345 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fe3a3fa66ad3cc7c0e6486d7883fc182.pdf 0a8eb01ad6b9c4c8c78e73cc1504ac68 PDF Text Text The significance of non-monetary incentives and its relationship with employee motivation: A case of civil service employees in Bosnia and Herzegovina Emir Srna International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina emirsrna@yahoo.com M. Sait Dinc International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina m.sait.dinc@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the perceived importance of non-monetary incentives as well as the degree of their current utilization within the civil service sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. One of the aims of the study is to explore if non-monetary incentives have prospective to increase employee’s motivation in comparison to monetary rewards. Such finding could play a beneficial role in understanding the fact that an individual’s behaviour and motivation can be greatly influenced by alternative and cost-friendly non-financial motivating factors. The study is conducted on a sample of 129 civil servants of all categories at the state level. The relationships between the variables were evaluated by descriptive statistics, correlations and non-parametric independent samples test. The study findings demonstrate that the non-monetary incentives are not sufficiently utilized in the civil service sector. Furthermore, according to the findings, non-monetary incentives represent a very strong motivating factor and could be widely and actively used in order to secure increased motivation of the civil servants in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords: Non-monetary incentives, Motivation, Civil service, monetary incentives. 1 Introduction The human capital is the brain of any process organized in the form of an institution, corporation or organization, private or public one. In this regard, the organization success depends on its workforce. Unfolding this process to the level of employees, it can be said that one of the greatest factors for the employee success is motivation. Therefore, due attention must be given to this factor. Organizations, in order to achieve success and reach their strategic goals, must have motivated employees, the ones who work with enthusiasm, energy and dedication. On the other 158 �hand, the organizational management must do everything in order to establish and bring into force healthy and motivated employees. The first assumption that comes to mind when word “incentive“ is mentioned is usually some form of monetary reward for employees. However, it can be noted that incentive in fact is the thing that encourages or motivates someone to perform a certain action. Besides well-known monetary incentives, there are other stimuli that boost our performance and in the end, support the accomplishments of the goals. Therefore, the importance of such stimuli or incentives should not be neglected or undermined by company managers or employees who should take proactive role in seeking the establishment of the incentive system. The reason behind the introduction and use of such incentives can be manifold: commitment enhancement, productivity increase, psychological satisfaction of employees leading to job satisfaction, higher work enthusiasm and many others. Although companies in developed countries have been aware of the benefits of use of nonmonetary incentives, it can be easily said that the culture of use of non-monetary incentives in developing countries is at a low level. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is one of those developing countries. After brutal war, BiH started recovering its economy and is now working to join the European Union. But managers in this country are still not fully aware of the potential that such incentives may have on employee’s job satisfaction and motivation to drive them to better performance. Since there is a very scarce literature as well as research conducted on this issue in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Dinc & Plakalovic, 2016), it is deemed appropriate to instigate a study in this regard and further research the current use as well as possible effects of the increased use of non-monetary incentives. It is also well known in our society that the possibility of use of monetary rewards in public institutions is stipulated by different laws in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the fact is that these rules and regulations greatly limit the use of monetary rewards, especially having in mind the financial crisis in the last decade. This fact multiplies the importance of other, alternative means of employee motivation and that is actually why this study focuses primarily on the non-monetary incentives. In the wake of limitations on the use of monetary incentives in public service in Bosnia and Herzegovina, this study tries to identify the value of non-monetary incentives and their link with the motivation and performance of employees (See Figure 1). This is especially important having in mind that little or no evidence exists regarding the effects of non-monetary incentives on motivation in Bosnia and Herzegovina and its civil service. 159 �Figure 1 Proposed Research model Job-related NMI Tangible NMI Social NMI Employee motivation 2 Literature review Motivation represents anything that ignites our physical and mental capacities to move towards a certain accomplishments or objectives. Max A. Eggert (1999), who has worked on the complex subject of motivation, stated “Motivation is like a jellyfish. Everyone knows what it is but it is difficult to describe or define”. In essence, various authors have different views on the concept of motivation. However, all these offered definitions share few common points: all are tackling the “factors or events that energize, channel, and sustain human behaviour over time “(Steers, Mowday, & Shapiro, 2004). The starting point in the motivational process are the needs, followed by the process of sending signals, thus triggering our behaviour in the direction of reaching and meeting the objectives that we believe will satisfy our needs. If motivation is induced internally, originated from an individual, such type of motivation is called intrinsic motivation. Many of the authors consider this type of motivation to be the most important. According to Deci and Ryan (2000), the intrinsic motivation develops out of the psychological needs, such as a need for competency, autonomy and self-determination. On the opposite, the extrinsic motivation is when employees perform the activities to realize a certain outcome with showing no personal interest in the specified activity. The only interest of the employee in this context is related to tangible incentives he may earn by repeating some specific action or process. For example, the only motivation for employee to stay another three hours overtime is to get a full day off, or to receive some other kind of monetary or other reward. Job satisfaction is not equal to motivation but it is rather linked to it. One of the most commonly used definition of job satisfaction is given by Locke (1976) who defines it as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences “. Employee 160 �satisfaction is very important in order for employees to remain happy and to perform to the maximum of their capabilities. There are several important factors that may impact satisfaction: work itself, benefits, promotions, peers and colleagues (Locke, 1976). According to Lut (2012), both motivation and satisfaction relate to job performance and they can influence it either positively or negatively. The companies should approach each individual employee in order to establish the type of their dominant needs and act accordingly – giving the proper value to non-monetary incentives (Alderfer, 1972). In support to non-monetary incentives importance and value, McClelland (1975) differentiated three types of needs in the organizations: need for power, need for affiliation and need for achievement. 2.1 Non-monetary incentives versus monetary incentives While monetary incentive is a money based reward, non-monetary, as its name implies, is a reward that is not directly associated with the financial means. It is not to say that non-monetary incentives have no monetary value, on the contrary. Many researches argue that the use of non-monetary incentives, especially in jobs with cognitive requirements, have a longer lasting effect on employee motivation. McKinsey global survey of 1047 executives, managers and employees from different sectors established that three nonfinancial incentives are even more effective motivators than the three top-rated monetary incentives (Dewhurst, Guthridge and Mohr, 2009). The top three non-monetary incentives identified by the report were: praise and commendation, attention by managers and new tasks opportunity. A performance study found that even a task requiring very limited cognitive efforts, a larger monetary reward led to a poorer performance (Ariely, 2008). This study was replicated several times and the results were consistent throughout. The people offered medium monetary bonuses performed equal to those offered low bonuses and interestingly enough, the people offered the highest bonuses performed worse than other two groups. In conclusion, it seems that the high monetary rewards may cause additional costs for institutions but may also have a demotivating or discouraging effect on employees. 161 �2.1.1 Social non-monetary incentives Social non-monetary incentives are related to relationship between the superior and the employee in the work environment. These incentives are important since they have crucial impact on satisfying the needs such as relatedness and growth which represents the top two types of needs (Alderfer, 1972). One of the most powerful incentives within this category is recognition or praise. Providing recognition to the employees for certain performance has very strong motivational effect. In addition to that, it results in no additional cost to the managers of the institution. 2.1.2 Job-related non-monetary incentives Job-related NMI are closely connected, stem from the job itself and these intrinsically motivate employees. The employees exercise more effort in order to perform at their job because the achievement itself provides them with pleasure and motivates them further. McClelland (1975) in his achievement and acquired need theory argues that the need for achievement represents the need for reaching challenging goals. The best rewards for such employees certainly are not connected with any kind of monetary rewards, since such employees are exclusively driven by the sense of pleasure after accomplishments. Some of the most important job-related non-monetary incentives are: promotion, goal setting, job empowerment, job enrichment, job enlargement, job rotation, participation in decision-making processes and opportunities for further growth. 2.1.3 Tangible non-monetary incentives Tangible non-monetary incentives are goods and services given by managers in order to reward and motivate employees. These incentives are considered non-cash in nature, but should be regarded as extrinsic motivators since they are provided by a source other than individual in question (Jeffrey & Shaffer, 2007). Furthermore, there are four psychological phenomena associated with these type of incentives: justifiability, social reinforcement, separability and evaluability. The value of the incentive is directly proportionate to the difficulty the employee would face to justify the purchase of the specific goods with his own money. Social reinforcement is directly related to the visibility – the effects of such incentive do not come from the incentive itself but rather from other people’s respect and their knowledge of employee’s good performance. Evaluability is referred to the fact that employee who received the reward evaluates the award differently. The employees tend to value positive aspects of rewards rather than negative ones that are associated with any specific reward. Meacham and Wiesen (1969) have offered classification on non-monetary incentives in two categories, social and pre mack. The first category included informal recognition, formal 162 �acknowledgement and friendly greetings, while the other category included job rotation, extended breaks and job with more responsibility. These categories were redesigned in order to establish final three categories of non-monetary incentives: social, tangible non-monetary incentives and job related non-monetary incentives (Yavuz, 2004). 3 Hypotheses Recent studies have demonstrated that the non-financial recognition is the most effective of rewards (Silverman, 2004). The latest research and empirical evidence indicate that intrinsic motivation decreases while extrinsic work motivation seems to decrease with age (de Lange, Bal, Van der Heijden, de Jong, & Schaufeli, 2011). Several other researches confirmed these findings, including Jurkiewicz and Brown (1998) who conducted a study amongst public service employees in the U.S. According to the Warr proposal (1997) the older employees have reduced need for high job demands, job variety and feedback. Finally, it is argued that there is significant difference between the superiors and subordinates average ranking of incentives contributing to their willingness to produce more effort in their jobs (Yavuz, 2004). The following hypotheses are posited in this study: Hypothesis 1: Monetary and non-monetary incentives are equally important motivating factor both for senior civil servants and for civil servants. Hypothesis 2: The effect of job-related, social and tangible incentives on motivation decreases with the years of age. Hypothesis 3: There is no statistically significant difference in the effect of job factors on motivation based on gender. Hypothesis 4: There is no statistically significant difference in the effect of job-related, social and tangible incentives on motivation based on position or rank. 4 Research method 4.1 Sample and data collection In accordance with the information provided by the Civil Service Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the total number of state institutions employing civil servants amounts to 69. A total of 3700 civil servants are employed in these institutions. The following tables offer further disaggregation of the employed civil servants by gender and their rank: 163 �Figure 2. Actual ratio of civil servants by gender and rank Gender Position 7% Civil servant Female 47% 53% Male Senior civil servant 93% A questionnaire using the web tool was distributed to civil service institutions while certain number of questionnaires were given in a hard copy. A total of 129 employees reverted with the fully completed questionnaire. A summary of sample characteristics is presented in Table 1. The majority of the respondents were female (57.4%) while 62.8% of the respondents were between 31 and 40 years old. The majority of respondents (87.6 %) were Civil servants while the rest belong to senior civil servant category. Table 1. Sample Characteristics Variable Demographics Gender Female 74 57.4 Male 55 42.6 21-30 years 3 2.3 31-40 years 81 62.8 41-50 years 31 24 51-60 years 14 10.9 under 12 months 2 1.6 1-5 years 14 10.9 6-10 years 70 54.3 11-15 years 43 33.3 under 5 years 6 4.7 5-10 years 29 22.5 11-15 years 43 33.3 over 16 years 51 39.5 Senior civil servant 16 12.4 Civil servant 113 87.6 Age Tenure in the institution Total job tenure Rank Number 164 Valid Percent (%) �4.2 Instruments and measures A three-page questionnaire was used to collect the data. The first set of items is designed to assess the current level of utilization of non-monetary incentives within the respondent’s institutions. The following set of items is related to the most important job factors that contribute to the motivation from the perspective of the respondents. Another set of items the employees were asked to indicate the degree of importance of specific incentives belonging to one of the three non-monetary incentive categories. Finally, the last part included demographic questions such as age, gender, rank, job tenure with the current institution and the total job tenure. The survey was initially prepared in the English language, but before forwarding it to the study population, it was translated into Bosnian language. In order to assess the validity of the study, the pilot study of the survey was performed on 25 civil service employees at the High Judicial and Prosecutorial Council of BiH. In order to measure the job-related, social and tangible incentives, the scale developed by Morgeson & Humphrey (2006) and Yavuz (2004) was used which was additionally modified. The questionnaire consisted of 39 items. Current utilization of the non-monetary incentives is evaluated using 20 items. The respondents were asked to rate the current status of utilization of job-related, social and tangible incentives, broken down into twenty specific incentives belonging to one of these three categories. These items were measured using a 5-point Likert scale (5=strongly agree; 1= strongly disagree). Most important factors affecting motivation are measured using 13 items. These items were measured also using 5- point Likert scale. In order to evaluate employee incentive preference, 1 item with 14 incentives was listed and evaluated using 5- point Likert scale (5=very important; 1=not important). 4.3 Data analysis The data was analysed using the SPSS (version 23) software as well as STATA (release 14). Reliability of the scales was assessed by Cronbach’s alpha. Sample characteristics of respondents were summed up running a descriptive statistic. Independent sample t-test was used to understand whether there is difference in motivation by monetary and non-monetary incentives between two groups of rank: senior civil servants and civil servants. Polychoric correlations were used to show the correlation between three non-monetary incentives and age. In order to determine difference in distribution/effect of job factors across two gender categories, nonparametric independent samples Mann-Whitney U test was used. Finally, nonparametric independent samples Mann-Whitney U test was used to show the difference in the effect of each 165 �of the non-monetary incentive category - job-related, social and tangible on motivation based on position or rank of the civil servants. 5. Results 5.1 Initial results As it was demonstrated in Table 2, the Cronbach’s Alpha for the first part of questionnaire targeting the current overall use of non-monetary incentives was 0.895 while the Cronbach’s Alpha for non-monetary incentives was 0.880. Table 2. Reliability Coefficients Cronbach’s Alpha Current incentive utilization (20 items) Non-monetary incentives (14 items) 0.895 0.880 5.2 The results of the employees’ perception of the current use of non-monetary incentives in institutions Descriptive statistics – frequencies were used to summarize and present the level of satisfaction of employees with the usage of non-monetary incentives in their respective institutions. The participant employees consider that the current use of these incentives is at unsatisfactory level. 47.3% employees strongly or moderately disagree with the statement that the use of nonmonetary incentives is at satisfactory level. 36.4% of employees have a neutral opinion while only 16.3% are satisfied with the level of utilization of non-monetary incentives currently. 5.3. Hypotheses testing In the testing of the first hypothesis, in line with the mean results, both groups, senior civil servants and civil servants ranked non-monetary incentives as the most important motivating factor. Independent samples t-test was used for each of the incentive and for grouping variable senior civil servants and civil servants in order to test if there is statistically significant difference between mean scores between these two categories of staff. For the non-monetary incentives, the t-test had a p-value of 0.175 (equal variances assumed). For the monetary incentives, the t-test had a p-value of 0.242 (equal variance assumed). As a result, the hypotheses 1 is supported with the conclusion that there is no difference in the importance of monetary and non-monetary incentives based on rank of civil servants. 166 �Table 3. Mean scores of the two incentives based on rank Monetary incentives Mean Non-monetary incentives Mean Senior civil servants Civil servants 2.93 3.28 3.87 3.48 p value 0.242 0.175 The second hypothesis stated that the effect of job-related, social and tangible incentives on motivation decreases with the years of age. For this purpose, the polychoric correlation tests in STATA package were carried out with the aim to estimate the degree of correlation between categorical ordinal variables. They have been used in line with the justified assumption that in fact the ordinal variables are basically truncated versions of their underlying continuous variables. Table 5 shows that polychoric correlation between the tangible incentives and age is negative, and as indicated by goodness of fit tests statistically significant, which means that with the age progression the effects of tangible incentives on motivation decreases. Furthermore, polychoric correlation between social incentives and age is positive, and statistically significant as indicated by goodness of fit tests, which means that with the age increase, the effects of social incentives on motivation increase accordingly. Polychoric correlation between job-related incentives and age is not statistically significant. Table 4. Correlation between incentives and age Rho. Tangible incentives Social incentives Job-related incentives Goodness of fits test Pearson G2 Likelihood ratio X2 23.430325 16.76458 44.361491 32.26361 10.821232 7.8695617 -.04558337 .2409996 .09423693 The third hypothesis indicated that there is no significant difference in distribution/effect of job factors across two gender categories. Nonparametric Independent samples Mann-Whitney U test was carried out since this test analyses the equality of the distribution in both of subsamples. The results are listed in the Table 6. According to the results, there is no statistically significant difference in the ability of tangible, social, monetary factors and good interpersonal relationships to increase motivation across male and female employees. Furthermore, the results indicated there is significant difference in the influence of wage on motivation (Mann-Whitney U=1401; p<0.05) between male and female employees. The effect of wages on motivation is higher with female population (mean rank=73.57) when compared to male population (mean rank=53.473). There is also a significant difference in the influence of job-related factor on motivation between male and female employees (Man-Whitney U=1798; p <0.05). Likewise, the influence of this factor on motivation is higher with female population (mean rank=70.43) compared to male 167 �population (mean rank=57.69). Finally, the results indicated that there is also significant difference in the influence of job security on motivation based on gender (Man-Whitney=1091.5; p<0.05). The effect is higher with female population (mean rank=77.75) when compared to male population (mean rank=47.85). Table 5. Difference in the effect of job factors on motivation across gender Mean rank N Tangible incentives Female 74 61.63 Male 55 69.54 Satisfactory wage Female 74 73.57 Male 55 53.47 p value 0,219 0.001 0,441 Social incentives Female 74 67.09 Male 55 62.19 Job-related incentives Female 74 70.43 Male 55 57.69 0,040 0,509 Monetary incentives Female 74 63.27 Male 55 67.33 0.000 Job security Female 74 77.75 Male 55 47.85 0,196 Good interpersonal relationship Female 74 68.20 Male 55 60.69 The Hypothesis 4, stated that there is no statistically significant difference in the effects of each of the non-monetary incentive categories - job-related, social and tangible on motivation based on position or rank of the civil servants. Nonparametric Independent samples Mann-Whitney U test was carried out and the results are listed in the Table 7. According to the results, there is no statistically significant difference in the effect of social, tangible and job-related incentives on motivation between senior civil servants and civil servants. This finding supports the Hypothesis 4. The mean rank from the table below indicates which group of employees is more motivated by each of these three categories of non-monetary incentives. 168 �Table 6. Impact of job-related, social and tangible incentives on motivation based on rank of the civil servants Mean rank N Job-related incentives Senior civil servant 16 58.88 Civil servant 113 65.87 Social incentives Senior civil servant 16 58.63 Civil servant 113 65.90 p value 0.453 0.445 0.799 Tangible incentives Senior civil servant 16 67.16 Civil servant 113 64.69 6. Conclusions and Limitations As mentioned earlier in the text, the human capital is the most important value of any institution or company. All institutions need motivated employees in order to successfully operate and perform their activities. In our case of civil service employees, it is evident that civil servants have fixed salaries and monetary compensations, with little or no room for any sort of monetary incentives to be granted to employees. It transpires from the research and its results, that the respondents’ first and primary focus is to satisfy their physiological requirements. Hence the satisfactory wage was rated as the most important of seven factors motivating good performance. The next most crucial factor is job security followed by the good interpersonal relationships with colleagues. Job-related aspects of work that are closely connected to and stem from the job itself and intrinsically motivate employees are also very important. In this case, the least important incentives that motivate the employees are tangible – materialistic incentives and monetary incentives. After conducting extensive employee survey in Czech Republic, Vaskova (2006) concluded that financial compensation in the form of basic-pay is the most important factor, followed by positive relations and social incentives. It is meaningful to conclude that civil servants in Bosnia and Herzegovina, almost completely adhere to the Maslow hierarchy of needs, ranking and giving priority to the most basic needs and then moving up the pyramid with other above identified needs consequently. This finding is completely in line with the Pink (2009) theory of what motivates employees. The theory states that in cognitive professions, upon receiving proper and satisfactory wages, employees are no longer motivated by money and monetary incentives. 169 �Another set of questions in the questionnaire showed the wage as the factor of importance with the aim to show and present the distribution of the perceived importance only between the monetary and non-monetary incentives as well as to show whether these two categories are equally important when compared to each other. The majority of employees (72.1%) stated that non-monetary incentives can elevate the interest of employee in the job even in cases when monetary incentives cannot be utilized. Moreover, when compared separately with monetary incentives, non-monetary incentives are valued slightly more than monetary incentives which indeed confirms they represent a significant motivating factor, allowing for an argument that civil service employees are not completely satisfied with the wage levels, therefore the issue of money is still important for them. Still, job security, good relationships and job recognition and appreciation continue to be the most important motivating factors. Furthermore, approximately half of the respondents are not satisfied with the current utilization of the non-monetary incentives in their institutions with only 16% of employees who are in fact satisfied with its use. The results of the research imply that there is a strong and unequivocal relationship between nonmonetary incentives and motivation and civil service sector management should work relentlessly in order to increase the use of non-monetary incentives especially having in mind the ease and economy of their use. The research also found that the ability of tangible incentives to motivate us to perform better decreases with the age while the ability of social incentives to motivate increases with the age. According to the results, the following factors equally motivate male and female employees: tangible, social, monetary factors and good interpersonal relationships. The results furthermore show that female employees are more motivated by wages when compared to their male counterparts. Moreover, job-related sources of satisfaction represent a more important motivating factor for female employees. Finally, the results indicated that female employees value more jobsecurity aspects when compared to their male colleagues. Therefore, it can be concluded that distribution of all kind of incentives should be tailored to match the needs or choices of different gender categories. Finally, even though this research has helped us better understand motivating factors of specific group of employees, it has few limitations. The results were obtained from a limited number of employees and a survey of a larger sample size could possibly give different findings. Another limitation could perhaps be the scarcity of literature. Additional research should aim to review the actual legal aspects and possibilities of use of monetary and non-monetary incentives in the civil service in BiH. Additionally, the future research should examine the direct relationship between the performance and extrinsic and intrinsic motivating factors and therefore give a proper tool to managers to use and apply different types of incentives. 170 �References Alderfer, C. P. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth. New York: Free press. Ariely, D. (2008). What is the value of Big Bonus? New York times. de Lange, A. H., Bal, M. P., Van der Heijden, B. I., de Jong, N., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2011). When I'm 64: Psychological contract breach, work motivation and the moderating roles of future time perspective and regulatory focus. Work & Stress. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. (2000). Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Direction. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, 54-67. Dewhurst, M., Guthridge, M., & Mohr, E. (2009). Motivating people: Getting beyond money. New York: McKinsey and Company . Dinc, S. M., & Plakalovic, V. (2016). Impact of Caring Climate, Job satisfaction, and Affective Commitment on Employees' Performance in the Banking Sector Of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, 1-16. Eggert, M. A. (1999). The motivation pocketbook. Hants: Management Pocketbooks Ltd. Jeffrey, S. A., & Shaffer, V. (2007). The Motivational Properties of Tangible Incentives. Compensation and Benefits Review, 44-50. Jurkiewicz, C. L., & Brown, R. G. (1998). GenXer’s vs. boomers vs. matures: Generational comparisons of public employees’ motivation. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 18-37. Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development, and work motivation. Academy of management review, 440-458. Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. Handbook of Industrial and organizational psychology, 1297-1349. Lut , D. M. (2012). Connection between Job Motivation, Job Satisfaction and. Annals of “Dunarea de Jos”, 45-50. McClelland, D. C. (1975). Power: the inner experience. New York: Irvington publishers. Meacham, M. L., & Wiesen, A. E. (1969). Changing Classroom Behavior: A Manual for Precision Teaching. Scranton: International Textbook Company. Morgeson, F. P., & Humphrey, S. E. (2006). The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and Validating a Comprehensive Measure for Assessing Job Design and the Nature of Work. American Psychological Association, 1321-1339. Pink, D. H. (2009). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New York: Riverhead books. 171 �Silverman, M. (2004). Non-Financial Recognition The Most Effective of Rewards? Institute for employment studies. Steers, R. M., Mowday, R. T., & Shapiro, D. L. (2004). The future of work motivation theory. Academy of Management Review, 379. Vaskova, R. (2006). Gender differences in performance motivation. Prague: Research Institute of Labour and Social Affairs. Warr, P. (1997). Age, work, and mental health. The impact of work on older adults: (pp. 252-296). New York: Springer. Weiss, D. J., Dawis, R. V., England, G. W., & Lofquist, L. H. (1967). Manual for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Minnesota: Industrial Relations Center . Yavuz, N. (2004, July 20). The Use of Non-Monetary Incentives as a Motivational Tool: A Survey Study in a Public Organization in Turkey. Ankara, Turkey. 172 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3646 Title A name given to the resource The significance of non-monetary incentives and its relationship with employee motivation: A case of civil service employees in Bosnia and Herzegovina (doi: 10.14706/icesos179) Author Author Srna, Emir DINÇ, Muhammet Sait Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the perceived importance of non-monetary incentives as well as the degree of their current utilization within the civil service sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. One of the aims of the study is to explore if non-monetary incentives have prospective to increase employee’s motivation in comparison to monetary rewards. Such finding could play a beneficial role in understanding the fact that an individual’s behaviour and motivation can be greatly influenced by alternative and cost-friendly non-financial motivating factors. The study is conducted on a sample of 129 civil servants of all categories at the state level. The relationships between the variables were evaluated by descriptive statistics, correlations and non-parametric independent samples test. The study findings demonstrate that the non-monetary incentives are not sufficiently utilized in the civil service sector. Furthermore, according to the findings, non-monetary incentives represent a very strong motivating factor and could be widely and actively used in order to secure increased motivation of the civil servants in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Keywords: Non-monetary incentives, Motivation, Civil service, monetary incentives. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/812c6f80d2b24fc773e36277d8966f77.pdf cf964f20f767af436f8fcf078c350359 PDF Text Text Attitudes and Behaviors of Young Adults toward Music in Retail Environments in Bosnia and Herzegovina Azra Pohara Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences International Burch University Bosna and Herzegovina azra.pohara@gmail.com Teoman Duman Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences International Burch University Abstract: Attitudes and behaviours of young adults toward music in retail environments in Bosnia and Herzegovina are in focus of retailers. The retailers want to attract more customers by creating an atmosphere for a particular type of people, class, age, with desired products. Influence of music can be seen all around the globe. Industry professionals make millions of dollars by producing and creating new songs and rhythms in special events (Example: Shakira; World Cup 2010). Music in Bosnia and Herzegovina is well spread, and it can be one of the best places to see how music influences human lives and their habits. It is well-known fact that Bosnian’s devote most of the time by listening to music and use it as a motivation or charm of happiness to forget everyday problems. For Bosnians, music is like a sweet drink, escapade from problems and life motivation. Music is their inborn gift, and for this study, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the right place to see how much music impacts young adults, and how retails stores can benefit from it. This study used previous research as a guideline to show the impact of certain music genre on consumer’s behavior and attitude in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The focus of research was to test the impact of music on young adult’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral level, particularly with regard to attitudes and perceptions, and moods and feelings in the retail environment. Research data were collected from young adults in Sarajevo during the winter months of 2016. In total, 125 questionnaires were collected and used in data analysis. Research results showed that music is very important in making retail choices for young adults in Sarajevo. Also, the pace and type of music were found to be influential on retail choices of young adults who participated in the research study. Keywords: Music, retail choices, young adults, Sarajevo. Introduction The term music is considered to be derived from the word “mousa” which means angel in Old Greek. Music has always played a vital role in people's lives. From early ages, people are trying to express themselves using music and its influence on people to send specific messages. 148 �National anthems are often connected with the music, which sends the message and boosts morality to the people of that nation. Music in some cases presents a cure for some psychological diseases (depression, drug addiction or suicide thoughts). In many ways, music helps people to express their emotions, thoughts, and ideas. Music is a lucky charm that follow humankind through centuries. In some cases music helps as a thought motivator or a way where people can remind themselves about previous thoughts, actions or some previous times that are gone, missing in distant past (Alpert and Alpert, 1990). Music is people’s way of expressing themselves, giving others and themselves relief and letting go their suppressed feelings (Dillman-Carpentier and Potter, 2007). Since birth mother sings her child different songs using different rhymes to make the child comfortable and prepare him for sleep. Music in mother voice and words that are spoken bring peace in child’s soul and sense of security. Music is one of the essential parts in people’s lives. Even when a person is alone, he/she sings different songs as an answer to put loneliness and nostalgia beside. Using music in retail business is a custom among entrepreneurs. Music helps people to make easier choices and boost their moral and motivation. Music in Bosnia and Herzegovina is well spread, and it can be one of the best places to see how music influences human lives and their habits. It is well known fact that Bosnian’s devote most of time by listening to music, and use it as a motivation or charm of happiness to forget every days’ problems. For Bosnians, music is like a sweet drink, escapade from problems and life motivation. Music is their inborn gift, and for this study, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the right place to see how much music impacts Bosnia and Herzegovina society, and how retails stores can benefit from it. Research questions are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Which type of music is most popular among young adults? Can music help retail stores to hold customers longer than usual? Does specific genre of music or music itself is connected to certain product? Does music loudness affect retail stores income? Does music have psychological impact on customers/young adults? Will music change certain behavior among young adults or it just helps retail stores with attitude? Research methodology In this chapter we will present the method we used to develop the survey and questions to establish the sample size for delivering results. Also, in the chapter, we will talk about the hypotheses: “Music has an influence on young adults’ behaviours and attitudes while shopping, 149 �Slow music relaxes young adults while purchasing some products or service, Fast music makes young adults aggressive while purchasing some products or service” that represent the goal to be achieved in this project. There are many goals, but mainly would be effect of music on human behaviour, external and internal influence, arousal and valance influence and can music create a habit in human behaviour while doing shopping, drinking coffee in coffee shop, or eating ćevapi at some restaurant. Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population. The sampling methodology used in this research is judgmental sampling. Judgmental sampling “is a form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are selected based on the researcher’s judgment” (Malhotra, 2009, p. 377). This type of sampling methodology is a form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are selected based on the researcher’s judgment (Malhotra, 2009, p. 377). This sampling is used because of previous observed behaviour and attitude seen at young adults in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The primary data of this study was collected through a survey which was conducted among young adults in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The respondents were people of target ages and genders in Bosnia and Herzegovina society. The third part of a survey was about general impact of music on their likeness or unlikeness of loud-fast/slow-soft music on their desire to purchase particular product. Also, in some of these questions, it is asked about connection music has with some product or some Brand making, or they just love listen to music. In this study, both three point and four point category scale were used to diagnose influence of music on young adult’s behavior while shopping. Respondents could respond with “Yes”, “No” and “Maybe” in three point category scale while in four point category scale “Sometimes” and “Maybe” were added. All responses were scaled so that a higher score on a specific subject so that is indicates a stronger agreement with the attitude/behavior whereas a lower score indicated a weaker agreement, or disagreement with that specific thesis. Descriptive statistics, correlation and regression are used to analyse the data. The surveys were distributed by mail and social networks (Facebook, Viber, Skype, Pikii, Instagram etc.). The sample size was the 125 responses. The results were analysed through SPSS software, 18th version. The secondary data was collected through research on the internet in order to attain the relevant articles about influence of music on customer’s attitude and behavior. Also, we should mention that there is no relevant data in Balkan areas regarding this issue. So, this study can be a significant step towards new research in these parts of the world. Especially, because people from Balkan areas are specific, and they do not share similar interest as it is in Western countries. It shall be clearly shown during study observation and results. Zotero Standalone was used 150 �during process of articles collection. Data Analysis: Table 1: Survey Demographic Questions (N: 125) and findings Frequency 15-24 80 25-35 34 Ages 36-45 10 46 plus 1 Total 125 Bosniak 113 Serb 4 Ethnicity Croat 4 Other 4 Total 125 Male 86 Gender Female 39 Total 125 Source: Author’s own research Valid percent 64,0 27,2 8,0 .8 100,0 90,4 3,2 3,2 3,2 100,0 68,6 31,2 100,0 Percent 64,0 27,2 8,0 .8 100,0 90,4 3,2 3,2 3,2 100,0 68,6 31,2 100,0 Cumulative percent 64,0 91,2 99,2 100,0 90,4 93,6 96,8 100,0 Demographic 68,8 100,0 The first section of the questionnaire consisted of demographics. As we can see in this table majority of participants are ages from 15-24 (64). Next are from 25 to 35 (27.2%), then 36-45 (8%) and only one candidate that is 46 or older (0.8%). In a further study, we shall eliminate two categories 36-45 and 46 or older, because of our thesis. As we can see, major participation in this figure were people of age 15 to 24 with 64.9%, from age 25 to 35 was 27.2%, from 36 to 45 was 8%, and 46 and more only one participant, or 0,8% It is shown that Bosniaks have taken a lot more participation in this survey (around 90.4%), rather than other two ethnicities and others (3.2% each) As we can see from this chart and figure, male’s response to the survey was higher (68.8%) than female ones. (31.2%) Table 2: Survey Questions (N: 125) and findings Type of music Pop Folk Classic Country Rock Other Total Male 22 23 8 1 16 16 86 Female 19 8 1 1 3 7 39 Source: Author’s own research 151 Total 41 31 9 2 19 23 125 Behavioural �The second section was about general questions about music, their habits, will and customers purchasing in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In this part, five choices of the genre are given to the participants, and they are: pop, folk, classic, country (Bosnian country music) and Rock music, while other is put for those who cannot decide. Results are that Pop music is slightly more popular than Folk music with 41 participants for the Pop genre (22 males and 19 females), and 31 for Folk music genre (23males and 8 females). Next to them is Rock music with 19 supporters (16 males and 3 females), Classical music genre with 8 males and 1 female supporter, Country music with 1 male supporter and 23 participants who put other genres (16 males and 7 females). As a result in this section, we can see that type of genre does not differentiate between genders and if retailers want to improve business with music, Pop and Folk music are genres which people are listening to a lot. Table 3: Q9 Music motivate me in shopping Yes No Sometimes Frequency 74 12 39 Percent 59,2 9,6 31,2 Attitude Source: Survey In this question, music as a motivator, 125 participants gave these results: 59.2% said that music motivated them, 9.6% said that music didn't motivate them, while 31.2% were neutral. Young adults and young people were ones who mostly said yes to this question. Table 4: Q10 I feel comfortable when I visit a shop that plays music 0 Yes No Total Frequency Percent 3 110 12 125 2,4 88,0 9,6 100,0 Valid percent 2,4 88,0 9,6 100,0 Cumulative Percent 2,4 90,4 100,0 Attitude Source: Survey There were 125 participants, where 110 said yes for feeling comfortable when music was being played in the shop, only 12 said no. Three of them were neutral. They haven’t given the answer to this question. The majority of young adults answered yes regarding arousal feeling, or comfortable/positive feeling while visiting a shop that plays music. Music creates a good atmosphere, attracts them and brings enjoyment in a retail store. 152 �Table 5: Q11 Frequency 2 14 77 32 125 Fast music makes me aggressive while shopping? 0 Yes No Sometime Total Source: Survey Percent 1,6 11,2 11,2 25,6 100,0 Valid percent 1,6 11,2 11,2 25,6 100,0 Attitude According to the survey results majority of young adult and young people consider fast music does not make them aggressive (not comfortable, annoying) while shopping. So if retailers want to attract new customers, especially younger population, fast music is the ideal solution. Table 6: Q12 Slow music makes me relaxed while shopping? Yes No Sometimes Total Frequency 41 41 43 125 Percent 32,8 32,8 34,4 100,0 Attitude Source: Survey In this part, participants have shown that slow/soft music is not the thing that mostly relaxes them. Participants with the answer no are 41 or 32.8%. as it is the case with participants who said yes 41 or 32.8%. The answer “sometimes”, it gives neutral ground where people are sometimes satisfied with slow, soft music in the back. Again, we should mention age variation of the participants. The majority of them are young people, from the age 15 to 35. These respondents are likely to be potential customers to coffee shops, restaurants, discos and etc., where loud music is played and where music impacts “their minds” Table 7: Q14 Specific genre of music associates me with some product I want to buy/purchase? Frequency Percent Yes 14 11,2 No 93 74,4 Sometimes 18 14,4 Total 125 100,0 Source: Survey 153 Attitude �According to the survey mentioned above, young adults and young people cannot, or are not able to connect some music with a genre. Around 74.4% said “No”, 14.4% said “Sometimes”, while 11.2% said “Yes”. On the other hand, those who said yes gave several examples like: Coca Cola, Pepsi, Ornel, Violeta etc., where music in their commercials are used, and in some areas, phrases they are using in ads are recognisable, especially Coca Cola’s Christmas commercial, or Pepsi’s commercials related to soccer etc. Table 8: Q15 Frequency Music helps me to decide which product I will purchase. Percent Valid percent Cumulative percent 2,4 0 3 2,4 2,4 Yes 16 12,8 12,8 15,2 No 37 29,6 29,6 44,8 Sometimes 69 55,2 55,2 100,0 Total 125 100,0 100,0 Attitude In this survey question, young adults and young people answered negative (55.2%) regarding music help in purchasing some particular product, “sometimes” is answered 29.6%, “yes” is answered 12.8% and three participants were without answers. Over 57, 6% (answers NO and no answer) music doesn’t help for deciding which product will purchase. Hypothesis Testing In this hypothesis testing, we are examining two opposing hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the statement being tested. Usually, the null hypothesis is a statement of "no effect" or "no difference". The alternative hypothesis is the statement you want to be able to conclude is true. Based on this sample data, the test determines whether to reject the null hypothesis. We will use a p-value, to make the determination. If the p-value is less than or equal to the level of significance, which is our cut-off point, then we are rejecting the null hypothesis and accepting the one we have investigated. 154 �Table 1: H1: Music has an influence on customer’s behaviours and attitudes while shopping Descriptive Statistics N Q9 1 Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation 125 0.00 2.00 1.07 0.340 Q181 125 1.00 3.00 1.74 0,720 Q211 125 1.00 4.00 2.32 1.126 Valid N (listwise) 125 Table 1 shows that the general average is 1.71. According to results of descriptive statistics we can confirm that H1 is true which means that music has an influence on customer’s behaviours and attitudes while shopping. Also, the majority of participants feel comfortable when they enter a shop where music is played, and also music loudness and choice of music has an effect on their staying in that store. Table 2: H2: Slow music relaxes customers while purchasing some products or service. Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Q111 125 1.00 3.00 2.02 ,823 Q151 125 1.00 3.00 1.76 ,807 Valid N (listwise) 125 Table 2 shows that slow music doesn’t relax customers while purchasing some products with average mean of 1.89 Also, it shows that people generally does not like slow music in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Also it shows that music must be there to entertain and attract customers. Also, we should age, which was mentioned earlier, where majority of participants are from age 15 to 25. 155 �Table 3: H3: Fast music makes customers aggressive while purchasing some products or service. Table 3 shows with mean of 2,105 that fast music does not make customers aggressive while purchasing some products or service. So this hypothesis is not true. Also, we should mention that fast music is not an obstacle for some retailers to try to attract customers of the younger population with loud and fast music in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Atmosphere of the store depends only if it is for younger or older people, rich or middle class. Target audience is the most important thing. Findings Results in this study show that in Bosnia and Herzegovina young adults and young people mostly have low awareness of music influence on their lives, and their daily routines. Especially while shopping. Music is all around, no matter loud or slow. That significant level influences their choices while purchasing products. Fast music on the other hand, as results show is not big bug and undesirable for retailers, because younger population like such music, and they want to be in that store, coffee shop or a market where music is played loud and clear. In other words, retailers should choose carefully their target customers, and choose music accordingly to their age, status, and product they want to sell. This study can contribute to the following studies in the same or similar fields, being a base to build larger and detailed research in this particular field in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Retailers while reading this text can make steps for creating adequate, suitable and comfortable atmosphere for target audience. Music has an impact on customer behaviour, still retailers need to make orders first and target their class. In West, classical music is for rich stature; here it is not the case. You can play it, but hardly anyone will come, if you have not developed your brand and name on the market. At the end, this research confirms previous research regarding influence of music on human behaviour, especially arousal dimension (feelings, emotions), where music is mover and creator of good, healthy atmosphere, where retailers and customers can profit from each other. Money is time, and time is money but the music is everywhere around us 156 �Conclusion This research is the master theases that was conducted among people of younger age, and older with not so qualified knowledge of English, was asked questions about music’s influence on consumer’s behavior. It is well known that music is all around, and its power of persuasion can be used in retail stores. This study represents young people - high school students (125 respondents) are showing music influence on their daily life, their behavior and which type of music they prefer. They are also showing difference that loud and slow music is played, and that positive atmosphere, or music of their choice will make them comfortable and they will stay longer in the shop and according with that, they would spend more. However, music taste is not guarantee for success. Every retail owner must decide his target audience, class of people and then decide which type, what kind of music will be played, and which customers will they attract. Some previous results done have shown that for retailers it is important to consider building adequate and proper atmospherics and music environment, especially because young adult’s perception can be altered, and similarity between music and the brand/retail product can have a reflect on consumers’ in-store reaction, staying time and brand perception. References Alpert, J. I., & Alpert, M. I. (1990). Music Influences on Mood and Purchase Intentions. Psychology and Marketing, 7(2), 109-33. Malhotra, N. K. (2009). Marketing Research: An Applied Orientation. Prentice Hall. Dillman-Carpentier, F., & Potter, R. F. (2007). Effects of Music on Physiological Arousal: Explorations into Tempo and Genre. Media Psychology, 10(3), 339-363. 157 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3642 Title A name given to the resource Attitudes and Behaviors of Young Adults toward Music in Retail Environments in Bosnia and Herzegovina (doi: 10.14706/icesos175) Author Author Pohara, Azra DUMAN, Teoman Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Attitudes and behaviours of young adults toward music in retail environments in Bosnia and Herzegovina are in focus of retailers. The retailers want to attract more customers by creating an atmosphere for a particular type of people, class, age, with desired products. Influence of music can be seen all around the globe. Industry professionals make millions of dollars by producing and creating new songs and rhythms in special events (Example: Shakira; World Cup 2010). Music in Bosnia and Herzegovina is well spread, and it can be one of the best places to see how music influences human lives and their habits. It is well-known fact that Bosnian’s devote most of the time by listening to music and use it as a motivation or charm of happiness to forget everyday problems. For Bosnians, music is like a sweet drink, escapade from problems and life motivation. Music is their inborn gift, and for this study, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the right place to see how much music impacts young adults, and how retails stores can benefit from it. This study used previous research as a guideline to show the impact of certain music genre on consumer’s behavior and attitude in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The focus of research was to test the impact of music on young adult’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral level, particularly with regard to attitudes and perceptions, and moods and feelings in the retail environment. Research data were collected from young adults in Sarajevo during the winter months of 2016. In total, 125 questionnaires were collected and used in data analysis. Research results showed that music is very important in making retail choices for young adults in Sarajevo. Also, the pace and type of music were found to be influential on retail choices of young adults who participated in the research study. Keywords: Music, retail choices, young adults, Sarajevo. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e1b0d2bfdb419dc5e3b295045c486146.pdf 308f716f64e424cec85d217c8f120ad2 PDF Text Text Analysis using brands in the small and medium entreprises in Romania Carme Adina Pastiu “1 Decembrie 1918 “University of Alba Iulia Romania carmenpastiu@yahoo.com Silvia Stefania Maican “1 Decembrie 1918 “University of Alba Iulia Romania sylvia_mihalache@yahoo.com Abstract: Creating a brand is very important for a company, the more that should be considered strategic dimensions. It involves a huge investment and long term, given the efforts that must be made in advertising and promotion.In a global market increasingly competitive, branding is a strategic advantage. In a young economy, the free market is emerging just 25 years ago an analysis of the use of own brands can open up new avenues of research and strategic development. The main objective of the paper was to the research on existing brand in Romanian ( SIBIU, ALBA, CLUJ county) small and medium enterprises and Identifying existing policies in small and medium enterprises in connection with own brand. A quantitative research method was used to achieve the defined objectives. This selective survey offers the opportunity to study and identify solutions for development of small and medium companies in the Alba, Sibiu and Cluj County and the opportunities available. Key wards: brand, small and medium entreprises Introduction Developing or creating a brand is of particular importance to an enterprise. Regardless of the form of ownership, size, or activity of the enterprise, brand investment has proven to be an important strategic option. It involves a very large and long-term investment, considering the steps to be taken in advertising, promoting and making a special package. In an increasingly competitive global market, branding is a strategic asset. That explains, at the moment, the financial efforts made by Japanese or American firms to create and consolidate product brands. A corporate brand is a brand that represents a corporation - organization - and reflects its patrimony, values, people, strategy (Aaker A David, 2006). 95 �However, portfolio brands also include non-company brands whose link to domestic brands is actively managed; A good example is sponsorships, symbols, celebrities promoting brands, but also countries or regions. (Brexendorf T. O., Barry Bayus, Kevin Lane Keller 2015) Brand and innovation management need and benefit from each other, suggesting a need for a deeper integration between the two. A main brand is the central indicator of the offer, the point of reference. It obviously occupies the main place (Aaker A David, 2006). A supportive brand serves to provide the credibility and consistency of an offer, its role being to represent an organization (Aaker A David, 2006). Brand and innovation management have become increasingly important priorities for firms over the last few decades. Firms rely on strong brands and product innovations to gain competitive advantage and fuel growth (Berthon, P., Ewing, M. T. and Napoli, J. 2008). In a market approach, the considerable difference between sellable products and services and the rest of the objects is related to the company's conscious decision to change and / or improve the image of their products through symbols, logos and communication strategies. Changing the image of the product in the mind of the consumer is achieved through visible forms of communication: trademark and registered name (symbol) and logo (visual-auditory message). Wally Olins wondered why brands are a clear and unique manifestation of our times? Because, he says, "brands mean clarity, safety, consistency, and status, that is, everything that human beings need to define themselves. Brands mean identity. Branding in the Romanian small and medium companies Creating a brand is very important for a company, the more that should be considered strategic dimensions. It involves a huge investment and long term, given the efforts that must be made in advertising and promotion. In a global market increasingly competitive, branding is a strategic advantage. In a young economy, the free market is emerging just 25 years ago an analysis of the use of own brands can open up new avenues of research and strategic development. Example for Romanian market: In light industry manufacturing activity is lohn. Products are sold under famous brands from other countries. The IT industry is very developed in Cluj County but produce for companies around the world. Research methodology A quantitative research method was used to achieve the defined objectives. 