesticide free tomatoes. W T P category Category Number of Code Respondents Not willing to pay (0) 0=0 228 Willing to pay one to five percent premium 1-5=1 44 Willing to pay six toten percent premium 6-10=2 89 Willing to pay 11-15 percentpremium 11-15=3 20 16-20=4 49 Willing to pay 16-20 percentpremium 28 Willing to pay 21-25 percentpremium 21-25=5 55 Willing to pay 26-30 percentpremium 26-30=6 Willing to pay more than a 30 percent premium 31-+=7 153 Table 2. Distribution of dependent Variable (WTP) Percentage (%) 34.23 6.61 13.36 3.00 7.36 4.20 8.26 22.97 Table 3 shows thatthe resultsof the ordered probit model of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes. The loglikelihood ratio testindicates that the estimated model is statically significant at 0.01 level. Gender, education, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index variables are significant at 0.01 levels. Statue of mother variable is significant at 0.05 levels. Age, household size,income variables are not significant. Coefficient of gender variable has a positive sign. This sign shows that male respondents are willingness to pay more a premium to pesticide free tomatoes than female respondents. Coefficient of education variable has a positive sign. The coefficient indicates that probability of willingness to pay higher prices for pesticide free tomatoes increases as the levels of education increase. This resultsupportsthe results of previous studies which were made by several other authors (Fu, et al.,1999; Sukant et al., 1991; Goktolga, et al., 2006). Coefficient of statue of mother variable has a positive sign. The coefficient illustrated that employed mothers are more willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes than unemployed mother. This resultis natural because of employed mothers are more conscious for safe food than unemployed mothers. Coefficient of acknowledge of ecologic agriculture variable has a positive sign. The positive coefficient of this variable indicates that there is a positive relationship between the probability of paying a premium and acknowledge of ecologic agriculture variable. The result shows the probability of W TP for pesticide free tomatoes increases when consumers are more concerned about organic agriculture. Variables Coefficient t-statistic Constant -1.08 -3.875 Age 0.447 1.132 Gender 0.321 2.989* Education 0.112 2.872* Household size 0.769 0.830 Income 0.424 0.689 Statue of mother 0.230 2.204** Acknowledge of ecologic agriculture 0.461 4.780* Healthy food 0.318 3.557* Risk Index 0.623 5.074* Log likelilihood: -1114.113 ,Chi-squared: 155.773, Degrees of freedom: 9 Note: * and ** denotes significance atthe 0.01 level and at0.05 level,respectively. Table 3. Results ofthe ordered probit model 101 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Healthy food variable’s sign is positive. This sign shows thatthere is positive relationship between the probability of paying a premium and healthy food variable. The probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes increases when consumers would rather food healthy than other choice. Risk index variable’s sign is positive. Positive sign shows that probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes increases when consumer’s risk perception increase in regular (uncertificated)tomatoes. Marginal effects of ordered probit model have been showed in Table 4. Marginal probabilities have been calculated from the estimated model. In each row, the sum of marginal probabilities is zero in ordered probit model (Greene, 2000). In the Table 4 all variable’s sings are negative until WTP2. After this category all variables have got positive sing. These signs show a unit increase variables of age, gender, education, household size, income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index decreases the probability of willingness to pay a premium for pesticide free tomatoes in categories lower than WTP 3 category, while the probabilitiesinthe higher categoriesincluding WTP 3 increases. The most positive change the probabilities of age, gender, education, household size,income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index variables have observed in the WTP 7 category. Coefficient of variables in this WTP 7 category show that a unit increase age, gender, education, household size, income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index increases the probabilities of a positive WTP by 0,0123, 0.0886, 0.0308, 0.0212, 0.0117, 0.0634, 0.1269, 0.0876 and 0.0017 in WTP 7 category,respectively.In other one study,for willingnessto pay more than 20%, marginal coefficients of knowledge of pesticide-borne health risks, pesticides concern index and food-borne risk concern index were calculated as 0.0079, 0.0021 and 0.0004, respectively in Italy (Boccaletti and Nardella, 2000). variables Constant Age Gender Education Household size Income Statue of mother Acknowledge of ecologic agriculture Healthy Food Risk index W TP=0 0.3907 -0.0161 -0.1155 -0.0402 -0.0276 -0.0152 -0.0827 -0.1656 -0.1142 -0.0022 W TP=1 0.0299 -0.0012 -0.0088 -0.0031 -0.0021 -0.0012 -0.0063 -0.0127 W TP=2 0.0096 -0.0004 -0.0028 -0.0010 -0.0007 -0.0004 -0.0020 -0.0041 W TP=3 -0.0069 0.0003 0.0020 0.0007 0.0005 0.0003 0.0015 0.0029 W TP=4 -0.0304 0.0012 0.0090 0.0031 0.0021 0.0012 0.0064 0.0129 W TP=5 -0.0259 0.0011 0.0077 0.0027 0.0018 0.0010 0.0055 0.0110 -0.0087 -0.0028 0.0020 0.0089 .0076 -0.0002 -0.0001 0.0000 0.0002 0.0001 Table 4. Marginal Effects for Ordered Probit W TP=6 -0.0675 0.0028 0.0199 0.0069 0.0048 0.0026 0.0143 0.0286 W TP=7 -0.2995 0.0123 0.0886 0.0308 0.0212 0.0117 0.0634 0.1269 0.0197 0.0004 0.0876 0.0017 Conclusion The purpose of this study is to calculate the effects of socio-demographic and risk variables on willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes. The results of the study suggest that Turkish consumers in Ankara and Tokat provinces are generally concerned with pesticide free tomatoes, with only 34.23% ofthe respondents not willing to pay higher prices for pesticide free tomatoes.In other words, 65.77% of the respondents are willing to pay higher prices for pesticide free tomatoes, 77.03% of those respondents are not willing to pay a premium higher than 30% of the regular price. According to results; gender,education, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index variables are statically significant and they have positive effects on the WTP pesticide free tomatoes. The results suggest that the firms marketing and producing farmer to pesticide free tomatoes should develop strategies for male individuals, persons have high education level, working mother, individuals have acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, consumers who prefer food healthy as first choice and consumers who don’tlike a risk. The results can provide important findings for pesticide free tomatoes marketing firms and pesticide free tomatoes producers. For successful a marketing and product, pesticide free tomatoes price premium should not exceed 30% of regulartomatoes pricesin market.Ifthe premium exceeds 30% regular price in market,sales rate will be low. In addition,the results can provide important findings for policy maker working this area. 102 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Akmaz, M., 2005. Determination of consumer’s consciousness level about of ecologic agriculture in Tokat Province. GOP University, license seminar, Tokat. Akgungor , S., Miran, B., and Abay, C., 1999. Consumer willingness to pay for reduced pesticide residues in tomatoes: The Turkish case. American Agricultural Economics Association –1999, Selected Paper, Available from: http://agecon.lib.umn.edu/ Boccaletti S. and Nardella M., 2000. Consumer willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh fruit and vegetables in Italy. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 3, 297–310. Buzby, J., Ready, R.C., and Skees, J.R., 1995. Contingent valuation in analysis: a case study residue risk reduction food policy of a pesticide- residue risk reduction. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 27 (2), 613-625. FAO, 2005. Statistical databases, Available from: www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics Fu, T., Liu, J., and Hammitt, J., 1999. Consumer willingness to pay for low-pesticide fresh produce in Taiwan. Journal of Agricultural Economics 50, 220-233. Goktolga, Z.G., Bal, G.S., and Karkacier, O., 2006. Factors effecting primary choice of consumers in food purchasing: The Turkey case, Food Control 17, 884-889. Greene, W.H., 2000. Econometric analysis. Prentice-Hall.Inc., Fourth Edition. Misra, S., Huang, C., and Ott, S. 1991. Consumer willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh produce. Western Journal of Agricultural Economics, 16, 218–227. SIS, 2003. Statistical yearbook of Turkey 2002. State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey, Publication number. 