36 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0fac96c39ee07704574213534788ad71.pdf 8c5dcc209f0f7c3cbdab818a64d56a2c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A Sample for the Environmental Protection Implementation in Turkey: National Parks Serkan Doğanay Atatürk University, Turkey sdoganay@atauni.edu.tr Mete Alım Atatürk University, Turkey metealim @atauni.edu.tr Na mık Tanfer ALTAŞ Atatürk University, Turkey ntanfer@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The rapid population growth, extreme and unplanned consumption, in line with technological developments, cause intensive pressure upon natural sources. Likewise, the human values that have a global importance due to historical and cultural features face the similar problems. As one of the current global problems, environmental change and destruction urge to be taken some precautions. The conscious occurrence of the national parks, one of the precautions of environmental protection, goes back to the second half of the nineteenth century. The Yellowstone National Park, in the USA opened in 1872 can be seen as the official beginning of the environmental protection thought. The natural and cultural sources are under serious danger in Turkey where its settlement is very old. The first legal regulations in Turkey as for the national parks were made at the end of the World War II. The first national park is Yozgat Camligi National Park opened in 1958. Today, the number of these park is 40 and the protection area reaches 897 657 hectares. It is seen that the 1.1 % of the whole area (814 578 km²) is under protection as national park field. Intense tourism pressure causes ignorance of protection approach which is the basis of sustainable environment understanding. Further, the restriction of economic benefit zones causes the local people to develop negative attitudes towards protection areas. However, the expectations of the local people should be taken into consideration by means of scientific planning so that sustainable environment understanding can reach the optimum results. In this study the legal regulations as for the national parks, national parks and their geographical distribution, the fundamental problems and suggestions were examined. Keywords: Environmental protection, national park, sustainable development, Turkey Introduction The rapidly growing world population and technological developments resultinthe use of natural sources intensively. Especially the increase in manufacturing,the development of cities and the expansion of trade pave the way forthe emergence of worldwide environmental problems. Environmental changes and impairment affect also the natural sources negatively in terms of causing their reduction and losing their quality. It began to be realized that environmental problems were reaching global level in 1960s. In this sense, almost every country began to getinvolved in attempts to contribute to providing sustainable progress and reducing the deterioration of natural balance. Scientific, social and economic benefits of nature protection zones began to be perceived apparently and as a consequence of this,the amount of the conserved area today is 1 billion ha (Demirel 2005: 7) The idea of forming national park which is one of the approaches to protect the nature came into prominence in the second half of the 19th century. Yellowstone National Park which was taken under preservation in 1872 in the USA was the first practice of this idea. In the same period, the concept of nature conservation was adopted by countrieslike Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Mexico. The geographicallocation of Turkey paved the way for the affluence of Turkey in terms of both natural and culturalsources. However,the factthatthe firstsettlement dates back to old times and the intense beneficial use of the area gave rise to many environmental problems. The idea to erect national parks in Turkey aiming at protecting rare species of plants and animals, cultural entities,land forms and hydrographical sources began 223 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to develop in 1950s. The firstlegalregulation in Turkey regarding national parks was made withthe article 25 of the Forest Law no 6831 which was implemented in 1956. Afterwards, the 2. article of National Parks Law no 2873 brought forward the concepts of nature protection zones, natural parks, natural monuments and recreation spots in addition to national parks. (Doğanay 2001:151-153, Turkey Environmental Organization 1999:335). In this article, the concept of national park is defined as the nature segments that own scientifically and aesthetically unique national and international natural and cultural values, and also recreation and tourism spots (Akıncı 1996:222). By the regulations made in this field, today totaling 206 protection zones including the national parks (40), natural parks (30), natural monuments (105) and nature protection zones (31) are present in Turkey. The aggregate surface area of the aforementioned protection zones is 1028565 ha and the 897657 ha of which belong to national parks, and this constitutes 1.2 % ofthe country’stotalsurface area.In 1993, protection zones (572395 ha) made up only 0.7 % of the total surface area of the country (Taşlıgil 1994:259). Just taking the national parks into consideration, itis seen that about 1.1 % of Turkey has been taken under preservation. This data revealsthatthere was an acceleration in the attempts to identify the protection zones after 1990. As a matter of fact, 19 oftotal 40 national parks were identified after 1990. National parks which are among the most efficient approaches to transferring natural and cultural sources to the next generations after preserving them consciously are of great importance for scientific studies besides their being the centre of attraction for tourists. Protection zones like national parks which are vitally important for sustainable environmentalapproach are facing some basic problems which need to be solved as expeditiously as possible. The negligence of the balance between preservation-utilization, and the high pressure oftourism are the greatest problems. Accordingly, primarily Turkey’s national parks and their geographical distribution in conjunction with their causes are discussed in this study. Afterwards,the problems encountered in national park areas and in the neighboring areas are dealt with from the point of preservation- utilization balance, and local economy and are attempted to come to a conclusion. National Parks and Their Geographical Distribution The most common way of preserving the nature in the world is national parks. Because of their natural and cultural characteristics,that some geographical areas are protected and putinto the service of human beings for cultural and touristic reasons forms the basis of the foundation of national parks (Doğaner 1985:119). Therefore, in accordance with the idea of sustainable environment, the idea to build up a balance between preservation and utilization isenvisaged. Turkey isthe intersection point of the continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. Additionally,the variety of land forms and its being surrounded with water provides Turkey with affluence interms of both plant and animal existence. Nevertheless, the fact that the first settlement date goes long way back brought about the serious devastation of natural sources. Though itis estimated that 10000 years before B.C, 75 % of the area on which Turkey is located currently was covered with forest,today this rate has gone down to 25 %. Within the same period, wetland has receded from 6 % to 1 %. Related to the intense exploitation, while forest, moor and wetlands have diminished, agricultural and settlement areas have steadily increased. The alterations in the natural habitatresulted inthe extinction of 12 kinds of endemic plant species and brought along 1189 more plant species tothe verge of extinction (Demirel 2005:24). Itis getting more and more crucial to conserve the wealthy diversity of plants against the rising human activities. Protection zones like national parks undertake a prettyimportantfunction in conserving especially the endangered species. The conservation and declaration of national parks are carried out by General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks which is affiliated to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. The first national park which was taken under protection in 1958 is Yozgat Çamlığı National Park (Figure 2). The latest national park is Yumurtalık Lagoon National Park which was declared in 2008 (Figure 3). The number of national parks inthe country has reached 40 today. The grand total ofthe surface area of national parksis around 897657 ha.In our country, between the years 1950-1959 4, 1960-1969 5,1970-1979 7, 1980-1989 5, 1990-1999 11, 2000-2009 8 national parks were identified and established (Table 1).Yozgat Çamlığı (264 ha) and Bird Paradise National Park (64 ha) are the ones with the smallest area (Arı, 2003: 9). Bird Paradise National Park, which was certified to have 64 ha surface area in 1959, was scaled up to 24047 ha in 2005. The largest one of allthe national parks in Turkey is Beyşehir Lake National Park with its 88750 ha of surface area. Historicalrelics, geomorphological formations,flora, hydrologicalfeatures and the presence of diverse bird species compose the value of this park. Ağrı Mountain National Park (87380 ha), Kızıl Mountain National Park (59400 ha), Aladağlar National Park (54524 ha) and Kaçkar Mountains National Park (51550 ha) are following the previously mentioned national park in the order of magnitude (Table1). Natural, cultural, historical and archaelogical values they possess are regarded in the process of 224 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo designating the national parks in Turkey (Figure 4). Justto give an example, while Gelibolu Peninsula National Park and Başkomutan Historical National Park have been taken under protection due totheirimportance in terms of war history, Güllük Mountain (Termessos), Karatepe-Aslantaş, Olimpos-Beydağları Beach, Köprülü Canyon, Boğazköy- Alacahöyük and Troya Historical National Parks have been designated as national parks for their high historical value areas and for harbouring archealogical relics. We also have national parks which were designated as national parks because of their natural vegetation and wild life. Yedigöller National Park, Dilek Peninsula- Müyük Menderes Delta National Park, Ilgaz Mountain National Park, Kovada Lake National Park, Đğneada Longoz Forests National Park, Tek Tek Mountains National Park and Yumurtalık Lagoon National Park are some examples of these kinds of national parks. Some ofthe national parks in Turkey come into focus with their different source of values. To illustrate this, Köprülü Canyon National Park owns rich flora besides archaeological relics. Altındere Valley National Park, which islocated in the Eastern part of Black Sea Region, is known forits embodying a universal archaeological and historicalstructurelike Sümela Monasteryin addition to its natural values (Doğanay, 2003: 43-64). Göreme Historical National Park has been declared as protection zone as it possesses amazing geological formations like fairy chimneys, old settlements, churches and a high tourism potential. Uludağ, Saklıkent, and Ilgaz Mountain National Parks are also of great importance as winter tourism centers. Taking a look atthe regional distribution of national parks,itis vividly seen that 31 of 40 national parks are situated in the regions on the coast. Mediterranean (11)isthe region with the most national parks. Black Sea (8), Marmara (7), Egean (5), Central Anatolia (4), Eastern Anatolia (3) and Southeastern Anatolia (2) are the regions coming after it (Figure 1, Table 1). Morphological characteristics, diverse flora, historical and cultural values arethe reasons why national parks are situated mostly in coastalregions (Yaşar, 2000: 185). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name Region Province Area (ha) Date Aladağlar N.P. Mediterranean Niğde, Adana, Kayseri 54524 1995 Mediterranean Adana 16430 2008 Southeastern Anatolia Adıyaman 13850 1988 Aegean Afyon, Kütahya, Uşak 40742 1981 Eastern Anatolia Ağrı, Iğdır 87380 2004 Black Sea Ankara 1195 1959 Mediterranean Antalya 6702 1970 Mediterranean Antalya 34425 1972 Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. Nemrut Mountain N.P. Başkomutan Historical N.P. Ağrı Mountain N.P. Soğuksu N.P. Güllük Mountain (Termessos)N.P. OlimposBeydağları Coast N.P. 9 Köprülü Canyon N.P. Mediterranean Antalya 36614 1973 10 Altınbeşik Cave N.P. Mediterranean Antalya 1156 1994 11 Hatila Valley N.P. Black Sea Artvin 17138 1994 12 Karagöl-Sahara N.P. Black Sea Artvin 3766 1994 13 Dilek PeninsulaBüyük Menderes Delta N.P. Aegean Aydın 27675 1966 14 Bird Paradise N.P. Marmara Balıkesir 24047 1959 Source Value - Geological and geomorphological structure - Flora and fauna - Bird existence - Sea turtle and Flora - Historical open air museum - Watching sunrise - Cultural values - Cultural values - Flora and fauna -Flora - Recreation and entertainment -Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Geological formations - Geological and geomorphological formations - Cave ecosystems - Geological and geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Hydrographical structure -Flora - Well protected maquis flora of the Mediterranean - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Diverse bird species -Flora - Bird observation 225 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -Flora and fauna - Multiplicity of tourism - Flora and fauna - Geological and geomorphological formations 15 Kazdağı N.P. Marmara Balıkesir 21300 1993 16 Küre Mountain N.P. Black Sea Kastamonu, Bartın 37172 2000 17 Yedigöller N.P. Black Sea Bolu, Zonguldak 2019 1965 18 Uludağ N.P. Marmara Bursa 12732 1961 19 Gelibolu Peninsula Historical N.P. Marmara Çanakkale 33000 1973 20 Troya Historical N.P. Marmara Çanakkale 13350 1996 21 Ilgaz Mountain N.P. Black Sea Çankırı, Kastamonu 1088 1976 -Flora - Mountain and winter sports - Recreation and entertainment 22 BoğazköyAlacahöyük N.P. Central Anatolia Çorum 2634 1988 - Archaeological relics (Hittite state center) 23 Honaz Mountain N.P. Aegean Denizli 9616 1995 24 Gala Lake N.P. Marmara Edirne 6090 2005 25 SarıkamışAllahuekber Mountain N.P. Eastern Anatolia Kars, Erzurum 22980 2004 26 Kızıldağ N.P. Mediterranean Isparta 59400 1969 Mediterranean Isparta 6534 1970 Central Anatolia Kayseri 24523 2006 Marmara Kırklareli 3115 2007 27 28 29 Kovada Lake N.P. Sultansazlığı N.P. Đğneada Longoz Forests N.P. 30 Beyşehir Lake N.P. Mediterranean Konya 88750 1993 31 Spil Mountain N.P. Aegean Manisa 6694 1968 32 Marmaris N.P. Aegean Muğla 33350 1996 33 Saklıkent N.P. Mediterranean Muğla, Antalya 12390 1996 34 Göreme Historical N.P. Central Anatolia Nevşehir 9572 1986 35 KaratepeAslantaş N.P. Mediterranean Osmaniye 7715 1958 226 - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geological formations - Flora - Mountain and winter sports - War history - Flora and fauna - Geomorphological formations - Historical relics - Geological structure - Geological and geomorphological formations - Archaeological relics -Flora (endemic species) - Wetland areas - Lake and forest ecosystems - Diverse bird species - Historical relics and war history -Flora (Pinus sylvestris forests) - Mountain and winter sports -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Fresh and salty water ecosystems - Diverse bird species - Longoz forest - Mountain and forest sports - Historical relics - Geomorphological formations -Flora - Hydrological features - Diverse bird species - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Historical relics - Geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Historical settlements - Geological formations (Fairy Chimney) - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 36 Kaçkar Mountain N.P. Black Sea Rize 51550 1994 37 Tek Tek Mountain N.P. Southeastern Anatolia Şanlıurfa 19335 2007 38 Altındere Valley N.P. Black Sea Trabzon 4800 1987 Eastern Anatolia Tunceli 42000 1971 Central Anatolia Yozgat 264 1958 39 40 Munzur Valley N.P. Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. - Geological and geomorphological structure - Flora and fauna - Mountain and winter sports - Flora and fauna - Historical and archaeological characteristics - Cultural values (Sümela Monastery) - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment Table 1: National parks in Turkey,1958-2009 (http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr-20.04.2009). Figure 1: Geographical distribution of national parks in Turkey (2009). National Parks: 1.Aladağlar N.P. 2.Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. 3.Nemrut Mountain N.P. 4.Başkomutan Historical N.P. 5.Ağrı Mountain N.P. 6.Soğuksu N.P. 7.Güllük Mountain (Termessos) N.P. 8.Olimpos-Beydağları Coast N.P. 9.Köprülü Canyon N.P. 10.Altınbeşik Cave N.P. 11.Hatila Valley N.P. 12.Karagöl-Sahara N.P. 13.Dilek Peninsula-Büyük Menderes Delta N.P. 14.Bird Paradise N.P. 15.Kazdağı N.P. 16.Küre Mountain N.P. 17.Yedigöller N.P. 18.Uludağ N.P. 19.Gelibolu Peninsula Historical N.P. 20.Troya Historical N.P. 21.Ilgaz Mountain N.P. 22.Boğazköy-Alacahöyük N.P. 23.Honaz Mountain N.P. 24.Gala Lake N.P. 25.SarıkamışAllahuekber Mountain N.P. 26.Kızıldağ N.P. 27.Kovada Lake N.P. 28.Sultansazlığı N.P. 29.Đğneada Longoz Forests N.P. 30.Beyşehir Lake N.P. 31.Spil Mountain N.P. 32.Marmaris N.P. 33.Saklıkent N.P. 34.Göreme Historical N.P. 35.Karatepe-Aslantaş N.P. 36.Kaçkar Mountain N.P. 37.Tek Tek Mountain N.P. 38.Altındere Valley N.P. 39.Munzur Valley N.P. 40.Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. 227 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. Altındere Valley N.P. Gala Lake N.P Başkomutan Historical N.P. 228 Figure 3: Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. Karagöl-Sahara N.P. Troya Historical N.P Dilek Peninsula-Büyük Menderes Delta N.P. �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Nemrut Mountain N.P. Ağrı Mountain N.P. Figure 4: Views of some national parks inTurkey. Discussion and Conlusion The greatest threat the world faces today is the deterioration of the natural environment. The fact that environmental problems have ascended to desperate straitsin the global scale entailsinternational collaboration. Almost every country in the world aims at developing by establishing a balance between human being and natural sources, and also without depleting the natural sources. With this purpose in mind, sustainable growth is given alot ofimportance with respectto social, ecological, economic,locational and cultural dimensions. The diverse natural and cultural sources Turkey contains are witnessing a heavy exploitation of them. Because of this, a balance policy between preservation and utilization related to the use of them without contaminating, mutilating and depleting has been adopted. In this sense, national parks also draw attention. Nevertheless,there are some problems present which need to be solved as urgently as possible forthe protection of source values of national park zones,reforming them and increasing their significance in terms oftourism. Com mon problems regarding national parks are managerial,legal, economic and educational (Demirel, 2005: 394-401). Furthermore, that intense tourism pressure and local inhabitants can’t be associated with protection zones threatens preservation and utilization balance. The duty of the management of national parks is carried out by General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks which is directly affiliated to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. A large number of organizations take it upon themselves to protect the nature directly orindirectly. This kind of administrative structure createslack of coordination and it hampers the practicality of plans in protection zones. To resolve the problem, a new restructuring in which there are expert staff who can devise the source values national parks own is required. The protection zones in our country are protected with 6 differentlaws. Thisindicatesthat protection zones are in greatlegal disorder. Nature Protection Law which embraces all otherlaws is needed immediately in this field. High cost and scarcity of grantis one of the burning issuesinthe process of protection.In orderto dispose ofthisissue, more fund should be allocated to national parks and the revenue generated out of national parks should be submitted to park administration. Financial affairs have downgraded national parks in terms oftrained staff and equipment.The existing problems are the utmost hurdles on the way to the protection of the source values national parks have and their enhancement. Itis a common belief in developed countries that natural environment must be protected. However, the sense of responsibilityto protectthe nature istoo low in countrieslike Turkey. For this reason,the best solution tothis problem is educating individualsregarding the issue ofenvironment and its protection. Allthe classesthat constitute our country should lay claim to preservation policy in collaboration. One ofthe burning problems of national parksis high tourism pressure. Therefore,theidea of exploitation wins out over the preservation and utilization balance in the institutions which were established with the idea of providing this balance. With the above stated approach,itis notlikely to conserve the source values of national parks and to improve them too. This situation gives the illusion that the national parks of the country were established with the intention of serving tourism. For Turkey to get rid of this dilemma, an elaborate plan of national parks must be prepared. In these plans, source values and their importance must be identified thoroughly. Additionally,the zones which are not available to people and the zones the source values of which will be taken under protection, and the zones which are available for daily use should be determined. Accordingly,touristfacilitiesmust be deployed outside national park zones. One of the major deficiencies of the idea of preservation in Turkey is that local population can’t be associated with protection zones. The traditional perception model which restricts human activities and 229 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo anticipatesthe migration of human beings that are within the borders of protection zone or their utilizing natural sources is being abandoned. Instead of this,there is an attempt in which local elements can get involved in the decision making process and with theirlifestyles,they can become an integral part of source utilization strategies (Arı 2003: 29). Protection zones in our country generally constrain locals’ economic utilization zones. Due to financial difficulty,this paves the way for migration and locals’ developing negative attitude towards protection zones. Bearing this in mind, making the locals an integral part of preservation, allowing them to utilize the source values of national parks economically without damaging them will be a modern approach. The most efficient way to preserve historical and cultural values and passthem down to future generations without depleting and devastating them is national parks. Collaborating with one another,all groups of people in the society should develop an integrated approach that can meet the expectations. This approach which also forms the basis of sustainable progress will be a milestone in determining not only our nation’s but also the common future of whole humanity. References Akıncı, M. (1996). Oluşum ve yapılanma sürecinde Türk çevre hukuku. Kocaeli Kitap Kulübü Yay., Bilim Dizisi: 1,Đzmit. Arı, Y. (2003). Kuş Cenneti Milli Parkı’nda park yönetimi-yöre halkıilişkisi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8 (9), 737. Demirel, Ö.(2005). Doğa koruma ve milli parklar. Karadeniz Teknik Üniv. Yay. No: 219, Orman Fak. Yay. No: 37, Trabzon. Doğanay, H. (2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası. Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya. Doğanay, S. (2003). Coğrafi özellikleri açısından Altındere Vadisi Milli Parkı. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8 (10), 43-64. Doğaner, S.(1985). Turizmde Doğanın Önemi ve Türkiye’de Doğayı Koruma Çalışmaları.Đstanbul Üniv. Deniz Bil. ve Coğrafya Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2,(2). Doğaner, S.(2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası. Çantay Kitabevi,Đstanbul. Özgüç, N. (1998). Turizm coğrafyası(özellikler-bölgeler). Çantay Kitabevi,Đstanbul. Sarı, C. (2007). Çeşitli koruma statülerindeki alanların turizm amaçlı kullanımı: Güllük Dağı (Termessos) Milli Parkı örneği. Atatürk Üniv. Fen-Edebiyat Fak. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7 (39). Sever, R. & Bekdemir, Ü. (2007). Eko-turizm açısından Karagöl-Sahara Milli Parkı (Artvin-Şavşat). Atatürk Üniv. Fen-Edebiyat Fak. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7 (39). Sezer, Đ.(2006). Dilek Yarımadası-Büyük Menderes Deltası Milli Parkı’nın coğrafi etüdü (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Atatürk Üniv. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Erzurum. Somuncu, M. (2003). Türkiye’nin koruma altındaki dağlık alanlarda turizm/rekreasyon ve çevre etkileşimi: Aladağlar ve Kaçkar DağlarıMilli Parkı örnekleri. CoğrafiÇevre Koruma ve Turizm Sempozyumu, 2003, Đzmir. Somuncu, M. (2004). Dağcılık ve Dağ Turizmindeki Đkilem: Ekonomik Yarar ve Ekolojik Bedel. Ankara Üniv. Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 2, Sayı: 1, Ankara. Taşlıgil, N. (1994). Spil Dağı Milli Parkı. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 29,Đstanbul. Yaşar, O. (2000). Ülkemizde Milli Park ve Benzer Statüdeki Alanların Dağılımı. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 35, Đstanbul. http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr 230 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 515 Title A name given to the resource A Sample for the Environmental Protection Implementation in Turkey: National Parks Author Author Doğanay, Serkan Alım, Mete ALTAS, Namık Tanfer Abstract A summary of the resource. The rapid population growth, extreme and unplanned consumption, in line with technological developments, cause intensive pressure upon natural sources. Likewise, the human values that have a global importance due to historical and cultural features face the similar problems. As one of the current global problems, environmental change and destruction urge to be taken some precautions. The conscious occurrence of the national parks, one of the precautions of environmental protection, goes back to the second half of the nineteenth century. The Yellowstone National Park, in the USA opened in 1872 can be seen as the official beginning of the environmental protection thought. The natural and cultural sources are under serious danger in Turkey where its settlement is very old. The first legal regulations in Turkey as for the national parks were made at the end of the World War II. The first national park is Yozgat Camligi National Park opened in 1958. Today, the number of these park is 40 and the protection area reaches 897 657 hectares. It is seen that the 1.1 % of the whole area (814 578 km²) is under protection as national park field. Intense tourism pressure causes ignorance of protection approach which is the basis of sustainable environment understanding. Further, the restriction of economic benefit zones causes the local people to develop negative attitudes towards protection areas. However, the expectations of the local people should be taken into consideration by means of scientific planning so that sustainable environment understanding can reach the optimum results. In this study the legal regulations as for the national parks, national parks and their geographical distribution, the fundamental problems and suggestions were examined. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6aaf0df037cbd6b77805956f30fdf7c6.pdf f4bb532e1ebe5876f8e700deeb57e282 PDF Text Text “İDEALİST ÖĞRETMEN”İN EĞİTİM ANLAYIŞI Recep DUYMAZ Trakya Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü Edirne, Türkiye rduymaz@gmail.com Abstract: We are living in an age of science. In this age, individuals, families and societies solve the problems they encounter under the guidance of science. For this reason, science is a concept that gets more and more important each day for individuals, families and societies. Science is acquired from schools, universities and research institutes based on a program. Besides books, visual and audio materials, we encounter teachers in these places. According to our thoughts the most crucial aspect of education is teacher. Thus, each nation pays full attention to the training of teachers. Good teachers -with no doubt- are people with high professional knowledge and formation. Besides these qualities a good teacher is the one with ideals. The ideal of a teacher is loving science and children. The idealist teacher with professional knowledge and formation alters the place s/he works positively according to the purpose of education. The Racinski character in Georgy Petrov’s The Idealist Teacher, is an example of this type in the world of literature. The success of education depends on idealist teachers with sound professional knowledge and formation. Key words: Science, education, teacher, ideal, G. Petrov Giriş Eğitim, birey, aile ve toplumu biçimlendiren bir çalışma alanıdır. Çağımızda onun önemi daha da artmıştır. Bugün, birey, aile ve toplumlar, karşılaştıkları sorunları bilimin yol göstericiliğiyle çözmektedirler. Bunun yanında bilim ve teknolojide ileri giden milletler, günlük hayatı kolaylaştıran ve çalışma hayatında üretimi arttıran âletler yapmakta ve onları öteki milletlere pazarlamaktadırlar. Bu durumda çağımızda her millet, bilim ve teknolojide ileri gitmek, günlük hayatı kolaylaştıran, çalışma hayatında verimi arttıran ve kaliteyi yükselten teknolojik âletleri kendisi yapmak istemektedir. Bu isteğin kaliteli bir eğitimle gerçekleşebileceği açıktır. Bu nedenle günümüzde her millet, gençlerine eğitim kurumlarında iyi bir eğitim ve öğretim vermek istemektedir. Çocuklarına ve gençlerine çağın gerektirdiği eğitim ve öğretimi verebilen milletler, geleceğe doğru daha emin adımlarla ilerleyebilirler. Eğitim Nedir? İnsan dünyaya cahil olarak gelir. Kendisi, ailesi ve çevresi hakkındaki bütün bilgileri zamanla öğrenir. Aile, okul ve çocuğun içinde yaşadığı toplum, bilgi edinilen başlıca mekânlardır. Öğrenim, ailede başlayan ve ömür boyu devam eden bir süreçtir. Bu uzun sürecin başlangıcı kuşkusuz ailedir. Çocuk, önce insan, aile, toplum ve kâinat hakkındaki ilk ve temel bilgileri bu ocakta öğrenmeye başlar. Ailedeki eğitim, doğal, sıcak ve samimi bir ortamda gerçekleşmekle beraber, plansız, programsız, dağınık ve karmakarışıktır. Bu nedenle milletler, ailedeki eğitimi yeterli görmemiş ve bir bakıma onun devamı diyebileceğimiz eğitim kurumlarını meydana getirmişlerdir. Eğitim kurumlarındaki eğitim, ailedekine göre hem daha ileri, hem de planlı ve programlıdır. Biz burada örgün eğitim dediğimiz okuldaki eğitimden söz edeceğiz. Eğitim, heterojen bir kavramdır. Bu kavram, birbirinden ayrı, ancak her biri diğerini karşılıklı olarak etkileyen dört öğeyi içerir. Bu dört öğenin oluşturduğu bütünlüğe eğitim sistemi diyoruz: 84 �Yönetim Öğrenim Öğretim Program Eğitim Sistemi Eğitim sistemimin bu temel öğelerini kısaca şöyle açabiliriz: Öğretim, çocuklara, gençlere ve yetişkinlere belli bir amaca göre gereken bilgi, beceri ve uygulama yetisini görsel, işitsel ve deneysel yollarla kazandırma işidir. Öğretim, insan yaşamına amaçlı bir müdahaledir ( Barutçugil, 2002, s. 18). Öğretmen en geniş anlamıyla bu işi meslek edinen kimsedir. Program, bir alanda yapılacak işlerin ( burada öğretimin ) amacına ulaşabilmesi için bir düzene ve sıraya konulmasıdır. Programda gösterilen işler ve bunların sırası o alandaki öğretimin amacına uygun olarak düzenlenir. Program, çalışma hayatının isterlerine uygun olarak daima güncellenebilir. Öğrenim, çocukların, gençlerin veya yetişkinlerin çalışma hayatındaki bir meslek veya iş için gerekli bilgi, beceri ve uygulama yetisini kazanmaları amacıyla yaptıkları işitsel, görsel ve deneysel çalışmalardır. Öğrenci, bu çalışmaları hayatının belli bir döneminde yapan kişidir. Yönetim, öğretim, program ve öğrenim işlerinin ülkenin yasalarına ve kurumun özel şartlarına uygun biçimde zamanında yapılmasını sağlamaktır. Eğitim kurumlarında bu işi yapan kişiye yönetici (müdür) denir. Eğitim Sisteminde Öğretmenin Yeri Eğitim sistemi, kendisini oluşturan bu dört öğenin uyumlu çalışmasıyla olumlu sonuçlar veren bir yapıdır. Bu öğelerin arasında öğretim unsurunu gerçekleştiren öğretmenin özel bir yeri vardır. Kanaatimize göre sistemin en önemli öğesi, öğretmendir. Bunun sebebi, öğretimin onun vasıtasıyla gerçekleşmiş olmasıdır. Çağdaş anlamda öğretmen, bir bilgi işçisidir ( Ergun, 1999, s. 61). Bu işçinin görevi, yeni nesillere bilgi aktarmaktır. Buna göre öğretmen bir aktarıcıdır. Hemen belirtmeliyiz ki onun aktarıcılığı, bilgiye giden yolu göstermekten ibarettir. Öğretmen bu yolda yeni nesillere bilgiyi, kültürü, uygarlığı ve güzelliği aktarır. Öğretmen her türlü bilgiyi aktarmak zorunda değildir; onun yeni nesillere aktaracağı bilginin birtakım özellikleri vardır. Bunların başında “yenilik” gelir. Bir ülkenin eğitim sistemi, yeni nesillerine her şeyden önce her alanda (dil, edebiyat, eğitim, biyoloji, fizik, kimya...) insanlığın en son ulaştığı, en yeni bilgileri öğretmek zorundadır. Bir millet, ancak yeni bilgilerle yeni âletler üretebilir ve ancak yeni âletler üretebilen milletler teknolojide söz sahibi olabilirler. Eğitim sisteminde öğretmenin aktaracağı bilginin “yeni” olmasının yanında “doğru” olması da gerekir. Buradaki doğruluktan kasıt, evrensel bakımdan doğru olmaktır. Bir tek kişi, ideoloji veya siyaset anlayışına göre doğru olan bilgileri eğitim kurumlarında “bilim” adı altında yeni nesillere aktarmak, eğitim değil, propagandadır. Propaganda ise eğitimden ziyade siyasete ait bir kavramdır. Öğretmen, fen bilimleri ve sosyal bilimlerdeki en yeni bilgilerin ve evrensel doğruların yanında yeni nesillere “kültür”ü de aktarır. Buradaki kültürü, öğretmenin ait olduğu milletin kültürü (dil, din, sanat …) şeklinde anlayacağımız gibi, bölgenin, hattâ insanlığın ortaya koyduğu bütün kültür unsurlarının güzelliklerini kapsayacak şekilde geniş olarak da anlamalıyız. Buna göre öğretmen, çocuklara ve gençlere “yeni” ve “doğru” bilgilerin yanında kendi milletine ait “kültür”ü de güzel bir yolla aktaran bir şahsiyettir. 