96 �This selective survey offers the opportunity to study and identify solutions for development of small and medium companies in the Alba, Sibiu and Cluj County and the opportunities available. The aims:  Research on existing brand in Romanian (SIBIU, ALBA, CLUJ County) small and medium enterprises.   Identifying existing policies in small and medium enterprises in connection with own brand General objective of the research was established as follows O1. Analysis of brand in small and medium enterprises The defined specific objectives of the research are:  S1. Identifying the brand managers' attitude  S2. Measuring branding activities The research was conducted based on a questionnaire administered with Google Docs.  The observation unit was represented by the entreprises from Transilvania included in the survey sample.  Unit survey was represented by those who answered the questionnaire administered :  Persons who manage the companies  Owners The survey type used is probabilistic. It was used a random sampling method, unrestricted. Sample is formed by 175 units. 94% probability. Error +/- 6% (this is a limit to the study). This research was conducted on the following types of companies: services, manufacture, and trade.  O1. Analysis of brand in small and medium enterprises Of the total surveyed enterprises, only 42% have their own brand and from these 73% they are in the services field. In the counties analyzed, the service area is characterized by the higher 97 �adoption of one's own brand. IT companies (Cluj), light industry Alba or automotive industrial production (Sibiu) work for EU firms under their own brand.  S1. Identifying the brand managers' attitude The result is related to the type of business. Managers understand the importance of using their own brand, but they are not widely used. In the service sector, management involvement is much bigger. S2 Measuring branding activities. Visual identity manual Even though they have visual identity elements in small and medium businesses, there is no branding manual developed by professionals. 98 �Many businesses have brand, logo elements, slogans, but do not have a unitary concept. Just 35% have invested in a branding campaign. 99 �Conclusions Brands are a reflection of the corporate goal, they become important not only for customers but also for people who work from the inside or outside as partners, employees or financiers. In a constantly changing world where all the other things are troubled, the status of the brand as a symbol of the company and what it does becomes the central pillar.Globalization and outsourcing of companies, alliance formation and co-operation, flattening management structures, limited employment, why should people, wherever they come from, and whatever their relationship with the company? Only reputation, only reliable because there is nothing else. And how can you represent and design confidence more and more a spiritual and cultural binder, a binder representing their reputation in the surrounding world. Brands are probably more important than ever for companies in their own domestic and day-to-day business. The role of brands in society will be the one people will give, and the importance and sphere of influence is increasing from one year to the next. By brand, any business can find a way out of the market and the chaos of the market and reach the target audience. The modern consumer's perception of products and services is at the center of the buying decision, and brands can direct this perception%. If branding has given the trade a tremendous power and influence, it can do so in other fields such as arts, sports, health, education and other social areas. By analyzing the relationship between variables is seen as:  companies that have developed branding campaigns have over 15 employees  companies that have developed branding campaigns over a turnover of over 10,000EUR  brand managers believe that contribute to increased sales and higher turnover  companies where managers believe that the brand is not necessary have less than 10 employees companies in the services organized several branding campaigns Analyzing the data from the study it can be concluded that managers know their competition but fail to differentiate its offer towards them. Analyzing data, we can say that managers of small and medium companies analyzed did not give due importance the brand. Firms in the services given more importance to the brand. The managers identify the benefits of brand but do not develop our own brand 100 �References Aaker, David A.Robert Jacobson (2001) The Value Relevance of Brand Attitude in HighTechnology Markets. Journal of Marketing Research: November 2001, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 485-493. Aaker, D. A. (1996). Measuring brand equity across products and markets. California Management Review, 38(3), 102–120. Aaker, D. A. (1997). Innovation: brand it or lose it. California Management Review, 50(1), Aaker David A. ( 2006) Strategia portofoliului de brand, Bucureşti, Ed. Brandbuilders Berthon, P., Ewing, M. T. and Napoli, J. (2008), Brand Management in Small to Medium-Sized Enterprises, Journal of Small Business Management, 46: 27–45. doi:10.1111/j.1540627X.2007.00229.x Brexendorf Tim Oliver, Barry Bayus, Kevin Lane Keller(2015) Understanding the interplay between brand and innovation management: findings and future research directions , Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 2015, Volume 43, Number 5, Page 548 Datar, S., Jordan, C. C., Kekre, S., Rajiv, S., & Srinivasan, K. (1997). Advantages of time-based new product development in a fast-cycle industry. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(1), 36–49. Gatignon, H., & Xuereb, J.-M. (1997). Strategic orientation of the firm and new product performance. Journal of Marketing Research, 34(1), 77–90. Gielens, K., & Steenkamp, J.-B. E. M. (2007). Drivers of consumer acceptance of new packaged goods: an investigation across products and countries. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 24(2), 97–111. 101 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3643 Title A name given to the resource Analysis using brands in the small and medium entreprises in Romania (doi: 10.14706/icesos176) Author Author Pastiu, Carmen Adina Maican, Silvia Stefania Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Creating a brand is very important for a company, the more that should be considered strategic dimensions. It involves a huge investment and long term, given the efforts that must be made in advertising and promotion.In a global market increasingly competitive, branding is a strategic advantage. In a young economy, the free market is emerging just 25 years ago an analysis of the use of own brands can open up new avenues of research and strategic development. The main objective of the paper was to the research on existing brand in Romanian ( SIBIU, ALBA, CLUJ county) small and medium enterprises and Identifying existing policies in small and medium enterprises in connection with own brand. A quantitative research method was used to achieve the defined objectives. This selective survey offers the opportunity to study and identify solutions for development of small and medium companies in the Alba, Sibiu and Cluj County and the opportunities available. Key wards: brand, small and medium entreprises Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5110afb2a21002a198a4a6336f157e53.pdf a993b1bda17e85405d607c7ce5cdeb88 PDF Text Text Models of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness thought use of ICT Šemsudin Plojović University of Novi Pazar Serbia Suad Bećirović University of Novi Pazar Serbia Senadin Plojović Technical faculty “Mihajlo Pupin” Zrenjanin Serbia Enis Ujkanovic University of Novi Pazar Serbia Abstract: Paper is presenting results of project “With better cooperation towards better future” which is supported by University of Novi Pazar and Sanjak business association with focus on segment of project about investigating the possibility of application of information communication technologies in order to increase the visibility of tourism resources and linking individual farmers who can make their agriculture products, food, accommodation and other services available to tourists. This study addresses the issue of linking the tourist offers and offers of organic food from small agriculture households. The project treats the area of South Serbia and northern Montenegro, which is known for the beauty of mountain trails, glacial lakes, large cave systems, fast-flowing rivers and cuisine specialties. The aim of the project is to popularize this potential and its actualization within the tourist industry. This project involves the registration of pedestrian trails, bicycle paths, trails of photo safaris within the google maps system as well as within the specific mobile applications.The essence of the project is the implementation of mobile and other applications and electronic services to improve the lives of small farm households through the improvement of tourist offer, the development of organic production and enabling farmers to sell their products to final customers directly. Keywords: tourist industry, organic products, market positioning Introduction Paper is presenting results of project “With better cooperation towards better future” which is supported by University of Novi Pazar and Sanjak business association. 239 �The focus of this paper is segment of the project about investigating the possibility of application of information communication technologies in order to increase the visibility of tourism resources and linking individual farmers and rural households who can make their agricultural products, food, accommodation and other services available to tourists. This study addresses the issue of linking tourist offers and offers of organic food produced by small agricultural households. The project treats the area of south west Serbia and northern Montenegro, which is known for the beauty of mountain trails, glacial lakes, large cave systems, fast-flowing rivers and cuisine specialties. The aim of the project is to popularize this potential and its actualization within the tourist industry. The project also involves the registration of pedestrian trails, bicycle paths, trails of photo safaris within the google maps system as well as within the specific mobile applications. Scope of the research Starting hypothesis of the research is that there is no valid possibility of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness using ICT. If this starting hypothesis is not confirmed that means that complementary hypothesis is valid and that is: There is at least one possibility of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness using ICT. Authors have translated the idea of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness in adequate and usable model that has been constructed based on the research done in ten municipalities in south west Serbia and northern Montenegro. Research has been done using different research method including observing, interviewing and analysis of the existing solutions in this area. Objective of the work is to find applicable model of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness that can be used as a base for developing adequate software solution. In order to achieve this objective following research tasks had to be conducted: - Analyse business of agricultural households in the research area, collect data on key challenges that agricultural producers face. - Identify potentials for development of recreational tourism, collect data on key challenges that tourist organizations face in developing recreational tourism. - Based on the collected data and their analysis, as well as SWOT and GAP analysis develop model that could improve market position of small agricultural households and at the same time improve tourist potential of the area. In order to fulfil these research tasks authors have used data collection methods already mentioned. In addition to this, for the analysis of the collected data, following methods have been used: comparative method of existing solutions, SWOT analysis of agricultural producers 240 �and SWOT analysis of the tourist potentials as well as GAP analysis of the agricultural households and tourist resources from the aspect of market potential and customer relations. Separate chapter of this paper will cover each of the mentioned tasks. Position of the agricultural households in the area Authors emphasize the fact that this is not a first paper dealing with the analysis of market position of small agricultural households in this area as well in other places around the world. Previous research in this subject are numerus and different authors showed development of agricultural households in the mountain areas from different aspects and tried to indicate the solutions to development of these areas. For this purpose, we will use existing information on position of small agricultural households in the mountain areas in official documents developed by teams hired by European Commission, FAO as well as strategizes for rural development of the individual municipalities. Beside these documents authors use results of the work of Nobel Prize winner Muhamed Yunus that he presented in his book Banker of the Poor. Authors also reference work of Swinned that dealt with the challenges of marketing of small agricultural producers. In the part related to organization of small agricultural households authors, beside their own research, also reference results of Ravindran S.N. as well as Toader M. and Valentina G.R. that in separate papers covered challenges of sustainability of small rural households. In the part related to finances authors reference work of Zender R. that researched alternative sources of financing small agricultural households since classical sources of finance are hard to get or expensive for them. Also, authors relay on their own earlier publications covering individual segments of agribusiness development as well as tourism in the given area. When development of small agricultural households is concerned following local, regional and national stakeholders and factors are most important (Plojovic at all. 2016): - Natural factors (land, insolation, availability of water…) - Demografic factors (population, age, available information...) - Infrastructure factors (road networks, communications, water supply systems, facilities for storage and processing agricultural products...) - Community support (financial and organizational support from the municipality, national and international institutions, availability and willingness of support institutions...) - Legal and economic environment (regulations regarding loans and financing, collateral...) On the other hand, internal most important internal factors of individual agricultural households are (Plojovic at all. 2017.): - Market entry - Availability of financing sources 241 �- Join use of land Infrastructure conditions Personal conditions Position of agricultural household depends on adequate development of these factors. Task related to this part of research is consisted of analysis which factors can be improved the most and which of them contribute most to the market position of the agricultural household. As far as the data on current situation of agricultural households, authors present the information they obtained from the field research and using secondary data. Using method of generalization in some areas, authors used the collected data on sampled households to present the current situation agricultural households in the region. Key challenge that individual agricultural producer face in the mountain areas of the west Balkans is access to markets for their products. If we take export of corn for example, we can see that it is one of the agricultural with the biggest export. However, these products are mostly not produced by the small agricultural producers, but instead it was produced by large agricultural corporations. One of the reasons is that large corporations, using the economy of scale, can afford to pay larger fee to rend the government land. At the same time they also negotiate buying the government land. Market present demands a capacity to be able to interact with the buyers constantly and continuously and inform them on the current offers. That part small agricultural producers can achieve best trough the joint use of resources. Next factor is consolidating of land ownership, and that is mostly true in the mountain areas were land owned by individual producers is very limited and physically divided in different locations (see the attached graph). As we can see, average size of the land owned by individual producers is very small and if we take into account information that this land is usually divided is several locations, not linked to each other that this situation becomes even more severe. Data from the National Statistical Office show that available agricultural land in Serbia is 5,346,597 ha, accounting for 68.9 percent of Serbia's territory (7,759,200 ha). (Ševarlić, 2012, p. 37) The 2012 Census of Agriculture ascertained for the first time in the current public databases on land resources two very disturbing facts: 1. Total agricultural land (3,861,477 ha) is less than half (49.8%) of the total territory of Serbia (7,759,200 ha) and 2. even 424,054 ha or 11.0% of total agricultural land is not utilised, which makes 7.9% of the available agricultural land. (Ševarlić, 2012, p. 248, 249). If we add to this information that number of rural population is in constant decrease at the same time when the land owned by individual producers is decreasing we can see a paradox caused by 242 �the fact that many people that have enharited agricultural land decided not to cultivate it. The bad consequence of this is, as mentioned, that a large percentage of available agricultural land is not cultivated. Aging rural population is one more indicator that shows on bad current situation in rural areas. At an old age, rural population decrease their productivity dramatically. Also, readiness for change and embracing new production methods also decreases with age. There is also lack of motivation for new investment in agricultural production if there is no new generations to continue the work. All this indicates that demographic factors have very large influence on development of agricultural production in rural areas. Potential for Rural Tourism Natural factors used for tourist valorisation are consisting of following elements: Geomorphology characteristics, climate, hydrography, plants and animal world. Initial factor for development of tourism is geographic characteristic of the area. Complex natural tourist values are best valorised by analysing geomorphological, climate, hydrological and biogeographical tourist elements. In the tourist morphological sense the researched area is consisted of following parts: o o o o o City valleys Mountains River valleys High plains Hilly areas. However, in each of these parts there are many tourist potentials that are not know to a wider audience of current and potential customers. Pester plain and Vlahovi, as well as mountains are part of the Dinaria mountain system. Lower areas, river valleys as well as Pobrđa also part of this system. Geomorphology characteristics as touristic value is consisted of complex geological materials, tectonically arranged valleys of river Lim, Uvac, Raska and Ibar as well as smaller valleys connected to them. Geomorphologic objects have special importance for the whole touristic valorisation. Geomorphology of the researched area has mainly mountain characteristics were Pester high plain is in the central part and valleys of river Ibar and Lim in the east and west borders surrounded by mountains Haila, Prokletije, Golija, Radocela, Rogozna, Ninaja, Giljeva, Jodovnik, Zlatar and Mojstirskodraske mountains. 243 �Although, the area is not suitable for communication infrastructure, valleys enable enough space to build roads necessary for development of tourism in this area. Researched area, because of its geographic position is on the transit communications between main regional centres. Based on the number of toursits that visits and/or pass trough this area we can conclude that the region has not used its potential as transitory position to attract more tourist revenue. In this cross-border region, beside City of Novi Pazar, other towns and rural settlements are not established as tourist destinations, if we exclude several spa places and mountain Golija. Croup of closer regions and centres cover West Serbia and Sumadija in the west with the Pomoravlje. Bigger centres are Uzice, Cacak, Kraljevo, Kragujevac and Krusevac. Other regions surrounding the are are Montenegro and Kosovo with centres like Kosovska Mitrovica and Pec. In the near future, role of stronger source of tourists will have East and Central Bosnia and Bosnian Posavina including cetres Sarajevo, Tuzla, Banja Luka, Brcko and others. In the gorup of tourist sources centres further than 300 km are Vojvodina, East and South East Serbia with centers including: Belgrade as the capital, Novi sad, Subotica, Zrenjanin, Pancevo, and in the east and south Zajecar, Negotin, Bor, Nis, Leskovac and Vranje. To all mentioned tourist sources centres more attention needs to be paid in order to promote tourist values and potential of the researched area. The importance of this area, when it comes to recreational tourism can be best illustrated by project Via Dinarica (www.viadinarica.com). For the destinations that covers, the project recived a received a “2014 Travel Awards: Best New Trail” by the Outside Online magazine (https://www.outsideonline.com/1921701/2014-travel-awards-best-new-trail) in 2014, and “Best of the world” destination for 2017 by the National Geographic Magazine (https://viadinarica.com/en/blog/280-national-geographic-traveler-via-dinarica-medu-najboljimsvjetskim-destinacijama-2). 244 �Source: www.viadinarica.com , 20.04.2017. Project Via Dinarica has an objective to map tourist potential along three routes through mountain pass of Dinarica mountains starting from Slovenia all the way trough Albania. Three routes are marked as green, white and blue. Green and white route pass trough area of southwest Serbia and northern Montenegro. It is hard to list all the tourist potential in one paper, but it is very important that they are generally recognized and to work on validating each individual resource. Information collected by the authors about responses from tourists that visited these places show following: o Road infrastructure is in very bad condition. o Accommodation capacities are not distributed well. o Tourist organizations are not focused on recreational tourism o Near tourist attractions there is no safe accommodations and establishing camps. o Mountain paths are not marked well. o There is no adequate cooperation of tourist organizations and local communities. o The mobile networks do not cover all the area o Lack of cooperation between tourist organizations with an aim to create joint tours. These are most commong answers that authors have summarized from many answers that, unfortunately, indicate that actualization of tourist potentials is very low as well as awareness that these potential can be transformed in development potential of the region. 245 �Possibilities of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness The research points to the possibility, that through the development of tourist potentials of recreational tourism, with adequate cooperation, to improve the position of small agricultural households. The basic precondition for successful cooperation is a "win-win" strategy, that is to find a benefit in the cooperation for all sides. And if there is a benefit for a wider social community then a synergistic effect is achieved. The current SWOT analysis of small agricultural households with focus on factors which can influence recreational tourism is given bellow: S Organic production, Natural beauties, Clean air and water, Special features of cuisine products W Poor road infrastructure, Crushed production, Insufficient implementation of measures, The problem of entering the market O The development of new products, Finding market niches, Direct contact with customers agro-technical T Emigration of young people, Dependence on the buyer, Exclusion from strategic documents Media neglect In the SWOT analysis of the position of small agricultural households, many factors are noted: Bad road infrastructure, small scale production, insufficient application of agro-technical measures, the problem of entering the market, and so on. The essence of linking recreational tourism with agribusiness is to minimize the impact of these shortcomings. Reducing the impact of these shortcomings is reflected in the fact that recreational tourists do not request road infrastructure, since the essence of recreational tourism is movement of foot, visits of natural beauties, such customers are looking for products that are specific, special and with less use of biochemical treatments of modern chemistry. This approach, on the other hand, enables the leveraging of the advantages of agricultural households in the mountainous region, which are: organic production, natural beauty, clean air and water, the specificity of food products and many others. It also positively influences Chances, which are the development of new products, finding of markets niche, direct contact with customers. This approach also decreases likelihood of Threats occurring, such as emigration of youth, dependence on customers, exclusion from strategic documents and media neglect. The current SWOT analysis of the offer of recreational tourism with a reference to the factors that can be influenced by linking with small agricultural households is given bellow: 246 �S Organic production, Natural beauties, Clean air and water, Special features of cuisine products W Accommodation capacities not well distributed. Tourist organizations are not oriented towards recreational tourism. There are no safe conditions for lodging and camping near tourist attractions. Mountain trails are not well marked. Adequate cooperation between the tourist organization and the local population not establish. O The development of new products, Finding market niches, Direct contact with customers T Emigration of young people, Exclusion from strategic documents, Media neglect If we consider the improvement of the tourist offer as an improvement in the services that the customer buys, then the improvement of the tourist offer is also an additional benefit for the customer. Adequate linking with agricultural households will greatly contribute to overcoming the shortcomings of the tourist offer. In the part of the accommodation capacities within the rural tourism, accommodation facilities can be created at the tourist site near tourist attractions. The goal of every agricultural household would be to get more customers and they would make an effort to conserve nature with an adequate improvement their offer. If an agricultural household is aiming to sell their products to tourists who are not going to use the accommodation services but want to camp, then the agricultural household has an interest in arranging and protecting camping sites in order to increase the sales of agricultural products. Since the rating of a tourist destination depend on the well-marked trails, then the agricultural holding has an interest in maintaining these markings. A software solution can facilitate exchange of information between tourists and agricultural households. Tourist organizations can be as support to the initiative, but with no need to be part of providing the service. As we have already talked about other factors of SWOT analysis in this paper, it is sufficient to justify the ways of reducing the impact of the weaknesses of the tourist offer The proposed model of connecting recreational tourism and agribusiness Based on the analysis of the current state of small agricultural households and the analysis of the tourist offer, with reference to recreational tourism, the possibilities of linking have been considered. A model of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness with the use of ICT has been created. To create this model following sets of activities are needed: 247 �o activities related to the information system o activities related to tourist offer o activities related to agricultural households The project implies the following activities related to tourist offer: o Work on identification of tourist resources o Valorization of tourist resources o Gap analysis of the current and desired state of exploitation of tourist resources o Mapping tourist resources through integration into Google Maps or similar navigation software o Mapping roads to tourist attractions as well as mapping of the hiking, cycling and photo safari trails The model implies the following activities related to agricultural households: o Identification of households who are ready to offer their agricultural products to tourists o Identification of suitable places for visiting o Mapping of touristic facilities within tourist offers o Preparation and training of agricultural households in order to increase their capacity to include catering services in the framework of their offer The model implies the following activities related to the information system that would support the linkage of tourist offer and supply of agricultural households: o Identification and creation of tourist routes o Presentation of agricultural households on these routes and presentation of the services they provide o Development of internet portal and mobile application that connects tour operators and agricultural households, as well as individuals tourists and agricultural households o Development of a special form of social network that would gather visitors and users of these services o Development of reservation, ordering and billing of products and services electronically. The end result of these activities should be an interactive internet site that is linked to a mobile application. Data on tourist tours, attractions and places to visit are entered by Local Tourist Organizations. This creates awareness of the tourist offer. Using GPS values each location is shown on Google Maps application. Also, each of the tourist routes is presented as a tracking route on Google maps. Each route would have a full description, length, sights, hosts along the route, time to visit and the time needed to get around. 248 �Registration of agricultural households, that is, obtaining a user account for every agricultural household would be done in local tourist organizations. After registering and obtaining the ID number, agricultural hosts would download a mobile app from the Google Play Store and enter their data. Every agricultural household enter general characteristics about their offer: o Positioning on the map o A short film about the household o Products that they offers o Indicative price list Customers - recreational tourists can use either an internet site or a mobile application for tourists. Through the application, they can contact the tourist organization or individual households with their requests. For each request, the household with a confirmation also sends a pro forma invoice. After confirmation of the payment of funds to the household account the tourist services can be provided. In order to be able to further use the site and mobile application, both the household and the guest are obliged to evaluate each other in the system. In this way, the status and reputation of individual households is created. The system is to be maintained by local tourist organization, and would be funded by the fees charged as a percentage to each financial transaction in the system. This would ensure sustainability of the model. The authors also recommend that the agricultural households propose camping sites and build sanitation facilities and showers in the vicinity of those places. Some households might build special capacities for accommodation. Conclusion The research carried out by the authors and the data they collected indicate that linking recreational tourism and agribusiness can contribute to following: - Improving market position of agricultural households - Improving local tourist offer - Impact on local, regional and national factors to devote special attention to small rural households in the mountain areas. This disproves the initial work hypothesis that there is no possibility of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness using ICT. It also confirms complementary hypothesis which is: There is at least one possibility of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness using ICT. 249 �This paper presents an overview of the research conducted by the authors with the aim to point out the unused potentials that can be used to improve the lives of small agricultural producers as well as recreational tourists. In order for this research to achieve its goal, it is necessary to disseminate the results of this research and take appropriate actions based on specific knowledge acquired through the research. This can contribute to improvement of the position of agricultural households, as well as the improvement of the tourist offer and thus contribute to better life of the local population. References Agribusiness and Development: How investment in the African agri-food sector can help support development, Seminar co-organised with DG Development and Cooperation EuropeAid, April 10, 2013 Charlemagne, Brussels ARCOTRASS- Consortium, Study on the State of Agriculture in Five Applicant Countries, Country Report: B&H - BOSNIA and HERZEGOVINA, Country Report, December 2006 Bećirović S, Plojović Š, E Ujkanović: Impact of investments with a fixed income on the development of entrepreneurship. Anali ekonomskog fakulteta u Subotici. 01/2012; 48(27):187-199. Bećirović, S., The Role Of Microfinance In The Agricultural Development Of The Cross-Border Region Of Sandzak, Novi Pazar: International Conference “SMEPP 2011”. Bosna i Hercegovina, Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine, Federalno ministarstvo poljoprivrede, vodoprivrede i šumarstva, Srednjoročna strategija razvoja poljoprivrednog sektora u federaciji Bosne i Hercegovine za period 2014. - 2018. godina, I dio, Strateški okvir, Draft, Sarajevo, oktobar 2013. godine European Commission, Agricultural Policy Perspectives Brief, EU-10 and the CAP, 10 years of success, April 2014 Plojović Š., Bećirović S., Ujkanovic E., Possible directions of economic development of Novi Pazar area, The Faculty of Economics, University of Kragujevac, International Conference“Contemporary Issues in Economics, Business and Management”, which is held at the Faculty of Economics in Kragujevac, Republic of Serbia, December 14th and 15th, 2010. Plojovic S., Ujkanovic E.: Slovak-Serbian EU Enlargement Fund Collection of Selected Policy Papers. Slovak-Serbian EU Enlargement Fund Collection of Selected Policy Papers, first edited by Andrea Cox, Ed Holt, 10/2011: chapter Attracting and Directing Foreign Direct Investments: The Example of Slovakia in EU Enlargement and how Serbia can Benefit from It: pages 25-33; Pontis Foundation. Plojovic S., Becirovic S., Busatlic S., Ujkanovic E.: Possibilities of application of Robinson Crusoe example and the theory of closed systems in the theory of economic development in countries in transition along the silk road, case of Serbia. Monograph publication Reslikroad, 250 �Editor Mehmet Bulut., Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University Publications, ISBN: 978-605-62038-79 Ravindran S. N., Reaching out to organic agriculture for sustainability in agribusiness, International Journal of Globalisation and Small Business 10/2015; 7(3/4):pp.284-299. DOI:10.1504/IJGSB.2015.072690 Swinnen J., Agribusiness Investments, Value Chains, and Farmers “Linking (Rich) Consumers to (Poor) Producers”, University of Leuven, CEPS & Stanford University Milano, October 2015 The status and constrains of agricultural sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the country food security situationThe report prepared by Sabahudin Bajramović, National consultant in FAO project TCP/BiH/3302 Toader M., Valentin G. R., Family Farming – Examples for Rural Communities Development 12/2015; 6:89-94. DOI:10.1016/j.aaspro.2015.08.043 Vladimirovna Bannikova N., Nikolaevich Baydakov A., Sergeevna Vaytsekhovskaya S., Identification of Strategic Alternatives in Agribusiness, Modern Applied Science 12/2015; 9(4). DOI:10.5539/mas.v9n4p344 Yunus, M., Bankar siromašnih – Mikrokrediti i bitka protiv siromaštva u svijetu, Zagreb: Masmedia. Zander R. New Trends in Financing Agricultural Value Chains - Promising practices and Emerging Recommendations for Policy Development, G20 GPFI SME Finance Working Group, Antalya. Turkey; 09/2015 251 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3660 Title A name given to the resource Models of linking recreational tourism and agribusiness thought use of ICT (doi: 10.14706/icesos1723) Author Author PLOJOVIĆ, Šemsudin Becirovic, Suad Plojovic, Senadin Ujkanovic, Enes Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Paper is presenting results of project “With better cooperation towards better future” which is supported by University of Novi Pazar and Sanjak business association with focus on segment of project about investigating the possibility of application of information communication technologies in order to increase the visibility of tourism resources and linking individual farmers who can make their agriculture products, food, accommodation and other services available to tourists. This study addresses the issue of linking the tourist offers and offers of organic food from small agriculture households. The project treats the area of South Serbia and northern Montenegro, which is known for the beauty of mountain trails, glacial lakes, large cave systems, fast-flowing rivers and cuisine specialties. The aim of the project is to popularize this potential and its actualization within the tourist industry. This project involves the registration of pedestrian trails, bicycle paths, trails of photo safaris within the google maps system as well as within the specific mobile applications.The essence of the project is the implementation of mobile and other applications and electronic services to improve the lives of small farm households through the improvement of tourist offer, the development of organic production and enabling farmers to sell their products to final customers directly. Keywords: tourist industry, organic products, market positioning Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6e505e5beb4a13ac3442096d097a249.pdf fe82d2f44db186a7877ebf9daf4e4156 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3650 Title A name given to the resource An Empirical Study of the Relationship between Financial Literacy and Tolerance towards Financial Risk among Entrepreneurs in Bosnia and Herzegovina (doi: 10.14706/icesos1713) Author Author OKIČIĆ, Jasmina Selimovic, Damir Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The purpose of this study is to explain difference in tolerance towards financial risk among entrepreneurs with different levels of financial literacy. Financial risk tolerance is the maximum amount of uncertainty an entrepreneur is willing to accept when making a financial decision. On the other hand, and according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), financial literacy can be defined as a combination of awareness, knowledge, skill, attitude and behaviour necessary to make sound financial decisions and ultimately achieve individual financial wellbeing. Therefore, the aim of the study is to explain relationship between measured level of entrepreneurs’ financial literacy and their assessed tolerance towards financial risk. This is a quantitative study, where we use a questionnaire to asses tolerance towards financial risk and to measure the level of financial literacy. Also, we use non-probability sampling methods where participants are recruited by e-mail. To gain better understanding of relationship between entrepreneurs’ financial literacy and their assessed tolerance towards financial risk we use descriptive statistics, chi-square, correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis. The results of this study are expected to shed more light on understanding of relationship between entrepreneurs’ overall financial literacy and their tolerance towards financial risk. Implications of this study suggest that entrepreneurs’ tolerance towards financial risk may be driven more by their financial attitude and behaviour rather than their financial knowledge. Key words: measurement of financial literacy, measuring tolerance towards financial risk, entrepreneurs Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f460e505a3d30ee2dfe5ed55ea86126.docx e21fd4a2c5898203c5c9c082401d357b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3666 Title A name given to the resource FIGHTING WITH POORNESS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA doi: 14.706/icesos1727 Author Author Nikšić, Haris DUMAN, Teoman Abstract A summary of the resource. This topic will help me to understand the political statements, how generally “political world“ in our county is fighting with poorness, how to increase employment. How to help people who survive the war, who survive flooding, and any kind of poorness, how to stop that and how to growth economy, agriculture, forestry, farming, agronomy, tourism. Two main problems we will focus on it are increasing VAT and improve tourism as a two ways of fighting the poorness. For the needs of this research, we have collected responses from 160 people, both males and females. Their responses were collected and later we analyzed them in IBM SPSS software. The obtained data helped us to better understand and to develop possible theories regarding the bad economic situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina and possible ways to fight poverty. Keywords: poorness, economic condition, working condition, employment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c899d3213dee73f3d7a8016a86a8a87.pdf bd826210d6321854f2ad12e59eb5209c PDF Text Text Significance of Expatriates for the Competitiveness in the International Construction Market with an Example of Strabag Concern Fata Miljković Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina fata.miljkovic@gmail.com Abstract: In today's business environment, where global competition grows every day, being successful only in domestic market is no longer enough. Globalization allowed free flow of capital, goods, information, people, and set new demands for companies which want to succeed in international market. This refers not only to the way of how companies operate their business but also on how companies manage their human capital. With changes in the international markets and company’s human resources politics, expatriates become a key factor of competitive advantages in the international construction market. Key words: international human resource management, expatriation, motivation factor Introduction Globalization requires new measures for companies that want to succeed in the international market. These measures relate not only to the way businesses operate but also to the management of their human capital. Exactly as a result of changes in the management of international companies and their human potential, expatriates have emerged and become a key factor in the competition on the international scene (Juhl, 2009). The number of multinational companies and the number of people working in them grows worldwide. Multinational companies enable the acquisition of new knowledge and skills, especially cross-border. They play a very important role in transferring knowledge, opening up excellent opportunities both for the parent company and for the foreign affiliate (Dobrai, 2012). A changeable business environment has led organizational knowhow to be among the key factors of a sustainable competitive advantage. Today, the transfer of knowledge and skills within the company plays a key role in the long-term survival of the company, in other words it has strategic importance. Insufficient attention is paid on the motivators of employees to accept an international engagement and the awareness of the organization itself on the impact of these factors on the overall process of expatriation seems also insufficient. Through this research key factors that influence an individual's decision on acceptance of foreign engagement are identified and analyzed. 201 �Primary goal of this paper is to contribute the understanding of motivators for going on an international engagement and improve the process of expatriation at multinational companies. The research results can be useful feedback to of human resources managers in planning and implementing expatriation process. This paper examines the phenomenon of expatriation whose presence is increasing in companies operating in the international market. Construction companies train local employees through expatriates and achieve transfers knowledge throe Concern. However, insufficient attention is paid on the motivators of employees to accept an international engagement and the awareness of the organization itself on the impact of these factors on the overall process of expatriation seems also insufficient. This brings us to the purpose of this study carried out in the company Strabag Ltd. Sarajevo, a subsidiary of Strabag Concern. Through this research key factors that influence an individual's decision on acceptance of foreign engagement are identified and analyzed. Literature review Human resources include the competence and motivation of employees in order to fulfill their entrusted tasks (Rahimic, 2010). Because of the big changes in the business environment and the increasing globalization of the market, human resources have become the most important factor in the business, development and competitive advantages of the company. In the global competition, a person is strategically engaged as a resource and a key factor that affects the company's competitive advantage. In other words, knowledge and skills of employees represent the most important resource in an enterprise and seeks to ensure their long-term survival with these resources. Therefore, in the literature we can find many works dealing with human resources and their management by companies. The founder of management as a science discipline is Frederick W. Taylor, who first used the word management (Mintzberg, 2004). The most commonly cited definition of management is the definition of the American management theorist from the early 1930s Follet P.M., which defines management as "... the art of doing human affairs". Management is nothing but a job that requires the engagement of a certain, larger or smaller, number of people, regardless of the type and nature of the job. Today, business is exposed to the effects of different cultures, practices and styles of management in different countries, that is, internationalization has signified the process of expanding business to other countries. All of this can be seen as a consequence of globalization that has resulted in a large number of multinational companies spreading their power to almost all countries. These are growth-oriented companies that enter the markets of an increasing number of countries and become serious competitors. Investment decisions of these companies are made globally, by transferring capital and resources from one country to another, affecting 202 �employment of millions of people and the degree of economic activity in individual countries (Rakita, 2006). Information transfer and exchange of experiences among foreign affiliates results in cumulative knowledge that ensures a competitive advantage (Rahimic, 2012). As global competition grows, the importance of managing international operations of multinational companies has increased, and therefore the need to recognize competent foreign managers that can implement the strategy of a company in subsidiaries in other countries. Thus, the phenomenon of expatriates emerged as a result of the recognition that employees on foreign engagement can be an excellent mechanism for monitoring and evaluating activities and behaviors within the branch (Musasizi, 2008). It can also be said that this phenomenon is the result of globalization, the entry of companies into foreign markets, and the emergence of a large number of multinationals company. Expatriation is a term that refers to foreign business engagement at a certain time, and the process of expatriation is most simply defined as the process of international transfers of managers. Expatriates are generally defined as employees who temporarily leave the parent company to conduct business in a foreign subsidiary for a period of several years, with the intention of returning to the country of the parent company when the task is done (Lassere, 1997). This phenomenon of expatriation occurred as a result of the realization that employees at the foreign engagement can be an excellent mechanism for monitoring and evaluation activities and behaviors within the branch. Globalization is a consequence of the development of science, modern technology, market economy and democracy. It enabled the free movement of capital, goods, information and people through the world by elimination of borders. In a multinational company, we can identify two types of engagements: emitted from a parent company or from a third country to a branch - expatriate and emailed employees from a branch to a parent company - inpatriates (Harwey, 2000). Expatriates play an important role in disseminating the knowledge of the parent company to affiliates (Dobrai, 2012). Citizenship of employees is a major factor in determining "categories" of employees. In the international corporation models differ: - Citizens of the country of the branch - Nationals of the parent company - Third-country nationals (Morgan, 1986). 203 �Methodology The primary goal of the research is to contribute to the understanding of employees' motives for going to international engagement and to improve the process of expatriation by respecting them. In addition to the stated goal:  to highlight the importance of planning the process of expatriation for the survival of international companies;  point out the motivators that have proved to be the most important for existing and potential expatriates;  give HRM a better roadmap, how and in what way to plan the outbound process and what conditions to offer to employees selected for such an international task. Because of the complexity of the topic that was chosen, in this paper will be used more scientific and research methods to achieve objectivity, reliability, accuracy and thoroughness. The method that will be primarily used is the descriptive analysis. Descriptive analysis has the following tasks: sorting and grouping of statistical data, displaying statistics and determine the basic indicators of statistical series. The results of the research will be done at the end of the work and will be presented in several ways, including: tabular, graphical and textual. Taking into account the subjects of the paper, in the research process it will be used different methods and techniques in order to meet the basic methodological requirements - objectivity, reliability, generality and systematic. This requires the application of basic analytical and synthetic methods: analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, abstraction, concretization and generalization. In the course of the research will be used method of cognitive processes while studying and consulting the latest scientific literature in the subject area. The paper used analytical (historical type of research and survey) and a descriptive type of research. The most important facts about expatriates and international management in multinational companies have been collected by the historical type of research. The survey, which is carried out within the company Strabag Ltd Sarajevo, where employees who were previously internationally engaged were interviewed, as well as those who do not have an international experience, confirmed the hypotheses. A descriptive type of research was used to define concepts and facts related to research issues. Hypothesis The main research hypothesis is: '' A better understanding of the factors that influence the decision to accept international involvement leads to improvement of the process of expatriation. '' Support hypotheses: 204 �H1: '' The employee will sooner accept foreign engagement if it leads to promotion. '‘ H2: '' The fee is a critical factor when considering a decision on acceptance the foreign involvement. '‘ H3: '' The family is the most common reason for rejection of foreign involvement. '‘ Research In the research part of the paper, Strabag Concern is presented, its organizational structure and the position of human resources in the Group. The company Strabag Ltd. Sarajevo which is part of the Group is presented as well. The results of the research carried out within the company Strabag Ltd Sarajevo, where interviewed employees who were previously internationally engaged, as well as those who do not have an international experience. Strabag is the central operating brand of Strabag SE and it operates in all areas of the construction industry. This Group is large and significant European construction company and it operates worldwide. As one of the leading providers of construction services in central and Eastern Europe, the Group employs more than 73,000 employees at more than 500 locations, and carries out operations worth almost € 13.6 billion. Entrepreneurial thought is oriented towards the needs of national and international markets. Strabag's business scope is as diverse as the demands it faces. The spectrum of activities extends from individual services and works by measure, from small businesses to spectacular large projects. High professional competence, knowledge and experience oriented to the future and excellent internal infrastructure enable Strabag to fulfill even the most demanding customer's wishes in a safe and economical way, in a short time and in a flexible way. Strabag's team concept offers companies a wide range of services based on different starting points and covers all relevant construction work - from design, through planning and implementation, to impeccable finished project. The turnover achieved by the Group in 2016 amounted to 13,491.03 Md. Euro. In the chart below we can see the turnover of the Group in the last 5 years: 205 �As part of the Group's profile, company Strabag Ltd Sarajevo is one of the numerous subsidiary companies in the Group. It currently has over 100 local employees and more than 20 expatriates. Out of that number, 38 are employees, as the Group calls them, while the rest are workers on construction positions. By the reputation of the company, the company is divided into directions, and each directorate is in charge of its leader. The division of officers is as follows: commercialists, technical functions and administrative functions such as accounting. Regarding the expatriate, the highest number of workers from Croatia, followed by Austria and Germany. Managers' functions are performed mainly by Austrian employees, while expatriates from Croatia are mainly operatives with significant experience for individual projects. Strabag started operating in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2006, having since only few employees developed into a strong competitor in the Bosnian construction sector. In the past few years, Strabag has been working on significant projects, and in 2017, a considerable amount of work is planned. Some of the projects that Strabag in Bosnia does are Corridor 5c Svilaj-Odžak, Hydro power plant Vranduk, residential building DVOR Luxury Apartments, residential building Sarajevo Garden, Hotel Residence Inn Sarajevo by Marriott and other smaller projects. Human Resources in the Group The construction is labor intensive industry and its business results depend mostly on the commitment of the people working in it. Therefore, the Group constantly works to encourage and optimize the professional and personal qualifications of its employees. Due to the lack of skilled workforce employees are a critical factor in Strabag. The Group responds to this issue with consistent strategic planning of the workforce and continuous training of its employees. In order to ensure professional handling when selecting a candidate, modern information technology, software and processes are used. Thus, the Group uses an international IT platform for the publication of vacancies. 206 �As a result of the typical winter break in construction, the STRABAG Group is subject to seasonal fluctuations in employee numbers. For this reason, the number of employees – as is usual in the industry – is only stated as an annual average. 71,839 employees (43,381 blue collar and 28,458 white-collar) worked for Strabag in 2016. The number of employees thus fell slightly by 2 %. Traditionally, the construction industry employs primarily men. Women are therefore underrepresented at all hierarchy levels. In 2016, the number of women as a percentage of employees within the entire group amounted to 14.9 % after 13.9 % the year before. Since Strabag is an international company, the employees of the Group are from 84 different countries, ie 84 different nationalities. As the Group employs people of different nationalities, it also employs people of different ages. As we can see on the chart, the concern employs people from 21 years of age to 60 years of age. There are fewer those with over 60 or fewer than 20 years of age. The explanation for this distribution can be reconsidered in the sector in which the Group operates. It is natural for workers at construction sites to be younger, but at the same time, managers with significant work experience are middle age. In the management, we can find employees in the 1920s and thirtieth years with rapid career advancement, but also employees in the fifties with enormous experience behind. 207 �Research carried out in the company Starbag Ltd. Sarajevo A survey that was conducted in Strabag Ltd aimed to identified and analyzed factors that influence the decision of an individual to accept foreign engagement and thus demonstrate their importance both to planning and to the success of the overall engagement. A survey conducted for this purpose at the company Strabag Ltd Sarajevo, more precisely in the accounting, civil engineering, construction, environmental, quality assurance and special projects sections, covers all employees with the position of with color employees of this company. Through e-mail, employees received a link that was enabled by an anonymous response to an online inquiry. During the research conducted in the period from 03.04.-24.04.2017. For years, employees have accepted the evaluation process positively. Of the 102 employees, 38 of them are employees, a sample of our research. 35 responded to the survey, and the criterion of at least 80% was met. Given the hypothesis of the work and the goal of the research, it is necessary to first analyze the data on employees such as: age, sex, level of education, years of work experience, marital status. Out of the total number of employed, 26 were male respondents (75%), and 9 of them female respondents (25%). 208 �Gender Female 25% Male 75% The number of respondents, nine of them (25%), is up to 30 years of age. The largest number of respondents is aged from 31 to 40, fourteen of them (38%) and 41 to 50 years old, eleven of them (33%). The smallest number, one of them (4%), is over 51 years of age. 4% 25% up to 30 years old 31 - 40 years old 33% 41 - 50 years old 38% over the 50 years old When it comes to education level, 31.25% of employees have secondary education, 15.62% are higher education, while more than half of them are employed, 17 are high (53.12%), they are highly qualified. There is no one among the employed officials without the school. 16 foreign respondents speak one foreign language, while 15 foreign speakers speak two foreign languages. Only one participant in this research speaks three or more foreign languages. 209 �master degree 6% Qualifications high school degree 31% college degree 63% The duration of the employment relationship in a company is classified into three categories for easier processing of data, so that the first category includes employees who are in the company for less than 2 years, ten of them (31.25%). The second category includes those employees who are in the company for more than two years and less than five years, 12 of them (37.5%). In the third category we can classify as many as 10 (31.25%) who have been employed for more than 5 years in Strabag. Out of the total number of respondents, five persons declared themselves as a manager, 10 as a commercial worker, 11 as a technical worker, while 6 persons belong to the accounting sector. A few important information from the first part of the survey: Only 18.75% of all respondents never cooperated with someone who had an outsourcing contract. While everyone else worked with one or more expatriates. Only 7 respondents had previously been engaged abroad, while the remainder of 78% had never had such an engagement. Of these 7, there's only one woman. Three respondents who had previously been engaged abroad have been employed by Strabag for more than 5 years, the other three are in the company employed between 2 and 5 years, and only one respondent has been employed for less than 2 years in this company. Most foreign engagements lasted from 1 to 2 years, while only one respondent was engaged for 3 to 5 years. The rate of unsuccessful foreign engagement of our respondents is 43%, and the reason for the 2/3 is family issues, while one respondent replied that he was temporarily back from engagement for security reasons (state uncertainty). The remaining 57% who had previously been on foreign engagement successfully completed the same, with all of them engaging not more than two years. Results Through this research, key factors that influence employees in deciding on the acceptance of international engagement have been identified and analyzed. Factors that are separated and which, to a large extent, in addition to their age and family status, affect the decision to accept 210 �engagement are the following: location of engagements, monetary compensation offered to potential expatriates, the possibility of improvement, as well as previous experience in foreign engagements. In conclusion, the results of this research should contribute to a better understanding of the motivation of employees for going to international engagement. In the first part of the survey, general data on respondents, such as age and sex, were collected. The next part of the study included claims that directly relate to the decision to accept / reject foreign engagement. For each of the questions, employees could give a response in the range [15]. Analyzing the results was particularly interesting were the answers to the question how the possibility of improvement influences the respondents' decision to accept foreign engagement, which is graphically depicted below: I would accept a foreign arrangement if it means improvement in the career 0% Disagree 12% 44% Neither agree nor disagree 44% Agree Strongly agree These results lead to the assumption that higher material benefits during the expiration time positively affect the will and motivation of the expatriate, what confirms the hypothesis 1. Also, from the above results we can conclude that the family is not only the most frequent reason for the refusal of international engagements but should also be taken as a very important factor for the success of the entire process of expatriation. It is assumed that employees, if they receive additional stimulus and bonuses for good performance of their tasks, better perform their tasks and more try to successfully complete the engagement. In accordance with the hypotheses and the purpose of this survey, the respondents wondered about the extent to which family status influenced their decision to accept or reject the offer for foreign engagement. For this purpose, the respondents were asked to declare whether they agree or disagree with the following statement: "If I refused the offered engagement, the reason would be the family." The results of the response are shown on the graph below: 211 �If I refused the offered engagement, the reason would be my family 0% 0% 12% Strongly disagree 44% Disagree 44% Neither agree nor disagree Agree Strongly agree This confirms hypothesis 3 that claims that the family is the most frequent reason for refusing foreign engagement. Also, from the above results we can conclude that the family is not only the most frequent reason for the refusal of international engagements but should also be taken as a very important factor for the success of the entire process of expatriation. As a key motivator, both the decision on accepting international engagement and the success of potential expatriates proved to be a monetary compensation. A very strong statement was given to the respondents: "When deciding on the acceptance of foreign engagement, the most important thing for me is financial compensation." What all the respondents agreed with us. Even 44% of them fully agree with what we can see on the graphics below: When deciding on the acceptance of foreign engagement, the most important thing for me is financial compensation 0% 0% Strongly disagree 12% 44% Disagree 44% Neither agree nor disagree Agree From the answer to this question, we conclude that in spite of the attractiveness and security of the site and the possibilities for promotion, the monetary compensation has the greatest influence on the decision to accept the engagement. Interestingly, neither the age nor the full structure had 212 �a significant impact on the results of the response to this claim. Of the 12% of those who only partially agree, three workers belong to the technical sector and have over 41 years, while one of them is a manager of the age of 31-40 years. These figures are probably the result of the ratio of those who have never been on an international task, 78% of them, with those who are. The assumption is that such employees were not faced with cultural shocks, separation from the family, repatriation problems and many other difficulties that the foreign engagement very often brings with them, and therefore see monetary compensation as the main driving force. However, those with an international experience see monetary compensation as a significant motivation factor in accepting engagement, and one of the respondents who were previously on a foreign mission fully agreed with this assertion. Interestingly, none of the respondents on the set of questions related to the influence of a financial nature factor on the decision to accept the engagement did not give a response that they have no influence on him. This is not at all surprising given the economic situation of the state in which Strabag Ltd operates, and where foreign respondents see foreign engagement as an opportunity for higher earnings and improvement of their financial situation. Furthermore, every employee sees foreign engagement as an opportunity for additional earnings, or additional financial gain, in addition to being able to progress and gain new experiences. Conclusion The purpose of this paper is to investigate some of the most important factors affecting employees' decision to accept foreign engagement and to point out the importance of these factors to the entire process of expatriation. The aim is to show how a better understanding of the factors that influence the decision to accept foreign engagement leads to an improvement in the process of expatriation. In short, the same expatriation plan cannot be applied to each employee, nor do equal employees have an equal impact on each employee. All this human resources management should be taken into consideration when planning the outcome, and ultimately it will receive a smaller number of prematurely discontinued engagements and a greater benefit from the expatriate upon return to the parent company. In order to prove claims from the work, research was carried out in the branch of a large international company - Strabag Ltd Sarajevo, daughter of Strabag SE. Strabag SE operates in all areas of the construction industry around the world. Today Strabag Ltd Sarajevo has more than 100 local employees and 20 expatriates. A representative sample was selected and a quantitative survey was conducted in the form of a survey. In summary, the results show support for the first hypothesis that an employee will soon accept foreign engagement if it leads to improvement, which gives us clear evidence that improvement, along with its potential benefits, is a major motivator when deciding to accept engagement. Investigating the impact of monetary compensation on respondents, it can be 213 �concluded that the amount of material income is a key factor affecting the readiness of candidates for international engagement. According to respondents, financial factors have been shown to be very important for the success of expatriate and its motivation during the engagement period. At the beginning of the work, it is stated that the family is the most frequent reason for refusing foreign engagement. From the results of this research we can conclude that the family is not only the most frequent reason for the refusal of international engagements but should also be taken as a very important factor for the success of the entire process of expatriation. The most important thing for employees was the monetary compensation offered to them, then the possibility of improvement in the work place. It is especially emphasize the influence of the family as a very important factor for the employees of our area. The results of the research carried out in this paper can be useful feedback to human resource managers in planning and implementing the process of expatriation and improvement of the same, and point out the motivation of employees who in most cases are neglected and put in another plan. References: Juhl, B., Fuglsig, S.C.S. (2009). A study on motivational factors influencing the expatriate through the expatriation cycle. Dobrai, K., Farkas, F., Karoliny, Z., Poór, J. (2012). Knowledge Transfer in Multinational Companies – Evidence from Hungary. University of Pécs, Faculty of Business and Economics Rahimić, Z. (2010). Human resource Management. Sarajevo: Faculty of Economy in Sarajevo Mintzberg, H. (2004). Managers not MBA's: A hard look at the soft practice of managing and management development. San Francisco: Berrett Kohler. Lassere, P. (1997). Global Strategic Management. Second edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p.338 Harwey, M. G., Novicevic, M. M. i Speier, C. (2000). Strategic Global Human Resource Management: The Role of Inpatriate Managers. Human Resource Management Review. 10 (2). pp.153-175 Morgan, P. V. (1986). International Human Resource Management: Fact or Fiction. Personnel Administrator. Dowling, P. J., Welch, D. E. i Schuler R. S. (1999). International Human Resource Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context. Cincinnati. OH: South-West. Goldsmith, M., Greenberg, C. L., Robertson, A. i Hu-Chan, M. (2003). Global Leadership-The Next Generation. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Festing, M., Dowling, P. J., Weber, W. i Engle, A. D. (2011). Internationales Personalmanagement. Wiesbaden:Gabler Verlag Noe, R., Hollenbeck, R. J. i Wright, M. P. (2006). Menadžment ljudskih potencijala. Zagreb: Mate. 214 �Pollock, D. i Van Reken, R. E. (2009). Third Culture Kids: Growing Up Among Worlds. Boston/London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Gregersen, H., Morrison, A. J. i Black, J. S. (1998). Developing Leaders for the Global Frontier. Sloan Management Review Harvey, M. G., Novicevic, M. M. i Speier, C. (2000). Strategic Global Human Resource Management: The Role of Inpatriate Managers. Human Resource Management Review Raduan Che Rose et al. (2010). Expatriate Performance in International Assignments: The Role of Cultural Intelligence as Dynamic Intercultural Competency. International Journal of Business and Management Suutuari, V. (2003). Global managers: Career orientation, career tracks, life-style complications and career commitment. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 215 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3647 Title A name given to the resource Significance of Expatriates for the Competitiveness in the International Construction Market with an Example of Strabag Concern (doi: 10.14706/icesos1710) Author Author Miljkovic, Fata Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: In today's business environment, where global competition grows every day, being successful only in domestic market is no longer enough. Globalization allowed free flow of capital, goods, information, people, and set new demands for companies which want to succeed in international market. This refers not only to the way of how companies operate their business but also on how companies manage their human capital. With changes in the international markets and company’s human resources politics, expatriates become a key factor of competitive advantages in the international construction market. Key words: international human resource management, expatriation, motivation factor Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8d9f0fe789cc30e1874664345604bf4.pdf 83c908f3f5d1dd47f46168bb504f3b04 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies     Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Postsocialist Society Merita H. Meçe Clemson University mmece@g.clemson.edu Abstract: Significant increase of internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society affected people’s connections and their identity.   Keywords:  Internal Migration, Social Identity Theory, Social Identity, Prejudice, Stigma New social phenomena were differently perceived by the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. On the one hand, the concept of social identity struggled between inclusionary/exclusionary boundaries; on the other hand, prejudice and stigma triggered from this complex reality. This paper applies Social Identity Theory to JEL Classification: Article History Submitted: 12.6.207 Resubmitted: 8.2.2018 Accepted: 25.5.2018 examine how internal migration affects social identity and its implications on prejudice and stigma in Albanian post-socialist http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JE COSS17724 society. This qualitative study is based on desk research and secondary data drawn by national statistics and cross-sectional research conducted in Albania during the period 1991-2017. It concludes that more longitudinal studies should be conducted to understand the dynamics of social identity construction within the context of internal migration in Albania. This is necessary to promote a more inclusive society in order to accommodate social diversity and view internal migrants as local agents of development rather than objects of prejudice and stigma. Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 56 �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   Introduction   A growing body of research indicates that internal migration is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. It is rapidly growing in both, time and space raising various challenges (World Bank, 2009; Meng, 2012; Potts, 2012). Even though it affects the life of so many people worldwide, it is not easily measured. Thus, data about its scale are limited and outdated (World Economic Forum, 2017). Statistics estimate 740 million internal migrants worldwide (United Nations Development Programme, 2009). Internal migration highly increased in Albanian post-socialist society. Formerly this phenomenon was strictly controlled by the government and subject to central planning of distribution of human resources. The exact number of the internal migrants in Albania is unknown for two main reasons: a) some certain groups such as Roma population are not officially registered as internal movers. Thus, they are under recorded in national censuses; b) statistics from the population registers of the local government units are inaccurate and unreliable (Vullnetari, 2014). However, the World Bank estimated around 500,000 internal migrants in Albania during the period 1991-2005 (UNDP, 2009). On the other hand, Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) (2002) estimated 252,735 people who migrated from one prefecture to another during the period between two censuses (1989-2001). But the increasing scale of this phenomenon is triggered by uneven and complex realities among regions within a country (International Organization for Migration, 2015). Research shows that it is combined with stretching processes of fast urbanization. Thus, connections among people and their identity are dialectically impacted. In a broader sense, the concept of social identity offers possibilities to open up the influence of the environment on the self. It relates to: a) possible influences of the culture or ethnic group the individual is belonging to; b) personal situations and circumstances along with groups where individuals belong to or not; c) their direct contact with other people (Haas, 2008; Reicher, Spears and Haslam, 2010). According to Social Identity Theory, individuals strive to have a positive selfimage in order to become a member of the group which enhances this possibility (Haas, 2008). They are involved in social comparisons to favorably differentiate ingroup from out-group members (Dovidio et al., 2005; McLeod, 2008). While they think, feel, and act as members of collective groups socially constructed by the group’s frame of reference (Padilla and Perez, 2003), they stigmatize other groups, devaluate and discriminate them (Kurzban and Leary, 2001; Dovidio et al., 2005; McLeod, 2008). Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 57 �Merita H. Meçe   Research carried out during the last decades in various countries and regions highlighted several causes of the discrimination of the internal migrants mainly: a) complex structures (Lee and Piper, 2013), b) legal and institutional barriers (International Labor Organization and International Office for Migration, 2001; Afridi, Li and Ren, 2012), c) socio-cultural barriers (Jungteerapanich, 2014), d) gender (Weber, 2014), and e) religion (Engbers, 2015). However, limited research has been documented on the impact of internal migration on social identity and its implications on prejudice and stigma especially outside Europe and North America. The impact of internal migration on social identity construction has been little explored in Albanian post-socialist society as well. Literature shows that research conducted during this period mostly focused on: a) the challenges of this phenomenon on the new urban space (Cila, 2006; Mele, 2010; Pojani, 2013; Dirks, 2014), b) limited and inadequate service delivery (UNDP, 2000; UNDP, 2002; Hagen-Zanker and Azzarri, 2009) and c) gender inequality (United Nations Women, 2014; Jorgji, 2015). Very few studies addressed how internal migration shaped social identity and affected group boundaries between existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. In addition, very limited data are available to make some comparisons. The main purpose of this paper is to examine how internal migration affects social identity construction and its implications on prejudice and stigma in Albanian postsocialist society. This qualitative study is based on two research questions: 1) To what extent does internal migration affect social identity construction and group boundaries in Albanian post-socialist society? 2) What are its implications for prejudice and stigma? Since research about this topic is scant in Albania, this study intends to contribute to this discussion by addressing this gap in the current literature and research. Methods and Paper Organization Both, desk research and secondary data analyses are used to address two research questions of this qualitative study. Secondary research is mainly focused on the review of the concepts of internal migration and social identity based on migration theories and Social Identity Theory. It is combined with an overview of the profile of the internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society, its dynamics and characteristics. Secondary data are drawn by various national statistics, reports and studies conducted in Albania during the period 1991-2017. Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) 58 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   in Albania is the main official data source on internal migration. This national   statistical institute is responsible to conduct censuses, process data, release results nationwide and produce reports. Population reports issued by it during the period under study have been widely used in this paper. Other data have been drawn by cross-sectional studies conducted in limited geographical areas of the country in different periods of time by several researchers and organizations with a specific focus on migration. Data collection period varied between 2-6 months and their target group covered both sexes and different age-groups. They highlight how internal migration failed to successfully accommodate the differences among the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. The relational term of ‘social identity’ served as both, a function of similarities with ‘us’ and a function of differences with ‘them’. Thus, prejudice and stigma triggered. This paper is composed of five parts. Following the first part which presents introduction (including methods and paper organization), the second part provides a theoretical framework of the concepts of internal migration and social identity based on migration theories and Social Identity Theory. The third part provides a profile of the internal migration in Albania during the years of transition to market economy and how it affected social identity construction. Implications on stigma and prejudice are provided in the fourth part. Some conclusions are drawn in the fifth part followed by study limitations. Theoretical Framework of Internal Migration and Social Identity Theory This section helps understand how the dynamics of the modern life ‘on the move’ affect groups’ boundaries and shape both similarities and differences among people. It shortly explains the theoretical framework of the phenomenon of internal migration, its key characteristics and main drivers. Furthermore, it briefly describes the relational nature of the concept of social identity based on Social Identity Theory. Definition of Internal Migration, Its Drivers and Some Theoretical Aspects Definition of internal migration is very challenging because internal migrants stay within country borders but move across provinces, municipalities, rural and urban settings. Especially nowadays the definition of this phenomenon is becoming more unclear because cities grow and consume satellite towns. On the other hand, satellite towns develop and provide residence along the outskirts of cities. But, the definition of the internal migration may depend not only on the classification of government entities but also on the purpose of migration (Fleury, 2016). Literature defines Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 59 �Merita H. Meçe   internal migration as movement of people within the country, from one administrative unit to another (IOM, 2005; IOM, 2008; Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016). It represents one of the most spread forms of migration (Geddes et al., 2012) even though discussion on its patterns and trends is limited due to lack of adequate data (Rees et al., 2016). Research highlights four types of internal migration mainly: rural-urban, rural-rural, urban-rural, and urban-urban. But rural-urban migration is the fastest growing type of internal migration that dominates in most poor countries (IOM, 2005; IOM, 2008; Geddes et al., 2012). Internal migration flows differ from their direction, composition and duration (IOM, 2008). They can be temporary, permanent, circular, voluntary or for economic purposes, marriage or education (Fleury, 2016). But this definition of internal migration is not always a fitting word for migratory movement especially when it refers to the term ‘voluntary’ internal migration. It is hard to believe that departure of people from their place of origin that does not guarantee their livelihood is ‘voluntary’ (IOM, 2005). However, the literature mainly deals with permanent internal migration because official demographic, economic and employment statistics can easily track it (IOM, 2005; Rees et al., 2016). Evidence shows that internal migration is fuelled by the effects of and interactions between economic differentials (Kanbur and Venables, 2005; Geddes et al., 2012; Rees et al., 2016), social inequalities (Kobzar et al., 2015; Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2017), political instability and state fragility (World Bank, 2009; United Nations Children’s Fund, 2014), demographic imbalances (Aroca and Maloney, 2005) and environmental hazards (Geddes et al., 2012; Clewett, 2015). The neo-classical approach views migration as an adjustment mechanism to labour market inequalities and employment (Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson, 1998; Green and Worth, 2015). The main goal of the internal migrants is to maximize utility (Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016) through access to employment or improvement of terms and conditions in employment (Fielding, 2012; UNESCO, 2017). According to Food and Agriculture Organization (2016), more than 75 percent of the world’s poor population resides in rural areas and depends on agriculture for subsistence. Lack of access to markets, poverty and food insecurity pushes them to migrate in urban areas. But the neo-classical approach emphasizes that decisions to migrate to the areas that offer the highest net return to human capital (Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016) are taken at micro-level and macro-level (Aroca and Maloney, 2005; Hagen-Zanker, 60 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   2008). Micro-level theories have been focused on the decisions taken by individuals   to migrate (Hagen-Zanker, 2008) and their characteristics (Cazzuffi and Modrego, 2016). On the other hand, macro-level theories explain migration as a result of uneven spatial distribution of labour (King, 2012) and the existence of macrostructural forces embedded in exploitative and economic power imbalances of global capitalism (Morawska, 2013). Besides these, modern migration theory highlights a range of reasons that push people to migrate. Their motives vary between temporary and permanent migration. Spatial inequalities in quality of life increase their expectation to achieve better wellbeing elsewhere (Lall, Selod and Shalizi, 2006; Macours and Vakis, 2010; Dustmann and Okatenko, 2014). In this paper, internal migration is defined as a permanent movement of people from one administrative unit to another with a special emphasis from rural areas to urban areas of Albania. Based on state statistics and national censuses, this type of migration highly spread in the country after 1991 when Albania changed its political system. Other types of internal migratory movements are neither discussed nor examined in this paper. Social Identity Theory Social Identity Theory (SIT) is a social psychological theory which was initiated by Henri Tajfel by the beginning of the 1970s. It intends to explain how individual behaviour reflects individuals’ larger societal units with the help of group processes, intergroup relations and the social self (Hogg, Terry and White, 1995; Padilla and Perez, 2003). The core idea of this theory is that membership in a social group determines the behaviour of the individual (Davis, 2014). It defines social identity as a person’s sense that he or she belongs to a certain group or social category along with the value and emotional significance attached to it (Tajfel, 1972). This definition implies two key elements: a) belief that an individual belongs to a social group; b) group membership is important to individual’s self (Whitley and Kite, 2010). Social identity provides a bridge between the individual and the society. It is a relational term which defines people as a function of their similarities and differences with others (Reicher, Spears and Haslam, 2010). Social identity is focused on the structures that differentiate one group from another (Burke and Stets, 1998). Besides this, social identity is shared with others providing a basis for shared action. Meanings attached to social identity are products of our collective history (Reicher, Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 61 �Merita H. Meçe   Spears and Haslam, 2010) because group members enact roles that are part of group’s expectations (Turner et al., 1994). Groups give their members a sense of belonging to the social world, a particular social status, protection, security and emotional support (Korostelina, 2014). That is why they are an important source of pride and self-esteem (Tajfel, 1979). Belonging to a certain group means being like other group members and viewing things from the group’s perspective (Stets and Burke, 2000; Korostelina, 2014). According to Social Identity Theory, social identity has three main components: a) social categorization; b) social identification; c) social comparison (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). Social categorization is a process that puts people including ourselves into categories. It labels them in ways that associate their self-image with the categories they belong to (Tajfel, 1979). It sharpens intergroup boundaries and produces group- distinctive normative perceptions (Hogg, Abrams and White, 1995). According to Tajfel (1979), people create categories due to their limited capacities to process information. Therefore, social categorization simplifies their understanding of the world. It helps individuals define their place in the society through segmenting, classifying and ordering the social environment (Tajfel, 1981). Social categories precede individuals in their personal history. Individuals are born in a structural society where the sense of self largely derives from the social categories they belong to (Hogg and Abrams, 1988). They provide a self-definition of a person in terms of the characteristics of the category (Hogg, Terry and White, 1995). They make the individual have a unique self-concept because during the life course, the individual is a member of a unique combination of social categories (Hogg and Abrams, 1988). Social identification is a process where individuals associate themselves with certain groups and adopt the identity of the group they have been categorized as belonging to (McLeod, 2008). They show emotional significance to their identification with a group and self-esteem bound with group membership (Brewer, 1991). Guided by the need to be unique and the need to belong, individuals perceive themselves to be similar and have positive qualities with in-group members. They maintain their distinctiveness and perceive themselves different from out-group members who possess less favourable qualities striving to remain detached from them (Brewer, 1991; Brown, 1995). Social comparison aims at evaluating the social groups to which individuals belong to (Tajfel, 1978). Social Identity Theory implies not only social categorization of individuals but also groups’ evaluation. Individuals prefer to positively differentiate 62 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   themselves from others. The outcome of comparison with out-groups might be   advantageous or disadvantageous for their status (Taylor and Brown, 1988). Tajfel and Turner (1979) argued that social identity can be positive or negative depending on the evaluation of the group that contributes to it. Since people have a basic need to have a positive social identity, self-evaluative consequences of social identity strongly motivate members of one group to keep self-enhancement by comparing themselves with others (Hogg, Terry and White, 1995). A General Overview of the Internal Migration in Albanian Post-socialist Society This part describes the profile of internal migration in Albania after 1991. It examines how social identity construction appeared in the context of changing of the meaning of social category. It highlights the complexity of groups’ boundaries created during the process of social identity negotiation where in- and out-groups interactions are redefined. Profile of Internal Migration in Albanian Post-socialist Society Internal migration has been one of the most dramatic features of the development of Albanian post-socialist society. It occurred rapidly and did not follow any normal trend (UNDP, 2002). Before the change of the political system, this phenomenon was tightly regulated and highly controlled by the central government (INSTAT, 2014). Policies that restricted the free movement of population were lifted after 1991 when the socialist system collapsed. The country was exposed to rapid and substantial changes that affected its social, economic and political structure. Mass uncontrolled and unplanned migration of population (mainly from villages and remote mountainous areas) towards towns and cities led to overpopulation of some urban areas (UNDP, 2000; World Bank, 2003) and drastic depopulation of some others (INSTAT, 2014). Relocation of the whole household is one of the characteristics of internal migration in Albania. Statistics show that one in five families in Albania has experienced internal migration (INSTAT, 2010). The 2011 Census data revealed that 10 percent of the population now live in a different town or village compared to that of a decade ago. More than 10 percent of the internal migrants had moved multiple times (INSTAT, 2014). The unknown experience of multiple moves spread during the last decade. It was combined with high tendency of direct moves and impacted the total number of urban population. For the first time in the history of Albania, population living in urban areas outnumbered that living in rural areas (INSTAT, Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 63 �Merita H. Meçe   2014). Figure 1 shows rural-urban population distribution trends in Albania based on data of the last three censuses. Figure 1: Rural-Urban Population Distribution Trends in Albania, 1989-2011 Source: INSTAT (1990); INSTAT (2014) Diverse drivers of internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society include: a) economic motives. People rapidly reacted against negative externalities caused by economic transformations during the first years of democratic transition. These factors pushed people away from collapsed agricultural cooperatives and state farms. In addition, destructive effects of sudden closure of industries in mono-industrial interior towns increased the trend of movement of their inhabitants towards big cities (King and Vullnetari, 2013); b) city life attraction. People were willing to benefit from advantages of ‘modern’ urban lifestyle. However, their aspirations were not always fulfilled. Both, the scarcity of well-paid jobs and their settlement in periurban informal areas hindered them (King and Vullnetari, 2013); c) democracy deficit. Fragile democracy was followed by weak state institutions, lack of rule of law and lack of trust in governmental structures. Democracy deficit activated traditional customary law especially in the Northern part of Albania. Revitalization of Kanun of Leke Dukagjini was followed by blood feud (honour killing). To escape from blood feud conflicts, many highlanders migrated from their villages to other parts of the country (UNDP, 2000; Peço, 2014; Meçe, 2017). 64 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   But, socio-economic and political development of the country determined not only   the dimension, but also the direction of internal migration in Albania (UNDP, 2002). The majority of the internal migrants were from geographically landlocked, underdeveloped and mountainous parts of the North and North-eastern areas of Albania. Their total population decreased by 21 percent during the period 20012011. Newcomers were settled in lowlands and coastline particularly in Durres and Tirana regions. Statistics show that, after 1991, the annual population growth rate in Kamza Municipality located just 11 km away from Tirana (the capital city of Albania) was 66 percent (INSTAT, 2014). This dramatic demographic boom recorded in main regions and cities of the country increased their population density. It affected their urbanization process and impacted relationships among the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers (UNDP, 2002; INSTAT, 2014). The 2011 Census data showed that 49 percent of the newcomers resided in Tirana while 15 percent resided in Durres (INSTAT, 2014). The majority of the newcomers (more than 50 percent) was young (aged 15 – 34 years). The distinct peak was reached by 20-24 age-group. Women were more involved in internal migration and they represented 59 percent of the total internal migrants. Different from men who migrated for employment purposes, the main purpose of internal migration of women was related to family issues. In general, the largest group of internal migrants has a lower secondary education (INSTAT, 2014). Internal Migration and Social Identity in Albania The structure of the Albanian post-socialist society was highly affected by mass ruralurban migration towards main cities (UNDP, 2000; Likaj and Baltaci, 2008; Titili, 2015). This was followed by the change of city values and gradual loss of traditional features of the city life. Socio-economic, educational and cultural differences between existing city population and the newcomers became evident. They were the main cause of tension and poor social cohesion (UNDP, 2000; Ndreka, 2014). The newcomers were not always welcomed by the existing city inhabitants. They faced their resistance to consider them ‘as part of their group’. Local norms and customs they inherited from their place of origin were deeply rooted in the mentality of the newcomers. They practiced them in the new communities where they were settled even though they were not easily ‘digested’ by the existing city inhabitants. Thus, boundaries between the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers were deepened (UNDP, 2002; Titili, 2015). Lack of patience to accommodate social diversity became problematic especially in areas formerly recognized as populated by old city communities (UNDP, 2002; Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 65 �Merita H. Meçe   Likaj and Baltaci, 2008). For instance, in Tirana city, existing inhabitants proudly categorised themselves as ‘Tironsa’ (a dialect word used by those who were born and raised in Tirana city or lived there for a very long time. It means ‘We are from Tirana’) (Bardhoshi, 2011). They identified themselves as part of this group and openly expressed their feeling of belonging to it. Its members attributed positive values to its membership and showed strong attachment to their group. They spoke in Tirana dialect to preserve their Tirana city group identity. The members of this group perceived themselves as being different from the newcomers’ group. According to ‘Tironsat’ group, ‘Tironsit’ were kind and generous people. They respected their neighbours and the rules of the community life. They were very connected to their city and linked its development with their life events. But this group was very disappointed with the newcomers. Its members felt that the newcomers destroyed their cosmos and community life (Bardhoshi, 2011). In his study conducted in 2011 with 1000 participants (500 existing inhabitants and 500 newcomers after 1991 located in the periphery of Tirana), Janaqi (2014) found that 82 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants perceived their culture as being threatened by the culture of the newcomers. According to them, the newcomers used harsh and aggressive vocabulary. They applied the ‘rule of the strongest’ to get what they wanted. They did not apply civilized means of communication (Ribas-Mateos, 2005; Bardhoshi, 2011). In some other cases, the group of the existing city inhabitants viewed the group of the newcomers as rivals. They blamed them for deterioration of their quality of life. This was more evident in both, the labour market and in the share of the benefit of city services and facilities. According to the existing city inhabitants, the newcomers were like ‘proletarians’. They had nothing to lose because they had a low level of education and did not have resources. Thus, they were willing to take up every job and did not negotiate for their salary. This sudden competitive situation fostered the ‘in-group solidarity’ among the members of the existing city inhabitants to help each other. For instance, in Tirana city, in many cases, they approached each other to ask a favour for other group members by saying ‘Nimoje pak kët Tironsin tim’ (a dialect expression used by people born and raised in Tirana or lived there for a long time. It means ‘Help a little bit my Tirana fellow’). However, in the periphery of the main cities, there were cases when group boundaries were translated into a clear division of the territory. On the one side, there were areas characterized by modern patterns of lifestyle, on the other side, there were areas that failed to accommodate diversity (Titili, 2015). The strong sense of rural belonging of the newcomers was expressed in the identification of the new geographical location of their community. For instance, in the main road (heading 66 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   from Tirana to Kamza city), internal migrants from Kukes region had placed an   orientation sign where it was written ‘Kukës – 100 m djathtas’ (it means ‘Kukes is 100 m on the right’). But geographically Kukes is located in the Northern part of Albania about 130 km far from Kamza. During the process of ‘spontaneous regulation of their space’, newcomers developed a dual social identity. On the one hand, they pretended to be residents of suburban environment. Thus, they identified themselves as city inhabitants and negotiated with the host society for their rights and equal treatment. On the other hand, they practiced their patriarchal mentality within the family and kinship (Sinani, 2013). Thus, they insisted on their rural identity and felt more comfortable within their rural social group. In his study conducted in 2011 with 1,000 participants (500 were newcomers and 500 were existing inhabitants from Tirana), Janaqi (2014) found that 93 percent of the newcomers did not feel comfortable to reside in an area surrounded by local inhabitants. But newcomers’ social identity construction was not a smooth process. It was dominated by old norms of gender division of labour and inter-generational conflict. Ndreka (2014) conducted a qualitative study in Spitalla area (Durres city) which is highly affected by internal migration. In total, 400 participants were interviewed (132 males and 268 females). They were internal migrants from Dibra region (located in the North eastern part of Albania) who had migrated in the study area during the last 10 years. She found that female newcomers of this community were not very willing to be involved in community life making group boundaries stronger. Even though they were more deprived in the city than in their village of origin, they followed strict patterns of rural lifestyle. Their primary role was focused on family chores and child upbringing (Ndreka, 2014). Thus, they categorised themselves as rural women and identified themselves as members of this group. In 2009, Çaro, Bailey and van Wissen (2012) conducted 25 in-depth interviews with migrant women from the northern part of the country who resided in four sites of Kamza. They found that their social networks outside their migrant community were poorly developed. According to the respondents, their dialect, tradition and way of living hindered their interactions with the host society. They perceived themselves as being rural and preserved their rural identity despite many years of migration to the city. One of the main reasons for this was that they were part of the clusters which shared strong tradition and the nostalgic feeling about their origin (Çaro, Bailey and van Wissen, 2012). Moreover, in his study, Doçi (2013) mentioned a qualitative research conducted with 800 internal migrants who were based in Breglumasi area (part of Tirana Municipality). From their face-to-face Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 67 �Merita H. Meçe   interviews, it was found out that their community life was under patriarchal norms of male domination. In general, family life outside the community was very limited. Traditional gender division of roles had increased female subordination because of the fear of men not to lose the control over their wives and daughters (Doçi, 2013). Thus, male newcomers developed new mechanisms to strengthen their sense of rural belonging. They categorised themselves as rural people and were strongly attached to their rural identity. Furthermore, inter-generational conflict dominated the process of social identity construction among the newcomers located in the main cities of Albania after 1991. Tensions were observed between the young generation of the newcomers born in the city (or migrated there at a very young age) and the old generation of the newcomers born in the rural areas. While the first group was proud to claim that it was from the city, the second one strongly emphasized that it was from the village. The old generation of internal migrants was happy to stick on its sense of rural belonging. It categorised itself as being originally from the village and attached itself to the group of the rural newcomers. Thus, it insisted to be located in those neighbourhoods of the cities where other rural families from their village of origin were accommodated. But, this situation complicated the daily life of the newcomers’ school children. They had to balance their traditional life at home/neighbourhood with their wish to be like other peers of host society in the school and community. Children reported that they were warned every morning by their parents to be away from other children who did not belong to their region of origin and did not have their customs (Andoni, 2017). In this way, their parents served as gatekeepers of children’s social identity preservation. They wanted to keep group boundaries and transmit them to young generation. But children wanted to cross them, adjust to new city life and bridge with the group of city children. Therefore, they were in a dilemma because, after school hours, they had to go back to their strict family mentality (Andoni, 2017). Even young rural migrants with high expectations from city life were not able to bond in any social group. They tried to interact with young people from the existing city inhabitants group and be part of it. But group boundaries were not always flexible. Living for several years in the periphery of Tirana city, some of them started speaking in the dialect of Tirana. They dressed like Tirana city youngsters and went to night pubs. But when they ‘categorised’ themselves as ‘Tironsa’ and wanted to join ‘Tironsat’ group, its members laughed at them ‘Ky osht Tirons i vjetër që ka 5 vjet m’Tironë’ (it is an expression in Tirana dialect that means ‘This person is an old Tirana citizen who lives here for 5 years’). 68 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   Despite efforts made by children and the youth from the newcomers’ group to   change their social identity and join the city inhabitants group, the other members of the newcomers group positively evaluated their group. The process of social comparison with the group of the existing city inhabitants yielded positive results for both groups. Each of them evaluated their group as having more advantages than the other group. For instance, the group of the newcomers evaluated its members as hardworking persons who tried hard to make their living despite relative deprivation imposed by the local inhabitants. They perceived the members of the other group as being lazy. They valued the ability of their group members to use different coping mechanism to overcome difficulties faced. They appreciated in-group support (Janaqi, 2014). On the other hand, the group of the existing city inhabitants positively evaluated its group in various aspects including: high level of education, tolerance, civic education, politeness, etcetera. Implications of Internal Migration on Prejudice and Stigma Internal migration impacts transformation of self and raises various social consequences. Segmentation of migrants has implications for their social identity. Arbitrary categorization of individuals has been stigmatizing and disempowering (Schimmele and Wu, 2015). Usually internal migrants are perceived as nondominant groups exposed to negative social evaluations of their group, dilemma or threat of their identity (Tajfel, 1978). Both, the intensification of the dynamics of the modern life and its unequal development path have provoked the tendency of negatively valued groups to tend to move into groups with a positive social identity (McLeod, 2008). Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or behaviours towards members of a certain group (Augoustinos and Reynolds, 2001). It is experienced by people who belong to certain categories or groups with negative evaluations (Haas, 2008). Prejudice has been traditionally understood as rigid, bad, unjustified, erroneous and emotional (Augoustinos and Reynolds, 2001). Research shows that ongoing prejudice can produce external attribution for negative outcomes. In general, minority groups have been devalued and prejudiced by the majority groups (Dovidio et al., 2005). In their study on the impact of China’s hukou system on social identity and inequality, Afridi, Li and Ren (2012) found that migrant children were labelled less intelligent and had low academic results. Migrant girls faced dual discrimination caused by discrimination against rural migrants and gender discrimination. They concluded that even though China is a homogenous society, long-term systemic approaches of social exclusion between rural areas and urban areas had played a Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 69 �Merita H. Meçe   powerful role in prejudice and discrimination. This influenced behaviour of migrant children (Afridi, Li and Ren, 2012). Moreover, social stigma is defined as a function of the possession of a particular attribute that conveys a devalued social identity in a particular context (Crocker, Major and Steele, 1998). It is a special kind of relationship between attribute and stereotype (Goffman, 1963) that arises during social interactions of the individuals with a social identity that does not meet normative expectations of the society for the attributes that they should possess (Kurzban and Leary, 2001). These attributes cause negative stigmatization of groups. They are usually associated with powerlessness and minority standing (Padilla and Perez, 2003). Stigmatization is a process that affects both, how individuals perceive themselves and how they feel that the others perceive them (Goffman, 1963). It denigrates others by putting one group in a psychologically superior position (Turner, 1982). Stigmatized groups are very often subject to negative attitudes and negative treatment. Perceptions of discrimination can negatively impact their mental and physical health because they produce high levels of stress (Williams, Spencer and Jackson, 1999). Goffman (1963) distinguished three types of stigma: a) that related to various physical deformities; b) individual characteristics perceived as mental disorder and weak will; c) tribal stigma related to race, religion and nation. Frable (1993) identified two dimensions of stigma respectively, danger and visibility. It was assumed that the higher the visibility of a stigmatized person is, the greater its negative impact on social interaction is. Visibly stigmatized individuals with devalued social identity might be challenged in their daily interactions. Being aware of the negative connotations of their social identity, they might be excluded from interactions while try to minimize their stigma (Padilla and Perez, 2003). Research conducted in 2013 with 868 individuals (mainly internal migrants) from Bathore Administrative Unit of Kamza Municipality in Albania showed that 27.4 percent of the respondents confirmed that they left their home in the northern part of the country to escape conflicts and blood feud consequences (Peço, 2014). But the existing local people in Kamza labelled them ‘Chechens’ or ‘Maloks’ (a pejorative word used for those who come from mountains). In addition, they blamed them as the main cause of high crime rate in the country due to the application of Kanun (Schwander-Sievers, 2008). Not only internal migrants from the northern part of Albania but also internal migrants from the southern part of the country were subject to prejudice and stigma. 70 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Internal Migration and Social Identity Construction: Implications for Prejudice and Stigma in Albanian Post-socialist Society   The existing local inhabitants in both Tirana and Durres main cities stigmatized   newcomers from the southern villages and labelled them ‘Katunars’ (a pejorative word in the dialect of Tirana and Durres regions that implies uncivilized people who come from villages). They complained all the time by saying ‘Na mbyten katunaret’ (‘Village people are suffocating us’). Prejudice about newcomers has been expressed in various ways. In his study conducted in 2011 in Albania with 1,000 participants (500 were existing inhabitants while 500 were new comers after 1991), Janaqi (2014) found that: a) 78.9 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants did not want to educate their children in the schools dominated by children of the families who migrated in their host society after 1991; b) 54.3 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants categorically refused to sell their land to a newcomer; c) 43.3 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants declared that they openly expressed their direct prejudice towards newcomers; d) 85.7 percent of the respondents from the group of the existing inhabitants thought that they were more civilized that newcomers (Janaqi, 2014). Conclusion This paper examined how internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society affected social identity construction and group boundaries along with its implications on prejudice and stigma. Focused on permanent rural-urban migration, it argued that this complex and diverse phenomenon exposed both local people and newcomers in different dilemmas and challenges about their social identity. Based on Social identity Theory, it analysed how group membership assigned social identity by favouring in-group and unfairly discriminating, prejudicing and stigmatizing outgroup. Usually viewed as having a lower social status than that of the local people, newcomers were negatively viewed, unequally treated and imposed to multiple identities. But migration and human mobility are inseparable part of the modern life that goes hand in hand with transformative social processes and ongoing dynamics. Thus, more research is needed to understand both, identity negotiations in the host society (at societal level) and double norms/mechanisms that newcomers apply to ensure ingroup positive social identity. It will be worthy to search how they negotiate within the group to make sure that its values will not be compromised by their inclusion in mainstream society. More longitudinal research is needed to capture various challenges of social identity construction among different age groups and gender. Volume 7 | Issue 2 | 71 �Merita H. Meçe   Finally, at policy making level, it will be very helpful to design more accountable policies that encourage multi-cultural communication, diversity promotion and social identity respect. Prejudice and stigma towards the newcomers does not help social cohesion and the process of social integration. This attitude will not stop or minimize the phenomenon of the internal migration. On the other hand, it is not helpful for both, young and old generations to live in a hostile and fragmented environment. Awareness raising and education programs to promote inclusion and social integration are important to remove barriers among the groups. There is a need to view internal migrants as local agents of development and contributors of local change. This is important not only in short-term but also in long-term in order to achieve a more cohesive society based on mutual respect and peaceful coexistence. Limitations This paper has four main limitations: a) firstly, it is focused on secondary data drawn by research conducted during the period 1991-2017. However, very few studies on internal migration and social identity in Albanian post-socialist society were available for analysis; b) secondly, longitudinal research on impact of internal migration on social identity construction in Albania lacks. Thus, data collected by some crosssectional studies have been used. 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Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Significant increase of internal migration in Albanian post-socialist society affected people’s connections and their identity. New social phenomena were differently perceived by the existing city inhabitants and the newcomers. On the one hand, the concept of social identity struggled between inclusionary/exclusionary boundaries; on the other hand, prejudice and stigma triggered from this complex reality. This paper applies Social Identity Theory to examine how internal migration affects social identity and its implications on prejudice and stigma in Albanian post-socialist society. This qualitative study is based on desk research and secondary data drawn by national statistics and cross-sectional research conducted in Albania during the period 1991-2017. It concludes that more longitudinal studies should be conducted to understand the dynamics of social identity construction within the context of internal migration in Albania. This is necessary to promote a more inclusive society in order to accommodate social diversity and view internal migrants as local agents of development rather than objects of prejudice and stigma. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed DOI Digital object identifier doi:"10.14706/JECOSS17724 " Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 1986-8499, H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6e1a8eb3f8142c47b8c93fa557556fa7.pdf 4936227a95f4372494d7674ad0f0768c PDF Text Text Measuring Financial Inclusion in Western Balkan Countries – A Comparative Survey Meldina Kokorović Jukan Faculty of Economics, University of Tuzla Univerzitetska 8, 75000 Tuzla, BiH Phone: +387 35 320 820 Fax: +387 35 320 821 E-mail: meldina.kokorovic@untz.ba Amra Babajić Faculty of Economics, University of Tuzla Univerzitetska 8, 75000 Tuzla, BiH Phone: +387 35 320 820 Fax: +387 35 320 821 E-mail: amra.babajic@untz.ba Amra Softić Faculty of Economics, University of Tuzla/ Indirect Taxation Authority of BiH, BiH E-mail: amrasoftic@outlook.com Abstract: According to the World Bank, more than one quarter of worlds’ population is without a bank account and is excluded from financial system. Improving financial inclusion and building inclusive financial systems is in agenda of all policy makers in both developed and developing countries aiming to include the poorest part of the population in to the financial system. Financial inclusion is becoming more important topic in academic world, but also among regulators and policy makers. In order to emphasize the importance of financial inclusion, this paper investigates the extent of financial inclusion among Western Balkan countries and in comparison to other developing regions around the world. Using data from the World Banks’ Global Findex data base, this paper provides comparison of the level of financial inclusion in Western Balkans counties, focusing on the importance of government role in increasing financial inclusion. Research shows similar level of financial inclusion within Western Balkan countries measured by the following indicators of financial inclusion: percentage of population having formal account at a financial institution, percentage of population saving at financial institution and percentage of population borrowing at financial institution. Furthermore, the research shows that the level of financial inclusion in Western Balkan countries is slightly above the levels in other developing regions around the world, but still Western Balkan countries lack national financial inclusion strategies which will help increase their levels of financial inclusion to the level of more developed countries. Keywords: financial inclusion, Western Balkan countries, developing regions, national financial inclusion strategies, policy makers 43 �Introductory Considerations The Center for Financial Inclusion (CFI) defines full financial inclusion as a state in which everyone who can use financial services/products has access to a wide range of quality financial services at affordable prices, with convenience, dignity, and consumer protections, delivered by a range of providers in a stable, competitive market to financially capable clients. Furthermore, according to the World Bank, financial inclusion means that individuals and businesses have access to useful and affordable financial products and services that meet their needs – transactions, payments, savings, credit and insurance – delivered in a responsible and sustainable way.3 The term financial inclusion needs to be interpreted in a relative dimension. Depending on the stage of development, the degree of financial inclusion differs among countries. For example, in a developed country non-payment of utility bills through banks may be considered as a case of financial exclusion. However, the same may not (and need not) be considered as financial exclusion in an underdeveloped nation as the financial system is not yet developed to provide sophisticated services. Hence, while making any cross country comparisons due care needs to be taken (Mehrotra et. al., 2009:14). Improving access and building inclusive financial systems is a goal that is relevant to economies at all levels of development (World Bank, 2008:21) aiming to include the poorest part of the population in the financial streams. It is empirically proven that financial inclusion correlates with high levels of economic development in that country and vice-versa (Swamy, 2014). Furthermore, financial inclusion is becoming the main priority in developing countries since the research shows that increase in financial inclusion of individuals plays an important role in reduction of poverty and achieving inclusive economic growth. Greater access to financial services for both individuals and firms may help reduce income inequality and accelerate economic growth. Contrary to inclusion there is financial exclusion, which is often defined in the context of a larger issue – social exclusion. Financial exclusion is indeed a reflection of social exclusion, as countries having low GDP per capita, relatively higher levels of income inequality, low rates of literacy, low urbanisation and poor connectivity seem to be less financially inclusive (Sarma, Pais, 2008:23). This relationship can also be viewed from the other side: The reduction of financial exclusion is a priority for the government because it can lead to social exclusion (Mitton, 2008). As Western Balkan countries are developing part of the world, financial inclusion can be perceived as on the important aspects and contributors to economic development. Therefore, this 3 http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialinclusion/overview 44 �paper complements to existing literature on financial inclusion measurement, by providing a comparative analysis of financial inclusion in the countries of this region, focusing on the level of financial inclusion and on the government role in increasing financial inclusion. The second part of the paper summarizes previous researches on financial inclusion globally. In the third part of the paper the methodology of the research was introduced, while in the fourth part of the paper the comparative analysis of financial inclusion in Western Balkan countries is presented. Previous Research Financial literacy is a rather new topic among academics. Its’ importance increased in the last decade as a result of the global financial crisis. Academic research is mainly focused on measurements of financial inclusion, in other words, on creating integrative measures of financial literacy that can be both internationally comparable and that can capture the specifics of particular national economy that is the subject of the research. There are two approaches to investigate financial inclusion based on the data collection method. Different databases offer either supply side or demand side data. Supply-side studies and databases (such as CGAP Financial Access, IMF Financial Access Survey or Microfinance Information eXchange) compile data from various types of (formal and non-formal) financial institutions aiming to calculate and understand their overall outreach and performance in providing financial services to individuals in one country, region and globally. Until recently, the measurement of financial inclusion around the world has focused on usage and access to the formal financial services by using supply-side aggregate data, meaning that data were collected directly from financial institutions. These are the so-called density indicators, such as the number of bank branches or automatic teller machines (ATMs) per capita. Data of this type have been compiled by surveying financial service providers (e.g. Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Martínez Pería 2007; Honohan 2008; Kendall, Mylenko, and Ponce 2010; Chakravarty and Pal 2010; Sarma and Mandira (2012); Amidžić et. al. 2014, etc.). Demand-side (provider side) information on financial inclusion is now collected as part of the IMF’s Financial Access Survey, which has annual data for 187 jurisdictions from 2001 up to date.4 While these indicators have made it possible to obtain basic provider-side information on the use of financial services, relatively little has been known until recently about the global reach of the financial sector, that is, the extent of financial inclusion and the degree to which the poor, women, and other population segments are excluded from formal financial systems (World Bank 2014:39). 4 More on IMFs Financial Access Survey data can be obtained from the following website: http://data.imf.org/?sk=E5DCAB7E-A5CA-4892-A6EA-598B5463A34C 45 �World Banks' Global Findex database, released in 2011, helps to overcome the problem of better understanding the underlying reasons of financial exclusion among different population groups. According to Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper (2012), ”The Global Findex fills a major gap in the financial inclusion data landscape and is the first public database on demand-side indicators that consistently measures individuals’ usage of financial products across countries and over time. Covering a range of topics, the Global Findex can be used to track global financial inclusion policies and facilitate a deeper and more nuanced understanding of how adults around the world save, borrow, and make payments.“ Most of recent research on financial inclusion levels around the world relies on the data from Global Findex database. Most of the research provides analysis of several usage and barriers related indicators on countries and regional levels (Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper, 2013, Demirguc-Kunt et al., 2015). Some of the research addresses gender, age, and income inequalities in financial inclusion (e.g. Aterido, Beck, and Iacovone 2011; Demirguc-Kunt, Klapper and Singer 2013), but on the regional level. Still there is no more detailed research on individual level. Research Methodology In this research, the status of financial inclusion among Western Balkan countries was assessed using secondary data from World Bank Global Findex Database (2014) through descriptive statistics. The Global Findex indicators measure two dimension of financial inclusion: access to financial services and the use of financial services. As the Global Findex indicators cover very broad area of topics of individuals’ financial behaviour, we focus on the following indicators that we believe are particularly important to provide better insight into overall financial inclusion of individuals among Western Balkan countries: - formal account – holding an account (savings or checking) at a financial institution - formal savings – savings at financial institution - formal borrowing – loan at financial institution Additionally, a chi-square test of independence was performed to examine whether there are statistically significant differences in financial inclusion levels among individuals in respect to gender, education level and income level. Furthermore, we examine barriers to financial inclusion through understanding the reasons why individuals do not have an account at financial institutions. The indicators in the Global Financial Inclusion (Global Findex) database are drawn from survey data covering almost 150,000 people in more than 140 economies—representing more 46 �than 97% of the world’s population. The survey was carried out over the 2014 calendar year by Gallup, Inc. as part of its Gallup World Poll, which since 2005 has continually conducted surveys of approximately 1,000 people in each of more than 160 economies and in over 140 languages, using randomly selected, nationally representative samples. The target population is the entire civilian, non-institutionalized population aged 15 and above. 5 Empirical Evidences on Financial Inculusion in Western Balkans Formal account penetration The most common indicator of financial inclusion is formal account penetration which measures the percentage of population having (owning) a formal account at financial institution.6 Having an account at formal financial sector serves as an entry point into the formal financial sector and opening/having a bank account is considered as the starting point to have relationship with a bank (Bapat, 2010; Demirguc-Kunt and Klapper, 2013). According to the Global Findex database 2014, it can be clearly observed that there is a wide difference in account penetration among Western Balkan countries (see Figure 1). The highest levels of formal account penetration can be observed in Croatia (87,50%) and Serbia (83,70%), while the lowest level of account penetration is in Albania (38,24%). Figure 1 Formal Account Penetration across Western Balkan countries Croatia 87.50% Serbia 83.70% Maceodnia 79.40% Montenegro 64.90% Bosnia and Herzegovina 54.05% Kosovo 51.65% Albania 38.24% 0% 20% 40% 5 60% 80% 100% More on Global Findex methodology and questionnaire can be obtained from the following web-site: http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/globalfindex/methodology 6 Global Findex data set captures formal account penetration through a mobile money providers as well, but as such service is not provided in Western Balkan countries, this data were ommited form analysis. 47 �Additionally, a chi-square test of independence shows that there are significant differences in formal account penetration in respect to gender, education and household income. Results of a chi-square test are reported in the following table. Table 1: Results of chi-square test of independence for formal account penetration Country Gender Education level Income level  (1, N=999) =10,829 p=0,001 2  (1, N=1001) =16,055 p=0,000 2  (1, N=1000) =1,317 p=0,251 2  (1, N=1001) = 46,718 p=0,000 2  (1, N=1000) = 1,735 p=0,188 2  (1, N=1000) = 19,803 p=0,000 2  (1, N=1000) = 0,134 p=0,714  (2, N=999)=144,040 p=0,001 2  (3, N=1001)=71,618 p=0,000 (*) 2  (4, N=1000)=107,295 p=0,001 (*) 2  (4, N=1001) = 89,823 p=0,000 (*) 2  (3, N=1000) = 90,466 p=0,000 (*) 2  (4, N=1000)= 62,186 p=0,000 (*) 2  (3, N=1000)=18,385 p=0,000 (*)  (4, N=999)=82,533 p=0,001 2  (4, N=1001)=36,098 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1000)=23,549 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1001)= 34,801 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1000)= 31,629 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1000)= 43,030 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1000)=11,239 p=0,024 2 Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo Montenegro Macedonia Serbia 2 2 At significance level 0,05 *at least 2 cells have expected count less then 5 Based on chi-square test of independence, it can be concluded that there is a significant association between having account at formal institution and gender in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Macedonia, where is it is more likely that males will have an account than females (see table 1). Also, a significant association exists between having a bank account and income level (except in Serbia). Savings The second indicator of financial inclusion we focus on is saving. Savings are an essential ingredient for the financial inclusion of low-income populations, allowing households to manage short-term liquidity safely and conveniently, as well as to accumulate assets for future needs.7 Savings help in consumption smoothening during the economic shocks, especially for individuals with low-level income. 7 https://www.fomin.org/Portals/0/remesas/BROCHURE_Remesas_y_Ahorros_ingl%C3%A9s.pdf 48 �Survey data shows variation in savings among Western Balkan countries. The highest level of savings can be observed in Croatia where more than 50% of population have savings, while the lowest level of savings is observed in Bosnia and Herzegovina (26,97%). Figure 2: Participation in Formal Saving across Western Balkan countries Croatia 52.10% Maceodnia 40.70% Kosovo 37.96% Albania 37.44% Montenegro 30.70% Serbia 30.30% Bosnia and Herzegovina 26.97% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% A chi-square test of independence shows that there are significant differences in savings in respect to household income (see Table 2). Table 2: Results of chi-square test of independence for savings Country Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo Montenegro Macedonia Serbia Gender Education level Income level  (1, N=999) =3,910 p=0,048 2  (1, N=1001) =1,096 p=0,295 2  (1, N=1000) =6,043 p=0,014 2  (1, N=1001) = 16,845 p=0,000 2  (1, N=1000) = 0,193 p=0,660 2  (1, N=1000) = 5,740 p=0,170 2  (1, N=1000) = 1,099 p=0,295  (2, N=999)=50,801 p=0,000 2  (3, N=1001)=9,073 p=0,028 (*) 2  (4, N=1000)=44,852 p=0,000 (*) 2  (4, N=1001) = 67,588 p=0,000 (*) 2  (3, N=1000) = 17,525 p=0,001 (*) 2  (4, N=1000)= 39,385 p=0,000 (*) 2  (3, N=1000)=18,385 p=0,000 (*)  (4, N=999)=56,285 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1001)=25,925 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1000)=6,577 p=0,0160 2  (4, N=1001)= 17,095 p=0,002 2  (4, N=1000)= 63,245 p=0,000 2  (4, N=1000)= 18,650 p=0,001 2  (4, N=1000)=44,791 p=0,000 2 2 2 At significance level 0,05 *at least 2 cells have expected count less then 5 Based on chi-square test of independence, it can be concluded that there is a significant association between participation in formal savings and income level (except in Croatia), where 49 �individuals with higher income level participate in formal savings more than individuals with lower income level. Also, there is no significant association between participation in formal savings and gender (except in Kosovo) and education level. Borrowing Analysis of participation in borrowing in Western Balkan countries showed that the highest level of borrowings is in Croatia, where more than 58% of population have loan at financial institution, while the lowest level of borrowing (25,37%) is observed in Bosnia and Herzegovina (see Figure 3). Figure3: Participation in Borrowing across Western Balkan countries Croatia 58.20% Albania 54.25% Montenegro 50.80% Maceodnia 39.30% Kosovo 36.66% Serbia 32.50% Bosnia and Herzegovina 25.37% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% A chi-square test of independence shows that there are no significant differences in borrowings in respect to gender, education level and household income (see Table 3). The only exception is Albania, where there is a significant association between participation in borrowing and income level. Table 3: Results of chi-square test of independence for borrowing Country Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Kosovo Montenegro Macedonia Serbia Gender Education level Income level  (1, N=999) =1,874 p=0,171 2 (1, N=1001) =1,157 p=0,282 2 (1, N=1000) =1,538 p=0,215 2 (1, N=1001) = 5,695 p=0,017 2 (1, N=1000) = 1,512 p=0,219 2 (1, N=1000) = 19,803 p=0,192 2 (1, N=1000) = 0,270 p=0,604  (2, N=999)=4,433 p=0,106 2(3, N=1001)=25,428 p=0,000 (*) 2(4, N=1000)=53,966 p=0,001 (*) 2(4, N=1001) = 15,786 p=0,003 (*) 2(3, N=1000) = 13,610 p=0,000 (*) 2(4, N=1000)= 62,186 p=0,003 (*) 2(3, N=1000)=3,735 p=0,292 (*)  (4, N=999)=57,535 p=0,000 2(4, N=1001)=0,413 p=0,981 2(4, N=1000)=0,593 p=0,964 2(4, N=1001)= 12,651 p=0,013 2(4, N=1000)= 31,629 p=0,000 2(4, N=1000)= 4,891 p=0,299 2(4, N=1000)=1,942 p=0,746 2 2 At significance level 0,05 *at least 2 cells have expected count less then 5 50 2 �Differences in financial inclusion levels among income quintiles We also analysed basic indicators of financial inclusion among poorest 40 percent and richest 60 percent within WB economies (see Figures 4 and 5). Figure 4 Basic indicators on financial inclusion among poorest 40 percent within economies 28.55% 18.81% 30.16% 26.50% 16.61% 34.84% 27.58% 26.04% 31.05% 25.73% 29.21% 36.24% 34.17% 36.47% 36.77% 26.06% 21.11% 31.10% 21.73% 22.46% 43.36% Serbia Montenegro Maceodnia Kosovo Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina Albania 0% 20% Formal Account Penetration 40% 60% Savings 80% 100% Borrowing The poorest 40 percent have overall lower levels of financial inclusion in comparison to 60 richest. Among three indicators we analysed, the poorest mainly use borrowing, while savings is the less used indicator (except in Kosovo, Croatia and Albania). Figure 5 Basic indicators on financial inclusion among richest 60 percent within economies 72.81% 75.61% 65.21% Average 71.44% 81.18% 69.84% Serbia 73.50% 83.39% 65.16% Montenegro Maceodnia 72.42% 73.95% 68.95% Kosovo 74.27% 70.79% 63.76% Croatia 65.83% 63.53% 63.23% 73.94% 78.89% 68.89% Bosnia and Herzegovina Albania 56.64% 0% 20% 40% Formal Account Penetration 51 Savings 60% 78.27% 77.53% 80% Borrowing 100% �The richest 60 percent mostly use savings and current account and they are less oriented to lending at financial institution. Overview of financial inclusion indicators in WB region in comparison to other developing regions and developed countries is given in Table 4. Table 4 Financial inclusion indicators by region Region Eastern Asia South Asia Central Asia Latin America SubSaharan Africa The Western Balkans* High income countries Formal account 69.00% 46.40% 51.40% 51.40% 34.20% 65.80% 94.00% Formal savings 36.50% 12.80% 8.40% 13.50% 15.90% 11.31% 51.60% Formal borrowing 11.00% 6.40% 12.40% 11.30% 6.30% 14.04% 18.40% Debit cards 42.90% 18.00% 36.90% 40.40% 17.90% 45.06% 79.70% Mobile account usage 0.40% 2.60% 0.30% 1.70% 11.50% N/A N/A * Data for the Western Balkans calculated as an average of particular indicator for the Western Balkan countries (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia, Montenegro, FYR Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo, and Greece) Source: Global Findex database and authors’ calculations We can see that the Western Balkans, in average, are far behind developed countries when it comes to financial inclusion measured by the possession of formal account, formal savings, formal borrowing and holding a debit card. On the other side, the level of financial inclusion in Western Balkan countries is mainly slightly above the levels in other developing regions around the world. Barriers to financial inclusion We also conducted analysis of barriers to financial inclusion in Western Balkan countries (see Figure 6). 52 �Figure 6 Reasons of poor financial inclusion in WB countries 60.00% 50.00% 53.21% 40.97% 40.00% 30.00% 26.26% 25.47% 20.00% 13.57% 13.23% 12.47% 12.12% 10.00% 3.84% 0.00% Among the reasons why individuals do not have an account at financial institutions the most important are the lack of money and no need for financial services. Conclusions and Recommendations For many governments the importance of financial inclusion is well known. Financial inclusion is on the agenda of both developed and developing countries. Around 60 countries in the world own and implement financial inclusion strategies. Great Britain is among the first countries to make progress in this field by publishing a financial inclusion strategy, within the Report for the Promotion of Financial Inclusion in 2004. When it comes to Western Balkan countries, none of them has strategy for financial inclusion, nor is financial inclusion included as goal in any other strategy. Bosnia and Herzegovina, for example, partly addresses this topic in the framework of the 2010 social inclusion strategy proposal. Montenegro has strategies to improve the situation of Roma and Egyptians in Montenegro 2012-2016, inclusive education strategy and national employment strategy; Croatia has a strategy to combat poverty and social exclusion, education strategy, employment strategy, etc. In Serbia a lot of research and studies on financial inclusion is being conducted. However, no country has a national strategy for financial inclusion. Improvement of financial inclusion requires national and regional strategies, whose success requires government support as well as involvement of the private and financial sector that will be interested only if the strategy corresponds to the market. Government should create and put into effect active measures in the context of the development of electronic and mobile banking. With that aim, close cooperation between the government and commercial banks must exist, in terms of limiting overpricing of banking products and services. 53 �That way the number of ATMs and applicants for mobile and electronic banking could be increased. Beside with commercial banks, government must collaborate with private associations to exchange expertise, knowledge and information. Also, there are a lot of possibilities for creating new and improvement of the existing regulation which treat this issue. Financial literacy and financial information must be actively promoted among individuals through formal and informal financial education programs. References Alliance for Financial Inclusion. (2010). Financial Inclusion Measurement for Regulators: Survey Design and Implementation. Policy paper, Data Working Group, AFI, Bangkok. [Online]. Available from: http://www.afiglobal.org/sites/default/files/afi_policypaper_datameasurement_en.pdf , [Accessed: 20 December 2016] Alliance for Financial Inclusion. (2011). Measuring Financial Inclusion: Core Set of Financial Inclusion Indicators. Data Working Group, AFI, Bangkok. [Online]. Available from: http://www.afi-global.org/sites/default/files/publications/fidwg-core-set-measuring-fi.pdf, [Accessed: 20 December 2016] Amidzic, G., Massara, A. &Mialou, A. (2014).Assessing Countries' Financial Inclusion - A New Composite Index. IMF Working Paper, WP=14=36., [Online]. Available from:https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2014/wp1436.pdf[Accessed: 12 Januar 2017] Beck, T., Demirguc-Kunt, A. &Peria. M.S.M. (2007). Reaching Out: Access to and Use of Banking Services across Countries. Journal of Financial Economics 85 (1), pp. 234–66. Chakravarty, S. & Pal, P. (2010).Measuring Financial Inclusion: An Axiomatic Approach. Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Working Paper no. WP 2010=003. [Online]. Available from: http://www.igidr.ac.in/pdf/publication/WP-2010-003.pdf, [Accessed: 12 January 2017] Demirguc-Kunt, A., &Klapper, L.( 2012).Measuring Financial Inclusion: The GlobalFindex.Policy Research Working Paper 6025, World Bank, Washington, D.C. Demirg-Kunt, A. &Klapper, L. (2013).Measuring Financial inclusion: Explaining Variation in Use of Financial Services across Countries and within Countries. Brookings papers on Economic Activity, Spring Demirguc-Kunt, A., Klapper, L. & Singer, D. (2013). Financial inclusion and legal discrimination against women: evidence from developing countries. Policy Research working paper ; no. WPS 6416. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-6416, [Accessed: 12 January 2017] Demirguc-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Singer, D. & Van Oudheusden, P. (2015). The Global Findex Database 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion around the World. Policy Research Working Paper 7255, World Bank, Washington, DC. 54 �Honohan, P.( 2008). Cross-Country Variation in Household Access to Financial Services, Journal of Banking & Finance, Elsevier, vol. 32(11), pp. 2493-2500 Kendall, J., Mylenko, N. & Ponce., A. (2010).Measuring Financial Access around the World.Policy Research Working Paper 5253, World Bank, Washington, DC. Ledgerwood, J. (2013). Measuring Financial Inclusion and Assessing Impact, in Ledgerwood, J., Earne, J., & Nelson, C. (eds) (2013) The New Microfinance Handbook: A Financial Market System Perspective, Washington D.C.: World Bank, pp. 113-146. Mandira S., Pais J. (2008). Financial Inclusion and Development: A Cross Country Analysis, [Online]. Available from: http://icrier.org/pdf/Mandira%20Sarma-Paper.pdf [Accessed: 12 April 2017] Mehrotra N., Puhazhendhi V., Nair G. &Sahoo, B.B. (2009).Financial Inclusion - An Overview.Department of Economic Analysis and Research, National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Occasional Paper 48, Mumbai, [Online]. Available from:https://www.nabard.org/pdf/OccasionalPapersonFinancialInclusion_080509.pdf , [Accessed: 12 January 2017] Mitton L. (2008). Financial inclusion in the UK: Review of policy and practice, Joseph Rowntree Foundation [Online]. Available from: https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/2234.pdf, [Accessed: 15 April 2017] Sarma, Mandira, (2012). Index of Financial Inclusion A measure of financial sector inclusiveness, Berlin Working Papers on Money, Finance, Trade and Development, Working Paper no. 07=2012. Swamy, V. (2014).Financial inclusion, gender dimension and economic impact on poor households. World Development, 56, 1-15 World Bank. (2008). Finance for All? Policies and Pitfalls in Expanding Access. Washington D.C.: World Bank World Bank. (2014). Global Financial Development Report 2014: Financial Inclusion. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-9985-9. License: CreativeCommons Attribution CC BY 3.0 Other Internet sources: http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/financialinclusion/overview http://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/globalfindex/methodology http://www.centerforfinancialinclusion.org/about/who-we-are/our-definition-of-financialinclusion http://data.imf.org/?sk=E5DCAB7E-A5CA-4892-A6EA-598B5463A34C 55 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3652 Title A name given to the resource Measuring Financial Inclusion in Western Balkan Countries – A Comparative Survey (doi: 10.14706/icesos1715) Author Author Kokorovic Jukan, Meldina Babajic, Amra Softic, Amra Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: According to the World Bank, more than one quarter of worlds’ population is without a bank account and is excluded from financial system. Improving financial inclusion and building inclusive financial systems is in agenda of all policy makers in both developed and developing countries aiming to include the poorest part of the population in to the financial system. Financial inclusion is becoming more important topic in academic world, but also among regulators and policy makers. In order to emphasize the importance of financial inclusion, this paper investigates the extent of financial inclusion among Western Balkan countries and in comparison to other developing regions around the world. Using data from the World Banks’ Global Findex data base, this paper provides comparison of the level of financial inclusion in Western Balkans counties, focusing on the importance of government role in increasing financial inclusion. Research shows similar level of financial inclusion within Western Balkan countries measured by the following indicators of financial inclusion: percentage of population having formal account at a financial institution, percentage of population saving at financial institution and percentage of population borrowing at financial institution. Furthermore, the research shows that the level of financial inclusion in Western Balkan countries is slightly above the levels in other developing regions around the world, but still Western Balkan countries lack national financial inclusion strategies which will help increase their levels of financial inclusion to the level of more developed countries. Keywords: financial inclusion, Western Balkan countries, developing regions, national financial inclusion strategies, policy makers Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/88526a8264f3ef9f370b526401cc5ccf.pdf f4c504bbd89d475ced952eff3f74ee50 PDF Text Text Measuring Quality of Services at HEI: Case of Private University in BiH Amina Kahriman International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina amina-kahriman96@hotmail.com Ajdin Mekić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina ajdin_mekic@hotmail.com Kemal Đug International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina k.djug9@gmail.com Ensar Mekić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina ensar.mekic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The main purpose of this study is to investigate quality level of higher education institution's (HEI) services through students' perceptions, and to conduct cross years’ comparative analysis. Main instrument for this study is a survey with several dimensions dealing with different aspects of higher education: quality in general, quality of academic staff, quality of administrative staff, quality of campus, quality of study programs, quality of services, personal development support, education facilities and cafeteria. Software used in the study is Microsoft Excel. In total, 440 responses were collected which represents almost 50% of population. Cross years comparative analysis indicated tremendous increase in all indicators after institution has implemented HEA standards and went through successful accreditation process. Recommendations for corrective/preventive measures will be given wherever necessary. Results of the analysis show that students's rating of university services on the level of university have mean of 5,1 which indicates that students are slightly satisfied with the services of university overall. Keywords: HEI, university, quality, comparative analysis 173 �1 Introduction Research on students’ satisfaction with the service quality at higher education institutions in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) was not famous topic among researchers. However, there are few studies dealing exactly with this issue. Mekić & Goksu (2014) investigated how ISO 9001:2008 and standards for accreditation contribute to overall quality of private higher education institutions in the country. Rastoder, Nurović, Smajić, & Mekić (2015) provided insights into perceptions of students towards quality of services at private higher education institution in BiH. Considering very few studies dealing with this issue in BiH, there is a need to provide more empirical evidence and more scientific research on quality management in higher education institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Accordingly, this study is important since it serves this mission of filling gap in literature. On the other hand, considering great criticism in academic community on account of quality standards in higher education, this type of studies contributes to practitioners engaged in quality management processes in the country, because they represent strong support to quality standards as best way to satisfy customers’ needs and demands. Mainly, for purpose of statistical analysis, descriptive statistics will be used. Quality indicators will be compared on the timeline basis, and significant conclusions will be provided, as well as recommendations for improvement. The contribution of this work is threefold. It provides theoretical contribution since it satisfies gap in the literature. This study will enable practitioners having more confidence in quality standards application in higher education, and it will provide practical recommendations for improvement to higher education institution which is in case. Finally, as higher education directly affects society, by improving theory and practice of higher education, social development will come along. 2 Literature Review Variety of sources including books, journal articles, conference proceedings, reports, official web pages have been used while preparing this study. Many different definitions of quality are best evidence that it really is a slippery concept as Naomi Pfeffer and Anna Coote (1991) characterized it. Infact, they even provided several reasons to prove this statement. First one is fact that quality serves different purposes and its meaning changes according to interests that are driving it. Second reason provided by Pfeffer and Coote (1991) is fact that people perceive and experience quality in different ways, and they have different needs and expectations towards it. Third reason is related to outcome of the process of quality assurance which can have infinite number of variables depending on the context. 174 �Accordingly, when it comes to definition of quality, authors concluded that it refers to something we all unquestioningly favor (Pfeffer & Coote, 1991). Sallis (2005) mentioned that word quality comes from the Latin quails meaning what kind of. While explaining quality, he stated that it is an ideal with which there can be no compromise. Quality things are perfect, valuable, with no expense spared and convey prestige to their owners. Author also stated that quality is synonymous with high quality or top quality (Sallis, 2005). Definitions of quality from various perspectives have been provided by Koslowski (2006). His definitions were reviewed and summarized into one comprehensive definition by Mekić & Goksu (2014) who concluded that quality in HEI is increase in learning as one of important objectives of HEI based on satisfying costumers' requirements, realized as consequence of academic and administrative staff's expertise which results in high ranking levels of HEI, gaining reputation and becoming perceived as valuable institution. The University which is subject of case study in this article is located in Bosnia and Herzegovina. With aim to provide highest possible opportunities for its students, institution from the very beginning showed its loyalty to following world standards, and it implemented ISO 9001:2008 and started with implementation of standards for accreditation required by HEA. In year 2014, it went through accreditation process successfully. Students involvement in decision making processes and all other processes is high in this higher education institution. There are nine indicators in hands of students to follow: 1. Quality in general 2. Quality of Academic Staff 3. Quality of Administrative Staff 4. Quality of campus 5. Quality of Services 6. Study Programs 7. Personal Development 8. Education facilities 9. Cafeteria This means that students are distributing a survey, collecting results, coding them, analyzing them, preparing report and presenting report to Senate with recommendations. It is important to have in mind that this higher education institution carefully implements both ISO 9001 as well as European Standards and Guidelines (which are implemented through adjusted version “Criteria for Institutional Accreditation published by Agency for Development of Higher Education and Quality Assurance (HEA). It is important to have in mind that institution in case had been accredited in 2014, and that all indicators of students’ satisfaction will be compared before and after this point. However, speaking of two mentioned standards, it is important to say that they are fully compatible standards. The best, and very fresh evidence of 175 �this statement is available in comparative analysis conducted by team of authors in 2017. In fact, Bajramović, Mekić, & Muhamedbegović (2017) concluded that implementation of these two standards is realistic and recommended. In addition, they commented that appropriate implementation of both standards can be good way to achieve excellence in higher education. 3 Methodology The survey was the main instrument of data collection and it has been divided into ten major sections. The first section contains questions about personal profiles of the respondents including gender, department of studying, fees, current level of study, country from were a student is coming. The second section contains questions about quality in general and the third section is based on questions about quality of academic staff. The fourth section contains questions about quality of administrative staff, while questions in fifth section are based on campus of university. In sixth section, questions are regarded to services at university and in seventh section they are about study programs that are offered at university. The eight section contains question about personal development and the ninth section is based on questions about education facilities. The tenth section contains questions regarding to cafeteria at university. Survey has been distributed to students of all three cycles of study and all departmets of higher education institution. In total 440 responses were collected which is enough to generalize data in the level of higher education institution. More accurately said, the instrument to collect data has been based on nine variables, and all of them are mentioned as important aspects of quality in higher education in ESG (2005) standards as well as HEA standards. The measurement instrument used is a seven-point Likert scales is representing a range of attitudes from 1 – strongly disagree to 7 – strongly agree used to measure service quality, representing a range of attitudes from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7) to measure students’ satisfaction. The meaning of following numbers is as follows: 1 – Strongly Disagree; 2 – Disagree; 3 – Slightly Disagree; 4 – Neither Agree nor Disagree; 5 – Slightly Agree; 6 – Agree; 7 – Strongly Agree 176 �4. Results 4.1 Demographics In this part of survey, respondents were asked about their faculty, department, current level of study, year of study, highest qualification planned for future, yearly fees for education in BAM, high school they graduated from, gender, age group, where they were from, circumstances in financing their education, and whether they have scholarship. The survey was administered to 227 males and 212 females. When it comes to Faculty, 157 surveys were collected from Faculty of Economics, 212 surveys from Faculty of Engineering, 71 surveys from Faculty of Education. Respondents included those with Bachelor degree, Master degree, PhD, out of which most had a Bachelor degree. Table 1 – Number of respondents from Faculties Faculty # of respondents Faculty of Economics 157 Faculty of Engineering 212 Faculty of Education 71 Total number 440 4.2 Quality of services on the level of University In this section responses of students from all faculties and results were combined to evaluate the satisfaction with services on the level of University. Table 2 – Quality in General Variables and Questions 5,01 Std. Deviation 1,47 4,98 1,34 4,88 1,42 5,20 1,62 Mean Quality in General (QG) How do you rate the quality of the institution's services in general? How do you describe your feelings towards the institution's services in general? How likely are you to recommend the institution to others? With this variable students' satisfaction with quality in general was evaluated. The mean value of this variable is 5,01 which means that students slightly agree with offered statements, and they are slightly satisfied with general quality of International Burh University. The lowest mean value is 4,88 and it is related to question “How do you describe your feelings towards the institution's services in general?“ but still it is within boundaries of „slightly agree“. The highest 177 �mean value is 5,20 which relates to the question “How likely are you to recommend the institution to others?“. This tells us that students agree the most with the statement that they would recommend International Burch University. Table 3 – Quality of Academic Staff Variables and Questions Mean Quality of Academic Staff (QAS) Academic staff have the knowledge to answer my questions relating to the course? Academic staff deal with me in a caring and courteous manner? 5,22 Std. Deviation 1,46 5,25 1,47 5,22 1,50 Academic staff are never too busy to respond to my request for assistance? 5,13 1,57 When I have a problem, academic staff show a sincere interest in solving it? 5,22 1,47 Academic staff show positive attitude towards students? Academic staff communicate well in the classroom? 5,41 5,29 1,42 1,40 Academic staff allocate sufficient and convenient time for consultations? 5,23 1,31 Academic staff provide feedback about my progress? 4,89 1,53 Academic staff are highly educated and experienced in their respective field? 5,31 1,45 The purpose of this variable is to evaluate students' satisfaction with the academic staff at International Burch University. The mean value of this variable is 5,22 which indicates that students are slightly satisfied with the academic in this institution. The lowest mean value is 4,89 and it is related to the question “Academic staff provide feedback about my progress?“ but still it belongs to the region of slight satisfaction. The highest mean value, which is 5,41, is related to the question “Academic staff show positive attitude towards students?“ which tells us that students are satisfied the most with academic staff attitude towards them. Table 4 – Quality of Administrative Staff Variables and Questions Mean Quality of Administrative Staff (QAS) 5,16 Std. Deviation 1,69 When I have problem, administrative staff show a sincere interest in solving it? 5,00 1,58 Administrative staff provide caring and individual attention? 5,00 1,50 Administrative staff are never too busy to respond to a request for assistance? 4,94 1,51 Administrative offices keep accurate and retrievable records? 5,06 1,47 178 �When the staff promise to do something by a certain time, they do so? 5,05 1,57 The opening hours of administrative offices are personally convenient for me? 5,21 2,87 Administrative staff show positive work attitude towards the students? 5,31 1,43 Administrative staff communicate well with students? 5,37 1,46 Administrative staff have good knowledge pf the system/procedures? 5,33 1,45 Students are treated equally and with respect by the staff? 5,18 1,61 The staff respect my confidentiality when I disclosed information to them? 5,25 1,55 This variable represents the students' satisfaction with the administrative staff at International Burch University. The mean value of this variable is 5,16 which indicates that students slightly agree with given statements and they are slightly satisfied with administrative staff in this institution. The lowest mean value relates to the question “Administrative staff are never too busy to respond to a request for assistance?“ and it is 4,94, however it is in positive interval of the scale indicating that students are satisfied with this aspect. The highest mean value is 5,37 and it relates to the question “Administrative staff communicate well with students?“ which means that students are most satisfied with how administrative staff communicate with them. Table 5 – Quality of campus Variables and Questions Mean Campus (C) The institution has a professional appearance/image? The institution has an ideal location with excellent campus layout and appearance? The university has an easily accessible location? The parking services at the university are adequate? The university campus has a safe environment? 4,53 5,14 Std. Deviation 2,06 1,59 4,34 1,73 4,41 3,51 5,25 1,86 2,01 5,25 With this variable students' satisfaction with professional appearance/image, location and environment of university campus was evaluated. The mean value of this variable is 4,53 which means that students slightly agree with given statements and they are slightly satisfied. The lowest mean value is 3,51 and relates to the question “The parking services at the university are adequate?“, which tells that students are slightly dissatisfied with parking services which university offers. The highest mean value is 5,25 and relates to the question “The university campus has a safe environment?“ which means that students are satisfied with the safety of the environment of university campus the most. 179 �Table 6 – Quality of Services Variables and Questions Mean Services Inquires/complaints are dealt with efficiently and promptly? I feel secure and confident in my dealings with this institution? 5,07 4,80 5,24 Std. Deviation 1,82 1,53 1,45 The institution provides services within reasonable/expected time frame? 5,19 1,40 Students are given fair amount of freedom? The institution operates excellent counseling services? Health services are adequate? Information services via web-site is adequate? 5,40 5,14 4,65 5,18 3,25 1,40 1,73 1,54 The institution values feedback from students to improve service performance? 5,07 1,55 The university provides services for students with special needs? 4,94 1,67 The purpose of this variable is to evaluate students' satisfaction about services offered from university. The mean value for this variable is 5,07 which indicates that students slightly agree with given statements and they are slightly satisfied. The lowest average, which is 4,65 was at question “Health services are adequate?“ but still it is within boundaries of slightly agree, which means students are slightly satisfied with this aspect. The highest mean value is 5,40 and relates to the question “Students are given fair amount of freedom?“. This means that students are most satisfied with amount of freedom they have. Table 7 – Study Programs Variables and Questions Mean Study Programs The institution runs excellent quality programs? 4,95 5,03 Std. Deviation 1,54 1,52 The institution offers a wide range of programs with various specialization? 4,93 1,53 The institution offers programs with flexible syllabus and structure? 4,87 1,52 The institution offers highly reputable programs? The institution graduates are easily employable? 4,97 4,93 1,54 1,59 This variable represents the students' satisfaction with quality of study programs that university offers to them. The mean value of this variable is 4,95 which belong to the region of slightly agree with given statements. The lowest mean value is 4,87 and relates to the programs syllabus and structure that university offers, this means that students are slightly satisfied with them. The 180 �highest mean value is 5,03 and relates to the question “The institution runs excellent quality programs?” which tells us that students are most satisfied with programs that the university offer. Table 8 – Personal Development Variables and Questions Mean Personal Development Recreation and sport facilities at the university are adequate? Extracurricular activities (seminars, workshops etc.) at the university are adequate? Services and facilities of art at the university are adequate (music, painting, photography etc.) 4,69 4,12 Std. Deviation 1,74 1,85 5,01 1,65 4,40 1,68 The university supports students' personal development projects? 5,02 1,63 International cooperation programs at the university (student exchange, study visits etc.) are adequate? 4,89 1,69 The purpose of this variable is to evaluate students' satisfaction with opportunities of personal development. With mean value of 4,69 it is possible to conclude that students are slightly satisfied about opportunities of personal development. The lowest mean value (4,12) goes to the first question and it is about recreation and sport facilities at the university. The highest mean value (5,02) goes to the question four and it is about supporting students' personal development projects by faculty. Table 9 – Education facilities Variables and Questions Mean Education Facilities Academic facilities are adequate for quality education? Class sizes are adequate for quality education? The library services at the university are adequate? The institution has up to date equipment? The labs at the university are adequate for quality education? 5,27 5,19 5,38 4,96 5,28 5,43 Std. Deviation 1,50 1,45 1,43 1,60 1,47 1,48 The university provides up-to-date information technology for students? 5,39 1,51 With this variable students' satisfaction with education facilities at International Burch University was evaluated. The mean value of this variable is 5,27 which indicates that students are satisfied with education facilities. The lowest mean value is 4,96 and relates to the question “The library services at the university are adequate?“, which means that students are slightly satisfied with library services. The highest mean value is 5,43 and relates to the question “The 181 �labs at the university are adequate for quality education?“ means that students are most satisfied with labs at the university. Table 10 - Cafeteria Variables and Questions Mean Std. Deviation Cafeteria 4,30 1,93 The university cafeteria provides high quality food and beverages? 3,85 1,89 Prices at the university cafeteria are reasonable? The food variety is adequate? The university cafeteria is clean? Cafeteria staff provide good quality service to students? 3,80 3,78 4,91 5,14 1,91 1,87 1,73 1,77 This variable represents students' satisfaction about cafeteria at International Burch university. With mean 4,30 it indicates that students are neutral regarding given statements. The lowest mean value (3,78) relates to adequate food variety while the highest mean value (5,14) relates to the quality of service that is provided by cafeteria staff to students which indicates that students are slightly satisfied with the service. Table 11 shows overall results indicating that “Education Facilities“ is the highest rated variable with mean value of 5,26, and that variable “Cafeteria“ is the lowest rated variable with mean value of 4,29. The overall mean value of 4,97 indicates that students are slightly satisfied with university services. Table 11 – Overall Results Variables Quality in general Quality of academic staff Quality of administrative staff Campus (C) Services Study Programs Personal Development Education Facilities Cafeteria Overall Result Mean 4,94 5,13 5,10 4,51 5,05 4,94 4,69 5,26 4,29 4,97 182 Std. Deviation 1,46 1,47 1,72 2,09 1,85 1,55 1,74 1,51 1,94 1,72 �Figure 1 - Overall Results 6.00 5.00 4.94 5.13 5.10 5.26 5.05 4.94 4.97 4.69 4.51 4.29 4.00 3.00 2.09 2.00 1.46 1.47 1.85 1.72 1.74 1.55 1.94 1.51 1.72 1.00 0.00 Mean 4.3 Std. Deviation Quality of Institution over Years Figure below indicated that quality of academic staff significantly decreased for the period of 2012 to 2014. If we look at mean grade in academic year 2011/2012 (5,46) we can notice that students negatively changed their opinion about academic staff in following two academic years for value of 0,74. However average grade was increased in academic year 2015/2016 and it is 5,13. Trend line visible in figure below indicates increase in students’ satisfaction with academic staff after 2012/13. Table 12 - Quality of academic staff Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Quality of academic staff 5,46 4,85 4,72 5,13 1 to 7 183 �Figure 2 – Quality of Academic Staff GRADE OF ACADEMIC STAFF (1 to 7) 5.60 5.40 5.20 5.00 4.80 4.60 4.40 4.20 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 YEARS Following figure indicates slightly decrease in quality of administrative staff in the academic year 2012/2013 for value of 0,37 compared to the academic year 2011/2012. From the period of 2013 to 2016 average grade was increased and in 2016 it was 5,10 which indicates great improvement in this indicator of quality. Also, trend line presented in figure below shows increase in average grade for period of 2011 to 2016. Table 13 - Quality of administrative staff Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Quality of administrative staff 5,00 4,63 4,75 5,10 1 to 7 184 �Figure 3 – Quality of Administrative Staff GRADE OF ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF (1 to 7) 5.20 5.10 5.00 4.90 4.80 4.70 4.60 4.50 4.40 4.30 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 YEARS Table and figure below presents satisfaction of students with campus. Results that are founded shows us that average grade was decreased from 2011 and in last two academic years was 4,51. Trend line however indicated increase after 2012/13 on. Table 14 - Quality of Campus Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Campus (C) 5,02 4,42 4,51 4,51 1 to 7 GRADE OF CAMPUS (1 to 7) Figure 4 – Quality Campus 5.10 5.00 4.90 4.80 4.70 4.60 4.50 4.40 4.30 4.20 4.10 4.00 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 YEARS 185 2015-2016 �Once again trend line on graph # shows slightly increase in average grade of services for the academic years from 2011 to 2016. Average grade was increased for the values of 0,08 which indicates that University is improving services. Table 15 - Quality of Services Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Services 4,97 4,39 4,59 5,05 1 to 7 Figure 5 – Quality of Services 5.20 GRADE OF SERVICES (1 to 7) 5.00 4.80 4.60 4.40 4.20 4.00 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 YEARS Figure and table below shows significant decrease in the way how student perceive study programs provided by University, which can be visible in decrease of average for period of 2011 to 2014 in value of 0,73. Also we can see that University took certain actions and improved study programs since results in academic year 2015/2016 indicated significant increase growth up to value of 4,94. Table 16 - Quality of Study Programs Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Study Programs 5,02 4,39 4,29 4,94 1 to 7 186 �Figure 6 – Quality of Study Programs GRADE OF STUDY PROGRAMS (1 to 7) 5.20 5.00 4.80 4.60 4.40 4.20 4.00 3.80 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 YEARS Following results represented in the table and figure below makes it clear that in four academic years that are investigated students were not satisfied with possibilities of personal development initially, but however, academic year 2015/2016 showed sustainable growth over the coming period. Trend line indicated growth in satisfaction of students with personal development possibilities. Table 17 - Quality of Personal Development Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Personal Development 4,56 4,17 4,28 4,69 1 to 7 187 �Figure 7 – Quality of Personal Development 4.80 GRADE OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT (1 to 7) 4.70 4.60 4.50 4.40 4.30 4.20 4.10 4.00 3.90 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 YEARS Figure below indicates student satisfaction with education facilities at University. Results shows small decrease in average grade in academic year 2012/2013. But, however after this point, sustainable increase in student satisfaction with education facilities has been indicated. Table 18 - Quality of Education Facilities Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Education Facilities 5,22 4,61 4,82 5,26 1 to 7 188 �Figure 8 – Quality of Education Facilities GRADE OF EDUCATION FACILITIES (1 to 7) 5.40 5.20 5.00 4.80 4.60 4.40 4.20 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 YEARS Cafeteria is last variable studied in our research and results from this part are presented in the figure and table below. According to research cafeteria is marked with lowest average grades in four academic years, and this aspect should be on agenda for improvement. Table 19 - Quality of Education Facilities Indicator of Quality 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2015-2016 Scale Cafeteria 4,28 3,85 4,21 4,29 1 to 7 Figure 9 – Quality of Cafeteria 4.40 GRADE OF CAFETIRIA (1 to 7) 4.30 4.20 4.10 4.00 3.90 3.80 3.70 3.60 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 YEARS 189 2015-2016 �5 Recommendations Out of all categories, Cafeteria had a lowest satisfaction level with mean of 4,29 which means that students were neutral regarding the quality of cafeteria. Within the category, students were the least satisfied with prices of the food and the quality of food and beverages, so working on these issues would be a logical recommendation. 6 Conclusion Results of the analysis show that students's rating of university services on the level of university have mean of 5,1 which indicates that students are slightly satisfied with the services of university overall. When it comes to categories of services within the university, Cafeteria is the category with the lowest mean – 4,29. The questions with lowest means were also in that category, and those are questions pertaining to prices (3,80) and quality of food and beverages (3,85). If we consider fact that in all indicators except quality of cafeteria, trend line increased after the accreditation process which occurred in 2014, the one may conclude that successful implementation of HEA criteria as well as implementing recommendations of the Committee for Accreditation resulted in higher satisfaction of students with different aspects of University’s quality. The case study sent strong message that dedication of higher education institution to quality standards (in this case ISO 9001 and ESG adopted through HEA standards) will be recognized by students, and make positive impact on their perceptions of institution’s quality. Accordingly, this exploratory study could be good basis for explanatory study that will investigate relationship between implementation of HEA criteria and students satisfaction, and this is recommendation for future research. References Bajramović, E., Mekić, E., & Muhamedbegović, B. (2017). Comparative Analysis of Implementing ISO 9001:2015 Standard and ESG. Proceedings of 10th scientific professional gathering with international participation. Neum: University of Zenica. Koslowski, F. (2006). Quality and assessment in context: a brief review. Quality Assurance in Education, 14(3), 277-288. Mekić, E., & Goksu, A. (2014). Implementation of ISO 9001:2008 & Standards for Accreditation at Private University in Bosnia And Herzegovina. European Researcher, 75(5-2), 947-961. Retrieved from http://www.erjournal.ru/journals_n/1401603287.pdf Pfeffer, N., & Coote, A. (1991). Is Quality Good for You?: A Critical Review of Quality Assurance in Welfare services. London: Institute for Public Policy Research. 190 �Rastoder, A., Nurović, E., Smajić, E., & Mekić, E. (2015). Perceptions of Students towards Quality of Services at Private Higher Education Institution in Bosnia and Herzegovina. European Researcher, 101(12), 783-790. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299485292_Perceptions_of_Students_towards_ Quality_of_Services_at_Private_Higher_Education_Institution_in_Bosnia_and_Herzego vina Sallis, E. (2005). Total Quality in Education. London: Taylor & Francis e-Library. 191 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3640 Title A name given to the resource Measuring Quality of Services at HEI: Case of Private University in BiH (doi: 10.14706/icesos173) Author Author Kahriman, Amina Mekic, Ajdin Đug, Kemal Mekić, Ensar Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The main purpose of this study is to investigate quality level of higher education institution's (HEI) services through students' perceptions, and to conduct cross years’ comparative analysis. Main instrument for this study is a survey with several dimensions dealing with different aspects of higher education: quality in general, quality of academic staff, quality of administrative staff, quality of campus, quality of study programs, quality of services, personal development support, education facilities and cafeteria. Software used in the study is Microsoft Excel. In total, 440 responses were collected which represents almost 50% of population. Cross years comparative analysis indicated tremendous increase in all indicators after institution has implemented HEA standards and went through successful accreditation process. Recommendations for corrective/preventive measures will be given wherever necessary. Results of the analysis show that students's rating of university services on the level of university have mean of 5,1 which indicates that students are slightly satisfied with the services of university overall. Keywords: HEI, university, quality, comparative analysis Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)