2779. Sukant, K.M., Huang, C.L., and Ott, S.L ., 1991. Consumer willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh produce, Western Journal of Agricultural Economics, 16 (2), 218-227. 103 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 486 Title A name given to the resource Consumer Willingness to Pay for Pesticide Free Tomatoes in Turkey Author Author Bayramoğlu, Zeki Göktolga, Ziya Gökalp Abstract A summary of the resource. Willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes were calculated and its effects of socio-demographic and risk variables were measured. The data were obtained from 666 consumers by survey method in May 2005. The surveys are conducted in Ankara and Tokat Provinces at same time. Ordered probit model was used to determine the probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes. The findings showed that 34.23 % of Turkish consumers not willing to pay, are 77.02 % willing to pay less than 30 percent premium and 22.97% are willing to pay more than 30 percent premium. This is shown that Turkish consumers will accept to pay only a small premium for pesticide free tomatoes. Furthermore, gender, education, statue of mother, acknowledges of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index factors are impact on willingness to pay. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f64a75c30170ba37ecb6190e9bbfccbb.pdf 0fb8297b89c7539dfcc50ad8755308ab PDF Text Text Exploring Variation and Sustainable Progress of Vegetable Genetic Resources in The Black Sea Region, Turkey Ahmet Balkaya Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Samsun –Turkey abalkaya@omu.edu.tr Abstract: Turkey is an important center for plant genetic resources and genetic diversity. In Turkey, the Black Sea Region is very rich in vegetable genetic resources due to its diverse geographical, climatic and ecological conditions. Conservation and maintenance of these valuable genetic resources is essential. In order to protect the highly threatened vegetable genetic resources in this region, it was very important to set up a collection, conservation, utilization and research system. The aim of this review was to outline some of the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region; their distribution, their collection and characterization; and to describe cultivar breeding programmes from 1994 to 2009 and beyond. This overview will give the agricultural scientist an insight to into the large degree of genetic diversity in Turkey, and provide information about the distribution and potential utilization of these irreplaceable genetic resources. Introduction The utilization of plant genetic resources is one key to improving agricultural productivity and sustainability. Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are part of the biological wealth indispensable for securing world food supplies, alleviating poverty and sustaining rural development (Morico et al. 1998). Use of genetic resources is as old as the history of agriculture. Hundreds of plants have been bred over many hundreds of years and thousands of varieties have been developed by natural and artificial selection. Genetic erosion occurred through natural causes in earlier times, whereas recently, forest fires, misuse of forests and agricultural fields, and excessive and careless use of fertilizer and pesticides have reduced plant genetic diversity (Sarı et al. 2008). Intensive genetic improvement, together with the development of agricultural inputs, has led to the replacement of many local varieties by a few uniform modern cultivars in developing countries. For this reason, preservation of populations and landraces are very important (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2005). The genetic uniformity of cultivars of a widely grown crop makes them uniformly susceptible to biotic or abiotic hazards, and this genetic vulnerability may lead to complete crop loss. The main goal to be achieved by conservation of genetic resources is their present and future utilization for the benefit of mankind (Yawen et al. 2001). Organized collection, evaluation and conservation of crop genetic resources have gone on for two hundred years (Brush & Meng 1998). Currently, projects are being conducted in many countries for the conservation of genetic resources. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment, so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social challenges facing humanity (Moffat et al. 2001). Wild plant forms and local village cultivars in any country are necessary genetic materials for improving the traits of cultivated plants, or developing new cultivars. The sustainability of plant production will only be assured by the preservation of these materials. For this reason, preservation of the genetic resources Turkey, which has rich genetic diversity, is necessary for both sustainable agriculture and life (Karayel & Bozoğlu 2008). The conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of resources, technology transfer, intellectual property rights, provision of financing and the principle of equable sharing of benefits, have also been promoted (Waldman & Shevah 2000). The genetic diversity of landraces is thought to be of substantial economic value as part of global biodiversity, and is considered of paramount importance for future world production (Tan 2000; Stoilova et al. 2005). Turkey is one of the most important countries in the world for plant genetic resources and genetic diversity (Tan 1998). It is also one of the the centers of origin, and /or, diversity of several crop plants, and many plant species. Turkey is endowed with a rich diversity of families (163), genera (1,225) and species (9,000) of plants (Tan 1996; Özgen et al. 2000; Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005), and also has the genetic diversity centers of many wild, transitional and cultivated forms of annual and perennial, herbaceous and woody plants (Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005). The Black Sea region in the north of Turkey is one of its richest regions for crop genetic resources diversity. The region covers approximately 18 percent of the land area of Turkey, with a surface area 21 �of 141,000 km2. The Black Sea Region, which gets its name and characteristics from the adjacent sea, extends from the border of Georgia in the east to the eastern edge of the Adapazari Plain in the west. The provinces of Artvin, Rize, Trabzon, Gumushane, Bayburt, Giresun, Ordu, Sinop, Samsun, Amasya, Kastamonu, Zonguldak, Bartin and Bolu are all in the Black Sea Region. Access inland from the coast is limited to a few narrow valleys because mountain ridges, with elevations of 1,525 to 1,800 meters in the west, and 3,000 to 4,000 meters in the east in the Kaçkar mountains, form an almost unbroken wall separating the coast from the interior. Because of these natural conditions, the Black Sea coast historically has been isolated from Anatolia. The North Anatolian Mountains are an interrupted chain of folded highlands that generally parallel the Black Sea coast. The climate of the Black Sea region is generally relatively warm and humid.It is the wettest area in Turkey, although summers are generally dry, with midsummer the driest time. The summers are shorter when compared to those of the south and the west, and the winters are rainy, with occasional snow. The moderate climate and the prevalence of reasonable to good soils make this region ideal for many forms of agriculture. Historically, the Black Sea region has seen the intensive cultivation on small holdings of a wide variety of crops such as corn, beans, peas, pumpkins, kale and cabbages. The conservation and maintenance of these valuable local genetic resources is essential because they are an important source of diversity which can be used in future breeding programs (Balkaya et al. 2005). The aim of this study is to document the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region, including the distribution of species, their collection and characterization, present and ongoing cultivar breeding programs, and the utilization of documented species from 1994 to 2009. The Study Knowledge of the extent of genetic diversity, and identification, differentiation, and characterisation of genotypes, and populations, respectively, provides an information tool for the detection of duplicates in collections, their effective extension, and better characterisation and utilization in breeding (Hornakova et al. 2003). Conserved germplasm requires accurate characterization for its efficient utilization in the future. Knowledge of variation found in a cultivated species and its pattern of distribution is important for the development of breeding programs (Gil & Ron 1992; Balkaya & Ergün 2007). Within a certain region, wide variation of plant and fruit types is observed as a consequence of natural and human selection. There is currently a large information gap with regard to the collection, classification and evaluation of Turkish genetic resources (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2001). Because of the increasing use of commercially released varieties, local varieties and genetic resources are rapidly disappearing. Consequently, there is a need to collect, characterize and evaluate remnant local populations before they disappear. It was essential to set up a collection, conservation, research and utilization system for the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea Region. Unfortunately, the collection and evaluation of vegetable genetic resources in that region was very limited until the early 1990s. From 1994 to the present, the vast majority of these studies have been undertaken by the Horticulture and Field Crop Departments of the Agriculture Faculty at Ondokuz Mayis University in Samsun, Turkey, and The aim of this study was to describe the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region, the distribution of species, their collection and characterization, present and ongoing cultivar breeding programmes, and the utilization of presented species from 1994 to 2009. The summarized results are presented in this article. Findings Species belonging to the Leguminosae family are widely grown in the Black Sea region. The common bean is a crop of considerable global importance as a vegetable and as grain legume.The annual production of leguminous vegetable species in Turkey is 709,000 t (Turkstat 2005). Snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is by far the most important cultivated legume in Turkey with a 76.9 % share, and pinto bean has a share 7.3% with 52 000 t annually (Turkstat 2005). Samsun province has a large share (17.3%) of snap bean production (94 019 t) in Turkey. In Turkey, common bean landraces still represent important genetic resources used directly by farmers on a small scale (Balkaya 1999). Despite its foreign origin, it has adapted well and shows broad variation in the Black Sea region (Bozoğlu & Sozen 2007). Turkish farmers have grown common bean landraces due to their ability to adapt to local environmental conditions and because local people prefer them. Consequently, the common bean populations show an appreciable diversity attributable to the range of ecological and human influences. However, the old bean landraces have progressively been replaced with ‘improved’ new cultivars, which ensure higher yields and incomes, and meet the processors and consumers’ requirements (Balkaya & Ergün 2007). From 1995-1998, a study was undertaken to firstly determine plant characteristics, and then to select suitable green bean cultivars for fresh consumption from local populations of the Black Sea region (Balkaya 1999). In the first year of the study, 166 climbing, and 34 dwarf types were collected (Table 1). Thirty-one climbing and nine dwarf lines were selected by the pedigree selection method in the second year. In the third year, 7 promising climbing lines and 1 dwarf line were determined to be cultivar 22 �Table 1: Ex-situ collections of vegetable genetic materials in the Black Sea Region. English name/Turkish name Scientific binomial Collected sites Number of Accessions Leguminosae Green bean/ Taze fasulye Pinto bean/Barbunya Dry bean/ Kuru fasulye Pea/ Bezelye Broad bean/ Bakla Phaseolus vulgaris L. P. vulgaris var. pinto Phaseolus vulgaris L. Pisum sativum L. Vicia faba L. 9 1 1 5 4 200 44 400 27 10 Kale/Yaprak-Kara lahana Cabbage/Baş lahana B. olearaceae var. acephala B. olearaceae var.capitata 5 11 127 95 Pumpkin-Bal kabağı Winter squash-Kestane k. Cucurbita moschata Duch. Cucurbita maxima Duch. 4 4 22 115 Pepper-Biber Green peper/sivri biber Red pepper/Kırmızı biber C. annum var. longum C. annum var. conoides Mill 7 1 37 56 Brassicaceae Cucurbitaceae Solanaceae candidates (Balkaya & Yanmaz 1999). Twenty one bean cultivars (15 cultivar candidates and 5 commercial cultivars) were identified in both laboratory and field tests. In field tests, earliness, plant (height), leaf (color, size of terminal and side leaflets, shape of terminal leaflet), flower (size of bract, color), pod (size, shape of cross section, color, stringiness, surface texture, degree of curvature, prominence of grains) and seed (size, shape, color), were determined. In laboratory tests, seed protein bands were obtained by SDS-PAGE. Candidatesfor cultivar status and commercial cultivars showed different morphological characters and protein banding (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2003). Pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Pinto) is a traditional crop in Turkey. Farmers grow local varieties selected and maintained by themselves. Pinto bean is an especially important food in Samsun province of the Black Sea region. It is consumed as fresh pods, fresh seed or dry seeds. Forty four pinto bean populations were collected (Table 1) and evaluated according to morphological, earliness and yield traits under Samsun ecological conditions in 2003 and 2004 (Balkaya & Ergün 2007). Results showed that populations displayed significant differences for pod length, width, pod shape in longitudinal section, pod shell thickness, pod color, stringiness and pod curvature. Principal component analysis showed that the first four PC axes explained 83.3% of the total multivariate variation. Data were subjected to cluster analysis and several groups were identified, with most of the populations clustered into six groups. A dendrogram was prepared to evaluate morphological differences among populations. It revealed high variation. The results provided information on the diversity and breeding potential of Turkish pinto bean germplasm (Balkaya & Ergün 2008). Another study was conducted to identify and select valuable genetic resources of the pinto bean populations. From observations, 10 genotypes were determined superior after using a weighting based ranking method for fresh pod and fresh grain pod in the first year. In the second year, from these superior genotypes; 4 genotypes (55ÇA07, 55ÇA15, 55TE15 and 55TE20) for fresh pods and 5 genotypes (55ÇA01, 55ÇA05, 55ÇA15, 55ÇA24 and 55TE 15) for fresh grain pods were selected as promising genotypes. At the end of this research, selected genotypes will be developed into new pinto bean varieties in future years (Balkaya & Ergün 2007). Artvin province is located in the eastern Black Sea region. Landraces of common bean were collected from 279 locations in 74 villages in 7 districts of the province (Bozoğlu & Sözen 2007). Landraces were sorted into 400 samples according to their growth habit, seed color, color pattern and shape. It was determined that these populations can be used in cultivar improvement programs and other breeding studies for both fresh consumption and dry seed yield. Pea (Pisum sativum) is important species in the grain legumes. Twenty seven populations were collected (18 from Samsun, 3 from Giresun and Sakarya, 2 from Artvin and 1 from Tokat (Table 1). Wide variation in agronomic characteristics was observed between genotypes (Karayel & Bozoğlu 2008). It was determined that these populations could be used in cultivar improvement programs and breeding studies for both fresh consumption and forage varieties. 23 �Ten faba bean populations were collected from districts and villages of Samsun, Amasya, Sinop and Tokat provinces (Peksen et al. 2006). There was no significant difference among faba bean populations for green pod yield. Green pod yield per plant was positively and significantly correlated with the number of pods per plant, and pod length and thickness. Seed length, seed width, seed thickness and 100 seed weight ranged between 18.04-23.56 mm, 13.24-17.10 mm, 7.93-8.94 mm and 119.07 and 162.61 g for faba bean populations, respectively (Pekşen et al. 2007). Brassicas are widespread as wild, weedy and cultivated forms throughout Turkey (Davis 1982; Küçük 1996). Vegetable brassicas are an important and highly diverse group of crops grown world-wide that belong mainly to the species Brassica oleracea and Brassica campestris (Monteiro & Lunn 1998). In Turkey, cabbage is the most economically important member of the genus Brassica. According to FAO records from 2007, Turkey’s total cabbage production was 658,665 t (Faostat 2008). Morphological variability is high among the white head cabbage genotypes of Turkey (Balkaya et al. 2005). Cultivar selection studies have been conducted on cabbage populations in various parts of Turkey since 1980. Ninety five white head cabbage populations were collected before and during harvest time between September 1998 and March 1999 from different eco-geographical regions of Turkey. (Yanmaz et al. 2000). They are mainly used for preparing cooked meals or salads. The cabbages were divided into two groups on the basis of their head morphology. The first group was flat and round, of dark green leaf color, medium hard with leaves having a thin midrib, used for stuffing, and the second group was round or long round, of light green leaf color, with thick leaves and midrib, used for pickling (Yanmaz et al. 2000). Data from field experiments conducted between 1999 and 2001 were analysed by multiple variance analysis. Cluster analysis based on 12 quantitative and 10 qualitative variables identified 10 distinct groups. A dendogram was prepared to evaluate morphological similarity among the white head cabbage genotypes. The multiplication and evaluation of these genotypes was carried out at the Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute in Samsun province. Appropriate lines were evaluated during the S4-S8 inbreeding generations. The first Turkish hybrid cultivar candidates were developed at the end of this research, and the registration applications for new hybrid cultivars were done in 2008. Kale production is economically important in Turkey where it is grown intensively in the Black Sea region, but it is not commonly grown in the other regions of Turkey (Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005). Annual production is approximately 92,000 t and Samsun province produces over 40% of Turkish kale (Turkstat 2005).Kale is mainly used as a green vegetable, Many of the kales grown as vegetables have very crisp and curled leaves. Farmers often use the most tender leaves for human consumption and older ones for forage (Balkaya 2002). Kale populations were collected in 2001 from the Black Sea region, and evaluated according to morphological characters (Balkaya et al. 2004). In the first year, 127 kale populations were collected from different eco-geographical areas in this region. Twenty-two populations were determined superior by using a weight based ranking method. The populations exhibited a range of 15.9-21.9 cm for leaf length, 10.4-13.2 cm for leaf width, and 0.26-0.35 mm for leaf thickness. Eleven types were selected as being promising for further breeding efforts (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2005). According to two-year yield results from trial data, 4 kale cultivar candidates (namely Balkaya, Yanmaz, Elif, and Ayça cv.) were selected. Registration of these new kale cultivars was done in 2008 . Cucurbitaceae is one of the most important cultivated families in Turkey. No wild types, or forms of genera, such as Cucumis, Cucurbita, Citrullus and Lagenaria have been found in Turkey. (Küçük et al. 2002; Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005) However, in many crops, including cucurbits, diversity centers have been identified in Anatolia (Harlan 1951). In almost all regions of Turkey, landraces of Cucurbitaceae are highly variable in morphology and taste. Winter squash (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) and pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) are two of the most important cucurbit vegetable crops in the Black Sea region. Winter squash populations show great diversity in morphological characteristics, particularly in fruit length, fruit diameter, fruit shape, fruit brightness, skin thickness, and flesh thickness and colour, in the Black Sea region of Turkey. One hundred and fifteen populations of winter squash, Cucurbita maxima Duch. were collected from different provinces of the Black Sea region (Bolu, Sinop, Amasya and Samsun provinces) in 2006 and 2007 (Balkaya et al. 2008a). The collection showed appreciable phenotypic variation in fruit shape, fruit color, fruit brightness, fruit dimensions and fruit weight. This study also demonstrated that substantial differences in seed dimensions exist in Turkish winter squash populations. Seed length ranged from 15.0-25.7 mm, seed width from 7.6-15.5 mm, and seed thickness from 1.4-6.1 mm. With regard to seed length to thickness ratio and seed width to thickness ratio, populations showed a range of 3.2 to 14.2, and 2.2 to 8.5, respectively. Data were analysed using principal component analysis (PCA). PCA revealed that the first two PC axes explained 67.0% of the total multivariate variation (Balkaya et al. 2009). From observations, 26 winter squash genotypes were evaluated as superior by utilising a weighting based ranking method in the first year. In the second year, from these selected genotypes; 9 winter squash genotypes were selected as promising genotypes. At the end of this research, selected genotypes will have beee developed into new winter squash varieties. In addition, selected types were evaluated at the DNA 24 �level using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers for some morphological characters,and this evaluation showed that these genotypes are genetically different each other. (Balkaya et al. 2008a). Twenty two local populations of pumpkin were collected in the Black Sea Region during and after the harvest in September 2005 and February 2006 (Table 1). The populations have been maintained by farmers for generations and are representative of the different pumpkin types growing in the Black Sea region. The geographical distribution of pumpkin populations was 8 populations from Amasya, 6 from bothBolu and Samsun, and 2 from Sinop (Balkaya et al. 2008b), and results showed a large variation among the genotypes. This study showed that pumpkin genotypes from the Black Sea Region of Turkey have a number of characteristics useful for breeding programs. Four types were evaluated as superior when using a weighting based ranking method. At the end of this research, 1 genotype (14BO01) was selected as being promising for further breeding efforts. Turkey is a micro-gene centre for many landraces, including the Solanaceae (Küçük 2003) These landraces are still grown by farmers in almost all regions of Turkey. Peppers are commonly grown in the Black Sea Region of Turkey and Samsun is a major producer province. Thirty seven green pepper populations were collected from Samsun, Amasya, Tokat, Kastamonu, Bartin, Gumushane and Giresun provinces in the Black Sea Region (Table 1). Morphological identification of collected populations were done by documenting their vegetative and pomological traits (Kar et al. 2007). In another study, fifty six red pepper populations were collected from different eco-geographical areas in the research region. Research showed that populations had 11.2-19.2 cm fruit length, 4.8-7.2 cm fruit width, and 4.3-5.8 mm for flesh thickness. They exhibited a range of 653.9-1415.5 g for the total fruit weight/plant, 7.2-13.5 for fruit number/plant, 53.0 -155.0 mg/100 g for ascorbic acid, 5.2-8.0 % for total soluble solids, and 8.0 -11.9 % for total dry weight (Karaağaç 2006). The collection protocol was designed to ensure that the collected genotypes effectively represented the vegetable genetic resources present in the Black Sea region. Some of these vegetable genetic resources may not be suitable for standard cultivars in terms of productivity and plant characteristics, but their genetic content should be conserved (Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005). The seeds of populations collected and characterized in these studies were preserved at -20o C for long term storage in the Turkish seed gene bank (AARI), and they are also stored at 4o C at the Horticultural Department of Ondokuz Mayis University’s Agriculture Faculty in Samsun, Turkey. All these materials form a vegetable gene pool which is used to maintain important traits, to broaden the genetic base of cultivars, and serve as a source of new diversity for agriculture. Conclusions The variation and diversity of vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region has greatly contributed to the genetic improvement of many vegetables. Many registered vegetable cultivars and cultivar candidate have been developed from those plant gene collections. On-going research at Ondokuz Mayis University may help to improve the economics and sustainability of vegetable production in both the Black Sea region and Turkey. References Balkaya, A. (1999). 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(2000). Investigation on the identification of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. subvar. alba) gene sources of Turkey. (In Turkish). III. Vegetable Growing Symposium. 11-13 September 2000, Isparta, Turkey. Yawen, Z., Jianjun, W., Zongyi, Y., Shiquan, S., Lihua, W., Xiaoyan, C., Jingui, M. (2001). The diversity and sustainable development of crop genetic resources in the Lancang River valley. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 48:297-306. 27 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 644 Title A name given to the resource Exploring Variation and Sustainable Progress of Vegetable Genetic Resources in The Black Sea Region, Turkey Author Author Balkaya, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Turkey is an important center for plant genetic resources and genetic diversity. In Turkey, the Black Sea Region is very rich in vegetable genetic resources due to its diverse geographical, climatic and ecological conditions. Conservation and maintenance of these valuable genetic resources is essential. In order to protect the highly threatened vegetable genetic resources in this region, it was very important to set up a collection, conservation, utilization and research system. The aim of this review was to outline some of the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region; their distribution, their collection and characterization; and to describe cultivar breeding programmes from 1994 to 2009 and beyond. This overview will give the agricultural scientist an insight to into the large degree of genetic diversity in Turkey, and provide information about the distribution and potential utilization of these irreplaceable genetic resources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6753b80e840a8513b006a299aa681386.pdf a8d9b0a7ba51ee060a23c0f6f1f35cd6 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Economic Development through Tourism Ventures: The Case of Turkey Ahmet BAYTOK Assist. Prof. Dr., School of Tourism and Hotel Management Afyon Kocatepe, University, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Veysel AĞCA Assist. Prof. Dr. Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe,University, Turkey agca@aku.edu.tr Mustafa KURT Associate Prof. Dr.Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey mkurt@aku.edu.tr Abstract: Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in all communities. Tourism is one of the economic industries in which a great degree of involvement is needed by the entrepreneurial sector. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism and tourism products. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development of Turkey between the period of 1980 to today. Introduction Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in general and questions of how and why entrepreneurs emerge in an economy are considered as central issue of economic development (Szivas, 2001:164). It can be conceptualize as a process of doing something new or something different, to create wealth for oneself and to add value to society ( Kokkranikal and Morrison, 2002:7). Tourism industry, alongside its growing structure with stimulating effect on other industries has been directly and indirectly providing a significant contribution to the country's economies. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism (Seasonality, sensibility of tourism to politic, economic and natural unexpected events-risky industry, labor intensive etc.) and tourism product (intangibility, perishability, variability,). A large portion of the revenue of the tourism industry emerges through tourist spending for the superstructure investments (accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment facilities) and these investments are mostly made by private sector entrepreneurs. Turkey is an important touristic destination with a significant natural, historical and cultural touristic supply attractiveness. According to data from T.C. Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2008, approximately 31 million tourists visited Turkey, and left 22 billion dollars as a tourist spending. Due to the economic crisis in the world, tourism revenues and tourist entries have decreased in many countries, while Turkey has been growth approximately 13 percent according to the previous year (www.turizm.gov.tr). The tourism industry in terms of creation of economic value, providing of new employment and creation of export revenues as the contribution of foreign trade deficit to be closed with, has played important role in Turkish economy for last three decades. Especially, in a major development of the last 30-year period of data about industry and the role of the industry played in the economy is the most important evidence. Undoubtedly, the private enterprises by entrepreneurs, make up the superstructure of the industry, is the most important reason for existing economic contribution. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development in the transformation of the tourism industry in Turkey from the period of 1980 to today. In this regard, the impact of the superstructure initiatives occurred by the private enterprises on the growth of the 430 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo economy, employment and foreign trade deficit will be examined. Secondary data will be used in this research. Statistical data in the last 29 year period will be examined and a descriptive analysis will be done. 1. The Concept of Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship is a fairly complex issue and not always easy to define (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 236). The subject of entrepreneurship has been studied from a multitude of disciplinary perspective (Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000:380). Historically the conceptualization emerging within classical economic theory was concerned with entrepreneurial activity as a key factor and dynamic element in economic performance (Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000: 379). Some authors viewing it as a process or a way of behaving (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 236). The root of the word “entrepreneur” comes from the French verb “entreprendre”, which means “to undertake”. Entrepreneurship is conceptualized from different points of view by researchers. According to Cantillion who first acknowledge this concept an entrepreneur bears uncertainty and bears risk. Say concentrate on managerial role of entrepreneur and claimed that an entrepreneur should carry out specific business tasks and also supply his own capital. Shumpeter saw entrepreneurship as a primary engine of economic development. According to him entrepreneur is innovator and innovation is a central element of entrepreneurship” (Lordkipanidze, Bretez and Backman, 2005: 788). The term entrepreneur can be defined as “an innovator carrying out new combinations of economic development such as new goods, new methods of production, new markets, new sources of raw material or new organization form” (Weiermair, Siler and Mössenlechner, 2006: 27). According to the definition certain roles of entrepreneurs can be seen an arbitrageur, an innovator, a market filler, a risk bearer, a decision maker, a creator of an enterprise and a coordinator of the factor of productions (Koy and Hatten, 2002: 25). Entrepreneurs need some driving factors in order to operate; motivation, specific conditions for success, supportive environment, the entrepreneurial climate infrastructure and support and entrepreneurship policy (Lordkipanidze, Bretez and Backman, 2005: 789-790) can be accepted as factors which encourage and form suitable background for the entrepreneurial environment. In recent years nurturing entrepreneurship has become a popular policy objective in communities. It is broadly supported recognizing a wide range of potential contributions to the development process. These include: (Kokkranikal and Morrison, 2002:10). • raising productivity, • creating employment, • restructuring and diversifying the economy, • reducing market inefficiencies, • improving the social welfare of the country, • commercializing innovative products and service • creating new markets. Entrepreneurship is the basic guiding force of countries economic development. While entrepreneurial activities which created by private entrepreneurs have important contributions to countries economic developments, in the same time it increase the level of living standards, social conditions and employment. Today entrepreneurships have some positive and negative impacts on natural, social and cultural factors, as part of social life, because of their unplanned development and they are the products of different cultural backgrounds. They are wanted and encouraged by all countries, as an economic development force even if they have some negative impacts. 2. Tourism Entrepreneurship Tourism is a dynamic and ever changing industry in modern economies. Its growing structure with stimulating effect on other industries has been directly and indirectly providing a significant contribution to the country's economies. (Russell and Faulkner, 2004: 556). Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development (Russell and Faulkner 2004; Kokranikal and Morrison, 2002; Zapalska and Brozik, 2007;Koh and Hatten, 2002). Because the richness of the touristic attractiveness is important in the destination to be visited for tourism purposes, but it is not adequate as a touristic product, in terms of attractiveness and forming economic value. Benefiting touristic attractiveness resources on formation of economic value depends on availability of accessibility and usability factors as well as attractiveness. While accessibility factor represents infrastructure, usability factor represents touristic superstructure. A large portion of the revenue of the tourism industry emerges through tourist spending for the superstructure investments (accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment facilities) and these investments are mostly made by private sector entrepreneurs. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and 431 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. Therefore they are defined as the sculptors of tourismspace. Tourism entrepreneur can be described as a person to make profit through tourism enterprise by considering market opportunities (Koh ve Hatten, 2002:23-25). Thomas Cook’s innovativeness and his role in the development of mass tourism as an entrepreneur, Walt Disney’s Disneyland ideas and development of theme parks as an entrepreneur (Russell and Faulkner, 2004:562), in today’s world the reason for Las Vegas and Dubai’s famousness in the world are entrepreneurs entrepreneurships in this cities. Tourism entrepreneur differs from the general entrepreneurs in several ways and the nature of tourism and tourism product are the driving factors of this differences. These are: (Koh and Hatten, 2002: 32) • Tourism entrepreneur create tourism enterprise. • Intangibility of tourism offerings causes greater difficulty in testing their offerings and poses greater risk to tourism entrepreneur. • Tourism is a service oriented industry. This implies that tourism entrepreneurs need to acquire serviceoriented management and marketing practices. • Seasonality of tourism products cause sales fluctuation and this have to be done more attentively and effectively. • Immobility of tourism offers causes more uncertainty and less control over the products. • Significance proportion of tourism products are owned and operated by governmental agencies (national parks, thermal springs etc). Tourism entrepreneurial activities provide important contribution to the societies’ economic, social, cultural development and welfare. While development of tourism entrepreneurship in any country provide new jobs, real income and increase revenue, tax income and because of its multiplier effects also effects other industries in economic aspects (Zapalska and Brozik, 2007;Koh and Hatten, 2000), from the social point of view it makes the destination place to be lived, worked, entertain and spend time in retirement (Kokkranikal and Morrison,2002;Koh and Hatten, 2000). The development of tourism entrepreneurship is postulated as a spontaneous process, which occurs as a result of growth in tourism development (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 237). Yet the birth of touristic enterprise is not an act of nature but an act of the tourism entrepreneur (Koh and Hatten, 2000:22). 3. Tourism Industry in Turkey Turkey is one of the most important tourism destinations in the world. According to data in 2008, approximately 31 million tourists visited Turkey, and left 22 billion dollars as a tourist spending. Turkey has been growth approximately 13 percent according to the previous year (www.turizm.gov.tr). and reach at the rank 7th in the world (www.turkiyeturizm.com). Turkey is very attractive in terms of tourism destination. This situation is an important reason behind the level of its tourism industry. With its strategic importance because of geographical position in the historical process, Turkey is a country where many of the provisions of civilization happened. Historical attractiveness of these civilizations makes Turkey a wondered and visited country. Three sides surrounded by the sea Turkey is also an important natural destination. Especially, as the basic tourism product in terms of sun and sand of the sea , the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts are important destinations (Antalya, Bodrum, Marmaris, Fethiye, Kuşadası). Every year millions of tourists visit Turkey for vacation tourism purposes. The cultural factors like Turkish hospitality and Turkish cuisine are the supporter factors of attractiveness of Turkey Its possible to distinguish the development of tourism industry into two fundamental periods in Turkey. First period, started between 1963 and 1980; at this period legal arrangements and superstructure developments directed to the tourism formed by Turkish Government. In this period main entrepreneur in Turkish tourism is the state itself. During this period the state enterprises are the basic superstructures in building TURBAN hotels in different cities and pioneering private sector at risky tourism ventures. The second period covered 1980 and today. In this period, tourism as an instrument to remedy the economic imbalances in foreign trade with exports has played important role. In this period, it started to make a tremendous contribution to the economy with its high competitive power. Also, during this period the state has begun to reveal incentives applications to private sector in the development of tourism superstructure to play basic entrepreneurial role. In this period, especially in 1982, 2634 of the "Tourism Incentive Law" (Resmi Gazete, 1982: Sayı.17635) has been the basic incentive tool for superstructure of supply in the development of tourism. In addition to Law No. 2634, the 4875 "Direct Foreign Investment Law" (Official Gazette, 2003: Sayı.25141) and No. 5084 "Investment and Promotion of Employment Act and some changes in the “Law Making" (Official Gazette, 2004: Sayı.25365) are other important incentives. In this period, statistical data belong to tourism industry, showed that entrepreneurs played important role in economic development of the tourism industry. Moreover, this situation is the best evidence that to have the rich resources in terms of attractiveness, to develop tourism industry in a country and to create economic value are not enough. 432 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Some important national and international events occurred between 1980 and 2008 shaped activities of tourism entrepreneurs in the tourism industry and the development of the Turkish tourism sector. These are: • 1991 First Gulf War • 1997 Economic Crisis in Asia • 1999 Earthquake in Gölcük • 2006 Avian Influenza, Cartoon Crisis The basic driving force of development in the Turkish tourism industry in the 1980-2008 period is the number of beds as supply of qualified tourism superstructure that increased from only 56,044 beds in 1980 to the level of 532,262 beds by the year 2007(Table 1). During these period, private entrepreneurs by increasing the supply of tourism superstructure became the basic catalyst to create economic value that tourism sector has already reached. 