85 �Bütün bunlar gösteriyor ki bir milletin eğitim sistemi, “öğretmen” öğesiyle bir canlılık kazanıyor ve gerçekleşiyor. Bu sebeple her millet, eğitim sisteminde öğretmenin yetiştirilmesine ayrı bir dikkat ve özen göstermektedir. Türk eğitim sisteminde de 1915 yılından itibaren öğretmenler özel bir takım kurumlarda yetiştirilmeye başlanmıştır ( Akyüz, 1985, s. 206). Petrov’un “İdealist Öğretmen”i Eğitimbilimciler, kaliteli öğretmenin özelliklerini, hangi eğitim kurumlarında nasıl yetiştirileceklerini, mezun olduktan sonra atanma ve çalışma şekillerini eğitimbilimine dair yazdıkları kitaplarda uzun uzun anlatırlar ( Barutçugil, 2002, s. 77-100; Ergun, 1999, s. 62-113; Çelikkaya, 1999, s. 5-15; Koçer, 1992, s. 79204; Yalman, 1992, s. 86) . Eğitim bilimcilerin kaliteli öğretmen tasavvurlarının yanında bazı edebiyatçı ve diğer bilim dallarındaki şahsiyetler de eğitim ve öğretmen üzerinde düşünmüşler, düşündüklerini deneme, hikâye roman gibi edebiyat türlerindeki eserlerinde yazmışlardır. Bunların yazdıkları, gözlemlerine, çevrelerinde yaşanan gerçek olaylara dayandıkları için daha bir somutluk, canlılık ve inandırıcılık kazanmıştır. Bu şahsiyetlerden birisi de bir Rus yazarı olan Grigoriy Petrov’dur. Petrov, yazdığı “İdealist Öğretmen” adlı kitabıyla eğitim ve öğretmene dair düşüncelerini yakın çevresinde gördüğü olaylara dayandırmış ve Raçinski’nin şahsında idealist bir öğretmenin portresini çizmiştir. D. Bojkov, İdealist Öğretmen’i Bulgarca’ya çevirmiş, bir Türk eğitimcisi olan Ali Haydar Taner de onu Bulgarca’dan Türkçe’ye aktararak 1928 yılında İstanbul’da ilk kez bastırmıştır. İdealist Öğretmen, o tarihten günümüze gelinceye kadar Türkiye’de değişik yayınevlerince birçok kez basılmıştır. İdealist Öğretmen’in yazarı Grigoriy Petrov, orta öğreniminden sonra İlâhiyat Fakültesi’ne gitmiş ve yüksek öğrenimini orada tamamlamıştır. Daha öğrencilik yıllarında insanları aydınlığa ve mutluluğa götürecek yolları aramaya başlamıştır. Çağdaşı ünlü yazar Levi Tolstoy gibi o da “yeryüzünü cennete çevirecek bir yol” arıyordu. Şöyle düşünüyordu: İnsan, yeryüzünün en değerli yaratığıdır. O, Tanrısal yaratığın baş tacıdır. Bu dünyada her şey insan içindir. Sanat, bilim, teknoloji, bütün bu güzellikler ve zenginlikler insanları daha güvenli huzurlu ve mutlu etmek için ortaya konulmalıdır. Bunlar insanı daha aydınlık günlere götürmelidir ( Petrov, 1961, s. 1). Aramalarının sonunda yeryüzünü cennete çevirecek yolu bulduğunu düşünüyordu. O yol, “eğitim yolu” ydu. Eğitimi de okul, üniversite ve enstitülerde öğretmenler veriyorlardı. Öyleyse öğretmenler, hem meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgilerine, hem de “yeryüzünü cennete çevirme” idealine sahip olarak yetiştirilmeliydiler. Öğretmen adaylarına meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgileri, öğrenim gördükleri okullarda kuşkusuz öğrenimleri boyunca eksiksiz olarak verilebilir; fakat onlara bir de ideal duygusu vermek o kadar kolay değildir. Petrov, bunun örneklerle kazandırılabilecek bir değer olduğunu düşünüyordu... Önce idealin ne olduğunu, sonra da petrov’un bunu okurlarına/öğretmen adaylarına nasıl kazandırdığını görelim. İdeal nedir? İdeal ve ideoloji sosyal bilimlerin tartışmalı kavramlarıdır. Biz burada o tartışmalara girmeyeceğiz; onları sadece konumuzla alakalı yönleriyle kısaca ele almakla yetineceğiz. Onları açıklamaya sözlük anlamlarından başlayacağız. İdeal, insan düşüncesinin tasarlayabileceği bütün üstün nitelikleri kendinde toplayan düşünce, nesne veya davranıştır ( Parlatır,1998, s. 1046); Hornby, 1978, p. 427). İnsan hayat yolunda her alanda iş, arkadaş, ev, araba... ve benzeri alanlarda hep en iyisine sahip olmayı ister ve onu elde etmek için çalışır. Doğal yapısı bozulmayan her insanda görülen bu istek, onu sürekli olarak çalışmaya ve istediğini elde etmeye yöneltir. Bu anlamda idealist de böyle bir isteğe sahip olan insan demektir. İdeal kavramının bu sözlük anlamının yanında, sosyolojide bir de terim anlamı vardır. Terim anlamıyla ideal, bir “düşünce gücü”dür. Bu “düşünce gücü”, bireyi, aileyi, toplumu, bulunduğu düzeyden hem maddî, hem manevî bakımdan daha ileri ve mükemmel bir duruma götürme isteği şeklinde kendisini gösterir. Sosyolojide, idealin bir türevi olan ideoloji için birçok tanımlar yapılmakla beraber, biz onlardan sadece bir tanesine değinmekle yetineceğiz: “İdeoloji farklılaşmış bir toplumun fikir yapısıdır. Farklılaşma ile birçok toplum fonksiyonunun iç içe girdiği geleneksel toplum yapılarının yerini, farklılaşmış sosyal fonksiyonlara bırakmasını kastediyoruz. Artık cemaat ilişkilerinin yerini şehir toplumunun fonksiyonel açıdan farklılaşmış ilişkileri alıyor. Hemşehri 86 �kavramının yerini “işçi” kavramı alıyor. İşte bu farklılaşma sonucunda, insanların içine düştükleri yeni şartlara uygun inanç arayışlarına ideoloji diyoruz” Türköne, 1991, s. 23). İdeal, bir arayışın anlatımıdır. Bu arayış, bireyi, aileyi ve bütün toplumu daha ileri ve mükemmele doğru götürme çabası şeklinde ortaya çıkar. Tarihin akışına bir ideale sahip olan idealistler yön vermişlerdir. Bilim, sanat, siyaset, askerlik ve daha başka alanlarda ortaya çıkan idealistler, mensup oldukları milletlerin bireylerindeki gizli güçleri harekete geçirmiş ve onları medeniyet yolunda ileri götürmüşlerdir. Her millet, ideali olan gençlere sahip olmak ister. Gençleri ideal sahibi olarak yetiştirmek, kuşkusuz eğitim kurumlarının görevidir. Eğitim kurumları, gençlere seçtikleri meslekle ilgili bilgi ve beceriler kazandırırken, onlara mensup oldukları millet ve bütün insanlık için çalışmak ve “yeryüzünü cennete çevirmek” idealini de kazandırmaya çalışır. Eğitim kurumlarının yanında gençlere hem bilgi, hem ideal duygusu veren bilim, sanat ve düşünce adamları da çıkmıştır. Grigoriy Petrov, onlardan biridir. Petrov, İdealist Öğretmen adlı kitabında Moskova Üniversitesi’nde ünlü bir matematik profesörü olan A. Raçinski’nin üniversitedeki görevinden ayrılarak doğup büyüdüğü Tatevo köyüne öğretmen olarak atanmasının hikâyesini anlatır. Kitapta anlatılan hikâye boyunca biz, Raçinski’nin şahsında ideal öğretmen tipinin eğitim, öğretmenlik ve öğrencilere dair düşüncelerini okuruz. Genç profesör, üniversitedeki görevinden ayrılıp köy okulunda öğretmen olmaya karar verdiği zaman, üniversitedeki arkadaşları ve Eğitim Bakanlığı’ndaki yetkililer şaşırmış ve onu kararından vazgeçirmeye çalışmışlardır. Raçinski, kararına itiraz edenlere verdiği cevaplarda ve Tatevo köyünde yaptıklarında, aynı zamanda, öğretmenlik anlayışını da ortaya koymuştur. Ona göre öğretmenlik, bir “keşif mesleği”dir. Öğretmen de bir “kâşif”tir. Rusya’nın uçsuz bucaksız bozkırlarına dağılmış köylerindeki halk yığınlarının arasında gizli kalmış nice “yetenekler” vardır; fakat o sıralarda uygulanmakta olan eğitim sistemi ve oralara gönderilen öğretmenler bu yetenekleri bulup ortaya çıkarmak gücünden yoksundurlar: “İşte ben bugün, milletin ruhunun derinliklerinde, binlerce seneden beri gizli kalmış olan büyük yetenekleri meydana çıkarmak için köylere gidiyorum. ( ...) Öğretmenler, okullarda halka doğru gidiş tarzını, hayatı iyi kullanış yollarını öğretmiyorlar; milletin ruhunda gizli kalmış yetenekleri uyandırmıyorlar. Milyonlarca halk kütlesinin dimağları, işlenmemiş milyonlarca dönüm arazi gibi çorak halde bulunmaktadır” ( Petrov, 1928, s. 16, 17 ). Raçinski’ye göre bunun sebebi, mevcut öğretmenlerin ideal duygusuna sahip olmayışlarıdır. Milletin ruhunda gizli kalmış yetenekleri “keşfetmek ideali”, öğretmenin meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgilerine bir yön verir; onları nerede, ne zaman ve nasıl kullanacağını gösterir. Onlara bir çerçeve görevini görür. Hayatına ve mesleğine bir anlam kazandırır: Meslek bilgisi Formasyon bilgisi Genel kültür bilgisi İdeal Meslek bilgileri ile ideal arasındaki bağlantı Halk yığınları arasında “gizli kalmış yetenekleri keşfetmek ve yeryüzünü cennete çevirmek ideali, öğretmenin meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgilerini içine alan bir çerçeve gibidir. Bu çerçeve, öğretmenin bilgi, düşünce ve eylemlerini hep idealini gerçekleştirmek yönünde kullanmasını sağlar. Rus edebiyatında olduğu gibi, Türk edebiyatında da idealist öğretmen tiplerinin hikâyelerini anlatan romanlar yazılmıştır. Reşat Nuri Güntekin’in Çalıkuşu adlı eseri onlardan biridir. Çalıkuşu romanının kahramanı Feride, başlangıçta bir hayal kırıklına uğraması üzerine gönlünü avutmak için İstanbul’dan Anadolu’ya giderek öğretmenlik yapmaya başlar. Orada çocukların durumunu gözleriyle görünce kendi derdini unutur. Kendini öğretmenliğe adar… Çalıştığı okulları, bulundukları durumdan daha ileri ve güzel bir duruma getirir… Bunu edindiği idealizmi sayesinde başarır. 87 �Sonuç Meslek, insanların geçimlerini kazanmak için yaptıkları iştir. Her toplumda birçok meslek vardır. Doktorluk, avukatlık, mühendislik, ayakkabıcılık ve berberlik... bunlardan sadece birkaçıdır. İnsanların yaşamlarını devam ettirebilmelerini sağlayan, severek yapılan bütün işler iyi ve şerefli mesleklerdir. Bununla beraber öğretmenliğin bunların arasında özel bir yeri vardır. Öğretmenlik bir bakıma bir “keşif” ve “elmas arayıcılığı mesleği”dir. Öğretmenlik, gizli kalmış değerleri bulup çıkarmak, işlemek ve onları önce kendi milletinin, sonra da bütün insanlığın hizmetine sunmaktır. Bu amaç, öğretmenin meslek bilgilerinin yanında bir özveri ve ideal duygusuna sahip olmasıyla gerçekleşir. G. Petrov’a göre bu ideal milletin bireylerinin içinde gizli kalmış değerleri “keşfetmek” ve onları “işlemek” idealidir. İdealist Öğretmen kitabında bize tanıtılan Raçinski, idealist bir öğretmendir. O, mensup olduğu Rus milletinin geniş halk yığınları arasında gizli kalmış değerleri keşfetmiş, onları işlemiş, devamında önce kendi milletine, sonra da bütün insanlığın hizmetine sunmuştur. Raçinski, kuşkusuz bir simgedir. Yazar, bu simgeyle köy, kasaba ve büyük şehirlerdeki bütün öğretmenlerin birer ideal sahibi olmaları gerektiği iletisini vermek istemiştir. Bu iletiyi, yüksek okul ve üniversitelerdeki öğretim üyelerini de kapsayacak şekilde genişletmek eserin ruhuna uygun bir yorumdur. Her eğitim kademesindeki öğretmenlerine bu ideali kazandırmasını bilen bir millet, bilim ve teknoloji yolunda hızlı adımlarla ilerler ve modern dünyanın şerefli bir üyesi olur. Kaynaklar: Akyüz, Y., (1985), Türk Eğitim Tarihi, Ankara, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Yayınları. Barutçugil, İ., (2002), Eğiticinin Eğitimi, İstanbul, Kariyer Yayınları. Barutçugil, İ., (2002), Eğiticinin Eğitimi, İstanbul, Kariyer Yayınları. Çelikkaya, H., Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş, İstanbul, Alfa Yayınları. Ergun, M., vd. (1999), Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş, Ankara, Ocak Yayınları. Hornby, A. S., (1978), Oxsford, Oxford Advaced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, New Edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Koçer, A., (1992), Türkiye’de Modern Eğitimin Doğuşu ve Gelişimi ( 1773-1923 ), İstanbul, MEB Yayınları. Parlatır, İ., vd., (1998), Türkçe Sözlük, Ankara, Türk Dil kurumu Yayınları. Petrov, G., (1928), Mefkûreci Muallim, Çev. Ali Haydar, İstanbul, Kütüphane-i Hilmi. İstanbul. Recep Duymaz, bu kitabı günümüz alfabesiyle bastırmıştır: İdealist Öğretmen, (2008), İstanbul 3F Yayınları. Petrov, G., (1961), Ak Zambaklar Ülkesinde, Çev. Ali Haydar, İstanbul, MEB Yayınları. Türköne, M., (1991), Siyasî İdeoloji Olarak İslamcılığın Doğuşu, İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları. Yalman, M., (1992), Öğretmenlik Mesleği ve Meseleleri, İstanbul, Türkiye Milli Kültür Vakfı Yayınları. 88 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 656 Title A name given to the resource İDEALİST ÖĞRETMEN”İN EĞİTİM ANLAYIŞI Author Author DUYMAZ, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource. We are living in an age of science. In this age, individuals, families and societies solve the problems they encounter under the guidance of science. For this reason, science is a concept that gets more and more important each day for individuals, families and societies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/807ff433e9b803058889677de5adfc78.pdf 863c36ad79d60bf99fb8a195bae874d2 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationship Between Mobbing and Job Satisfaction: An Exploratory Study Hulusi DOĞAN Alanya Business Administarion Faculty, Akdeniz University Turkey hulusidogan@gmail.com Đlknur DOĞAN Salavatlı School, Sultanhisar Aydın-Turkey Đlknurd09@hotmail.com Abstract: The objective of this study is te examine the relationship between employees’ perceptions for workplace mobbing and job satisfaction by an applied research in a wheel manufacturer firm. A survey questionnaire was designed and used in this study. A total of 95 completed questionnaires were returned, representing a response rate of 95%. The study results indicate that there was a negative relationship between employees’ (downward and horizontal) workplace mobbing perceptions and job satisfaction. About 16.7% of the variance in employee job satisfaction could be axplained by the independent variables of downward mobbing and horizontal mobbing (Adjusted R²). Horizontal mobbing had the strongest impact on employee job satisfaction, and followed by downward mobbing. As a result, employee job satisfaction could be increased through eliminating workplace mobbing. Introduction Understanding and quantifying the process of mobbing is important because of its multiple consequences (Carnero, et al., 2008). At first, exposure to mobbing has severe mental and physical health poblems for those involved, variously manifesting itself in somatic symptoms, anxiety, and depression. In the most severe cases, exposure to mobbing may even produce symptoms resembling post-traumatic stress disorder (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009; Banafos et al., 2009). For example, Leyman and Gustafsson’s (1996) research results of the analysis of 64 patients subjected to mobbing showed a severe degree of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with mental effects fully comparable with post-traumatic stress disorder from war or prison camp experiences. But, not only the victim is involved in this problem but also the firm and the society as being a target of mobbing frequently leads to absenteeism, increased employee turnover, and reduced productivity (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). For example, a study for a sample of 6500 temporary disability cases showed that, during the year 2002, 52 million Euros were lost in work compensation as a consequences of mobbing behaviours in Spain (Carnero, et al., 2008). In other words, there is a strong societal dimension of “mobbing” problem and society is left to pick up many of the long-term costs, including medical treatment, work incapacity benefits, and costs associated with premature retirement (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). So, there are legislative and organizational attempts to prevent mobbing. For example, some countries (Sweden, The Netherlands, Belgium, France, Quebec, South-Australia) enacted legal regulations to combat mobbing in last decades. But, in order to be successful, legal interventions must be accompanied by well-informed, trained, and motivated employers and trade unions who, in collaboration, are willing to deal with the problem proactively on an organizational level (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). So, mobbing is not a marginal fact in today’s organications and this study aims to make a contribution to the literature and actual attempts to deal with mobbing problem by investigating the relationship between workplace mobbing and employee job satisfaction. Theoretical Grounding Mobbing Mobbing is accepeted as an extreme social stresser at workplaces (Leymann and Gustafson, 1996). And Vandekerckhove and Commers (2003) simply defined “mobbing” as repeated and systematic behavior of individuals or groups, which harms others with whom they work. But Browne and Smith (2008) uses an interesting example to explain “mobbing”: A flock of birds is gathered by the water, eating. A new bird approaches the established flock, hoping to gain entry. Instead of accepting the new bird, the flock of birds torments the new bird, stealing its food, driving it away. The group attack is known as “mobbing.” A group of employees gathers in the office break room, chatting and enjoying the lunch hour. A newly hired employee approaches, hoping to coin the conversation. Instead of accepting the new employee, the group ignores the employee, effectively ostracizing her. Upon returning to 265 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo work, the group of employees greets the new employee with insults to her intelligence, rumors about the reasons she was hired, and total ostracization from their social circle. The group attack is known as “mobbing,” In this type of conflict, the victim is subjected to a systematic stigmatization process and encroachment of his or her civil rights. Even, it may ultimately lead to the expulsion from the labour market if the individual in question is unable to find employement (Leymann and Gustafson, 1996). Because mobbing involves hostile and unethical communication towards an individual, who is pushed into a helpless and defenceless position. So, mobbing has been referred to different terms such as “workplace bullying,” “moral harrasment,” “psychological harassment,” “psychological terror”, and “victimization.” But, Leyman (1996) distinguishes bullying from mobbing in stating that the use of the bullying concept in research on workplace aggression stems from research on bullying at school, which is very often strongly characterized by physically aggressive acts. Mobbing on the other hand, is characterized by more sophisticated behaviors, which better describes the phenomenon found at work-places, and consists of harmful treatment of or putting harmful pressure on an employee (Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003). Also Leyman (The Mobbing Encyclopaedia, http://www.leyman.se/English/frame.html) states that mobbing must occur very frequently (statistical definition: at least once a week) and over a long period of time (statistical definition: at least six months). Because of the high frequency and long duration of hostile behavior, this maltreatment results in considerable psychological, psychosomatic, and social suffering. The definitions stated above show that there must be four critical points to talk about mobbing; these are frequency, duration, reaction and power differencies. At first, the person who is exposed to mobbing must not have a power to defend himself. In other words, there must be a power difference in favour of mobber. So, the person exposed to mobbing is called as “victim.” Second, the hostile actions, behaviors towards the victim must occur in a systematic process. So, the repetitious nature of these behaviors (at least once a week) implies the frequency of mobbing. Third, negative behaviors must no face an interruption. Maltreatments must last in a long time, at least six months. And the last one, the individual exposed to mobbing must be aware of all these systematic actions and suffer from these hostile behaviors. If an individual do not suffer psychologically or socially from these multreatments, it is not possible to state about mobbing (Nield, 1996; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007). Moreover, the last point makes mobbing as the vital issue for all organizations. Because researches carried out in different organizations and different countries demonstrated that mobbing was an extreme social stresser and cretaed serious mental and psyhosomatic health problems as well as undesired organizational outcomes. The most outstanding consequences of workplace mobbing for mobbed persons are a loss of income due to being sacked or leaving the job, and health hazards such as severe anxiety, unable to concentrate, sleeplesness, depression, PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) (Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Leymann and Gustafson, 1996; Quine, 1999; Vanderstar, 2004). For example, a study composed of self-reports of workplace mobbing and the resulting health problems from 1000 individuals who visited the Bullying Institute’s website and voluntarily filled out a questionnaire indicated that the most frequently reported symptoms were: anxiety, stress, excessive worry (reported by 76 percent of respondents); loss of concentration (71 percent); disrupted sleep (71 percent); feeling edgy, irritable, esily startled and constantly on guard (paranoia) (60 percent); stress headaches (55 percent); obsession over details at work (52 percent); recurrent memories, nightmares and flashbacks (49 percent); racing hearth rate (48 percent); needing to avoid feelings, thoughts, and situations that remind the victim of trauma or a general emotional “flatness” (47 percent); body aches-muscles or joints (45 percent); exhaustion, leading to an inability to function (41 percent); compulsive behaviors (40 percent); diagnosed depression (39 percent) (Browne and Smith, 2008; Namie, 2003). As European researchers have publicized the potentially devastating effects of mobbing in the workplace, legislators have taken action. Sweden was the first nation to pass anti-mobbing legislation, enacting the Ordinance on Victimization at Work in 1993 (Browne and Smith, 2008; Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). The second country to enact such legislation was France, passing the Modernization of Employment Act of 17 January 2002. Belgium, Quebec, and the United Kingdom have also passed workplace bullying legislation. The Swedish, French, and Quebecois approaches require employers to create a policy preventing mobbing and place the burden for preventing mobbing solely on the shoulders of the employers. The Belgian legislation goes one step further, requiring employers to hire a prevention advisor who is trained to mediate workplace relations, including recognizing, preventing, and resolving instances of both psychological and sexsual harrasment (Browne and Smith, 2008; Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). Researches on the causes of mobbing are also being carried out. For example, Einarsen (2000a; 2000b)) collected the causes of mobbing under three titles: personal traits (anxious, aggressive or touchy character of the victim; or a fair, successful, hardworking victim), interpersonal conflicts (stemming from fears, suspicions, angers, pessimism etc.), and social and organizational work environment (role conflicts, leadership style, excessive work-load, lack of job control etc.). And Leyman (1996) stated two basic reasons for the prevelance of work-place mobbing: extremely poorly organised production and/or working methods, and second, an almost helpless or uninterested management. On the other hand, Vandekerckhove and Commers (2003) collect the causes of mobbing under five titles: lack of communication, lack of job control, outside influences (especially pressure to produce good revenues for shareholders), dysfunctional organizational culture (confusion and no 266 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo clear line of authority, poor leadership, little or no recognition of achievement, work hours and work load, lack of management support etc) and fear related motives (fear of being made a fool, fear of being regarded as insufficiently informed, as ignorant or as stupid, fear of giving the impression of not being able perform the task etc.). And finally, it is talked about two forms of workplace mobbing in the literature: vertical mobbing and horizontal mobbing. In the vertical form of mobbing, an employee is mobbed by a superior/superiors (downward mobbing), or an employee or a group of employees harasses his/their superior (upward mobbing). And horizontal form of mobbing consists of mobbing by employees against a colleague (Carnero, 2008; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007; Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Tutar, 2004; Çobanoğlu, 2005). Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction describes the feelings, attitudes or preferences of individuals regarding work (Chen, 2008). In other words, it is the degree to which employees enjoy their jobs (McCloskey and McCain, 1987). And researches indicated that dissatisfied employees are likely to leave their jobs. Thus, the understanding of employee job satisfaction and its contributing variables are important for any organization to exist and prosper (Mrayyan, 2005). And numerous researches have been going on job satisfaction for many years. It is common thought that job satisfaction influences organizational behavior, namely it positively affects employee working performance and organizational commitment, and negatively influences employee turnover (Agarwal and Ferrat, 2001; Poulin, 1994; Chen, 2008). Moreover, the relationships between job satisfaction and many variables such as motivation, stress, salary, promotion, role conflict, distributive and procedural justice, role ambiguity, autonomy, workload, leadership style, educational level, emotional intelligence are still being analyzed in different fields as an attractive and important subject of management literature (Ross and Reskin, 1992; Agho et al., 1993; Stordeur et al., 2001; Chu et al., 2003; Kafetsios and Zampetakis, 2008). For example, Sengin (2003), and Hinshaw and Atwood (1984) identify variables that influence employee job satisfaction as: (1) demographic variables: education, experience, and position in the hiererchy; (2) Job characteristics: autonomy, tasks repetetivenes, and salaries; and (3) organizational environment factors: degree of professionalization, type of unit. And Mrayyan (2005) says that the variables of encouragement, feedback, a widening pay scale and clear job description, career development oppurtunity, supportive leadership style, easy communication with colleagues and social interaction positively affect job satisfaction, whereas role stress has a negative influence on it. Similarly, the research made by Chu and his friends (2003) demonstrates that satisfaction is positively related to involvement, positive affectivity, autonomy, distributive justice, procedural justice, promotional chances, supervisor support, co-worker support, but it is negatively related to negative affectivity, role ambiguity, work-load, resource inadequacy and routinization. (-) Vertical Workplace Mobbing Employee Job Satisfaction (-) Horizontal Workplace Mobbing Figure 1: The Model For The Relationships Between Research Variables On the other hand, it is known that both horizontal and vertical form of mobbing create undesired consequences for organizations such as lower productivity due to sick leave and lower motivation. In other words, researches indicate that mobbing have a negative influence on employee motivation and triggers turnovers at a workplace (Zapf, 1999a; Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007; Yücetürk and Öke, 2005). As dissatisfied eployees have not a strong positive feelings and attitudes towards their works and are likely to leave, in this study (as seen from figure 1) we propose that: 267 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Hypothesis 1: There is a negative relationship between vertical (downward) mobbing and job satisfaction. Hypothesis 2: There is a negative relationship between horizontal mobbing and job satisfaction. Research Methodology Analyzing the relationship between employee job satisfaction and workplace mobbing was the main purpose of this study. Two forms of mobbing, horizontal and dawnward one were included in the analysis to measure their influences on employee job satisfaction. The target organization selected for this research was Turkey’s largest wheel manufacturer firm, established in 1977 and employed 400 (full-time and part-time) people. Company is located in Aydın, covering an area of 100.000 square meters where annual production capacity reaches 2.000.000 wheels, of which 75% are exported to over 80 countries worlwide. After having a written permission from the firm administration, an anonymous questionnaire was distributed to 100 full-time employees. Each questionnaire was accompanied by a letter explaining the purpose of the research, the voluntary nature of participation, and the confidentiality of the data. And a total of 95 completed questionnaires were returned (95 percent response rate) from 100 employees. The responses given by the employees were anonymous and confidential. All analyses described below are based on the data from these 95 subjects. The employees were handed a demographic and a field survey questionnaire designed for this study. Demographic survey part of the questionnaire was composed of 5 variables to control the effect on employee job satisfaction and workplace mobbing. And 29 variables existed on the second part of the questionnaire to measure the degree of workplace (horizontal and downward) mobbing perceived by employees and additionally 6 variables to measure their job satisfaction. The instrument consisted of these 35 items answered on a five-point Likert scale anchored by the terms “strongly disagree/very low” (1) and “strongly agree/very high” (5). In statistical analyses, SPSS pc + version 16.0 was used. Sequentially, factor analysis “varimax rotation” to condense condense the number of items, Cronbach’s alpha test for the internal consistency, Pearson rank correlation coefficient to calculate the correlation between the variables were used in the study. And multiple regression analysis was used because it provided estimates of net effects and explanatory power. The adjusted explained variance (the adjusted R2) was used in this research to measure explanatory power. Research Results Several demographic variables were used to measure or control the effect on job satisfaction and workplace mobbing perceived by employees. So, demographic statistics of the respondents were presented in Table 1. Table 1: Demographic Statistics of The Respondents Item Frequency Percent (%) Item Frequency Percent (%) Gender Male Female Missing Total 82 11 2 95 86.3 11.6 2.1 100 Age 18-30 51 53.7 31-40 35 36.8 Vocational Experience 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 21 years and over Total 32 30 24 6 3 95 33.7 31.6 25.3 6.3 3.2 100 41-50 51 and over Missing Total 7 0 2 95 7.4 0.0 2.1 100 Marital Status Married Single Total 69.5 30.5 100 34 29.5 32 1 95 35.8 66 29 95 Education Level Primary School High School 28 University Master Total 33.7 1.5 100 As can be seen from this table, the majority of our respondents were male employees (88.3%); and 11.6% were female. And 69.5 percent of the respondents were married, 30.5 percent were single. Employees were categorized by age: 18-30 years (53.7%), 31-40 years (36.8%), 41-50 years (7.4%), and 51 years and over (0.0%). Vocational experience was also assessed using categorical brackets. 33.7 percent (majority) of the respondents indicated they were between the experience of one to five; 31.6 percent indicated they were six to ten; 25.3 percent were eleven to fifteen; 6.3 percent were sixteen to twenty and only 3.2 percent were twenty-one and over. Also as presented in Table 1, 35.8 percent of the respondents held primary school degrees, 29.5 percent high school degrees, and 33.7 percent university degrees. Only 1.5 percent held master degree. 268 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2: Factor Loadings and Reliability (Cronbach Alpha) Values of Research Items. Factor loading below 0.500 deleted. Variables and Factor Groups F1 F2 F3 Alpha Vertical (Downward) Mobbing X8 0.867 X10 0.861 X1 0.827 X4 0.827 X13 0.793 X11 0.787 X6 0.775 X5 0.731 X15 0.714 X2 0.711 X14 0.708 X7 0.612 X12 0.535 0.955 Horizontal Mobbing X17 X18 X23 X16 0.802 0.845 0.806 0.714 0.561 Job Satisfaction X33 X30 X34 X32 X35 0.829 0.853 0.734 0.728 0.687 0.525 The Results of Factor Analysis 35 items of the questionnaire were included in a factor analysis. At the end of the factor analysis, items of the questionnaire (prepared using from Carnero, et al., 2008: 1-11; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007: 169-186; Chen, 2008) were collected in three factor groups which were labelled as: vertical mobbing, horizontal mobbing, and job satisfaction. The results (presented in Table 2) of the factor analysis show that our factor groups were rather reliable and consistent. Because 13 items of the questionnaire were deleted as their factor loadings were lower than 0.500 and alpha coefficient values of all factor groups were higher than 0.800. Furthermore, alpha coefficients of three factor groups, namely downward mobbing, horizontal mobbing, and job satisfaction were satisfactory; 0.955, 0.802 and 0.829. Intercorrelations Among Research Variables Intercorrelations among reserach variables and demographic (control) variables are reported in Table 3. As seen from Table 3, there was a negative relationship between employee perceptions for downward mobbing and job satisfaction (rp = -0.353, p< 0.01). This result provided support for our hypothesis 1: There is a negative relationship between vertical (downward) mobbing and job satisfaction. Also, there was a (support for our hypothesis 2) negative relationship between employee job satisfaction and horizontal mobbing (= -0.386, p< 0.01). The results in Table 3 indicated that there were no significant relationships between research variables (vertical-horizontal mobbing) and control variables: age, gender, marital status, vocational experience, and educational level. Table 3: Means, Standard Deviations and Correlations Among Research Variables. *Correlation (Pearson) is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation (Pearson) is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 1. Job Satisfaction 2. Downward Mobbing 3. Horizontal Mobbing 4. Gender 5. Age 6. Educational Level 7. Vocational Experience 8. Marital Status (Mean) (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 3.267 1.776 1.974 1.118 1.526 2.000 2.136 1.305 -0.353** -0.386** -0.108 0.037 -0.015 0.065 0.075 0.193 -0.003 0.177 -0.169 -0.060 0.000 0.216* 0.135 0.183 -0.125 0.128 -0.036 0.227* 0.042 0.041 -0.041 0.589** -0.451** -0.221* 0.107 -0.347 - 0.770 0.620 0.644 0.324 0.635 0.862 1.058 0.462 269 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Regression Analysis Results As can be seen from Table 4 (adjusted R2 = 0.167), 16.7 % of variance in employee job satisfaction could be explained by the set of research variables: sequentially horizontal mobbing and downward (vertical) mobbing. Horizontal mobbing had the strongest influence on employee job satisfaction (β = -0.277, p < 0.05), followed by downward mobbing (β =- 0.228, p < 0.05). Table 4: Model of Intention to Stay-Simultaneous Multiple Regression. †R2 = 0.186, adjusted R2 = 0.167; dependent variable: job satisfaction, F= 9.794, p< 0.05. Unstdandardized coefficients Model† (Constant) Horizontal Mobbing Downward Mobbing β SE 5.183 -0.318 -0.277 0.564 0,125 0.132 Standardized coefficients β t P-value 9.186 -2.539 -2.094 -0.277 -0.228 0.000 0.013 0.039 On the other hand, the contribution of each variable to employee job satisfaction, using stepwise multiple regression, is presented in Table 5. By itself, horizontal mobbing explained 13.4% of the variance in job satisfaction. Entering downward mobbing also added a 3.3% explanation to the variance. Consequently, all the results told above indicate that our two hypotheses were supported. Our first hypothesis (H1) expected a negative association between employee perception for vertical (downward) mobbing and job satisfaction. And Pearson correlation and regression analysis results confirmed that there was a negative association between employee perception for horizontal mobbing and job satisfaction. Moreover, the results of regression analyses (presented in Table 4 and 5) indicate that horizontal mobbing was the first major determinant of employee job satisfaction. Table 5: Model of Intention to Stay-Stepwise Multiple Regression. †R2 = 0.144, adjusted R2 = 0.134, dependent variable: Job satisfaction, F= 14.635, p< 0.05. ††R2 = 0.186, adjusted R2 = 0.167, dependent variable: Job satisfaction F= 9.794, p< 0.05. Unstdandardized coefficients Model† β SE Standardized coefficients β t P-value Model 1† (Constant) Horizontal Mobbing 4.485 -0.436 0.464 0.114 -0.379 9.667 -3.826 0.000 0.000 Model 2†† (Constant) Horizontal Mobbing Downward Mobbing 5.183 -0.318 -0.277 0.564 0.125 0.132 -0.277 -0.228 9.186 -2.539 -2.094 0.000 0.013 0.039 Conclusion The study results indicate that there is a negative, but not a strong, relationship between (horizontalvertical) workplace mobbing and employee job satisfaction. In other words, research findings show that mobbing is a non-rational organizational behavior for employee job satisfaction and also confirm many authors (for example, Zapf, 1999a; Mcmahon, 20000; Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007; Yücetürk and Öke, 2005) who state that workplace mobbing create undesired consequences for organizations such as lower productivity and lower motivation. Moreover, the study indicates that workplace mobbing is not a 270 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo marginal fact for today’s organizations as well as all organizations in Turkey. In this context, we can say that the issue of workplace mobbing needs to be come under academic, administrative and legislative review in Turkey. According to the study results, horizontal workplace mobbing is more prevalent than veritical form in the target organization. But, this result does not support previous researches. For example, Kirstner’s findings (1997) show 37% mobbing by superiors and 10% mobbing with superiors involved, 44% mobbing by colleagues, and 9% mobbing up the ladder. Similarly, downward workplace mobbing makes up for 81% of all workplace mobbing in USA; it is slightly lower in Europe, but the downward form is still the most prevalent: 57% (Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003). So, our model and workplace mobbing issue need to be tested and examined in further researches. In other words, this finding can be attributed to some limitations exist in our study. For example, the study includes the analyses of only one organization’s employees and the results reflect the nature and character of this organization, not a trend for all organizations. And the model for employee job satisfaction and workplace mobbing was developed for this study, thus it requires continued validation and further applications. In other words, additional researches using the same or other instruments in other organizations or industries are needed to explore antecedents of research variables (job satisfaction and workplace mobbing) and compare all results. Because many researches indicate that the content or a level of workplace mobbing can change from sector to sector, or an organization to organization. For example, Hubert and Veldhoven (2001) found that mobbing victim percentages were 12.4% among employees of an industrial company, 4.4% among employees in the industrial/administrative organization, and only 1% among employees in the financial institution in The Netharlands. Einarsen and Skogstad (1996) determined industrial workers to be relatively more prone to mobbing, while Leymann (1993), Zapf (1999b), and Hubert and Veldhoven (2001) found that education sector was relatively more prone to mobbing. Consequently, our research results indicate that both scholars and practitioners should make periodical-researches in different sectors and organizations to explore the causes and preventions of workplace mobbing in Turkey and compare the results with all findings in the literature. References Agarwal, R. and Ferratt, T.W. (2001), “Crafting and HR strategy to meet the need for IT workers”, Communications of the ACM, 44 (7): 58-64. Agho, A.O., Mueller, C.W. and Price, J.L. 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(2005), “Mobbing and bullying: legal aspects relating to workplace bullying in Turkey”, South East Europe Review, 8(2): 61-70. Zapf, D. (1999b), “Mobbing in Organisationen-Überlick zum Stand der Forschung”, Zeitschrift für Arbeits- Und Organisatios- psychologie, 43 (1): 1-25. Zapf, D. (1999a), “Organisational Work Group Related and Personal Causes of Mobbing/Bullying at Work”, International Journal of Manpower, 20: 70-85. 272 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 218 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship Between Mobbing and Job Satisfaction: An Exploratory Study Author Author DOĞAN, Hulusi DOĞAN, ilknur Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is te examine the relationship between employees’ perceptions for workplace mobbing and job satisfaction by an applied research in a wheel manufacturer firm. A survey questionnaire was designed and used in this study. A total of 95 completed questionnaires were returned, representing a response rate of 95%. The study results indicate that there was a negative relationship between employees’ (downward and horizontal) workplace mobbing perceptions and job satisfaction. About 16.7% of the variance in employee job satisfaction could be axplained by the independent variables of downward mobbing and horizontal mobbing (Adjusted R²). Horizontal mobbing had the strongest impact on employee job satisfaction, and followed by downward mobbing. As a result, employee job satisfaction could be increased through eliminating workplace mobbing. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92c2050e5fe097c8cf0f360022d9379b.pdf dad43125d4fbe76ca10aa6c647640414 PDF Text Text Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System Gabriela DIRLOMAN „Nicolae Kretzulescu” Commercial High School Bucharest, Romania gabriela.dirloman@gmail.com Sorina PIRVU „Ion Mares” Secondary School Vulcana, Romania sosoliciul@yahoo.com Manuela GHEORGHE Vulcana School, Romania manu28g@yahoo.com Abstract: The paper tries to underline the evolution of the Romanian and Japanese educational systems which, irrespective time and space, have to evolute so that the new generations may adapt to the global changes. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors, in the end, to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Education itself must become global and has to emphasize the respect for environment, to promote mutual understanding between people, values and traditions based on truth. Introduction In a century of technology and information, all the societies of the world face rapid changes which make them become more conscious of their future. To adapt to such complex changes, human beings realize that they have to be prepared and well informed. The key to this evolution is education, which has to change itself the scale of viewing, from local to global scale. Nowadays, Education for Sustainable Development seems to be the right answer to create a global community. What becomes clearly in many countries, irrespective their social-economical development is that it is necessary to change something in the educational systems, and to act more responsible in reducing the problems humankind faces, such as: environmental degradation, urbanization or discrimination among gender and nations. At global level, different countries cooperate in the field of education, developing and disseminating formal and non-formal education, which nurture the development of youths in the fields of international exchange and mutual understanding, environmental preservation with a special emphasis on cultural properties. That is why the present study “Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System” tries to underline the main aims of two educational systems which seem to be totally different, but which in fact promote similar values and morals. The answer to differences and similarities of Japanese education and the Romanian education, shows that each system is unique, and both countries are looking for the best alternatives to face the tendencies of the present times. The objective of education should be “learning how to think” and “learning the process of understanding the changes and constantly building the solutions to the new and several problems that it outlines the society”. For that reason, people must be more capable to confront a changing world and to look for new solutions for their problems instead of making it thinking of the solutions of the past. 202 �Concepts and Principles of the Romanian Educational System and of the Japanese Educational System After the fall of the totalitarian regime in Romania, reform of education began and aimed initially at eliminating courses that had become obsolete in view of the new option and during a second more extensive phase, building a coherent legal frame that could ensure a more effective higher education. The Constitution of Romania, adopted in 1991 is the foundation of the entire legislation in the field. It is currently under debate by Parliament in order to make it better adapted to the new evolutions at national, European and world level. The Romanian education aims to develop human personality through: assimilation of scientific knowledge and of national and world culture; training of intellectual skills, of the emotional availabilities and practical abilities by assimilation of human, scientific and esthetical knowledge; assimilation of techniques for intellectual work which are necessary for self-training during all life; education in the spirit of respecting human rights, tolerance and dignity; development of sensitivity for human problems, for moral and civic values and for respecting nature and environment; harmonious development of individuals by sports and by health education; training the new generation to act properly in society. According to the Constitution of Romania, all the citizens of Romania have equal rights to attend school at all levels irrespective social and material state, irrespective sex, race, nationality, political or religious beliefs. The concepts and principles of education in Japan are formulated in the Fundamental Law of Education enacted in 1947. In the preamble of this Law, the desire of the Japanese people is expressed as follows: having established the constitution of Japan, we have shown our resolution to contribute to the peace of the world and welfare of humanity by building a democratic and cultural state. The realization of this ideal shall depend fundamentally on the power of education: we shall esteem individual dignity and endeavour to bring up the people to love truth and peace, while education which aims at the creation of culture rich in the individuality shall be spread far and wide. The ideal toward which education in Japan strives is to mould a person who aspires to truth and peace. This has been created from the experience of the Japanese people in World War II. The significance of the phrase “No more Hiroshima!” is deeply rooted in the hearts and minds of the people. In present - day Japan, 50 years after the end of World War II, the outer conditions of life have greatly changed as a result of the rapid progress of industrialization, whereas the inner spirit of the people has hardly changed. In order to achieve the above educational aim, the Fundamental Law of Education provides for equality of opportunity of education, free compulsory education, coeducation etc. Every Japanese is equally entitled to receive education in accordance with his ability whatever his race, creed, sex, social status, economic standing or family origin. For those who have ability but find difficulty in continuing education for financial reasons, the state and local public corporations are obliged to find a method to allow them to continuing schooling. Compulsory education is for 9 years according to the Constitution and is offered free of charge at schools run by the state and local public entities. Coeducation is one of the principles that have been observed almost completely in postwar Japanese education. Some people are still opposed to the coeducational system, but a majority of people are convinced of its benefits. Among other principles, secularism in education should also be mentioned. School System During the 24-th year reign of Nicolae Ceausescu, Romania’s educational system remained under strict state control. Curricula strongly emphasized Marxist-Leninist ideology, and universities, in particular, came under the direct influence of Ceausescu and his wife, Elena. As a result of the government’s isolationist policies, higher education was virtually cut off from the rest of the world. Since the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime in 1989 and the country’s transition to a market-based economy, many educational reforms have been implemented. Under communist rule, all Romanians were required to attend primary school. But starting 1989, mandatory primary school was abolished, and as a result, illiteracy has increased throughout the country, especially in rural areas. The country’s successive post-communist governments have attempted to reverse this trend by offering educational programs to young people who abandoned compulsory schooling. These programs have been targeted especially towards children living in rural areas, urban slums and geographically remote communities in addition to ethnic minorities. So far, progress has been slow. In 2000, the educational system underwent additional changes and got an open character. 203 �According to the Law 151/1999, compulsory education lasts 9 years instead 8; the first generation concluding 9 years began lower secondary education (the 5-th grade) in 1998/1999. The leaving examination of lower secondary education, for this generation was held in the summer of 2004. The Romanian school system (Table 1) is similar to the Japanese one (Table 2), except the duration for each level of education. The statistical values of the year 2003 show that the number of kindergartens and schools achieved 23,519, while in 2005 was of 21, 419. Comparing to the previous years – at national level in 2005, there may be noticed a decrease of number of kindergartens (Table 3). AGE SCHOOL EDUCATION Graduation school - 18-22 University Higher education 18-21 Junior College Higher education 17-19 High school Secondary high education 15-17 School of arts and Secondary low education 23-24 or 23-28 or over 28 vocational school 11-15 Middle school Secondary low education 7-11 Elementary school 3-6 Kindergarten Elementary education - Table 1: The School System in Romania AGE SCHOOL EDUCATION 23-24 or 23-28 Graduation school - 18-22 University Higher education 18-20 Junior college Higher education 12-14 Special school Secondary education 15-17 High school Secondary education 12-14 Middle school Elementary education 6-11 Elementary school Elementary education 3-5 Kindergarten - Table 2: The School System in Japan The reduction of kindergartens is caused by the administrative fusion and by the attachment of kindergartens to schools – the most affected being the kindergartens in rural area, where the decrease was with 375 204 �kindergartens. In 2003, a compensation to this situation was given by opening new 32 kindergartens. The geographical distribution of kindergartens is favourable to rural areas, where there are 6,734 independent kindergartens comparing to 2,813 kindergartens in urban areas. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2003 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2005 STUDENTS 2003 STUDENTS 2005 9,547 14,396 629,703 644,911 12,456 7,023 2,171,147 Secondary Low School 1,388 1413 740,404 Secondary High School 207 6370 41,313 Vocational Colleges 89 77 61,855 289,494 Universities 133 136 600,122 600,350 Kindergartens 1,996,604 Primary School 773,843 35,510 Table 3: Educational institutions in Romania (Source: Ministry of Education and Innovation, Bucharest, 2008) The same phenomena can be noticed at the level of schools in 2003. One explanation may be the decrease of birth rate all over Romania (10,5 births/1000 population starting 2003) - the same phenomena can be noticed in Japan too (Table 4). In Romania, the highest number of elementary and secondary schools are national, same as in Japan where the highest number is hold by public and then private schools. In 2003, the number of private schools in Romania has increased to 20. In the case of high schools, there were 1,388,000 independent high schools. The distribution of high schools is asymmetrical, the highest number being registered in urban areas, 85% of the total number. Similar to elementary and secondary schools, the highest number of high schools are national, the rest being private. The number of students enrolled at high schools was of 41,313 in 2003, while in 2005 became 35,510. The distribution of students in high schools is high in urban areas – 93,4%. Even if the number of high school students has increased, there can be noticed that 48,6% enrolled in theoretical high schools, 44,7% enrolled in technological high schools and only 7,3% enrolled in vocational high schools. Thus, the orientation to a career is in balance with the theoretical one. Taking into account the form of education, 89% students have attended day-courses, while 7,5% students attended evening-courses and 3,5% students attended part-time courses. In Romania, higher education includes university colleges (for 3 years) and universities (which can last from 3 years – the case of Socio-Humanistic, Economic, Artistic and Sportive Universities till 6 years – the case of University of Medicine and Architecture). Recent changes that have occurred in the Romanian and European higher education system is grounded on the options of continental countries, expressed in the Bologna Declaration, to achieve a unique space in this field by the year 2010. The creation of a pro-Bologna attitude at the level of education institutions, through debates, workshops, the inclusion of universities is an experimental network, that began with the MATRA Programme, financed by the Dutch Government. Changes that have occurred globally in the educational system have been strongly influenced by the increasing number of public and private higher education institutions. In 2003, there were 133 civil universities and 8 military institutions in the higher education institutions network in Romania, compared to 30 higher institutions existing in 1989. Out of the 133 civil higher education institutions, 49 (not counting the military ones) belong to public higher education, while the other 84 are private. As shown in Table 4, the basic pattern of the school system in Japan is that of a unitary system. This was established after 1947 by reforming the previous dual system. As an addition to the institutions of the unitary system, higher technical schools were created in 1962 with the aim of training middle - grade engineering specialists, but the number of schools of this type is still rather small. These technical schools specialize both in vocational and liberal 205 �arts fields. The educational system in Japan consists of 6 - years for elementary school, 3 years for junior high school, 3 years for high school and 4 or 6 years for universities. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2003 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2005 STUDENTS 2003 STUDENTS 2005 Kindergartens 14,174 13,949 1,760,494 1,738,766 Primary Schools 23,633 23,123 7,2226,910 7,197,458 Secondary Schools 11,134 11,035 3,748,319 3,626,415 High Schools 5,450 5,418 3,809,827 3,605,242 Special Schools (For Pupils With Disabilities) 995 825 96,473 91,164 Vocational Colleges 63 63 57,875 59,160 Universities 702 726 2,803,980 2,865,051 Table 4: Educational institutions in Japan (Source: MEXT, Tokyo, 2008) Even if the kindergartens are fairly expensive, many children go to them for 1, 2 or sometimes 3 years before primary school. All children start primary school at 6 years old and junior high school at the age of 12. Primary school lasts for 6 years and the junior high school for 3 years. Primary schools and junior high schools as well are compulsory and most of the students complete junior high schools. More than 95% of junior high school students go on to senior high schools for 3 years at the age of 15, although senior high schools are not free. The first 9 years of schooling are compulsory for children from age of 6 to 15. The 3 years of upper secondary education are non-compulsory. In order to improve the education, 36,4% of students from 1-st grade to 9-th grade go to extra schools called Juku, while 59,5% of junior high school students from 7-th grade to 9-th grade go to Juku. In case of students who failed the entrance examination to universities, about 10% of university candidates spend 1 more year for preparation. Junior colleges generally operate on the basis of 2-year courses. There are some junior colleges offering 3year courses, but the number is small. One of the characteristics of junior colleges in Japan is that a large number of them are for women. In 2003, the number of female which attended these colleges was of 220,090 persons. In case of universities (which last for 4 years) and technical schools, more then half of the senior high school graduates go to these, when they are 18 years old. Comparing to 2003, at national level, in 2005, one may notice a decrease of number of kindergartens, elementary, secondary and high schools and of students as well (Table 4). One explanation may be the decrease of birth rate all over Japan (9,61 births/1000 population starting 2003). Because of the rapid population growth after World War II, the number of students in a typical elementary or junior high school class once exceeded 50. But starting 1980’s and with fewer classes per grade and unfilled classrooms, the number of students decreased. For example, in some villages there are school classes with only 20 or 25 students. In the case of universities, there is an opposite situation, in 2005 it may be noticed a slow increase of numbers (24) and of students (6171 more students than 2003) (Table 4). This could be explained as a more careful attention is paid to study sciences and technology, especially in national universities comparing to private universities which are concentrated on the teaching of humanities and social science. The first 9 years of schooling are compulsory for children from age of 6 to 15. The 3 years of upper secondary education are non-compulsory. 206 �The School Year The duration of school year in Romania may differ from year to year, but usually it lasts for 36 weeks (178 school days). The school year is divided in two semesters, the longest one being the first one. For all elementary, secondary and high schools, school starts on September 15-th and lasts till December, when there is the winter holiday for 2 weeks (when is celebrated Christmas). The second semester starts in January and lasts till June (with a spring holiday of 2 weeks when is celebrated Easter). The structure of school year can be modified for the schools which are affected by difficult weather conditions, especially in winter (heavy snow, strong wind etc.). One the main changes in the Japanese school year was the reduction of school days from 240 days to 200 days. This is the result of cutting with 30% of the educational contents in the national curriculum. The gradual transition from a 6-day school week to a 5-day school week was completed in 2002. For most elementary, junior high and high schools, the school year in Japan begins on April 1-st and is divided in 3 terms: April to July, September to December and January to March. Some schools follow a two-term schedule. The Japanese elementary and secondary school year is reported as being 240 days long, including Saturdays. Monbusho requires a minimum of 210 days of instruction, including a half day on Saturday. No formal instruction is given on Saturday afternoon. The School Time Table The school time table in Romania is different from school to school according to the number of pupils and the space. There are schools which work in 1 shift, but there are schools which work in 3 shifts, depending on the number of school classrooms. Usually, school starts at 8 a.m. and 1 class lasts for 50 minutes, comparing to the Japanese system where a class lasts for 40 minutes. There is a longer break for pupils in order to have a sandwich, but comparing to Japan there are a few schools which have an eating hall (usually, just the private schools). As it shown in Table 5, in Japan, school begins at 8.30 am and last till 3 p.m. for 1-st graders, while 2-nd graders go back home at 1 pm or 2 p.m. Educational Reform In the context of global changes, educational reforms constitute a demand for mankind in order to live in harmony and develop solid societies based on moral principles and values. Training children to become part of their society is an integral part of the formation of society itself. TIME 8.25-8.35 8.35-8.45 8.45-9.35 9.45-10.35 10.45-11.35 11.45-12.35 12.35-13.20 13.20-14.10 14.20-15.10 15.15-15.25 15.30-15.40 15.40-17.00 MONDAY-FRIDAY Teacher’s morning assembly Home room The first period The second period The third period The fourth period Cleaning time The fifth period The sixth period Cleaning time Home room Extracurricular activities Table 5: School Time Table in Japan The debate about education for peace, stability and democracy has increased tremendously since the collapse of the communism system in Romania. The world of two opposing sides was replaced by a world facing the problems of transition, a concept which encompasses an entire spectrum of social, economic, cultural and political 207 �aspects. To establish priorities is in itself a great problem. But considering transition as a long-term change which deals fundamentally with people, education has to be a significant field of action for local, European and international factors. The elements taken into account are the following: 1) the most complete term which can be used is “education for democratic citizenship”. It implies the learning of citizen rights and obligations, the respect for human rights, the fostering of a democratic culture; 2) it is a global approach and, therefore, has to be present in school curricula and in permanent education; 3) education for democratic citizenship; 4) civic education. During the communism regime, formal education had, apart from the ideological framework of all subjects, at least three clear-cut instances of ideological education: the subject matters called “Constitution” (7-th grade) and “Social-political Education” (10-th grade) and the classes for “political education”) one hour fortnightly, lectures and debates over articles in party publications, grades 5-th to 12-th). It is important to focus on another aspect. During the communist regime, voluntary work was seen as a paramount feature. It showed not only the solidarity of the society as a whole, but also the approval of the party’s politics. As far as the civil society is concerned, it was practically non-existent. The lack of straightforward and open communication between individuals and groups, was almost total. In 1997, a comprehensive reform was drawn up and called for the following: modify teaching methodology; academic programs and textbooks; make the national curriculum more compatible with the rest of Europe; shift from rote learning to “problem solving”; establish links between secondary and postsecondary schools and their economic, administrative and cultural environment; undertake infrastructural improvements, particularly with regard to the World Wide Web and other forms of electronic communication within the classroom; decentralize secondary and postsecondary schools and grant autonomy to various institutions of higher education; enhance cooperation at the international level. In Agenda 2000, elaborated by European Union and based on the analysis of years 1996 and 1997, it was stipulated: “The big difficulty in the way to reform is the low level of funds allocated by Romanian Govern in order to maintain and improve the educational infrastructure, to buy new equipments and pay in an attractive way the teachers. Other major risks which may affect the success of reform are the low capacity of Ministry of Education and Innovation to implement reforms and the resistance to change which has been noticed at national and local level”. In 2000, it could be noticed that strong efforts to end the transition reform in the Romanian educational system were made. It became a necessity to change mentality - from that organized on passive waiting, generated by state to the mentality which encourages initiative, elaboration of projects and competition on the qualification market and on that of technical and scientific innovations. Thus, the situation of schools, high schools and universities is very diverse and depends more on school management. There are also schools or high schools which still depend on the “state mentalities” and with no programs and interest in innovation. It has also been underlined that the agents of educational reform are the teachers, the students, the specialists in the administrative sector, the researchers – in fact everybody involved in the educational process. Following the end of World War II, education in Japan realized the concept of equal opportunity and elevated national educational standards to become the driving force for the development of economic society. However, turning toward the current state of education in Japan reveals various problems significantly unbalancing the confidence of the public and society in education. Firstly, against the backdrop of the advance in declining birthrates and urbanization, and the notable fall in educational functions in the home and society, Japan faces serious education issues, including bullying, nonattendance at school or violence in school. Secondly, through the standardization of education resulting from excessive equality to the cramming of immoderate levels of knowledge, education oriented toward the individuality and competence of the children has been given to neglect. Thirdly, traditional educational systems are being marginalized by the progress of the era and society amid society’s transformation on a grand scale, evidenced by the rapid progress of science and technology, socioeconomic globalization and computerization. The main aims of the Japanese educational reform are: to implement a class system based on 20 pupils/class in order to improve the efficiency of education; to encourage the youth to become open minded and generous by taking part to different services and activities of the community; to improve the environment for learning, an environment with no worries and fearless; to build reliable schools for parents and local community; to establish a new educational psychology adapted to the new century. Globalization of Education 208 �A closer international relationship existing nowadays among nations has been a main debate at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. At this conference, Sustainable Development was recognized as a common goal for humanity. Thus, the period 2009-2014 has been declared “The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development”. None of the issues over Sustainable Development can be solved separately and it requires an interdisciplinary and integrated approach. In this sense, education can function as a catalyst to unite the various components which constitute Sustainable Development. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors in the end to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Therefore, Education for Sustainable Development should include not only the teaching of a notion and a concrete image of what Sustainable Development is, but also the provision of norms of behaviour in favour of Sustainable Development. Education for Sustainable Development urges people to transform their minds in terms of their knowledge, skills, values, behaviour and life styles in compliance with Sustainable Development. The role of teachers at all stages of education, based on this new idea, becomes critical as well. The content of Education for Sustainable Development differs between Japan - a developed country and Romania - a developing country. It is desirable for Romania to envision a sustainable future on its own and set a plan of action towards achieving the goal. As Education for Sustainable Development also aims to transform a social system, people in Romania need to take into account issues such as to build a local community, how to promote respect for traditional cultures and how to alleviate problems caused by population growth in addition to the activities of the Education for All. Therefore, it is necessary to be creative in developing curricula, contents of educational materials and methods of education. Although the financial and human resources of developed countries - such as Japan – are crucial to developing various educational programmes and building educational infrastructure in developing countries such as Romania, the one way flow of knowledge, data and technology which is currently moving into developing countries has to be reconsidered. To reduce the knowledge and information gap, it is also necessary to enhance the capacity of educators, researchers and related organizations in Romania as well as to promote cooperation with developed countries like Japan by building a network in order to cooperate, to create meaningful ideas and knowledge. Education in Japan is an important agenda for Sustainable Development as well. As a developed country, Japan needs to reconsider its own patterns of production and consumption from the perspective of sustainability. Furthermore, Japan needs to raise awareness in the areas of creating new social norms, reducing and preventing environmental degradation. By promoting Education for Sustainable Development, it is needed to improve the situation of “poverty of the rich” found in the other developed countries as well, where bonds and solidarity are becoming scarce. Environmental Education – A Goal of Education for Sustainable Development Environmental Education in Romania, as a part of Education for Sustainable Development aims to understand the relation between humans and nature, to increase the consciousness for the environmental problems and to understand the personal values of the pupils by “discovering” their own attitude, helping them to evaluate and clarify their feelings for the environment they live in. The Environmental Education can be found in the curricula of Geography, Biology, Physics, Chemistry and History. It can be taught using trans-disciplinarily, which means to find new methods of learning, centered on the problems of real life so that the pupils may become good citizens in the future. Furthermore, Environmental Education can be taught through extracurricular activities and by financial support offered by the local authorities, by parents or by European Programs: Comenius, Leonardo etc.) or by ONG-s. The “Eco-schools” Programme, which is managed internationally by Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE) was initiated in 1994 by European Commission as a pilot-programme, and nowadays is being implemented in 24 European countries, counting 7000 schools and 2360 Eco-schools. In Romania, Eco – schools Programme is under the coordination of the Carpato-Danubian Center of Geo-ecology; it has started in 1999 with 5 pilot schools; around 600 school have carried out the project, 403 being active now and 57 schools have been awarded the Green Flag and the title of Eco - school. 209 �The goals of Environmental Education in Romania are: to increase the level of conscience for environmental problems to the children; to develop a civic spirit and the capacity of taking decisions to the children; to create connections with schools in Romania and in the world; to recycle the wastes (Figure 1); to arrange the green space around the school. Figure 1: Collecting the plastics (Eco – school, Romania) Figure 2: The activity of planting a cherry tree at Vulcana Bai Environmental Education can give the pupils the possibility to develop their thinking in a creative and critical way. A method which can be applied is that of partnership projects with schools from other spaces: towns, villages or other countries. An example of good practice is the project called “Bridges between town and village: Together, we are equal” made in partnership by the Commercial High School “Nicolae Kretzulescu” in Bucharest and Secondary School “Ion Mares” from Vulcana Bai, during the school year 2008 – 2009. The project’s goal was to increase Environmental Education to the children in rural areas by activities like: “Let’s plant a tree!”(Figure 2), “What we know about forests?” (identifying species of trees and plants) or contest among children from the two schools concerning Education for Natural Disasters Reduction. Environmental Education in Japan is the 2nd subject taught in Japanese schools (after the culture and language subjects). It aims: to cultivate the conscience for environmental problems; to respect the environment; to train the capacity of solving the environmental problems; to take part of activities of environmental protection (1 day/week). Basic Environmental Education is taught starting kindergartens, and then at schools during so called “comprehensive studies”. Environmental activities range from those integrated within the curriculum, to extracurricular activities, such as clubs and associations. Activities are also initiated at the school level by local and national governments, by the private sector, and by NGOs. There are three trends in teaching Environmental Education in Japan: increasing and unintended pollution of the environment from the high industrial growth periods of the 60’s and 70’s; urban lifestyles and resource consumption patterns that were essentially unsustainable and placed a heavy burden on the local environment – both in production and in disposal of wastes; awareness on global environmental trends as a result of United Nations and other international events and Japan’s own growing presence on the global arena. Environmental Education, as part of Globalization of Education constitutes a strong goal for the Associated Exchange UNESCO Programme in Japan. This programme aims to build a new regional network of ASP schools in Asia-Pacific region for a Flagship Programme of the future. Associated Schools Project activities in Japan started at 4 lower secondary schools and 2 upper secondary schools in 1953. 30 schools joined into this project in 1975, but 210 �now the number is only 20. The most famous Associated UNESCO Schools are Ikeda (Figure 3), Hagoromo and Kitazodo. Figure 3: Japanese pupils collecting the plastics (Ikeda School, Osaka) Environmental Education has to be learned by each pupil through their own experience, having a strong foundation in their families and being based on moral and values inherited from the past. Sharing the experience about their own values and traditions, about the way they understand and respect the environment with people all over the world can be a model to apply the principles of GLOBAL EDUCATION. Based on such principles, the Commercial High School “Nicolae Kretzulescu” has settled a partnership called “Sharing the Globe!” with the Bucharest Japanese Language School, developing different activities such as: “Knowing Japan”, “Origami”, “Small Japanese Gardens” (Figure 4) or “Wearing Yukata” (Figure 5). Figure 4: Small Japanese Garden Project Figure 5: Wearing Yukata by a pupil from the Commercial High School „Nicolae Kretzulescu”, Bucharest Conclusions 211 �As both Japan and Romania experience an era of rapid changes, “Globalization of Education” should emphasize the promotion of mutual understanding between peoples of nations through education. The importance of international understanding can be seen also by promoting non-formal education, as well by taking into account the importance of cooperation and the respective roles of schools, communities and families in education and in the creation of lifelong learning societies. In order to cooperate more effectively and efficiently, Japan and Romania should conduct more programmes, domestically and internationally in order to exchange ideas such as: common values and cultural diversities, Ethics in Science and Technology, globalization and social transformation or establishment of knowledge societies. In conclusion, both Japanese educational system and Romanian educational system have good and weak points, which make them be different not only from socio-economical point of view, but also from cultural and mental level. Irrespective time and space, Japan and Romania have to improve education so that the new generations should adapt to the evolution of world, a world which becomes more global. References Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Fukuzawa, Rebecca, Erwin, Gerald, K. L. (2000). Intense Years: How Japanese Adolescents balance School, Family and Friends, New York: Rutledge Falmer Khan, Yoshimitsu (1997). Japanese Moral Education. Past and Present, Cranbury, Associated University Press Lewis, Catherine, C. (1997). The Roots of Japanese Educational Achievement: Helping Children develop Bonds to School, Educational Policy 9, (pp. 121-151), EJ 506 494 ***, (2005). Talking about Japan Updated Q&A, Tokyo, Kondansha International Ltd. Press www.ceser.hyogo-u.ac.jp www.cnr-unesco.ro www.cnrop.ise.ro www.eco-schools.org www.edu.ro www.ics-inc.co.jp/eos2e www.isei.or.jp/books www.web-japan.org/factsheet/education www.mext.go.jp www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/unesco www.mofa.go.jp www.portal.unesco.org/education 212 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 398 Title A name given to the resource Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System Author Author DIRLOMAN, Gabriela PIRVU, Sorina GHEORGHE, Manuela Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper tries to underline the evolution of the Romanian and Japanese educational systems which, irrespective time and space, have to evolute so that the new generations may adapt to the global changes. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors, in the end, to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Education itself must become global and has to emphasize the respect for environment, to promote mutual understanding between people, values and traditions based on truth. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/66a62e459fb2f7018d65a99a7c930209.pdf cf1c57985f53535cdd1624724e9ca6c5 PDF Text Text Teachers’ Disfunctional Attitudes Mücahit DILEKMEN Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey dilekmen@atauni.edu.tr Şükrü ADA Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey sukruada@atauni.edu.tr Birol ALVER Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey balver@atauni.edu.tr Durmuş KILIC Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey dkilic@atauni.edu.tr Abstract:In this study it was aimed to analyze dysfunctional attitudes of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding dysfunctional attitudes of teachers was obtained through Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) which was originally designed by Weissman ve Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) is a 40-item with 1-7 score margin likert type scale which aims to measure patterns of maladaptive thoughts of depressed individuals Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level whereas gender (β=-.138) is the only and the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a certain level (t=-1.984, p=.049). Introduction Schoolteaching has the foremost place among the professions requiring one to one interaction and sharing. Along with transfering contemporary knowledge and culture to the next generations, teachers play effective roles in personality development of individuals and in fitting them for future in, especially primary and secondary education institutions. Teachers are the role models with personality attributes, attitudes and behaviors they exhibited in addition to cognitive gainings the students are provided with. It can be said in the light of the issues being discussed that teachers have significantly positive effects on students’ recognizing themselves and the environment as well as their understanding and attaching meanings to the things happening around-especially in primary education level-. Dysfunctional beliefs that are used to express desires of individuals, are happened to come forward more often when people change their desires and choices pertaining themselves and events into compulsory desires and 69 �demands (Jones, 1982; Corey, 2001). People’s thoughts and behaviors are important sources of power (Eisen, Kearney, 1995). According to cognitive approach, changes in opinions play important role in forming emotions and behaviors. Therefore, changing opinions are important in order to correct negative behaviors. Cognitive theories are being perceived important from the aspect of conceptualizing personality and personality disorders in these days. Those theories have helped to explain perceptions, opinions and attitudes in defining personality (Sperry 1999). Cognitive concepts and psycho-social effects play more important role in personality disorder when compared to biological structure (APA 1994, DSM-IV-TR 2008). According to Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) theory, individuals inherit most of the opinion/belief structures leading their lives in their childhood period, imitating the persons they’ve perceived to be respectful (Corey, 2001). Considering the issue within the scope of these facts, the importance of teachers’ being role model from the aspect of personality, cognitive and emotional development of children within the primary education period becomes self-evident. Corey ( 2001) has emphasized that teachers’ being perfectionist against some cases or having strict attitudes and beliefs towards some events as well as having wrong thoughts such as “I must be the best in everything” or “there has to be no sound in the class to be heard at all” cause students to develop similar behavior patterns. Ellis (1962) defined eleven irrational beliefs or opinions, some of which are : • Past experiences are the determinants of today’s behaviors of an individual. Things/events having strong effects on our past lives will definitely have similar effects in future life. • Some people are evil-minded and baleful and that’s why they deserve to be blamed and punished. • Unhappiness is caused by external factors which individuals have little control of. • I must be liked and approved by everyone in society. • I must be perfectly successful, efficient and competent to consider myself as a “gem”. • There are the definite and perfect solutions to human problems. If they cannot be found, the result is disaster (Ellis, 1962; Ellis, 1973; Jones, 1982; Dryden ve Ellis, 1988). In one of his studies, Özgüven (1999) revealed that frequency of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes observed in crisis are significantly higher than other cases. He also suggested that cognitive limitations are effective on crisis emergence and thus, cognitive therapy approaches embracing automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes be more beneficial from this aspect. Psychological problems emerge when individuals consistently have negative opinions (Franklin, 2002). It was also revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes tend to be more depressive and anxious (Azizoğlu 1993; Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; ve Tschacher 1996). Frequency level of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes of an individual in crisis is observed to be significantly higher when compared to other individuals. Dysfunctional attitude scale (DAS-A) was designed to measure long lasting thoughts and attitudes rather than immediate behaviors. For this reason, it can be suggested that improper automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes be accepted as a risk factor for crisis rather than be considered as the result of crisis which is an instant action (Abramson ve ark 1978; Peterson ve Seligman 1984). According to a study conducted by Gündoğdu, Çelikkaleli and Çapri (2003) with the students studying at different faculties, it was found that irrational belief scores of educational faculty students were signifcantly higher than irrational belief scores of students of other faculties. Hamamcı and Duy (2007) revealed a positive relation at significant level between loneliness and “perfectionistic attitudes” which is one of the subdimension of dysfunctional attitude scale (SDAS-A). Furthermore, it was also revealed that cognitive behavioral approach based social skills training significantly lessened dysfunctional attitudes of university students who had received it and a further monitoring analysis proved the persistency of the attainments. Problem Statement The purpose of this study is to analyze dysfunctional attitudes of teachers from the aspect of different variables. The following question is tried to be answered in parallel with this purpose. “Do the dysfunctional attitudes of teachers differentiate in accordance with the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication ?” Method Population and Sampling 70 �Population of this study consist of the teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. 215 teachers were chosen randomly out of the population as the sample of the study. Data Collection Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) Data regarding dysfunctional attitudes of teachers was obtained through Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DASA) which was originally designed by Weissman ve Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Moreover, data on personal, institutional and social variables concerning teachers was obtained through Personal Information Form that was developed by the researchers. Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) is a 40-item with 17 score margin likert type scale which aims to measure patterns of maladaptive thoughts of depressed individuals and specifically to bring along occurance frequency of dysfunctional attitudes of those patients. It was developed by Weissman and Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish with reliability and validity by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Answers to each item is scored by a range of 1 to 7 points. Items numbered 2, 6, 12, 17, 24, 29, 30, 35, 37 and 40 were graded inversely with the assumption of their pointing out functional attitudes. Overall score margin is 40-280. The higher the score obtained from the scale, the more often dysfunctional attitudes are likely to be observed for an individual. After studies on students chosen as the sample, cronbach alfa reliability coefficient of the scale was found between .87 and .92 and the total score correlation coefficient was found between .20 and .50. Re-test test reliability coefficients of the scale vary between .54 and .84. In criterion connected validity study of the instrument, range of the correlation of this study with Beck Depression Inventory varied between .30 and .64. Personal Information Form Teachers of the sample group were given Personal Information Forms developed by the researchers concerning information about the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through this form. Data Analysis SPSS 16.0 packaged software was used for statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. Findings Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Genders t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their gender were given in table 1 below : Gender n X sd Female 100 184.05 34.63 Male sd: 213 p<.05 115 175.59 29.45 t p 1.935 .050 Table 1. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Gender 71 �As is seen in table 1 above, there was found a significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of male and female teachers in favor of female teachers (t213= 1.935, p=.050). In other words, dysfunctional attitude level of female teachers are significantly higher than that of the male teachers. Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status were given in table 2 below : Marital Status n X sd Single 65 180.07 36.49 Married 150 179.28 30.23 t p 0.165 . 869 sd: 213 p>0.05 Table 2. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status As is observed from table 2, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status (t213=0.165, p=.869). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type Institution They Teach At Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the type of institution they teach at were given in table 3 below : n X sd 92 106 17 215 180.05 180.41 171.11 179.52 30.96 31.84 40.70 32.17 Institutions Teachers Teach At Dysfunctional Attitudes Primary Education Secondary Education Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğü Total Table 3. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type Institution They Teach At The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding the type of institution they teach at are shown in table 4 below : Dysfunctional Attitudes 72 Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 1311.380 220210.229 221521.609 s d. 2 212 214 Mean of Squares 655.690 1038.727 F 0.631 p .533 �Tablo 4. Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Type Institution They Teach At As seen in table 4, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the type institution they teach in or they work for (F(2,212)= 0.631, p=.533). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their service period were given in table 5 below : Service Period Dysfunctional Attitudes n 122 81 12 215 1-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years Total X 181.95 175.17 184.16 179.52 Sd 32.63 31.15 33.68 32.17 Table 5. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding their service period are shown in table 6 below : Dysfunctional Attitudes Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 2515.567 219006.042 221521.609 Mean of Squares 1257.784 1033.047 s d. 2 212 214 F 1.218 p .298 Table 6. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding Their Service Period As seen in table 6, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their service period (F(2,212)= 1.218, p=.298). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving ınservice training were given in table 7 below : n X sd 73 �Status of Receiving Inservice Training Dysfunctional Attitudes Never received Received only once Received twice Received three times and more Total 215 32 67 18 98 46,30 181,53 181,01 178,50 178,04 13,96 28,37 31,05 26,89 35,18 Table 7. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding the status of receiving inservice training are shown in table 8 below : Dysfunctional Attitudes Source of Variance Inter-gropus In-groups Total Sum of Squares 512.319 221009.291 221521.609 Mean of Squares 170.773 1047.437 s d. 3 211 214 F .163 p .921 Table 8. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Status of Receiving Inservice Training As seen in table 8, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving inservice training (F(3,211)= 0.163, p=.921). It other words inservice training plays almost no role in terms of changing dysfunctional attitudes. As Ellis (1962) stated, children learn negative opininons from the individuals around by imitating them. However, it can be considered that way the individual is brought up may have certain effect on developing dysfunctional attitudes. Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period were given in table 9 below : Dysfunctional attitudes The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period Village Town City Metropolis Total n X sd 19 29 60 107 215 175.47 180.44 176.03 181.95 179.52 32.94 28.65 35.77 30.98 32.17 Table 9. Standard Deviation And Mean Values Of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores Of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period are shown in table 10 below : 74 �Dysfunctional Attitudes Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 1699.000 219822.609 221521.609 s d. 3 211 214 Mean of Squares 566.333 1041.813 F 0.544 p .653 Table 10. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period As is seen in table 10 above, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period (F(3,211)= 0.544, p=.653). Shortly, the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period plays almost no role in terms of changing dysfunctional attitudes. Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing are given in table 11 below : Sports Playing n X sd Playing Sports 91 176.03 34.63 Not Playing Sports sd: 213 p>0.05 124 182.08 30.12 t p -1.366 .173 Table 11. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing As is seen in table 11 above, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing (t213= -1.366, p=.173). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with artiness are given in table 12 below : Artiness Yes, Iam interested in arts No, I am not that much interested in arts sd: 213 p>0.05 n X sd 168 177.89 32.15 47 185.36 31.89 t p -1.410 .160 Table 12. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness As seen in table 12, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with artiness (t213= -1.410, p=.160). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication are given in table 13 below 75 �Perceived Style of Communication Positive Perceivers (humaniterian, constructive and emphatetic) Negative Perceivers (critical, judging and apathetic) sd: 213 p>0.05 n X sd 179 179.94 32.36 36 177.41 31.55 t p 0.430 .667 Table 13. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication As seen in table 13, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication (t213= -1.101, p=.272). Findings Regarding Precursor Variables of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers The results of multiple regression analysis applied to determine the dysfunctional attitude score predictive strength of the variables of gender, marital status, type of institution they teach at or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived type of communication are given at table 14 below : Precursor Variables Gender Marital Status Type of institution they teach at or work for Service Period Status of receiving inservice training The settlement they’ve taught fort he longest period Sports playing Artiness Perceived Communication Style B Predictive Error β t p -8.871 .823 -2.960 -3.580 -1.615 4.471 2.661 3.737 3.967 2.030 -.138 .024 -.057 -.067 -.058 -1.984 0.309 -0.792 -0.903 -0.796 .049 .758 .429 .368 .427 1.705 2.362 .052 0.722 .471 5.220 5.956 -.143 R=.212 4.754 5.538 6.078 R2=.045 .080 1.098 .077 1.076 -.002 -0.024 F(9-205)=1.071 .274 .283 .981 p=.385 Table 14. The Results of Multiple Regression Analysis Regarding Precursor Variables of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Considering the results of multiple regression analysis seen at table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (R=.212, R2=.045, F(9-205)=1.071, p=.385). This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 4,5% of variance of the dysfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.138) is the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a certain level (t=-1.984, p=.049) whereas other variables couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. Discussion There was found a significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of male and female teachers in favor of female teachers (t213= 1.935, p=.050). In other words, dysfunctional attitude level of female teachers are significantly higher than that of the male teachers. It was also revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes 76 �tend to be more depressive and anxious (Azizoğlu 1993; Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; ve Tschacher 1996). In one of his studies, Özgüven (1999) revealed that frequency of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes observed in crisis are significantly more often than other cases. This aspect, however, can be explained by effectiveness of cognitive limit in crisis emergence. According to another prospect, cognitive concepts and psycho-social effects play more important role in personality disorder rather than biological structure (APA 1994, DSM-IV-TR 2008). Considering those results, it can be affirmed that cognitive limitations of female teachers are more than that of the male teachers and thus, they are more inclined to experience crisis and can be more depressive and anxious. The result that dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers do not differ at a significant level in accordance with variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and their communication styles perceived as being authoretative or democratic. This result have demonstrated that gender is the only variable, dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers differs accordingly at a significant level. As Ellis (1962) stated, children learn negative opininons from the individuals around by imitating them. Considering this prospect, it can be said that dysfunctional attitudes are mostly developed in personal development period. Considering the results of multiple regression analysis seen at table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (R=.212, R2=.045, F(9-205)=1.071, p=.385). This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 4,5% of variance of the dysfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.138) is the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (t=-1.984, p=.049) whereas other variables couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. This result demonstrated that only gender out of nine assumably precursor variables could be predictive on developing dysfunctional attitudes. According to Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) theory, individuals inherit most of the opinion/belief structures leading their lives in their childhood period, imitating the persons they’ve perceived to be respectful (Corey, 2001). This assumption makes the reserchers to think that participative teachers developed dysfunctional attitudes in their childhood period and that marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and their communication styles have had no effect on developing or changing dysfunctional attitudes in their adulthood period. It can also be inferred that, except for gender, no other variable have any effect on predicting dysfunctional attitudes. Considering the total score margin of dysfunctional attitude scale, which is 40-280; there are dysfunctional attitudes of teachers at a certain level (yet not significant) despite its not varying in accordance with above mentioned variables. Karahan, Sardoğan and Özkamalı (2006) revealed in their study that individuals with poor social competence expectancy and with dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts, needs more psycho-social support than the others. It was also revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts tend to be more depressive and anxious (Azizoğlu 1993; Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; ve Tschacher 1996). Considering the scores obtained pertaining automatic thoughts together with the results obtained from the study, it can be inferred that teachers may need psycho-social support to a certain extent and that they might experience some problems with social competence expectancy and tend to experience crisis as well as their becoming depressed and anxious to a certain extent. Conclusions and Recommendations In this study, it is achieved as result that participative teachers have certain dysfunctional attitudes and they do not vary in accordance with above mentioned variables except for gender. In addition, it is also attained that gender variable could predict dysfunctional attitudes. Going through literature review, it has been ascertained that dysfunctional attitudes results from erroneous cognitive schemas formed within the childhood period and that it may cause some certain psychological problems afterwards. Considering those assignations, following recommendations could be suggested : Recommendations 1. Particular inservice training programs should be arranged in order to raise teachers’ awareness on dysfunctional attitudes, their sources and their effects. Different effective authorities such as Guidance Research Centers (GRC) and guidance counselors in schools should be made use of. 77 �2. Studies on dysfunctional attitudes of teachers can be conducted in educational faculties as one dimension within the scope of psychological counseling and guidance services and thus, necessary proactive interferences could be made fort he prospective teachers. 3. Informative education pertaining dysfunctional attitudes should be given to families. 4. Confirming teachers with dysfunctional attitudes, necessary therapeutic studies could be conducted. References Abramson, L.Y, Seligman, MEP, Teasdale JD (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: ritique and reformu-lation. 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New York: Harpe and Row Publishers Franklin, D. J. (2002). Cognitive therapy for depression. http://www.psychologyinfo.com Gündoğdu, M., Çelikkakeli, Ö. ve Çapri, B. (2003). Üniversite öğrencilerinde akılcı olmayan inançlar ve dindarlık. VII. Ulusal Psikolojik Danışma veRehberlik Kongresi, 9–11 Temmuz, Malatya. Hamamcı, Z., Duy, B. (2007). Bilişsel davranışçı yaklaşıma dayalı sosyal beceri eğitiminin üniversite öğrencilerinin yalnızlık düzeyleri ve fonksiyonel olmayan tutumları üzerindeki etkisi. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama Dergisi, Sayı. 7. Hamamcı, Z.ve Duy, B. (2007). Sosyal beceriler fonksiyonel olmayan tutumlar akılcı olmayan inançlar ve ilişkilerle ilgili bilişsel çarpıtmaların yalnızlıkla ilişkisi, Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, (26, pp. 121-130). Jones, N. (1982). The theory and Practice of Counseling Psychology, (Çev: F.Akkoyun ve ark.), Ankara. Özgüven, H.D.( 1999). Psikiyatrik kriz vakalarında hatalı otomatik düşünceler ve fonksiyonel olmayan tutumların sıklığı. Kriz Dergisi, (7(2), pp. 9-16). Palabıyıkoğlu, R. Berksun, O.E., Güney, S., Yazar, H. ve Duran, A (1995). Krize müdahale merkezine başvuranların değerlendirilmesi: Demografik özellikler, sorun alanları, yaklaşım. Kriz Dergisi, (3(1-2), pp. 118-123). Peterson, C. Seligman MEP (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review (91, pp. 347-374). Sperry, L . (1999). Cognitive Behaviour Therapy of DSM-IV Personality Disorders. London, Brunner- Mazel. Şahin, N, Şahin, N (1992). How dysfunctional are the dysfunctional attitudes in another culture. Br J Med Psychol, (65, pp. 1726). Tschacher, W. (1996). The dynamics of psychosocial crises: Time courses and causal models. J Nerv Ment Dis, (184, pp. 172179). 78 �Weissman, A. N, Beck AT (1978). Development and the validation of the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale: A preliminary investigation. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Toronto, Ontario. 79 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 332 Title A name given to the resource Teachers’ Disfunctional Attitudes Author Author DILEKMEN, Mücahit ADA, Şükrü ALVER, Birol KILIC, Durmuş Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study it was aimed to analyze dysfunctional attitudes of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding dysfunctional attitudes of teachers was obtained through Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) which was originally designed by Weissman ve Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) is a 40-item with 1-7 score margin likert type scale which aims to measure patterns of maladaptive thoughts of depressed individuals Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level whereas gender (β=-.138) is the only and the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a certain level (t=-1.984, p=.049) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5656f4a15f46856ce50f9ef8d1c2bbc7.pdf 6dac25b660f03eca326d332889cca3ea PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Strategy and Structural Change: The Lessons from the Department of Homeland Security Mehmet Akif DEMĐRCĐOĞLU Indiana University-Bloomington, School of Public and Environmental Affairs. Bloomington, Indiana, USA mdemirci@indiana.edu Abstract: Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration. There are four types of organizational change: Products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in the United States is an example of this change. Key Words: organizational change, strategy and structure, the department of homeland security, public organizations The nature of change is not unidirectional or unalterable. An organization may resist or facilitate change in a way consistent with its nature. Organizational change is not isolated to singular effects within an organization; rather, it is likely to affect the other variables under consideration. It is clear that public organizations pursue multiple goals. Charles Wise believes that organizing—or perhaps more accurately, reorganizing—for homeland security will implicate numerous issues of organizational functioning. While not always explicitly identifying the causal mechanisms of change, extant proposals seek to remedy multiple perceived dysfunctional attributes of the current organizational system (Wise, 2002a, 132). This paper will examine organizational change, particularly strategy and structural change, and its implementation within the Department of Homeland Security in the Unites States of America. Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration and organization theory (Fernandez & Pitts, 2005, 1). Many journal articles address topics relating to organizational change, such as the adaption and implementation of “reinventing government” and New Public Management Reforms1 (e.g., Berman and Wang 2000; Brudney and Wright 2002; Fernandez and Rainey, 2006; Grizzle and Pettijohn 2002; Hood and Peters 2004; Julnes and Holzer 2001; Thompson and Fulla 2001). A growing number of scholars have focused their research on the implementation of planned change (Fernandez and Rainey 2006, 6). Change, according to Van de Ven and Poole (1995), is one type of event process, or progression, of an organizational entity's existence over time. It is classified as an empirical observation of difference in structure, quality, or status over time in an organizational element, such as an individual's job, a work group, an organizational strategy, a program, a product, or the whole organization. Organizational change is sometimes accompanied by the word, ‘development’, which is a process involving change. Process theory is an explanation of how and why and organizational elements change and develop. Theoretical explanations are useful for identifying the generative mechanisms that cause events to happen and the context in which they occur. It is important to mention here is that as Lois Wise puts, studies of change in organizations may take different approaches (Lois Wise, 2002, 556) According to Robbins, change involves four categories: structure, technology, physical setting, and people. Changing structure involves making an alteration in authority relations, coordination mechanisms, job design, or similar structural variables. Changing technology encompasses modifications in the way work is processed and in the methods and equipment used. Changing the physical setting covers altering the space and layout arrangements in the workplace. Changing people refers to change in employee attitudes, skills, expectations, perceptions, and/or behavior (Robbins, 2000, 543). 1 According to Rago, it is the premise of an increasing number of reform movements in both private and public sectors all over the world that the hearts and minds of staff need to be won over to a new attitude and style in order to secure new managerial techniques and for innovations to ‘‘take root’’ (Rago 1996). 228 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Four Types of Changes Daft’s strategic types of changes are similar to Robbins’ classification. Four strategic types characterize organizational change: products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Each of the areas are interdependent, a change in one may affect another. Organizations should focus on their unique configuration of these strategies for maximum impact upon their chosen markets (Daft, 2001). Technology changes are related to an organization’s production process, including its knowledge, skills, and experience base, which provide distinctive capability. It is expected that these changes are designed to make production more efficient or to produce more output. Using Internal Revenue Service e-files1 can be considered as one type of technology change. Product and service changes refer to the product or service outputs of an organization. New products include either small adaptations of same products or new product. For instance, Turkish Statistical Institute established a new statistical law,2 which has been prepared in compliance with the EU standards. With this law, personnel benefits and salary have been improved. Thus, this change provides better conditions for the employees, which can be considered as product and service changes. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the DHS is an example of this change. Daft explains that structure and system changes are usually top-down, that is, mandated by top management. On the other hand, product and technology changes may often come from the bottom up (Daft, 2001, 357). Management of culture is one of the most frequently discussed organizational concepts of the last two or three decades (Driscoll and Morris 2001). Culture changes are related to values, attitudes, expectations, beliefs and behavior of employees. Therefore, this change is related to mindset. Ates argues that the successful implementation of new programs and policies often requires not only changes in systems and procedures but also a change in the culture of the organization, the underlying values of an organization, and the way in which management reinforces those values. Culture colors the look, feel, and focus of management and service delivery (Ates, 2004, 34). For instance, entrepreneurship in the public sector is related to cultural change, “Entrepreneurship can be defined as ‘‘the process of creating value by bringing together a unique package of resources to exploit an opportunity’’ (Stevenson and Gumbert 1985, 85). Underlying entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviors are three key dimensions: innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness (Covin and Slevin 1989). Hence, these three variables—innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness can be considered as the cultural change. A government’s sending students to abroad can be expected to changes the organizational culture in the long term. From Theory to Practice: Organizing for Homeland Security The United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States federal government with the primary responsibilities of protecting the territory of the U.S. from terrorist attacks and responding to natural disasters. While the Department of Defense is charged with military actions abroad, the Department of Homeland Security works in the civilian sphere to protect the United States within, at, and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism. According to Raphael (2004), the creation of DHS constituted the biggest government reorganization in American history and the most substantial reorganization of federal agencies since the National Security Act of 1947, which placed the different military departments under a secretary of defense and created the National Security Council and Central Intelligence Agency. DHS constitutes the most diverse merger of federal functions and responsibilities, incorporating 22 government agencies under itself (Raphael, 2004, 176-177). Figure one shows these 22 government agencies. A DHS reorganization plan of November 25, 2002, sets out a blueprint for the new organization. Included are five directorates: (1) Border and Transportation Security; (2) Emergency Preparedness and Response; (3) Science and Technology; (4) Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection; and (5) Management. 1 http://www.irs.gov/efile/index.html?portlet=4 Turkish Statistical Law has been published in the Official Gazette numbered 25997 on 18th of November 2005 and entered into force on the same day. The new law has been adopted in accordance with our commitments on account of statistical system applied in EU countries. The new law has changed the name of our institute as Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) (http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?method=tarihce). 2 229 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks, President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) to coordinate "homeland security" efforts. In January 2003, the office was merged into the Department of Homeland Security and the White House Homeland Security Council, both of which were created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Council, similar in nature to the National Security Council, retains a policy coordination and advisory role and is led by the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security (http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nat_strat_hls.pdf). Original Agency (Department) The U.S. Customs Service (Treasury) Current Agency/Office U.S. Customs and Border Protection - inspection, border and ports of entry responsibilities U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement customs law enforcement responsibilities The Immigration and Naturalization Service (Justice) U.S. Customs and Border Protection - inspection functions and the U.S. Border Patrol U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement immigration law enforcement: detention and removal, intelligence, and investigations U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services adjudications and benefits programs The Federal Protective Service U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement The Transportation Security Administration Transportation Security Administration (Transportation) Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (Treasury) Federal Law Enforcement Training Center Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service U.S. Customs and Border Protection - agricultural (part)(Agriculture) imports and entry inspections Office for Domestic Preparedness (Justice) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA The Federal Emergency Management Agency Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Strategic National Stockpile and the National Disaster Returned to Health and Human Services, July, 2004 Medical System (HHS) Nuclear Incident Response Team (Energy) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA Domestic Emergency Support Teams (Justice) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA National Domestic Preparedness Office (FBI) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA CBRN Countermeasures Programs (Energy) Science & Technology Directorate Environmental Measurements Laboratory (Energy) Science & Technology Directorate National BW Defense Analysis Center (Defense) Science & Technology Directorate Plum Island Animal Disease Center (Agriculture) Science & Technology Directorate Federal Computer Incident Response Center (GSA) US-CERT, Office of Cybersecurity and Communications in the National Programs and Preparedness Directorate National Communications System (Defense) Office of Cybersecurity and Communications in the National Programs and Preparedness Directorate National Infrastructure Protection Center (FBI) Dispersed throughout the department, including Office of Operations Coordination and Office of Infrastructure Protection Energy Security and Assurance Program (Energy) Integrated into the Office of Infrastructure Protection U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Secret Service U.S. Secret Service Figure 1: Government Agencies which became under the DHS. 230 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Administrative Change in the DHS An organization’s structure is defined by how tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated. Change agents can alter one or more of the key elements in an organization’s design. For instance, departmental responsibilities can be combined, vertical layers removed, and spans of control widened to make the organization flatter and less bureaucratic. More rules and procedures can be implemented to increase standardization (Robbins, 2000, 543). For instance, when establishing a government agency or department (such as the DHS), the principal decides whether the organization is either a hierarchical or a network style; both of them are related to the organizational change. Theoretically the network style is considered for the DHS, practically the former is implemented. That means that the government is organized in terms of superior-subordinate relations, a chain of command that extends from the chief executive to the lowest level civil servants in the government. Similarly, oversight bodies such as Office of Management and Budget and the General Accountability Office in the U.S. federal government and the legislature exercise oversight through chains of command that are structured vertically through departments (Fountain, 8). Administrative change typically comes from a leader and/or the senior management. Most organizations in both the public and private sector are organized on a hierarchical basis, even if there is now a growing preference for relatively flat hierarchies (that is, few layers of management). Key policy decisions about the direction of the organization and its structure are made at the top of the hierarchy. That is where the power to change resides. Accordingly, it is commonplace, yet essential, to acknowledge that organizational reform requires strong and committed leadership and direction from the top. Although legitimacy, credibility, and trust are necessary factors for public organization, it is expected that public organizations administrative performance are also high. Perry believes that administrative performance involves the attainments of public organizations and institutions against goals established implicitly or explicitly by political, social, or organizational sources. Public administration has always been centrally concerned with one or more facets of administrative performance. The field's historical concerns about administrative performance can be summarized by four concepts each beginning with the letter "e", economy, efficiency, effectiveness, and equity (Perry, 1991, 12). Hence, it can be said that in public sector, not only equity, but also economy, efficiency, and effectiveness should be considered. However, it is widely accepted that these four “e”s did not considered when the DHS was established due to emergency situation. Implementation and Process of Change of the DHS 1) Incremental versus Radical Change The changes used to adapt to the environment can be evaluated according to scope – that is, the extent to which changes are incremental or radical for the organization. Exhibit 1 shows the differences between these two changes. Incremental change represents a series of continual progressions that maintain the organization’s general equilibrium and often affect only one organization part (Daft, 2001, 353). Generally, incremental change occurs through the established structure and management processes, although it may include technology and product change; it does not include cultural change. Radical change, on the other hand, breaks the frame of reference for the organization, often transforming the entire organization. Radical change involves the creation of a new structure and new management processes. The technology is likely to be breakthrough, and new products thereby created will establish new markets (Daft, 2001, 354). It is also expected that radical change is related to structural change in the short term and cultural change in the long term. When we look at establishing the DHS, it is very clear that this change was radical, which transform the entire organization, and tried to establish the new culture. For instance, during the creating of the DHS, new structure and management has been created, the paradigm was extra-ordinary, and the entire organization has been transformed. 2) Dual-core approach. When organizational change occurs, it may happen within the administrative or technical core functions. Each core has its set of employees, tasks, and environmental domain. Innovation and change can begin in either one. Administrative changes relate to the design and structure of the organization itself, including restructuring, downsizing, teams, information systems, and departmental groupings. Technology-based changes happen more frequently than administrative changes and fall under the hierarchical oversight of the administration (Daft, 2001). The dual-core approach to organizational change identifies the unique process associated with administrative changes (Daft, 1978). The administrative core responsibility encompasses control and coordination of the organization itself. The technical core transforms raw materials into organizational products and services. Daft summarizes findings 231 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo from research that indicate a mechanistic organization structure is best fitted for frequent administrative changes. Successful administrative changes usually occur in organizations that have a large administrative ratio, are larger in size, and are centralized and formalized (i.e., bureaucratic). The reason is the top-down flow of control in response to changes in the external environment. It can be said that the creation of DHS is an example of an administrative structure. By contrast, an organization with an organic structure, in which lower-level employees have more freedom and autonomy, may resist top down directives. An organic structure is much more conducive to technical changes. These are summarized in Exhibit 2. Incremental vs. Radical Change Incremental Change Radical Change Continuous progression Paradigm-breaking burst Affect organizational part Transform entire organization Through normal structure and management processes Create new structure and management Technology improvements Breakthrough technology Product improvement New products, new markets . Exhibit 1 Sources: Based on Alan D. Meyer, James B. Goes, and Geoffrey R. Brooks, “Organizations in Disequilibrium: Environmental Jolts and Industry Revolutions,” in George Huber and William H. Glick, eds., Organizational Change and Redesign (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 66-111; and Harry S. Dent, Jr., “Growth through New Product Development,” Small Business Reports (November 1990): 30-40; Daft, 2001, 354) Dual-Core Approach to Organization Change Type of Innovation Desired Administrative Structure Administrative Core Technical Core Direction of Change: Top-Down Examples of Change: Strategy Downsizing Structure Best Organizational Design for Change: Mechanistic Exhibit 2: Type of Innovation Desired. Daft, 2001. 232 Technology Bottom-Up Production techniques Workflow Organic �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A change in administration such as downsizing usually has the most far-reaching impact on an organization. In drastic situations, where the change results in elimination or creation of a management level, a consequence is the creation of a new organization chart with new lines of reporting and possibly new responsibilities for individuals and their departments as seen in the creation of the DHS. Induced organizational chart changes may occur for strategic purposes, such as seeking new markets, changes in the environment, or changes in client or customer. 3) Administrative Structure and Core After the September 11, 2001 attaches, establishing the DHS was not surprising because environmental influences play significant roles in institutionalizing new organizations. As Hall suggests, organizations do not always try to maximize effectiveness. Environmental and technological variations affect the internal characteristics of organizations (Hall, 1972, 65). When looking at the homeland security system, efficiency is not a priority; the priority is to prevent attacks. In public sector, since there is no clear market as the private sector, the market can be considered as an international environment and/or all public. In other words, public organizations have very different purpose than their private counterparts. As Fountain believes, governmental organizations are not simply technical structures formed to produce outputs; they are institutions that confer legitimacy, credibility, and trust within society. They do not and cannot “go out of business” if they fail to perform well. They are not market-based entities (Fountain, 8). Thus, during the creating of the DHS, after the September 11, the conditions (legitimacy, credibility, trust) are well for to creating this department. As DiMaggio and Powell and then Wise clearly stated, leaders will seek to overcome the liability of newness by imitating established practices within the field. This is particularly true for new organizations, which could serve as sources of innovation and variation (DiMaggio and Powell 1983). In the federal government, this often means some hierarchical design (Wise, 2002a, 132). Conclusion Public organizations always need to make changes in their strategies and structures; otherwise they cannot be sustainable and effective. Meaningful change in public organizations requires that managers exert a concerted effort to implement it successfully (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006, 6). Similarly, change in response to environmental shifts is necessary in order to maintain strategic fit and remain competitive (Andrews, 1971). As seen the new public management and administrative reforms, for instance the DHS, public organizations need to make radical changes in technology, services, culture and strategies in order to adapt to new competitive demands. It has been widely accepted that networks and horizontal structures are more important than vertical and hierarchical structures. Still, many organizations, especially military organizations are highly hierarchical. Thus, the DHS tends to be more hierarchical due to its structure. The environment for U.S. homeland security could hardly be characterized as stable. As the president— George W. Bush—said, just considering international terrorist organizations, dozens of such organizations exist and are capable of doing harm to the United States. In addition, some of these organizations—such as the preeminent foe at the moment, al Qaeda—are very complex and highly differentiated. In fact, reports suggest that al Qaeda does not operate as an organization, but rather as an organizational network. Rather than a single, hierarchically integrated organization, al Qaeda is a loosely coupled collection of terrorist organizations that communicate and cooperate for actions against mutually identified targets of opportunity. This makes it—or rather, those—much more difficult to identify and track, much less counteract. In addition, these organizations do not act according to standard operating procedures, nor do they attack a standard set of targets or follow any set timetable. Also, this is but one terrorist network. It should be expected that other terrorist organizations will be represented by other organizational configurations. Thus, homeland security confronts an organizational field of terrorist organizations of considerable variation and complexity (Wise, 2002a, 132). One imperative of organizing for homeland security may be developing the capacity for organizations to engage in learning in complex, unstable environments. Nonetheless, another imperative is for new or reorganized organizations to fit into the federal governmental structure. That is, the Constitution and laws constitute organizational imperatives that the organization of homeland security will have to confront (Wise, 2002a, 134). As Vasu suggests, organizational change actions start with diagnosis, but managing change is a snowballing process (Vasu et al, 1998, 280). References Andrews, K. R. (1971). The Concept of Corporate Strategy. New York: Dow Jones-Irwin. 233 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ates, Hamza. (2004). Management as an Agent of Cultural Change in the Turkish Public Sector. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 14 (1), 33–58. Berman, Evan, and Xiao Hu Wang. (2000). Performance Measurement in U.S. Counties: Capacity for Reform. Public Administration Review 60: 409-20. Brudney, Jeffrey L., and Deil S. Wright. (2002). 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Public Administration Review, 62 (5): 555-567. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10968&page=179 http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nat_strat_hls.pdf http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/dhs-org-chart-2003.pdf http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/history/editorial_0133.shtm http://www.irs.gov/efile/index.html?portlet=4 http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?metod=tarihce http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/search/allsearch?mode=quicksearch&products=journal&WISsearch2=15406210&WISindexid2=issn&contentTitle=Public+Administration+Review&contextLink=blah&contentOID=118484994&WIS search1=charles+r.+wise&WISindexid1=WISauthor&articleGo.x=13&articleGo.y=7 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118944767/PDFSTART 235 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 206 Title A name given to the resource Strategy and Structural Change: The Lessons from the Department of Homeland Security Author Author DEMiRCiOĞLU, Mehmet Akif Abstract A summary of the resource. Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration. There are four types of organizational change: Products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in the United States is an example of this change. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/59e3a327d891f91708746832c9cbb900.pdf beba306fa9c687fb9ecfa43904e00781 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Tax-House Unit System and the Collection of Ottoman Extra-Ordinary Taxes, c. 1600-1700♣ Süleyman DEMĐRCĐ Assoc. Professor, Chair/Lecturer in Early Modern Ottoman Studies Erciyes University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of History 38039 Kayseri-TURKEY sdemirci@erciyes.edu.tr Abstract: Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. This paper will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. Keywords: Ottoman economy, taxation, tax collection, tax house units The extra-ordinary levies were among the most important of the regular sources of government revenue in the Ottoman empire during the seventeenth century, but there has been relatively little study of them. Originating in the late fifteenth century as irregular imposts levied at times of military need, it is clear that by the first quarter of the seventeenth century these levies had become virtually annual levies throughout the majority of the Rumelian and Anatolian provinces. Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. In this paper we will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. It is important to determine how many real households (gerçekhâne) constituted one tax-unit (avârizhâne). The term avârizhâne denotes an administratively-defined 'tax household' or 'tax house unit'. The usually accepted generalisation for the empire as a whole, that one tax-unit/avârizhâne could be made up of between 3 and 15 real households (gerçekhâne), is too broad to be of much practical value. The number of gerçekhânes within an avârizhâne varied considerably from place to place and from region to region. It is clear from the archival documents consulted, that the number of real households/gerçekhânes was determined by the wealth of the taxpayers within the region for which the survey was carried out. The archival document examined shows that the final registration status of tax-payers were subject to the central government's final approval as the end-product of a process of negotiation. It is clear that one tax-unit (avârizhâne) was clearly made up of one real households (gerçekhâne) in the 16th-century. Similarly, Bernard Lewis found the word avârizhâne in his documents on sixteenth-century Palestine to be equivalent to one gerçekhâne(see Demirci 2006). However, it is not clear from the available sources, when the classical households were no longer used for avârizhâne tax assessment purposes and when the change occurred to avârizhânes counting of several gerçekhânes. The tax registers from the turn of the sixteenth century show that avârizhânes were by then composed of a number of gerçekhânes. A record of Balıkesir in 1603, indicates the number of individuals or gerçekhânes in one tax-unit (avârizhâne), prescribing that three married men and six bachelors constituted one tax-unit (avârizhâne)(Darling 1996& Akdağ 1950). An entry relating to Alaiye shows that one tax-unit (avârizhâne), was made up of three real household/gerçekhâne in 1606 (Güçer 1964), while Muslims settling in Cyprus in 1606 were counted as five nefers per tax-unit/avârızhâne. Here, nefer clearly does mean heads of household. For example, entries in MM 2576 Maliye Ahkam register /Finans Registers, dating from 1633-1640, reveals that taxunit/avârizhâne assessment in both Rumeli and Anadolu, was figured at an even 5 nefers per tax-unit/ avârizhâne, except that of Dimetoka where it was placed at 7 nefers per hâne and Beyşehir at 3 nefers per taxunit/avârizhâne (see Darling 1996&Demirci 2006) ♣ Author’s note: I would like to take this opportunity to thank Erciyes University for the finacial support provided to me towards my treval expences in order to participate in this scholary event. 446 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Considering the changes in the number of gerçekhânes within one tax-unit/avârizhâne during the 16th and early 17th centuries one therefore could suggest that in various parts of the empire one avârızhâne was composed of at least around 3 to 5 gerçekhâne at the beginning of the seventeenth century, while between 1610 and 1650, the number of gerçekhânes in one avârizhâne ranged more widely, from 3 to 15. This is, however, based only on a small sample of available material. The existence of these carefully considered variations in the nefer/avârizhâne ratio in table 1 show the differentiation principle at work in the mid-17th century. It is clear evidence of extreme flexibility in graduated allocations as well as the functioning of the avârizhâne-tax-unit system. The detailed tax registers (mufassal avâriz defter) shows that the nefer/avârizhâne ratio was set at kaza level. It is clear from material used that most tax-payers were organised into particular avârizhâne groups (Demirci 2009). The Collection Procedure This section considers how tax collection proceeded, how the collectors were required to work with provincial kadıs and other prominent local leaders, and the various stages of performing the collection (See Demirci 2005). The main source of evidence are the sicils /court records of Kayseri, which contain a number of imperial decrees relating to the collection of these taxes, and to complaints about problems of payment, extortion and malpractice. From these imperial decrees we are able to explain, to a certain degree, how the tax (avâriz) collection was made in the Ottoman Empire. Appointing the Collector Evidence on the appointment and verification of a tax collector appears in the Kayseri sicil for 1626. Imperial order regarding the bedel-i nüzul collection; To the kadıs of sub-province of Niğde (Niğde livası) when my sublime firman arrives, let it be known that, the bedel-i nüzul substitute in the year 1036/1626 for each avârizhânes in the districts of Niğde livasi is to be collected at the rate of 600 akçes by Cafer Mustafa, from 209 standing cavalry regiment of ulufeciyan-i yemen, in accordance with sealed and stamped register in his hand. … when my noble command arrives, you should act in accordance with the firman issued for this matter, and the bedel-i nüzul in those districts for the year should be collected by my servant (Cafer Mustafa) at 600 akçes from each avârizhânes in accordance with the beratlu and sealed mevkufat register (avârizhâne defteri). The record for this matter should be kept in a register and that …you shall act justly in this matter and not let anything be demanded contrary to my firman and the register. You should know this and trust in the Noble Tuğra … Written on 9 July 1036/1626." (See Gündüz 1995, p. 811-812). This entry shows that the collector was appointed centrally, in Đstanbul, to serve for bedel-i nüzul collection in all the kazas within the liva of Niğde. The liva was the standard collection unit, with collectors usually appointed to most, if not all, the livas in a province for a given year. The rate per avârizhâne is clearly stated to be 600 akçes. Kadıs are instructed to assist the named collector, and to see that no malpractice occurs. Personal information was also given in this decree explaining who the collector was, i.e. Cafer Mustafa, for which year the levy was about to be collected, and the actual rate that was set by the central government. Before setting off from Đstanbul Cafer Mustafa was given an official order, emr, to prove his status, and a copy of the avârizhâne tax registers for the liva, listing all the taxable population liable for avâriz levies, to enable him to collect the right amount of money set for each tax-unit / avârizhâne in the areas concerned. Archival evidence shows that the extra-ordinary (avâriz) levies’ collection was made in the following stages: • The selection of the collectors. It was the central government's job to select the potential collector from variety of people. The available information on avâriz and nüzul collectors in both avâriz defters and sicils used in this study do not indicate how collection appointees were selected. • An order was issued, and sent to the local area where the collection was about to be made. • A copy of the order was given to the actual collector in order to verify his position as tax collector to the kadıs of the area and other officials. • Then the named collector carried out the collection in accordance with this emr and the avârizhâne register, in accordance with the actual rate set for each avârizhâne. • In case of any dispute or complaint regarding the collection, written evidence was needed. • Once the collection was made then the collector of the levies reported the money collected to the local kadı who issued a certificate stating the amount of money collected and handed it over to the collector (more on this see Demirci 2005). The following discussion raises further matters of detail relating to these various stages. 447 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Collection How was the money actually collected and handed over to the collectors? Did collectors collect separately from each avârizhâne in a karye or mahalle, or did they expect to collect the full total for a given village or mahalle from a headman or another leading person who had previously collected it from the others? Was one person responsible for collecting the cash ready for the official avariz collector? To answer all these questions from the registers available is very difficult, because the central government's tax records stop at the point when the tax collector is sent out and begin again when he returns, or sends back money or communications. It is possible, however, that the collection process within a village, a mahalle, or kaza varied according to the nature of the community. That is, whether or not it was religiously homogeneous, whether the people shared a common lifestyle or a way of living etc. A homogenous community would be more likely to be collected as a unit, whereas if it were diverse religiously, ethnically, or in some other way, the different groups might be treated separately. For example, in the very beginning of the sixteenth century, the tax collectors caused some inconvenience to the non-Muslim leaders during the collection of these levies in Ottoman Rumelia, which resulted in complaints to the central government. In response to this, therefore, an imperial decree, dated 1501, was sent both to the sancak beyi of Avlonya and the kadı of Berat ordering them that it was the kethüda's (steward, agent) duty to assist the collectors. Collectors involved in certain types of levies i.e. avâriz, nüzul and cizye should work in association with the kethüda. According to this particular imperial order he, not the religious leaders, was the person to deal with any inquiry regarding the collection of these levies in the areas concerned. "A decree to be written to sub-province Governor of Avlonya and the kadı of Berat, It is heard that in these days those who came for avariz or the poll-tax collectors (haracci), or some other services, asking the priests to help them with tax collecting and treating them badly. In fact, it was kethüdas’ (“steward, agent”) responsibility to assist the tax collectors not the priests’. In that case, I have ordered that I give no approval to any transgression or cruelty to them, and so long as they pay their share of poll-tax, I urge you not let anything be demanded contrary to the regulation (kanun). You should know this. Written in the first ten days of June 1501 (see Şahin- Emecen 1994, p. 63). From this it appears that, from the earliest period of the Ottoman taxation system, the government sought to have someone in each village, or mahalle (city quarter), responsible for assisting the tax collector when required. In the seventeenth century, it is quite possible that one person from each avârizhâne unit in the area was kept responsible for the collection of avâriz by the kethüda. Having said that, however, the entries regarding complaints and corruption in the system in Kayseri court records suggest that the villagers acted as a group in relation to the number of avârizhânes assessed for the entire village, and that therefore there may also have been some community responsibility involved in raising and handing over the avâriz money. One example states: "We demand avâriz taxes which he refuses to pay [...]". The complainants here are asking the kadı to help them get someone to pay their share, who had refused to do so. It is not clear from the documents used so far who was included in such a grouping of people locally responsible for pre-collection of avâriz taxes. It may have consisted of the elders in a mahalle or karye (village), the kethüda, the kadı or his deputy (naib), as the actual collector etc. Collection would not necessarily have been from the head of a gerçekhâne (real household), or from those grouped in a simple avârizhâne, but would most likely to have been undertaken by a person or persons acting as representative(s) of the group of avârizhânes in that particular mahalle or village. Information in an imperial order of 1640 regarding an avârizhâne survey in Menteşe and Suğla livasi in western Anatolia, sheds more light on the precedure for carying out a new avâriz survey, suggesting that the surveyor was instructed to work closely with local people to gain the most accurate information possible.1 This paper has focussed on the procedure for actual collection of certain levies during the seventeenth century as seen in the most relevant archival documents. The probable involvement of local assessors and prior collection systems is of particular interest in the study of Ottoman administrative practices and may contribute to knowledge of social relations in provincial localities (more on this see Demirci 2009). References Akdağ, M., (1950) "Osmanlı Đmparatorluğunun Kuruluşu ve Đnkişafi Devrinde Türkiyenin Đktisâdi Vaziyeti", Belleten 14. Darling, L., (1996) Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire 1560-1660, New York. Demirci, S., (2009). The Functioning of Ottoman avâriz taxation: an aspect of the relationships between centre and periphery, The Isıspress, Đstanbul. 1 KK2576 Maliye Ahkam Defteri (1043-49/1633-40), pp. 47-49. 448 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Demirci, S.,(2006). “Demography And History: The Value of The Avârizhâne Registers For Demographic Research: A Case Study of The Ottoman Sub-Provinces of Konya, Kayseri And Niğde, C.1620s-1700”, Turcica 38, 181-211. Demirci, S., (2006). “Avâriz and Nüzul Levies in the Ottoman Empire: A Case Study of the Province of Karaman, 1620s-1700” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 70/258 , 563-590. Demirci, S., (2005). "Collectors of avâriz and nüzul levies in the Ottoman Empire. A case study of the province of Karaman, 1621-1700", ” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 69/255, 539-565. Demirci, S., (2005). “Collection of avâriz and nüzul levies in the Ottoman Empire, 1620- 1700”, ” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 69/256, 897-912. Emecen, F., (1982). “Kayacik Kazasi Avariz Defteri”, Tarih Enstitüsü Dergisi, , 12, Đstanbul, Güçer, L., (1964) Osmanli Đmparatorluğunda Hububat Meselesi ve Hububattan Alınan Vegiler, Đstanbul Universitesi Đktisat Fakültesi Yayını, Đstanbul. Gündüz, A., (1995). 27/3 Numaralı Kayseri Şer'iyye Sicili 1035/36-1625/26, Unpublished MA Thesis, Erciyes University, Kayseri. Đlhan Şahin- Emecen Feridun (1994), Osmanlılarda Divân-Bürokrasi-Ahkâm: II. Bâyezid Dönemine Ait 906/1501 Tarihli Ahkâm Defteri, Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, Đstanbul. Table 1: The number of nefers in one tax-unit/avârizhâne in different locations within the Ottoman Empire, c. 1640s The place Number of nefers in one avârizhâne/ tax-unit Konya kazası 11 Eskiil ve Akcaşehir kazası 12 11 Insuyu kazası Kureyş mea Berendi 12 Belviran kazası 11 14.5 Gaferyad kazası Larende kazası 14 Aladağ kazası 12.5 Pirluganda kazası 10.5 Beyşehir kazası 12 Seydişehir kazası 12 Kaşaklu kazası 10.5 Bozkır kazası 11.5 Kucu-i kebir 11 Kırili kazası 11.5 Akşehir kazası 13 Ishaklu kazası 9 Ilgun kazası 12 Aksaray kazası 11 Eyübili kazası 8 Niğde kazası 10 Ürgüb kazası 10 Anduğu kazası 14 Develü kazası 9 Çamardı kazası 10 449 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 290 Title A name given to the resource Tax-House Unit System and the Collection of Ottoman Extra-Ordinary Taxes, c. 1600-1700 Author Author DEMiRCi, Süleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. This paper will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/566242db3d2b1a7ebf34e1abc4bf63a4.pdf b720b5256936eb9eb33b782793ff579b PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Development of Aquaculture in Turkey and Its Constraints Meh met Ali Canyurt m.ali.canyurt@ege.edu.tr Yusuf Guner Erol Toksen Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Aquaculture, Izmir, Turkey Abstract: Aquaculture means the farming of aquatic animals and plants. Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 136 000 tonnes in 2007. Keywords: Sustainable Development, Aquaculture, Fish Farming, Turkey Introduction The historic of aquaculture is very old. The first records of aquaculture activities in 2500 BC can be found inthetomb of Aktihep during the ancient Egyptian civilisation.Inthe Etruscan Culturein Italythe earliest marine farms date back to 6th century BC. The China is the first country in Asia where aquaculture has been started during the dynasty of W hen Fang (1135-1122 BC). Fan Li wrote Classic of Fish Farming atthe years of 460 BC in China (Canyurt 2005). Marine and inland waterresources provide an important source of protein for human nutrition. Because ofthisreason fish farming inthe worldis a growing industry in recent years. According to the FAO statisticsthe world aquaculture production by inland and marine waters grows from 24.456.561 tonnes in 1993 to 51.385.912 tonnesin 2002. The total world fisheries production (capture and aquaculture)is 143.647.650 tonnes and aquatic plant production is 15.075.612.tonnes in 2006. The aquaculture sector in Turkey is facing some constraints, such as: the complexity of licensing procedures, site selection problems,the complexity of project preparation and application, problems with some other sectors,like tourism, protected areas and navigations, high prices of inputs and difficulties in supplying, disease risk with imported eggs and fry, marketing and quality control problems, organization and governance (Canyurt at al. 2003; Canyurt2005). Development of Aquaculture in Turkey Numerous rivers drain Turkey’s plateaus and mountains. The rivers are usually swift flowing and relatively short. A number of rivers do not flow during the dry summer. Some rivers are, however, important 45 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo sources of hydroelectric power and water forirrigation. The Kızılırmak (1,150 km/715 mi long), is the longest river flowing entirely within Turkey. The Sakarya River and the Kızılırmak flow into the Black Sea. Gediz and Büyükmenderes (ancient Meanderes) in Aegean rigion, the Ceyhan and Seyhan rivers in south flow from the Taurus Mountains to the Mediterranean. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which flow southeastthrough Syria and Iraq to the Persian Gulf are important riversin Turkey. Production fields Number Surface Area (Ha) Length (Km) Natural Lakes 200 906.118 - Dam Lakes 193 342.377 - Ponds (Artificial Lakes) 750 15.500 - Rivers and streams 33 - 177.714 Seas (Coastal Strips) - 24.607.200 8.333 TOTAL 25.871.195 Table 1: Water Capacity of Turkey for Aquaculture (TUIK 2007) Years Product. (Ton) Export (Tons) Đmport (Tons) Domestic consump. (Tons) Processed (fish meal and oil factories) (Tons) Not processed or consumed (Tons) Consump. per capita (kg/year) 1997 500 260 18 402 39 829 490 339 21 000 10 348 7.663 1998 513 900 11 558 31 417 528 935 30 000 4.824 8.119 1999 636 824 15 955 39 552 503 249 150 000 7.172 7.590 2000 582 376 14 533 44 230 538 764 71 000 2.309 7.985 2001 594 977 18 978 12 971 517 832 62 755 8.383 7.547 2002 627 847 26 860 22 532 466 289 156 000 1.230 6.697 2003 587 715 29 937 45 606 470 131 120 000 13.253 6.649 2004 644 492 32 804 57 694 555 859 105 000 8.523 7.812 2005 544 773 37 655 47 676 520 985 30 000 3.809 7.229 2006 661 991 41 973 53 563 597 738 60 000 15.843 8.191 2007 772 323 47 214 58 022 604 695 170 000 8.436 8.567 Table 2: Production, export,import and consumption of fishery products (TUIK 2007) 46 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The largestlake in Turkey isVan Gölü (Lake Van),located in eastern Anatolia. The water of Van Gölü is saline and contains soda. A member of the Cyprinidae family,the Chalcalburnus tarichiis a fish species that only inhabitsthe Lake Van Basin. The Lake Van isthe biggest soda lake in the world, Lake Tuz islocated near the center of the Anatolian Plateau. Freshwater lakes include Beyşehir, Eğridir and Burdur in the southwest (Arabacı &Sarı 2004). Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 naturallakes, about 750 artificiallakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips (Tab. 1). Some lagoons covering of 70.000 hectaresin Aegean and Mediterranean coastalstrips are very suitable for aquaculture Another aquaculture potential will be obtained with the South East Anatolia Project (GAP) in the lower Euphrates River and Tigris River basins. This projectisthe largestregional development projectin Turkey, and one of the largest in the world, integrating development of irrigated agriculture and agro-industry, supporting services,including communications, health and education (Canyurt 2006). The project area covers 74.000 km2 that correspond to 9.2 % of the total surface area of Turkey. About 224.000 ha of water surface will be obtained atthe end of this project;this will be a big aquaculture production potentialforthe country. Situation of Aquaculture in Turkey Aquaculture production, exportation,importation and consumption: According to TUIK data (2007), Turkey produces 772.323 tonnes, exports 47.214 tonnes and imports 58.022 tonnes of fish and fisheries products. The amount of non-food usage is 170.000 tonnes that is used for feed and oil industry. The population of the country is 68.279.000 tonnes and consumption per capita is 8.6 kg/year (TUIK 2007). All activities in fisheries and aquaculture in Turkey are based on the Water Products Law No. 1380, enacted in 1971 (Canyurt 1996, Canyurt and Gökoğlu 1997). The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs is responsible for all kind of aquaculture activities and fisheries in the country (Deniz 2007). The Ministry undertakes its duties in aquaculture and fisheries management through four General Directorates and as well as 81 Provincial Directorates. During 1980’s significant effort was devoted to preparing laws which are related to the management of coastal and inland water sources. Aquaculture has been included in the encouragement decree published by governments and the Agriculture Bank of Turkey applied interest rates to support and to encourage investments in aquaculture. In addition to encouragement measures and financial support of the Governments, the Universities attach great importance to the research activities and education of engineers and technicians in 17 Faculties of Fish Products and 6 Professional Colleges and Fisheries Department expanded all ofthe country.. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp) (Tab. 3) (Canyurt, 2005). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily overthe years from 5.782 tonnesin 1990 to 63.000 tonnesin 1999 and to 139.873 tonnes in 2007 (Tab. 3). The aquaculture production in inland water is 59 033 tonnes, but it reaches 80 840 tonnes in marine watersin 2007. Aquaculture production (Tons) 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 39 674 543 43 432 683 48 033 571 56 026 668 58 433 600 Inland water Trout Carp Marine water 47 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Trout Sea bream Sea bass Mussel Other 1 194 1 650 1 249 1 633 16 735 20 435 27 634 28 463 20 982 26 297 37 290 38 408 815 1 513 1 500 1 545 2 000 2 200 Table 3: Aquaculture Production in Turkey (2003-2007),(TUIK 2 740 33 500 41 900 1 100 1 600 2007) The numbers of aquatic farms are shown in Table 4. There are 1.261 farms in inland water producing approximately 55 425 tonnes of fresh water fish species and 120 farms producing 160 000 000 fish eggs, 324 farms at sea producing 91.815 tonnes of sea fish species, mainly Gilthead sea bream and European sea bass and 348 000 000 fish eggs (Deniz 2007). Fish Species Trout Com mon carp Trout Hatchery Sea bass and Sea bream Troutin sea cages Trout and sea bass BluefinTuna Sea bass,sea bream and other species hatchery Mediterranean mussel Number of Farms 1 112 29 120 286 6 6 6 17 Capacity (t/year) 53 020 2 405 160 000 000 egs 80 509 2 250 1 160 6 300 348 000 000 3 1 596 TOTAL Table 4: Number of Licensed Aquaculture Farms and Capacities (Deniz 2007) Constraints of Sustainable Aquaculture in Turkey The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) is the main organization responsible for fisheries including aquaculture administration, regulation, protection, promotion and technical assistance. The Directorate General for Agriculture Production and Development of MARA is the responsable authority for development and management of aquaculture Deniz 2007). There are also a number of other ministries and institutions with a role in fisheries and aquaculture development in Turkey. The Undersecretariat of Treasure and Foreign Trade of the Prime Ministry, which regulates fish import and export, State Planning Organization which formulate policy and determines the development targets for the fisheries and aquaculture sector, and the Agriculture Bank through which fisheries and aquaculture credits are channelled (Canyurt & Gökoğlu 1997 and FAO 2008). According to Fisheries Law numbered 1380 the procedures and principles related to aquaculture are determined by the Aquaculture Regulation. This regulation sets out the methods for site selection for farms, application of the projects, giving technical supports and surveying environmentalimpacts (Deniz2007). Especially marine aquaculture systems are criticised for their environmental and ecological impacts. The extensive and semi intensive farming methods have less environmental impacts than intensive aquaculture (Basurco & Lovatelli2004; Canyurt 1996).Itis necessaryto supportthe development of sustainable aquaculture. For this purpose European Com mission (2002)designed a strategy document forthe sustainable development of aquaculture in Europe. As a candidate country to the European Com munity, Turkey takes all the measures to respect and to adopt the rules designed by the European Com mission. Fisheries and Aquaculture file is one of the 31 files have been discussed with Com mission in 2005. The importance of aquaculture has been recognized by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and by the private sectorin collaboration with the Universities. The development of aquacultureis very importantin Turkey because it provides jobs. The aquaculture sectorin Turkey isfacing some constraints,such as: -The complexity oflicensing procedures, 48 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -Site selection problems, -The complexity of project preparation and application, -Problems with some other sectors,like tourism, protected areas and navigations, -High prices ofinputs and difficultiesin supplying, -Disease risk with imported eggs and fry, -Marketing and quality control problems, -Lack of organization ofthe sector can be cited as major constraints of aquaculture in Turkey to be solved. For this purpose a research project has been conducted by M A R A and TUBITAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) to evaluate the impacts of fish farms on the aquatic environment, This research program has been leaded in Izmir, Mugla, Aydın and Ordu. In conclusion of this study we can say that the sustainable development of aquaculture is very important economically and environmentally. We can consider that the impact of fish farms depends on the biological activities ofthe species produced and managementtechniques used. The oxygen consumption,the metabolism of nitrogen and phosphorous and chemicals used for different deseases are some factors determining thisimpact on the environment. The constraints faced in sustainable aquaculture in Turkey have to be examined and discussed. References Arabaci M, & Sari M (2004). Induction of ovulation in endemic pearl mullet (Chalcalburnus tarichi), living in the highly alkaline Lake Van, using GnRHa([D-Ser(tBu)6, Pro9-Net]-GnRH) combined with haloperidol. Aquaculture 238:529–535. Basurco, B.,& Lovatellı, A., (2004). The Aquaculture Situation in the Mediterranean Sea. Prediction for The Future. The International Conference on the Sustainable Development of the Mediterranean and Black Sea Environment. Available at: http://www.iasonnet.gr, Canyurt, M.A., (1996). Interaction Between Aquaculture and Environment. Symposium on Agriculture and Environment Interactions, Sustainable Use of Natural Resources, 13-15 May 1996, Mersin. (in tr) Canyurt, M.A.,& Gökoğlu, M., (1997). Aquaculture in Turkey. International Workshop in Intensive Aquaculture Farming. March-1997, Cinadco, Shefayim, Israel. Canyurt, M. A., Akhan, S., Takma, Ç.,( 2003). A Study on Short Term Storage of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum,1792) Milt. E.U. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences , 20 (3-4):537-542 ( in tr). Canyurt M.A., (2005). The Development of Aquaculture in Turkey. Research for Rural Development 2005. 11 International Scientific Conference Proceedings, Latvia University of Agriculture, 260p: 19-22., Jelgava, Latvia Canyurt, M. A., 2006. The Importance of Aquaculture in The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) in Turkey. 12. International Scientific Conference- Research For Rural Development 2006. Latvia University of Agriculture, 324p: 12-16, Jelgava, Latvia. Commission of the European Communities, (2002). Communication from the Commission to the Council and European Parliament. A Strategy for the Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture. COM-2002-511, Bruxelles. Deniz, H. (2007) Aquaculture development in Turkey, Aquaculture and Fisheries Infoday and Networking Event, 14-15 November 2007, Brussels. Available at: http://www.fp7.org.tr/tubitak_content_files/268/r_d_news/Profiles_Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Rural_Affairs_Hayri_Deni z.pdf. 12.03.2009. FAO, (2008). Profile de la Peche. Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation et l’agriculture. The Republic of Turkey. FID/CP/TUR. Available at www.fao.org (12.05.2009). Ministry of Agriculture, Country Note on National Fisheries Management Systems–Turkey. Available at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/29/34431494.pdf. TUIK (2007). Fisheries statistics 2007, Aquaculture production. Turkish Statistics Instuition: Available at http://www.tuik.gov.tr/balikcilikdagitimapp/balikcilik.zul, 26.02.2009. 49 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 469 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Development of Aquaculture in Turkey and Its Constraints Author Author Canyurt, Mehmet Ali Guner, Yusuf Toksen, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. Aquaculture means the farming of aquatic animals and plants. Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 136 000 tonnes in 2007. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92f602b7251cd0df0f81445fe7f82b00.pdf ebb7aaca71475fab4e8ff383ad15843a PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Consciousness of Environment in Turkey M urat Cankurt Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept of Agricultural Economics,Đzmir, Turkey murat.cankurt@ege.edu.tr Bulent Miran Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept of Agricultural Economics,Đzmir, Turkey Harun Hurma Namık Kemal University, Agricultural Faculty Dept of Agricultural Economics, Tekirdağ, Turkey Abstract: Environmental issue has attracted attentions as one of the most important issues of the last century. This problem is a phenomena that threat to sustainable life. Effective solution of this issue depends on conscious and awareness of people about environmental matters. The main purpose of this study is to determine the level of awareness and attitudes to environmental issues in Turkey. The analysis was made to see the effects of age, gender, education and revenue on the awareness and attitudes to environmental pollution. Data were collected from 7 regions and 25 cities via personal interview. Water, air, soil, image and general pollution are the criteria on which awareness and attitudes were evaluated in the study. Air and water pollutions appear more significant than the others. It is determined that the media is the best way of disseminating the information regarding environmental education more efficiently. Keywords: Environmental issues, environmental conscious, Turkey. Introduction Environment,they alllivelives of continuing and their mutualinteraction as physical,biological,social, economic and cultural surroundings are defined as. (Anonymous 2007). Lives to survive, the environment is necessary to have the appropriate conditions. Environment is bring together, such as chaos and balance of two elements opposite to each other, a perfect system. Impairment of this system leads to the emergence of environmental problems. Although many sources of this environmental problem, unfortunately, people is the mostimportant one. After the industrial revolution, environmental problems are directly or indirectly have increased with the technologic development. While, developing industry was leading to air and water pollution, intensive agriculture led to pollution of soil and food, urbanization led to soil,air,rivers and sea pollutions. The pollution brought many importantissues. The environment which is living space of mankind has become threat for them more and more. W hen pollution issues occurred, human noticed that have to be more sensitivetothe environment. Then some methods has been identified for elimination of environmental pollution. The methods used for elimination of environmental pollution are high technological and quite expensive (Đleri 1998). As for the solution of environmental problems of the society to be educated is both high-efficiency and low cost method. Environmental awareness is the most important step to solve environmental pollution problems. Individuals alone can have environmental awareness. However, this is not enough. For radical solutions, individual sensitivity must be converted into social sensitivity. Then sensitivities must be converted actions. Thus, the developed solutions can be more effective for environmental pollution (Cankurt et al. 2008). If people have had environmentalsensitivitylong before,expensive methods would not have be needed. "Never, It is not too late" with the principle, thinking aboutthe future, it will be necessary to begin work for social environmental sensitivity. In this context,the first step, should be to determine the current situation. We have two questions. "What is our level of social sensitivity for environment?" and "How can we move to this sensitivity?". Answers to the questions are the mostimportantstarting point of environmental solutions. This study deals withthe firststage ofthe solution model of environmentalissues.Inthe resolution of a problem is very important to determine of the current situation. Thus, the source of the problem and solution methods can be determined. The second phase isto provide environmental education to society with appropriate training techniques for the purpose. Now then, environmental sensitivity and environmental awareness will be provided. Finally, environmentalissues will be solved with society that has environmentalawareness.(Fig. 1). 280 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. Stages of solving environmental problems As known that society consists ofindividuals.Ifindividual's environmental awareness is improved, the community's environmental awareness is improved. With reduce environmental pollution, ifthe environmental balance is rightto establish their own facilities can renew itself again (Doğan 2003). Otherwise,the results may ocur as natural structure and composition corruption and negatively affected people (Kızılaslan and Kızılaslan 2005). The main objectives ofthis study; • To reveal awareness and consciousness level of environmental pollution, • To determine people behavior of the environmental pollution, • To put forward to whatthey are doing in orderto solve environmentalissues, • To examine that how we can improve the environmental consciousness, In additionalthattryto find to cooperation with associations,foundations and corporations,the decision makers in state government for solving the environmentalissues. Inthe frame ofthe study,it was researched thatindividual consciousness and the level of consciousness into behaviortaken accountinto water, air,soil, noise and general environmental pollution criteria (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Environmental pollution criteria In this context,it was try to find the answers to the following questions. • W hat are the factorsthatlead to environmental pollution? • W hat are responsible from the environmental pollution? • W hat are we doing individually on environmental pollution? Material And Methods The main material ofthis study was the original data that obtained from the survey in 25 urban centers (Table 1). Atleasttwo provinces of each region were chosen in orderto represent all of Turkey.Itis shown that frequency and percentages ofthe citiesin Table 1. City Adana Ağrı Ankara Antalya Frequency 76 74 144 44 % 3.55 3.46 6.74 2.06 City Eskişehir Gaziantep Đçel Đstanbul Frequency 107 51 63 92 % 5.00 2.39 2.95 4.30 City Nevşehir Niğde Samsun Tekirdağ Frequency 106 77 90 114 % 4.96 3.60 4.21 5.33 281 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Balıkesir Bursa Denizli Diyarbakır Erzurum 95 63 44 32 39 4.44 Đzmir 445 20.81 Van 2.95 Kayseri 47 2.20 Zonguldak 2.06 Kocaeli 69 3.23 Batman 1.50 Konya 48 2.25 1.82 Manisa 42 1.96 Toplam Table 1. Frequency and Percentages ofthe Cities 43 79 54 2.01 3.70 2.53 2138 100.00 Questionnaire that prepared in relevant to the purpose was filled by volunteers. Questionnaire consists of socio-economic, yes-no, ranking and scale questions totally 58 questions. We used the five pointlikert scale inthe survey form (1: strongly disagree, …, 5: strongly agree). Descriptive statistics, frequency distributions, percentage distributions, grouping methods are used for analysis ofthe data. Findings Analysis of data for the individuals’ awareness of environmental issues and behaviors in terms of environmental pollution has been done in terms ofthe survey participants’ gender, age, education and revenue. 64.3% of the survey participantsis men and their average age is 20.74 and 74.0% of them are under 20 years of age. 1/3 of the participants have monthly salary under 1000 YTL. High school graduates have the largest share by 43.6 %.( Table 2) Variables Age Education Groups Freq. % Variables Groups <20 yaş 1427 74.0 Gender W o man 21-50 yaş 340 17.5 Man 50 < yaş 162 8.5 Salary Student Primry school 605 35.0 <1000 TL High school 757 43.6 1001-5000 TL Vocational school 372 21.4 >5000'TL Table 2. Descriptive statisticsfor socio-economic variables Freq. 716 1289 794 636 362 137 % 35.7 64.3 41.2 33.0 18.8 7.1 For resolution of an issue,firstitshould be seen as a problem. From this perspective itshould be useful to know whether the individuals are aware of environmental pollution or not and if they are the degree of the awareness. To do this,the participants were asked to evaluate environmental pollution generally then water, air and noise pollution respectively. This assessment and analysis has been made with five agreement scales (Table 3). The survey participants answered to the questions “There is pollution in general” with an average of 4.14 and “There is air pollution” with 4.02 averages which means “I agree”. “There are water, noise and soil pollutions” opinions have followed them. "There is soil pollution" question is answered an average of 3.40 meaning that they are not sure. Accordingly we can easily say that, the individuals in Turkey are aware of environmental pollution. Average 4.14 3.74 4.02 3.40 3.93 There is pollution in general There is water pollution There is air pollution There is soil pollution There is noise pollution Table 3.Individuals’ environmental pollution perceptions (5 Agreement Scales) What are the factors thatlead to environmental pollution? Individuals’ opinions are taken for what factors lead to the environmental pollution. In this context, agriculture and industry as sectors, coal as energy resource,nuclear energy and effects of petroleum were asked. The individuals were asked fortheiragreement scale on the factorsthatlead to pollution and the resultsare given on Table 4. 282 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Factor Average Agriculture 2.32 Industry 4.06 Coal energy 3.84 Nuclear energy 3.54 Petroleum energy 3.60 Table 4. Factorsthatlead to environmental pollution (5 Agreement Scales) According to the results,industry sector is much more polluter than agriculture sector. Individuals do not believe enough that energy resources lead to pollution.However,they stated thatthe energy resource of coal is more polluter then nuclear energy and petroleum energy. The survey participants expressed that the lowest polluter of the energy resources is nuclear energy. Accordingly, industry is the main factor of pollution. In addition,they pointed outthatcoal power causes environmental pollution. What are responsiblefrom the environmental pollution? It will be useful to look at the environmental polluters from the individuals’ eyes to find out the roadmap. For this purpose, individuals were asked to evaluate the major environmental polluters with five agreement scales (Table 5). Polluter Average Unawareness 4.1 Remissness 4.1 The ignorance ofindustrial organization 4.1 Lack of education 4.0 The ignorance of governments 3.7 Lack ofinternational action 3.6 Ignorance of advanced countries 3.5 Ignorance of politicians 3.5 Lack of newspapers and TV broadcasts 3.4 Table 5. Environmental polluters (5 Agreement Scales) Individuals stressed that primary polluters of the environment are again they are. In this context, the individuals highlighted their own personal ignorance, carelessness, lack of education. Individuals blame that industrial organizations are as guilty as they are. It is a very interesting self-criticism that the individuals are blaming themselves. It is obvious that the individuals that can make self-criticism will also easily contribute to the measurements to decrease pollution. The individuals accuse that industry organizations causing environmental pollution include the solution to who they are going to work with.Individuals are not sure thatthe media sector does well for their responsibilities. It points out that the media should improve their environmental awareness. However itisinteresting thatthe individuals do not blame the newspapers and TV’s like the other factors. What are we doing individually on environmental pollution? Until now, itis described thatthe individuals are aware of environmental pollution and the problems that it causes. However, how much of this awareness is reflected to the individuals’ behavior has a special importance. The scale of positive response or efforts to protect the environment that will be developed is affected by how much ofthe knowledge istaken to the action. Things to do againstthe environmental pollution can be analyzed in two groups as personal and social activities. Personal activity means working to eliminate the environmental problems individually. Social activities are the commitments to protect the environment by the institutions, foundations and clubs. Participation to the co-operative activities like this is a good indicator of environmental consciousness. This shows thatthe individuals realize thatthere is a problem and need to getrid ofit. Similarly,individuals who share similar thoughts to enter into joint action with other individuals, is a significantindicatorthat he/sheisin charge of solving the environmental problems. Forthis purpose, participants were asked whether they have memberships to the institutions and foundations and their attendance to the environmental activities (Table 6). 283 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Actions % I am a member of Environmental associations or foundations 23.2 I’m participating the environmental awareness activities 31.6 I’m participating the protest actions against polluting the environment 23.8 I’m participating the trash/waste collection activities. 33.2 Table 6. Rate of participantsto the social activitiesto avoid environmental pollution (%) It’s seen that participation rate of the individuals to co-operative social activities against the environmental pollution is very low. The most important social activity against the environmental pollution is garbage / waste collection by 33%. This percentage is more than expected because some of the survey participants are students. Personal behaviors ofthe individualsto protectthe environment have shown on Table 7. Actions Average I always throw the garbage/wastetothe trashcan 4.0 I do notthrow solid mattertothe toilets 3.8 I use unleaded gasoline in my vehicle. 3.6 I do regular checks to exhaust 3.6 I do not use solid fuelthat has too much smoke 3.6 I do not speak loudly at home, at work and in the streets. 3.5 I check my vehicles exhaust volume regularly. 3.4 Generally ilisten to the music inlow volume. 3.4 W hen buying deodorant and sprays,itake care ofthe ozone layer. 3.4 I avoid sounding the horn 3.4 I do nottrade with street vendors with annoying noise. 3.4 I considerthe amount of detergent while using. 3.3 I buy organic (ecological) products 3.3 W hen buying detergent,icare aboutits environmental side effects. 3.2 Itry to reduce my consumption level. 3.2 I often participatein tree planting campaign. 3.2 I'm againstthe celebrations such as wedding, engagement etc.In the streets 3.1 I demand less nylon bag while shopping 3.1 Ithrow used batteriesto special gathering center 3.0 I preferto use the paper or cloth bags in shopping. 2.9 I sortthe organic and inorganic garbages. 2.9 I never use deodorant, and spray 2.9 I never collecttrash in plasticbags. 2.8 Table 7. Personal activitiesto avoid environment pollution (5 Agreement Scales) The participants have expressed they agree to the question “I always throw the garbage/waste to the trashcan”. This statement with an average of 4.0 hasthe highest valueinthe question. This resultalso means that not all of the garbage/wastes are thrown into the trashcan by the participants.Itis engrossing thatthe statement although is one ofthe simplest actions to protectthe environment, has only 4 in 5 agreement scales. The participants agree to the statement “I do not throw solid matter to the toilets” with an average of 3.8.Itshows thattheindividuals do not care enough to environmentthat can harm their own houses. Similarlyit is engrossing thatthe participants are not sure on simple actions like “Ithrow used batteriesto special gathering center” (3.0), “I demand less nylon bag while shopping” (3.1). The results show that things that can easily be done could not be done. The best example of thisis “I avoid sounding the horn”(3.4) meaning thatthey are not sure. If we consider the agreement scale average beyond 3.5 or higher, 6 out of 23 personal efforts can be selected as remarkable. Accordingly the individuals are extremely inadequate to avoid environmental pollution. As much as the awareness of the environmental problems itis also very important that how much the individuals feel themselves adequate in solving these problems. Undoubtedly, even if the individual feels himself/herself adequatein this situation,it will not be possible to take action in case ofinadequate personal and 284 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo socialactivities.Inthis contextthe participants were asked “Do you think that you are doing what you have to do avoid environmental pollution?”(Table 8) I believe thatI did what I have to do I believe thatI did what I have to do with co-operation. Average 3.45 3.29 Table 8.Individuals’ satisfaction leveltotheir activities on avoiding environmental pollution.(5 Scales) As you see, individuals are not sure about their personal and social activities to avoid environmental pollution. Thisis a good result.Ifthey felttheireffortssufficient,it would be extremely difficultto have positive resultsin increasing community awareness. However,the study shows it will be easy to get positive results for accommodating community awareness. Discussion And Results In this Turkey-wide study, the participants strongly agreed to the statement “Generally there is environmental pollution.” They expressed that airis more polluted than water.Individuals are not sure about soil pollution. In a research about environmental pollution in Helsinki, Moscow and Talin with 13-18 age groups,the participantsthink that air and water pollution isthe most significantthreatto plant and animal species.(Hokka at all,1999).In a research done with the medicalstudents of Finland,itisfound that most ofthe students are aware of environments; more than half of them indicate that water pollution is the biggest problem of all other environmental pollutions.( Kasma Ronkainen and Virokannas, 1996). The participants have answered the question "Isthere environmental pollution?" with an average of 4.20 from 5 agreement scales meaning “I agree”. To the question “What are you doing to avoid the environmental pollution?” they answered with 3.30 meaning “I’m not sure”.So thereis a difference in whatis being considered and whatis being done. In other words, we are having difficultiesin our environmental awareness to putin real life. This points that, the work for developing environmental consciousness has to focus on transforming our thoughtsto action. Itis obvious that the people, living in Turkey are aware of environmental pollution. Individuals’ selfcriticism to their inadequate effort on avoiding environmental pollution will have positive effect on thoughtaction. Turkey has a vision that with small efforts, it can give social solutions to avoid the environmental problems. Underthese circumstances it will not be wrong to say “The solution of environmental problems is not too far”. References Anonymous (2007) Ministry of Environment and Forestry, the official web page (www.cevreorman.gov.tr/ et: 16.02.2007) (in Turkish) Cankurt, M., Miran, B., Günden, C., Şahin, A., (2008). Awareness to environmental pollution in turkey , Southern Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, February 2-6, Dallas, TX. Doğan M (2003) Industrialization and Environmental Issues. (http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~dogan/4.html et:05.11.2006) (in Turkish) Hokka P, Palosuo H, Zhuravleva I, Parna K, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Lakomova N, (1999) Anxiety about environmental hazards among teenagers ın Helsinki, Moscow and Tallinn. The Science of the total environment, 234, 95-107. Đleri R (1998) Environmental Education And Supplement, Journal of Ecology 28, 3-9. (in Turkish) Kasma Ronkainen L, Virokannas H, (1996) Concern about the environment among medical students. Scand Journal of Soc Med. 24, 121-123. Kızılaslan, H. ve N. Kızılaslan (2005) Çevre konularında kırsal halkın bilinç düzeyi ve davranışları (Tokat Đli Artova Đlçesi örneği), Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1, 67-89. (in Turkish) 285 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 483 Title A name given to the resource Consciousness of Environment in Turkey Author Author Cankurt, Murat Miran, Bulent Hurma, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. Environmental issue has attracted attentions as one of the most important issues of the last century. This problem is a phenomena that threat to sustainable life. Effective solution of this issue depends on conscious and awareness of people about environmental matters. The main purpose of this study is to determine the level of awareness and attitudes to environmental issues in Turkey. The analysis was made to see the effects of age, gender, education and revenue on the awareness and attitudes to environmental pollution. Data were collected from 7 regions and 25 cities via personal interview. Water, air, soil, image and general pollution are the criteria on which awareness and attitudes were evaluated in the study. Air and water pollutions appear more significant than the others. It is determined that the media is the best way of disseminating the information regarding environmental education more efficiently. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44e5438708f202d692fc67d3ee00f37a.pdf 3db89713ff2cf00b1fab0f47e747e494 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reconstruction and Developments in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina Ali COŞKUN Assistant Professor in Department of Management Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey alicoskun@fatih.edu.tr Erkan ILGÜN Senior Teaching Assistant in Department of Management International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina eilguen@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is a young republic in the South Eastern Europe, which become independent from Yugoslavia in 1992. The independency was a though process and the economy of BIH seriously damaged in the civil war period during 19921995. But BIH Economy has been reconstructed and improved by taking important steps after the war. BIH Banking sector has also been developed significantly and restructured during the last decade. This paper examines both the current situation of the banking system of the Bosnia and Herzegovina and the developments in the sector after 1995. Main economic indicators for BIH in last decade reveal a strong post-war recovery. The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. Entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. In last 12 years banking sector of BIH significantly improved. For example total deposits in commercial banks of BIH increased by 769 %, total loans given by the commercial banks increased by 497 %, and total assets of the commercial banks increased by 530 % from 1997 to 2008. Keywords: Banking Sector, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Foreign Direct Investment. Introduction After the iron curtain collapsed many centrally planned economies, divided in those south East European (SEE1) and Central Eastern Europe (CEE) replaced the previous social system of centrally planned economy to a non-socialist society with a liberalized economy. These low-income countries use economic liberalization as their main engine of growth. Among transition economies SEE are relatively less developed and structurally lagging behind the CEE. The region of the aforementioned region experienced a different way of reconstruction and development path. Bosnia and Herzegovina lagged behind the relatively developed republics of former Yugoslavia like Croatia, Slovenia, and Serbia. In this paper we give an overview about the banking sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) analyzing in particular the developments from 2000 to 2008. 1. Economic Overview 1.1. From Yugoslavia to Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina: Historical Background For centuries powers have collided in this region. With the dissolution of the communist regime in the late 1980s national feelings comes up especially in Serbia. Attempts to save the Yugoslav Federation were made, but as opinions diverge widely about a common future among the national leaders in the new countries Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia entailed to the collapse of the former Yugoslav Federation. Consequently the new established states disintegrated it from the centrifugal. While Croatia and Slovenia was declaring independence in 1991, paramilitary origins from Serbia occupied several 1 According to EBRD Office for South East Europe, SEE is as defined Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo. (EBRD, 2009). 52 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina towns killing civil Bosniaks1 and Croats. Thousands of people died in this clash of ethnic groups, as well a lot of the population seeks for refugees. As a consequence Bosnia and Herzegovina was faced with serious humanitarian and social problems. The conflict lasted 1992-1995 until the Dayton Peace Agreement2 was signed in Paris in December 1995 between the counterparts (Malcolm, 2002). For mobilizing international support for the Agreement a Peace Implementation Conference was held in London on December 8-9, 1995 which resulted in the foundation of the Peace Implementation Council (PIC). The PIC comprises 55 countries and agencies that assist the peace process in diverse ways (PIC, 2006) So the regional political situation were 'sealed' and post-war endeavors began to overcome the existing problems in the financial and economic structure, legislation and administration as well. The prime point in the Dayton Agreement is that a multiethnic society has to be lived in a divided country with two entities but jointly guided by a central government. With a rotating and collective three-member presidency Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is being ruled. The state of BIH is the central authority. Although recognized as a parliamentary democracy it is governed by the international community under tutorship of the Office of High Representative for BIH, which was established as a condition of the Dayton Agreement. The High Representative (OHR) is charged with observing the implementation of the Dayton agreement and coordination of the activities of international organization and intervenes in situations of unwillingness of the main parties to cooperate (e.g. the new flag design) or to take economic reform seriously. (OHR, 2009) With one confederation, two entities, ten cantons in the Federation, five administrative areas in the Serb Republic, a special Brcko district, plus municipalities and local government unit presents a very complex political system in the world which conceals meaningful barriers and bureaucratic hurdles that will need to overcome to succeed (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 424). Under the supervision of the United Nations both entities and the district handles on the defined conditions of the Dayton peace Agreement separately whereas in fiscal issues, these entities are autonomous. That means 'the duplication of many domestic policy functions and weakens incentives for cooperation' (Cuc, 2005) which suggests the conclusion that interethnic trust will be undermined so that it makes difficult to agree on the decisions needed to take the country forward (OHR, 2008). All of the countries had, plain-spoken, consummately differences in starting positions at the beginning of the transnational process of the former Yugoslav countries. In 1990, BIH has also started a wide-reaching process of reconstruction and development of its political, economic, social and legal systems as an independent (apart from extensive international aid) country and capable of sustainable development beginning with economic liberalization and implementation of market-oriented reforms for pursuing long-term growth. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 418) The integration to the world economy took place under extremely complicating circumstances for Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH). First of all it had been thinking about economic restructuring and renovation. In general, economies in the Balkan region are ordinary classified as late starters. That is why their performance is described as not very stable when compared to those of Central European countries. During the communist period, through decades, enterprises and industrial plants were largely focused toward the satisfaction of wants of the ex-Yugoslavia market. Heavy industry was mainly centered in BIH. As the least developed country in the region there were efforts in BIH in the early 1990s to minimize the affect of heavy industry on the economy and develop therefore light industries such as for example consumer goods, finance, electronics. Devastations of the existing infrastructure decreases GDP per capita during the war period. With the adopting and implementation of the Mid-term Development Strategy (PRSP) BIH was being encouraged to preserve macroeconomic stability with significant growth rates boot in GDP and industrial production. Because of destroying all economic capacity3 during the ethnical conflict period, BIH was forced to follow another development path. In contrast to other transition economies where institutional transition has progressed further, a highly vexing regulatory environment in BIH has occurred inconvenient situations for investors and further success of the transition process. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 425-426) As a result complex and difficult structures which are often changing brings out that BIH has the following serious deficiencies: inefficient public sector, obstacles for business4, high current account deficit5, and complex government, fragmented policymaking inadequate coordination between the state and entities, democracy, widespread corruption and a fractured labor market which are in need of improvement. Red tape occurs with respect to independent administrative areas which are Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska and Brcko6. Different rules within the country exists (Klamert, 2008: 4-7). In spite of this claims, “....Bosnia 1 Bosniak refers to Muslims live in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 sets the bases for the establishing of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and its economic recovery. 3 The post-war role of manufacturing and industry in GDP fell by virtually 90% of lost output, declining of Gross Domestic Product, workforce lost their jobs. 4 E.g. no central tax administration exists 5 Which will in turn lead to a further increase in the current-account deficit 6 The entities are to a large extent independent as for legislation and there is no real deferral legal system. 2 53 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo and Herzegovina are moving ahead with the implementation of their respective Interim Agreements and have made progress in important reform areas.” (Europa Press Releases 2009) 1.2. Economic Development in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Last Decade Selected economic indicators for BIH between 2000 and 2008 presented in Table 1 reveals a strong post-war recovery. Continued growth in industrial production over the past years can be seen. Inflation rate stabilized at EU levels. Economic growth in BIH has been impressive with GDP. The economy should remain strong in 2008 as a result of domestic demand with consumption and investment substantially supported by foreign aid flows. Nominal GDP in 2008 was about 12 billion Euros. In 2008, average real GDP growth rate was around 7.0%. GDP per capita reached EUR 3,648 in 2008. International trade has been a major source of economic growth. Unemployment is soaring with approximately 25%. Large and widening current account deficits are not surprising for transition economies. One of the key imbalances in the economy of BIH is its high trade deficit which is ultimately leading to a significant current account deficit in the balance of payments. The trade deficit rise remarkable for countries like BIH given that they are being swift integrated with the economies of the European Union. Encourages foreign investment have been remained. The significant increase in foreign direct investments (FDI) could be the most important instrument in financing of the overall balance of payments. Efforts to attract foreign investment lead to the development of the State Foreign Investment Policy and the successful reform of the banking system as well as the customs reform. Table 1. General Economic Indicators of Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: FIPA – Foreign Investment Promotion Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2009), Investment Opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sixth Edition, February 2009, Sarajevo, p.10 BIH is still an importing country. Main trading partner for BIH is the EU with a participation of approximately 50% beside Croatia, Turkey, Serbia and the USA. BIH holds a Free Trade Agreement with Central European Countries (CEFTA). But so far, BIH also has free trade agreements with Turkey, as well as preferential export regimes with e.g. the European Union, USA, Japan, Norway, New Zealand, and Russia. In 2007 trade amounted totally 10,141,783 (in thousand Euro) and in 2008; 11,758,560 (in thousand Euro). Consumer borrowing and growth in real wages boosts private consumption in 2007. The “golden age” of BIH was achieved during the 1970-1980 period, which culminated in the Sarajevo Winter Olympic Games in 1984 (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 425). As a middle-income country BIH reach 67% of GDP in the service sector, 22 54 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo % in industry, and 10 % in agriculture (World Bank, 2009). In 2008 BIH reached GDP per capita: amounted by 3,648 Euro. First steps regarding privatization were undertaken under the leadership of the U.S. Agency for International Development in 1997 while the Framework Law for Privatization of Companies and Banks was enacted in 1998. As in most fields the Federation and the Serb Republic have here also their own privatization laws, which complicate the ongoing process of development. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 428) In spite of encountering obstacles, both post-communist and postwar periods, BIH has rendered an enormous development in post-conflict reconstruction transform its economic structure, It has the willingness to be more integrated in the international environment. 1.3. Efforts to Integrate with the European Union Developments in terms of international integration depend largely by their achievement of EU integration. Forcing reforms in the judicial system is one of the primary preconditions for further support by the EU. The Stabilization and Association Progress (SAP) is the EU´s framework for the Western Balkan countries regarding pre-accession issues. It achieves a secure and fast transition to a liberalized economy, approach to a eventual EU accession as well as stress of regional cooperation. The first step towards to assist them in adopting and implementing of EU standards a membership with the EU for BIH represents the Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA), initialed in the end of 2007, after approving by the Council of the European Union and signed in 2008. Moreover, the EU assists the country under the 2007 IPA (instrument for preaccession assistance). The first step in the EU integration process has been started with establishing the Consultative Task Force in 1998 which was redefined in 2006 to “Reform Process Monitoring”. (Weyerstrass, 2008: 395) In fulfilling economic criteria for being a Membership of European Union BIH is virtually capable to do it (Efendic and Medjedovic, 2006). 1.4. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Bosnia and Herzegovina The last year evidence is given for significant effort to open its economy to foreign investments. For foreign investors relevant laws in BIH are the Law on the Policy for Foreign Direct Investments and the Guidelines on the Registration of FDI. Commensurate with the economic theory foreign investors want to take advantage of yielding a higher return who is taking a risk abroad in a capital-scarce country. However, doing business in BIH is burdensome for out coming investors with respect to nontransparent business regulations, obstacles in administrative procedures as well as weak judicial structures (Petricevic and Danis 2007: 430-431). In BIH and in the other SEE countries at all, the total amount of FDI inflows is relatively quite low and volatile and is not prevalent affected by traditional factors of FDI attraction1. It depends to a large extent on (completing) the privatization process. (Škuflić and Botrić 2006: 73) Greatest (historical) interest gains CEE countries from its immediate neighbors. Regarding the data it is apparently that the service sector in BIH absorbs more FDI than the manufacturing sector. With the increasing inflow of foreign capital into the banking sector, quality of services provided increase, overall sector’s efficiency continue to increase. (Babić-Hodović and Burić, 2005: 1429) Reforming the business environment in BIH is also high on the Worlds Bank’s agenda. The IMF also pursues assistance for BIH. Leading multinational corporations, among others Coca-Cola, IBM, Microsoft, Procter & Gamble can be quoted, seeks investments opportunities in BIH in the last years. With the actively operation in BIH of international companies domestic companies could benefit on this way from knowledge spillovers especially in management as well as profits from technology transfers. On the other side there may be a more tightly integration of local firms in the world market. So the role of FDI in this context is straightforward. The more increase investment activities in BIH from abroad is available the more positively contribution to the growth rate of the economy is possible according to the theory. When the foreign direct investment in BIH divided by sectors between May 1994 and December 2008, the largest FDI flow was in manufacturing with the 35% of the total FDI inflows. Banking follows it by 22%, and then telecommunication comes with 14%, and trade with 11% (FIPA, 2009: 16) The cumulative volume of FDI attracted to BIH had experienced a considerable amount, extensively in the banking sector after 1995. Though they have been active in promoting FDI they haven’t been as successful as countries like Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria which were the main attractors of FDI in the last years in this region. Since May 1994 to December 2008, the most investment was made by companies from Austria 27.1 %, Serbia 15.6%, Croatia 11.7%, Slovenia 11.4%, Switzerland 6.8%, Germany 5.5%, Russia 5%, The Netherlands 1 The efficiency of institutions is one of the essentially factor (Bénassy-Quéré et al. 2005). This comprises of tax systems, the ease of starting up a company, lack of corruption, law of contract, transparency, safeguarding of property rights and efficiency of justice (Škuflić and Botrić 2006: 82-83). 55 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.5%, Italy 2.1%, USA 1.9%, Turkey 1.3%, and other countries 9.1%. Investments in telecommunication, transportation, tourism, and services record constant growth. In the manufacturing sector the participation is 35% in total investment (FIPA, 2009: 15-16). Net foreign direct investment inflows recorded in the balance of payments during last 13 years for selected SEE and CEE Countries are given in Table 2. As the government is committed to meet the EU set of criteria strengthen the business environment for foreign investors in Table 2 it is shown evolving of FDI inflows. While several neighboring countries are making substantial progress towards a functioning market economy compared to the most developed Eastern European countries BIH is lagging behind in the context of attracting foreign investors. However, in terms of volume the inflow of foreign investments has been considerably increased in BIH during the past years. Additional boost to FDI inflows comes from EU candidature. With this assertiveness Bulgaria and Romania and some other Central and South Eastern Countries commended a phase of significant privatization in the last few years. Table 2. Foreign direct investment (net inflows recorded in the balance of payments) -in USD million Selected SEE and CEE Countries Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 (Est.) 97 42 45 51 143 207 135 178 344 283 325 651 880 710 0 0 100 90 146 119 266 382 708 579 2.023 1.200 Bulgaria 138 507 537 802 998 803 876 2.070 2.879 4.005 7.583 11.433 8.472 Croatia 466 348 842 1.392 1.105 1.398 552 1.927 732 1.551 3.212 4.644 4.098 1.280 1.259 3.575 6.220 4.942 5.474 8.282 1.814 3.941 11.630 4.598 7.930 5.500 30 128 32 175 441 105 117 322 94 424 700 612 3.335 3.715 Czech Republic FYR Macedonia Hungary 11 3.070 3.060 2.151 3.573 2.722 479 3.405 5.586 3.640 2.197 4.763 Moldova 23 78 75 38 127 102 132 71 146 199 223 481 679 Montenegro na na na na na 10 84 44 63 482 585 717 783 4.445 4.863 6.049 7.239 9.327 5.804 3.901 4.284 11.761 6.951 10.727 17.976 12.951 415 1.267 2.079 1.025 1.051 1.154 1.080 2.156 6.368 6.587 10.957 9.818 11.000 1656 1.681 119 10.753 6.800 20.000 Poland Romania Russia 1.492 1.102 -463 216 -72 -1.769 1.662 0 740 113 112 50 165 475 1.365 966 1.550 4.264 2.195 2.487 Slovak Republic 199 84 374 701 1.897 1.520 4.130 1.913 3.052 2.279 4.178 2.881 3.156 Slovenia 167 303 221 59 71 226 1.508 -174 281 -67 -215 -353 280 Turkey 612 554 573 138 112 2.854 957 1.252 2.005 Serbia 8.967 19.065 19.940 15.400 Source: EBRD (2006) Transition report 2006: Finance in transition, http://www.ebrd.com/pubs/econo/6813.htm, accessed 15.04.2009. 2. Banking System in Bosnia and Herzegovina The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. After privatization process of state owned banks entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. Deposit growth raised significantly during the currency conversion to the Euro in late 2001.The banking system in Bosnia-Herzegovina will continue to evolve and consolidate. 2.1. Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina The Central Bank of BIH was founded under the Dayton Peace Agreement and started its work as a federal-level institution on August 11, 1997. It is headed by the Governing Council of the Central Bank acting, by law, as an independent central financial institution. Article 7 of the BIH Constitution (Annex 4 of the Dayton Peace Accords) arranged the structure of the central bank. the “Law on the Central Bank” was adopted in June 1997. (Tesche, 2000: 319) The Central Bank of BIH is the only monetary authority in the country. Formulating, adopting as well as controlling the monetary policy of BIH are the main objectives of the CB and operates some kind of a Currency Board Arrangement as designated in the CB law and in the Dayton Peace Agreement. Both “fixed exchange rate” and “rule-based approach to monetary policy” (CEFBIH, 2004; Kovačevič, 2003: 59-60) 56 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Thus the Central Bank cannot use monetary policy to lean against rising demand1. It has few monetary policy tools at its disposal. The new country-wide currency Convertible Mark (Konvertiblina Marka, KM) was introduced in June 1998 and replaces the three different currencies in use in the different parts of BIH. It was formerly pegged to the German Mark. In 2001 the peg was changed to the Euro at a rate of 1 KM = € 0.51129. Inflation has been relatively low in the federation after the introduction of the KM, as would be expected in a currency board system: “There is no other type of monetary policy, other than the adoption of the DEM as the currency of BIH, that could have given a country like BIH a stable and trusted currency and low inflation this quickly.” (Kovačevič, 2003: 60). An institution, the Fiscal Council, has been established is responsible for coordination of fiscal policy. 2.2. Supervision Agencies From the end 1990s on new modern banking laws were issued. Within an institutional-based guidance of the banking sector, the regulation and supervising is distinguished from the systematic as in the European countries, in which, in BIH, the monitoring and observing authority is assigned to the Banking Agency of the Federation of BIH (FBA BIH), the Banking Agency of the Republic Srpska (BARS) and partly, the Deposit Insurance Agency of BIH (DIA). The Federation Banking Agency started functioning in 1997. The Federation Banking Agency is responsible for bank licensing and supervision. The National Bank of Republic Srpska has been converted to the Banking Agency of the RS in mid-1998 after enabling legislation was passed in March 1998 (Teseche, 2000: 319-321). In 1998 two laws were passed to set up bank privatization: the “Law on the Privatization of Banks” and the “Law on Opening Balance Sheets for Enterprises and Banks”. Supervisory agencies both in the FBA BIH and the BARS conducting banking supervision in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are each governed by individual entity-level legislation. Both are authorized to grant and revoke licenses and measures banks. The CBBH coordinates the activities of the two entity agencies. Basically the FBA BIH and the BARS, among both, and also between these and the DIA exists a cooperate agreement. To effectively implement the Basel principles the banking supervision agencies got a great deal of technical assistance (IMF, 2006: 28). Deposit Insurance Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina (DIA) is established by the “Law on Deposit Insurance in Banks of Bosnia and Herzegovina” in 2002. DIA is an independent, non-profit, legal entity with full authority under the Law of the State. Head Office of the DIA is located in Banja Luka, and there is one Branch Office in Sarajevo and Banja Luka. Agency has its own regulations “and is also characterized by established policies and procedures of deposit insurance, the amount of indirect deposit and the existence of ex ante financing; disbursement of insured deposits is financed mainly by the deposit insurance institution)...”A bank can join the deposit insurance system, i.e. become a member of this program, if it meets the preconditions prescribed by the Law on Banks, holds a license from one of the entity-level banking agencies and is at least 90 per cent privately owned.” (Željko, 2008: 34)2 In 2009 there are 25 banks which are signed the Contract on Deposit Insurance (DIA, 2009) 2.3. Commercial Banks According to the Law on Banks the commercial banks in BIH are enabled for banking activities and operations. Overall, the main share of assets in BIH is today privately owned. Foreign-owned banks have been the main drivers of credit growth. The list of the commercial banks operating in the Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009 is given in Table 3. Center offices of the 19 banks in the list are in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while center offices of the 10 of them are in RS. 1 2 Instead BH must use fiscal and income policies. For a more detailed insight, see Murph 2006 57 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 3. Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Name of the BANK ABS banka d.d. Sarajevo BOR banka Sarajevo Bosna bank international d.d. Sarajevo FIMA banka dd Sarajevo Hypo Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank d.d. Mostar Intesa Sanpaolo Banka d.d. Bosna i Hercegovina Investiciono-komercijalna banka dd Zenica Komercijalno-investiciona banka dd V.Kladuša NLB Tuzlanska banka dd, Tuzla Postbank BH d.d. Sarajevo Privredna banka Sarajevo d.d. Sarajevo ProCredit Bank Sarajevo Raiffeisen Bank dd BiH Razvojna banka Federacije BiH Turkish Ziraat Bank Bosnia dd Sarajevo UniCredit Bank d.d. Union banka d.d. Sarajevo Vakufska banka d.d. Sarajevo Volksbank BH dd Balkan Investment Bank AD Banja Luka Bobar banka ad Bijeljina EEFC Bank, a.d. Banja Luka Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank a.d. Banja Luka Komercijalna banka AD Banja Luka NLB Razvojna banka Nova banka ad Banja Luka Pavlović International Bank a.d. Unicredit Bank a.d. Banja Luka Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka Center Office Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Mostar Sarajevo Zenica Velika Kladuša Tuzla Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Mostar Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Banja Luka Bijeljina Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Slobomir Bijeljina Banja Luka Banja Luka Official Website http://www.absbanka.ba http://www.borbanka.ba http://www.bbi.ba http://www.fimabanka.ba http://www.hypo-alpe-adria.ba http://www.intesasanpaolobanka.ba http://www.ikbze.com.ba http://www.kib-banka.com.ba http://www.nlbtuzlanskabanka.ba http://www.postbankbh.ba http://www.pbs.ba http://www.procreditbank.ba http://www.raiffeisenbank.ba http://www.ibf-bih.ba http://www.ziraatbosnia.com http://www.unicreditbank.ba http://www.unionbank.ba http://www.vakuba.ba http://www.volksbank.ba http://www.bib.ba http://www.bobarbanka.com http://www.iefkbanka.com http://www.hypo-alpe-adria.ba http://www.kombank-bl.com http://www.nlbrazvojnabanka.com http://www.novabanka.com http://www.pavlovic-banka.com http://www.novablbanka.com http://www.volksbank-bl.ba Commercial banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina provide more than 10.000 jobs for residents of BIH. Number of employees of the BIH banks is increasing nearly 10 percent each year. Number of Employees of the Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina both in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and RS are given in Table 4. Table 4. Number of Employees of the Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina BANKS 1 ABS Banka dd Sarajevo 2 BOR Banka dd Sarajevo 3 Bosna Bank International dd Sarajevo 4 FIMA Banka dd Sarajevo 5 Hercegovacka Banka dd Mostar 6 HVB Central Profit Banka dd Sarajevo 7 Hypo Alpe Adria Bank dd Mostar 8 Intesa Sanpaolo Banka dd bih 9 Investicijska Banka fbih Sarajevo 10 Investiciono Komercijalna Banka dd Zenica 11 Komercijalno Investiciona Banka dd Velika Kladuša 12 LT Gospodarska Banka Banka dd Sarajevo 13 NLB Tuzlanska Banka dd Tuzla 14 Poštanska Banka dd Sarajevo 15 Privredna Banka dd Sarajevo 16 Procredit Bank dd Sarajevo 17 Raiffeisen Bank BH dd Sarajevo 18 Turkish Ziraat Bank dd Sarajevo 19 Una Banka dd Bihać 58 2006 297 40 104 58 98 476 492 233 84 163 66 196 479 63 170 595 1.348 108 61 2007 326 42 145 101 93 465 550 479 104 154 65 2008 367 46 173 148 89 472 97 163 831 1.543 129 59 493 118 166 884 1.721 150 59 620 509 177 67 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 20 Uni Credit Banka BH dd Mostar 840 840 1.406 21 Union Banka dd Sarajevo 175 179 176 22 Vakufska Banka dd Sarajevo 175 184 197 23 Volksbank BH dd Sarajevo 285 340 358 Na 24. Nova Banjalucka banka a.d. B. Luka 521 523 Na 25. Hypo Alpe Adria Bank a.d. B. Luka 510 528 Na 26. Bobar banka a.d. Bijeljina 149 152 Na 27. NLB Razvojna banka a.d. B. Luka 497 506 Na 28. Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka 234 237 Na 29. Balkan Investment Bank a.d. B.Luka 159 162 Na 30. Pavlović International Bank a. Slobomir 205 208 Na 31. Nova banka a.d. Banja Luka 462 481 Na 32. Komercijalna banka a.d. Banja Luka 99 106 Na 33. IEFK banka a.d. Banja Luka 13 22 TOTAL Na 10.210 10.849 Source: Banking Agency of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008) and Banking Agency of the Republica Sirpska (2008) 3. Developments in the Banking Sector The reform program about banking system was also of increasingly interest in the former Social Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which aimed implementing of necessities for development. But with the beginning of the ethnical conflict in former Yugoslavia many reforms couldn’t never implemented. In the former Yugoslavia the banking system was pretty centralized. Additionally it was dominated by a number of socially-state-owned banks apart from small private banks. (Tesche, 2000) After war damage and highly influences through policies set forth by international (financial) organizations, (e.g. IMF, EBRD, The World Bank, EU, etc.) the banking sector in BIH gains the opportunity to restructure themselves in order to render regular banking services in accordance with free market conditions since 1997 with the building up the Central Bank in BIH. In compliance with the institutional framework it is aimed to reach a long-term political, security and economic stability. Decisions were made to a bank-based financial system, which underlines the predominance of banks in financial intermediation. (Sevic, 2000a, Sevic, 2000b). Reforms in the banking sector have so far produced best results. It has realized a sizable progress due to accelerated privatization and liberalization of the banking sector among all the sectors in BIH, with significant confidence in banks, improvements in terms of extending credits to businesses and households and presented one of the fundaments of economic development of the country (PRSP, 2004: 92-93). Besides, it is wide-range accepted that state ownership is in comparison to private ownership less efficient and foreign-originated banks are most efficient of all (Bonin et.al, 2008; Fries and Taci, 2005; Weill, 2003). Investments from quality banks especially from Austria, Italy, Turkey, Germany and Slovenia BIH have one of the most advanced financial sectors in the region. In the framework of the institutions-building process and the restructuring of the State Banks, foreign investors allowed entering the banking sector by buying important shares in the state-owned banks when these were “ready” for privatization and often not meeting the minimum requirements of financial soundness (Babić-Hodović and Tesche, 2006). Main foreign investors in the banking sector of BIH are shown in Table 5. In general, the financial system in BIH is dominated by the banking sector while the nonbank financial sector is not so much developed. Rapidly increasing of internet banking in developed countries has not the same insight in BIH due to various factors. Progress in e-banking needs to be done in this country. (BasheskaGjorgjieska et.al, 2006) The consolidation process of the banking sector came mainly on the back of foreign direct investments through the acquisition of private - or already privatized - banks. Privatization of the banking sector is almost completed. 90% is private capital, of which 77% is foreign private capital, while 13% is local private capital. There are 29 commercial banks operating in BIH in 2009. A strong concentration of capital among several large banks is noticeable so a few banks holds a large amount of the total capital. Out of the total number of commercial banks, 25 are included in the state deposit insurance scheme. Investment in banking sector in period 1994-2008 amounts 1.2 billion Euros and represents 22% of total investment in BIH. BIH has been given “B2” credit rating with the stable outlook by Moody’s Agency (May 17, 2006) Standard & Poor's Rating Services assigned 'B+' credit rating with stable outlook to Bosnia and Herzegovina. (December 22, 2008) (FIPA 2009: 22) 59 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 5. Main Foreign Investors in the Banking Sector * BH Bank Country Investor Austria Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank AG Austria Raiffeisen International Bank Hold., AG Austria Millenia Beteiligungsverwaltungs GmbH Austria Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank AG Croatia Zagrebačka Banka d.d. "UniCredit Bank" d.d. Austria Bank Austria Cred. Mostar USA Internat. Fin.Corp. Italy Unicredito It. S.p.a. Spain Transmadrid "Bosna Bank International" d.d. Sarajevo UAE Dubai Islamic Bank Saudi Arabia Islamic Development Bank "Volksbank BH" d.d. Sarajevo Austria Ostereichiche Volksbank. AD "Volksbank" Banja Luka Austria Volksbank Int. AG "BBI Leasing Real Estate" d.o.o. Sarajevo Saudi Arabia Islamic Development Bank UAE Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank. "NLB Razvojna banka" a.d. Slovenia Nova Ljubljanska Banka Banja Luka Germany LHB Inter. H. Bank Serbia Vojvoñanska banka "CBS Bank" d.d. Germany LHB Inter. Hand. AG Frankfurt Sarajevo Slovenia Banka Domžale "Turkish Ziraat Bank Bosnia" d.d. Turkey T.C. Ziraat Bankasi Sarajevo "IEFK Banka" A.D. Banja Luka Russia Istočno Evropska Fin. Korporacija i drugi * The banks which also invested in BIH can be quoted as: - Komercijalna Banka a.d. Beograd, Serbia; - Poteza Adriatic BV Amsterdam, The Netherland; - Ukio Bank Invest Grupe, Litvania; - Istočno Evropska Finansijska Korporacija, Russia; - Steiermarkische Bank und Sparkasse AG Graz, Austria. "Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank" d.d. Mostar Raiffeisen BANK d.d. Bosna i Hercegovina "Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank" AD Banja Luka 163.854 5.068 78.228 29.079 6.831 3.900 136 25.920 21.600 21.531 18.374 21.245 12.171 2.611 11.789 15.114 Amount (thousand KM) 183.000 168.922 120.837 118.174 47.520 47.000 42.471 39.905 36.028 26.993 25.000 20.000 Structural changes in the banking system, adoption of modern principles of evolving the banking industry leads to a bank-based financial system in BIH (Željko, 2008: 28). The banking system is dominated by large foreign banks, which have been the main source of credit growth in BIH, and has improved the soundness of the financial system. As a consequence these altered the nature of risks of financial stability. This means that no longer a traditional risk in banking slovenly crisis is assumed but rather the risk to the sustainability of foreign exchange reserves increasing from the potential for capital flow volatility. (IMF, 2006: 11-12, 28) The following list1 is taken from the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relation BIH, for the period May 1994- December 2008. It shows the foreign Investors in the Banking sector which registered investment in amounts higher than 20 million KM. In last 12 years there is a significant increase in both deposits and loans of the commercial banks in BIH. Total deposits in Commercial banks' accounts was only 1.382,4 million KM in 1997, while it is 12.013,2 million KM which is 769 % more than the amont in 1997. This shows the increasing confidence in the BIH financial sector. Total loans given by the commercial banks was only 2.439,6 million KM in 1997, while it is 14.561,1 million KM which is 497 % more than the amont in 1997. This shows the financial support of the financial sector to the development of the BIH economy and households (Table 6). The balance sheet volume of the commercial banks in BIH is also has been continually increased during last 12 years. Analytical Accounts of Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina are given in Table 7. Total assets of the commercial banks was only 3.336,9 million KM in 1997, while it is 21.040,9 million KM which is 530 % more than the amont in 1997. 1 The lists were kindly provided by Dušanka Brkić (FIPA) 60 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 6. Total Deposits and Loans of Commercial banks (of million KM) DEPOSITS Time and Demand saving Deposits deposits 784,1 598,3 983,8 678,7 1.107,7 712,1 1.385,8 568,0 2.061,5 1.209,3 2.293,8 1.430,5 2.553,8 1.812,3 3.121,7 2.456,8 3.876,1 3.000,1 4.942,2 3.896,7 6.025,8 6.112,9 5.480,5 6.532,7 Year / month 1997 / 12 1998 / 12 1999 / 12 2000 / 12 2001 / 12 2002 / 12 2003 / 12 2004 / 12 2005 / 12 2006 / 12 2007 / 12 2008 / 12 LOANS Total deposits 1.382,4 1.662,5 1.819,9 1.953,7 3.270,7 3.724,3 4.366,0 5.578,5 6.876,3 8.838,9 12.138,7 12.013,2 Year / ShortLong-term month term loans loans 1997 / 12 956,7 1.482,9 1998 / 12 1.028,2 1.892,6 1999 / 12 852,3 1.928,9 2000 / 12 878,3 2.138,6 2001 / 12 913,3 2.425,7 2002 / 12 1.097,8 3.183,3 2003 / 12 1.233,5 3.888,0 2004 / 12 1.576,2 4.350,9 2005 / 12 1.837,0 5.707,1 2006 / 12 2.218,1 7.089,8 2007 / 12 2.752,2 9.211,4 2008 / 12 3.714,0 10.847,1 Total loans 2.439,6 2.920,8 2.781,2 3.017,0 3.339,0 4.281,1 5.121,5 5.927,1 7.544,2 9.308,0 11.963,6 14.561,1 Table 7. Analytical Accounts of Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina (in million KM) Month Year ASSETS Reserves Foreign Assets Claims on General Government Claims on NonFinancial Enterprises Claims on Private Sector Total 1997 12. 239,5 657,8 133,8 2.171,0 134,8 3.336,9 1998 12. 207,6 604,6 113,0 2.546,8 260,9 3.733,0 1999 12. 274,7 848,4 36,7 2.467,2 277,2 3.904,3 2000 12. 287,4 960,7 33,8 2.584,4 398,7 4.265,0 2001 12. 871,9 1.364,0 32,9 2.601,8 704,3 5.574,9 2002 12. 595,2 1.468,7 60,7 2.714,7 1.505,8 6.345,0 2003 12. 1.004,6 1.561,9 45,6 3.037,6 2.038,3 7.688,0 2004 12. 1.566,6 1.906,1 45,6 3.181,9 2.699,6 9.399,8 2005 12. 2.233,9 2.096,6 50,1 3.955,9 3.538,2 11.874,6 2006 12. 3.061,9 2.328,6 68,4 4.760,0 4.479,5 14.698,5 2007 12. 4.022,3 3.533,9 127,6 5.974,4 5.861,6 19.519,8 2008 12. 3.392,9 3.086,9 264,3 7.440,4 6.856,3 21.040,9 Deposits of Central Governm ent Other Demand Deposits in Domestic Currency Other Demand Deposits in Foreign Currency Time and Saving Deposits in Domestic Currency Time and Saving Deposits in Foreign Currency Month Year LIABILITIES Bonds Foreign Liabilities Capital Accounts Other Total 1997 12. 233,6 139,2 448,5 9,6 363,3 14,2 1.513,8 1.043,4 -428,5 3.336,9 1998 12. 222,2 147,5 637,9 8,0 467,0 10,6 1.605,8 1.310,9 -676,8 3.733,0 1999 12. 170,1 584,6 465,5 22,4 577,3 8,7 1.519,3 1.257,0 -700,6 3.904,3 2000 12. 143,2 749,9 554,5 77,9 428,2 4,4 1.577,1 1.096,2 -366,4 4.265,0 2001 12. 277,5 1.016,2 928,5 140,9 907,7 0,1 1.526,5 1.118,8 -341,2 5.574,9 2002 12. 390,3 1.270,3 817,1 272,2 974,4 0,1 1.793,7 1.213,6 -386,6 6.345,0 2003 12. 473,1 1.510,3 818,3 461,9 1.102,5 0,0 2.437,0 1.305,4 -420,4 7.688,0 2004 12. 419,4 1.862,9 988,1 703,4 1.604,6 0,0 2.651,1 1.472,1 -301,8 9.399,8 2005 12. 533,4 2.370,5 1.154,8 818,1 1.999,4 0,0 3.559,3 1.712,5 -273,4 11.874,6 2006 12. 755,1 3.081,9 1.358,8 1.098,8 2.544,4 0,0 4.032,8 2.071,8 -245,1 14.698,5 2007 12. 2.086,5 3.962,3 1.459,3 1.517,4 3.113,2 0,0 5.114,5 2.530,0 -263,4 19.519,8 2008 12. 1.546,7 3.684,9 1.511,6 1.799,5 3.470,6 12,9 6.307,8 3.004,5 -297,5 21.040,9 Source: Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008) 61 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Beside all these developments, an ever increasing number of newly created private banks could be seen over the years. It is a fact, that a lot of foreign investors perceive the Balkan region as a surrounding with high risks for investment. Not only due to fragile political situation, but also from weaken law enforcement agencies. With increasing political stability it can be given good signals to foreign investors. Furthermore the privatization process can be regarded as the main important institutional possible course of action that can happen to the transitional baking sector in BIH to improve the performance within this branch. It is noteworthy that international reserves have been boosted substantially in the banking sector. But overall the banking system in BIH are not internationally competitive: “Despite constantly increasing participation of foreign banks and other financial institutions in the national banking systems, it is still necessary to persuade foreign investors that the current, constantly improving overall social situation will most likely be sustained in the future, and that they have to opt for long-term operation in the country.” (Sevic, 2000b: 279) Today the banks are significant players in the Bosnian financial system. Several empirical studies proved the positive relationship between financial sector developments and economic growth (e.g. Alfaro et al., 2003; Babić-Hodović et.al., 2008; Babić-Hodović et.al., 2009) References Alfaro, L.; Chanda, A.; Kalemli-Ozcan, S.; Sayek, S. (2003). FDI Spillovers, Financial Markets, and Economic Development, IMF Working Paper, Working Paper No. 03/186: 1-33. Babić – Hodović, V.; Mehić, E.; Agić, E. (2009). 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Extent The size or duration of the resource. 138 Title A name given to the resource Reconstruction and Developments in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author COSKUN, Ali ILGÜN, Erkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is a young republic in the South Eastern Europe, which become independent from Yugoslavia in 1992. The independency was a though process and the economy of BIH seriously damaged in the civil war period during 1992- 1995. But BIH Economy has been reconstructed and improved by taking important steps after the war. BIH Banking sector has also been developed significantly and restructured during the last decade. This paper examines both the current situation of the banking system of the Bosnia and Herzegovina and the developments in the sector after 1995. Main economic indicators for BIH in last decade reveal a strong post-war recovery. The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. Entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. In last 12 years banking sector of BIH significantly improved. For example total deposits in commercial banks of BIH increased by 769 %, total loans given by the commercial banks increased by 497 %, and total assets of the commercial banks increased by 530 % from 1997 to 2008. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory