35 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e9f5749b22dff302860926068835584.pdf b35b69f9a55c28e905bf273aa653430e PDF Text Text Ecological Plant Production in Turkey by Schematically Nilda ERSOY Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Horticultural Department, 42031, Konya/Türkiye, nersoy@selcuk.edu.tr Cumhur ERSOY Akdeniz University, Vocational High School, 07070, Antalya/Türkiye, cersoy@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: In recent years, organic farming not only in developed countries, has been spreading rapidly in developing countries. This case is largely result of the increasing importance among consumers for healthy food consumption and environment protection. Suitable for organic production and ecological conditions that has a production potential of our country, the world market share of organic products and food is low. The main purposes of this study are the current ecological farming products, the advantages and disadvantages of organic farming products in the world and especially in Turkey is considered to be schematically. Key Words: Ecological agriculture and Turkey What is the Meaning of Ecological Agriculture? Ecological (organic, biological) agriculture based on the use of high input industrial agriculture human health, the economy and the environment occurs in terms of the negative results have emerged as alternatives in the face of an agricultural system. (Altındişli and İlter 1999). Ten Reasons for Ecological Agriculture 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. To protect future generations To prevent soil erosion To protect water quality To protect the energy To away from the chemicals from our food To protect the health of agricultural workers To help small farmers To ensure a stable economy To ensure biological continuity To consume more delicious products (Aksoy 2005). Proposes and Properties of Ecological Agriculture Ecological agriculture is an agricultural system targeted a high quality. The main purpose of soil-plantanimal and human life in the production chain optimization in a healthy manner can provide (Figure 1). This is a production system which has contractual, planned, each stage has been recorded, controlled, certificated, primarily based on mutual trust (İlter and Altındişli 1996). 9 �Figure 1. Proposes of Ecological Agriculture How Ecological Agriculture has been Started? The world trade in organic products has started in the 1970s. Later, European companies have demanded ecological products from companies of Turkey. Thus, the ecological agriculture in our country began in 19841985. In these years, Turkey has produced the traditional export products organic dried figs and raisins in the Aegean region. Then such as products of dried apricots, hazelnut spread different regions (Aksoy 2005). Legal Regulations in Turkey ü 1992, Establishment of the Association of Ecological Agriculture Organization ü December 24th 1994, First Regulations ü June 29th 1995, Regulation changes ü July 11th 2002, Regulations on the re-edit ü July 22 2003 Establishment the Office of Alternative Agricultural Production Techniques ü December 3rd 2004, Publication of the Organic Agriculture Law ü June 10 2005, the publication of new regulations (Anonymous 2009a, Kayahan and Tan 1999). Advantages of Ecological Agriculture System � Synthetic chemicals in our country by a large number of farmers used very little, or never used. Therefore, the transition to organic agriculture is expected to be easy. 10 �� The manufacturer's revenue is increasing. � Rapidly increasing price of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and energy savings are entries. � The manufacturer's product is guaranteed to be taken by contract farming. � Export price of the ecological products at a rate 10-20% higher than the other products. � Special information for the ecological farming model of Agricultural Engineers create new employment fields (Anonymous 2009b). Disadvantages of Ecological Agricultural System � Supply of agricultural products year after year in our country, significant fluctuations are seen. The young and rapidly increasing population, consumption levels and the steady increase in diversity and the environment in almost all the countries of the demand of agricultural products because of the features of organic farming (in efficiency can occur due to a decrease) in short-term growth appears to be difficult. � Plant production in the emerging ecological farming methods a problem of land is too small, fragmented, and is close to each other. This situation negatively affects the organic production. � Ecological farming systems, especially in the marketing of farm products for the domestic market is an issue of new and uncertain.Enough agricultural extension studies has not been done because of the new topic. Also in this area include lack of qualified personnel (Anonymous 2009b). Ecological Agriculture in the World Approximately 31 million hectares area is managed as ecological according to the world-wide research. 39% of ecological agricultural land is in Oceania, 23% is in the Europe and 19% in the Latin America in the world. Countries have more ecological agriculture land are Australia (11.8 million ha), Argentina (3.1 million ha), China (2.3 million ha) and USA (1.6 million ha) respectively. Ecological agriculture is quickly developed world-wide. At the moment this agricultural system is being implemented in over 120 countries (Anonymous 2009c). Ecological Agriculture in Turkey In our country, ecological agriculture, has been in demand from European buyers. The first, ecologic raisin and dried Figures are grown in the Aegean region in 1984-85. When in 1990 only 8 different products produce as organic and the number of products and the amount of production has increased year by year (Anonymous 2009b). Offer a product to market as organic were monitored in our country are shown in schematic way (Figure 2). 11 �Figure 2. Chart of Organic farming organization in Turkey Most of organic products produced in our country are exported. Turkey exported the more organic products to Germany, USA and UK respectively in 2006 (Anonymous 2009c). The number of organic produce producers, production quantity, production areas and product range are increasing year after year in our country. While the number of producer is 1.947 in 1996, this value has reached 14.926 in 2008 (Figure 3) (Anonymous 2009a, Anonymous 2009d). As a result, the number of organic producers has increased 7 times in 10 years. Percentages of organic producers in Turkey are 39 % in Aegean Region, 18 % in Black sea Region, 13 % in East Anatolia Region, % 13 Middle Anatolia Region, % 13 in the Mediterranean, 3 % in Marmara Region and 1 % in South-East Anatolia according to the 2006 data (Figure 4) (Anonymous 2009a). While the Turkey’s ecological agriculture area is 6.789 ha in 1996, this area has reached at 166.883 ha in 2008. The amount of the field has been increased 24.5 times (Figure 5). Percentages of ecological agriculture area are 38 % in Aegean Region, 31 % in Black sea Region, 13 % in East Anatolia, 6 % in Middle Anatolia, 5 % in the Mediterranean, 5 % in Marmara and 2 % in the South-East Anatolia according to the 2006 data (Figure 6) (Anonymous 2009a). In recent years, the production area has been falling. The reason for this drop is the decline of the natural field collection area. While the total product types are 26 in 1996, the type number has reached 247 in 2008 (Figure 7) (Anonymous 2009a, Anonymous 2009d). 12 �Figure 3. Numbers of ecological producers in Turkey 3% 1% Aegean 13% Black Sea 39% 13% East Anatolia Middle Anatolia Mediterranean Marmara 13% South-East Anatolia 18% Figure 4. Numbers of farmers according to the regions of Turkey 13 �Figure 5. Area of ecological agriculture in Turkey 5% 5% 2% Aegean 6% 38% 13% Black Sea East Anatolia Middle Anatolia 31% Mediterranean Marmara South-East Anatolia Figure 6. Field Production in Turkey by Region (ha) Figure 7. The number of ecological products in Turkey. 14 �Acknowledgements Thanks to Selçuk University Coordination of Scientific Research Projects for Financial Support. References Anonymous (2009a). http://www.tarim.gov.tr/TarimPortal.html Anonymous (2009b). http://www.izmirtarim.gov.tr/organik/ekavdez.asp Anonymous (2009c). http://eto.org.tr/duneko.asp Anonymous (2009d). http://www.genbilim.com/content/view/4342/34/ Altındişli A. & İlter E., (1999). Eko-Tarımda İlke ve Kavramlar. Ekolojik Tarım, ETO Ekolojik Tarım Organizasyonu Derneği, s:24-29. Aksoy, U., (2005). Bahçe Bitkileri Tarımında Çevre Dostu Üretim Teknikleri (Editör: Prof. Dr. Ayşe Gül) Bölüm 1: Çevre Dostu Üretim Teknikleri, ISBN: 975-93098-3-1, 1-32. İlter, E. & Altındişli, A., (1996). Ekolojik (Organik, Biyolojik) Tarım (Editörler: Prof. Dr. Uygun Aksoy, Dr. Ahmet Altındişli), Ekolojik Tarım ve İlkeleri, 1-6. Kayahan, S. & Tan, İ., (1999). Ekolojik Tarım, ETO Ekolojik Tarım Organizasyonu Derneği, Ekolojik Tarımda Yasal Uygulamalar, 258-268. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 642 Title A name given to the resource Ecological Plant Production in Turkey by Schematically Author Author ERSOY, Nilda ERSOY, Cumhur Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, organic farming not only in developed countries, has been spreading rapidly in developing countries. This case is largely result of the increasing importance among consumers for healthy food consumption and environment protection. Suitable for organic production and ecological conditions that has a production potential of our country, the world market share of organic products and food is low. The main purposes of this study are the current ecological farming products, the advantages and disadvantages of organic farming products in the world and especially in Turkey is considered to be schematically. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f598a923d488869d958aab8586a0bfb6.pdf 941ba6ebf213fa3260fe173895a1d5e3 PDF Text Text Flower and Fruit Abscission in Orchards Nilda ERSOY Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Horticultural Department, 42031, Konya/Türkiye, nersoy@selcuk.edu.tr Mustafa BEKTAŞ Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Horticultural Department, 42031, Konya/Türkiye, mbarsiv@gmail.com Cumhur ERSOY Akdeniz University, Vocational High School, 07070, Antalya/Türkiye, cersoy@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: A small part of flowers which occurs by blooming and have fruit set stay on tree till harvest in fruit trees. If all flowers transformed to the fruit the tree would not feed these, not to be completed developing and decreased their quality. Hence, both the tree and growers are affected negatively. Researches show that even have good fertilization and growing conditions most of the flowers and fruits abscise. In fruit culture abscission of the flower and fruit is four forms. These ones are; flower, small fruit, June and pre-harvest period abscission. Many factors effect flower and fruit abscission. These ones are; lack of the fertilization, inadequate nutrition, lack of the plant growth regulators, diseases, pests and abnormal environmental factors, respectively. In this research, concerning reasons of flower and fruit abscission and the measures against these situations are evaluated. Key Words: Flower, fruit, abscission 1- Introduction Flower and fruit falls are one of the most important subject interest searchers and growers in fruit culture. These falls are called abscission in literature. Abscission is the sequence of events whereby a multicellular organ (e.g. leaf, flower, fruit, branch) becomes separated from the parent body. Abscission genetically programmed and control by plant growth regulators (Osborne 1989). When plants reached an apparent maturity and agedness stage fall their organs skin, branch, bud, leaf, flower etc as a development symptom. Abscissions are not exclusion of dead tissues contrary an active disconnection event. Abscissions realize in different organs and different times as a result of cellular and chemical changes occur in abscission layer (Burak 1994). As a rule, fall is postponed as long as an organ to continue in the physiological activity. However, physiological activity is complete, disease or physiological activity for any reason that the layout of the damaged organs can be seen that appears to fall (Kaynaş 2004). As it is known in fruit culture to get any crop one of the first condition is blooming. Enough to get a product is required for adequate blooming. In a good fertilization and maintenance conditions 15-20% of apple flowers in the open, pears 8-15% , citruses 1-3%, plums 3-4.5% , grapes 20-30%, olives 1-5% , raspberries 7080% (Kaynaş, 2004), avocado 0.2% (Anonymous 2007a) are a good yield when the fruit connected in this rates. Kiwi fruit, except that normally do not have the abscission and all the flowers to connect fruit (Anonymous 2007b). 1 �2- Taxonomy of Flower and Fruit Abscission in Fruit culture 4 groups of flowers and fruit in the fruit growing in the abscission it is possible to collect. These are flowers abscission, small fruit abscission, June abscission and pre-harvest abscission. 2.1. Flower Abscission The abscission occurs immediately after flowering. Why the lack of fertilization or damaged occur and in terms of the structure of the female organs are distorted, especially in deciduous flowers can be seen as rudimentary pistil. For example, 6% of pistachio in the flowers maturity yet to be accepted (receptivity) would die without access (Anonymous 2007c). Atrophy of the female organ with olive abscission sometimes 80% is reached. The average is 2 weeks. In fruit trees such as avocado (abscission takes 3 weeks and almost all the abscission will perform (Anonymous 2007a) in this process in the time of full bloom to apply growth inhibitors like paclobutrazol or uniconazole cause vegetative implementation lead to increased generative development as the amount of product increases. 2.2. Small Fruit Abscission The abscission happens 15-20 days later from flowers abscission. The fruit of the female organs are normal, but fertilization is disorder. Little or no developed embryos and endosperm did not occur. Nutrition disorders can also cause small fruit abscission. Auxin that flowers and small fruits inclusion abundantly increase abscission if it transports from abscission zone to other organs (Goldschmidt 1976, Goren and Goldschmidt 1970). In addition, the seeds of small fruit, especially in the ethylene synthesis in the seed coat are effective in small fruit abscission (Anonymous 2007a). 2.3. June Abscission At the figures 1 and 2 before and after June abscission with displays of the species of apple has been given. June abscission is seen about 1 month later from small fruit abscission. Fruits are the size of hazelnuts. That's because the very rapid growth and development of embryo and thereupon not to develop endosperm and embryo (Kaynaş 2004). Figure 1 Apples before June abscission (15 mm) (Anonymous 2007d) 2 �Figure 2 Apple after June abscission (21 mm) (Anonymous 2007d) 2.4. Pre-Harvest Abscission The abscission is just before full maturity (Figure 3). In fruit peduncle abscission layer and protective layer occurs from cells that have thin membranes (Figure 4) and the tissue stays to the abscission. Figure 3. Pre-Harvest abscission in apples (Anonymous 2007e) Protective layer Abscission layer Stem Fruit peduncle Figure 4. Abscission layer and protective layer (Anonymous 2007f) In the formation abscission layer the cell membrane are destroyed especially by cellulose and polygalactronase enzymes. Works are done in the direction to isolate the genes that synthesis by these enzymes (Burak 1994). Destruction of cells in that layer during the abscission is performed by melting. Certain cells in this layer semi-permeability are reduced, all protoplasts lose, intra of cells fill with and soften. In parallel with the softening pectin formation increases too in this parts. In this area vascular break off by mechanical effects and fruit abscission occurs (Kaynaş 2004). 3 �Pre-Harvest fruit abscission is a problem directly affect the grower. What if grower will not give more importance to the rate of abscission and will be satisfied with fruit trees remaining or before pre-harvest abscission grower will pick them without get quality and full color. Indeed, in both cases as well as the farmer also negatively affects the national economy (Burak 1994). However, pre-harvest abscission to be stopped and harvest has been extended by delayed harvest and fruit will increase marketing opportunities. The causes of pre-harvest abscission; before harvest hot-cold weather, excessive and late fertilization of nitrate, drought or high groundwater, fertilization and seed fewness, inadequate of boron and magnesium deficiencies, inadequate of plant growth regulators, especially abscisic acid is concentrated, auxin deficiency and is the increased synthesis of ethylene. Maintenance work to be done regularly is not enough to prevent pre-harvest abscission. To prevent this abscission should be done applications of synthetic auxin (Kaynaş 2004). If abscissions are not enough in horticulture by making flowers or fruits thinning vegetative and generative balance of the tree can be provided. For this purpose, thinning hand, chemical substances (dinitro compounds), and with growth regulators (auxins) is done (Kaynaş 2004). If abscission is more the growth realized as vegetative and the productivity will decrease. In this case the prevention of abscissions, or in a balanced manner to realize such as the plant water balance, nutrition programs and pruning techniques of cultural actions as appropriate to be done, to increase fertilization the bees in the garden and the use of growth regulators (auxins and gibberellic acid (GA) is possible (Kaynaş 2004). 3. Factors Play a Role in Flower and Fruit Abscission • • • • • • In general, flowers and fruit abscissions in fruit trees; Flaw of fertilization, Inadequacy of nutrition, Plant growth regulators for the flaw, Diseases of and harmful, Environment and culture conditions have emerged ahead of abnormalities. 3.1. Effects of Fertilization Flaws to Abscission Fertilization flaw is effective especially in flowers and small fruits abscission. The flowers are not fertilized and small fruits that not enough fertilized abscise. This situation, abscised fruits in numbers of full and empty seed can be explained by taking into consideration. For example, small fruit abscission in Masaya apple, 5% full, 80% empty seed and 15% in the dead ovis, small fruits in these rates remaining on brunch respectively, 89%, 1% and 10%. This study clearly shows the impact on fertilization is abscission (Özbek 1977). 3.2. Effect of Nutrition in Abscission 3.2.1. Effect of Water in Abscission Researches prove between the amount of water with the tree and fruit abscission there is an interest. The leaves that have a greater osmotic power to take the water from fruits be the cause of fruit abscission. Water flaw makes fast the fruit abscission in Spring and summer months. Moreover, the low air humidity, rise of temperature, more lighting and especially dry winds increase transpiration and encourage abscission (Özbek 1977, Coutanceau 1962, Chandler 1957). On the other hand, the impact of the flaw of the water varies according to physiological status and maintenance conditions. Fruit abscission in dry regions is more than rainy regions. Excessive water increases abscission like inadequate water. The trees have an optimal water capacity. Negative impact is seen on top of this. Observations have seen in the years of plentiful rainfall till June abscission like dry years abscission increase. This effect is estimated to be indirect. Excess amounts of water to speed up the development of shoot hence water causes abscission of the opponent fruit (Burak 1994). 3.2.2. Effect of Mineral Materials in Abscission In the period following fertilization the formation of seeds is very fast in this period especially nitrogen and phosphorus needs. Because of this, nitrogenous fertilization is important for the abundant flowering and despite of good fertilization conditions not fruit connected trees (Özbek 1977, Chandler 1957). Between vegetation beginning and June abscission stage nitrogen needs very much because of cell division. About 60% of annual nitrogen consumption of trees has emerged 3-4 months. According to 4 �observations, a very weak given the small amount of nitrogen in growing trees, fruits to reach the harvest can not provide. On the other hand, the strong improvement in the much amount of nitrogen in fruit trees will fall. Because the maximum amount to be used for development vegetatively and sufficient nutrient to reduce for fruit development in the medium (Burak 1994). 3.2.3. Effect of Carbohydrates on Abscission Carbohydrates are indispensable sources of energy in the formation of new tissue, and for all substance exchange. In this regard, especially in abscission periods of fruit trees an appropriate metabolic activity should be provided. Good nutrition by carbohydrates provides better to hold fruits (Özbek 1977). 3.3. Deficiencies in Plant Growth Regulators 3.3.1. Effect of Auxins in Abscission Auxin, abscission in the region by reducing the sensitivity of cells to ethylene is delayed fruit abscission. Fruits begin to develop in the first circuits in excess of the auxin amount that produced by seed and the rate decrease or increase depending on the development of seed. Flower and fruit of abscissions of less auxin to occur on the circuit, the circuit in more than has been found to stop (Lepold and Kridemen 1975, Chandler 1957, Westwood 1978). Implementation of the NAA in the time of early fruit development encourage ethylene production and allows small fruit abscission (Anonymous 2007g). 3.3.2. Effect of Ethylene on Abscission Ethylene is naturally generated during growth, development and maturation in plants. It is thought ethylene coordinates abscission, maturity and death process. Ethylene is produced in any part of the plant which is as a result of injury, and by reason of interact with other organs increase fruit abscission. When auxin level is low synthesis of ethylene increases and begin the process of abscission. In the case of the high level auxin ethylene is ineffective in the abscission. (Anonymous 2007g). 3.3.3. Effect of Abscisic Acid in Abscission ABA (Abscisic Acid) is a natural plant growth inhibitor and accelerates abscission. When ABA application is made in sour cherry abscission layer development fasted and cellular changes was found (Zucconi et al. 1969). 3.4. Effects of Harmfuls and Diseases on Abscission Diseases (Figure 5) and harmfuls cause abscission in significant amounts in fruit development process. Figure 5. Because of Phytophthora in citrus abscission (Anonymous 2007h) 5 �3.5. Abnormalities that Emerging in Environment and Culture Conditions 3.5.1. Climate Factors 3.5.1.1. Temperature In the conditions of appropriate nutrition development of fruit accelerates by increasing temperature. However, after a certain level (39 oC) development stops. Temperature is also affected root development. Water absorption speed of the roots increases until 30 - 40 oC and decreases by impairment of the cells over the degrees. In a very cold region in the spring, between the tree roots and over soil parts a different vegetative situation may be formed and important abscission can occur. The cold is very intense, especially sensitive to the causes of death of flowers and small fruit (Westwood, 1978). In this way, can generate very heavy production losses. Crane (1954) after 2 days of cold damage to the 2,4,5-T Tilton apricot varieties of fruit abscission of implementation is reduced, damaged most of the fruit was also determined that continued development. 3.5.1.2. Wind Especially in hot and dry wind as sweating increases significantly. Especially in the arid lands of this abscission is accelerated (Burak, 1994). 3.5.1.3. Rain It rains following a drought, will usually result in smaller fruit abscission. Furthermore, especially in the rains period of full bloom, by prevent fertilization causes abscission (Burak, 1994). 3.5.1.4. Soil Factor Organic matter status and richness in minerals of soil is effective to nourish the tree. Particularly in the strong soils determined that the flowers and fruits abscission are much by overdo fertilizing too (Ülkümen, 1973). 4. Measures for Flowers and Fruit Abscissions 4.1. Measures in the Field of Nutrition Works in this area are intended to provide a balanced nutrition system in the tree. These measures will be made either directly applications on the tree or by soil can be obtained. 4.1.1. Applications on the Tree 4.1.1.1. Pruning In the head of this practices there is pruning. By removing a portion of branches as a result reduced the number of flowers and small fruit, competition is lighted between them and better nutrition is provided. Thus each element more carbohydrate, nitrogen and hence own growth regulators produce materials. Time to prune is also important. If done early enough flowers is very good and quite benefits and better to be feed sexual cells show less tendency to abscission (Burak 1994). Moreover, pruning air and light status makes the appropriate correcting to suck carbon in all trees. However, to obtain positive results out of the branch must be chosen well. Violence of pruning must be set according to species and growth conditions of the tree (Chandler 1957, Westwood 1978). 4.1.1.2. Effect of Rootstock It is estimated that rootstocks effects indirect in fruit abscission. Direct effect of encouraging or reduction the growth of exile. The effect of rootstocks is different in strong and dwarf rootstocks. Developing of roots in dwarf rootstocks less compared to powerful rootstocks and they can benefit less from the nutrients. Therefore, shoot growth is limited in dwarf rootstocks. But as a natural result of competition between fruit and shoot decreases. Particularly it is frequently observed that as a result of over-fertilization shaking is occurred in trees that in powerful soils and grafted powerful rootstocks (Ülkümen 1973). But the purchase of mineral materials is limited in dwarf rootstocks such as the purchase of water. Therefore, irrigation is very important in dwarf rootstocks (Burak 1994). 6 �4.1.2. Applications Made Through Soil The processes are done through soil that flowers and fruits to take control of abscission for the irrigation, drainage, fertilization and maintenance of soil. A careful irrigation in all critical periods of continuous and to get into all roots in suitable style can reduce abscissions significantly (Özbek 1977, Ülkümen 1973, Countanceau 1962). Usually, in the following period of fertilization, because of fast seed development in fruits, trees needs especially nitrogen and phosphorus in this period. Therefore, nitrogen fertilization is important in abundant flowering and even though fertilization conditions are good not kept fruit, and in these cases 3 weeks before bloom giving of nitrate fertilizer often reduces or prevents abscission (Özbek 1977). 4.2. Measures in the Field of Plant Growth Regulators In 1939 the first studies on this subject were made by La Rue. La Rue has found the defoliation of the coleus plant delay using synthetic plant growth regulators. This important invention has been referred to many researchers on prevention abscission of different organs in different plant species by the synthetic plant growth regulators (Özbek 1971). Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) and derivatives are used as intense in pre-harvest abscission. NAA is applied 1 week ago from harvest; its effect begins after 3-4 days carry on 3-4 weeks. NAA is used 10 ppm in apples, pears at 5 ppm and 2.5 ppm in Williams’s pears. Fenoxi acetic acid and derivatives, 2,4-D, 2,4,5,-T and 2,4,5-TP have used 2-3 weeks ago from the harvest. The effects start after 5-7 days, and lasts 3 months (Kaynaş 2004). 10 ppm in citrus fruits, 3-5 ppm in Stayman and Winesap apple cultivars and in the pear 3 ppm 2,4-D; citrus for 5 ppm 2,4,5-T and apple for 2,4,5-TP used. Aminozid (Alar, B9, SADH) is a substance effective of antigibberellin and inhibitor regress that internal ethylene synthesis. It slows fruit maturity, delays abscission and extend harvest period. Alar is used in intended amount because there is no negative impact on ability of storing. In fact the fruit inside watery spots and the fruit scald reduces, the flesh hardness is sustained and the formation of the top colors is improved. But it is applied in very early term of fruit is smaller. Usually 2-3 weeks before harvest and in the rate of 0.1-2% (Kaynaş 2004). Auxin applications sometimes give different results at the level of variety. For example, the 2.4-D application are able to achieve results in Staymen Winesap and Winesap apple cultivars, there is no any change in Golden Delicious and Mc Intosh apples (Burak 1994). Serr and Forde (1952), In Peerless almond cultivar, when the first coat is seen to crack 10 ppm 2.4-D and 20 ppm 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy propionic acid applied and observed fruit application has been blocked and due to there is no tree damage in any record ( Burak 1994). WookJae et al. (2006) determined in Tsugaru apple cultivar to control pre-harvest fruit abscission applied 125 mg AVG/l (aminoethoxyvinylglycine) and have seen flesh hardness increased, there is no preharvest abscission occurred and harvest delayed 10 days from normal time. It is understood that the reason of fruit abscission of a group of Italian plums (Prunus salicina L.) abortion of embryo. Abscission is significantly reduced by the spraying of 5-20 ppm 2,4,5-TP before 2 weeks from seed hardening (Westwood 1978). Acknowledgements Thanks to Selçuk University Coordination of Scientific Research Projects for Financial Support. 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Decidious Orchards. Lea and Febiger, Philedelpia, 432s. Coutanceau, N., (1962). Arboriculture Fruitieres. J. B. Baillers et Fills. Paris, 575s. Crane, J. C., (1954). Frost resistance and reduction in drop of fruits by 2,4,5-T tri-clorophenoxyacadic acid. Porc Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 64:225-31. Goldschmidt, E. E., (1976). Endogenous growth substances of citrus tissues. Hortscience 11:95-99. Goren, R., Goldschmidt, E. E., (1970). Regulative systems in the developing citrus fruits. I. The hormonal balance in orange fruit tissues. Physiol. Plant. 23:937-947. Kaynaş, K., (2004). Bahçe Bitkileri Fizyolojisi. Ç.O.M.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi, 75:57-60 Lepold, A.C., Kridemen, P.T., (1975). Plant Growth and Development McGraw Hill Book Company. New York, 545s. Osborne D.J., (1989). Abscission. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 8, 103–129. Özbek, S., (1977). Genel Meyvecilik. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fak, Yay. 111 Adana 386s. Özbek, S., (1971). Hormonlar ve Bağ-Bahçe Ziraati. A.Ü. Ziraat Fak. Yayın no: 48 ANKARA Serr, E.F., Forde, H.I., (1952). Sprays for control of preharvest drop of Peerless almonds. Proc.Amer.Soc.Hort.Sci. 60, 193-6. Ülkümen, L., (1973). Bağ-Bahçe Ziraatı. Atatürk Üniv. Zir. Fak. Yayınları Erzurum, 425 s. Westwood, M. N., (1978). Temperate-Zone Pomology. W.H. Freeman and Company. San Francisco, 428 s. WookJae, Y., Kang, I., Kweon H., Kim, M., Kim D., Lee D., Byun J., (2006). Usage potentiality of starch pattern index at aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatment to prevent preharvest drop in 'Tsugaru' apple fruits. Korean Journal of Horticultural Science & Technology, 24(1):64-69. Zucconi, F., Stosser, R., Bukovac, M. J., (1969). Promotion of Fruit Abscission with Abscisic Acid BioScience, 19: 815-817. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 641 Title A name given to the resource Flower and Fruit Abscission in Orchards Author Author ERSOY, Nilda BEKTAŞ, Mustafa ERSOY, Cumhur Abstract A summary of the resource. A small part of flowers which occurs by blooming and have fruit set stay on tree till harvest in fruit trees. If all flowers transformed to the fruit the tree would not feed these, not to be completed developing and decreased their quality. Hence, both the tree and growers are affected negatively. Researches show that even have good fertilization and growing conditions most of the flowers and fruits abscise. In fruit culture abscission of the flower and fruit is four forms. These ones are; flower, small fruit, June and pre-harvest period abscission. Many factors effect flower and fruit abscission. These ones are; lack of the fertilization, inadequate nutrition, lack of the plant growth regulators, diseases, pests and abnormal environmental factors, respectively. In this research, concerning reasons of flower and fruit abscission and the measures against these situations are evaluated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7175edbded5a2c187fe125542c2f4a36.pdf 65bb958bdd15d440e20e8024d0ec91d3 PDF Text Text An Investigation of the Effective E-Learning Criteria for Higher Education Institutions Özcan Asilkan Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania oasilkan@epoka.edu.al Fatih Ersoy Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania afersoy@epoka.edu.al Abstract: The recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies affected education industry as well as other industries all over the world. Over the past decade, higher education institutions have been increasingly utilizing e-learning programs. However, some experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems might result in failure and disappointment. Therefore educational institutions should develop and follow the corporate guidelines so that the courses can be taught effectively and students can feel comfortable to adapt quickly to the other e-learning based courses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning for higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University in Spring semester of 2008-2009 academic year. The findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions who are planning to establish e-learning. Introduction The advancement in ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) and the widespread use of computers have generated a remarkable interest in on-line education in the past decade. This advancement led educational institutions search for alternatives to the traditional education. Consequently, they started to offer online education, or simply “e-learning” which aims to eliminate the dependency to the traditional classrooms and/or improve the learning environment (Eastman & Swift, 2001). There are many definitions of e-learning. For example, Zhang et al. (2004) defined it as “technologybased learning in which learning materials are delivered electronically to remote learners via a computer network”. A very comprehensive one was proposed by Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre: “learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communication technologies” (Jenkins & Hanson, 2003). Although e-learning is utilized by many educational institutions and companies today, the major beneficiaries are higher education institutions due to their high number of learners whose ages are very suitable for understanding e-learning. Nowadays, a great number of higher education institutions are providing e-learning courses or complete programs to the students. Besides, the number of those higher institutions is continually increasing. It is becoming evident that on-line education will become an integral part of higher education in the foreseeable future (Nakos et al., 2002). Despite this increasing interest in e-learning, some recent studies claimed that e-learning is less popular amongst learners compared with traditional learning and there is less demand for online study than enthusiasts predicted (Mcleod, 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008). Some other experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems may even result in failure and disappointment. Since e-learning is a new concept and has been popular swiftly, many higher institutions implemented it without determining corporate guidelines and critical success factors, measuring students perception, etc. Actually, an understanding of students’ perception and the factors that drive adoption intention will be very useful to make this mode of learning more acceptable. Additionally, teachers who are experienced in e-learning might be expected to understand what students are looking for when they are choosing their mode of studies (Lam & Bordia, 2008). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University which is located in a transition country, Albania. E-learning issues are comparatively little known in Albania and there seems no relevant study researching e-Learning in the higher 249 �education institutions in this small lovely country. Therefore findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions in Albania or other transition countries to establish their e-learning strategies. E-Learning Models E-learning models used at the higher education institutions can be classified according to various criteria. Three major categories are presented below (Eurybase, 2009): 1. The role of e-learning: a) Full e-learning programs – students obtain access to e-learning contents put on an online platform (like web) or distributed on CDs. Students are usually supported by tutors that use various communication tools (chat, discussion forum, e-mail, virtual classroom, videoconferences). Students take presence at the university several times a year, during which they take exams, participate in kick-off classes. This model is being used successfully only by a small set of universities. b) Traditional learning programs supported by ICTs in the area of communication and collaboration – this model is usually used by institutions that haven’t developed e-learning contents yet. c) Blended learning programs – students attend traditional led classes, which are supported with e-learning contents. This is the most popular model today. 2. E-learning content distribution method: a) Computer based training – it is a popular model in universities who are lack of high Internet access. b) Web based training – it is becoming more and more popular due to some improvements in IT infrastructure, as well as the increased availability of cost-effective e-learning solutions. 3. E-learning solutions used: a) Self-developed platforms – they were quite common a few years ago that universities started to develop own solutions instead of purchasing expensive commercial ones. However due to the need for continuous investment in self-developed platform to follow new standards, decreasing prices of commercial solutions, appearance and popularization of open source platforms (e.g. Moodle), only few universities still continue to develop their own platforms. b) Open source platforms – they are commonly used today in many universities. These platforms are usually free and can be easily adapted to the particular needs of a university. One of the most popular platforms is Moodle. Moodle implementations however are rarely integrated with other university systems and their usages lack standardization and coherence between various courses (Please see http://moodle.org/ for a detailed information on Moodle). c) Commercial platforms – they are usually integrated with other university systems and their usage seems to be the most professional compared to self-developed and open source platforms. These platforms are usually preferred by universities who offer a comprehensive set of e-learning courses. E-Learning Pros and Cons Recent developments in ICTs have made e-learning a feasible alternative to access to educational and training opportunities for learners of all ages, at all levels, and in different environments. In contrast to traditional classroom learning, e-Learning has several advantages for learners. First, e-learning provides time and location flexibility. Second, in the long run, e-learning results in cost and time savings for educational institutions. Third, it supports self-directed and self-paced learning by conducting learner-centered activities. Fourth, e-learning offers a collaborative learning environment by linking each learner with physically dispersed experts and peers. Fifth, it allows unlimited access to electronic learning materials. In addition, knowledge stored in a Web repository can be updated and maintained in a timely and effective fashion (Anaraki, 2004). 250 �On the other hand, superficial e-learning systems can result in frustration, anxiety, confusion, and reduced learner interest. Some of the problems that hinder the effectiveness of e-learning are listed below (Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). • Lack of forms of communication, body language and voice inflection: Compared to traditional classroom teaching, the electronic experience takes away much of the social and diversity aspects in the elearning class. These important skills are important in the business community and in an individual’s success in interacting face-to-face with others. • Text-based learning materials: The learning materials composed of only text may seem boring to learners and cause them to disengage during online learning. • Unstructured and isolated multimedia content: Many multimedia-based e-learning systems simply post content on the Web without any processing. Postings are usually static, passive and unstructured, without any link to relevant materials in different media. For example, instructional videos and PowerPoint slides of the same lecture are presented separately. Learners may even have to go to two different Web sites to view both of them. • Lack of rich content: A number of e-learning systems lack adequate instructions for students. Some systems provide only PowerPoint slides which may not ensure that learners understand the learning content. It is not uncommon for readers of those slides to fail in understanding what an instructor really means by all those bullet points. • Insufficient interactivity or flexibility: Many current e-learning systems are not quite interactive. Learners have little flexibility to adapt learning content and process to meet their individual needs. For example, it may not be possible to find exactly what is wanted or to skip a portion of content that is already known (Hammond, 1995). In other cases, a student may want to ask a question and get an answer right away instead of sequentially going through an entire instructional video or other multimedia content to find an answer. Most multimedia-based e-learning systems do not provide this capability. Table 1 illustrates the pros and cons of e-learning in comparison with traditional classroom learning (Zhang et al., 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). Advantages Traditional Classroom Learning Immediate feedback ƒ Being familiar to both instructors and students Motivating students ƒ Cultivation of a social community ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ Instructor-centered Time and location constraints ƒ More expensive to deliver Disadvantages ƒ Lack of individual interactivity especially in ƒ crowded classes. ƒ ƒ E-Learning Learner-centered and self-paced Time and location flexibility Cost-effective Potentially available to global audience Unlimited access to knowledge Archival capability for knowledge reuse and sharing Lack of immediate feedback in asynchronous elearning Increased preparation time for the instructor Not comfortable to some people Potentially more frustration, anxiety, and confusion Lack of social communication Table 1. Pros and Cons of E-Learning Effective E-Learning Criteria Establishing e-Learning courses is a very complex process that includes many critical success factors. Thus, institutions and educators need to consider these factors to provide effective learning environments. The institution should firstly determine its own corporate guidelines and inform the educators to base their courses on them. This is especially important in order to maintain a common user interface for each course. Here are some examples to corporate guidelines: (Zeidman, 2003; Anaraki, 2004) • • • • • • • Learning objectives must be clearly defined. The course structure must be well thought-out and consistent for each course The user interface must be easy to use and consistent for each course. Courses must be prepared by instruction experts with experience in instructional design. The courses must require regular interaction with the student. The progress must be measured, tracked, and reported. Minimum course materials must be determined (i.e. PowerPoint Slides, Videos, etc). 251 �• • Support tools (labs, references, collaboration, etc.) must be determined. Platform security must be maintained. A very comprehensive and challenging work has been done by Blass and Davis (2003) to explore the eight areas in terms of guiding principles that can be tailored to the needs of the particular student group and faculty. They grouped these principles into four higher order groupings or criteria, with the central concerns of each of these criteria identified (see Table 2). The relationships between the criteria and guiding principles are shown in the flowchart in Figure 1. Guidingprinciples 1Appropriatenessofstafandcontent 2Appropriatenessformarketandstudents .3Learningaspirations 4Cognitveergonomics 5Faculty-studentinteraction 6Student-studentinteraction 7Reinforcementstrategy 8Achievementofpurpose Higherordercriteria Centralconcerns Appropriateness Ise-learningappropriateandsustainable? Design Whatisthetargetpopulationandwhatshouldthee-learninglookandfeelike? Interaction Howwilstudentsandfacultyinteract? Evaluation Howarebothstudentlearningandproduct efectivenessassessed? Table 2. Guiding principles and Higher Order Criteria for E-Learning Development (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Figure 1. Relations between criteria and guiding principles. (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Obeying the guidelines of the institution, instructors must separately evaluate the student satisfaction towards the online course they are providing. Obtaining ‘feedback’ from students about the design and implementation of the learning environment provided is an essential part of identifying what has worked, and where improvements could be made in the future (Pearson & Trinidad, 2005, p. 396). Although educators may create their own survey forms, we can suggest them to use a qualified and effective survey instruments like OLES, one that was used and presented in the methodology section of this study. 252 �Methodology This study utilized an instrument called Online Learning Environment Survey (OLES). OLES is a webbased instrument for evaluating e-learning environments. Participants of the survey are asked to indicate their ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ experiences with components of online learning in a course they take. The data collected and the resultant statistics depict the actual and preferred learning environment of learners giving valuable feedback to educators working in these environments. OLES can be administered totally online by the educators. Using the OLES, educators can gather valuable pre-course and post-course data to evaluate the effectiveness of the e-learning environment. Adjustments can then be made accordingly to improve or adjust the learning environment. OLES instrument was developed by Dr. Sue Trinidad and Dr. John Pearson. Additional information about OLES can be obtained from http://www.monochrome.com.au/oles/survey.htm. OLES contains 54 items arranged in nine scales – Computer Usage (CU); Teacher Support (TS); Student Interaction and Collaboration (SIC); Personal Relevance (PR); Authentic Learning (AL); Student Autonomy (SA); Equity (EQ); Enjoyment (EN); and Asynchronicity (AS). Samples of items in each scale are shown in Table 3. Respondents are asked to rate items using a five-point scale (Almost Never; Seldom; Sometimes; Often; Almost Always). OLES is available in two forms: the student version and teacher version. In this paper, only data on the use of the student version has been used. SCALES SAMPLE ITEMS Computer Usage (CU) (6 items) I use the computer to find out information about the course. (3) I use the computer to take part in online discussions with other students. (6) Teacher Support (TS) (8 items) If I have an inquiry, the teacher finds the time to respond. (7) The teacher gives me valuable feedback on my assignments. (10) Interaction & Collaboration I discuss my ideas with other students. (18) I can collaborate with other students in the class. (19) (SIC) (6 items) Personal Relevance (PR) (5 items) I am able to pursue topics that interest me. (22) I link class work to my life outside of this class. (24) Authentic Learning (AL) (5 items) I work on assignments that deal with real-world information. (28) I apply real world experience to the topic of study. (30) Student Autonomy (SA) (5 items) I work during times I find convenient. (32) I play an important role in my own learning. (34) Equity (EQ) (7 items) I get the same amount of help from the teacher as do other students. (37) I receive the same encouragement from the teacher as other students do. (39) Enjoyment (EN) (6 items) Online learning is exciting. (44) I would enjoy my education if more of my classes were online. (47) Asynchronicity (AS) (6 items) I access the discussion forum at places convenient to me. (49) The process of writing and posting messages helps me to think. (52) Table 3. Guiding OLES scales and sample items (Source: Pearson & Trinidad, 2006) The data were collected from OLES that were applied to 13 MBA students taking Supply Chain Management course in Spring 2009 semester at Epoka University. The course included online discussions, assignments and some visual course materials as an adjunct to classroom presentations given by the lecturer every 3 weeks. Of the students 62% were female (n=8) and 38% were male (n=5). Findings The summarized responses of 13 students who completed OLES are shown in Table 4 and Figure 2. As one would expect, ‘preferred’ scores were higher than ‘actual’ scores. Means of scores ranged from 3.11 to 4.45 for ‘actual’ and 3.81 to 4.67 for ‘preferred’. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) revealed significant differences for the Computer Usage (CU), Teacher Support (TS), Personal Relevance (PR), and Authentic Learning (AL) scales in 95% confidence level. These results are giving opportunity to the lecturer of this course to identify unsatisfied aspects and update the e-learning environment supplied to the students. 253 �OLES Scale Computer Usage (CU) Teacher Support (TS) Student Interaction & Collaboration (SIC) Personal Relevance (PR) Authentic Learning (AL) Student Autonomy (SA) Equity (EQ) Enjoyment (EN) Asynchronicity (AS) Actual / Preferred Actual 3,40 Std. Deviation 0,964 Preferred 4,27 0,516 0,143 Actual 3,58 1,007 0,279 Preferred 4,48 0,788 0,218 Actual 3,35 1,287 0,357 Preferred 3,81 1,367 0,379 Actual 3,11 0,889 0,247 Preferred 4,05 1,120 0,311 Actual 3,37 1,110 0,308 Preferred 4,34 0,685 0,190 Actual 3,45 1,138 0,316 Preferred 4,03 1,183 0,328 Actual 4,45 0,606 0,168 Preferred 4,67 0,513 0,142 Actual 3,13 0,884 0,245 Preferred 3,82 1,039 0,288 Actual 3,72 0,939 0,261 Preferred 4,33 0,670 0,186 Mean Std. Error 0,267 F Sig. 8,243 0,008 6,502 0,018 0,785 0,384 5,598 0,026 7,177 0,013 1,650 0,211 1,005 0,326 3,340 0,080 3,708 0,066 Table 4. Statistics between students’ ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ scores on the OLES scales Figure 2. Graphical Representation of Students’ Actual and Preferred Scores Conclusion This study investigated the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. Elearning environments can not be effective without considering students’ needs and preferences. Obtaining student feedback is thus crucial for the successful design and implementation of e-learning environment. The study presented important findings regarding the students’ feedback on a sample e-learning course. By the help of effectiveness criteria and empirical results, higher education institutions can plan and implement e-learning strategies and thus improve the e-learning courses they offer to satisfy their students. The findings of this study also showed that OLES is a valuable tool to help higher education institutions and lecturers evaluate the effectiveness of their online courses. The results gathered by OLES or similar tools can be used to make changes to the design of actual e-learning environments. 254 �References Anaraki, F., (2004). Developing an Effective and Efficient eLearning Platform, International Journal of The Computer, the Internet and Management, 12 (2), 57-63. Blass, E. & Davis, A. (2003). Building on Solid Foundations: Establishing Criteria for E-learning Development, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 27 (3), 227-245. Eastman, J. & Swift, C. (2001). New horizons in distance education: The online learner centered marketing class. Journal of Marketing Education, 23, (1), 25-34. Eurybase – Retrieved from the web on May 25, 2009. http://www.easy-elearning.net/downloads/e-learning_in_Polonia.pdf Jenkins, M. & Hanson, J. (2003). E-Learning Series No.1: A guide for Senior Managers. Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre, UK, August 2003. Lam, P. & Bordia, S. (2008). Factors Affecting Student Choice of e-Learning over Traditional Learning: Student and Teacher Perspectives, The International Journal of Learning, 14 (12), 131-140. McLeod, D. (2004). Hefce Pulls the Plug on UK e-University. Education Guardian, March 4. Nakos, G. E., Deis, M.H., & Jourdan, L. (2002). Students’ Perceptions of On-line Courses: An Exploratory Study. Turkish Journal of Online Distance Education (TOJDE), 3 (1). Pearson, J. & Trinidad, S. (2006). Evaluating E-Learning environments in initial teacher education using the online learning environment survey (OLES), ACEC 2006 - The Australian Computers in Education Conference, Cairns, Australia. Zeidman, B. (2003). Guidelines for Effective E-Learning. Chief Learning Officer, 24-31. Zhang, D., Zhao, J., Zhou, L., & Numamaker, J. (2004). Can e-learning replace classroom learning?. Communication of the ACM, 47 (5), 75–78. 255 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 409 Title A name given to the resource International On-Line Degree Programs in Higher Education: Proposals for Albania, Turkey and University Computer Centers Author Author ERSOY, Ahmed Fatih ASILKAN, Özcan Abstract A summary of the resource. Higher education is education provided by universities and other institutions that award academic degrees. Higher education includes both the teaching and the research activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as quaternary education or graduate school). Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as vocational education. However, most professional education is included within higher education, and many postgraduate qualifications are strongly vocationally or professionally oriented, for example in disciplines such as law and medicine. In this study the trends in higher education, the effects of globalization on higher education, the opportunities presented by communication and information technologies; and the effects of changes in higher education on globalization will be mentioned. At the end of the present study a road map will be presented by taking the suggestions and position of Turkey and Albania as a starting point for computer centers at universities. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/159c9cd74ee9154a55e95660f948b007.pdf 07659dd9c770010edc383ecc85743f19 PDF Text Text The Role of Universities in Sustainable Development Ali Rıza ERDEM Pamukkale University Faculty of Education Kudret GEZER Pamukkale University Faculty of Education Abstract: Sustainable development is a concept which entails that economic development needs to be maintained without any harm to the environement. In addition sustainable development is a sort of development which helps today’s generation to meet their needs without risking those of the future generations. In the light of such a view, using the natural resources effectively, reducing the waste amount to a minimum level, and recyling the resources, needs of the future generations will be provided and environment be continously preserved. Sustainable development means programming the present and future life and development in such a way to meet the needs of generations today and tomorrow without exploiting the natural resources but by establishing a balance between the nature and the humanbeings. Sustainable development is also a concept which has its social, environmental, economic and institutional perspectives. The fundemantals of such a concept were first established according to the report prepared by the World Environment and Development Comission in 1987. Behind the environmental problems that arise similarly in many countries lie imbalance between the economy and the environment. Humanbeings increase the standards of life with the help of ever growing science, technology and industry, whereas they do big harm to the nature. The indicators pertinent to sustainable development are the ones used to measure the rate of progress achieved and also to show the extent to which objectives are attained. These are also useful means to facilitate decision-making process to secure sustainable develoopment in environmental, economic and social terms. Universities that play an important role to educate professional people, to carry out academic research, and to assume community service have important responsibilities and duties for sustainable development internationally and nationwide. This article critically reviews the role of universities as one of the strategic components of sustainable development. Key Words: Sustainable Development, Universities, Structure and Role Introduction Word population has increased gradually sınce 1950. The quality of life which is increasing in developed contries brings with fast consumption. The more production means the more consumption, and the more garbage the more contaminated the nature become. Global warming, the ozon layer (weakentig) variety of the herbals and animals, abserviation the negative results of being common of the air, water and earth contaminatied; and also these environmental problems gaining global dimension mutual interaction of economic and cnvironmental atmosphere, so all these reality of the need of being evaluated together makes it conceal. The fact that naturel resource, are limited is a widely accepted view in he intunatiand arena and has turned the sustainable development into a theory. Sustainable Development The terms of Sustainable Development were first took in place in the Project of Our Common Future Report by World Environment and Development Commission in 1987.The main reason of the environmental problems happening in the same way, in many countries in the world is the unbalance between the economy and environment. Mankind at the same time is raising up his economical life standards through the developing science technology and industry, on the other hand he is giving harm to the nature. Sustainable development is one of the most significant concepts of the twenty first century. The sustainable development draws attention that the economical development should be done without giving harm to the nature. The sustainable development is such a development that it meets the needs of present generation’s needs avoiding from giving harm to the future generations to meet their basic needs. By the help of this, using the natural resources effectively, diminishing the amount of the waste, enabling the reuse of resources, the 294 �constant protection of the environment will become true and the needs of future generation’s needs will be provided. Sustainable development means that planning the life and the development of today and the future generations through keeping the balance between the nature and mankind without consuming the natural resources so that the new generations could meet their ends. Sustainable development is such a concept that has social, environmental economical and institutional dimensions. Primarily sustainable development consists in human, honor, basic human rights, justice, frredom, peace, reciprocal love and respect as well as believing in wisdom rather than power. The strategies of sustainable development can be condensed into six titles such as environment, future, life standard, justice, precautional principles and the whole consideration. (Engel1990;Bigg&Felix;Gough&Scott,2006;Poharyles,2007;Talu,2007;Baykal,2008;Sinemilioğlu,2009;Özyol,8 .5.09;Dalal.8.5.09) The signs of the sustainable development related to the dimensions of the sustainable development are the indicators that measures how much improvement in the sustainable development has been gained and how much has been reached to the planned targets. The indicators of the sustainable development are the most important devices that help us to provide the sustainable development in social environmental economical and institutional ways. Sustainable Development And Universities Profession has national and international responsibilities and missions in universities which take on academical searching and ministration to the community in sustainable development. The importance of universities which is one strategic element of sustainable development, mustn't be blinked. University is a strategic agent in improving social, environmental, economical and instituinal indicators of sustainable development in national dimension. The Social Sustainability and Universities ⎯ Educating people is facal point in social dimension of sustainable development. Improving of quality of life is aimed by constant education.These are social indicators of social sustainable development: ⎯ Equality;(a)poverty (ratio of population of whom live under the poverty frontier , index of income inequality , the ratio of unemployment) (b) gender equality (the average of the ration of female employee earning to male employee earning) ⎯ Health; (a) the condition of alimentation ( the condition of alimentation of children)(b) death ratio of children under 5, life expectation in child-bearing) (c) the conditions of hygiene (the ratio of population taking enough dirty water waste ministration) (d)drinking water (the ratio of population taking basic health ministration, the vaccination against contagious child pathos, the ratio of using of methods of birth control) ⎯ Education;(a) education level (the number of primary education grads ) (b) Literacy (the ratio of adult literacy ) ⎯ Settlement ;(a)settlement conditions (life area for a person) ⎯ Security;(a) crime (the crime recorded for 100,000 people) ⎯ Population;(a) changing of popularity (the ratio of increasement of popularity) ⎯ Training of people in society,taking advantage of health ministration is so important. Universities take on an important mission by co-operating with other official, individual education institutions in training forever of people in society.But it is not possible to say that this co-operation is enough.Additionaly, universities having medico faculty and explarotary-technic hospital take on an important mission in taking basic and advanced health ministration to people in society away. Environmental Maintenance and Universities The indications related to the environmental dimension of continuing development which emerges in parallel with technological development are up to the very critical and vital level. It is necessary to give much more importance to the natural sources which are renewable and not to consume the ones, which are not renewable, entirely. Especially living natural sources should be saved from extinction and being used up. Those living sources’ being consumed as a purpose of nourishment unconsciously by people causes corruption of ecological balance by facing those living creatures to extinction. Here, either renewable or not, the effectively usage which can enable every natural sources’ maintenance is the main goal. The environmental indications of continuing development (Nemli, 8.5.2009; Özyol, 8.5.2009): 1. Atmosphere; (a) climate change (emissions of hothouse gases), (b) corruption of ozone layer (consumption of the matters which damage the ozone layer), (c) air quality (ratio of air pollution in cities), 295 �2. Soil; (a) agriculture (plantation fields, usage of fertilizer, usage of agricultural chemicals), (b) forests (percentage of heavily forested areas, intensity of cutting the trees), (c) loosing top soil and becoming desert (fields affected by turning into desert), (d) urbanization (wideness of settlement of urban areas), 3. Oceans, seas and shores; (a) coastal regions (ratio of alga’s being intense by the shores, ratio of population living in the coastal regions), (b) fishery (ratio of important species hunted yearly), 4. Water; (a) amount of water (ratio of yearly usage of groundwater), (b) water quality (level of organic material in the water), 5. Biological variety; (a) ecosystem (ratio of important ecosystems, ratio of fields under control), (b) species (presence of important species) The importance given about issues related to environmental maintenance such as respecting the nature, reducing the pollution, protecting the species, enabling the ecosystem variety etc. has increased nationally and internationally. Universities have contributed a great deal to increase the sensitivity of people about environmental protection by both sharing the results of scientific studies that they have done and acting together and collaborating with the other environmentalist organizations. Universities should be more active for this issue. Sustainable Economy and Univerities The basis of sustainable economy is based an the fact that it’s limited to the saurces in nature. The dimension of sustainable development is production consumption and Grass National Product (GNP) per person. The indicators of sustainable economy are the followings: 1) Economic structure: a) Economic performance (gross domestic product per person, rate of investments in Gross Domestic Product) b) Commerce ( the balance of payments at property and service) c) Financial pasition ( the rate of detts to G.N.P.;exterlar assistance that’s taken as the persent of G.N.P. ) 2) Models of Production and Consumption: a) Consumption of stuffs ( density of the use of stuff) b) Use of energy ( annual cansumption of energy per person rate of the use of renovsable sources of energy) c) Production and direction of waste material (production of solid waste materionis of industry and municipality, production of dangerous waste materials, direction of radioactive waste materials, recyeling and reusing of waste Technoparks which were opened with the coaperation of universty-private sector provide association of industry-universty and indirectly the develapment of structures of production in the direction of protection of natural balance at economic sustainability. However, today tecnoparks which were opened with the coaperation of unıversty-private sector aren’t enough. Institutional Sustainablity and Universities The institutional dimension of sustainable development depends an strategy. The strategies, which are applied at the direction of the decisions that are concerned with the institutional dimensions of sustainable development directly affect the other dimensions, the direction and the success of sustainable development. The institutional indicators of sustainable development are: 1) Institutional frame: a) Strategical sustainable growing applications ( national sustainable developing strategies) b) ınternational cooperation ( the applications of signed global agreements) 2) ınstitutional capasity a) Access to knowledge ( the numbers of internet users-1.000 pers person) b) substructure of communication ( the numbers of telephone lines-1000 per person) c) science and technology ( as a percent of GSMH research-clevelopment (Ar-ge) expenditures) d) being prepared to natural disasters (casualties and economical losses which are caused by natural disasters) In the gross of National Outcame, the partion of research-development is nearly %2.60 in USA, %2.30 in G7, %2.15 in OECD, %1.73 in the countries of Europeon Union (Gümüş, 1.4.2008; TUIK 1.4.2008) Universities contribute to institutional sustainablity by making especially research development studies. If the universities take the important parts of the partion which is seperated from GSMH for research-development, important sources will be provided for bath institutional sustainablity and ecanomical sustainablity. Self-awareness of “Sustainable development” and the Universities Individual and foundational awareness in sustainable development is essential in regards to reaching the suggested aims. Foundational awareness and individual awareness are like two halves of a whole. However, initially individual awareness has to be realized in order to realize foundational awareness. Otherwise, not only 296 �will the support and individual attendance of foundations to sustainable development activities be sufficient, but also there will be no deliberate and permanent pressure to trigger the activation of foundations on sustainable development. Universities are on the top list of foundations which will take the responsibilities and achieve it about rising awareness on social, environmental and foundational sustainable development. Both the qualified staff of them and the respection of society towards them will make it easy to realize this role. Because of this, universities must be the pioneers with their activities to raise awareness among society on “Sustainable life” and to make individuals to gain integrative perspective. Conclusion Sustainable development is not an aim that could be achieved by foundations one by one. Cooperation of foundations at both national and international levels and especially their coordination are necessary. Nongovernmental organizations, private sectors, public sectors and universities should be in cooperation and coordination for sustainable development. Universities should be a more effective strategic (determinant) factor in improving the indicators of especially social, environmental, economical and institutive sustainable development in a national dimension. Additionally, universities should improve individual’s awareness thorough community oriented activities while social, environmental, economical and institutive sustainable development is in effect. Universities should work by comprising realistic, modernist and effective new strategies with other foundations in cooperation and coordination for achieving their roles in sustainable development. According to experimental results, it is necessary that changes in strategies be put into practice on time and functionally. Universities should undertake the lead in any sort of education given about sustainable development ( Charon& Montburn, 2009 ). Renewable and unrenewable natural resources should be advertised with the aid of education programs under the guidance of universities. Also, optimum usage of all resources should be provided by finding alternative energy resources. People should learn development without risking the future while they provide their needs without harming the environment. References Baykal, H. & Baykal T. (2008) Küreselleşen dünyada çevre sorunları, Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 5 (9), 1-17 Bertrand, Y. A. Neden sürdürülebilir kalkınma? (Herkes için pedagojik bir sergi), İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.sj.k12.tr/html/dayanisma/2005_2006/yab.pdf dan indirildi. Bigg, T. & Felix, D. (1997) The UN commission on sustainable development, Dodds Felix (ed), The Way Forward Beyond Agenda 21 in pp 16-21, London, Earthscan Publication Dalal, B. What is sustainable development, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.nssd.net/otherdocuments/sustdev2.doc dan indirildi. Dulupçu, M. A. Sürdürülebilir kalkınma politikasına yönelik gelişmeler, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.dtm.gov.tr/dtmadmin/upload/EAD/TanitimKoordinasyonDb/politika.doc dan indirildi. Engel, J. R. (1990) Sürdürülebilir kalkınma ahlakı (Çeviren: İbrahim Özdemir), Joan Gibb Engel (ed) Ethics of Environment and Development in pp: 1-9, London, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/37/743/9495.pdf dan indirildi. Gough, S & Scott, W. (2006) Education and sustainable development: A political analysis, Educational Review, 58 (3), 273-290 Gümüş, Ş. Ar-ge ve patent, İnternetten 01.04.2008’de www.acarpatent.com/yazdir.asp?id=686 - 10k den indirildi. Nemli, E. Sürdürülebilir gelişme:Ekonomi ile çevre arasındaki denge, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.kalder.org/genel/Esra%20Nemli%20Oturum%205E%20Windows%20XP.ppt den indirilmiştir. Özyol, A. Sürdürülebilir kalkınma, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.hydra.com.tr/uploads/kutup9.pdf den indirilmiştir. Pohoryles, R.J. (2007) Sustainable development, innovation and democracy: What role for the regions?, Innovation, 20 (3), 183-190 Sinemillioğlu, M. O. (2009) Sürdürülebilir bölgesel kalkınma ve Türkiye süreci, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8 (27), 245-268 Talu, N. (2007) Sürdürülebilir kalkınma ve Türkiye’nin çevre politikaları, Sivil Toplum Dergisi, 5 (20), 109-120 TUİK, 2006 Yılı Araştırma ve Geliştirme Faaliyetleri Araştırması, Haber Bülteni, sayı:31, İnternetten 01.04.2008 ‘de http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb_id=8&ust_id=2 den indirildi. 297 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 361 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Universities in Sustainable Development Author Author ERDEM, Ali Rıza GEZER, Kudret Abstract A summary of the resource. Sustainable development is a concept which entails that economic development needs to be maintained without any harm to the environement. In addition sustainable development is a sort of development which helps today’s generation to meet their needs without risking those of the future generations. In the light of such a view, using the natural resources effectively, reducing the waste amount to a minimum level, and recyling the resources, needs of the future generations will be provided and environment be continously preserved. Sustainable development means programming the present and future life and development in such a way to meet the needs of generations today and tomorrow without exploiting the natural resources but by establishing a balance between the nature and the humanbeings. Sustainable development is also a concept which has its social, environmental, economic and institutional perspectives. The fundemantals of such a concept were first established according to the report prepared by the World Environment and Development Comission in 1987. Behind the environmental problems that arise similarly in many countries lie imbalance between the economy and the environment. Humanbeings increase the standards of life with the help of ever growing science, technology and industry, whereas they do big harm to the nature. The indicators pertinent to sustainable development are the ones used to measure the rate of progress achieved and also to show the extent to which objectives are attained. These are also useful means to facilitate decision-making process to secure sustainable develoopment in environmental, economic and social terms. Universities that play an important role to educate professional people, to carry out academic research, and to assume community service have important responsibilities and duties for sustainable development internationally and nationwide. This article critically reviews the role of universities as one of the strategic components of sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/af5bc8d389b1d0e0c87aca4dfecae658.pdf f4b57ab94a1e46d58762e3f142364787 PDF Text Text A Study on Teacher Leadership Styles of Teacher Candidates Studying at the Departments of Secondary Education Muhammet Hanifi ERCOŞKUN Fatih BEKTAŞ Ahmet NALÇACI Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk University, Erzurum Turkey ercoskun@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this research is to determine teacher leadership styles of teacher candidates studying at the departments of secondary education. Sample of the study is composed of candidate teachers studying at the departments of secondary education in The Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk University. Candidate teachers from the departments of History, Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry studying 1st-5th grade have been chosen. “Teacher Leadership Styles Scale” has been used as data gathering tool. The gathered data has been analyzed with SPSS packaged software. Results of analysis have been presented as findings. Keywords: Teacher Leadership Styles, Secondary Education, Teacher Candidate Introduction Education provides manpower necessary for the development of a society. Leaders educated in education institutions leads the society. Most of the researches which was done was about leadership qualifications of schoolmasters (Akgün, 2001; Şahin, 2003; Kılıç, 2006), but there has been researches on leadership qualifications of teachers, though rare (Muijs & Harris, 2006; Frost & Harris, 2003). However, it seems that it is impossible to grow leaders without leading teacher in classroom. Therefore, it is important to research leadership qualifications of teachers for the development of societies. Leadership may be defined as guiding group actions in order to achieve a goal and effecting members of the group (Şimşek & Fidan, 2005, 41); having the ability to gather a group of people for the same purpose (Zel, 2006, 110); being capable of effecting others for certain objectives and stimulating them to take action (Şişman, 2004, 3). The common point of these definitions is that leadership has power to effect (Çelik, 2007, 1). When all of these taken into consideration, leadership in education and training is a qualification necessary not only for schoolmasters but also for teachers who guide the students and shape their behaviors. Various leadership theories have been formed about leadership. It is possible to separate leadership theories into 3 main titles. These are qualifications theory, behavioral theory and situational theory (Şişman, 2004, 5). In behavioral theories what the leader does and how he behaves others is important. In addition, according to behavioral approaches it is possible to educate people to be a leader (Çelik, 2007, 11; Celep, 2004, 11, Erçetin; 200, 31; Özden, 2005, 90). In this study, a scale which has been developed based on the approach which uses X and Y theory of McGregor as a base, being one of behavioral leadership theories has been used. According to X and Y theory of McGregor, thoughts of leaders about human behaviors can be separated into two opposite approaches (Deniz and Hasançebioğlu, 2003, 57). According to X theory defining classical management theory; 1. People do not like working and try to find ways to escape work. 2. People prefer to be directed and escape from responsibility. 3. People are selfish and prefer their own objectives to organizations objectives. 4. People do not like innovation and change and try to resist against these facts. 5. People’s creativity is limited in solving organizational problems. 6. Monetary award is needed for people to take action. 21 �According to Y theory in which individual and organizational objectives are combined, 1. It is as normal for people to make physical and spiritual effort as playing or resting. 2. If people become engaged in the organization and like their work and colloquies, they try to be more useful to the organization. 3. Ordinary people not only accept responsibility but also begin looking for it. 4. Ability and creativity is shared equally among people. 5. Specializing makes it possible to make use of abilities and skills, but it is limited to only some of them. Thus, McGregor tries to explain the importance of social relations in organizations (Eren, 2004, 26). It is thought that this study is important because knowing teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers will have affect on profiles of students who are going to be leaders in the future. Method Sample of the study is composed of candidate teachers studying at the departments of secondary education in The Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk University. Candidate teachers from the departments of History, Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry studying 1st-5th grade have been chosen. In this study, “Teacher Leadership Styles Scale” developed by Deniz and Hasançebioğlu (2003) has been used. In the end of the analysis done by these researches, internal consistency coefficient was found out 0,88. According to grade averages of the scale leadership styles of teachers have been found out that the teachers between 17-64 is autocratic/oppressive, the ones between 65-76 is semi-democratic and the ones between 77-85 democratic/participant. Findings Some findings about teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers are given as tables: Gender Male Female n X sd t p 164 147 66.59 67.24 7.092 6.367 -0.851 0.395 Table 1. Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation and t Value on Teacher Leadership Styles According to Gender Variable of Candidate Teachers There is not a significant difference between thoughts of candidate teachers about teacher leadership styles according to gender variable (0.05). This finding shows that gender variable does not affect teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers. Grade n X sd t p Grade 1 Grade 5 173 138 66.68 67.18 6.966 6.498 -0.654 0.514 Table 2. Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation and t Value on Teacher Leadership Styles According to Grades Variable of Candidate Teachers There is not a significant difference between thoughts of candidate teachers about teacher leadership styles according to grades variable (0.05). This finding shows that grades variable does not affect teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers. 22 �Departments n X sd Mathematics Geography History Chemistry Total 94 84 73 60 311 66.21 69.68 66.75 64.27 66.90 6.380 5.016 6.938 7.919 6.756 Table 3. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation on Teacher Leadership Styles According to the Department Variable of Candidate Teachers When the table analyzed, it is possible to say that because the grade average that candidate teachers at the Departments of Mathematics, Geography and History got from the scale is 65-76, their teacher leadership style is semi-democratic, and because the grade average of candidate teacher at the Department of Chemistry is 17-64, their teacher leadership style is autocratic/oppressive. Variance Analysis Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 1110.549 13039.361 14149.910 df 3 307 310 Mean Square 370.183 42.473 F p 8.716 0.000 Table 4. Variance Analysis on Teacher Leadership Styles of Candidate Teachers according to the Department Variable When the Table 4 is analyzed, it is seen that there is a significant difference of 0.05 between thoughts of candidate teacher on teacher leadership styles according to the department variable. Dunnett’s T3 Test has been done in order to find out between which groups there is a difference. Difference has been found out in favor of Geography among the departments of Geography, Mathematics, History and Chemistry. High School n X sd t p Teacher High School Others 44 267 66.43 66.98 5.724 6.918 -0.496 0.620 Table 5. Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation and t Value on Teacher Leadership Styles According to the High School Variable of Candidate Teachers There is not a significant difference between thoughts of candidate teachers about teacher leadership styles according to high school variable (0.05). This finding shows that high school variable does not affect teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers. Conclusions 1. There is a significant difference of 0.05 between thoughts of teacher candidates about teacher leadership styles according to gender, grade and high school variables. 2. It is possible to say that because the grade average that candidate teachers at the Departments of Mathematics, Geography and History got from the scale is 65-76, their teacher leadership style is semi-democratic, 23 �and because the grade average of candidate teacher at the Department of Chemistry is 17-64, their teacher leadership style is autocratic/oppressive. 3. It is seen that there is a significant difference of 0.05 between thoughts of candidate teacher on teacher leadership styles according to the department variable. Difference has been found out in favor of Geography among the departments of Geography, Mathematics, History, and Chemistry. Suggestions 1. There seem to be significant differences in favor of the Geography department within the pre-service teachers' departments. Further qualitative studies that focus on the reasons of these differences can be conducted. 2. This study can be broadened to include candidate teachers from different universities. References Akgün, N. (2001). İlköğretim Okulu Müdürlerinin Öğretimsel Liderliği, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu. Celep, C. (2004). Dönüşümsel Liderlik, Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara. Çelik, V. (2007). Eğitimsel Liderlik, Pegema Yayıncılık, Ankara, 4. Baskı. Deniz, L. & Hasançebioğlu, T. (2003) Öğretmen Liderlik Stillerini Belirlemeye Yönelik Bir Ölçek Çalışması, Marmara Üniversitesi Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, Sayı 17, Sayfa: 55-62 Erçetin, Ş. Ş. (2000). Lider Sarmalında Vizyon, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara, Genişletilmiş 2. Baskı. Eren, E. (2004). Örgütsel Davranış ve Yönetim Psikolojisi, Beta Basım Yayım, İstanbul, 8. Bası. Frost, D. & Harris, A. (2003). Teacher Leadership: Towards a Research Agenda, Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol. 33, No. 3. Kılıç, G. (2006). Eğitim Kurumlarında Liderlik Tarzları ve Örgüt Kültürünün Performans Üzerindeki Etkisi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erciyes Üniversitesi, Kayseri. Muijs, D. & Harris, A. (2006). Teacher Led School Improvement: Teacher Leadership in The UK, Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 961–972. Özden, Y. (2005). Eğitimde Yeni Değerler, Pegema Yayıncılık, Ankara, 6. Baskı. Şahin, S. (2003). Okul Müdürlerinin Liderlik Stilleri ile Okul Kültürü Arasındaki İlişkiler, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. Şimşek, N. & Fidan, M. (2005) Kurum Kültürü ve Liderlik, Tablet Kitabevi, Konya. Şişman, M. (2004). Öğretim Liderliği, Pegema Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2. Baskı. Zel, U. (2006). Kişilik ve Liderlik, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara, 2. Baskı. 24 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 314 Title A name given to the resource A Study on Teacher Leadership Styles of Teacher Candidates Studying at the Departments of Secondary Education Author Author ERCOŞKUN, Muhammet Hanifi BEKTAŞ, Fatih NALÇACI, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this research is to determine teacher leadership styles of teacher candidates studying at the departments of secondary education. Sample of the study is composed of candidate teachers studying at the departments of secondary education in The Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk University. Candidate teachers from the departments of History, Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry studying 1st-5th grade have been chosen. “Teacher Leadership Styles Scale” has been used as data gathering tool. The gathered data has been analyzed with SPSS packaged software. Results of analysis have been presented as findings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/03717048f192b504f36d2263fd6255df.pdf 204b62ac992086847daabfc0b68c68d9 PDF Text Text THE ROLE OF PARAPHRASING IN PROMOTING SPEAKING ABILITIES OF TURKISH EFL STUDENTS Gencer ELKILIÇ, Kafkas University,Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, Turkey gencerelkilic1322@gmail.com Turgay HAN , Instructor, Kafkas University,Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, Turkey turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Doğan SALTAŞ Research Assist. Ardahan University, Faculty of Humanities, Department of English Language and Literature, Ardahan, Turkey sagitdo@hotmail.com Abstract: Promoting speaking skills is one of the most challenging tasks among EFL Turkish students, as it requires not only vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, but also enough amount of cultural information about the target language and correct sound formation. However, especially for the foreign language situation, it isn’t that easy to catch up with enough proficiency in Turkey if the environment isn’t a touristic place. This study, therefore, suggests that speaking skills of EFL learners can be promoted tremendously if the learners are given certain paraphrasing tasks in accordance with their language levels. To this end, 28 intermediate level students (10 males and 18 females) attending regularly to Kafkas University in Kars, Turkey, participated in this study. An oral pretest was given to the participants before starting the study. Throughout the study period the participants were given intermediate level short texts and were wanted to paraphrase them. At the end of the study the participants were given an oral test . According to the result of the study there was a significant difference between pre and posttest.(p=,01.). However, no difference was observed between males and females related to pretest and posttest. Keywords: Promoting Speaking, paraphrasing, Turkish EFL students, Kafkas University. Introduction It is well-known that among the four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing – seems to be the most important and active..Thus, “for most people, the ability to speak a language is synonymous with knowing that language since speech is the most basic means of communication” (Lazaraton, 2001: 103). Besides its being so important, it is a challenging task for nonnative speakers since the beginning of foreign and second language teaching and learning. The reason why speaking is a challenging task for second language learners as well as for foreign language learners is that learners “must master several difficult microskills , including the pronunciation of unfamiliar phonemes, the correct placement of stress and intonation, and the appropriate use of formal and informal expressions” (Zhang, 2009: 32). In order to promote speaking abilities, numerous studies have been carried out (Hendrickson, 1980; Faerch and Kasper, 1984; Murphy, 1991; Riggenbach, 1999; Harvey and Goudvis, 2000; Lazaraton, 2001; Alptekin, 2002; Rybold, 2006;) , however no perfect method has been found yet. 89 �Background of the Study English language is the most commonly taught foreign language in Turkey, still the intended level is not promosing in both receptive (listening and reading) productive skills (speaking and writing). Because of the University placement tests given by the Higher Educational Council, students planning to attend to the departments of English language and Literature or of ELT and Linguistics, take intensive courses mostly emphasizing test skills rather than speaking or listening. Even while attending to the classes at Universities, in classes that utilize comprehension-based approaches to language teaching, grammar structures and vocabulary acquisition are stressed before speaking, if speaking is stressed at all. Statement of the Problem Despite having enough knowledge on grammatical structure, vocabulary and other aspects of English language, Turkish EFL students studying at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature in Turkey, most of the time don’t have the stimana to speak English in and out of classes. Purpose of the study The aim of this study is to search about the effectiveness of paraphrasing technique on promoting fluency in speaking skills. It is thought that paraphrasing can make the learners more active and self confident in using spoken English as well as other skills. Limitation This study is limited only to the fluency of the students pronunciation and intonation haven’t been taken into account. Review of Literature According to Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary paraphrase is “to express something that has been said or written in a different way, usually so that it is clearer”. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines it as “to express what sb has said or written using different words , especially in order to make it easier to understand”. So it is clear from both definitions that paraphrasing is primarily related with speaking skills. On the other hand, paraphrasing has been viewed as a student study skill (Fisk and Hurst 2003:182), however it can be used as a tool promoting speaking skills. According to Fisk and Hurst (2003),” … when students are taught a technique how to paraphrase a text , paraphrasing can strengthen comprehension of both fiction and nonfiction”(p .82). Study of speaking skills has been one of the most favourable subjects of methodology , therefore, “…with the advent of the theory of communicative competence and the practice of communicative language teaching, the teaching of oral communication skills as a contextualized socio-cultural activity has become the focal point in many ESL classrooms” (Lazaraton, 2001: 103). According to Chastain (1988)“…having students talk keeps them involved in the class and gives them the impression that their participation is important” (p.272), in doing so, students can be encouraged to participate in the classroom activities more frequently. Chastain maintains that “although productive practice does not contribute to learning, it does foster retention, which is an important component of learning” (Chastain, 1988:272). Methodology Participants Twenty-eight intermediate-level students (10 males and 18 females) at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature served as participants. All participants received a statement of subjects anonymity and confidentiality before participating in the study. Materials Intermediate comprehension passages of Longman Publication written by Byrne( 1987) have been used as paraphrasing text for promoting speaking. Procedure 90 �The study started on 18th September 2008 and ended on 12 nd November. As the study was conducted during the regular class hours (3 hours a week), all the students attending to preparatory class participated in the study. At the beginning of the study, the participants were given an oral pretest in order to determine their levels. At the end of the study a post test was given. And the results have been given in tables in Data Analysis part. Data Analysis As seen in Table 1, 10 (35,7 %) of the participants were males, however, 18 (64%) were females. Table 1. Gender Distributions of the Participants. Frequ ency Percent Female 18 64,3 Male 10 35,7 Total 28 100,0 Table2. Descriptions and Correlations of Pre- and Posttest Scores N Minimum Maximum Pretest Scores 28 25,00 65,00 Posttest Scores 28 65,00 95,00 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. Mean 44,50 77,71 Std. Deviation 10,25 8,84 Pearson Correlation Sig. .48** ,01 According to Table 2, there is a significant difference between pretest and post-test.(p=,01.) When the means and significance levels are taken into consideration, it is clear that the grades of the participants increased significantly in the post-test. The use of paraphrasing for speaking purposes seems to have worked well. Table 3. The Relationships between Gender and Pre- and Post Test Scores Pretest Scores Posttest Scores Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Female 18 42,00 9,36 Male 10 49,00 10,73 Female 18 78,94 9,12 Male 10 75,50 8,32 F Sig. ,22 ,94 ,05 ,83 However when Table 3, is observed, it can be seen that there is no significant difference between pre-test and post-test related to genders of the participants. So it can be said that using paraphrasing for promoting speaking skills is the same for both males and females. Conclusion Developing speaking skills is one of the most difficult tasks of a foreign language learner, as it requires not only learning the way of the native speakers use a language, but also the structures and vocabulary of that language. In this sense, one basic thing in learning language is to speak it at least fluently as accuracy may follow during the later stages of the teaching-learning process. “… speaking invites feedback, either overt or covert, which is the basis upon which students make adjustments in their learned language system” (Chastain, 1988: 272). Although paraphrasing is mostly used in writing and reading tasks, it can, also, be used for promoting speaking skills. Therefore, as a result of the study it can be concluded that: 1.Praphrasing as a speaking technique should be taught to Turkish EFL students. 91 �2.The students should only concentrate on the fluency, at least for a certain time. 3.When the expected fluency is reached, other aspects of the language such as accuracy of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary choice as well as intonation should follow. References Alptekin, C.(2002).Towards Intercultural Communicative Competence in ELT.English language Teaching Journal, 56(1): 57-64. Byrne, D.(1987).Intermediate Comprehension Passages with recall exercises and aural comprehension tests. Singapore: Longman. Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary (2001).Cambridge:CUP. Faerch, C.& Kaspar, G.(1984). Two ways of Defining Communication Strategies.Language learning, 34: 45-63. Fisk, C. & Hurst, B. (2003).Parphrasing for Comprehension.The Reading Teacher, 57 (2):182+.Retrieved from www.questia.com on 22.01.1009. Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A.(2000). Strategies that work. Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding. York, ME: Stenhouse. Hendrickson, J.M. (1980). Listening and Speaking Activities for Foreign language Learners. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 36:735-48. Lazaraton, A.(2001). Teaching Oral Skills (pp 103-115)In Marianne Celce –Murcia (ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.USA: Heinle & Heinle. Murphy, J.M. (1991). Oral Communication in TESOL: Integrating speaking, Listening and pronunciation. TESOL Querterly. 25(1):51-75. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary .(2004). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Riggenbach, H. (1999). Discourse Analysis in the Language Classroom.Volume I.The Spoken Language. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Rybold, G. (2006). Speaking, Listening and Understanding: Debate for Non-Native English Speakers.NY: International Debate Education Association. Zhang, Y. (2009).Reading to Speak: Integrating Oral Communication Skills.English Teaching Forum, 47(1): 32-34. 92 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 657 Title A name given to the resource THE ROLE OF PARAPHRASING IN PROMOTING SPEAKING ABILITIES OF TURKISH EFL STUDENTS Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer HAN, Turgay SALTAŞ, Doğan Abstract A summary of the resource. Promoting speaking skills is one of the most challenging tasks among EFL Turkish students, as it requires not only vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, but also enough amount of cultural information about the target language and correct sound formation. However, especially for the foreign language situation, it isn’t that easy to catch up with enough proficiency in Turkey if the environment isn’t a touristic place. This study, therefore, suggests that speaking skills of EFL learners can be promoted tremendously if the learners are given certain paraphrasing tasks in accordance with their language levels. To this end, 28 intermediate level students (10 males and 18 females) attending regularly to Kafkas University in Kars, Turkey, participated in this study. An oral pretest was given to the participants before starting the study. Throughout the study period the participants were given intermediate level short texts and were wanted to paraphrase them. At the end of the study the participants were given an oral test . According to the result of the study there was a significant difference between pre and posttest.(p=,01.). However, no difference was observed between males and females related to pretest and posttest. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c9437f33b52cf14878e3e616f992d902.pdf 322410a76895493ccea0cef6aeefcbaa PDF Text Text Punctuation And Capitalisation Errors Of Turkish Efl Students In Composition Classes: An Evidence Of L1 Interference Gencer ELKILIÇ Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kafkas University, Kars/Turkey Gencerelkilic1322@gmail.com Turgay HAN , Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kafkas University, Kars/Turkey turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Selami AYDIN NecatiBey Education Faculty Department of English Language Teaching, Balıkesir University Balıkesir/Turkey selami.aydin@hotmail.com Abstract: While writing composition, Turkish EFL students sometimes confront punctuation and capitalization problems due to their L1 habits. Although such problems can be ignored if the learner is not trained for teaching the target language in future, it is not the case, most of the time, for a teacher candidate or a person expected to work or use it for his or her carrier; in this sense proficiency in Target language(here English) is inevitable. In the present study, punctuation and capitalization errors of the students, studying at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature, were determined and the errors stemming from L1 interference were recorded through exam papers as well as through inclass or out of class composition papers. A total of 300 papers written by 32, intermediate level students, (12 males, 20 females); attending the classes regularly, 225 papers written by 29 upper-intermediate level students (8 males and 21 females) were examined in this study. According to the result of the study both intermediate and upper-intermediate students committed fewer interference errors (20, 3 % and 17 %, respectively) than general errors and as the level increases, the rate of the interference decreases (20, 3 % for intermediate level students, whereas 17 % for upper-intermediate students). Keywords: punctuation errors, capitalization errors, Turkish EFL students, L1 interference, composition classes, Kafkas University. Introduction In academic life writing skill has a special importance as it is an active skill in evaluation the actual language competence of language learners. Yet, the students who study at English Language Departments are not enough trained in composing activities during their high school education since they are accepted to the universities by taking a general test (YDS ) in which there are grammar, translation, reading comprehension and some organization questions in paragraph, but there are no such active skills as writing and speaking skills test questions. On ground that, especially freshman students struggle for composing for some time till they get enough instruction on the issue how to compose. However, the writing skill courses do not always cover punctuation and capitalization topics in detail even they raise students’ awareness in linguistic skills as grammar and other organizational problems in composition. When it comes to mechanical issues in composing, there are lots of problems evident in exam papers of freshman students may be stemming from neglecting them but emphasizing other areas of linguistic categories. In this context, students fall in short conveying their ideas in wittings clearly, so, here, drawing their attentions to the punctuation and capitalization may be effective in getting rid of ambiguity in their written works. 279 �To express thoughts and ideas more clearly, to specify the structure of a sentence and also the pauses in a sentence; moreover to ease reading comprehension and to state the ways of intonation and stress on a sentence punctuation is crucial (Akalın et al. 2005: 32). Then, "good punctuation is crucial for successful academic writing. Many students’ essays use little punctuation beyond commas and full stops. But to be restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark, when writing your essay, is like building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not very well. By learning to use more, or all, of the available forms of punctuation you will be able to communicate and express your ideas, and arguments, more clearly (Collinson et al. 1998)." On the other hand, an effective writing should present some important signals to the reader to help to grasp the exact meaning or idea of it. In this context, it is claimed that: "punctuation is in large part a system of conventions the function of which is to assist the written language in indicating those elements of speech which cannot be conveniently set down on paper: chiefly pause, pitch, and stress (Markwardt 1942 cited in Nunberg 1990:11) . Limitations The mechanical errors but not other types of errors were examined and analysed in terms of interference. The Review of Literature Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) Contrastive language hypothesis declares that a learner’s L1 interferes with his or her acquisition of a second language, and that it, for that reason, comprises the most important difficulty to master a new language. CA maintains that when the structures of L1 are different from those of L2, errors that reflect the structure of L1 are committed. So, these types of errors are assumed to be the effect of L1 habits on L2 production (Dulay et al. 1982:97). Contrastive analysis also relies on structural linguistic. Davies underlines that “prior to the emergence of applied linguistics in the late fifties/early sixties, the combination of structural linguistics and behavioural psychology led to contrastive analysis approaches in language acquisition study and to behaviouristic methods of language teaching (repetition, habit formation, translation).”(Davies & Elder 2004:249) To sum up, according to Gass and Selinker (2008: 96-97), the assumptions that the contrastive analysis based on are as followings: 1. Contrastive analysis is based on a theory of language that claims that language is habit and that language learning involves the establishment of a new set of habits. 2. The major source of error in the production and/or reception of a second language are the native language. 3. One can account for errors by considering differences between the L1 and the L2. 4. A corollary to item is that the greater the differences, the more errors will occur. 5. What one has to do in learning a second language is learn the differences. Similarities can be safely ignored as no new learning is involved. In other words, what is dissimilar between two languages is what must be learned. 6. Difficulty and ease in learning are determined respectively by differences and similarities between the two languages in contrast. Also, CA puts forward the term interference which stems from unfamiliarity with the L2, that is to say, learner’s not having mastered L2 structures (Dulay et al. 1982:99). Moreover, it must be born in mind that the terms ‘interference’ and ‘transfer’ are important in CA. The former one means that “...due to the unfamiliarity with the L2, that is, to the learner’s not having learned target patterns...” ( Dulay et al. 1982:97) on the other hand, according to Lado (1957) the latter is about “...the grammatical structure of the native language tends to be transferred to the foreign language... we have here the major source of difficulty or ease in learning the foreign language .... Those structures that are different will be difficult.”(Lado 1957:58-59 cited in Dulay et al. 1982: 99). The term ‘transfer’ was elaborated by behaviourist psychologist as positive and negative transfer referring to such a process in which the automatic, uncontrolled, and subconscious past learned behaviours are used to construct new responses. Needless to say, negative transfer refers to the errors stemming from old, 280 �habitual behaviours that are different from new behaviours. On the other hand positive transfer is the correct performance of L2 learners the new behaviour is the same as old ones (Dulay et al. 1982:101). Error Analysis Ellis (1986) criticizes contrastive analysis and thinks that CAH fall in short to predict all the errors that learners’ commit. “First, there were the doubts concerning the ability of contrastive analysis to predict errors. These doubts arose when researchers began to examine language learners’ language in depth. Second, there were a number of theoretical criticisms regarding the feasibility of comparing languages and the methodology of contrastive analysis. Third, there were reservations about whether contrastive analysis had anything relevant to offer to language teaching (p.27).” Methodology Subjects 32, intermediate level students, (12 males, 20 females), attending the classes regularly, and 29 upperintermediate level students (8 males and 21 females) were the subjects of this study. Instruments A total of 300 papers written by 32, intermediate level students, and 225 papers written by 29 upper-intermediate level students were examined in this study. Procedure The composition papers were collected from January 5th 2009 to May 29th, 2009. The papers in question were from the compositions or paragraphs written at home as assignments and also written in class hours studies by the intermediate level prep class students. The collected paper was examined to signify only ‘mechanical errors’ and then the errors were counted and categorized. Finally, the results obtained by contrastive analysis were discussed in terms of interference. Research Questions o o Do L1 punctuation and capitalization interfere with L2 composition papers of Turkish EFL students? Does interference decrease as level of the students increase? Contrastive Usage of Some Punctuation Marks and Capitalisation When compared English punctuation system to Turkish, there exists some critical and completely different usages; therefore, errors of interference are abundant in the written production of the novice EFL writers. The below tables present the completely different usage of some punctuation marks between English and Turkish are given and supported by examples. Full Stop (.) Example English Usage Turkish Usage Common after abbreviations Dr. Laura √ √ Numbers 12.315 X √ Decimals 5.5 √ X To separate part of dates 29.05.2007 X √ Between hours and minutes 11.30 X √ Table 1. Uncommon usage of ‘full stop’ in both languages (English-Turkish) 281 �(Note: This table has been adapted from Akalın et al.(2005), Swan (2005 and English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) Comma Example English Usage Turkish Usage Co-ordinate Clause Dr. Laura √ X Subordinate Clause If you study hard, you will be successful. √ X Numbers 7,827 √ X X √ √ X √ X Decimals 3,5 Insert an additional comma before the final ‘and’ (or ‘or’) if needed for clarification (the Oxford comma): Sugar, beef and veal, and milk products Linked sentences. Use a comma to separate two sentences linked by a conjunction such as ‘but’, ‘yet’, ‘while’ or ‘so’ to form a single sentence: The committee dealing with the question of commas agreed on a final text, but the issue of semicolons was not considered. Table 2. Uncommon usage of ‘comma’ in both languages (English-Turkish) (Note: This table has been adapted from Akalın, Ş. et al.(2005), Swan (2005 and English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) Apostrophe Example Plurals of abbreviation do not take an apostrophe Plurals of figures do not take an apostrophe. MEPs, UFOs Pilots of 747s undergo special training. English Usage Turkish Usage √ X X √ Table 3. Apostrophe in English and Turkish (Note: This table has been adapted from Akalın, Ş. et al.(2005), Swan (2005 and English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) On the other hand, capitalisation is another challenging issue for the EFL students as Turkish has some different capitalization, particularly upper case of the letter ‘i’ can be traced on any written production easily which is the evidence of L1 interference. Capitalization Example English Usage Using lower case for job Laura, professor √ titles after name Using upper case of the ACCİDENTS X letter ‘i’ as ‘İ’ Table 4. Capitalisation in English and Turkish 282 Turkish Usage X √ �Problems in Punctuation for Learners of English Most of the language share some common usage of the punctuation and capitalization rules; however, there are also some uncommon rules that can be explained by the characteristics of the languages; especially, in Turkish, possessive markers with the pronouns carry different punctuation. Below the most probable mechanical errors of the EFL students’ production in the compositions and exam papers are tried to be explained (English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.13, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) . 1. Its/It’s. Note that “its” is a possessive determiner (like mine, yours, his, hers, ours), whereas the -s in “it’s” is an abbreviation for is (it is). Do not confuse with the use of possessive –s (genitive), which is usually separated by an apostrophe: Peter’s thesis, the faculty’s students. 2. Seasons, etc. No capitals for spring, summer, autumn, winter; capitals for weekdays, months and feastdays: Tuesday, November, Christmas Day. 3. Numbers and fractions. Numbers take hyphens when they are spelled out. Fractions take hyphens when used attributively, but not when used as nouns: twenty-eight, two-thirds completed.” In English a hyphen is used to indicate fraction, however in Turkish derivational morphemes such as –lik, -lık, -luk, -lük are used. 4. Sometimes L2 learners overgeneralize contracted forms. For example; It had ≠ it’d It was ≠ It’s 5. Courtesy questions. No question mark is needed after a request or instruction put as a question for courtesy: Would you please sign and return the attached form? 6. Nouns ending in -s, including proper names and abbreviations, form their singular possessive with -’s, just like nouns ending in other letters. an actress’s pay; Mr Jones’s paper; Helios’s future is uncertain; AWACS’s success Discussion and Conlusion In this study we tried to seek answers to following research questions: 1.Do L1 punctuation and capitalization interfere with L2 composition papers of Turkish EFL students? 2.Does interference decrease as levels of the students increase? Level Intermediate TPs 300 TEs 221 G Es 176 % 79,7 Upper-intermediate 225 118 98 83 L1 IEs % 45 20,3 20 17 Table 5. Distribution of Error Types Depending on the Level of the Students Note: TPs= total papers; TEs= total errors; G Es= general errors; L1 IEs= L1 interference errors. The error types and levels of the students have been given in Table 5. According to the table, both intermediate and upper-intermediate students committed fewer interference errors (20,3 % and 17 %, respectively) than general errors. Another important result of the study is that as the level increases, the rate of the interference decreases (20,3 % for intermediate level students, whereas 17 % for upper-intermediate students). As a result of the study it is clear that EFL students are prone to commit punctuation and capitalization errors which can be traced to the drawback of learners’ L1. Even though the number of such errors isn’t so high and such errors can diminish as the level increases , for the immediate purposes such as passing the written exams during the study period one has to be proficient enough in using punctuation marks as well as capitalisation. Interference errors or errors of other types can be ignored if the students are learning English for the purposes other than teaching in the future, but if they are expected to teach in the target domain, they have to learn and use them properly. It is recommended that in order o avoid L1 interference Turkish EFL students 283 �should be taught punctuation marks and capitalisation comparatively and explicitly. References Akalın, Ş.H., Toparlı, R. Korkmaz, Z., Gözaydın, N. Zülfikar, H. and Yücel, B. (2005). Yazım Klavuzu. Ankara:Türk Dil Kurumu. Collinson I., Mort, P. & Downey, T.L. (1998), The Learning Centre, The University of New South Wales, http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/pdf/puct.pdf) Retrieved on 12th March, 2009. Davies, A., Elder C. (2004) The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. UK: Blackwell Publishing. Dulay, H., Burt, M.& Krashan, S.(1982). Language Two. NY: Oxford University Press. English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/.Retrieved 0n 23rd March 2009. Gass, Susan M.&, Selinker, L. (2008). Second Language Acquisition, An Introductory Course. NY: Routledge. Marckwardt, A. H. (1942). Introduction to the English Language. New York: Oxford University Press. Nunberg, G. (1990), The Linguistics of Punctiation, CSLI Lecture Notes Number 18, Stanford, California: CSLI Publications. Robert, L. (1957), Linguistics Across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Pres. Swan, M. (2005).Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://www.languagechic.com/english_punctuation.html 284 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 355 Title A name given to the resource Punctuation And Capitalisation Errors Of Turkish Efl Students In Composition Classes: An Evidence Of L1 Interference Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer HAN, Turgay AYDIN, Selami Abstract A summary of the resource. While writing composition, Turkish EFL students sometimes confront punctuation and capitalization problems due to their L1 habits. Although such problems can be ignored if the learner is not trained for teaching the target language in future, it is not the case, most of the time, for a teacher candidate or a person expected to work or use it for his or her carrier; in this sense proficiency in Target language(here English) is inevitable. In the present study, punctuation and capitalization errors of the students, studying at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature, were determined and the errors stemming from L1 interference were recorded through exam papers as well as through inclass or out of class composition papers. A total of 300 papers written by 32, intermediate level students, (12 males, 20 females); attending the classes regularly, 225 papers written by 29 upper-intermediate level students (8 males and 21 females) were examined in this study. According to the result of the study both intermediate and upper-intermediate students committed fewer interference errors (20, 3 % and 17 %, respectively) than general errors and as the level increases, the rate of the interference decreases (20, 3 % for intermediate level students, whereas 17 % for upper-intermediate students). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e3999745e01af9f9602f835d37bbc282.pdf e0477d3369dd0bcb6788306c3755223f PDF Text Text Bir Bektâşî Şairin Diliyle Nevrûz Ve Çiçekler Melek DİKMEN Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Isparta/Türkiye kahraman_melek@hotmail.com. Kamile ÇETİN Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Isparta/Türkiye kamilecetin80@gmail.com. Özet: Toplum hayatını en çok etkileyen mevsimlerden biri olan baharın gelişi, tüm dünyada yapılan değişik törenlerle coşkulu bir biçimde kutlanır. Türklerde de baharın gelişi bir bayram kabul edilir ve bu bağlamda ilk akla gelen Nevruz Bayramı’dır. Nevrûz, Osmanlı döneminde de sayılı günlerden biri olarak kutlanmıştır. Bu durumun edebî hayattaki yansımalarından biri, baharın başlaması münasebetiyle kaside, gazel gibi nazım şekilleriyle kaleme alınan ve başta padişah olmak üzere devlet ricaline sunulan nevruziyye adlı şiirlerdir. Bu tebliğde, bir Bektâşî şairi olan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın ihtiva ettiği değişik çiçek adlarıyla dikkati çeken “Nevrûziyye” başlıklı şiiri değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler:Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba, Nevruz, Nevrûziyye, Çiçekler. Bahar, tabiatın canlanması, havaların ısınması gibi özellikleri ile toplum hayatını en çok etkileyen mevsimlerden biridir. Bu sebeple tüm dünyada baharın gelişi, yapılan değişik törenlerle coşkulu bir biçimde kutlanır. Bu bağlamda bahar, daha çok toprağa bağlı bir hayat sistemine sahip olan Türk milleti için de son derece önemlidir. Bu yüzden Türklerde baharın gelişi âdeta bir bayram olarak değerlendirilir. Bahar denilince ilk akla gelen ise Nevruz Bayramı’dır. Nevruz sözcüğü Farsça nev (yeni) ve ruz (gün) kelimelerinin birleşmesinden meydana gelmiş olup, “yeni gün” anlamına gelmektedir. Türk mûsikîsinde en eski makamlardan birinin adı da (Öztuna, 2000: 296) olan Nevruz, eski İran takvimine göre yılın ilk günüdür ve güneşin koç burcuna girmesi sebebiyle ilkbaharın başlangıcı sayılır. Farslara atfedilen bir bayram olan Nevruz, aslında Türkler için de birtakım manalar ve semboller içeren çok önemli bir gündür. Bunlardan en çok dikkati çekeni, Ergenekon Destanı’nda anlatıldığı üzere Göktürk Devleti’nin kurucusu olan Aşina ailelerinin Nevruz’da Ergenekon’dan çıktıklarına ve özgürlüklerine kavuştuklarına inanılmasıdır. (Çay, 1996: 10; Koca, 2002: 52) Bu yönüyle de Nevruz, Türk toplulukları için önemli bir fonksiyona sahiptir. İran geleneğinde öncelikle yılbaşı olarak kutlanan Nevruz, Türk kültüründe baharı, yaşama sevincini, su ve kutsal arınmayı, yenilenmeyi, uyanan doğa ile birlikte bolluk-bereketi ve üremeyi simgeleyen anlam ve öğelerle yüklüdür. (Altun, 2002: 17). Bütün Türklerde 21 Mart yılbaşı olarak kabul edilir. Nevruz Bayramı sırasında köy, kasaba ve şehir meydanlarında veya kırlarda toplu yemekler yapılır, hep birlikte kırlara çıkılarak eğlenilir; şölenler, yarışmalar, gösteriler, seyirlik oyunlar düzenlenir. (Pirverdioğlu: 44-48). Nevruz, Osmanlı döneminde de özel günlerden biri sayılmış, devlet kademelerinden başlayarak halka yansıyan bir şenlik havası ve hediyeleşme geleneği ile kutlanmıştır. (Halaçoğlu, 1996: 183-188; Köktürk, 2005) Baharın başlaması münasebetiyle kaside, gazel gibi nazım şekilleriyle kaleme alınan ve başta padişah olmak üzere devlet ricaline sunulan “nevruziyye” adlı şiirler Nevruz’un Osmanlılardaki önemine işaret etmektedir. Klâsik Türk edebiyatında Nef’î ile Rami Paşazâde Ref’et Bey’in nevruziyyeleri ünlüdür. (Cunbur, 1995: 37; Güzel, 1995: 98; Kılıç, 1999: 209) Alevî-Bektâşî geleneğinde de Nevrûz kutsal bir gün kabul edilmiştir. Zira inanışa göre Hz. Ali bugün doğmuştur. Bu sebeple Nevruz için “Sultan Nevruz” ve ““Mevlüd-i şah-ı velayettir bugün...” ifadeleri kullanılmıştır. Aynı zamanda Hz. Muhammed’e peygamberliğin bugün verildiği, gece gündüz eşitliğinden dolayı nübüvvet ve velayetin eşitlendiği, Hz. Ali ile Fâtıma’nın bugün evlendiği, Kerbela olayının da Nevruz günü gerçekleştiği diğer inanışlarıdır. (Temren, 1995: 152-155). Şi’â inancına göre ise bugün Hz. Ali, Hz. Peygamber tarafından halife ilan edilmiştir. (Çay, 1996: 9-10) Bazı bölgelerde yapılan Nevruz kutlamalarında halkın sabah kırlara gittiği, gidemeyenlere koklamaları için nevruz çiçeği getirildiği, Hz. Ali’nin kokusunu yaydığı şeklindeki inançtan dolayı kutsal kabul edildiği de kaydedilmektedir. (Uçkun, 2005: 165). Nevruziyye türü şiirlerin Bektaşîlerde de var olduğu, cem âyinlerinde, Nevrûz bayramı gecesinde dergâh bahçelerinde, kırlarda okunduğu bilinmektedir. Bu şiirlerde, tabiat sevgisi, Hz. Ali muhabbeti, yeni yıl gibi hususlar söz konusu edilmiştir. (Çay, 1996: 91). 421 �Bu çalışmada, XIX. yüzyıl şairi olan ve aynı zamanda Bektaşî geleneğine mensup bulunan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın38 (H.1258/H. 1287) Divanı’nda yer alan “Nevruziyye”si ele alınacaktır. Söz konusu şiir, 13 beyitten müteşekkil olup aruzun Mefâ’îlün Mefâ’îlün Mefâ’îlün Mefâ’îlün kalıbıyla kaleme alınmıştır. (Noyan: 1325/1907). Hilmi Dede-Baba, şiirine gam olarak nitelendirdiği kış aylarından sonra insanın gönlündeki sevinci, neşeyi arttıran Nevrûz’un gelişine şükrederek başlamıştır. Nevrûz’un gelişiyle birlikte her taraf rengârenk çiçeklerle bezenmiştir; elbette böyle bir görünüm insana keyif ve yaşama sevinci verecektir: Bi-hamdillâh gidüp gam geldi Nevruz-ı neşât-efzâ Bezendi sû-be-sû elvan çiçekle dâğ ile sahrâ Bahar geldiğine göre bu mevsimin vazgeçilmez çiçeği olan gülün sahneye çıkması kaçınılmazdır. Nitekim bu günlerde çeşitli süsler ve ziynetler ortaya koymak için gül bahçesinde birçok goncalar peyda olmuştur: Bahâr eyyâmı gûne zîb ü zînet bahş içün el-hak Oluptur gülsitânda gül bedenden goncalar peydâ Devam eden beyitte bir dadıya teşbih edilen yeryüzünün (dünya, toprak) nisan bulutu ile çemen çocuğunu emzirdiğinden bahsedilmektedir. Bu şerefe nâil olduğu için yeryüzü dadısı yeşil bir kaftanla ödüllendirilmiştir. Beyitte, baharın gelişiyle birlikte bilhassa Nisan ayında yağmurların yağması ve dünyanın yemyeşil bir görünüme kavuşması “dadı-bulut-çocuk-emzirmek” şeklindeki bir tablo ile ifade edilmiştir: Çemen tıflını emzirdikçe dâim ebr-i nisândan Giyüpdür dâye-i arz ol şerefle hil’at-i hadrâ Şairin bir sonraki beyitte pek çok bahar çiçeğini sahneye çıkardığı görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda ilk çiçekler olarak şebboy, zerrin ve nergis söz konusu edilmiştir. Şeb-bû (şebboy), pembe, kırmızı, krem, açık sarı, portakal renginde veya mor renkli çiçekler açan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 98; Tırman, 1987: 212). Zerrin (fulya) ise ilkbaharda çiçek açan bir bitki olup sarı veya sarımsı-kahverengi renkte çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 230; Tırman, 1987: 169). Zerrin, eski toplum hayatımızda itibar görmüş çiçeklerdendir. (Polat, 2001: 187-189). Nergis ise, sarı veya beyaz renkli çiçekler açar. (Yücel, 2002: 228; Tırman, 1987: 169). Mitolojiye göre Narkissos adlı güzelliğine son derece mağrur bir perinin ölümüyle ortaya çıkmıştır. (Erhat, 2003: 211-212). Nergis, Klâsik Türk edebiyatında hastalık, mahmurluk ve şehlâlık sıfatlarının sembolü durumundadır. Şiirlerde çoğunlukla sevgilinin gözü ile mukayese edilir. (TDEA, “Nergis”: 14-15). Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın tasavvuruna göre, güzellerin elbiseleri şebboy kokusu ile kokulanırken zerrinin gözü açılmış; şehlâ nergis de uykudan uyanmıştır. Klâsik şiirin genel anlayışına uygun olarak zerrin ile göz ve nergis ile de yine “tatlı şaşı; elâ göz” arasında münasebet kurulmuştur. Beyitte, baharda bilhassa gece vakitlerinde âdeta insanı sarhoş eden, baş döndürücü hoş kokulu çiçeklerin yer aldığı bir tablo çizilmiştir. Beyit “hoş koku” üzerinde şekillenmiştir: Muattar oldu hubânın libâsı ıtr-ı şebbûdan Açıldı dîde-i zerrîn uyandı nergis-i şehlâ Bir önceki beyitte birden çok çiçek adına yer veren şair, devam eden kısımda çiçekler kadrosuna zülf-i arûs ve sünbülü de eklemiştir. Zülf-i arûs (gelin perçemi), göz alıcı güzellikte ve beyaz, pembemsi mor, morumsu mavi, krem rengi ve sarı arasında değişen renklerde çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (http://www.killerplants.com/plant-of-the-week/20041206.asp) Sünbül (sümbül) bilindiği üzere, menekşe mavisi veya beyaz renkli olup çok güzel kokan bir çiçektir. (Yücel, 2002: 186; Tırman, 1987: 223). Klâsik edebiyatta sık rastlanan çiçeklerden olup şekli ve kokusu itibariyle sevgilinin saçına benzetilir. (Pala, 1998: 362). Beyitte sarılıcı bir bitki olan zülf-i arûs, sevgilinin boyuna dolanmış olarak tasvir edilmiştir. Sümbül ise istiâre yoluyla, sevgilinin kırmızı renkli yanağı üzerine dökülmüş hoş kokulu ve dağınık saçlarını karşılamaktadır. Bektaşî geleneğinde sümbül, Nevruz’un simgelerinden biridir. Günümüzde de Bektaşîlerce hazırlanan Nevruz sofralarında sümbül bulundurma geleneği vardır. Hz. Ali’yi anmak için her can, sümbülün kokusundan bir nefes çeker. Fakat beyitte sümbülün bu anlamı ve kullanımı ile ilgili bir husus söz konusu edilmemiştir. Sarıldıkça sarılmış zülf-i ‘arûs kadd-i dilcûya Yakıştıkça yakışmış rûy-i âle sünbül-i ra’nâ Devam eden beyitte bir gül bahçesi tablosu içinde şakayık, ortanca ve menekşe çiçeklerine yer verilmiştir. Şakâyık koyu kırmızı renkte çiçekleri bulunan, (Yücel, 2002: 248; Tırman, 1987: 76) ortanca beyaz, pembe, kırmızı ya da eflatun renkli, (Yücel, 2002: 186; Tırman, 1987: 207) menekşe ise mor, beyaz veya pembe renkli çiçekleri olan bitkilerdir. (Yücel, 2002: 340; Oğuz vd., 1987: 169; Tırman, 1987: 157). Beyitte şakayık, bahçede ortanca çiçeğiyle arkadaş olmuş iken menekşe, gül bahçesinin tenha bir köşesinde yalnız başına, boynu bükük bir vaziyette yatmış bir kimse olarak teşhis edilmiştir: 38 “Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede 1842’de İstanbul’da doğmuş bir Bektâşî şairidir. Sultan Ahmed civarında Güngörmez Camii imamı Nuri Efendi ile Emine Bacı’nın oğludur. Ailesi Merdiven Köyü’nde Şahkulu Sultan Tekkesi post-nişini Hasan Baba’dan kendisi de Aşçı Baba’dan el almıştır. 1863’re posta oturan Hilmi Dede, aynı yıl Hacı Bektaş Dergâhı’na giderek icazetini almıştır. 1907’de vefatına kadar bu görevini sürdürmüştür. Mezarı tekkenin haziresindedir.”, Süleyman Solmaz, “Bir Bektaşi Şâiri Mehmed Ali Hilmi Dedebaba ve Divânı”, http://www.pau.edu.tr/pau20/asp_download.aspx?id=738 (30.04.2009). 422 �Şakayık hemdem olmuş bağçede ortanca dilberle Menekşe boynunu bükmüş yatur tenhâ gülzârda Bir sonraki beytin çiçekler kadrosu, hanımeli, civanperçemi, hüsnü Yusuf ve zerrinkadehten oluşmaktadır. Bahsi geçen çiçeklerden hanımelinin çiçekleri, beyaz ya da sarımsı beyazdır. (Tırman, 1987: 120; Yücel vd., 1995: 101-102). Civanperçeminin ise küçük ve beyaz renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 32). Bir diğer çiçek olan hüsnüyusuf, pembe, kırmızı, beyaz ve menekşe renginde çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 128; Tırman, 1987: 140). Zerrîn-kadehin (sarı zerrin, zerren) ise altın sarısı renginde çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 228). Beyitte, hanım elinin hüsnü Yusuf’tan civanperçemini açtığı ve âşıklara zerrinkadehle kırmızı şarap sunduğu söylenilmektedir. Zerrinkadehi, altından yapılmış kadeh olarak anlamanın yanında, bir çiçek adı olarak değerlendirmek de mümkündür. Beyitte, hanımeli, civanperçemi, hüsnü Yusuf, zerrîn-kadeh şeklinde, pek çok bahar bitkisinin çiçek açmasından söz edilmektedir: Hanımeli civân perçemin açmış hüsn-i Yusuf’tan Sunar uşşâka hem zerrin kadehle bade-i hamrâ Akabinde sahneye kendisine çok yakışmış pembe renkli bir kıyafet giyen gelincik, yeşillenip çiçek açmış dilberdudağı ve fesleğen çıkmıştır. Gelinciğin parlak kırmızı, nadiren beyaz, sarı ve pembe renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Tırman, 1987: 100). Dilberdudağının (aslanağzı) çiçekleri dudak şeklinde olup kırmızı, pembe veya sarı gibi değişik renklerde olabilir. (Yücel, 2002: 52). Fesleğen hoş kokulu, otsu bir bitkidir; beyaz, pembe veya leylak renkli çiçekler açar. (Yücel, 2002: 238). Pembe kıyafeti kendisine çok yakışan gelinciğe nazar değmemesi için “maşallah” denildiği de dikkati çekmektedir: Gelincik penbe giymiş pek yaraşmış şimdi mâşallah Yeşillenmiş açup dilber dudağı fesleğen-âsâ Bahar, bilhassa eski toplum hayatımızda kır eğlencelerinin yapıldığı, bahçelerde güzellerin arz-ı endâm ettikleri bir mevsimdir. Beyitte bahsi geçen kadife, sarı veya portakal renginde çiçekleri olan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 314). Bir başka çiçek olan atlasın parlak kırmızı renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 142). Mine genellikle eflâtun, mavi, bazen de alaca ya da beyaz renkli çiçekler açar. (Tırman, 1987: 160; Yücel, 2002:332). Serv-i revân (salınan servi) istiâresiyle karşılanan sevgilinin gül bahçesine teşrif edip kadife, atlas ve mine gibi çiçekleri temaşa etme vakti gelmiştir. Salın serv-i hırâmânım temâşâ eyle ezhârı Döşenmiş sahn-ı gülşende kadife atlas u mînâ Bir sonraki beyitte ise karanfil, lale, nesrin, yasemin, zambak ve fulya çiçeklerine yer verilmiştir. Beyitte yer alan nahıl kelimesi, eskiden balmumundan veya gümüşten özel olarak hazırlanan ve gelinin önünde taşınan meyve, çiçek ve kıymetli taşlarla müzeyyen ağaç (Onay, 2000: 343) anlamındadır. (Arıkan, 2007; İnce: 89-96; (Nahılların İslam resim sanatındaki örnekleri hakkında örnek minyatürler için bkz. Tulum, 2007: 36, 420, 422). Karanfilin çiçekleri değişik renklerde ve güzel kokuludur. (Yücel, 2002: 130; Tırman, 1987: 140). Klâsik şiirde eskiden kavukla sarık, sarıkla fes arasına konulan ya da yakaya takılan çiçekler arasında yer alması, (Onay, 2000: 393-394) şarap kokusunu gidermek için yenmesi, (Onay, 2000: 417) birtakım macunların terkibinde bir baharat olarak kullanılması (Onay, 2000: 315) gibi özellikleriyle söz konusu edilen karanfil, bazen de kırmızı rengi sebebiyle sevgilinin yanağına teşbih edilmiştir. (Çavuşoğlu, 2001: 290). Lalenin ise çiçekleri çan biçiminde ve kırmızı başta olmak üzere çok değişik renklerdedir. (Yücel, 2002: 322; Tırman, 1987: 223). Renginden dolayı lale, klâsik şiirde kan, mum, şarap, yanak, âşığın gözyaşı, lâl, kâse-i mercan, çerâğ, kanlı kefen, al sancak vb. unsurlara teşbih edilmiş; şekil bakımından da genellikle kadeh olarak tasavvur edilmiştir. (Pala, 1998: 252). Lale kelimesindeki harflerin sırası değiştirildiğinde “Allah” ve “hilâl” sözcüklerinin elde edilebilmesi de bu çiçeğin sevilmesinde etkili olmuştur. (Ayvazoğlu, 1997: 109-110). Zambak beyaz-pembe-kırmızı renkte çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Tırman, 1987: 223; Yücel, 2002: 210). Nesrin, Van gülü anlamındadır. Ancak “Van gülü” olarak ünlenen çeşidin hangi tür veya varyeteye sahip olduğu kesin olarak bilinmemektedir. (Baytop, 2001: 85). Yasemin, beyaz renkli ve güzel kokulu çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel vd., 1995: 92). Klâsik şiirde daha çok beyaz renkli olanlarının tercih edildiğini gördüğümüz yasemin, daha çok rengi, kokusu, yaprağı itibariyle anılır ve sevgilinin yanağı ya da gömleği olarak tahayyül edilir. (Pala, 1998: 415; Çavuşoğlu, 2001: 291; Polat, 2001: 197-199). Fulya çiçeği ise daha önce de bahsi geçen zerrindir. Şairin tasavvuruna göre Yüce Allah’ın kudretiyle her taraf karanfil, lale, nesrin, zambak, yasemin ve fulya çiçekleriyle tıpkı bir nahıl gibi donanmıştır. Beyit, renk renk çiçekleriyle çok canlı bir bahar ve bahçe manzarasını gözümüzde canlandırmaktadır: Nahıl gibi donanmış her taraf bâ-kudret-i Yezdân Karanfil lâle vü nesrin ü zanbak yasemen fulya Yine birden çok çiçeğin hep beraber yer aldıkları aşağıdaki beyitte, rengârenk bir tablo çizilmektedir. Nilüfer, güzel kokulu, beyaz, pembe, sarı, mavi renkli çiçekleri bulunan bir su bitkisidir. (Yücel, 2002: 236-238; Tırman, 1987: 173). Filbahri, beyaz renkli ve güzel kokulu çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel vd., 1995: 109). Beytin mana dünyasına göre nilüfer ve filbahri çiçekleriyle amber ve mercan ortaya çıkmış; bunu görünce sedef de ağzını açıp içinde bulunan inciyi gül bahçesine hediye etmiştir. Beyitte bahsi geçen sadef, deniz 423 �kaplumbağasına benzeyen, daha çok Hint ve Çin denizlerinde bulunduğu rivayet edilen bir çeşit istiridyedir. Nisan ayında (18 Nisan) denizin yüzüne veya sahile çıkarak ağzını açtığına, yağmur tanesini yuttuğuna ve böylece incinin oluştuğuna inanılır. (Pala, 1998: 337). Beyitte dikkat edilirse nilüfer, amber, mercan, sadef, inci kelimeleri suyla bağlantılıdır. Bu da herhalde ilkbaharda yağmurların yağmasıyla suların çoğalmasını ifade etmek üzere kullanılmış olmalıdır: Çıkınca nilüfer filbahriden hem anber ü mercan Sadef ağzın açup incüsin etmiş gülşene ihdâ Bahar mevsiminde düzenlenen, birtakım mezeler ve çiçeklerle donatılan, şaşaalı bir içki meclisi tasviri yapan aşağıdaki beyit, her biri birden çok çağrışıma sahip avize, ateş, balmumu çiçeklerini ihtiva etmektedir. Avize çiçeği, beyaz renkli çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel vd., 1995: 157). Ateş çiçeğinin kırmızı renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 286). Bir başka çiçek olan balmumu (mum çiçeği) ise, beyaz renkli ve hoş kokulu çiçekleri ile dikkati çeker. (http://www.cicekcesitleri.com/Mum_Cicegi). Çiçek bahçesinde tertip edilen rintler meclisinde ateş çiçeği, parlak balmumunu yakıp avize ile hem meclisi hem de bahçeyi aydınlatmayı amaçlamıştır. Tevriyeli bir kullanıma sahip olan avize ve balmumunun aynı zamanda birer çiçek adı olduğu da hatırlanmalıdır: Şükûfistânı tenvîre etmeğe hem bezm-i rindânı Yakup âvizeden âteş çiçeği balmumun ra’nâ Nevrûziyyenin son beytinde gecesefası ve kahkaha çiçekleri yer almaktadır. Gecesefası, boyun kısımları beyaz, yukarı doğru genelde mor veya gökyüzü mavisi renginde çiçekleri olan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 194). Kahkaha çiçeği, beyaz, nadiren açık pembe renkte taç yaprakları bulunan bir çiçektir. Yücel, 2002: 80). Bir önceki beyitte bir bahar gecesinde düzenlenen içki meclisi tasviri yapan şair, son beyitte buna paralel olarak “ay” istiaresiyle ifade ettiği sevgilinin rakipler ile mehtap gezintisine çıktığından bahsetmektedir. Sevgili, böyle bir gezintide kahkahalarla gecesefası yaparken, âşık-şair binlerce kez “ya sabır” çekmektedir. İkili bir anlam dünyasına sahip olan gece safası ve kahkaha aynı zamanda birer çiçek ismidir: O meh ağyâr ile gece safâda kahkahalarla Hezârân yâ sabur çekmekte şimdi Hilmi-i şeydâ Sonuç Bir Alevî-Bektâşî şeyhi olan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın “Nevruziyye” başlıklı şiirini konu alan bu çalışmada şu sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır: Alevî-Bektâşî geleneğinde son derece önemli bir yeri olan ve kutsal bir gün olarak kabul edilen Nevrûz, bu geleneğe mensup bir şairin kaleminde ifade bulmuştur. Şairin Alevî-Bektâşî geleneğine bağlı olmasından dolayı, şiirde Yezdân, çerâğ uyandırmak (mum yakmak) gibi bu geleneğe ait unsurlar da söz konusu edilmiştir. Klâsik şiir anlayışına uygun olarak Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba da kışı bir gam mevsimi, baharı ise insanın gönlüne ferahlık ve yaşama sevinci veren bir mevsim olarak takdim etmiştir. Nevruziyyede elvân çiçek, ezhâr, şükûfistan, gülşen gibi genel anlamda çiçek ve çiçek bahçesi anlamına gelen kelimeler kullanılmıştır. Bunların dışında gül, gonca, şeb-bû, zerrîn, nergis, zülf-i arûs, sünbül, şakayık, ortanca, benefşe, hanımeli, civanperçemi, hüsn-i Yusuf, zerrin-kadeh, gelincik, dilber dudağı, fesleğen, kadife, atlas, mina, karanfil, lale, nesrin, zambak, yasemin, fulya, nilüfer, filbahri, avize, ateş çiçeği, balmumu çiçeği, gece sefası ve kahkaha çiçeklerinden oluşan oldukça geniş bir çiçek kadrosu vardır. Görüldüğü üzere, çalışmaya konu olan Nevrûziyye, Klâsik Türk edebiyatının çok bilinen gül, sümbül, nergis, lale vb. çiçeklerinin yanında, değişik çiçekleri de ihtiva etmektedir. Şiir, bu yönüyle de ilgi çekicidir. Klâsik Türk şiirinde sıkça kullanılanların dışında çiçeklerin zikredilmesi, son dönemlerde kaleme alınan şiirlerde sesten ziyade müşahhaslığın ön plana çıkmış olmasına bağlanabilir. Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba, son dönem şairlerinden olduğu için şiirine yenilik ve farklılık getirme çabasında olduğu düşünülebilir. Her biri farklı renk ve kokulara sahip bu kadar çok çiçeğin bir arada yer aldığı bir şiirde Nevrûz ve dolayısıyla bahar oldukça renkli, bol çağrışımlı ve canlı tablolar hâlinde gözler önüne serilmiştir. Bir erkek şairin kaleminde bu kadar çok çiçeğin bir arada zikredilmesiyle, Alevî-Bektaşî geleneğinde Nevruz’un ve baharın önemi ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bibliyografya Altun, E. (2002). “Türk Halk Kültüründe Nevruz”, Türk Kültüründe Nevruz V. Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri, Ankara. Arıkan, M., “Osmanlı Saray Düğünlerinde Yemekler”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/GENEL/murat_arikan_osmanli_saray_yemek.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 30.04.2009). 424 �Ayvazoğlu, B. (1997). Güller Kitabı Türk Çiçek Kültürü Üzerine Bir Deneme, Ötüken Yay., Ankara. Baytop T. (2001). Türkiye’de Eski Bahçe Gülleri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ankara. Cunbur, M. (1995). “Klâsik Edebiyatımızda Nevruz”, Türk Kültüründe Nevruz Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni (Sempozyumu) Bildirileri, (Yayına Haz. Prof. Dr. Sadık Tural), AKM Yay., Ankara,. Çavuşoğlu, M. (2001) Necati Bey Divanı’nın Tahlili, Kitabevi Yay., İstanbul. Çay, A. M., (1996). Türk Ergenekon Bayramı Nevruz, Turan Kültür Vakfı, Ankara, 1996. Erhat, A. (2003). Mitoloji Sözlüğü, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul. Güzel, A. (1995). “XIV-XV. Yüzyıl Edebiyatında Nevruz ve Nevruziyeler”, Türk Kültüründe Nevruz Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni (Sempozyumu) Bildirileri, (Ankara 20-22 Mart 1995), (Yayına Haz. Prof. Dr. Sadık Tural), AKM Yay., Ankara, 95104. Halaçoğlu, Y. (1996) “Osmanlılarda Nevruz Kutlamaları”, Nevruz ve Renkler, (Yayına Haz. Prof. Sadık Tural-Elmas Kılıç), AKM Yay., Ankara. http://www.cicekcesitleri.com/Mum_Cicegi (Erişim tarihi: 21 Ağustos 2007). http://www.killerplants.com/plant-of-the-week/20041206.asp (Erişim tarihi: 21 Ağustos 2007). İnce, A. (1988) “Divan Şiirinde Nahıl”, Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları, (54), 89-96. Kılıç, F. (1999). “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Klâsik Edebiyatımızda Nevruz”, Türk Dünyasında Nevruz Üçüncü Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni. Koca, S. (2002) “Eski Türklerde Bayram ve Festivaller”, Türkler, Yeni Türkiye Yay., Ankara, (III), Noyan, B. (1907). Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede-Baba Divanı, İstanbul. Oğuz, M. G. & Yayıntaş, A. (1987). Park ve Bahçelerimizin Süs Bitkileri, (Yardımcı Ders Kitabı), E.Ü. Fen-Fakültesi Baskı İşleri, İzmir. Onay, (2000). Eski Türk Edebiyatında Mazmunlar ve İzahı, (Haz. Cemâl Kurnaz), Akçağ Yay., Ankara. Öztuna, Y. (2000). “Nevrûz”, Türk Mûsikîsi Kavram ve Terimleri Ansiklopedisi, AKM Yay., Ankara. Pala, İ. (1998) Ansiklopedik Divân Şiiri Sözlüğü, Ötüken Yay., İstanbul. Pirverdioğlu A. (2002). “Türklerde Yılbaşı ve Bahar Geleneği”, Türkler, Yeni Türkiye Yay., Ankara, (III), 44-50. Polat, N. H. (2001). Türk Çiçek ve Ziraat Kültürü Üzerine Cevat Rüştü’den Bir Güldeste, Kitabevi Yay., İstanbul. Solmaz, S. “Bir Bektaşi Şâiri Mehmed Ali Hilmi Dedebaba ve Divânı”, http://www.pau.edu.tr/pau20/asp_download.aspx?id=738 (Erişim tarihi: 30.04.2009). TDEA, “Nergis”, (VII) 14-15, Dergâh Yay., İstanbul . Temren, B. (1995). “Bektaşi Geleneklerinde Nevruz Kutlamaları Kırklar Bayramı”, Foklor/Edebiyat, S. 3, Ankara. Tırman, F. (1987). Tabii Çiçekler Morfolojisi ve Yapma Çiçekçilikte Kullanılan Kalıplar, Selçuk Üniversitesi Yay., Konya. Uçkun, R. (2005) “Alevî-Bektaşî Geleneğinde Nevruz Kutlamaları”, Uluslararası Bektaşilik ve Alevilik Sempozyumu I, Isparta. Vehbî (2007). Surnâme, Sultan Ahmet’in Düğün Kitabı, Haz. Mertol Tulum, Kabalcı Yay., İstanbul. Yücel E. & Yaltırık F. & Öztürk M. (1995). Süs Bitkileri (Ağaçlar ve Çalılar), Anadolu Üniversitesi Yay., Eskişehir. Yücel, E.(2002). Çiçekler ve Yer Örtücüler, Etam Matbaa Tesisleri, Eskişehir. 425 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 436 Title A name given to the resource Bir Bektâşî Şairin Diliyle Nevrûz Ve Çiçekler Author Author DİKMEN, Melek ÇETİN, Kamile Abstract A summary of the resource. Toplum hayatını en çok etkileyen mevsimlerden biri olan baharın gelişi, tüm dünyada yapılan değişik törenlerle coşkulu bir biçimde kutlanır. Türklerde de baharın gelişi bir bayram kabul edilir ve bu bağlamda ilk akla gelen Nevruz Bayramı’dır. Nevrûz, Osmanlı döneminde de sayılı günlerden biri olarak kutlanmıştır. Bu durumun edebî hayattaki yansımalarından biri, baharın başlaması münasebetiyle kaside, gazel gibi nazım şekilleriyle kaleme alınan ve başta padişah olmak üzere devlet ricaline sunulan nevruziyye adlı şiirlerdir. Bu tebliğde, bir Bektâşî şairi olan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın ihtiva ettiği değişik çiçek adlarıyla dikkati çeken “Nevrûziyye” başlıklı şiiri değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c416346805aa8912c169eb35ebba6aeb.pdf 9e5455efb95dff2251b42ca87959c0e4 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Information Sources for Farmers Growing Pulses in Turkey Oral Düzdemir Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY orald@gop.edu.tr M urat Sayılı Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY muratsayili@yahoo.com Hasan Akca Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY akcahasan@yahoo.com Abstract: Literature review shows that articles focusing on information sources used by farmers growing pulses are limited. Although farmers lack technical knowledge related to cultivation of pulses, they do not benefit from extension staff at enough level. Therefore, they face difficulties while growing pulses. The aim of this study is to determine information sources (printed & unprinted material, universities, extension staff, media, private input sellers, chamber of agriculture, neighbour farms, etc) used by farmers growing pulses in Tokat province of Turkey. Data were collected from 142 farms via survey. Research findings showed that farmers growing pulses contact with agents selling seed for green bean, private agrochemical sellers and other farmers in the region. On the other hand, they get information at weal level from research institute, agricultural faculty, agro-based industry, printed material, and media. Keywords: Pulses, information sources, Turkey Introduction Pulses are one of the most important crop groups that have been cultivated by human beings since the firstages of history. Turkey is a homeland for many varieties of pulses. They have been cultivated and consumed in large quantities in Turkey for many years. The major varieties of pulses grown in Turkey are lentils, chickpeas, white beans, red beans and broad beans which are used for human nutrition, and vetches (Akova, 2006). Turkey is one of the main pulses producers in the world. In 2007, production area, production amount and yield of chick pea in Turkey were 503 675 ha, 505 366 tons, and 1 010 kg ha-1,respectively. The figures for dry bean were 109 250 ha, 154 243 tons, 1 410 kg ha-1, respectively. In the same year, production amount was 519 968 tons for fresh bean, and 58 710 tons for kidney bean (FAO 2009). Material and Methods Primary data were used in the study. Data were collected from 72 farms growing bean and 70 farms growing chickpea via survey in Tokat province of Turkey. The method of simple random sampling was used to determine farms to be surveyed (Dixon & Massey 1969): 114 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo n= N .S 2 .t 2 (N − 1).E 2 + S 2 .t 2 W here, n is sample size, N is number of farm in the population, S is standard deviation,tistable value (1.86) at 95% significance level and 10% error, E is error. Questionnaire was carried outin October 2006. Research and Findings Agricultural information covers all published or unpublished knowledge in all aspects of agriculture (Agbamu 2006).Information is basicingredientforincreased agricultural production and productivity. Access to the rightinformation atthe righttime inthe rightformat and from the right source may shiftthe balance between success and failure of the farmer (Opara, 2008). Access to adequate information is very essential to increased agricultural productivity (Mgbada 2006, Ofuoku et al. 2008). Benefiting from information sources can be changed depending on educationallevel of farmers.In developed countries,farmers contact with university and research institute actively. On the other hand, in developing and less developed countries farmers have not understood importance ofthese organisations at desired level. This situation can be changed in different parts of the same country. Information sources used by pulse growers in Tokat province of Turkey are shown in Fig.1. In order to understand the subject,information sources were classified in three levels because benefiting level of farmers from information sources is different. In the research area, farmers growing pulses get information generally from private agents selling agrochemicals, other farmers (friends, neighbours, etc)in the region, and seed agents for green bean. There is a knowledge share between farmers and four actors (governmental extension staff, chamber of agriculture,export-import unions, and chickpea seed sellers) at medium level.It was determined that growers of pulses do not contact with research institute, agricultural faculty, agro-based industry, printed material (books, journals,leaflets) and media (TV, Radio, etc). This situation reflects only the idea of farmers growing pulses in the research area. Different results can be derived from other parts of Turkey. Medium Level-Information Source * Governmental Extension Staff * Chamber of Agriculture * Export-Import Unions * Seed Agents (chickpea) W eak Level-Information Source * Research Institute * Faculty of Agriculture-University * TV, Radio, Newspaper * Agro-based Industry * Books, Journals, Leaflets Strong Level-Information Source * Private Agrochemical Agents * Friends, Relatives, Neighbour * Seed Agents (green bean) FAR MERS 115 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1: Information sources which pulses growers use Research findings showed that farmers growing pulses get information about agrochemical usage especially from private sellers (bean growers: 69.45%, chickpea growers: 78.57%) while buying pesticides. At the same time, farmers believe that they have enough experience in the subject of fertiliser use in both bean (76.39%) and chickpea (77.14%) growing. In the subject of pesticide usage, they always contact with private agrochemical agents while buying pesticides (Tab. 1). Yes, always No, I have enough experience Sometimes, when I need Total Pesticides Bean (irrigated) 69.45 8.33 22.22 100.00 Chickpea (non-irrigated) 78.57 12.86 8.57 100.00 Fertilizer Bean (irrigated) 4.17 76.39 19.44 100.00 Chickpea (non-irrigated) 18.57 77.14 4.29 100.00 Table 1: Whether farmers getinformation how to use agrochemicals or not while buying them from agents? (%) Conclusion and Recommendation To produce more quality, quantity and profitable pulses following recommendations can be advice to farmers: • Growers should getinformation from extension staffinstead of advice of neighbour farmers. • Farmers growing pulses should benefitfrom academic staff working at agricultural faculty established inthe region more than today. • Education level of farmers should be increased viatheoreticaland applied agriculturaltraining activity. • Farmers should contact with different actors at desired level. References Agbamu, J.U. (2006). Essentials of agricultural communication in Nigeria, Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd. Akova, Y. (2006). Pulses (www.ctacc.org/new/images/files/pulses.pdf). Dixon, W.J., & Massey, F.J. (1969). Introduction to Statistical Analysis. Kogakasha: McGraw-Hill Book Company. FAO (2009). Statistical database (www.fao.org). Jones, D.E. (1990). Sources of agricultural information. Library Trends, 38 (3), 498-516. Ofuoku, A.U., Emah, G.N, & Itedjere, B.E. (2008). Information utilisation among rural fish farmers in central agricultural zone of Delta State, Nigeria. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4 (5), 558-564. Opara, U.N. (2008). Agricultural information sources used by farmers in Imo State, Nigeria. Information Development, 24 (4), 289-295. 116 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 490 Title A name given to the resource Information Sources for Farmers Growing Pulses in Turkey Author Author Düzdemir, Oral Sayılı, Murat Akca, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. Literature review shows that articles focusing on information sources used by farmers growing pulses are limited. Although farmers lack technical knowledge related to cultivation of pulses, they do not benefit from extension staff at enough level. Therefore, they face difficulties while growing pulses. The aim of this study is to determine information sources (printed & unprinted material, universities, extension staff, media, private input sellers, chamber of agriculture, neighbour farms, etc) used by farmers growing pulses in Tokat province of Turkey. Data were collected from 142 farms via survey. Research findings showed that farmers growing pulses contact with agents selling seed for green bean, private agrochemical sellers and other farmers in the region. On the other hand, they get information at weal level from research institute, agricultural faculty, agro-based industry, printed material, and media. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3faa780a9a68b5a6a507234fd850401e.pdf 457bc2d5dd62929a487ddd023ac6e05e PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Climatic Hazards Phenomena of the Warm Semester of the Year in the South-West Development Region. Romania Carmen-Sofia Dragotă Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, Physical Geography Department, Bucharest dragotacarmen @yahoo.co.uk Ines Grigorescu Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, Physical Geography Department, Bucharest inesgrigorescu@yahoo.com M onica Dumitraşcu Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, Physical Geography Department, Bucharest stefania_dumitrascu@yahoo.com Costin Dumitraşcu Faculty of Geography, Spiru Haret University, Bucharest costin_dumitrascu@yahoo.com Abstract. The South-West Development Region is exposed to several climatic hazards with major impact upon the environment. The paper emphasizes the occurrence and the amplitude of the hazard phenomena characteristic of the warm semester of the year within the study area based on processed annual, monthly and daily extreme climatic values (temperature, precipitations, wind, dangerous atmospheric phenomena) from all the meteorological stations involved (1961-2007) in order to establish the main vulnerability classes (mixed, very high, high, medium and low). On the basis of this survey a climatic hazard map was realized in order to emphases the main threats of these hazardous phenomena (heat waves and positive thermal singularities, dryness and drought, heavy rainfall, thunderstorms, hail storms, strong winds, acid deposits and fog) to the environment. Thus, certain areas have been identified with different vulnerability classes: mixed, high and very high, medium and low to the above mentioned climatic hazards. 1. Introduction The South-West Development Region is situated in the south-western part of Romania covering 12.3 % (29,010 km2) of the national territory and 10.7% of its population (2,301,833 inh.) [Figure 1 A]. The region expands from the heights of Southern Carpathians and Banat Mountains in the north and north-westto the hilly, plain areas and Danube floodplaininthe centre and south.The genesis of specific climatictypes (mountain, hilltableland and plain) is mainly determined by the amphitheatre-like distribution of the relief units. The climatic influences (submediterraneean in the south-western extremity, oceanic in the north and transitionalto arid in the east), filling the temperate-continental climate of the South-West Development Region (Romania. The Environment and the ElectricTransportation Network. Geographical Atlas). These major climatic traits are completed by the multitude of factors related to the local geographical environment (orographic barrier of the mountains situated in the north, exposure, massiveness and fragmentation, vegetation, soil and water bodies as well as the man-made changes) determining a wide range of local climatic features and exposing it to several climatic hazards with major impact upon the environment (Figure 1). 2. Methodology Natural risk assessment studies have often been elaborated based one criterion determining a one-sided approach of the involved phenomena. In 1991, E. Bryant developed one of the most complex classifications based on multiple criteria, which inspired Croitoru and Moldovan (2005) in approaching the hazardous meteorological phenomena specific to Romania’s territory. They identified for the southern part of the country droughts, heat waves, cold waves, strong winds, blizzards, frontal and convective rainfall, hail, 248 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo thunderstorms, glazing, fog and dust/sand transportation as dangerous phenomena (Bryant, 1991, Croitoru, Moldovan, 2005). Starting from these complex classifications and yet adapted to the particularities and to the scale of the study-area, a regionalization of the main climatic hazards could be done, based on the annual occurrence and the amplitude of the main thermal, pluvial and mixed phenomena. Figure 1: The position of meteorological stations according to relief unitsinthe South-West Development Region and itslocation within the Romanian territory (A) Thus, these could be grouped into two main categories: climatic hazards within the cold semester of the year (October - March) and climatic hazards within the warm semester ofthe year (April-September),revealing with accuracy the two periods in the year where the emergence and development of the extreme climatic phenomena have the greatest impact on the environment. Due to the representatively of the dangerous meteorological phenomena of the warm semester of the year by means of intensity, effects and the covering surface,the present paper analyses in detailthe environmental vulnerabilityto climatic hazards occurring during thistime span. Thus, the above mentioned climatic hazards were analysed in a GIS format, based on the processed annual, monthly and daily extreme climatic values for the period 1961-2007 (temperature, precipitations, wind, and dangerous climatic phenomena) from all the meteorological stations involved and on the climatic hazard elementsidentified within the study-area (Figure 1). In a first stage, main meteorological elements’ distribution maps (temperature, rainfall, wind) which fit into the area ofinterest have been analyzed by drawing the variabilitylines ofthe climatic parameters. Later on, the main meteorological phenomena specific to the warm semester of the year with different degrees of vulnerability have been analyzed and establish the main vulnerability classes (mixed, very high, high, medium and low). The identified vulnerability categories were underlined by the mean and maximum frequency, duration and intensity of hazardous meteorological phenomena, as well as by the periods in the year affected by these phenomena. Each climatic hazard was represented by a layer in GIS format comprising of the spatial distribution of the environmental vulnerability to the main climatic hazards which are affecting the studied area in order to emphasize the main threats of these hazardous phenomena to the environment. Following the layers’ superposition and correlation, a complex climatic hazard map for the warm semester of the year for the studyregion has resulted. The significance ofthe chosen dangerous climatic phenomena characteristic forthe warm semester of the year within the studied area was also emphasized through the analyses of the most significant extreme climatic sequences, considered as case-studies. 249 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Results Based on the methodology described above, the regionalization of the main hazardous meteorological phenomena that take theirtoll on the South-West Development Region between April and September could be performed in orderto make the climatic hazards map forthe warm semester ofthe year. Climatic hazards occurring during the warm semester of the year are caused by the exceeding of the multi-annual mean values in correlation with the general circulation of the atmosphere combined with solar radiation and with the nature of the subjacent surface or by the frequency and intensity of extreme climatic phenomena related to the global warming. Within the South-West Development Region, the meteorological phenomena with greatimpact on the environment during this period of the year are related to the action of heat waves and positivethermal singularities, dryness and drought, heavy rainfall,thunderstorms, hailstorms, strong winds, acid deposits and fog (Figure 3). Heat waves and positive thermic singularities are generated by the tropical air advections and the criteria according to which they are classified are as follow (Bogdan, Niculescu, 1999): - mean monthly temperatures of the hottest months (July, August) ≥ 250 C; - maximum daily temperatures that exceed 350 C (extremely hot days); - minimum nightly temperatures ≥ 200 C (tropical nights). Heat waves and positive thermic singularities are enabled by the complex interaction of different genetic factors such as: the intensity of the heating process, the relief’s characteristics (orographic barrier of the surrounding hills/mountains, exposure, massiveness and fragmentation), the vegetation cover, the physical and chemical characteristics of soillayer,the man-made related changes etc. The penetration of tropical heat waves in favourable synoptic situations has lead to excess values in the South-West Development Region which have reached the state of climaticrecord. Due to the persistence of anticyclonal baric formations for several days in a row, local heat-strike phenomena intensify which leads to en increase in the degree of aridity and drought, emphasizing the value ofthe positive thermic singularities. It ought to be noticed the presence of an extended area in south-east Oltenia, between Jiu River, the Danube and the Oltenia hills where massive heating processes are worthy of comparison with those in Bărăgan Plain, very well known in Romania for its increases aridisation process. The absolute maximum value in this area is only one degree lower than that ofthe entire country, and,in addition,the massive heating processes can be seen here earlier (35.5 0 C in Bechet on 04.10.1985) and later (43.50 C in Strehaia on 08.20.1946 and on 09.08.1946),than inthe rest ofthe country. Thus, Olteniaisthe firstarea ofthe country struck by heat waves the earliest(in spring), but also the latest(the first decade of September). This area could be considered the second epicentre of extreme heatin Romania (Marinică, 2006). Due to heat waves, as well as positive thermic singularities, the Oltenia Plain is affected by drought, a phenomenon which can be seen allthe more often and which has repercussions on the environment by the severe reduction in phreatic waters, changes in the structure and texture of the soil, phenological changes in vegetation etc. In the past decades, the southern part of the South-West Development Region has been struck by extreme heat. Such alterations have occurred during the heat waves of July 1916 and 1936, August 1946 and 1951, JuneJuly 1994 etc. A special situation isthe massive heating in the summer of 2000 when the intensity ofthe heat coincided with the year of maximum solar activity of a seculartype,resembling the one in 1946, only much more intense. Figure 2: Baric configuration in Europe on July 5th 2000 (ww w.wetterzentrale.de) The weather heating process began on July 2nd, 2000 when the Icelandic depression west of Great Britain up to the northern seas interacted with the Greenland Anticyclone above the Atlantic Ocean towards Northern 250 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Africa.In this synoptic context the rapid advection of warm air over south-western area of Romania favoured a south-western circulation of airinthe whole ofthe inferiortroposphere (Figure 2). The final stage of the extreme heat reached its peak in the interval of July 4th-5th of 2000 when it affected the southern half of the country and the temperature-humidity index (ITU) exceeded the threshold of 80 units, which lead to an extremely high thermic hazard. In the South-West Development Region the hottest summer day in 2000 was the 4th of July, which also holds the record in the past 84 years forthe hottest day of any July (Table 1). Subsequently, within the same synoptic context, the tropical heat waves have hit repeatedly and in addition with the scarce quantities of rainfall, completed the massive heating aspect characteristic for the summer of 2000 in the South-West Development Region. As to theimpact maximum dailytemperatures have on the environment,exceeding the 350 C threshold has a negative impact on the environment. Taking into consideration the fact that temperatures are measured in meteorological shelter, its equivalent at soil level has 10-150 C more, which amplifies the thermic discomfort. Positive thermic singularities in the warm semester of the year have higher values that the criticalthreshold of 350 C in the southern part of the area under discussion, even exceeding 410 C in Oltenia Plain along the Jiu Valley, up to Filiaşitown. These thermic singularities are upheld by the frequency of days when characteristic maximum temperatures are registered of ≥300 C (tropical days), ≥350 C (extreme heat) and when minimal temperatures of ≥200 C (tropical nights) are also taken into account (Table 1). Meteorological Station Absolute maximu m temperature ≥300 C ≥350 C Relief unit (selection) (0 C)/date Obârşia Lotrului 29.0/5. July 0 0 Southern Carpathians Voineasa 36.7/4. July 11 2 Tg. Jiu 40.6/4. July 18 6 Getic Subcarpathians Polovragi 39.2/4. July 15 4 R m. Vâlcea 40.6/4. July 17 5 Apa Neagră (Padeş) 41.8/4. July 17 6 Getic Piedmont Tg. Logreşti 40.0/4. July 14 5 Drăgăşani 40.7/4. July 18 7 Vânju Mare 42.4/4. July 17 9 Oltenia Plain Băileşti 43.1/4. July 19 11 Caracal 42.3/4. July 19 10 Calafat 43.2/4. July 18 12 Danube Floodplain Bechet 42.0/4. July 16 12 Source: National Meteorological Agency Database Table 1. Absolute extreme temperatures and the frequency of days when characteristic maximum temperatures are registered in July 2000,in the South-West Development Region Heat waves have a special impact on vegetation by underlying physiological and phenological changes and on humans by increasing the risk associated diseases or even death. Thus, following the heat wave in the summer of 2000, the Romanian Government issued the Government Ordinance 99/2000, regarding protection measures taken by the population in the case of extreme climatic phenomena. In the South-West Development Area the degree of vulnerability to heat waves and positive thermic singularitiesincreases from northto south,revealing an area of very high vulnerabilityin Oltenia Plain,along Jiu Valley, up to north of Filiaşi. Within this space, an area of a very high degree of vulnerability to aridity and drought can be found. This degree increases as we approach the Danube Floodplain. The Southern and Eastern slopes of Almăjului Mountains, the southern part of MehedinŃi Tableland, MehedinŃi Piedmont, BălăciŃei and Motrului Piedmont, central and southern part of OlteŃ and Cotmeana Piedmont, as well as the Olt valley up to the Râmnicu-Vâlcea – OcniŃa Depression displays a high degree of vulnerabilitytothese climatic hazards. Areas with a medium degree of vulnerability are in the north of MehedinŃi Tableland, the Getic Subcarpathians (except Târgu-Jiu and Râmnicu-Vâlcea – OcniŃa Depressions) expanding towards the Olt Valley inthe mountain sector,to the northern part of OlteŃ and Cotmeana Piedmonts. This area also displays a medium degree of vulnerabilityto aridity and drought phenomena. The mountain area subscribed to the South-West Development Region is not affected by these thermic hazards and is,thus, characterized by a low degree of vulnerability. By way of their characteristic parameters (intensity, duration, quantity), heavy rainfall are dependant on altitude, relief, solar radiation, and on the role as a orographic barrier the Carpathian Mountains play to the 251 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo humid air advections. The highly active dynamics of the humid tropical air or of the polar-maritime air over Romania’s territory, as well as the unequal heating of the terrestrial surface generates heavy rainfall during summer unleashing flood-waves. W hen taking into consideration the South-West Development Region,the evolution ofthe meteorological factors,aside from topographic particularities of riverbeds and fundamentalfeatures ofthe water system, plays a decisive role in the occurrence of floods most often brought about by heavy rainfall. From the point of view of the synoptic situations, heavy rainfalls within the area belong to certain types (Milea et. al.,1976): � Type 1 – heavy rainfall determined by the Mediterranean cyclones; � Type 2 – heavy rainfall determined by the cyclones centred inthe Pannonia Plain; � Type 3 – heavy rainfall inside the depression corridor formed by an Icelandic anti-cyclone and a cyclone from the eastern area ofthe Mediterranean Sea; � Type 4 – heavy rainfall brought about atthe limits of an anti-cyclonic field; � Type 5 – heavy rainfall of athermo-convective nature. As a moment when heavy rainfall occur after being generated by such weather situations, a greater frequency during spring and sum mer comes forwards when talking about the South-West Development Region, due tothe more frequent surging of warm and humid oceanic or Mediterranean air above the Romanian territory. During summer,the thermo-convective type 5 is prevalent. Within the analyzed area,floods are determined by a certain quantity of water coming from precipitations (Milea et. al., 1976): � in plain areas: − inthe case of dry soil,a quantity of water of 50 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period; − inthe case of humid or soaked soil,a quantity of water of 15 – 30 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period; � in hill or mountain areas: − inthe case of dry soil,a quantity of water of 30 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period; − inthe case of humid or soaked soil,a quantity of water of 10 – 20 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period. In the South-West development Region, the maximum monthly precipitation amounts of a year is registered inthe months of June – July. One sector where heavy rainfallareregistered isthat ofthe sand dunes at Ciuperceni – Calafat, where the underlying sand surface is rapidly heated and the frequency of unstable moist and tropical air is very high. Another sector greatly affected by heavy rainfall is that of the Subcarpathian Depressions of Oltenia, where the orographic barrier of the relief plays a major role in the increase in value of rainintensity, on the background of Mediterranean cyclones evolving on the classicalsouth-west north-east axis. In such situations,in plain, hill and tableland areas, rainfall of a torrential character have mean intensities of 4 m m/min or even higher. The greatest pluvialintensities determined during torrentialrain have been registered at: Meteorological station Ciupercenii Vechi Târgu Jiu Tismana After Marinică, 2006 Date of occurrence 28.06.1945 30.07.1941 27.06.1934 Mean intensity (m m/min) 6.15 5.60 0.50 Duration (minutes) 2 6 240 Total quantity of water (m m) 12.3 33.6 120.0 Table 2. Maximum quantity of heavy rainfallin Oltenia As the altitude increases,the intensity of torrentialrains drops under 3 mm/min due to the increase in air humidity which quells airtemperature values thus preventing thermo convection. The destructive aspects oftorrentialrainfall depend on the intensity, duration and on the water quantities, as well as on the numerous characteristics ofthe active area:lithology,the presence/absence ofthe vegetallayer, the declivity rate,the moment when they occur during the year (afterlong drought periods, when the soilis very dry and its cohesion isreduced and the rain’s force of erosion is higher, but also after a period of heavy rainfall, or after snow meltdowns when the soil is oversoaked). In such conditions, heavy rainfalls trigger geomorphological processes, affects crops, economic infrastructure (roads, bridges, railroads, networks of electrical energy transportation sewage systems and water/gas pipelines) and houses determining a negative impact on the environment. The environmental vulnerability to this climatic hazard takes into consideration especially the pluvial intensity, which,inthe south and the centre ofthe area under discussion becomes one ofthe highest.Itis worthy of mentioning the special role of meteorological phenomena associated with heavy rainfall (strong winds, hailstorms, floods etc.), which usually complete the aspects that make up the climatic hazard in the warm 252 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo semester ofthe year. One has to mention the impact ofthe precipitation registered during short periods oftime,of which those cumulated in 24 hours play a very importantrole. These amounts ofrainfallthatfallduring the warm semester of the year, genetically juxtaposed to thermo convective and frontal processes subscribe themselves to the Azores circulation of air which prevails, and reach the highest values in the whole year. The months during which the most abundant day precipitations are registered, are June, July and August,followed by the autumn months, and then by spring months (especially May). From the perspective of quantity, they exceed the mean values and quantities of the entire month, and in some cases they grow near to the annual mean. In the South-West Development Region, among the most representative such amounts are the following: Meteorological station M aximu m amount of precipitations/24 h (m m) Date of occurrence Bîcleş 110.1 31.07.1980 Calafat 194.0 4.06.1940 Dragotă, 2006 Table 3 Absolute maximum quantities of precipitations registered in 24 hours One ofthe most significant examples of precipitation fallen in short periods oftime and in large areasthat generate floods in the South-West Development Region isrepresented by the 1st-3rdof July heavy rainfall. The year 2005 stands outthrough thelong list of meteorological observations conducted since 1874, as an exceptional year in terms of the quantity of monthly rainfall, but especially during the warm semester. In Romania, this has generated, from April until November, seven flood waves with catastrophic results, since material damage of over one billion Euros, and 62 human casualties were registered (Dragotă, 2006). The synoptic contextfavourabletothe unfolding ofthe climatic hazard in July 2005 started off on the 30th of June 2005, due to vast depression areas north of Romania, in Ukraine and Poland that merged with the Icelandic depression above our country. The Azores Anticyclone had extended over the western and central areas of Europe and led to the contact of cold, polar air with the humid masses of air coming from the Mediterranean, thus generating an intense cyclic genesis best displayed by the synoptic situation on the 2nd of July 2005 (Figure 3). Figure 3: Baric configuration in Europe on July 2nd 2005 (ww w.wetterzentrale.de) The evolution ofthe synoptic context has led to the development of a strong associated cloud system, and inthe southern part ofthe country,especiallyin Oltenia,rainfall has been signalled associated with strong winds. The rainfall ofthree days equalled, and even exceeded,the multi-annual monthly mean withinthe interval 19012007 (Table 4),flooding wide areas in the South-West Development Region. A similar synoptic context stands out forthe 11th - 13th of July 2005 when heavy rainfallseriously damaged Jiu and Olt rivers catchments. Thus, due to the damage inflicted (11 human causalities and 839,415 mil. Ron), the month of July 2005 has been deemed to have been the month with the most serious floods in the past 50 years for the area under analysis (Dumitraşcu, Dumitraşcu, 2001, Dumitraşcu, 2006). The largest part of the South-West Development Region displays a medium vulnerability to climatic hazards generated by torrential rain overlapping with the central and northern part ofthe Oltenia Plain and with the entire piedmont area. 253 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Precipitation amounts (m m) Relief unit Registration date 1.07.2005 2.07.2005 3.07.2005 Total(1-3.07 2005) Runcu 30.8 87.5 1.8 120.1 Getic Subcarpathians Balta 49.7 92.7 0.9 143.3 MehedinŃi Plateau Rovinari 66.2 93.1 2.8 162.1 Getic Piedmont Potcoava 191.5 2.9 194.4 Scorniceşti 137.0 2.0 139.0 Slatina 18.6 109.4 30.0 158.0 Breasta 55.0 75.0 26.0 156.0 Oltenia Plain MărunŃei 27.3 143.0 21.5 191.8 Corbu Buzeşti 3.0 164.0 167.0 Văleni 1.0 168.0 4.9 173.9 After Marinică, 2006 Table 4. Rainfall amounts registered between the 1st and the 3rd of July 2005 Meteorological station (selection) To the South, in the Danube Defilee, BlahniŃa Plain, DesnăŃui Plain and in the southern part of RomanaŃi Plain, as well as in the insular area that covers MehedinŃi Plateau and the depressions in the Oltenia Subcarpathians,the degree of vulnerabilitytothis climatic hazard is high.Inthe mountain area,the vulnerability totorrentialrain islow (Figure 4). Hailis a dangerous meteorological phenomenon which occurs during the warm semester of the year and has major consequences on the environment. Usually, hailis associated with heavy rainfalland lightning and its character of a climatic hazard is provided by the size oftheice hailstones,the duration,the amount of water,the intensity ofthe hailstorm and the wind speed thatleads to the storm before hail. The South-West Development Region generally displays the same degree of vulnerability to these meteorological phenomena as those determined by heavy rainfall, which is why on the map for dangerous meteorological hazards distribution concerning the warm semesterthey are represented by the same symbol. In the case of a high vulnerabilitythe mean annual frequency is 2-6 days of hail and the absolute annual mean is o 5-10 days. The areas described by this vulnerability step are:the Danube Defilee, DesnăŃui Plain and the south of RomanaŃi Plain, as well as the insular area covering MehedinŃi Plateau and the Oltenia Subcarpathians’ depressions.The medium vulnerability,specificforthe centre and north of Oltenia Plain and the entire piedmont areais determined by an average number of 1-2 days and a maximum number of 4-5 days of hail (Bogdan, Marinică, 2007). Areas which show low vulnerability register less than one case of hail in a mean regime and lessthan 4 cases per year of maximum frequency in multi-annualregime, being representative forthe entire mountain area. The damage caused by this climatic hazard is of a mechanic nature through their destructive effect the hailstones have on crops, as well asthrough the wind intensifications that accompany or anticipate hail. Thunderstorms are part of the electro-meteor category and consist of sudden atmospheric electrical discharge which manifestthemselves as a short-lived and intense light(lightning) and smothered sounds or loud thuds (thunder). Thunderstorms are associated with convection clouds (Cumulonimbus) and usually come accompanied by rainfalls. In the South-West Development Region, an average number of thunderstorm days on an annual basis, oscillates from south to north: - between 30-35 cases/year in the south of BălăciŃa Piedmont and in Oltenia Plain and display a low vulnerability; - 40-50 cases per year in the rest of the piedmont area and in the Oltenia Subcarpathians east of Târgu Jiu, leading to an medium vulnerability; - in MehedinŃi Plateau,the eastern part of the Getic Subcarpathians, as well as in the entire area overlapping the South-West Development Area have, alltogether, a number exceeding 45 cases of thunderstorms, thus determining a high vulnerability. Allthe year round,the maximum number of days/month of thunderstorms is reached in June, when, on a multi-annual regime,the maximu m amount of precipitations isregistered. Strong winds (with a frequency and speed of >15 m/s) are generated by the thermo-baric contrasts between the differentregions characterised by the high values of horizontal gradients,asthey can occur any time of the year.If during the cold semester of the year winds are associated with the snow layer and with snowfall, forthe warm semesterthey are seen as climatic hazards when associated especially with extreme heat or with the 254 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo begging of heavy rainfall. The main role in the dispersion of pollutantsin the terrestrial atmosphere isthat of masses’ circulation as well as the relief’s configuration. Atmospheric calm associated with the lack of precipitations favours the stagnation ofthese elements of pollution forlong periods of time, usually atlower altitudes and inthe same areas where they were generated. The factthat atmospheric precipitations along with strong winds are the most active pair of meteorological elements which influence the geographical environment is very well known. The annual mean ofthe dominant wind frequency is predominantly west-wards and in the direction ofits components. The aspects of a climatic hazard developed by the wind meteorological factor results in the strong intensification and are characterised by the sudden changes in direction and intensity, resulting in values of 16 m/s. These can be regarded as strong winds and convective thunderstorms associated with the passing of cold fronts of air. The aspect of a climatic hazard induced by strong winds and thunderstorms can produce significant damage, especially in the case of those that hit frontally (due to the large expansion area): the dislodging and destruction of roof-tops, suspended cables and especially electric energy transportation network, knocking down treesin hilly an mountain areas (especially ifthe front of air comes right after a period of heavy rainfall and the soilisintensely humid), affecting crops etc. In the South-West Development Region, the average number of days/year with strong winds varry between north (mountain area) where 50-100 cases have been registered,towards south (the Danube Valley and the south of Oltenia Plain) where theirfrequency drops to 10 cases, exceeding 10 days (Clima României, 2008), and the maximum number of cases possible during the warm semester can go beyond 40.In the north of Oltenia Plain and in the south of the Getic Plateau, due to local orographic factors and to the southern exposure, the number of days with strong windsis 10-25 cases. Withinthe analysed area, maximum winds speeds registered at the meteorological stations display a variety in value different,in the sense that the lowest value is specific to BlahniŃa Plain and to the south of DesnăŃui Plain (20-30 m/s) while the Oltenia Subcarpathians east of Tismana River registerthe lowest maximu m speeds (under 20 m/s). In the rest of the plain and piedmont areas on the southern slope of Vulcan-Parâng-CăpăŃânii Mountains and in MehedinŃi Mountains and Mehedinti Plateau, maximu m speeds range between 30 and 40 m/s. In the mountain area maximum wind speeds of over 40 m/s are registered, providing an elevated frequency of this climatic hazard. Combining the climatic parametersrepresented by the maximu m speed and frequency of days with strong winds (>15 m/s) that have an impact on the South-West Development Regions’s environment; areas displaying vulnerability to strong winds can be individualized. The north area of the analysed region is the most exposed partto this climatic hazard, and overlaps the high-altitude mountain space,thus describing a region with a very high vulnerability. The south-west part of Almăj Mountains,the high-altitude mountain area,the Danube Gorge, MehedinŃi Mountains,the south ofthe Getic Plateau and the north of Oltenia Plain display a high vulnerabilityto this climatic hazard. A medium vulnerability is characteristic for the southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, as they merge with the Oltenia Subcarpathians, Olt Valley (mountain sector),the north of the Getic Piedmont, Danube Valley, BlahniŃa Plain, DesnăŃui Plain, south of RomanaŃi Plain. Areas with a low vulnerability generally overlap the east of MehedinŃi Plateau and the Oltenia Subcarpathians. Within this area, atthe lowest altitudes of Târgu Jiu – Câmpu Mare Depression, an insular area stands out within which the degree of vulnerabilityto thistype of meteorological phenomenon is very low. Acid deposits and fog are a very important source of pollution of the atmosphere, due to the mechanic (fog) and chemical (acid deposits) effectsthat have a negative impact on the environment. Fog is basically atmospheric suspension in the form of microscopic drops that reduce visibility to less than 1 kilometre. The presence of fog,in no matter what shape, has a negative impact on transport means (road transport, watertransport, airtransport,sewage transport) and on population’s health. The highest monthly frequency of fog within a year can be registered during winter (December-January), and the lowest during summ er (June-August). The physical and geographical allotment of this hydro-meteor highlightsthe highest number of foggy days (40-50)inthe subcarpathian depressions and down the valleys of Jiu River (Motru – Rovinari coalfield) and Olt River (from the mountain region to the plain region). Isolated, in Târgu Jiu – Câmpu Mare and Râmnicu Vâlcea – OcniŃa depressions up to 60 cases in annual mean regime are registered.In the rest ofthe analysed territory the number offoggy days decreases,rarely exceeding 40 cases as an average value per year (e.g.:the Danube Valley). W hen associated with various polluting substances its effect on the environment increases in direct ratio with their concentration rate, and the intensity and duration of parameters characteristic for this meteorological phenomenon amplify or diminish the content of polluting substances existentinthat micro-climatic area. Precipitations associated with polluting substances enhance the negative impact fog has on the environment.In a polluted area, asinthe case of some regions inthe analysed area, 5% of the polluting elements present in the free atmosphere can be engulfed in the precipitations that fall on the soil (wash-out).In the case where precipitations come from a dirty cloud that has a high concentration of polluting substances (rain-out), 255 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo these substances reach the earth’s surface atthe same time the precipitations do and at great distances from the emission source. The mostimportantindustrialsources for atmosphere pollution are concentrated in the urban ecosystems of: Râmnicu Vâlcea (Oltchim S.A.), Craiova (S.C. Dolj Chim, CET 1 IşalniŃa, CET 2 Şimnic), Slatina (Slatina Industrial Platform), Târgu Jiu (Romcin), Drobeta Turnu Severin (Power Plant), Turceni (Energetic Complex), Rovinari(CET Rovinari) etc.These sources also determine the pollution caused by the dusts conditioned during constant exploitation in the Motru-Rovinari coal exploitation, as well as by the toxic substances and polluting emissions in the atmosphere that come from the fuel burns coming out oftechnological processes,from thermic plantsthat produce heat and running water, and,last but notleast,from road traffic. These lead to the identification, within the South-West Development Area, of regions that display different degrees of vulnerability associated with sources previously mentioned that manifestthemselves even 45 km around the affected cities. The direction and the average speed in a multi-annual wind system, imprintthe differentiated dispersion also favoured by the local configuration of the relief as well as by the degree of sheltering conveyed by the frequency ofthe atmospheric calm. Figure 4: Climatic hazards in the warm semester ofthe year within South-West Development Region Acid precipitations or acid rainfall that have a pH value lower that 5.6 refer to the process of dry or humid deposit ofthe acid materialsin the atmosphere on the earth’s surface.In the absence of rain or any other sort of precipitations, atmospheric polluting substances shift from the atmosphere by gravitational fall and by direct contact with the soil, vegetation and buildings. The rate for the dry deposit of these polluting substances varies between 0.1 and 1.0 cm/s. Dry deposits can have a great contribution to the increase in acidity, and both types of deposits (dry and humid) bear the name of acid deposits (Fărcaş, Croitoru, 2003) which manifest themselves associated with the risk of fog formation and in the topo-climatic conditions ofthe heatisland of the urban ecosystems affected (Râmnicu Vâlcea, Craiova, Slatina, Târgu Jiu, Drobeta Turnu Severin, Turceni, Rovinari) and increasesin directratio with these cities’territorial expansion. Due to the factthatroad traffic has increased, sources of mobile pollution have also multiplied and, associated with dangerous meteorological phenomena (mist,fog, acid deposits etc.)lead to a majorimpact on the environment and on the state of health of the population. Thus, by analyzing the main dangerous meteorological phenomena having different degrees of climatic vulnerability characteristicforthe warm semester ofthe yearinthe South-West Development Region a complex hazard map with the identified vulnerability areas have resulted (Figure 4). 256 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusions The joint effect of hazardous climatic phenomena can be felt gradually depending on how their parameters manifestthemselves: according to the altitude (from the plains’levelto he mountain areas), but also from East to West. During the warm semester of the year, the central, southern area of the Getic Piedmont, as well as the southern slopes of the Southern Carpathians reveal an area of mean vulnerability to the climatic hazards characteristic for this time of the year. Towards the south,in the Oltenia Plain, an area affected by heat waves accompanied by positive thermal singularities, drought and dryness, heavy rainfall and winds of a regional and local character, the degree of vulnerability is high. In the Subcarpathian depressions and in the northern area of the Getic Piedmont, an area with mean towards low vulnerability stands out, especially regarding heavy rainfall and thunderstorms, which, when confronted with atmospheric polluting sources,favour the existence of insular areas with acid deposits. The mountain sectors exhibitlow vulnerability to heat waves, but a high degree of vulnerabilityto humidity, winds, and thunderstorms. The importance of making the hazard maps consists in assessing and monitoring the environment vulnerabilityto different disturbing factorsin orderto avoid or even diminish their negative impact. Hereby,the maps dictate the delimitation of areas with different vulnerability scales to the analyzed hazards, having a practicalimportance forthe human communities atregional and locallevel. References Bălteanu, D., Şerban, Mihaela (2004), Natural and technological hazards in Romania, Environmental Change and Sustainable Development, Proceedings of the second Romanian–Turkish Workshop of Geography, Bucharest, Romania/June 15-22, 2003, Editura Universitară, Bucharest Bogdan, Octavia, Marinică, I., (2007), Hazarde meteo-climatice din zona temperată. Factori genetici şi vulnerabilitate cu aplicaŃii la România, Editura Lucian Blaga, Sibiu Bryant E. A., (1991), Natural Hazards, Cambrige University Press Croitoru Adina, Moldovan F., (2005), Vulnerability of Romanian territory to climatic hazards, Analele UniversităŃii de Vest din Timişoara, Seria Geografia, XV/2005 Dragotă, Carmen-Sofia., (2006), PrecipitaŃiile excedentare din România, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti Dumitraşcu, Monica, Dumitraşcu, C. (2001), Vulnerabilitatea ecosistemelor urbane la riscuri naturale, Comunicări de Geografie, IV, Universitatea din Bucureşti Dumitraşcu, Monica, Dumitraşcu, C., Douguedroit, Annick (2002), ConsideraŃii asupra tendinŃei de evoluŃie a temperaturii aerului în Oltenia, Rev. Geografică, VIII, p. 18-24. Dumitraşcu, Monica, (2006), Modificări ale peisajului în Câmpia Olteniei, Edit. Academiei Române, Bucureşti Marinică, I., (2006), Fenomene climatice de risc în Oltenia, Editura Autograf MJM, Craiova Milea Elena et. al., (1976), Studiul meteorologic al apelor mari din 4-12 octombrie 1972 în sudul Ńării, Culegere de lucrări a INH ***, (2002), Romania. The Environment and the Electric Transportation Network. Geographical Atlas, Editura Academiei Romane, Bucuresti ***, (2008), Clima României, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti 257 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 473 Title A name given to the resource Climatic Hazards Phenomena of the Warm Semester of the Year in the South-West Development Region. Romania Author Author Dragotă, Carmen-Sofia Grigorescu, Ines Dumitrascu, Monica Dumitrascu, Costin Abstract A summary of the resource. The South-West Development Region is exposed to several climatic hazards with major impact upon the environment. The paper emphasizes the occurrence and the amplitude of the hazard phenomena characteristic of the warm semester of the year within the study area based on processed annual, monthly and daily extreme climatic values (temperature, precipitations, wind, dangerous atmospheric phenomena) from all the meteorological stations involved (1961-2007) in order to establish the main vulnerability classes (mixed, very high, high, medium and low). On the basis of this survey a climatic hazard map was realized in order to emphases the main threats of these hazardous phenomena (heat waves and positive thermal singularities, dryness and drought, heavy rainfall, thunderstorms, hail storms, strong winds, acid deposits and fog) to the environment. Thus, certain areas have been identified with different vulnerability classes: mixed, high and very high, medium and low to the above mentioned climatic hazards. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)