4. Study Findings The statistical fact sheets of tourism industry in Turkey indicate that development of tourism superstructure which is formed by private entrepreneurs is the main determinants of the sectoral size and increase in the share of tourism industry in economic development of Turkey. The tourism superstructure supply of Turkey has increased by 9.5 times between 1980 and 2008. While growth of the tourism superstructure was slower between 1980 and 1984 period, it indicated approximately 4,5 times increase between 1985 and 1997. Although increase in the bed capacity between 1997 and 2000 developed slowly, in 2001 and 2007 period it again indicated rapid development (Figur1). The process experienced in the development of Turkish tourism superstructure reflects the natural structural characteristics of tourism industry. In the first years because the tourism industry was at the beginning stage of its development and its risky character private entrepreneurs remained in distance to the industry and this caused decrease in development. The economic crisis, politic instability, terror, earthquake etc. caused decrease in tourism demand towards to turkey and slow development of tourism enterprises between 1997 and 2000. Although bird influenza through out the world, cartoon crisis between Christian and Muslim world narrowed the volume of tourism demand and caused decrease in tourism receipts, tourism superstructure supply continued its development because Turkish entrepreneurs are experienced in dealing with crisis and difficult conditions. 600 000 500 000 Number of beds 400 000 300 000 200 000 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 100 000 years Licenced Accomodation Bed Numbers Figure 1. Number of Tourism Licensed Accommodation Establishments in Turkey by Years (1980-2007) Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Directorate of Investment and Enterprise, Department of Research and Evaluation, General Statistics of Tourism Licensed Facilities 2007 September, 2008, p.23. Owing to tourism superstructure formed by tourism entrepreneurs in Turkey, While only 1 288 060 visitors visited Turkey in 1980, the number of visitors increased to 30 929 192 in 2008 which represent 24 times increase in visitor arrivals. In the same period while tourism receipts of Turkey was only 326,5 million dollars in 1980, it raised to 22 billion dollars in 2008 (Table 1). When tourism receipts are examined between 1980 and 2008, it is seen that tourism receipts of Turkey increased around by 67 times. The Fluctuations in tourism 433 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo receipts experienced in this period because of economic, social, politic and environmental factors was also the result of decreases in flexible tourism demand. The first Gulf War in 1991, economic crisis and the political conflict between Turkey and Germany and Đtaly, and Earthquake in Gölcük, the capture of head of terrorist organization between 1997-1998-1999. The bird influenza and cartoon crisis in 2006 caused the decrease in tourism demand and tourism receipts in Turkey (Figure 2) As a result of profitable activities of tourism entrepreneurs and their efforts in obtaining customer satisfaction through increasing service quality average expenditure of visitors during their holidays in Turkey increased by 3 times and reached to 700 dollars. Table 1. The Number of Visitors and Tourism Receipts of Turkey - Average Expenditure Per Capita by Years (1980-2008) Years 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Receipts (1.000 $) 326 654 381 268 370 320 411 088 840 000 1 482 000 1 215 000 1 721 117 2 355 295 2 556 529 3 225 000 2 654 000 3 639 000 3 959 000 4 321 000 4 957 000 5 962 100 8 088 549 7 808 940 5 203 000 7 636 000 10 066 500 Number of Visitors Departing 1 288 060 1 405 311 1 391 717 1 625 099 2 117 094 2 614 924 2 391 085 3 058 676 4 150 300 4 482 779 5 190 729 5 106 792 6 827 392 5 925 760 6 410 979 7 247 076 7 970 722 9 233 503 8 878 840 7 069 293 9 990 841 13 450 121 Average Expenditure Per Visitor ($) 253,6 271,3 266,1 253,0 396,8 566,7 508,1 562,7 567,5 570,3 621,3 519,7 533,0 668,1 674,0 684,0 748,0 876,0 879,5 736,0 764,3 748,0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 11 900 900 13 203 100 15 887 700 18 153 500 16 850 800 15 214 516 16 302 050 20 262 640 24 124 501 23 148 669 782,0 810,0 784,0 752,0 728,0 2007 18 487 008 27 214 988 679,0 2008(*) 21 910 964 30 929 192 708,0 NOT : (1980 - 1983) Central Bank (1984 - 1990) Foreign Visitor departure Questionnaire (1991 - 1995) Central Bank (1996 - 1998) Ministry of Tourism+ DĐE (1999 - 2000) Central Bank (2001-2002) Ministry of Tourism+ DĐE (2003-2007) KTB+TUĐK+ Central Bank (*)Data for 2008 is provisional Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 434 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 25000,00 20000,00 million $ 15000,00 10000,00 5000,00 20 08 20 05 20 06 20 07 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 95 19 94 19 93 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 80 0,00 years tourism receipts Figure 2. The Tourism Receipts of Turkey by Years (1980-2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH veGSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 One of the main characteristics of touristic product is the synchronization of production and consumption. In other words its consumed where its produced. These characteristics make tourism an export take place in the country that is an export within the country. That’s why called it invisible export with this feature the development of superstructure of tourism industry generates contribution to the continuous development of exports raises. Between 1980-2008 year periods, excluding crisis period, the share of tourism revenues in exports showed a steady growth. This contribution for some time in 1997, 2001 and 2002 increased at the level of 30 percent. (Figure 3). But it is seen the decreases in the share of tourism in total export after 2002. These decreases are due to the diversification of Turkey's export items and a rapid development of other export items. 80000,00 70000,00 Revenue , million $ 60000,00 50000,00 40000,00 30000,00 20000,00 10000,00 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 0,00 years export receipts tourism receipts Figure 3. Rate of Tourism Receipts in the Export in Turkey by Years (1980 – 2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 Economically, one of the most important problems of Turkey is the Foreign Trade Deficit. Tourism by its export characteristics provides considerable contribution to the close of foreign trade deficit of Turkey. Even though some fluctuations shown in the period between 1980 and 2008 years, tourism has played an important role to be closed Turkey's foreign trade deficit since 1985. In some years (1988, 1994) the amount of tourism revenue reached more than 80% of the foreign trade deficit and has exceeded 100% in 2001. In recent years, 435 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo depending on the increase in imports of goods, foreign trade deficit is in a fast growth so the role of tourism in the foreign trade deficit may be reduced relative to the closure but it continues to provide important contributions (Figure 4) 80000,00 70000,00 receipts, million $ 60000,00 50000,00 40000,00 30000,00 20000,00 10000,00 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96 95 08 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 93 92 91 94 19 19 19 19 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 90 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 80 0,00 years deficit of foreign trade tourism receipts Figure 4. Rate of Tourism Receipts in The Deficit of Foreign Trade in Turkey by Years (1980 - 2008) (*) http://www.tuik.gov.tr/VeriBilgi.do?tb_id=12@ust_id=4 (dış ticaret, dış ticaret istatistikleri, yıllara göre dış ticaret) 16.05.2009 (**) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 Data for 2008 is provisional. Increase in the share of tourism revenues in the GNP is a significant data showing the contribution of tourism to a country's economy. Its multiplier effect of direct economic contribution as a final consumer sector and with high value added make positive contributions to GNP. The share of tourism in GDP increases as proportional with the development of tourism sector. Indeed, with only 0.6 percent it had a very low share on Turkey’s GDP in 1980. But the developments of superstructure ventures increased its share and reached its effects to 6,9 percent on GDP in 2001. In the period after 2001 decrease in the share of industry in GDP was not from reduced revenues of the sector. This decrease was related with the growth of other sectors in the economy (Figure 5). The increase of the share of tourism revenues in the GNP is a significant data showing the importance of its effects within a country's economy. One of the most important benefits of the Tourism investment and development of the superstructure to Turkey is the contribution to the employment, due to its labor-intensive structure. Unemployment is a serious problem in Turkey. Tourism is an important employment area and provides significant contributions to reduce unemployment. Tourism is a sector that creates direct employment besides indirect employment due to a final consumer sector. The development of superstructure of tourism not only creates direct qualified employment but unqualified employment. Besides this the opening of new tourism enterprises and the development of other businesses also contribute to create new employment areas to meet new demands. As tourism industry combined different sectors under one roof, it is very difficult to calculate its share in total employment. Because there is not enough data on this issue, numerical data about direct and indirect employment in the sector is used to show the employment size of the sector just for 1993-2001(Figure 6). It is seen that total employment in the relevant years of data taking into account the proportional size of employment in Turkey is almost one of every five people employed directly and indirectly in the tourism sector. 436 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 800 000,0 700 000,0 Revenue, milyon $ 600 000,0 500 000,0 400 000,0 300 000,0 200 000,0 100 000,0 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 ,0 years GNP tourism receipts Figure 5. Share of Tourism Receipts in the Gross National Product (by Current Consumer Prices) (1980 - 2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 25000000 Number of workers 20000000 15000000 10000000 5000000 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 years total tourism employment total employment in Turkey Figure 6. Employment of Tourism Sectors in General Employment in Turkey by Years (1993-2001) Source: http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler/04istihdam.htm 29.04.2009 5. Discussion and Summary When statistical data about Turkish Tourism sector over the last 29 years is evaluated, it is seen that tourism industry provides important contributions to Turkish economic development. In the contribution of tourism sector to general economic development, because of the development of superstructure supply of sector, private entrepreneurs play main roles. When data for the period of 1980-2008 which is accepted as the starting date of tourism sector development in Turkey is compared, it is seen that the development of superstructure supply in sector has direct positive impact on export, trade balance deficits, GDP growth, and employment which are accepted as the main indicators of economy. In the same period, superstructure supply has developed 9,5 times and because of this development, the number of tourists increased 24 times and the income of tourism grew 67 times. The development, economical value creation and fluctuations and declines in the contribution to general economy of superstructure supply of sector are the result of sectoral features of tourism sector and it only shows that why government should support tourism entrepreneurs. Turkey is a country which has permanently 437 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo trade balance deficit and high unemployment rate and also the development of its competitive goods in international area is limited. In these economic conditions, in order to maintain sustainable economic development, Turkey needs value added sectors which have high competitive capacity. In this context, tourism is important sector for the sustainable development of Turkish economy. Moreover, in order to eliminate the regional development differences, Turkey which has different touristic resources in its different regions should stimulate value added sectors in underdeveloped regions. In this point, practices to encourage private entrepreneurs for investments in these regions make a major contribution to both regional and general economic growth and development. Therefore, that government plans development regions and give some incentives to private sector is so important. As a result, tourism is a risky sector and has long payback period. Therefore, it is not a preferred investment area for private sector. Meanwhile, the determination of the development of sector, value creation, and sectoral size is private sector enterprises. A tourist comes to a place to satisfy his/her curiosity and meet his other needs and doesn’t pay for sunbath and swim. Tourist pays for accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment and other superstructure facilities and all these facilities are supplied by tourism entrepreneurs. References Ateljevic, I., & Doorne, S. (2000). Staying Within The Fence: Lifestyle Entrepreneurship in Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8 (5), 378-392. Koh, K.Y., & Hatten, T.S. (2002). The Tourism Entrepreneur: The Overlooked Player in Tourism Development Studies. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3 (1), 21-48. Kokkranikal, J., & Morrison, A. (2002). Entrepreneurship and Sustainable Tourism: The houseboats of Kerala. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4 (1), 7-20. Lordkipanidze, M., Bretez, H., & Backman, M. (2005). The Entrepreneurship Factor in Sustainable Tourism Development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13, 787-798. Ministry of Culture and Tourism; Directorate of Investment and Enterprise, Department of Research and Evaluation, General Statistics of Tourism Licenced Facilities 2007 September, 2008. Resmi Gazete, “2634 sayılı Turizmi Teşvik Kanunu” Resmi Gazete, 16.03.1982, sayı:17635, 1982. Resmi Gazete, “4875 sayılı “Doğrudan Yabancı Yatırımlar Kanunu” Resmi Gazete, 17.06.2003, sayı:25141, 2003 Resmi Gazete, “5084 sayılı Yatırımların ve Đstihdamın Teşviki Đle Bazı Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılması Hakkında Kanun” Resmi Gazete, 06.02.2004, sayı:25365, 2004. Russell, R., & Faulkner, B. (2004). Entrepreneurship, Chaos and The Tourism Area Lifecycle. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (3), 556-579. Shaw G and Williams, M.A.(1998), Entrepreneurship, Small Business Culture and Tourism Development, In D. Ioannides and K.G. Debbage (eds) The Economic Geography of The Tourism Industry, London: Routledge, pp.235-255. Szivas, E. (2001). Entrance Into Tourism Entrepreneurship: A UK Case Study. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3 (2), 163172. Weiermair, K., Siller, H.J., & Mössenlechner, C. (2006). Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship in Alpine Tourism: Past, Present and Future. Journal of Teaching in Travel &Tourism, 6 (2), 23-40. Zapalska, A.M., & Brozik, D. (2007). Managing Family Business in The Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Transitional Economy of Poland. Zb. Rad. Ekon. Fak. Rij, 25 (1), 141-165. http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler/04istihdam.htm 29.04.2009 http://www.turizm.gov.tr (10.04.2009) http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/VeriBilgi.do?tb_id=12@ust_id=4 (Dış Ticaret, Dış Ticaret Đstatistikleri, Yıllara Göre Dış Ticaret) 16.05.2009. http://www.turkiyeturizm.com/news_detail.php?id=18909 (16.05.2009 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 287 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Economic Development through Tourism Ventures: The Case of Turkey Author Author BAYTOK, Ahmet AĞCA, Veysel KURT, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in all communities. Tourism is one of the economic industries in which a great degree of involvement is needed by the entrepreneurial sector. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism and tourism products. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development of Turkey between the period of 1980 to today. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory