343 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cc72914357f42dd6b00e609eecf9c722.docx 3c8fdfb28ecedd7cc9bddd5e67f2065e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/efe9fabfb7cf48639355492790012347.pdf 4b794b985249e8e15ae0e6271c28413f PDF Text Text WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL ASSESSMENT IN B&H BASED ON REAL MEASUEMENTS AND STUDIES Ajla Merzić JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d., Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina a.lukac@elektroprivreda.ba Elma Redžić JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d., Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina e.turkovic@elektroprivreda.ba Alma Ademović JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d., Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina al.ademovic@elektroprivreda.ba Mustafa Musić JP Elektroprivreda BiH d.d., Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina m.music@elektroprivreda.ba Keywords:wind potential, solar potential, harsh weather conditions. ABSTRACT The current generation capacity structure of the Public Power Company Elektroprivreda B&H (EP B&H) of 70%:30% in favour of TPPs provides some advantages like safe and reliable supply, but promoting RES and their use in the generation portfolio of the company is a commitment in order to contribute to sustainable development plans and environmental preservation. The ongoing measurement campaign performed by EP B&H investigates wind and solar energy potential on the territory of B&H. This creates preconditions for techno-economic evaluations of exploiting wind and solar power, with the final aim of building wind power plants (WPP) and photovoltaic power plants (PVPP) in the country. Particularly in terms of wind power, high altitude abandoned areas are assessed for potential WPP construction. Experience from the three year measurement campaign has shown promissing results in the available wind and solar potential of B&H, providing good preconditions for future techno-economic assessments and planning activities. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2128 Title A name given to the resource WIND AND SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL ASSESSMENT IN B&H BASED ON REAL MEASUEMENTS AND STUDIES Author Author MERZIC, Ajla REDZIC, Elma ADEMOVIC, Alma MUSIC, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords:wind potential, solar potential, harsh weather conditions. ABSTRACT The current generation capacity structure of the Public Power Company Elektroprivreda B&H (EP B&H) of 70%:30% in favour of TPPs provides some advantages like safe and reliable supply, but promoting RES and their use in the generation portfolio of the company is a commitment in order to contribute to sustainable development plans and environmental preservation. The ongoing measurement campaign performed by EP B&H investigates wind and solar energy potential on the territory of B&H. This creates preconditions for techno-economic evaluations of exploiting wind and solar power, with the final aim of building wind power plants (WPP) and photovoltaic power plants (PVPP) in the country. Particularly in terms of wind power, high altitude abandoned areas are assessed for potential WPP construction. Experience from the three year measurement campaign has shown promissing results in the available wind and solar potential of B&H, providing good preconditions for future techno-economic assessments and planning activities. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1f951dacffe294cf9d07921713ba5be9.pdf 49ebeb2fbe45bf3392ffb4aeaada6ee9 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Leckie , J. Bull, R. & Vrij, A. (2006). The development of a scale to discover outpatients’ perceptions of the relative desirability of different elements of doctors’communication behaviours. Patient Education and Counseling 64, 69–77. Leckie, J., Bull, R. & Vrij A., (2006). The development of a scale to discover outpatients’ perceptions of the relative desirability of different elements of doctors’ communication behaviors. Patient Education and Counseling, 64, 69–77. Sanchez, M.M. (2001). Effects of assertive communication between doctors and patients in public health outpatient surgeries in the city of Seville (Spain). Social Behavior and Personality 29 (1), 63-70. Street, R.L. Jr., Gordon, H. & Haidet, P. (2007). Physicians’ communication and perceptions of patients: Is it how they look, how they talk, or is it just the doctor? Social Science & Medicine 65, 586–598. Veldhuijzen, W., Ram, P.M., van der Weijden, T., Wassink, M.R. & Van der Vleuten, C.P.M. (2007). Much variety and little evidence: a description of guidelines for doctor-patient communication. Medical Education 41, 138–145. Weiner, S.J., Barnet, B., Cheng, T.L. & Daaleman, T.P. (2005). Processes for Effective Communication in Primary Care. Annals of Internal Medicine Vol. 142, No: 8. Within The Concept Of Sustainable Tourism, Certification And Eco-Labelling Systems In Accommodation Management: The Case Of Alanya/Manavgat Özyurt Paşa Mustafa1, Üngüren Engin1, Kalipçi Mehmet Bahadır2, Guclü, Caner1 1Faculty of Business, Alanya, Turkey 2Manavgat Vocational School Abstract Tourism sector which has started to increase in size since the second half the 19th century has become an important industry in the world due to its economic and social effects.Tourism’s economic profits have caused to not only management support but also local and national support in promoting tourism’s development and investments. However, this fast and planless growth has caused to bad results. The attention has been drawn to the fact that natural sources are being using up fast and that has brought new tourism terms and alternative tourism types which are compatible with nature. Under the roof of sustainable tourism, tourism which is sensitive to environment and local cultures has predicted that all tourism types can be sustainable if the specific rules are followed. Sustainable tourism’s essential 84 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo principle is to save cultural and environmental values and try to provide planned and controlled growth. Also, it tries to make sustainable tourism a concrete concept. Certification and eco-labelling systems are used to measure with concrete data. Varying in purposes and extent, certification and eco-labelling systems show the good and bad sides of businesses about environmental awareness, hygiene, social responsibility, security, energy consumption, waste management and staff education. And it gives information to customers about management. Besides, it is seen that businesses use this as a marketing tool. The aim of this study is to specify the certification and eco-labelling systems used in tourism managements and present the reasons why they obtained these certification systems, and determine whether certification systems show changes according to management types. Alanya and Manavgat districts of Antalya have been chosen as an application area. Population is four and five star hotels operating in Alanya and Manavgat. Research has been done by reaching one manager in each population with questionnaire technique. Obtained data has been analysed with SPSS packet program. Keywords: Tourism, Sustainable Tourism, Certification and Eco-Labelling Systems, Accommodation Management, Green Marketing, Alanya, Manavgat, 1. INTRODUCTION The rapid development of tourism, after World War II, into a formidable industry has been argued to be as a result of increases in household income that subsequently afforded families more discretionary income to be spent on leisure. Other factors such as paid holiday, a better educated population that is willing to learn and explore and increased business travel have also been identified (Oriade and Evans, 2011: 70). According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), international arrivals worldwide have more than doubled since 1990, rising from 435 million to 675 million in 2000, and to 940 million in 2010. In 2011, the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) expects it to contribute almost US$6 trillion to the global economy, or 9% of global gross domestic product (GDP) (WTTC, 2011: 2). The fact that tourism industry has grown fast in the world brought many positive results as well as many negative results. It is well known that, the unplanned and excessive growth of tourism industry has caused many effects such as; air, water, and soil pollution, the loss of cultural traditions, and decreasing plant diversity and so on. 2. TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM CONCEPT World Tourism Organization defines sustainable tourism as; Sustainable tourism development meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future (Cernat and Gourdon, 2007: 1). In general, sustainable tourism is a form of development, which protects the environments of which human being interacted and ecological periods and biological diversity are sustained and all the resources 85 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo in the visited region are managed to be able to meet the economical, social and aesthetics needs of people and tourists (Özbey, 2002: 8). Sustainable tourism is a form of production which is not the victim of growing society and culture but benefits from this growth (Kahraman ve Türkay, 2004: 88). Sustainable tourism concept has emerged from the notion of Sustainable Development, which has developed in the second part of the 20th century. (Berno and Bricker, 2001: 3). Many meetings started under the leadership of United Nations to stop the increasing environment pollution and unplanned growth with the industrialization during 60s and 70s (Sarkım, 2008: 3). The report titled "Our future" by World Environment Organization in 1987 has identified basic principles of sustainable investment and sustainable tourism concept (Tekeli, 2001: 39). The main goal of sustainable tourism is to contribute to the region's economy and social life constantly without harming the environment society, history, natural and cultural properties (Karaca, 2002: 677). The basic principle of sustainable tourism concept aiming to rise the satisfaction level of tourist and economical contribution to locals were given below (CESD, 2007: 6); To create economic continuity in the destinations and tourism enterprises to benefit in long term. To create local development by providing the highest level of contribution to the tourism destination. Generating employment by increasing other business lines. Providing social equity by supplying it social and economic benefits. Preparing a secure, satisfactory and unproblematic place Providing an active role during the tourism planning for locals and deciding period. Respecting historical places, local culture and traditions. Minimizing air, water and soil pollution. Providing the continuity of biological diversity. Paying attention to used recycling materials to that we can protect the environment. While alternative tourism types are being come up, studies show that environmental consciousness is rapidly increasing and developing among tourists. The survey by travel foundation in 2009 has shown that 67% of English tourists are disturbed by the affects of mass tourism on environments; however, this is not the first factor while choosing their holiday destination. Also, the same survey results have shown that British tourists started to be disturbed by the negative effects of tourism to the environments belonging to the places they travel, 23% worry about the climate changes, 24% choose authentic experiences due to these concerns, and 9% completely prefer certificate of green facilities. 86 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo According to a survey by Dodds and friends, among the participants, 95% of the tourists in Indonesia and 79% of the tourists in Thailand, who are mainly from Sweden, Britain, and Canada stated that they are willing to pay extra sum if it would help to protect the environment. Also, 87% of the visitors in Indonesia and 84% in Thailand stated that they could pay $2 extra, the proportion, which consists of people who can pay more than $10 is 42% in Indonesia and 25% in Thailand. According to a survey by Malta Tourism Authority 80% of the participants who visited Malta are susceptive about environmental issues, 47% of it stated they chose paid attention to that while choosing their hotels. Besides, the participants stated that they were willing to pay 8% extra to stay at a hotel which is environment friendly. 3. ECO-LABELS / CERTIFICATE SYSTEMS Certification is specific standards which has written assurance of product, process, facilities and service (CESD, 2007: 7) Certification is one of the tools that motivate tourism businesses to improve their economic, social and environmental performance, while being rewarded, in tangible or intangible way, for these achievements (Remus, vd., 2009: 331). They usually address three main aspects, namely: 1) environmental performance of companies, operations and destinations; 2) product quality; and 3) corporate social responsibility of operations. (WTO, 2003: 1). The reasons why tourism establishments use certification and eco-label systems are lined below (CESD, 2007: 10-11) ;      To increase the quality and performance of the facilities and staff, To do the right things to protect the environment and local societies. To reduce the expenses. To create a marketing advantage Distinguishing the difference of faked environmentalist establishments.. According to the results of a survey about 4 and 5 star hotels in Ankara by Ünlüönen and friends (2011) has shown that hotel managements, which have system management documents, got these documents mostly as they see them a kind of prestige, image, competitiveness factors. So, it can be emphasized that the establishments, which have these certificates and documents, see these documents as a mean of providing competitiveness advantage and creating positive image. According to the results of a survey by Millar and Baloglu (2011) the customers who choice their rooms pay attention whether the room has environmental friend room certificate. Giving stars to the hotels is accepted as the first certification sample in tourism. This precautions not only majors the quality of touristic product but also it gives an assurance in terms of health, hygiene and security (CESD, 2007: 7-8). Many national and international certificate and eco-label systems have been started to use in tourism industry after increasing importance of sustainable tourism concept. Some of them are which are quite important were given below; 87 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo          Blue Flag Green Globe Travelife Green Leaf ISO 14001 Environmental Management Systems Green Key Green Seal Nordic Swan Green Star 4. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE The main purpose of this study is to specify the certification and eco-labelling systems used in tourism managements and present the reasons why they obtained or not these certification systems. Alanya and Manavgat districts of Antalya have been chosen as an application area. Population is four and five star hotels operating in Alanya and Manavgat. Research has been done by reaching one manager in each population with questionnaire technique. In order to design the survey the theoretical and empirical studies of the related litarature ( Ünlüönen ) were examined. The questionnaire consists of three parts. Before managers filled in questionnaires face to face interviews were undertaken with them. Due to the research done in the winter it was not possible to reach each hotel. According to the study, which were done by Cevirgen and Üngüren (2012) was determined that, 85% of all hotels operating seasonally in region. Therefore, the research was conducted with 24 hotels. The instrument questions answered on a 1-10 likert scales labeled “strongly disagree” (1) and “strongly agree” (10). SPSS 16.0 was used for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistical methods were used in this study. Percentage and frequency analysis was applied to the data. The informations of hotels obtained on the eco-label certification and documentation as a result of the frequency and percentage analysis were tabulated with frequency and percentage distributions. 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS The results related to information of hotels such as hotel type, pension type, are indicated in Table 1. The number of 5 star hotels is 20 (83%), and the rest is 4-star hotels (17%). Out of 20 five-star hotel, 11 (55%) of them showed activity all year round, 9 (45%) or them operate seasonally. 4 star hotels enterprises the entire seasonally. Table 1: Periods of activity of Hotels in the Scope of Research Hotel Type Period of Activity 5 Stars 4 Stars Total Seasonal n 9 4 13 Full year 88 % n % 45,0% 11 55,0% 100,0% 0 ,0% 54,2% 11 45,8% �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Total n % 20 100,0% 4 100,0% 24 100,0% Pension types applied by the hotels are given in Table 2. Applied research within 24 hotels using the all inclusive system. In addition, 3 (15%) of five star hotels, and 1 (25%) of 4-star hotels are implemented half-board system. Full-board system is only 1 (5%) applied by the hotel, bed and breakfast system is implemented by any hotels. Hotels 5 Star 4 Star Total n % n % n % Table 2: Types of Covered Pension Applied Hotels Pension Types BB HB FB Yes No Yes No Yes No 0 20 3 17 1 19 0% 100,0% 15,0% 85,0% 5,0% 95,0% 0 4 1 3 0 4 0% 100,0% 25,0% 75,0% ,0% 100,0% 0 24 4 20 1 23 0% 100,0% 16,7% 83,3% 4,2% 95,8% AI Yes 20 100,0% 4 100,0% 24 100,0% No 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% Distributions regarding to the tourist nationalities to the hotels are shown in Table 3. German tourists have the biggest share in five star hotels with an average of 50%, with an average of 28% receive 4th rank in 4 star hotels. The average is around 20% of Russians, in 5 star hotels, and this ratio comes 50% in 4 star hotels. We’ve found that the Scandinavian tourists have an average of 18% in 5 star hotels, in 4 star hotels, this ratio increases to 32%. Anticipating the tourists prefer 4 star hotels from the United Kingdom, 5 star hotels are the average of 9%. As a result, the 5 star and 4 star hotels vary depending on the nationalities of their customers. Hotel 5 Star Hotel 4 Star 89 Table 3: Distribution of Tourists According to the Hotels Stars Nationalities N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation German % 18 % 10 % 90 % 49,66 % 26,92 Russian % 12 % 5 % 50 % 19,25 % 13,76 Scandinavia % 9 %2 % 50 % 17,66 % 19,01 Netherlands % 12 % 5 % 60 % 15,25 % 14,76 United Kingdom % 4 %4 % 20 % 8,75 % 7,54 Ukrainian % 4 %3 % 10 % 6,50 % 4,04 Poland % 4 %1 % 10 % 6,00 % 3,91 Other % 12 % 5 % 50 % 21,50 % 15,91 Nationalities N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Russian % 1 %50 %50 %50 . Scandinavia % 2 %30 %35 %32,50 %3,53 Poland % 1 %30 %30 %30,0 German % 3 %20 %35 %28,33 %7,63 Netherlands % 2 %20 %30 %25,00 %7,07 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo United Kingdom % Ukrainian % Other % 0 0 2 %10,00 %10,00 %10,0000 ,00 Table 4 shows that, according to the type of hotels owned the Quality and Standard Documents and own them new requirement durations. ISO 9001 Quality Management System used by (10) 5 star hotels and (1) 4 Star Hotel and a total of 11 (45%) the Standard Certificate of Quality has been the most commonly used with the hotels. ISO 22000 Food Safety System used by 7 (30%), ISO 10002 Customer Satisfaction Management System used by 6 (25%) 5 star hotels. ISO 14001 Environmental Management System and ISO 18001 the Occupational Health and Safety Management Certificates used by 3 (12%) 5 Star hotels. Looking at the Quality and Standard Certificates, new requirements period, the documents use of ISO 14001 Environmental Management System and ISO 18001 Occupational Health and Safety Management Certificate with an average of 6.5 years has been in use for a long time Table 4: Duration of Quality and Standard Certificate Ownership by Hotel Type Hotel Quality Certificate N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation ISO 9001 duration 10 1,00 9,00 4,90 3,17 ISO 14001 duration 3 3,00 9,00 6,33 3,05 ISO 18001 duration 3 3,00 9,00 6,33 3,05 5 Star ISO 22000 duration 7 1,00 9,00 4,00 3,31 ISO 10002 duration 6 1,00 2,00 1,33 ,51 Hotel Quality Certificate N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation 4 Star ISO 9001 duration 1 1,00 1,00 1,00 Table 5 shows that hotels eco-label and is being used for documents and show that them how. None of 4 Star hotels use any eco-label system, 5 star hotels two (8%) of them, while the implementation of the Green Star and White Star, 1 (4%) of them use the Travelife system. As a result, certification and eco-labeling systems are widely applied in five star hotels. Table 5: Duration of the Eco-Label Certification Ownership by Hotel Type Hotel Eco-Label Certificate N Minimum Maximum Mean Gren Star duration 2 1,00 2,00 1,50 White Star duration 2 1,00 3,00 2,00 5 Star Travelife duration 1 1,00 1,00 1,00 None 20 Hotel Eco-Label Certificate N Minimum Maximum Mean 4 Star None 4 - Std. Deviation ,70 1,41 Std. Deviation - The questions in table 6 have been asked to businesses to learn their ideas about eco-labelling and certification systems of their competitors. While 5-star hotels give 7.55 points out of 10 to the idea that competitors use eco-labelling and certification systems to provide a competitive advantage, this rate increases to 8.50 at 4-star hotels. In the option of their being sensitive to environment, while 5-star hotels average is 7.40, 4-stars hotels average decreases 90 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo to 5.75. While 4-star hotels think their competitors use eco-labelling and certification systems as they provide marketing convenience, this rate decreases to 7.57 at 5-star hotels. Tablo 6: The Reasons of Competitors’ Having Eco-Labelling and Certification Documents Suggestions Otel n x Minimum Maximum 1.To Get Competitive Advantage 5 Star 20 7,55 1,00 10,00 4 Star 4 8,50 4,00 10,00 2.To Be Sensitive to Environment 5 Star 20 7,40 1,00 10,00 4 Star 4 5,75 3,00 10,00 3.To Have a Positive Image 5 Star 20 7,75 1,00 10,00 4 Star 4 8,00 4,00 10,00 4.As They are Wanted by Customers 5 Star 20 7,05 2,00 10,00 4 Star 4 7,50 5,00 10,00 5.To Get Marketing Advantage 5 Star 19 7,57 2,00 10,00 4 Star 4 9,25 9,00 10,00 6.As They are cared by Agencies 5 Star 20 7,75 2,00 10,00 4 Star 4 8,50 7,00 10,00 7.To Increase Employees’ Performance 5 Star 20 6,85 1,00 10,00 4 Star 4 6,00 5,00 7,00 8.To Improve Employees’ Motivation 5 Star 20 6,90 1,00 10,00 4 Star 4 6,25 5,00 8,00 1: strongly disagree 10: Strongly agree Table 7 shows businesses’ ideas about eco-labelling and certification systems. While 5-star hotels agree on the idea that certification systems help to protect environment with 8.45, this rate falls 6.75 at 4-star hotels. Although the statement “It is important for customers” is accepted by 4-star hotels with a high rate of 8.75, only 1 out of 4 has certification system and this shows the conflict between statement and application. While 5-star hotels agree on the statement that certificate systems improve staff qualifications, this rate falls to 7.00 at 4-star hotels. “eco-labelling affects the prestige and image of businesses positively” is accepted by 5-star hotels with 9.15 and by 4 star hotel with a high rate of 9.00. However, the number (5) of eco-labelling of 4 and 5 star hotels shows a conflict at this point. Tablo 7: Businesses’ Ideas About Eco-Labelling And Certification Systems Suggestions Otel Certifications n x Min Max. 1. They Help to Get a Positive Prestige 5 Star 20 9,10 5 10 and Image 4 Star 4 10,00 10 10 2. They Increases Sales Eco-Labelling n x Min Max. 20 9,15 6 10 4 9,00 8 10 10 9 10 10 10 4. They Help to Take Marketing Advantages 5 Star 4 Star 5 Star 4 Star 5 Star 4 Star 20 4 20 4 20 8,00 7,25 8,70 8,75 8,40 2 5 3 8 2 10 10 10 10 10 20 4 20 4 20 7,90 7,00 8,30 8,25 8,15 4 8,25 7 10 4 7,00 5 5. They are Important for Travel Agencies 5 Star 4 Star 20 8,00 4 8,00 2 7 10 10 20 7,45 1 4 7,00 7 3. They Are Important for Visitors 91 2 5 4 7 4 9 10 7 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 6. They Help to Protect the Environment 5 Star 4 Star 20 8,45 5 10 20 8,70 3 10 4 6,75 3 10 4 8,50 7 10 7. They Positively Affect to Businesses’ Productivity 5 Star 4 Star 20 8,25 3 10 20 7,70 1 10 4 8,00 7 9 4 9 8. They Help to Increase Employees’ Quality 5 Star 4 Star 20 8,55 3 10 20 7,50 1 10 4 7,00 5 9 4 7,25 5 10 9. They Increase Employees’ Motivation 5 Star 4 Star 20 7,15 1 10 20 6,65 1 10 4 5 8 4 9 6,25 7,75 7 6,75 5 1: strongly disagree 10: Strongly agree 6. RESULT As a result of study, it has been seen that certification systems are used (30) more than ecolabeling (5) at hotels. Also, 5-star hotels have more certification systems and eco-labeling than 4-star hotels. The most used certification systems have been ISO9001 Quality Management System (10), ISO22000 Food Security System (7), and ISO10002 Customer Satisfaction Management System (6). It has been observed that the hotels have been using the certificate systems for about 3 years. In the end of the study, it has been revealed that businesses see certificate and eco-labeling systems as an element of prestige and image and they think these documents are important for customers. In spite of this, as businesses don’t have enough certificate and eco-labeling systems in obtained results, this brings out an inconsistent situation. Besides, businesses have stated that certification and eco-labeling systems don’t have much effect on the motivation of employees. 4-star hotels have stated that their competitors use eco-labeling and certificate systems as they provide a marketing convenience. It has been revealed that hotels are inadequate especially about eco-labeling. As the term of sustainability has been gaining importance recent years, businesses have to give importance to eco-labeling. Businesses can’t be expected to be indifferent to environmental sensitivity which has been becoming important among customers. REFERENCES Berno, T., & Bricker, K. (2001). Sustainable Tourism Development:The Long Road From Theory To Practice. International Journal of Economic Development, 3 (3). Cevirgen, A. And Üngüren, E. (2012). Alanya Bölgesi Konaklama Sektörü İhtiyaç Analizi Raporu, http://www.altsovoctest.org/ Cernat, L., & Gourdon, J. (2007). Is The Concept Of Sustainable Tourism Sustainable?. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations Publication, New York. 92 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo CESD, (2007). A Simple User’s Guide to Certification for Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism. A Publication of The Center for Ecotourism and Sustainable Development, 3th Edition, Washington. Dodds, R., & Graci, S., R., & Holmes, M. (2010). Does the Tourists Care? A Comparison Of Tourists in Koh Phi Phi, Thailand and Gili Trawangan, Indonesia. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18 (2), 207-222. Kahraman, N., & Türkay, O. (2004). Turizm ve Çevre, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Karacan, A., R. (2002). Çevre Ekonomisi ve Politikası, Ege Üniversitesi Yayınları İİBF, İzmir. Millar, M., & Baloglu, S. (2011). Hotel Guests’ Preferences For Green Guest Room Attributes. Cornell Hospitality Quaterly, 52 (3), 302-311. Özbey, F., R. (2002). Sustainable Tourism Development In Globalization Progress. Globalization and Sustainable Development, International Scientific Conference, Book:4, pp.135-150,Varna 1-3 Remus, H., & Ovidiu, T., M., & Puinu, N., (2009). Ecorom- Indicators System Proposal of Quality Certification in Ecotourism. Amfiteatru Economic,11 (26, 330-338. Said, C., B., & Vella, R. (2009). Tourists’ Perceptions On Environmental Issues. Malta Tourism Authory, Malta. Sarkım. M. (2008). Değişen Seyehat Eğilimleri ve Turizm Politikaları. 2.Ulusal İktisat Kongresi, İzmir. Tekeli İ. (2001). Sürdürülebilirlik Kavramı Üzerine İrdelemeler, Mülkiyeliler Birliği Yayınları, Ankara. Ünlüönen, K., & Kızanlıklı, M., M., & Arslan, E. (2011). Otel İşletmelerindeki Eko-Etiket ve Sistem Yönetim Belgelerinin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma. 12.Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Kitabı, 446-457. WTO, (2003). Recommendations to Governments For Supporting And/Or Establishing National Certification System For Sustaianable Tourism. Madrid, 2003, http://sdt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/certification-gov-recomm.pdf WTTC, (2011). Travel&Tourism 2011. http://www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/traveltourism2011.pdf http://www.turob.com/haber.aspx?id=12437 93 London. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1101 Title A name given to the resource Within The Concept Of Sustainable Tourism, Certification And Eco-Labelling Systems In Accommodation Management: The Case Of Alanya/Manavgat Author Author Özyurt , Paşa Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Tourism sector which has started to increase in size since the second half the 19th century has become an important industry in the world due to its economic and social effects.Tourism’s economic profits have caused to not only management support but also local and national support in promoting tourism’s development and investments. However, this fast and planless growth has caused to bad results. The attention has been drawn to the fact that natural sources are being using up fast and that has brought new tourism terms and alternative tourism types which are compatible with nature. Under the roof of sustainable tourism, tourism which is sensitive to environment and local cultures has predicted that all tourism types can be sustainable if the specific rules are followed. Sustainable tourism’s essential principle is to save cultural and environmental values and try to provide planned and controlled growth. Also, it tries to make sustainable tourism a concrete concept. Certification and eco-labelling systems are used to measure with concrete data. Varying in purposes and extent, certification and eco-labelling systems show the good and bad sides of businesses about environmental awareness, hygiene, social responsibility, security, energy consumption, waste management and staff education. And it gives information to customers about management. Besides, it is seen that businesses use this as a marketing tool. The aim of this study is to specify the certification and eco-labelling systems used in tourism managements and present the reasons why they obtained these certification systems, and determine whether certification systems show changes according to management types. Alanya and Manavgat districts of Antalya have been chosen as an application area. Population is four and five star hotels operating in Alanya and Manavgat. Research has been done by reaching one manager in each population with questionnaire technique. Obtained data has been analysed with SPSS packet program. Keywords: Tourism, Sustainable Tourism, Certification and Eco-Labelling Systems, Accommodation Management, Green Marketing, Alanya, Manavgat, Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fd861b834f2f1c747d71946eb3fd5060.docx a6473c5c76230b2b2c18001dd8027fc2 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/358a515b61ba3697d47bd06b6e3f6c14.pdf 9ba55901dd3fd2c8afce36f121b1491f PDF Text Text Women Empowerment; Compression between Albania and Kosovo JonaHoxhaj Epoka University Albania jhoxhaj10@epoka.edu.al Elena Pici Epoka University Albania epici10@epoka.edu.al Abstract: This paper examines in details the increscent of woman empowerment in developing countries by referring to two examples in Balkan states, which are states with low integration and growth, Albania and Kosovo. These states are working toward elimination of gender inequality and woman empowerment in state institutions, by putting targets of participation percentage of women in parliament, governments and even in lower positions. Still women continuously face difficulties and obstacles towards their full participation in public life in developing countries. Albania as a post communism country has a higher percentage of people with higher education than Kosovo, which also indicates that women are also more integrated into society. But Kosovo on the other side as a post war country with a very high presence of international influence has put a very strict law and obligatory implementation of women participation in all institutions and decision making bodies. Kosovo is striving hard to be the leader for this issue in region, but individual success of some women in Kosovo does not mean that the culture of equality is reflected in all population. Situation of women empowerment is widely spread in both countries and is considered a big vision for these states toward improvement and further development. Especially very careful analyses were done to put the light on the situation in rural areas, where women are not aware of their rights and are not informed about the justice, freedom and other essential human rights they possess and also what is being done to change this situation those parts of the countries. Lastly, after examination of each countries standing position for protection of the dignity by women themselves, and empowerment in social life, a compression between them will be made based on the current situation and women participation in key political, economical and social positions in these countries. Keywords: Women empowerment, Albania, Kosovo, Key positions, Education, Woman Participation. 41 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2473 Title A name given to the resource Women Empowerment; Compression between Albania and Kosovo Author Author HOXHAJ, Jona PICI, Elena Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper examines in details the increscent of woman empowerment in developing countries by referring to two examples in Balkan states, which are states with low integration and growth, Albania and Kosovo. These states are working toward elimination of gender inequality and woman empowerment in state institutions, by putting targets of participation percentage of women in parliament, governments and even in lower positions. Still women continuously face difficulties and obstacles towards their full participation in public life in developing countries. Albania as a post communism country has a higher percentage of people with higher education than Kosovo, which also indicates that women are also more integrated into society. But Kosovo on the other side as a post war country with a very high presence of international influence has put a very strict law and obligatory implementation of women participation in all institutions and decision making bodies. Kosovo is striving hard to be the leader for this issue in region, but individual success of some women in Kosovo does not mean that the culture of equality is reflected in all population. Situation of women empowerment is widely spread in both countries and is considered a big vision for these states toward improvement and further development. Especially very careful analyses were done to put the light on the situation in rural areas, where women are not aware of their rights and are not informed about the justice, freedom and other essential human rights they possess and also what is being done to change this situation those parts of the countries. Lastly, after examination of each countries standing position for protection of the dignity by women themselves, and empowerment in social life, a compression between them will be made based on the current situation and women participation in key political, economical and social positions in these countries. Keywords: Women empowerment, Albania, Kosovo, Key positions, Education, Woman Participation. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/51ded43fed075ce940721ed2cfe55c22.pdf e270edbdc4823208fcee2c8a3da61df5 PDF Text Text Women in Coleridge’s “Christabel”, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and “The Eolian Harp”: Sexualisation and the Cultural Expectations Muammer Özoltulular Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey Abstract: To face it, it is quite challenging to draw distinctive borders of women issues when it comes to Romantic poets of English literature. These poets were reforming many issues of the contemporary culture of England such as valuing the nature, which was deteriorated by Industrial Revolution of the period, and emphasizing intuition over reason. However, the changes those poets endeavouring to create might not be considered as revolutionary since these poets could not manage to stay away from the traditions of their societies. The aim of this paper is to analyse the place of women in Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The Eolian Harp and Christabel": how he sexualised women and what were the cultural expectation from women at the time. Allocating an exaggerated feminine aspect to women nearly climaxes in one of Coleridge’s memorable poems “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”. Coleridge attends sexualising women in “Christabel” with the help of specific word choice. Additionally, it might be put forward that Coleridge gives significance to virginity, which is identified with the Blessed Virgin Mary in Christianity when Coleridge’s being ‘a staunch Anglican in religion’ is taken into consideration. In most of the patriarchal societies, virginity equates purity, which is utilized by men to suppress women. Moreover, negative attitudes of Coleridge towards his wife, Sara Fricker, must be concentrated on to have an insight into the poet’s views on women. Considering the attitudes of Coleridge towards his wife, the assertions above on sexualisation of women and cultural expectations from them in the eyes of Coleridge might be conceived as accurate. Keywords: Sexualisation, Women, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Cultural Expectations 1. Introduction To face it, it is quite challenging to draw distinctive borders of women issues when it comes to Romantic poets of English literature. These poets were reforming many issues of the contemporary culture of England such as appreciating nature, which was deteriorated by Industrial Revolution of the period, and emphasizing intuition over reason. However, the changes those poets endeavouring to create might not be considered as revolutionary since they could not manage to separate themselves from the traditional norms of their societies. Therefore, the poetry of Romantic period poets is commonly criticised by many scholars nowadays. It may be argued that Samuel Taylor Coleridge, one of the limited reformist poets of the period, prisons female characters in his poems to the norms of the society of his time even �2 though it is known that he is impressed by the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft, who is considered one of the founding feminist philosophers. H. J. Jackson (1993) states that he fears that the inhabitants of the twentieth century most probably will not like Coleridge when they are informed about Coleridge’s views on women in “Coleridge’s Women, or Girls, Girls, Girls are Made to Love” (p. 577).The aim of this paper is to analyse the place of women in “Christabel”, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and “The Eolian Harp”: how he sexualised women and what were the cultural expectations from women during his time. 2. Analysis of Coleridge’s Poems on the Basis of Cultural Expectation from Women during 19th Century and the Sexualisation of Women In the first place, it may be claimed that sexualising women is frequently encountered in Coleridge’s poetry when the fact that the poet’s descriptions of female characters are excessively feminine is taken into account. Allocating an exaggerated feminine aspect to women nearly climaxes in one of Coleridge’s memorable poems “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”: Her lips were red, her looks were free, Her locks were yellow as gold: Her skin was as white as leprosy, The Night-mare Life-in-Death was she, Who thicks man’s blood with cold.(190-4) In the excerpt, Coleridge identifies the spirit beast haunting the ship as a curse due to unfair killing of the Albatross. His identification of the spirit beast as feminine may be asserted to conform to female image in his time, which is capable of drawing the attention of the reader with feminist concerns. The spirit beast’s red lips and free looks may be regarded sexual representatives of an attractive woman for men considering the norms of beauty in patriarchal societies. In addition, the phrase ‘Life-in-Death was she’ in the excerpt reveals the attitude of the poet towards women, who is attractive, desirable and provocative. According to Coleridge, to approach towards such a women might be sinful and dangerous as her beauty and sexual attractiveness have the power of freezing the blood of men, who looks at him. Coleridge sexualises women not only in his poem mentioned above but also in “Christabel” poem of his. The excerpt below is taken from the first part of the poem “Christabel”, where the reader meets with Christabel and Geraldine, two main characters of the poem: There she seems a damsel bright, Drest in a silken robe of white, That shadowy in the moonlight shone: The neck that made that white robe wan, Her stately neck, and arms were bare; Her blue-veined feet unsandal’d were, And widely glittered here and there The gems entangled in her hair. I guess, ‘twas frightful there to see, �3 A lady so richly clad as sheBeautiful exceedingly! (58-68) Coleridge, in the first line of this verse, applies to the word ‘damsel’ instead of a word usage such as ‘a young woman’, most probably because he considered this usage as required for implying the significance of being virgin. Besides, the colour of the robe chosen for the young woman may convey a specific meaning of virginity as colour white signifies purity and the state of being untouched. It might be put forward that Coleridge gives significance to virginity, which is identified with the Blessed Virgin Mary in Christianity when Coleridge’s being ‘a staunch Anglican in religion’ (Stillinger, Lynch. 2012 p. 437) is taken into consideration. In the second line, Coleridge continues to attribute a different feminine beauty to the ‘damsel’ clothing her in silk. Silk as a fabric has a function of directly reminding the reader of sexuality. In the third and fourth lines, Coleridge focuses on this young woman’s white neck and bare arms. Moreover, the poet with bare feet image creates a so-called requirement for women to stay inside their houses. Bare feet image finds ground with the phrase ‘barefoot and pregnant’, which was put forward in the early twentieth century, meaning that women should not work outside their houses and should have many children during their productive years. In the same poem, the readers proceed to encounter with sensational depiction of women according to the sets of patriarchal system in terms of beauty. A simile is benefited from to sexualise women in the second line of the excerpt taken from “Christabel”: “Red as a rose is she (34)”. The purpose of Coleridge’s preference of red colour for a rose while depicting a woman might be considered concrete as sexualising women in the eyes of men. The subject of virginity is also encountered in “The Elion Harp”. The excessive pride allocated for virginity in the poet’s time is reflected in his poem. In the line “Like some coy maid yielding to her lover (16)”, Coleridge reveals that he regards virginity significant and draws a parallel between purity and virginity with his word usage. His choice of the word ‘maid’ may be claimed to be connected with his view of women, which is humiliating since women are evaluated based on phallocentric value, virginity. Additionally, it might be claimed that he creates an image of submissive women, whereby he claims that virginity is advantageous for a woman. The maid’s defining as ‘coy’ supports the idea that submission is told to be positive characteristics of a woman by the poet. The speaker of the poem “The Elion Harp” expresses his gratitude to God in the stanza below: I praise him, and with Faith inly feels, Who with his saving mercies healéd me, A sinful and most miserable man, Wildered and dark, and gave me to possess, Peace, and this Cot, and thee, heart-honoured Maid.(61-5) As can be seen from the last line of the stanza above, Coleridge regards women as a private property such as a place to live, granted by God to him. Besides, the poet utilizes the word �4 ‘maid’ one more time in the poem, which is capable of helping the readers to comprehend the importance of virginity for the poet. In the second place, Coleridge displays cultural expectations from women such as being mild, obedient, withdrawn, and passive in his poems. When the poetry of Coleridge is examined, the reader may easily come to the conclusion that the poet himself claims that a perfect woman is a submissive one. For instance, the poet likens the desultory breeze to /some coy maid half yielding to her lover/ in his poem “The Eolian Harp”. Another example of requirements of women according to the poet comes in the same poem identifying Mariana with the adjective of ‘meek’ in the line: Meek daughter in the family of Christ. Similar connotations are abundant in Coleridge’s poetry: The lovely lady, Christabel, Whom her father loves so well, What makes her in the wood so late, A furlong from the castle gate? She had dreams all yesternight Of her own betrothed knight; And she in the midnight wood will pray For the weal of her lover that's far away. (23-30) The verse above is taken from “Christabel” and sheds light upon the vision of favourable women from the perspective of the poet. Christabel’s being a lovely lady is paralleled with her father’s love towards her in the first two lines. The reader seems to be asked to value Christabel as lovely only because her father loves her. In short, Christabel is a lovely lady since she corresponds to the requirements that have been allocated by men. A different indication of cultural expectations from women comes in the sixth line of the verse above. The joint usage of the words, which function for the same purpose; ‘her’ and ‘own’ respectively, points to the possession of men over women in the line. Finally, Christabel’s pray for her fiancé might be considered as submissiveness of women as well. 3. Conclusion Negative attitudes of Coleridge towards his wife, Sara Fricker, must be concentrated on to have an insight into the poet’s views on women. He humiliates Sara whenever possible blaming her due to her sex, intellect, and her abilities, which might provide readers with an micro-understanding of Coleridge’s perspective of women in general. Additionally, Coleridge dares to declare that women are inferior to men in some aspects:“Permit me, my dear Sara! Without offence to you, as Heaven knows! It is without any feeling of Pride in myself, to say – that in sex, acquirements, and in the quantity and quality of natural endowments whether of Feeling, or of Intellect, you are the Inferior.”(Coleridge & Taylor. 1994. p. 163). This is a part from a letter that Coleridge writes to his wife, Sara, after they have a serious quarrel. In his letter, as can be seen; Coleridge has his own criteria for a good woman and finds those, who stay under the limit of his criteria, inferior. The poet utilizes the exaggerated power received from patriarchal system to humiliate women on the basis of sex �5 .after all. Considering the attitudes of Coleridge towards his wife, the assertions above on sexualisation of women and the conformity of Coleridge’s views on women to the cultural expectations of his period might be conceived as accurate. As is seen in the analysis of the poems of Coleridge in the body part of this paper, it may be argued that he sexualises women in his poems: “Christabel”, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and “The Eolian Harp”. It might be concluded that Coleridge conforms to the ideals and responsibilities assigned to women in patriarchal societies in his time and sexualises women, which can be understood with a focus on the word usage of him in his poetry. References: Abrams, M. H., & Greenblatt, S. (2012). The Norton Anthology of English Literature. New York: Norton. Coleridge, S. T., & Taylor, A. (1994). Coleridge’s Writings. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Griggs, E. L. (1956). Collected Letters of Samuel Taylor Coleridge.UK: Clarendon Press. Jackson, H. J. (1993). Coleridge’s Women, or Girls, Girls, Girls are Made to Love. Studies of Romanticism 3, 577-600. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3280 Title A name given to the resource Women in Coleridge’s “Christabel”, “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” and “The Eolian Harp”: Sexualisation and the Cultural Expectations Author Author Özoltulular, Muammer Abstract A summary of the resource. To face it, it is quite challenging to draw distinctive borders of women issues when it comes to Romantic poets of English literature. These poets were reforming many issues of the contemporary culture of England such as valuing the nature, which was deteriorated by Industrial Revolution of the period, and emphasizing intuition over reason. However, the changes those poets endeavouring to create might not be considered as revolutionary since these poets could not manage to stay away from the traditions of their societies. The aim of this paper is to analyse the place of women in Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The Eolian Harp and Christabel": how he sexualised women and what were the cultural expectation from women at the time. Allocating an exaggerated feminine aspect to women nearly climaxes in one of Coleridge’s memorable poems “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner”. Coleridge attends sexualising women in “Christabel” with the help of specific word choice. Additionally, it might be put forward that Coleridge gives significance to virginity, which is identified with the Blessed Virgin Mary in Christianity when Coleridge’s being ‘a staunch Anglican in religion’ is taken into consideration. In most of the patriarchal societies, virginity equates purity, which is utilized by men to suppress women. Moreover, negative attitudes of Coleridge towards his wife, Sara Fricker, must be concentrated on to have an insight into the poet’s views on women. Considering the attitudes of Coleridge towards his wife, the assertions above on sexualisation of women and cultural expectations from them in the eyes of Coleridge might be conceived as accurate. Keywords: Sexualisation, Women, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Cultural Expectations Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-05-19 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f4fd38a293f086da6350b6c8efc5aeda.pdf 7acaf6506968d775b01d69ca34582195 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Women Poets in Romanticism Alma Ţero English Department, Faculty of Philosophy University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina alma.zero@gmail.com Abstract: In Bosnia, modern university literary courses usually do not even include Romantic women poets into their syllabuses, which is a huge shortcoming for every student interested in gender studies as such. That is why this paper focuses on the Romantic Era 1790s-1840s and those women who had broken out of their prisons and into the literary world of poetry. Many events, such as the French Revolution, political and social turbulences in Britain, rising female reading audiences, and public coteries have influenced the scope of women poets‘ development and reach. Due to great tensions, male and female Romantic poetry progressed in two contrary currents with opposite ideas regarding many a problem and issue. However, almost every Romantic artist at that time produced works of approval regarding social reforms. Women continued writing, which gained them greater acknowledgment and economic success after all. Poets such as Charlotte Smith and Anna Barbauld were true Romantic representatives of female poets and this is why we shall mostly focus on specific display of their poetic works, language, and lives. Key Words: Romantic poetry, Women poets, Charlotte Smith, Anna Barbauld Introduction The canon of British Romantic writing has traditionally been focused on the main male representatives of the era, which highly contributed to the distortion of our understanding of its literary culture. In order to reveal a different Romanticism from the one depicted in earlier histories of British literature, one has to bear in mind both the sex of the author and the overall ideology of that time regarding gender. The period of history that has become associated with ―Romanticism‖ in English literature was a dynamic and decisive one. Apart from the ―political‖ revolutions in France and America, the ―social‖ upheaval of the Industrial Revolution was having significant effect, leading to a shift in attitude towards Nature, a renewed belief in Nature and the link with God, as well as a rising female contribution in arts. Although theoretically, women were supposed to be incapable of experiencing, embodying, or articulating their emotions and thoughts, more women were writing poetry in the Romantic period than ever before, and they did not want to be perceived only as female/women writers but as women who contributed to the mainstream of that time. The canonical representatives of Romanticism are usually referred to as the Big Six, and include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, and later William Blake; not involving a single female poet until recently. Modern critics purposely started to refer to the main female Romantic representatives as the Big Six as well, thus equalizing their statuses in seemingly every possible way. This may seem to be a huge progress in the general overview of female literary successes, but what we usually ignore is the still undermining equal but separate doctrine, which on the surface equals female to male literature but deep down separates them, never truly erasing the gender-line and thus never actually joining them into a single classification of the main male and female representatives of the Romantic literary era. The female poets mostly referred to as the Big Six are Anna Barbauld, Charlotte Smith, Mary Robinson, Hannah More, Anna Seward, and Helen Maria Williams; of which the first two we are going to elaborate on further in the paper. Since, although having as much differences as similarities, Smith and Barbauld are still true representatives of the ―missing [female] link‖ in the history of Romanticism. Nevertheless, it was still a long way to go for female writers of all genres in such a defined male world with so many headstrong ―men of letters‖. The whole sexual ideology of that time was particularly oppressive, containing women, as Virginia Woolf later noted even in the 20th century, to the ―Private House‖, with all its deprivations and discontents. And yet, this position of ―the angel of the hose‖ was also especially inspiring, and triggered some of the richest productions of the female imagination. Some of the most important historical events too strongly influenced the rise of a literary landscape dominated by women intellectuals, events such as the Napoleonic Wars, the turbulent political situation, riots and famine, but also smaller ones, such as the appearance of circulating libraries or the development of the ―bluestockings‖, which lead to a literate female public, and the development of the woman‘s self and individual approach to poetical works. 100 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Method of the Study The paper was accomplished by using the qualitative approach, since the study focuses on a more indepth analysis and understanding of the overall ideology, situation and experiences of women poets in the Romantic period and not on specific results of an experimental research. The techniques and procedures that we used are analysis of bibliography, email and internet surveys, as well as observation of students' reaction regarding the lack of female poets in literary courses. Apart from that, we used the comparative method so as to gain insight into the opposite positions, as well as similarities of male and female poets during Romanticism. On top of that, we used theoretical sampling (Glaser and Strauss, 1067) which is defined as the process of selecting "incidents, slices of life, time periods, or people on the basis of their potential manifestation or representation of important theoretical constructs" (Patton, 2001). Thus, the lives and works of Charlotte Smith and Anna Barbauld were used to portray some of the findings regarding the Romantic period and its characteristics. Findings and Discussion Female Readers In the 1780s British booksellers had started lending books in available libraries, thus for the first time enabling the literate middle classes (women as well as men) to purchase books. But since the middle and upper class women seemed to have had more leisure time to read, it is they who became by 1800 the primary market for works of literature. Most popular women poets published their works in magazines, gift-books, and annuals read by an ascending female critical mass. One of the main disadvantages of contributing to such literary sources was the limitation set by ―a circumscribed domain of acceptable literary femininity, writing from the heart about heart‘s concerns‖ (Gilroy, ―Women Poets 1780-1830‖, Romantic Writings, ed. Bygrave, 1996) which certainly influenced the quality of writing. However, the forming of a new (female) reading audience was seen by many male critics and writers as a cultural threat on several accounts. First, female readers might trivialize literature, which basically underestimates the intellectual capacity of women and contrasts the general notion about a woman‘s ―vulgar taste‖ with a (gentle) man‘s highly educated sense for aesthetics. Second, ―female reading was increasingly regarded as a dangerous recreation‖ (Mellor, 2005) during the Romantic period, to put it in the words of Jacqueline Pearson who wrote about it in her book Women‘s Reading in Britain 1750-1835 (1999). A dangerous recreation that could probably lead to increased rationality while exposing women to ―unfeminine‖ new ideas and forbidden sexual desires. Apart from that, a woman was never to be distracted from her usual domestic duties, which reading certainly did in the strict eyes of those advocating the whole oppressive sexual ideology of that time. Third, and perhaps the most important fact is that, since women preferred to read works of general information written by other women, they, as the leading audience, provided a large market for women writers. Thus, every female reader supported female writers, consciously or not, which leads us to a cultural and intellectual phenomenon that we mentioned at the beginning of the paper – the bluestocking circle. The Bluestocking vs. the Poetess By the late eighteenth century, there were many circles of learned women supporting and educating other females in order to improve the general opinion, as well as to come to terms with different occupations apart from the well-known ―motherly housewife‖. Those educated women were known as the ―bluestockings‖, which is a reference to informal blue woolen stockings as compared to formal black silk ones. Thus, the emphasis was greatly put on the informal quality of the gatherings and on conversation over fashion, which was generally unthinkable of in any female circle until then. Nevertheless, the Bluestocking Society certainly set itself no intellectual limitations: they debated moral questions, translated the classics, and engaged in influential literary criticism. It was founded by Elizabeth Montagu, a British literary critic and writer, in the early 1750s, and it had a huge impact on the works and reception of women poets, since the Society gave emotional and intellectual support and, what was of even greater importance, an economic one as well. Nevertheless, one of the main drawbacks for these women was the male portrayal of their disturbing unfeminine existence, which is most impressively depicted in an essay by the Scottish author and poet George Gilfillan on Felicia Hemans in Tait‘s Edinburgh Magazine (thus available to any man, woman, or child, imposing its negative connotations and spreading the ideology). The bluestocking observed and portrayed in this excerpt is, not only improperly dressed and ―ludicrous‖ (Gilroy, 1996), because she attempts to transcend into spheres not ―proper‖ (Gilroy, 1996) for her, but she is also 101 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo extremely unfeminine. The belittling depiction of her with all the papers (referring to hair curlers, rather than literary works) and sweat that she spills over her work, for which she obviously does not need a lot of time (―from morn to noon‖) (Gilroy, 1996) and which is thus not nearly as qualified as literature written by men, puts a strong emphasis on a woman‘s femininity. Many of the concerns that Gilfillan points out in this mockhumiliating essay of his, were the actual issues early women poets had to fight. As might be expected in this age, ―the more conservative the viewpoint, the more likelihood that the writer would be lavishly praised, widely read, and therefore all the more capable of attaining independence‖ (Curran, 2000), independence that women writers eagerly expected. And yet, the more a woman sought independence, the more she was criticized, and the more a woman tried to submit, the more she was ridiculed. Gilfillan underlines the importance of propriety of women‘s poetry, her femininity, and her heart, meaning her psychological and emotional state of mind, not the intellectual and educative one. These characteristics were widely used to describe the poetess, the woman confining her works to the feminine spheres, the caretaker of morality and religious responsibility, ―the good housewife of literature‖ (Gilroy, 1996). Those women poets were not generally perceived as an actual threat to the man‘s spheres of literature, since their writings are ―unstudied‖, as Gilfillan observed, thus highlighting the limits of both female intellectual capacities and feminine inspiration. The role of the poetess is viewed as simply another role that the housewife takes on while happily managing the household, and, although bluestockings never agreed with poetesses on several accounts, it was still publicly ―better‖ for a woman to live up to such expected ideals. Since Felicia Hemans certainly was a perfect example of a poetess, Gilfillan chose her as the image to emulate for other female poets, what many actually did, such as Letitia Elizabeth Landon (L.E.L.) or Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who were above all clever businesswomen as well. Contrary Currents The canonical male poets of the Romantic period were concerned with the capacities of creative imagination, with the development of an autonomous self, capable of transcendental thoughts and quality of life, and, later in the same period, with the individual approach and critique to social and political institutions, as well as with revolution as a conceptual idea or practical realization. Although merely an overview of the main issues, it certainly does help us in underlining the few similarities and many differences between Romantic male and female poets. Women poets, such as Charlotte Smith, Anna Barbauld, Mary Robinson, or Hannah More, strongly defended their position on the use of the, in Wordsworth‘s words, ―language of men‖ (Dizdar, 1999), since, as they claimed, it was the language that women usually used while concerned with the vernacular, with the ordinary, i.e. with the quotidian qualities of that time. The very word quotidian basically means ―the daily, ordinary, common‖ (The Free Dictionary, 2009), and was used as a reference to the daily domestic and social involvements. Women poets wrote the so called sentimental poems, back then a very fashionable style, on personal occasions such as the birth of a child and argued that in commenting on the small occurrences of daily life, they would establish a moral foundation for the nation. Another difference between the female and male Romantics is their position on, or better to say, their portrayal of the French Revolution, since both male and female writers never accepted war as a beneficial solution in general. While men involved themselves into writing elaborate poems and papers on the lost heroic portrayals of battles and warfare, such as Byron in his ―Childe Harold‘s Pilgrimage‖ (1812-1818) does (―And Harold stands upon this place of skulls, / The grave of France, the deadly Waterloo!‖) (Dizdar, 1999), women wrote about its uselessness and the despair in domestic areas, heavily relying on the above mentioned sentimentalism. They highlighted some of the most important issues that evolved out of the whole turbulent period, issues that concerned the society as such, but mostly emphasizing the state in which women were forced to change their minds or states. One of the most vivid depictions is written by Mary Robinson in her remarkable poem ―Winkfield Plain; or, a Description of a Camp in the Year 1800‖ (1804): ―Drums and trumpets, singing, firing / Girls seducing, beaux admiring… / Public-houses, booths, and castles… / Perfum‘d, painted, patch‘d, and blooming / Ladies – manly airs assuming! ... / Dames heart sick of wedded sameness… / All confusion, din, and riot, / Nothing clean – and nothing quiet. ‖ (Curran, 2000) Robinson employs to full effect both the feminine rhyme and present participle (―firing‖, ―admiring‖, ―blooming‖, ―assuming‖), a device generally used by her, so that the diversity and the restless energy of this temporary city (a camp) are strongly suggested. Curran (2000) states that the quotidian is absolute, since Robinson engaged herself into the ordinary and actual daily lives of lower and upper classes, never posing categorizations of any kind. She is one of the many women who have written about the place of a woman in wartime, about her domestic hardships (―public-houses‖, ―heart sick‖, ―wedded sameness‖), as well as about the 102 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo prejudices and judgments she had to face (―manly airs assuming‖) by occupying herself with what were supposed to be male spheres, including writing poetry (such as she herself did by writing this very poem using such controversial topics). Apart from the portrayals of wartime situations, men and women poets slightly contrasted in that the men embraced the call for the overthrow of the British monarchy and the creation of a democratic republic, such as Shelley did in ―Prometheus Unbound‖ (1820) (―The loathsome mask has fallen, the man remains/ Sceptreless, free, uncircumscribed, but man/ Equal, unclassed, tribeless, and nationless,/ Exempt from awe, worship, degree, the king/ Over himself‖) (Dizdar, 1999), while women disagreed on how this social change is to be achieved. Women poets argued, publicly as well as through their works that a sudden and violent political revolution takes too many casualties. They thought that a social reform is a process, ―not of revolution but of gradual evolution, a process that is furthered by educating the populace‖ (Mellor, ―Feminism‖, Romanticism, ed. Roe, 2005) In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women were not to be observed only as passive objects of literary works, since every woman has the capability to think for herself, as well as to write what she thinks (and not only what she feels); concluding with a demand for improved education of women. She emphasized the importance of women being educated in the same schools in which men were educated, and for the same purposes – to legally participate in the nation‘s improvement. Many women writers insisted on the motherly role that they were given much earlier by their male counterparts, arguing that they were better suited to rule the nation than men because of these natural instincts to protect and care for the family (nation in this case). In that way, women started to use the sexual ideology of the time for their own individual or collective purposes; a true ―act of liberation through, not from, femininity‖ (Curran, 1996). Apart from that, women gain a quite opposite perspective of nature in relation to that of male poets. While men perceive nature as the source of divine creative power, the power of God (or the universe), the source of a ―spontaneous overflow of feelings‖, which he speaks for and understands; women poets denounce this concept of the sublime, the mental empowerment, and see her as Mother Nature, a female friend who provides support but needs cultivation. The woman poet either merges with her relational self, as opposite to the autonomous self of the male Romantic poet, and she focuses on the ways in which that self interacts with her surroundings and the wider community; or, she retreats into a desolate state of mind, reinforcing the rising cult of sensibility. This very cult is strongly related to Sentimentalism from the 18th century, which puts an emphasis on feelings and emotions, a physical appreciation of God, nature, and other people, as well as on the ability to project those thoughts and ideas onto the reader by evoking sympathy, self-awareness, or sensitivity. The above mentioned relational self is related to one of the main traits of Sentimentalism itself, thus being an extension on what sentimentalists used to call the ―sentimental female persona‖, a persona able to connect with others, or herself, and to express her deepest emotional fears despite consequences of humiliation and failure. ―The Missing Link‖ Charlotte Smith As the most famous English female poet at the end of the eighteenth century, Charlotte Turner Smith (1749-1806) encompasses some of the above mentioned most important traits characteristic to, as some critics named it, the Feminine Romanticism. Her Elegiac Sonnets of 1784 went through ten expanding editions in fifteen years. It was Smith, and her fellow female poets, who strongly impelled the revival of the sonnet, since they avoided the form of the epic and mostly wrote sonnets, ballads, or lyrics. These forms enabled them to express their own feelings and arouse sympathy of their readers, while memorizing an ongoing relationship or the lack of it, such as did Smith in her own sonnets. Charlotte Smith vigorously invoked the vernacular, ordinary language, as well as the already mentioned quotidian values, e.g. in her fantastic world of ―Flora‖ (Beachy Head and Other Poems, 1807): ―The vision comes…/ Flora descends, to dress the expecting earth,/ Awake the germs, and call the buds to birth;/ Bid each hybernacle its cell unfold, / And open silken leaves, and eyes of gold! (Smith, ―Flora‖, The Poems of Charlotte Smith, ed. Curran 1993) While portraying the quotidian, a simple garden, in terms of a fairyland; Smith certainly uses the typical poetry of vision which we refer to not always realizing the paradoxical meaning it has. The actual vision does not have to be the metaphorical poeticizing, but an actual vision in the form of a province, or, as we could see, a garden. While Smith repeatedly demonstrated her maternal devotion in the first part of her Elegiac Sonnets, in ―Flora‖ she subtly puts an emphasis on the feminine qualities of Flora, the goddess of flowers and the season of spring in Roman mythology. Flora is a ―vision‖ herself, compelling the reader to imagine an extraordinarily beautiful woman, a woman that employs herself with a mother‘s daily routine: she dresses the earth and awakes 103 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the germs like a mother would dress and awake her children in the morning. Flora is at the same time a vision of fertility, the goddess, the woman giving birth to the buds, evokes life, the renewal of the cycle of life, and thus highlighting the woman‘s essential role in human reproduction while at the same time underlining the importance of the feminine touch as in ordinary so in extraordinary spheres of life. Smith‘s hidden message is related to a woman poet‘s position in her own time; a woman poet‘s potential to open the society‘s ―eyes of gold‖, of knowledge, independence, respect, and awareness, instead of those shut by judgment and false ideologies. As already mentioned, many of the Romantic women poets used the sexual ideology of their time for their own purposes; Charlotte Smith was no exception. She used her suffering, her concern for her children, and even the humiliating ―exile‖ husband as poetic inspirations and conveyed her self-pity on paper. In a letter to her bookseller Thomas Cadell, she writes: ―I cannot but murmur at my fate, which seems the hardest that ever was endured & the most irremediable‖ (Taylor, 1994). Pity and self-pity turned out to be the major theme that she ever used in her poetical works, as a source of inspiration, as well as self-advertisement. The already mentioned rising cult of sensibility gave women a certain feeling of advantage, since emotions were generally related to femininity, thus, emotion and its projections transformed female writings, which finally lead to some kind of a ―Neo-Sentimentalism‖ and its upholding of empathy and introspection, as in the following poem by Charlotte Smith. In ―Sonnet XXXII. To Melancholy. Written on the Banks of the Arun, October 1785‖, Charlotte Smith explores the limits of the tragic emotion of pity and sadness, but at the same time she smoothly draws on works of former poets, such as Thomas Gray and Thomas Otway. The speaker‘s somber pensive mood is reflected in the haunted landscape‘s description, which partly reminds us of mid-eighteenth century ―graveyard school of poetry‖ and especially of Gray‘s ―Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard‖ (1751) with the melancholic, vulnerable, and sensitive poetic persona. In that way, Smith displays the quality of sensibility, fashionable for women poets at that time, and it provides a poetic persona whom the poet herself can identify with. At the end, Smith once again surprises the reader with her positive use of negative experiences and emotions: ―Oh Melancholy! such thy magic power,/ That to the soul these dreams are often sweet,/ And soothe the pensive visionary mind!‖ ((Smith, ―Sonnet XXXII‖) It is this pensive and sad emotion that the poet draws upon and develops her imagination, and it is this very state of mind and heart that provides her with the skill to write verses such as the above mentioned. While relying on these sensible and vulnerable emotions, Smith heavily drew upon her representation as a mother. Nevertheless, it is not the later commercialized ―moral motherhood‖ of the nineteenth century but one that concerns itself with the systematic subjugation of women, thus being able to sympathize with the subjugation of any other person or people. She displayed vigorous sympathy for the liberation of the French people, that it earned her a good reputation and reception among the British living in Paris. Her poem ―The Emigrants‖ of 1793 was a dedication to William Cowper, since she admitted to have used his ―The Task‖ (1785) as her model for the use of ―a poetic style in which the inner musings of an isolated sensibility, through intertwining strands of association, define an arena for desultory contemplation and surround it from various directions at once‖ (Curran, 1994). Smith develops the already mentioned relational self, and corresponds as a solitary figure to the French exiles and their loss, thus creating her own identity by absorbing their experiences of injustice and despair: ―Still, as Men misled By early prejudice (so hard to break)/ I mourn your sorrows; for I too have known/ Involuntary exile.‖ (Smith, ―The Emigrants‖) The very absorption of another person‘s emotion or experience is a typical trait of Sentimentalism, since the resulting empathy and impact on one‘s own self is the main source of inspiration and self-reflection. Apart from that, the implications of ―early prejudices, so hard to break‖ are more than apparent if observed in relation to the oppressive state in which women had to live, where their legal existence was attached to that of her husband, but even more, where an educated woman‘s hardships to confront male prejudices were socially neglected. But the main difference between Cowper and Smith is his moralistic tone, which, although she writes ―Learn, that the God thou worshippest, delights/ In acts of pure humanity!‖ (Smith, ―The Emigrants‖), further in the poem, she praises revolutionary actions by those who fight for their rights and freedom: ―Actions such as these,/ Like incense rising to the Throne of Heaven,/ Far better justify the pride, that swells/ Of Victory from a thousand brazen throats‖ (Smith, ―The Emigrants‖). Even her representation of natural otherness in ―The Emigrants‖ is strongly influenced by her admiring the concept of renewal (e.g. the change of seasons); something which people can admire but not participate in, such as portrayed by William Wordsworth himself in ―The Solitary Reaper‖ (Poems, in Two Volumes, 1807). Wordsworth paradoxically describes his inability to describe the unearthly song sang by a Scottish Highlands girl as she reaps grain in a solitary field. He compares the girl to a nightingale singing an incomprehensible song, which reminds us of Keats‘s ―Ode to a Nightingale‖ (1819) or even more to Shelley‘s ―To a Skylark‖ (1820), 104 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo which devotedly emphasizes the bird‘s divine and transcendental qualities (―What art thou we know not; / Until we hardly see – we feel that it is there.‖) (Shelley, ―To a Skylark‖), implying its inspiring effect on the poet, along with the human inability to reach the bird‘s freedom and carelessness, and by deeper analysis, human hopelessness in terms of natural processes and necessary changes. Nevertheless, many critics think that Smith‘s ―Beachy Head‖ (1807) is by far her greatest artistic achievement when considering the representations of nature. She perfectly conveys her idea that no mind nor linguistic system can imagine or utter the power, infinity, and variety that nature encompasses, thus people, not even elevated poets, are capable of understanding her, not to mention of speaking for her (as Romantic poets usually claimed to). Beachy Head is actually a long headland, whose human and geological history becomes the subject of this narrative poem. Some controversies arouse regarding the connotations of French invasion of England in the poems, as well as the fact that the self-pity and lament are briefly referred to with the question ―Ah, who is happy? [and the answer some thirty lines later] ―I once was happy‖ (Smith, ―Beachy Head‖). Because of this very remoteness and absence of Smith herself, many critics argued that the poem itself is more of a historical importance than elegiac one. Anna Barbauld In the Memoires devoted to Anna Laetitia Barbauld (1743-1825), Lucy Aikin wrote: ―That swiftness of apprehension by which she [Barbauld] was eminently distinguished, manifested itself from her earliest infancy‖ (Aikin, 1826). It is thus sad that a student of British Romanticism cannot find more than two or three books on this great female poet of the Romantic period. She was not only one of the most notable contributors to Romantic poetry; she was also one of the many women poets that proved themselves in favor of a gradual social reform. Anna Barbauld published her ―Epistle to William Wilberforce‖ on the evils of Slave Trade, under her own name, thus sympathizing with the abolitionist movement; but she also anonymously published some political orations with such a strong command that it seemed incredible to all when they realized that it was written by a woman. Although confined to a woman‘s sphere from early age on, she certainly knew how to use her situation in order to gain independence, such as the already mentioned Charlotte Smith did. In Stuart Curran‘s words, ―if a woman‘s place is in the home, or in the schoolroom as in Anna Barbauld‘s case, or in the garden, then the particulars of those confined quarters are made the impetus for verse‖ (Curran, 1996). Barbauld herself used the quotidian or the ordinary as the driving force for her literary verses, thus the titles of three of her poems are very indicative of it: ―Verses Written in an Alcove‖ (1773), ―An Inventory of the Furniture in Dr Priestley‘s Study‖ (1825), or even ―The First Fire, October 1st, 1815‖ (1825). But she was also a headstrong Dissenting writer who eagerly advocated the role of the Dissenters (English Christians who for one reason or another separated from the Church of England) in the future of Britain, since it was for her the faith and education of progress. Beyond the Dissenting intellectual community, she relied on the circle of cultured ―bluestockings‖ to whom her Poems of 1773 introduced her and who immediately embraced her as an articulate representative of their values (which we already explored in detail). She criticized Romantic reviewers‘ for increasingly emphasizing the connection between a woman‘s life and her text as a way of enforcing contemporary ideologies of femininity, such as in her poem ―On a Lady‘s Writing‖ (Poems, 1773): ―Her even lines her steady temper show;/ Neat as her dress, and polish'd as her brow;/ Strong as her judgment, easy as her air;/ Correct though free, and regular though fair:/ And the same graces o'er her pen preside/ That form her manners and her footsteps guide‖. Barbauld amazingly conveys to the reader an image of a perfect lady in just six lines, thus emphasizing the difficulties which a woman poet had to deal with. A woman was supposed to be the caretaker of morality and good manner, and so was her poetry (if any) expected to literally look like, and even sound. The neatness of meters and syllabic uses was to be matched with a polished (artificial) language, thus enhancing the ―propriety‖ of a woman‘s conduct in every possible sphere of her life. Some of Barbauld‘s comments on the French Revolution were extremely judged, and even any possible allusion on rebellious thoughts was generally forbidden. For example, the suggestion in her collection of poems Hymns in Prose (1781) that a king could act wrongly and be punished by God becomes much more uncomfortable at such a time. Barbauld was a devotee to the cult of sensibility, which gained momentum once women poets realized that they can gain certain authority by using their main ―defect‖, femininity, as a distinguishing virtue. Thus, in her poem ―The Mouse‘s Petition. Found in the TRAP where he had been confin'd all Night‖ (Poems, 1773), Barbauld reflects on herself, on human relations among themselves and to the natural environment with all its creatures. She actually wrote the poem as a response to Joseph Priestley‘s scientific experiments on animals, especially on a mouse that was caught in a trap the very night when Barbauld visited him. According to some critics, the poem was found ―twisted among the wires of the cage [of the mouse] the next day when it was brought in after breakfast‖ (Bellanca, 2003). Even Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who wrote ―The Rime of the Ancient Mariner‖ (1798), admired her sensibility, and wrote: ―thanks to Mrs. Barbauld, . . . it has become 105 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo universally fashionable to teach lessons of compassion towards animals‖ (Bellanca, 2003); but ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖ was more than just a plea against animal experimentation, in many ways comparable to the poem ―To a Mouse, on Turning Her Up in Her Nest, With The Plough‖ (1786) written by the self-proclaimed bard of Scotland, Robert Burns. While introducing the reader with his knowledge of agriculture and farming, Burns underlines the importance of sympathy even in the daily monotony of a simple farmer and the possibility of the farmer‘s usurping the natural environment: ―I‘m truly sorry Man‘s dominion / Has broken Nature‘s social union‖ (Burns, ―To a Mouse‖). Due to the fact that the whole idea Barbauld had is projected in Burns‘s poem, it is not surprising that he used some of her words such as ―beastie‖, but Barbauld‘s constant refusal to use any particular gender, except in the last lines, enables both male and female readers to sympathize with the animal and nature itself. With lines such as: ―Lets Nature commoners enjoy/ The common gifts of Heaven‖ (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖), Barbauld speaks for general women rights downtrodden by their male contemporaries and competitors, for any detained and oppressed human, and for such liberty as required by nature‘s laws. In that sense, Barbauld defied imprisonment of any kind, psychological or social, as well as the constant human urge to subdue nature under its control: ―The well-taught philosophic mind/ To all compassion gives;/ Casts round the world an equal eye,/ And feels for all that lives.‖ (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖) Barbauld contrasts the feminine sensibility against male rationality, and skillfully encompasses both ―the philosophic mind‖ and ―compassion‖, which basically is a combination of the already mentioned contrary literary currents, but a combination of human states of mind and heart as well. She was a firm advocate for a better educational system for women, especially in the areas of natural science, since all (male and female) human beings need a better understanding of the scientific approaches to natural processes. Barbauld ironically concludes that whatever happens to an animal, a mouse in this case, can easily happen to humans as well (―which men, like mice, may share‖) (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖); a message similar to Burns‘s: ―The best laid schemes o‘ Men an‘ Mice / Gang oft agley‖. (Burns, ―To a Mouse‖) On one hand, it is natural catastrophes that could destruct a whole nation; on the other hand ―destruction lurks unseen‖ (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖) and usually as a consequence to humans of their own cruelty (wars, oppressions, executions). The main difference between these two great poets is Burns‘s concluding with the acceptance of an animal‘s inferiority due to its lack of reason and its experiencing any hardship only at the very moment of it (―the present only toucheth thee‖) (Burns, ―To a Mouse‖), while Barbauld, reflecting her own inferior position as a writer, discovers a ―kindred mind‖ in the ―free-born mouse detain[ed]‖ (Barbauld, ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖) and nature‘s environment in general. Conclusion Women in patriarchal societies have historically been reduced to not more than just properties, to characters in fairy tales and images imprisoned in male texts because generated only by male expectations and ideas. This paper focused on women poets in the Romantic Era 1790s-1840s, those women who had broken out of their prisons and into the literary world of poetry. Many events, such as the French Revolution, political and social turbulences in Britain, rising female reading audiences, and public coteries (e.g. The Bluestocking Society) have influenced the scope of women poets‘ development and reach. Apart from their general appeal to female readers, women poets had to confront the increasing hostility on the part of the male Romantic writers and artists. Due to this tension, male and female Romantic poetry progressed in two contrary currents, with, raging from slightly to extremely, opposite ideas of the poetic language and topics and the political and social implications of revolutionary uprisings. While women were supposed to write in a manner which mirrors their female domestic qualities, men claimed the ―masculine rationality‖ for them. However, almost every Romantic artist at that time produced works of approval regarding social reforms; women focusing on the gradual evolution, and men mostly confirming to the sudden revolution. Whatever the drawbacks or prejudices, women continued writing, developing a relational self devoted to the cult of sensibility, which gained them greater acknowledgment and economic success after all. Poets such as Charlotte Smith and Anna Barbauld were true Romantic models to emulate, and several of their most famous poems, such as ―Beachy Head‖ and ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖ respectively, are the richest productions of female imagination. They devotedly proved to be ―unacknowledged legislators of the world‖. 106 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Ashfield, Andrew, ed. Romantic Women Poets, 1770-1838: An Anthology. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995. Barbauld, Anna. The Works of Anna Barbauld. Ed. Aikin, Lucy. Boston: David Reed, 1826. (Digitized Version in 2007.) Brydges, Egerton. Imaginative Biography. London: Saunders and Otley, 1834. (Digitized Version in 2008.) Bygrave, Stephen, ed. Approaching Literature: Romantic Writings. Curran, Stuart. ―Romantic Poetry: The I altered‖. London: Routledge (in association with the Open University), 1996. Curran, Stuart. The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Curran, Stuart. Essay: Romantic poetry: Why and wherefore? Dizdar, Srebren. Poezija engleskog romantizma. Sarajevo: ―ŃahinpańiĤ‖, 1999. Gilbert, Sandra M., Gubar, Susan. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-century Imagination. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1984. Roe, Nicholas, ed. Romanticism: An Oxford Guide. Mellor, Anne K. ―Feminism‖. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Smith, Charlotte. The Poems of Charlotte Smith. Ed. Curran, Stuart. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Stanton, Judith Phillips. The Collected Letters of Charlotte Smith. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2003. Woolf, Virginia. Selected Works of Virginia Woolf. London: Wordsworth Editions, 2005. Van Leeuwen, Steven H. Bartleby.Com:Great Books Online. 1999. URL: http://www.bartleby.com/ The Free Dictionary. Huntingdon Valley, PA: Farlex, Inc., 2006. URL: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/ Articles used from JSTOR (Journal Storage): Richard C. Taylor and Charlotte Smith, "The Evils, I was Born to Bear": Two Letters from Charlotte Smith to Thomas Cadell, Source: Modern Philology, Vol. 91, No. 3 (Feb., 1994), Published by: The University of Chicago Press, URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/438436 Stuart Curran, Charlotte Smith and British Romanticism, Source: South Central Review, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Summer, 1994), Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press, URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3189989 Paula R. Feldman, Women Poets and Anonymity in the Romantic Era, Source: New Literary History, Vol. 33, No. 2, Anonymity (Spring, 2002), Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press, URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20057724 Mary Ellen Bellanca, Science, Animal Sympathy, and Anna Barbauld‘s ―The Mouse‘s Petition‖, Source: Eighteenth-Century Studies, vol. 37, no. 1 (2003) 107 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Theresa M. Kelley, Romantic Histories: Charlotte Smith and "Beachy Head", Source: Nineteenth-Century Literature, Vol. 59, No. 3 (Dec., 2004), Published by: University of California Press, URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4142003 Emma Major, Nature, Nation, and Denomination: Barbauld‘s Taste for the Public, Source: ELH, Vol. 74 (2007), Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press 108 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 19 Title A name given to the resource Women Poets in Romanticism Author Author Žero, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. In Bosnia, modern university literary courses usually do not even include Romantic women poets into their syllabuses, which is a huge shortcoming for every student interested in gender studies as such. That is why this paper focuses on the Romantic Era 1790s-1840s and those women who had broken out of their prisons and into the literary world of poetry. Many events, such as the French Revolution, political and social turbulences in Britain, rising female reading audiences, and public coteries have influenced the scope of women poets‘ development and reach. Due to great tensions, male and female Romantic poetry progressed in two contrary currents with opposite ideas regarding many a problem and issue. However, almost every Romantic artist at that time produced works of approval regarding social reforms. Women continued writing, which gained them greater acknowledgment and economic success after all. Poets such as Charlotte Smith and Anna Barbauld were true Romantic representatives of female poets and this is why we shall mostly focus on specific display of their poetic works, language, and lives. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c034fc202b34c23e5687677614db710d.pdf 39d80cee92cc499586df951647b3541f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Women Soldiers and Male Nurses – Adjustment of Gender Identity Marijana Sivric Faculty of Arts and Humanities University of Mostar marijana.sivric@tel.net.ba Abstract: It is said that gender identity can be seen as either unidimensional or multidimensional depending on its realization within society. The question is how gender identity is connected to social groups. Membership in a social group profoundly influences human behavior, with both positive and negative implications. On the one hand, positive social identity is promoted by the feeling of belonging to a group, which enhances individuals‘ self-esteem and a sense of connectedness to others. On the other hand, membership in a social group can promote negative bias toward outgroup members, in-group members who violate group norms can be derogated, and the whole group can be negatively stereotyped in certain areas (for example, women in the military). In our research we will try to prove that such positioning within social groups, in a way, enforces the adjustment of gender identities, breaking the stereotyped frames of gender, which is especially evident in ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations. We will also show how continuous construction of a range of masculine and feminine identities is reflected in discourse. The examples will be taken from ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations, e.g. military opposed to nursing, to illustrate that specific shift from typical construction of identity into a new sphere of genderness. Key words: gender, identity, social group, stereotypes, adjustment. Introduction A rather broad and open-ended definition of identity would be that identity is the social positioning of self and other (Buholtz, Hall, 2005). Buholtz and Hall also suggest that ―identity may be in part intentional, in part habitual and less than fully conscious, in part an outcome of interactional negotiation, in part a construct of others‘ perceptions and representations, and in part an outcome of larger ideological processes and structures.‖ (Buholtz, Hall, 2005:2) Even a superficial view of this definition shows that identity, especially gender identity research, is multidimensional and interdisciplinary. One of the dimensions important for understanding identity construction is a sociological dimension, to the point in which we speak about a person‘s positioning within a social group and how a social group influences someone‘s self-gendering. Another dimension is a psychological one, ―where the divergence in perspectives can be characterized in terms whether sex typing is considered adaptive or maladaptive, described as an individual or normative difference, and whether gender identity is regarded as a unidimensional or multidimensional construct.‖ (Ruble, Lurye, Zosuls, 2008) The third dimension, which is of particular interest to us, is a discursive dimension of gender identity, i.e. how gender identity is constructed through the construction of discourse or particular discursive events. Naturally, none of these can be taken separately. They are rather intertwined, helping create an overall picture of identity construction. In their social life, people are positioned within varied structures of institutions and society, and they are assigned specific social roles; they all take on different gender identities in different communities or cultures. Also, they are actively involved in the construction and performance of their own gender identities. Belonging to a social group profoundly influences human behavior, the implications of which can be both positive and negative. Membership in a social group can promote a positive social identity from which individuals enhance their self-esteem and a sense of belongingness or connectedness to others. On the other hand, membership in a social group can promote ―negative bias toward out-group members, derogation of ingroup members who violate group norms, and disengagement from certain areas in which one group has been negatively stereotyped.‖ (Ruble, Lurye, Zosuls, 2008:2) Being multidimensional, gender identity is reflected through the relationship between social identity, which shows the awareness of group membership, and personal adjustment. 811 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Gender identity may be conceptualized as categorical knowledge - you confirm that you are a member of a certain group; a feeling of importance - being a part of that group is really important to you; and evaluation - you like to be a part of that group. The degree of your masculinity or femininity was earlier considered by developmental psychologists as a direct and optimal result of sex typing – you are either a man or a woman. On the other hand, cross-sex typing was seen as deviant and potentially harmful. Bem (1981) argues that the extent to which people were sex typed was indicative of the extent to which they were gender schematic or had internalized culturally prescribed gender norms. This could result in negative adjustment, which means that people will not be able to react appropriately in different situations, especially when gender norms are violated. Higgins (2000) suggests that people can be either prevention focused, being concerned with avoiding negative outcomes, or promotion focused, in obtaining positive outcomes. 274 In feminist theory a metaphor which is frequently used is ‗creation of different faces‘ for constructing one‘s own identity. This refers to particular situations through which we, while performing gender, create different gender identities. As Eckert and McConnell (2003) emphasize ―in a world where simply being can count as being bad, identities are often constructed in opposition to dominant cultural ideologies. Identity construction is not an exclusively individual act, social selves are produced in interaction, through processes of contestation and collaboration.‖ In the1990s a diversity of research on people‘s identities emerged, investigating how identity was constructed, displayed and performed in the language used by particular gender groups (e.g. McElhinny (1993) on women police officers in Pittsburgh or Bergvall (1996) on women engineering students). That was the period when a shift occurred in feminist theory and gender studies in thinking about gender. Gender identity is no longer conceptualized as something people just have but also as involving what they do, how they react in particular situations. Gender is undergoing a constant process of production, reproduction and change through people‘s performance of gendered acts in which they project their own gendered identities. 2. Construction of Identity Identity construction, as we have suggested, is multifold. It may occur as the creation of individual identity, the simultaneous creation and challenging of other people‘s identity, their relationships within group identity, etc. In the reality we experience around us, a specific group identity rarely exists or operates in isolation from other identities. People‘s own identities are largely determined by the identity of the social groups they belong to. People often identify with, and are influenced by, group memberships, which does not mean that this identification is directly relevant to their present circumstances. This would mean that the social identity network of an individual has significant implications for the person‘s perceptions, emotions, and behaviors. As an individual you have created a network of different identities which is not connected only to one group or to the last group you are a member of. The two key concepts that offer complementary perspectives on identity are whether you are ‗the same‘ as your group or ‗differ‘ from it. If you are ‗the same‘, you are allowed to see yourself as belonging to a group, while if you are ‗different‘ it produces social distance between those who perceive themselves as unlike. Apart from the individual and in-group identities, there are also differences between in-group members and those outside the group. This is a well known concept of in-group and out-group relationships, which are, in most cases, ideologically conditioned. Buholtz and Hall (2003) suggest that such ideological ranking enables the most powerful group to constitute itself as a norm from which all others diverge. However, that norm is not usually recognizable as a separate identity. Within this complex relational network of different identities, it is possible that some in-group members are identified as closer to the members of the out-group. This is especially significant in social groups in which complex gendered identities are at work. Getting closer to the members of the other group leads to identity change, which is also challenging because individuals start categorizing themselves as members of any new group that they have joined. The process of taking on a new group membership involves an adjustment of one‘s own identity or, to be more precise, the present identity, in order to accommodate the identity of the new group. It may take some time before people get accustomed to the new group membership, or before they start perceiving that group‘s identity as a part of their self-identity. 274 Higgins gives an example of a woman wearing a feminine outfit to avoid being criticized for being unfeminine or looking unattractive or, as a contrast, wearing a feminine outfit because of a desire to be admired for being feminine and perceived as attractive. 812 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In contrast, this integration to the new group is not always successful. People may experience rejection and hostility from the members of the group, which is a very difficult position, especially if you really want to prove that you are worthy of being a member of that group and you highly identify with it (Jetten et al, 2004). Iyer, Jetten and Tsavrikos (2006) suggest that old and new group memberships may be reconciled. One possibility is that both identities independently co-exist without any impact on each other. That is, the idea of network of identities that we all create does not, in fact, depend on the group we belong to but on the situation in which we find ourselves. Another question that we earlier tackled is the one of power relations within the group or between the groups. Previous research on identity was mostly based on the assumption that identities were attributes of individuals or groups rather than of situations. The power of a group is dynamically constructed and exercised in different aspects of a specific interaction; group members manifest power in a variety of ways as they construct their own identities and roles in response to the behavior of others. When we speak of gendered power, especially in mix-gender groups with a majority of men, it is significant how women try to construct their identity. Women who attempt to adjust to more masculine styles of behavior are considered more credible but less feminine, the situation which is typical for the military, police forces etc. Howes and Stevenson (1993) emphasize that ―women in groups are less prone to self-assertion and more prone to compromise…If women follow the trend shown by the sociological data and become a large minority of military personnel, their presence can be expected to change the organizational structure in which they participate.― If we speak of the military as a traditionally male group, with specific and rather rigid identity, it is true that allowing the access of a larger number of women into the group will require a new strategic vision and leadership and challenge the existing one. Nevertheless, being a minority, women rarely achieve high-level positions and if they do, the reason they are selected is for their rather counter-stereotypical characteristics, i.e. less feminine and more masculine. Similarly, Howes and Stevenson (2000) describe this situation as women's attempt to protect themselves by adopting the attitudes of their male colleagues. They 'go native in order to survive'. Most research on women in contemporary male-dominated organizations suggests that women develop two major patterns of adaptation: cooption and segregation. The first applies to those structures and occupations where women accept male definitions of the situation and try to blend into the male organizational culture. The second pattern manifests itself in groups of women who become effectively isolated from the organizational mainstream and cultivate female friendship, support, and cooperation in order to cope with the rejection or obstacles put before them by the opposite gender. The situation with the military can become more complex. An article in Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military (1996:12) regarding the captivity of Rhonda Cornum during the Gulf War states: ―Women in wartime and in military culture provide a ready test for male dominance and a ready target of anger: women become the object of male violence just for being there. They violate the male terrain of war and fraternity of power. Tailhook is an excellent example of male terrain, where the women ―had‖ to have it happen. Similarly, the female captivity can‘t be over until there is a rape.‖ Victoria Bergvall (1996) gives a similar example of female engineering students: on the one hand there is a social need to behave in stereotypically ‗feminine‘ ways, if they wish to take part in heterosexual social and sexual relationships. On the other hand, if they are going to succeed in their studies, they must assert themselves and their views, which is liable to put them in competition with fellow students. This involves assertive, competitive behavior perceived as ‗masculine‘. What is important is the way women try to adjust their identities if they want to become members of a male-dominated group. Obviously, it is a very hard job; they have to give up a great deal of their femininity in order to become a part of the male group. Women who find themselves in new groups, like the military, can partly segregate to cope with other girls and preserve their identity, but consequently, they can become ‗targets of male anger‘. Their positions and their identities are challenged both ways. There is also an opposite example of the identity adjustment that we want to discuss here - the men who want to become members of a female-dominated group. Do the ‗male nurses‘ have to co-opt or segregate, is their male identity challenged? These are some of the questions we will try to answer in the following chapters. 3. Gender Identity in Language and Discourse The third dimension of identity research that we noted earlier is its discursive dimension. The question of identity construction is primarily expressed through language and it is extremely significant to define how gender identities are reflected in discourse. Buholtz and Hall (2005:585) argue that ―identity is best viewed as the emergent product rather than the preexisting source of linguistic and other semiotic practices and therefore as fundamentally a social and cultural 813 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo phenomenon.‖ As such, identity is an intersection between culturally imposed and personal meanings which may be chosen and imposed through language use. In particular discursive situations identity is formed and constructed through different language forms. When constructed in ongoing discourse, identity is not a final product or creation; it is constantly challenged, reproduced, adjusted and changed. Their dynamic perspective is in contrast with the traditional view of identities as unitary and constant psychological states or social categories. As each community has its identity, the linguistic reflection of that identity is the language specific for that particular community. Therefore, we say that language is an authentic expression of group identity. Some sociolinguistic approaches to language and identity associate rates of use of particular linguistic forms with particular kinds of speakers. Of course, speakers are not always aware of all the language features they are using in particular situations and the nuances of linguistic behaviors which signify their identity. But they are definitely sure of certain aspects of language which they use in certain situations to confirm their identity, e.g. radicals who use some linguistic expressions pejoratively, ascribing completely new meanings to them, or, the language expressions used pejoratively by male soldiers to identify themselves as a group opposed to female soldiers. Due to gender subordination, according to Eckert (1989), women in many cultures do not have the same access to possible accomplishments as men, which they tend to compensate through more symbolic resources, primarily language, personality and physical appearance in order to present themselves as acceptable or equal members of society. We claim that the relationship between speakers‘ gender and their use of linguistic forms is a direct one. However, some linguists (Ochs and Taylor, 1995) claim that this relationship is indirect; ―linguistic features are associated with gender via their association with something else that itself can be associated with gender, e.g. a professional woman who uses a direct, forceful style of speaking and is described by her colleagues as 'talking like a man'‖ Does it mean that this woman is using language to signal that she is aware of her masculine behavior and wants others to accept her as such or is she using it for professional reasons to index her self-confidence and authority, which is also connected to masculinity? It is especially important how we perceive this situation in male-dominated groups or female-dominated groups in regard to the power she wants to exert. What she regards as appropriate to her professional status can be interpreted by others as inappropriate for her behavior as a woman, which does not mean that it is inappropriate for her new identity. As we can see, the same way of speaking can signify both professional identity and gendered identity, which is in practice difficult to separate and the usage of language for one or the other identity is to be negotiated for each particular situation or context. For a female soldier, it is not always necessary to index her masculine nature or behavior; it depends on the situational context and discursive practice. Another important feature in constructing gender identity in male-dominated groups is hegemonic masculinity which is frequently connected to violence. M. Talbot (1998:191) suggests that ―masculinity is not an individual property or attribute; it is formed within institutions and is historically constituted.‖ When women perform ‗masculine‘ job, they have to perform it through the power of the institution. That is expressed symbolically, through the way they are dressed, i.e. special uniforms, to the language they use, the way they behave – physical ability and exertion of power. On the other hand, the presence of women in typically masculine jobs can lead to a certain shift of identity of a whole group, sometimes through the language forms they use, sometimes through cool and emotionless efficacy, which is something we will try to argue in the following chapter. 4. Adjustment of Identity in Discourse – Discussion In her paper on women police officers in Pittsburgh (1995), Bonnie McElhinny claims that investigations on gender should not focus exclusively on differences between men and women but also on how hegemonic femininities and masculinities produce subordinate and subversive femininities and masculinities. That way the existence of competition between male and female identities is also investigated in different contexts. Similarly, we tried to investigate the positioning of female identity in the male-dominated jobs, but also the positioning of male identity in typically female occupations. For that purpose we investigated gender performances of female soldiers and male nurses based on interviews with groups of female and male soldiers (30 of them); as well as female and male nurses (10 of them), and on the analysis of their blogs and forums, i .e. their cyber-communication. What we claim is that both examined groups, female soldiers and male nurses, must adjust, at least to a certain extent, their feminine or masculine identities by positioning in one-gender dominated groups. 814 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Just like the female police officers, whose job is considered masculine, and who can be perceived as women, men or simply as police officers, women soldiers are also in the same position. Their female identity is challenged by the identity of the group whose members they want to be, which is predominantly a masculine identity. The initial perception and stereotype of women as mothers, housewives, secretaries etc. is transformed into an image of rational and efficient professionals. However, that is not the image of a male soldier embodying his strength, aggressiveness and excessive use of force. For example, the stereotypical attitudes of male soldiers, like ―this is not for women; what is a woman doing here?‖; ―women should cook and take care of children‖ are gradually changed into the attitudes of more recognition of women‘s efforts, such as ―women find the solutions to problems that no man can even think of‖ or ―women contribute to the humaneness of the modern military‖. What we have is the situation that both identities are challenged: the female one is getting closer to the male identity form, whereas the typically male is slightly changed into a more rational and professional direction. Some of the examined male soldiers agreed that ―the character of the military is changing due to the fact that there are more and more women soldiers‖. They also readily confirm that ―women are better at administrative work, they are more efficient and organized and also better at writing reports‖275, although it is not quite clear if they perceive certain tasks within the military as male only or female only. What is more acceptable to the male soldiers than we assumed is the idea of women‘s participation in direct combat. Most of them agree that ―a soldier is a soldier, and should therefore perform all the duties equally‖. However, some of them think that ―it should be voluntary for women‖. Generally, the stereotypes that those from the outside world seem to have about women in the military are being changed from the very heart of that typically male organization – male soldiers think that ―the significance of women in the military should be promoted‖. On the other hand, female soldiers themselves, especially the younger ones, show their more ‗masculine‘ nature, e.g. ―we have passed all the training and should take part in combat, if necessary‖; ―we want to be more equal to men‖; ―we are used to military order and discipline‖; ―there should be more women in commander positions.‖ Some of them even perceive themselves as ―future generals‖. None of the informants, neither men nor women, mentioned the physical appearance of tough and strong soldiers as a prerequisite, which we, again, look at stereotypically. Obviously it is not the appearance of female soldiers that define them as masculine but their actions and attitudes expressed in different situations. However, they can be labeled as more masculine if they use too much profanity, which is again something that their male colleagues as insiders do not perceive as such. Some female soldiers report increased usage of profane language (―holy shit‖ and similar expressions) than they used before joining the military, with the tendency to use it in their outside environment, i.e. when surrounded by their families or friends. Usage of profanity can be conscious, getting women closer to the male world, or unconscious, because of the majority‘s influence. Regardless of the reason, the use of profane language is the result of feminine identity adjustment to the identity of the other group, the masculine group. It is also significant that they are aware of certain changes in their language use, at least on the lexical level. However, they are not completely aware of their style when answering the questions. Some of them are rather ‗gruff‘, their sentences are short and cut, they just give precise answers to the questions, in other words their style is more masculine than feminine. We would expect of a woman to give answers with lots of detailed descriptions, which we did not get. For example, to the question on how they joined the army, they just offered the answers like ―it is secure job‖; ―the pay is regular‖; ―the job is competitive and dynamic‖; ―the job is challenging‖. To the question on female soldiers participating in direct combat, we received answers such as ―we had the same training as men and we should take part in direct combat‖; ―we accepted this job and we should take part in direct combat‖. Interestingly, we got similar answers from the men, in sentences of similar style. The fact is that women are getting closer to the masculine way of speaking in the military, without descriptive details or more elaborate sentences, which are typical for women. 276 The question is whether women see this kind of language use as the influence of masculine identity in the military or the identity of the institution itself, which, in this case, is not clear cut. Despite the fact that a military job is associated with masculinity, female soldiers do not perceive themselves as such. In other words, the reasons for their joining the army are not their tough personality or behavior, or their masculine appearance. In most of their answers the reasons were ―job security in these insecure times when many people are jobless or unwaged‖, and ―regular pay‖. The older ones, however followed 275 This was also reported for women police officers in McElhinny's paper (1995) This trait of their new identity can be shortly described with a sentence from McElhinny's paper (1995), when a woman police officer said ―I don't smile as much....‖ They describe it as a sense of reserve or emotional distance as the only way to survive on the job. 276 815 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the ―sequence of events‖, namely, they stayed in the military after the 1992 War, when they first joined. Several younger female soldiers mention their ―childhood dreams to become soldiers‖ or ―I had father or brother in the same job and it was natural for me to follow the family tradition‖ or ―because of competitiveness and physical action‖. What we perceive as adjustment of identity from feminine to more masculine identity of the institution might be explained by what McElhinny (1995) sees as a change in the normative pattern of masculinity – from physical aggressiveness to technical rationality and calculation. ―In their interactions, female police officers construct a kind of masculinity that is simultaneously hegemonic, subordinate and subversive.‖(McElhinny 1995:238) However, in any situation men may align against women, some men against some women, some women against other women, or some men and some women against others, because, as Cornwall and Lindisfarne (1994) state, the processes of gendering can produce difference and inequality. This is clear from some of the answers of both men and women. Female soldiers are aware that this is a ―male world‖, that sometimes they are perceived as ―hookers or whores‖ on the one hand or ―fags or dykes‖ on the other. They occasionally experience treatment such as ―you are a woman, you should wash the coffee cups‖ or ―women should be at home and raise children‖. However, according to women‘s reports, such remarks are addressed to them only occasionally and by few male soldiers whose ―advances they rejected‖. Such comments are more common for their outside environment. Sometimes, there are negative comments from their female colleagues, such as ―you are a whore‖ (if they are too close to male soldiers) or ―you are overly ambitious‖, if they are envious of someone who achieves better results. Gossip and envy are considered more frequent from female colleagues than negative comments are from men. Finally, a few words about the language forms the institution itself uses for gender marking. Although the forms of address used in the military were not a focal point of this research, it is worth mentioning that all of the address forms are marked for the masculine gender. Unlike English, Croatian and other local languages show the distinction for feminine and masculine ranking forms. However, the military in Bosnia and Herzegovina does not accept these forms which show feminine marking except in informal language. On the other hand, these forms are accepted in the Croatian military, so we have examples such as bojnica, narednica, brigadirka etc. (major, sergeant, colonel etc.). Most of the female soldiers included in our research do not see the use of masculine gender forms as a problem; it seems that they have taken them for granted, and what is more significant, they see them as a part of the institutional identity. They do not have a problem with being ranked as soldiers (not female soldiers) and for them this distinction is unnecessary, which means that they accept these forms as institutionally neutral.277 This formal mode of address is obviously still most rigid and resistant to changes or adjustment. The second part of our research refers to a group of male nurses. This is not a quantitative research; it is based on several interviews with male and female nurses, for the purpose of comparing the data with those on female soldiers. However, some findings could be significant as a general overview of the different perceptions about male nurses, and this could be a good start for more detailed research on the topic. We have stated that female soldiers prefer to be called soldiers. The same situation is with male nurses, they just do not like to be called ‗male nurses‘, as one of them suggests ―I am no more or less a nurse because of my sex than my female colleagues are because of theirs.‖ Does insisting on neutral terminology show their efforts to construct their own identity or to adjust it to the identity of the majority of nurses who are women? First of all, hospitals and other health institutions are not as ‗closed‘ and typically feminine institution as the military is masculine. The terminology such as ‗male nurse‘ is notable in English, whereas in Croatian there are two gender-marked forms (bolnicar/bolnicarka or medicinska sestra/medicinski tehnicar)278. We will use here the term ‗male nurse‘ for the purpose of better distinction between the genders. Most of the ‗male nurses‘ we talked to think that the perception of nursing as a traditionally female occupation is a stereotype. They even think that ―it is bad that so many men stay out of this profession at a time when more and more nurses are needed.‖ Their reasons for joining this profession are mostly ―job security‖; ―love and altruism for the people in need‖; ―the reward of helping others‖. There are a few nursing specialties that are off limits for men, e.g. labor and delivery 279, but they can find their position in all other fields. This could be compared to women in the military, where all military fields 277 Some female soldiers insist on the use of masculine forms when being addressed, which enhances their sense of belonging to the institution. See the response of a female soldier to Lt.Col. E. Disler (2005): ―…Today I am proud to say that I am an American Airman, I am a leader, warrior, and wingman as a combat-focused Wing Commander. I am proud to be in the US Air Force, part of something bigger than myself. I just happen to be a woman.‖ 278 Some people like to say 'medicinski brat' although it is more informal and not widely accepted. 279 In the USA, male nurses, in some hospitals, entered these wards as well. 816 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and branches are accessible, except direct combat, as we earlier mentioned. Searching for their position in nursing and establishing their status as a nurse are equally open to both men and women. Male nurses in fact believe that they are ideally suited to both the pressures and excitement of nursing. They are trying to find their position as men, not through adjusting to the female identity of the job, but doing the jobs that are harder for women, e.g. carrying the patients. ―We do the jobs that women can‘t do‖ is what they often say. Both male and female nurses consider that the stereotypical image of nursing as a job not suitable for men comes from the outside. One of these stereotypes is that most male nurses are gay. A few of the male nurses we interviewed reported sentences like ―you must be gay, otherwise you wouldn‘t do this job‖, or ―only gays work as male nurses‖. However, this is something they get from the male patients mostly. They rarely report such qualifications from their female colleagues, just one of them reported his female colleague‘s comment on a new male nurse being employed: ―is the new one gay too?‖ 280 Harding (2008) states that in most cases such comments make male nurses ‗hide‘ their sexuality. Comments about their sexuality can be compared to the comments female soldiers get on their sexuality (e.g. whores). Men who enter 'female' occupations do not conform to the idea of hegemonic masculinity, according to traditional, conservative beliefs. Nordberg (2002) argues that ―their choice of workplace can be comprehended in society as unmasculine and associated with effeminateness and homosexuality.‖ As Butler (1990) suggests masculinity is a process which depends on performance and repetitions in social settings. Their positions as male nurses are under constant change and transformation, one time it is more important to be a man, the other time, it is more important to be a nurse. The construction of their identity is directly connected to the discourses in which they participate, i.e. their identities are created through discourses. However, men sometimes become aware of their nursing position as more feminine using the style which is more typical for women, e.g. ―sweet-talking‖ when talking to patients or female colleagues, or using too many adjectives when describing things. One of them, for example, mentioned using so many color nuances he had never even heard of, such as ―dusty brown, icy blue‖ etc., or discourse topics which are more typical for women, e.g. ―exchanging cooking recipes‖. On the other hand, to preserve their ‗masculinity‘, they take part in male jargon with their male colleagues, both nurses and doctors. They consider male jargon to be ―talking about women and sports‖. We can say that men who work in female-dominated occupations are also exposed to reproduction and negotiation of gender relations, in other words, they try to adjust their identities, but to a lesser extent than women in male-dominated occupations. We can definitely speak here about new masculinities which emphasize the similarities between men and women. 5. Conclusion As we previously mentioned, this paper is not a quantitative study, it is based on a very limited corpus of interview samples, with small groups of informants. However, the results can be very indicative and can be used for more detailed future research on the topic. Our initial assumption, which we tried to prove, was that both women in male-dominated occupations and men in female-dominated occupations have to adjust their identity to the identity of the groups they have joined. The findings of the analysis of interviews with women in the military have proved that they try to adjust their identity to the masculine identity of the military. They start doing it through the obvious signs of wearing uniforms, and usage of masculine gender forms of address, which is taken as a part of the institution‘s identity. However, they adjust to it even more, adapting their identity to the typically ‗masculine language‘, such as profanity, short and cut sentences lacking detailed descriptions. On the other hand, they show their feminine side in the jobs within the military organization which need more organization and efficiency. Consequently, they are sometimes perceived as ‗real soldiers‘ (readiness to take part in direct combat), and sometimes as ‗real women‘ (in the organizational tasks). Furthermore, mostly negative attitudes to women in the military are stereotypical ones and come from their surrounding, rarely from their male colleagues. Their male colleagues admit the necessity of an increase in the female population in the military, which, however, they do not see as ‗feminization‘ of the institution. As for ‗male nurses‘, their position is more one of searching for the right place within the traditionally feminine organization. The search for their positioning is in performing the tasks which are difficult for women (needing physical effort), which is already a part of their masculine identity. What can be viewed as a change in the identity is a somewhat unconscious adaptation to female talk, when they are with their female colleagues, such as ‗sweet talk‘, detailed descriptions etc. 280 Harding (2008) mentions similar comments. 817 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On the other hand, the perception of their environment is that they are more ‗feminine‘ than they really are and they are somehow in the constant negotiation of identity with the outside world. However, the perception of their female colleagues is not a stereotypical one. What both examples (female soldiers and male nurses) have in common are the stereotyped views of the environment, especially expressed through negative attitudes, such as - all female soldiers are whores or all male nurses are gay. If we go back to the initial assumption of identity adjustment, we could say that it is an ongoing process. Based on the results of our research, female soldiers are adjusting their identity to male soldiers more than male nurses are doing so to their female colleagues. The reason is most probably in the fact that the military is a more closed and more masculine institution than hospitals and health institutions are feminine. Compared to some earlier investigations on the subject, we have to say that we are witnessing a gradual change in the masculine identity of the military. If the change in attitudes is taking over the institution as a whole, the adjustment of its masculine identity is inevitable. References Bem, S. (1981) ―Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing source‖. Psychological Review, 88, 354-364. Bergvall, V. (1996) ―Divided minds: Gender polarization in brain and language research‖. In: Warner, Natasha et al. (eds.) Berkeley: 11-23. Buholtz, M.; Hall, K. (2005) ―Identity and Interaction: a Sociocultural Linguistic Approach―, SAGE: Discourse Studies, Vol 7(4–5): 585–614. 818 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Buholtz, M.; Hall, K. (2003) ―Language and Identity‖. In Alessandro Duranti (ed.), A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. 368-394 Buholtz, M.; Liang, A.C.; Sutton, L. (1999) Reinventing Identities, OUP. Butler, J. (1990) Gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge. Butler, J. (1993) Bodies that matter. On the discursive limits of sex. London and NewYork: Routledge. Cameron, D.; Kulick, D. (2003) Language and Sexuality, CUP Cornwall, A.; Lindisfarne, N.(eds.) (1994)Dislocating masculinity. comparative ethnographies. London: Routledge. Disler, E.A.(2005) Talking in the Ranks: Gender and Military Discourse, Dissertation Thesis, Washington D.C. Eckert, P.; McConnell-Ginet, S. (2003) Language and Gender, CUP Eckert, P. (1989) ―The Whole Woman: Sex and Gender Differences in Variation―, Language Variation and Change, 1 (1989), CUP, 245-267. Evans, J. (2004) ―Men nurses: a historical and feminist perspective―, Journal of Advanced Nursing 47(3), 321– 328. Floge, L. and Merrill, D. (1986) ―Tokenism Reconsidered: Male Nurses and Female Physicians in a Hospital Setting‖, the University of North Carolina Press, Social Forces, 925-947. Grumer, E. (1996) ―Women as POWs—Forgetting the Rhonda Cornum Story,‖ MINERVA: Quarterly Report of Women and the Military xiv, no.1:12. Harding, T. (2007) ―The construction of men who are nurses as gay―, Journal of Advanced Nursing 60(6), 636– 644. Hall, K. (2003) ‖Exceptional Speakers: Contested and Problematized Gender Identities‖. In Miriam Meyerhoff and Janet Holmes (eds.), Handbook of Language and Gender, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 352-380. Higgins, T. (2000) ―Making a Good Decision: Value from Fit‖. American Psychologist; 55: 1217-1230 Holmes, J.; Marra, M. (eds.) (2010) Femininity, Feminism and Gendered Discourse: A Selected and Edited Collection of Papers from the Fifth International Language and Gender Association Conference (IGALA5), Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Howes, R. H. and Stephenson, M. (1993) ―Women and the Use of Military Force‖, Boulder, Co.: Lynne Reinner Publishers, Inc., 44. Iyer, A.; Jetten, J.; Tsivrikos, D. (2006) ―Torn between Identities: Predictors of Adjustment to Identity Change―, F. Sani (Ed), Individual and collective self-continuity. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Jetten, J.; Spears, R.; Postmes, T. (2004) ―Intergroup Distinctiveness and Differentiation: A Meta-Analytic Integration‖. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 86(6):862-879. Kelley, M. J. (1997) Gender Differences and Leadership, Maxwell Aiforce Alabama. Knowlton, B.; McGee, M. (1994) Strategic Leadership and Personality: Making the MBTI Relevant, Washington D.C.: National Defense University, Industrial College of the Armed Forces. Lazar, M. (ed.)(2005) Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis: Gender, Power and Ideology in Discourse, Palgrave: Macmillan. Loughrey, M. (2008) ―Just how male are male nurses..?―, Journal of Clinical Nursing 17, 1327–1334. 819 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lurye, L.E.; Zosuls , K.M.; Ruble, D. (2008) ―Gender Identity and Adjustment: understanding the impact of individual and normative differences in sex typing‖, In the Intersections of Personal and Social Identities, vol.2008, issue 120: 31-46 Mariner, R. (1994) ―A Soldier is a Soldier―, JFQ, Winter 1993-94, 54-62. McElhinny, B. (1995) ―Challenging Hegemonic Masculinities: Female and male police officers handling domestic violence―. In Hall, Kira and Mary Bucholtz (eds.). Gender Articulated: Language and the Socially Constructed Self. New York: Routledge. 217 – 243. McMillan, J.; Morgan, S.; Ament, P. (2006) ―Acceptance of Male Registered Nurses by Female Registered Nurses―, JOURNAL OF NURSING SCHOLARSHIP, 38:1, 100-106. Ochs, E.; Taylor, C. (1993 )―Mothers' Role in the Everyday Reconstruction of ‗Father Knows Best'‖ In Locating power: Women and Language, Proceedings of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, University of California, Berkeley, 447-463. Nordberg, M. (2002) ―Constructing masculinity in women‘s worlds: men working as pre-school teachers and hairdressers―, NORA no.1, volume 10, 26-37. Romaine, S. (2001) ―A corpus-based view of gender in British and American English‖. In Hellinger, Marlis and Bussmann, Hadumod eds. Gender Across Languages. The de/construction of gender roles through language variation and change. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 113-135. Romaine, S. (1997) ―Grammar, gender and the space in between‖. In Kotthoff, Helga and Wodak, Ruth eds. Communicating Gender in Context. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 51-76. Talbot, M. (1998) Language and Gender, an Introduction, Polity Press: Cambridge/Malden Tannen, D. (1994) Gender and Discourse, OUP 820 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 119 Title A name given to the resource Women Soldiers and Male Nurses – Adjustment of Gender Identity Author Author Sivric, Marijana Abstract A summary of the resource. It is said that gender identity can be seen as either unidimensional or multidimensional depending on its realization within society. The question is how gender identity is connected to social groups. Membership in a social group profoundly influences human behavior, with both positive and negative implications. On the one hand, positive social identity is promoted by the feeling of belonging to a group, which enhances individuals‘ self-esteem and a sense of connectedness to others. On the other hand, membership in a social group can promote negative bias toward outgroup members, in-group members who violate group norms can be derogated, and the whole group can be negatively stereotyped in certain areas (for example, women in the military). In our research we will try to prove that such positioning within social groups, in a way, enforces the adjustment of gender identities, breaking the stereotyped frames of gender, which is especially evident in ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations. We will also show how continuous construction of a range of masculine and feminine identities is reflected in discourse. The examples will be taken from ‗male‘ or ‗female‘ occupations, e.g. military opposed to nursing, to illustrate that specific shift from typical construction of identity into a new sphere of genderness. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1c7a4cf680002d8d74e96587d814508c.pdf 2554506ae90ad61bb77b70778c9c8cab PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Dependence, Cambridge University Working Paper, 0346. Sun, H. (1996) Direct Foreign Investment and Linkage Effects: the Experience of China, Asian Economies, 25(1): 5-28. Sun, H. (1998) Macroeconomic Impact of Direct Foreign Investment in China: 1979-1996, The World Economy, 21(5): 675-694. Taylor, M. & Sarno L. (1998) The Behaviour of Real Exchange Rates During the PostBretton Woods Period, Journal of International Economics, 46: 281-312. UNCTAD-WIR (1999) Indirect Impact: Does FDI “Crowd out” or “Crowd in” Domestic Investment? New York and Geneva. UNCTAD-WIR (2011) Non-Equity Modes of International Production and Development, Switzerland. Van, L. F. (1977) The Effect of Foreign Direct Investment on Investment in Canada, The Review of Economics and Statistics, 59: 474 481. World Bank, (1999) World Development Report, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Women’s Role In Economic Development: From Classical Approach To The Present İşler Ruhan Şentürk Canan Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey E-mails: ruhanisler@hotmail.com,canansenturk@sdu.edu.tr Abstract The aim of this study is to examine women’s role in economic development from a historical perspective. Many classical economists considered women to be irrational as economic agents. They took it for granted that women were paid less than men. Feminist economists criticise traditional-neoclassical economics claiming that conceptual basis for the mainstream economic knowledge is gender discrimination and women’s experiences are not reflected in economics. For this reason, they suggest that economic horizon be broadened by reviewing and questioning economics, including women’s perspective. Towards the end of the 1980s, the concept of human development was improved and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) started working under the name of Human Development Index (HDI) in order to measure the development levels of countries. In the same way, studies on the elimination of gender-related inequality that is one of the new dimensions of development concept were started by UNDP. In this context, Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) was developed. Furthermore, Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) has been emerged to measure the distribution and participation of women in the 104 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo economic and political life. In recent years, The World Bank has shifted its focus from structural adjustment to poverty reduction. The growing interest to the problems of gender and women has been an important part of this process. When gender inequality is not taken into consideration, economic growth and development cannot be handled effectively, because poverty leads to gender inequality and gender inequality negatively affects economic development. Considered as a human capital, human factor is a fundamental determinant of economic development. In this context, the major target of economic development is to improve life standards and to provide equal opportunities in health, education, employment for everybody without gender discrimination. Women should be involved in the current economic development plans, programs and projects with the help of the government policy. Keywords: Gender, Feminist Economics, Economic Development, Gender İnequality, Women’s Studies. 1.INTRODUCTION The period, when the term "development" began to be widely used, is known as the period after the World War II. However, it was possible to come across some points related to the issue in the science of economics before this period. The process, which Adam Smith, with the term "natural progress of opulance" (Smith, 1776:459) and John Stuart Mill, with the term "economical progress" (Mill, 1902) have tried to define, may be basically identified with the development. The process, introduced by the concept of development, has a history spanning centuries. The Industrial Revolution and the great change brought by this revolution has the highest priority and the most important role in this historical process that may be basically identified with the capitalist development. For those nations outside the Industrial Revolution, "Westernization", "industrilization" and "modernization" have turned out to be the main objective for attaining the tangible process, gained by the Western civilization, under various names and these names have been used synonymously with the terms progress/development (Yumuş, 2011:9,10). Up until the 1970s, an increase in Real Gross National Product (GNP) and the national income per capita were the main indicators used to measure the economic development. However, with the the definition of the economic development after the economic crisis in 1970s, the criteria used in the measurement of the economic development started to be questioned. With these improvements, the development has been mostly perceived from a human perspective and the improvement of man's life standard has come into prominence (Memmedova, 2000). Although the development discipline produced its unique literature after the World War II, the role and place of the women have been neglected for a long time and they have not been given due importance in mentioned development processes. Considering that women make up the half of world's population in all periods of the history, the role of women in economic and social life should not be neglected. The fact that gender equality is both a fundamental principle of democracy and one of the requirements for sustainable development is well known. From this point of view, the role and significance of women both in social welfare policies and in development plans and policies should be questioned. 105 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo In this context, firstly, the theoretical approaches on the "development and women" will be evaluated from a historical perspective, then some assesments will be made related to "the development and women in international institutions and processes". 2.Theoretical Approaches to Development and Women The role and place of women have been neglected for a long time and women have not been given due importance. The place of women in the development process was first introduced by Ester Boserup in 1970 (Palaz, 2005:316,317). This section of the study, in a historical line, analyzes" the role of women in economy" before the creation of development literature and "the role of women in development" after the creation of this literature. In this context, the Classics' view of women, Neo-classical view, Boserup's view of women in development and feminist economists' views are reviewed respectively. Most of the classical economists are skeptical about women's rational decision-making capacities. Pujol (1992) states that it could be inferred from Adam's Smith's work The Wealth of Nations (1776) that "women are relatively invisible in the The Wealth of Nations, aside from their obvious role in contributing to population growth". To Bodkin (1999:46,47), it can be understood from the same work that women have limited roles in market economy, moreover, it is their parents and relatives who decide on their education because “Smith does not trust the young women to choose their subjects of study wisely” For this reason, they are deprived of the opportunity to learn the intellectual issues as their career choices are limited. Jean Baptise Say argues that women are irrational consumers. He exemplifies this issue with women's being extravagant towards expensive jewelry (Bodkin, 1999:55). Say, in his work Olbie, states that women's natural wage is lower than that of men, because it is men who must support a family while women support only themselves (Forget, 1997:109). Pujol (1995) argues that the classical school, as well as some neo-classical successors- Jevons, Edgeworth, Marshall and Pigou- accept women as "irrational" and "unfit as economic agents". Considered to be among the neo-classical economists and the father of the welfare economy, Pigou, has argued that women are weaker and more imperfect than men and thus welfare may be maximized by keeping women's salaries lower than that of men's (Pujol,1992:151). The Neo-classical point of view suggests that the elimination of the inequality between men and women and women's full participation in the economy may only be realized with development and industrialization. It states that the main reason why women cannot equally benefit from the development and why their participation in economic and social life is not realized is the differences men and women have in human capital equipments, such as education and work experience (Palaz, 2005:317). Ester Boserup, in Woman’s Role in Economic Development (1970), emphasizes that women do not benefit from development opportunities as much as men and new technologies provided by development programs deteriorate women's status (Palaz, 2005:318). The main issue of women in development is their incorporation into the existing economic development plans, programs and projects. If women are fully integrated into development plans and projects and take active roles, they will benefit more from the opportunities of the development. In this context, as suggested by Neo-classical view, it is considered that women may equally benefit from the economic development with certain state interventions and policy practices rather than assuming that the case of women could be improved with economic development (Lansky, 2000). 106 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The feminist economics does not review and question the "woman in economy", but rather it reviews and questions the economy including women's point of view. This questioning leads to the development of new economic methods, theories and policies and thus to the expansion of the horizons of economics. This questioning is realized with the principle "different but equal" (Eroğlu and İşler, 2006:69,70). At the same time, this review will also contribute to the development of women's economic conditions. Feminist economists criticise the view based on the Cartesian philosophy according to which women perceive the model person in theories of traditional economists as man, because women occupy the subordinate position and in this context they cannot reflect their women experiences on the science of economics. Therefore, they suggest that conceptual foundations of economic knowledge are produced and reproduced on gender bias (Eroğlu and İşler, 2006:108). In this context, the feminist economists suggest that the reason behind women's subordination to men in a society and their not being fully integrated into the social and economic life is the "patriarchal-man" system. Thus, they assert that all the instutional barriers against women should be eliminated and women should be empowered and actively participate in development plans and projects. Although they accept that general economic developments and improvements have positive effects on women, they point out that these effects may be very complex and may not always improve the case of women (Forsythe et al., 2000). The goal here is to provide women with the access to necessary knowledge, skills and resources, giving them the opportunity to develop themselves and play an active role in development plans (Palaz, 2005:318,319). 3.Development and Women in International Institutions and Processes Previously, the development programs saw women as objects rather than economic actors, for this reason, they were only interested in producer roles. However, it was only when the economic value of the child was understood that the necessity for reducing the expenditures on preventive measures against pregnancy in population programs and increasing their revenues was supported (Tinker, 1997:38; Ertürk, 1996:349). In this context, The United Nations sought ways to improve women's education, feeding and status. The fact that women could not fully participate in the development was called as "waste of human resources". Women were characterized as resources and the belief that their contributions would accelerate the development process and make it more effective became dominant. Indeed, in " Strategy for The Second Development Decade", the importance of promoting women's the International Development organization in the "total development" was emphasized ( Yavuz and Serdaroğlu, 2010:54). The group of Society for International Development (SID) - Women in Development (WID) created a five-page bibliography on the subject and it was at this stage that Boserup's book was discovered (Tinker, 1997:33). The book of E. Boserup, a liberal feminist, is the first study to analyze the differing effect of sex/gender division of labor and development and modernization on "gender" on the basis of data and evidence. Boserup’s study examines the effect of the development projects on the Third World Countries' women. The writer states that most of these projects neglected women and many of these technologically sophisticated projects impeded women's economic interests and independence (Yavuz and Serdaroğlu, 2010:54-57). The First World Conference on Women was held by The UN Commission on the Status of Women in Mexico City in1975 and the decade between the years of 1975 and 1985 was declared as the "United Nations Decade for Women" by the General Assembly of the United Nations. The main theme of the "United Nations Decade for Women" was identified in the 107 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo framework of determining and reaching the goals of "Equality, Development and Peace”; improving women's status on national; regional and international levels; preventing gender/sex discrimination against women; providing the equal opportunities for women to participate in the production and benefit equally from the development opportunities. The “Action Plan", determining the measures for the improvement of women's status, was accepted in the Second World Conference on Women, held in Copenhagen, in 1980. Short after the Second World Conference on Women, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was accepted and opened for signature by parties to CEDAW. The Third World Conference on Women was held in Nairobi in 1985 and farreaching strategies were determined for the improvement of women's status after a general evaluation of the "United Nations Decade for Women" (Palaz, 2005:319,320). The Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing, in 1995, demanded the recognition of women's rights as human rights. After the First World Conference on Women, many governments set up offices to deal with women's problems. International aid agencies began to employ a large number of WID specialists in order to prove their commitment to the improvement of women's status. "WID" conceptualization was first used by Boserup, to draw the attention of American policy makers and by SID Committee of Women as part of the strategy to bring the evidence produced by others. A set of common concerns branded as "Women in Development" in a flexible way or as "WID" began to be explicitly stated by the American liberal feminists advocating the administrative and legal changes that would lead the women in development agencies to have more chances to get professional employement and provide them with the chance to be integrated into economic systems in a better way. Criticisms on the Western capitalism, modernization and based on them WID shaped the ‘Women and Development’ (WAD) apporach, whose intellectual foundations lie in Marxist Feminism and the Dependency Theory. (Yavuz and Serdaroğlu, 2010:56-65). In addition to WID and WAD, many different approaches appeared on the agenda with regard to development-women relationship:‘Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era’ (DAWN); ‘Gender and Development’ (GAD); ‘Women, Culture and Development (WCD). İn the frame of development-women relationship in 1990s, the theme of "empowerment" as well as the theme of "environment" gained popularity. In the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) meetings in 1992, DAWN, on the development and environment, pointed out its view on " taking into consideration the local experiences related to ecological problems for the sustainability of life at the level of basic needs" of poor women in the South. The local inspection of the "sustainable development" was one of its demands. DAWN suggested that they had the best information on the local environment problems, faced by the poor and women in the South, and their solutions. This was the basis for women's demands to participate in environmental decision-making and management process (Yavuz and Serdaroğlu, 2010:83,84). In 1990s, organized women groups kept the governments and other agencies under constant pressure for them to take women's concerns into consideration. Activists, feminist thinkers and academicians were warned to enforce the link between theory and practice and to revise their theories. Although some shifts were observed in rhetoric and practice, WID remained to be the dominant approach for the governments, aid and development agencies-UN agencies and NGOs- (Connelly et al., 2000:63,64). As Erturk (1996:348) has stated, the reasons underlying these developments can be expressed in three ways:the first one is the far-reaching effect of women's movements in Western 108 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo countries, the second one is the East-West polarization and the third one is the Third World radicalism and the paradigmatic change that leads to the search for egalitarian policies by questioning the current economic development models (Palaz, 2005:322). Kuiper and Barker (2006) emphasize that “the past decade has witnessed a paradigm shift at the World Bank from a focus on structural adjustment to a focus on poverty reduction. As evidenced by the Bank’s 2001 report, Engendering Development: Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice, an increased attention to gender issues has been an important part of this process. The premise of the report is that economic growth and development cannot be effectively addressed when gender inequality is not taken into account, because poverty increases gender inequalities and gender inequalities hinder economic development.” The writers (Barker and Kuiper, 2006:1) also point out the positive changes in its theory, policy and approaches related to the conditions of WB’s programmes and loans which are now determined in cooperation with local groups and non-governmental organizations. Previously, it was economists in Washington who were decision-makers only. After the 1990’s gender and women’ issues became one of the focuses of the Bank. 4.CONCLUSION Since the publication of Ester Boserup's 1970 book, Woman’s Role in Economic Development, this field has moved from corrective focus to a broader framework of gender differences. Development is likely to improve social indicators and minimizes the gender gap through education. In addtition to significant correlations between national income growths and reduction in child mortality, reduction in male-female education gap, increase in all education levels and in women education level, there is a close correlation between women education and political and civil liberties index as well. However, besides these positive effects, it is worth noting findings about the economic development that affects the share of both the power and income sources between sex and systematically develops men's life more than women's, leading to the enforcement of men's control over the means of production. For instance, even though the living standard of women increases, their decision-making power and status may decrease when structural, technical and institutional changes in rural economies are taken into consideration (Jacobsen, 2007:386-388). Women still suffer from inequalities. Their access to such resources as land, credit, training is limited. Despite their great contribution to different spheres of life-care-givers in the household and community sectors and workers, knowledge-providers, and entrepreneurs-, they are unable to get what they deserve (Williams, 2006:227). The human factor is the main determinant of economic development. Human capital theory emphasizes the importance of investments made in human. Therefore, providing equal opportunities in health, education and income to everyone, without discrimination between men and women, and increasing their living standards should be the main objective of development. REFERENCES Barker, D.K. and Kuiper, E. (2006) “Feminist Economics and the World Bank” in E. Kuiper and D. K. Barker (eds.) Feminist Economics And The World Bank -History, Theory and Policy, Routledge, New York. 109 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Bodkin, R.G. (1999) Women’s Agency in Classıcal Economıc Thought: Adam Smith, Harriet Taylor Mill, and J. S. Mıll, Feminist Economics, 5(1), s.45-60. Boserup, E.(1970) Woman’s Role in Economic Development, London:George Allen &Unwin. Connelly, M.P., LI, T.M., Mac Donald, M., Parpart, J. L. (2000) “Feminism and Development:Theoretical Perspectives” in J. L. Parpart, M.P. Connelly, V.E. Barriteau (eds.) Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development, IDRC Books, Ottawa. Eroğlu Ö.and İşler R. (2006) İktisat Düşüncesinde Farklı Bir Bakış:Feminist İktisat, Asil Yayın Dağıtım Ltd.Şti., Ankara. Ertürk, Y. (1996) Alternatif kalkınma stratejileri: Toplumsal cinsiyet, kadın ve eşitlik, ODTÜ Gelişme Dergisi, 23 (3), 341-356. Forget, E.L. (1997) The Market For Virtue: Jean- Baptiste Say On Women in The Economy and Society, Feminist Economics, 3(1), 95-111. Forsythe N., Patricio R., and Durrant V. (2000) Gender Inequalities and Economic Growth:A Longitudinal Evaluation, Economic Development and Cultural Change,48(3),573-618. Jacobsen, J.P. (2007) The Economics of Gender, Third Edition, Blackwell Publishing, USA. Kuiper, E. and Barker, D.K. (2006) Feminist Economics And The World Bank -History, Theory and Policy, Routledge, New York. Lansky, K. (2000) Gender, Women and All the Rest, International Labour Review, 139 (4), 481-505. Memmedova, M. (2000) İktisadi Kalkınmada Kadının Rolü ve Türkiye ve Azerbaycan Karşılaştırması, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Eskişehir. Mill, J.S. (1902) Principles of Political Economy: With Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy, (Vol. II.), Second Edition, London: J.Parker, W Strand. Palaz, S. (2005) “Toplumsal Cinsiyet ve Kalkınma: Kalkınmada Kadının Yeri” in M. Kar and S. Taban (eds.) İktisadi Kalkınmada Sosyal, Kültürel ve Siyasal Faktörlerin Rolü, Ekin Kitabevi, Bursa. Pujol, M.A. (1992) Feminism and Anti-feminism in Early Economic Thought, Aldershot, U.K. Elgar. Pujol, M.A. (1995) “İnto the Margin” in E. Kuiper ve J. Sap (eds.), Out of the Margin: Feminist Perspectives on Economic Theory, Routledge, New york. Smith, A. (1776) An Inquiry Into The Nature And Causes Of The Wealth Of Nations, (Vol. I.) London: W.Strahan; T. Cadell. Tinker, I. (1997) “The Making of a Field: Advocates, Practitioners and Scholars” in N. Visvanathan, L. Duggan, L. Nison’off, N. Wiegersma (eds.) The Women, Gender and Development Reader, Zed Books Ltd., London. UNDP, (1995) Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, New York. Williams, M. (2006) “Why Feminist economists should pay more attention to the coherence between the World Bank and the WTO” in E. Kuiper and D. K. Barker(eds.) Feminist Economics And The World Bank -History, Theory and Policy, Routledge, New York. 110 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Yavuz, G. and Serdaroğlu U. ( 2010) “Kalkınma ve Kadın (veya toplumsal cinsiyet) İlişkilendirilişinin Değişimindeki Kavşaklar” in U. Serdaroğlu (ed.) İktisat ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet, Efil Yayınevi, Ankara. Yumuş, A. (2011) Kalkınma Planları Çerçevesinde Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Anlayışının Ekonomik, Toplumsal ve Siyasal Boyutları, T.C. Başbakanlık Kadının Statüsü Genel Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Ankara. Determinants Of Turkey Current Account Deficit: An Econometric Analysis M. Metin Dam, İsmet Göçer,Şahin Bulut,Mehmet Mercan Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administrative Sciences Department of Economy Abstract The main causes of the current account deficit in Turkey; the foreign trade deficit, the high ratio of intermediate goods imports, high oil prices and Turkey's energy import dependence, lack of domestic savings, foreign direct investment and low tourism revenues. In this study, the causes of the current account deficit and current account deficit financing structure were examined. In addition, the determinanats of Turkey current account deficit wereanalyzed via VAR methods using the data of 2002-2011 monthly current account deficit, net export, interest on external debt, transfer payments and costs of tourism. As a result of the study, According to variance discrimination results obtained from VAR model composed under this roof, current account deficit is determined by its own shocks in the short term. In addition, current account deficit prediction error variance is determined by tourism expenditures and foreign debt interest rate as well as its own variables. Current account deficit is affected by export, foreign debt interest rate, transfer payments and shock given to tourism expenditures. Keywords: Current Account Deficit, Determinants, VAR, Turkey 1.INTRODUCTION 1.1.What is current account deficit? Current account deficit is the difference between the amount of foreign currency getting in and out a country. Export and tourism make up foreign currency income and import and foreign expenditure make up foreign currency expenditure. Current account deficit is reached: the foreign currency obtained from goods export, service export like tourism(e.g the wage income of those working abroad) and manufacture factors are added and the expenditures made in the same category (import, tourism expenditures, the transfer of the profit gained by 111 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1317 Title A name given to the resource Women’s Role In Economic Development: From Classical Approach To The Present Author Author İşler , Ruhan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to examine women’s role in economic development from a historical perspective. Many classical economists considered women to be irrational as economic agents. They took it for granted that women were paid less than men. Feminist economists criticise traditional-neoclassical economics claiming that conceptual basis for the mainstream economic knowledge is gender discrimination and women’s experiences are not reflected in economics. For this reason, they suggest that economic horizon be broadened by reviewing and questioning economics, including women’s perspective. Towards the end of the 1980s, the concept of human development was improved and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) started working under the name of Human Development Index (HDI) in order to measure the development levels of countries. In the same way, studies on the elimination of gender-related inequality that is one of the new dimensions of development concept were started by UNDP. In this context, Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) was developed. Furthermore, Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) has been emerged to measure the distribution and participation of women in the economic and political life. In recent years, The World Bank has shifted its focus from structural adjustment to poverty reduction. The growing interest to the problems of gender and women has been an important part of this process. When gender inequality is not taken into consideration, economic growth and development cannot be handled effectively, because poverty leads to gender inequality and gender inequality negatively affects economic development. Considered as a human capital, human factor is a fundamental determinant of economic development. In this context, the major target of economic development is to improve life standards and to provide equal opportunities in health, education, employment for everybody without gender discrimination. Women should be involved in the current economic development plans, programs and projects with the help of the government policy. Keywords: Gender, Feminist Economics, Economic Development, Gender İnequality, Women’s Studies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4496ecd7636a66c7a3c343af3983c87c.pdf d55975cb4d55fa0371b6ba3701092b2c PDF Text Text WORD CLASS AND TEXTUAL FUNCTIONS OF ANTONYMS: A CORPUS STUDY Nataša Kostić University of Montenegro, Montenegro Article History: Submitted: 06.06.2015 Accepted: 27.06.2015 Abstract Antonymy is traditionally regarded as a paradigmatic relation, but recent studies of antonym co– occurrence in written discourse have shown that it can be investigated as a syntagmatic relation as well. Such investigations in the Untagged electronic corpus of Serbian identified two major and four minor functions of antonyms in discourse and its accompanying lexico-syntactic patterns, matching the results of similar analyses in English, Japanese, Swedish and Dutch. This paper presents a research on the relation between word class that antonym pairs belong to (e.g. adjectives, nouns, verbs, adverbs and prepositions) and their textual functions in Serbian written discourse. It is hypothesized that language users employ antonymous pairs in text irrespective of their grammatical class. The general conclusion is that the roles of antonyms in text are not influenced by word class as significantly as one might expect. Key words: antonymy, word class, textual function, antonymous pattern �1. Introduction Although the term antonymy is in some of the literature confined to binary opposition between contrary meanings in language, such as ‘hot/cold’, as opposed to complementaries (‘true/false’) and other opposites in language, such as ‘buy/sell’ or ‘come/go’ (e.g. Lyons, 1977; Lehrer & Lehrer, 1982; Cruse, 1986; Justeson & Katz, 1991; Murphy & Andrew, 1993; Fellbaum, 1995; Jones, 2002), it is in this article used for all form–meaning pairings that occur in binary semantic contrast in language use. Empirical investigations of antonymy in Serbian and English electronic corpora (Kostić, 2011, 2013), have shown that phrasal contexts in which antonyms are used in both Serbian and English written discourse are relatively stable and that at least some of the most frequent ones can be viewed as potential triggers of contrast relation in discourse. As Jones (2002) has also suggested, functions of antonyms do not vary in every new context but are systematic and receptive to categorization. The majority of functional classes of antonymy that he has been able to define in his English corpus of journalistic texts can also account for antonymous usage retrieved from the corpus of Serbian, suggesting that contexts of antonymous usage may be structured similarly across languages. This paper aims to investigate the relation between word class that antonym pairs belong to (e.g. adjectives, nouns, verbs, adverbs and prepositions) and their textual functions in Serbian written discourse. 2. Theoretical background This paper is based on Murphy’s (2003) theoretical model of antonymy (as well as all other lexico-semantic relations) in which antonym relation obtains between words in use. Antonymic relation is defined on the basis of minimal difference formulated in the relational principle Relation by Contrast-Lexical Contrast which states that: “A lexical contrast set includes only word-concepts that have all the same contextually relevant properties but one” (Murphy, 2003, p. 170). The differences among antonyms’ entailment relations are due to differences in the semantic structure of the individual words. Those that can be either complementary or contrary describe states that can be conceptualized as all-or-nothing or scalar. Murphy argues that antonymy is conceptual in nature and antonym pairs are always subject to contextual constraints. She also admits that there seems to be a small set of words with special lexicosemantic attraction that are entrenched in memory and perceived as strongly coupled pairings by speakers that she refers to as canonical antonyms. �Corpus–based approaches to antonymy are mostly done in English. Justeson and Katz analyzed the use of adjectival antonymous pairs in the one million Brown corpus of English and showed that “adjectives do indeed tend to co–occur in the same sentence as their antonyms far more frequently than expected by chance” (Justeson & Katz, 1991, p. 18). Fellbaum (1995) conducted the first large scale corpus work that looked at a wider class of antonym pairs, including nouns and verbs and found that antonyms in both groups co–occurred in the same sentence significantly more often than by chance. The largest and most systematic study of discourse functions of English antonyms is provided by Jones (2002) who described the contexts in which 56 antonym pairs co–occurred in the corpus of 280 million words taken from the Independent newspaper in the period of eight years (1988–1996). Just like Fellbaum, Jones noted the existence of lexical and syntactic frames in which antonyms co–occur but he also gave an in– depth analysis and classification of the discourse functions performed by antonyms in such frames. These discourse categories have been found in other genres (spoken English [Jones, 2006, 2007]) and registers of English (child and child–directed speech [Jones & Murphy, 2005; Murphy & Jones, 2008]) and other languages (Swedish [Murphy et al., 2009], Japanese [Muehleisen & Isono, 2009] and Serbian [Kostić, 2011]). 3. Word class and textual functions of antonyms With an aim to identify phrasal contexts in which antonyms co–occur in Serbian written discourse, as well as to classify their main textual functions, Kostić (2011) made a systematic description of phrasal contexts in which canonical antonyms co–occur in the Untagged electronic corpus of the Serbian language. Fifty canonical antonymous pairs were pre–chosen (30 adjectives, 6 nouns, 6 verbs, 6 adverbs and 2 prepositions) and all the sentences (a total of 4,903) in which these pairs co–occurred were analyzed in order to establish the role of the antonymous pair and its lexical and syntactic context. The sentences were grouped according to the textual function of the antonymous phrase in the given context. The lexical and syntactic environment common to the functions of antonyms in text will be referred to as antonymous pattern, a “formulaic structure in which certain grammatical and content words systematically house both members of an antonymous pair” (Kostić, 2011, p. 518). Since the phenomenon of antonymy is not restricted to a single word class, the list of antonyms searched for in the corpus contained antonymous adjectives, as well as nouns, verbs, adverbs and prepositions. This paper aims to �investigate whether the function of antonymy in text is related to word class, and, if it is, what is the relation between grammatical categories that antonyms belong to and their roles in sentential contexts. In order to do this, a total of 4,903 sentences was broken down according to word classes. Table 1 presents the distribution of sentences in relation to word class and functions of antonyms in text: Table 1: Functions of antonyms by word class (raw frequency and percentages) Other (%) Idiom (%) X–Y (%) Mutual exclusivit y (%) Comparis on (%) Change (%) Distinctio n (%) Lexical trigger of contrast Inclusiven (%)(%) ess Adj. Total 1,292 1,018 126 102 56 73 92 236 88 (41.9) (33) (4.1) (3.3) (1.8) (2.4) (3) (7.5) (3) 492 225 60 53 29 78 3 80 54 (45.8) (21) (5.6) (4.9) (2.7) (7.3) (0.3) (7.4) (5) 172 115 - - 4 7 1 5 - 304 (56.6) (37.8) (1.3) (2.3) (0.3) (1.7) Adver 203 104 3 3 2 2 48 13 4 382 bs (53.2) (27.2) (0.8) (0.8) (0.5) (0.5) (12.6) (3.4) (1) Prep. 32 24 - - 2 2 - - - 60 (53.4) (40) (3.3) (3.3) 2,191 1,486 189 158 93 162 144 334 146 4,903 (44,7) (30,3) (3.9) (3.2) (1.9) (3.3) (2.9) (6.8) (3) Nouns Verbs Total 3,083 1,074 3.1 Inclusiveness Antonyms are in this function used to indicate the inclusion of the whole semantic dimension to which the pair belongs. This is the most frequent role in Serbian corpus, as it is present in almost one half of all examples. It is also the most widespread since all fifty pairs �examined are used in this function at least once. Though some variation arises regarding the extent to which the function of inclusiveness is pervasive across different word classes, there is no doubt that it does arise in all word classes examined. For example: (1) Poslednji trijumf Novosađana propraćen je lepim, ali i ružnim stvarima koje su čini se neminovni pratilac našeg boksa. (antonymous adjectives) ‘The latest victory of the team from Novi Sad was accompanied by both beautiful and ugly things that always seem to be present in our boxing sport.’ (2) Dučić je našao večni mir stigavši na Crkvinu, na breg smrti i života. (antonymous nouns) ‘Dučić finally found his eternal peace upon arriving to Crkvina, the hill of death and life.’ (3) Reke čoveku daju, ali i uzimaju. (antonymous verbs) ‘The rivers can both give and take.’ (4) Mnogo je bivših asova ovog kluba koji su tu, blizu, ali i daleko od kluba u kojem su proveli najlepše godine života. (antonymous adverbs) ‘There are a lot of former athletes of this club who are there, both near and far from the club where they have spent the best days of their lives.’ (5) Vatra je progutala celu šumu iznad, ali i ispod puta. (antonymous prepositions) ‘The fire has engulfed the entire forest both above and under the road.’ These examples testify that the immediate environment of each antonymous pair remains unaffected by grammatical class and that the function of the antonymous framework is similar in each example: regardless of whether the antonyms are adjectives, nouns, verbs, adverbs or prepositions, they always signify inclusiveness or exhaustiveness when inserted into this framework. 3.2 Lexical trigger of contrast Antonyms can be used as means of generating contrast between another pair of words, phrases or clauses in the same sentence. Antonyms are the most important signals of contrast owing to the possibility to be used as parameters of simultaneous similarity and difference and �establish another pair as the contrasting one within the same conceptual dimension. This function of antonyms appears to cross grammatical class, as the following examples illustrate: (6) Ovo hapšenje je najodvažniji korak novih vlasti u izvođenju pripadnika starog režima pred pravdu. (ant. adjectives) ‘This arrest is the bravest action of the new authorities in order to take to the court the members of the old regime.’ (7) To je bio kraj slobode i početak ropstva pod Turcima. (ant. nouns) ‘That was the end of liberty and the beginning of slavery under the Turks’. (8) U Srbiji, pak, vlast uvek dobija, a opozicija uvek gubi izbore. (ant. verbs) ‘In Serbia, the position always wins and the opposition always loses the elections.’ (9) Sledeći tom ove knjige je nova vrsta izazova jer je mnogo zvanih, malo odabranih. (ant. adverbs) ‘The next volume of the book is a new kind of challenge since many are called, few are chosen.’ (10) S vrha lestvica mogao je iznad sebe videti sve Brahmaloke, a ispod sebe je video dubine Pakla. (ant. prepositions) ‘From the top of the ladder he could see all the Brahmaloke above himself and the depths of the Hell below.’ 3.3 Distinction Antonyms can mark the parameters of a distinction, either literally or metaphorically, with an aim to emphasise the existence of some kind of difference. In the group of sentences that contain antonyms marking the parameters of a distinction, some word classes were not found in my database. This function of antonyms seems to be suitable for adjectives and nouns, and only marginally for adverbs, whereas there were not any examples featuring antonymous verbs or prepositions. This distribution across word classes could be the consequence of the lexicosyntactic pattern itself, which is more suitable for expressing the difference between things rather than between actions. Pairs of nouns and noun modifiers (i.e. adjectives) are differentiated between more frequently than pairs of verbs (and their modifiers).The following sentences illustrate this: �(11) Neće li to zamagliti razliku između “teških” i “lakih” tema? (ant. adjectives) ‘Isn't that going to blurr the difference between “difficult” and “easy” topics?’ (12) I gde je razlika između istine i laži? (ant. nouns) ‘And where is the difference between a truth and a lie?’ (13) Velika provalija Slovence poslednjih godina deli na levo i desno orjentisane. (ant. adverbs) ‘There is a huge gap that has recently kept the Slovene divided into the left and the right oriented.’ 3.4 Change Antonyms can be used in contexts in which they mark the starting and ending points of a change, either from one place or time period to another or from one state to another. The change can also be a metaphorical transition when one talks about transformation from one state to another. Antonyms are especially suitable for this role, as they occupy opposing poles along the same dimension of similarity. These contexts are also restricted to the classes of adjectives, nouns and only marginally adverbs. The following examples serve as an illustration: (14) Dešava se da ove lake bolesti pređu u teške, kao što su je meningitis. (ant. adj.) ‘It happens that these harmless diseases can turn into the harmful ones, such as meningitis.’ (15) Rat je iz svog početka prerastao direktno u svoj kraj. (ant. nouns.) ‘The war has, from its beginning, directly turned into its end.’ (16) Jer ono što mi se činilo jako daleko sada je postalo blizu. (ant. adverbs) ‘What seemed to be very far away has now become very near.’ 3.5 Comparison Antonyms can help create comparison along the dimension to make a point in the context in which they are used. All these phrasal contexts involve the use of comparative structure, either in the form više x nego y ‘more x than y’ or comparative form of certain adjective can either �precede antonyms or appear between them, followed by od ‘than’. The following examples illustrate all five word classes used to create comparison between antonymous concepts: (17) To je ona generacija, više sita nego gladna. (ant. adj.) ‘That generation is more full than hungry.’ (18) U svetu “koji u zlu leži”, mržnje je bilo uvek više nego ljubavi. (ant. nouns) ‘In a world full of evil, hate has always been more pervasive than love.’ (19) Dakle, iz naše države više se izlazilo nego što se u nju ulazilo. (ant. verbs) ‘Consequently, the number of people who left the country is higher than the number of people who entered.’ (20) E, znaš, da si još napornija kada si daleko nego kada si blizu. (ant. adverbs) ‘Just to let you know, you are even more difficult when you are far away than when you are near.’ (21) Maldivi su više ispod nego iznad mora. (ant. prepositions) ‘The Maldive Islands are situated more below than above the sea level.’ Grammatical class seems to hold relatively little influence over the semantic and pragmatic function served by antonymy in these examples. Such flexibility of word class confirms that the antonymous pairs in the sentences above appear to have been chosen more because of their conceptual opposition than because of any grammatical criteria. 3.6 Mutual exclusivity Antonyms can imply mutual exclusivity within the context in which they are used. In such contexts one member of the pair is negated, typically in the phrase x, a ne y ‘x, and not y’ and ne x, (već) y ‘not x, (but) y’. The omission of the y element in the following sentence would certainly detract from its intended rhetorical effect: (22) Nenadovi su bili novi a ne stari stanari. (ant. adj.) ‘Nenad’s family was new and not old neighbour.’ (23) “To je trougao ljubavi, a ne mržnje”, kaže on, izlazeći iz svog dvora. (ant. nouns) ‘It is a tringle of love, and not hate, he said coming out of his castle.’ �(24) Obe ste lepe i šarmantne, prirodno je da ništa ne dobijate, već da gubite. (ant. verbs) ‘You are both beautiful and charming, and it is natural that you don’t receive but lose.’ (25) Oltar se nalazio ispred apside a ne iza. (ant. prepositions) ‘The altar was in front of the apse, and not behind.’ In all such cases the insertion of the second member of the antonymous pair is essential if the writer wants to convey the intended meaning. It is not surprising that antonyms are exploited to achieve such rhetorical effect. The textual functions of implying mutual exclusivity crosses all word class boundaries and, despite a relatively small number of sentences extracted from the corpus, it yields a fairly even distribution of antonyms across grammatical classes. The data in Table 1 also provide the frequencies of two very specific uses of antonyms that have not been ascribed to any of the functions, namely the contexts in which antonyms are hyphenated (‘X–Y’, e.g. muško-ženske razlike ‘male-female differences’) and the contexts in which antonyms are part of a well known idiom (e.g. kako došlo tako i otišlo ‘easy come easy go’). The frequency of these contexts in any databse depends on the pairs chosen for analysis, since some adjectival, nominal and adverbial pairs from my list are rather often used in such contexts (e.g. adjectival pair crni/beli ‘black/white’ referring to the football club Partisan, adverbial pair levo/desno ‘left/right’ in the phrase gledati levo-desno ‘to look left and right’, etc.) 4. Conclusion Starting from the notion of antonymous pattern, that refers to relatively stable phrasal contexts of antonym co-occurrence in the sentence, adjectival, nominal, verbal, adverbial and prepositional antonyms were investigated in the corpus of contemporary Serbian language, with an aim to establish whether the word class to which the antonymous pair belongs influences the functions that antonyms serve in text. Data evidence some correlation, but this correlation is relatively minor. In all five word classes examined, at least 60% of sentences fall into one of the two major textual functions of antonyms, and in all five word classes the former is more frequent than the latter. On the other hand, some textual functions of antonymy avoid certain word classes entirely (at least in my database) because it is grammatically difficult to house such words within their associated frameworks. In marking the parameters of a distinction and in marking starting and ending points of a change or a transition, there were no verbal and prepositional pairs in my �database. This may suggest that textual functions profile of antonymous verbs and prepositions is slightly different from the profile of other parts of speech. However, there is not any other minor textual function that shares this trait, in which word class distributions are mostly consistent. The general conclusion is that the roles of antonyms in text are not influenced by word class as significantly as one might expect. Language users employ antonymy to serve much the same semantic and pragmatic purposes, regardless of whether those antonyms are adjectives, nouns, adverbs, verbs or prepositions. Being a conceptual relation, antonymy is not only a relation which crosses word classes, it is to the largest degree a relation which functions irrespective of word class. �References Cruse, D. A. (1986). Lexical semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fellbaum, C. (1995). Co-occurrence and antonymy. International Journal of Lexicography, 8(4), 281-303. Jones, S. (2002). Antonymy: a corpus-based perspective. London and New York: Routledge. Jones, S. (2006). Antonym co-occurrence in spoken English. Text and Talk, 26(2), 191-216. Jones, S. (2007). ’Opposites’ in discourse: A comparison of antonym use across four domains. Journal of Pragmatics, 39(6), 1105-1119. Jones, S., & Murphy, M. L. (2005). Using corpora to investigate antonym acquisition. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 10(3), 401-422. Justeson, J. S., & Katz, S. M. (1991). Co-occurrences of antonymous adjectives and their contexts. Computational linguistics, 17, 1-19. Kostić, N. (2011). Antonymous frameworks in Serbian written discourse: phrasal contexts of antonym co–occurrence in text. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics, 47(3), 509-537. Kostić, N. (2013). Antonimija u diskursu. [Antonymy in Discourse]. Podgorica: University of Montenegro. Lehrer, A., & Lehrer, K. (1982). Antonymy. Linguistics and Philosophy, 5(4), 483-501. Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Muehleisen, V., & Isono, M. (2009). Antonymous adjectives in Japanese discourse. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(11), 2185-2203. Murphy, G. L., & Andrew, J. M. (1993). The conceptual basis of antonymy and synonymy in adjectives. Journal of Memory and Language, 32(3), 301-319. Murphy, M. L. (2003). Semantic relations and the lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Murphy, M. L., & Jones, S. (2008). Antonyms in children’s and child-directed speech. First Language, 28(4), 403-430. �Murphy, M. L., Paradis, C., Willners, C., & Jones, S. (2009). Discourse functions of antonymy: a cross linguistic investigation of Swedish and English. Journal of Pragmatics, 41(11), 2159-2184. Ogden, C. K. (1967). Opposition: a linguistic and psychological analysis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2918 Title A name given to the resource WORD CLASS AND TEXTUAL FUNCTIONS OF ANTONYMS: A CORPUS STUDY Author Author Kostić, Nataša Abstract A summary of the resource. Antonymy is traditionally regarded as a paradigmatic relation, but recent studies of antonym co–occurrence in written discourse have shown that it can be investigated as a syntagmatic relation as well. Such investigations in the Untagged electronic corpus of Serbian identified two major and four minor functions of antonyms in discourse and its accompanying lexico-syntactic patterns, matching the results of similar analyses in English, Japanese, Swedish and Dutch. This paper presents a research on the relation between word class that antonym pairs belong to (e.g. adjectives, nouns, verbs, adverbs and prepositions) and their textual functions in Serbian written discourse. It is hypothesized that language users employ antonymous pairs in text irrespective of their grammatical class. The general conclusion is that the roles of antonyms in text are not influenced by word class as significantly as one might expect. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/786abe4ab1345f8b34775f9907326b61.docx 192e01fc37ad0c79c937f29ee14e60e6 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/954001bad70b56bf88e4c09d84b1b47a.pdf 34a2fc0903a192af157ba8f2cf1e119d PDF Text Text Wording and Discourse of Conservative Female Columnists Kübra Güran Yiğitbaşı Marmara University/ Istanbul, Turkey Key words: Discourse analysis,Female Columnists, rhetorical statements,columnists of styles,Turkish press. ABSTRACT Along with the improvements in new media and communication technologies, the press that finds a place for itself in the definition of traditional media maintains its importance with detailed news analysis and exclusive news. Like other forms of media, the printed media also tries to reach its target audience in various ways. It can do this by bringing up news and also through columnists who establish a close and intimate relationship between the paper and its readers, reflecting the newspaper’s identity. In general, columnists in the Turkish press are the people who comment on and assess recent developments based on their own philosophy of life and their basic references. Through AKP (The Justice and Development Party) that has been in power since 2002, female columnists with conservative and islamic lifestyles have become more visible in the Turkish press, particularly with their different wording and discourses. While the majority of these authors have been writing in conservative newspapers, such as Yeni Şafak and Star, others have chosen secular newspapers, such as Taraf or Haberturk. Sibel Eraslan, Elif Çakır, and Halime Kökçe from Star and Fatma Barbarosoğlu, Hilal Kaplan and Özlem Albayrak from Yeni Şafak can be shown as examples of the first group of writers. On the other hand, Nihal Bengisu Karaca from Habertürk and Hidayet Tuksal from Taraf are the authors of the latter group. In this study, a month-long articles of these authors will be examined in the axis of the "woman" issue. The ways the authors approach the “woman” issue as well as the common and different aspects of their styles and their rhetorical statements will be tried to be revealed. Through a discourse analysis, the statements they make in their writing pieces and the subtle messages and meanings behind their texts will be exposed. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1836 Title A name given to the resource Wording and Discourse of Conservative Female Columnists Author Author YIGITBASI, Kübra Güran Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Discourse analysis,Female Columnists, rhetorical statements,columnists of styles,Turkish press. ABSTRACT Along with the improvements in new media and communication technologies, the press that finds a place for itself in the definition of traditional media maintains its importance with detailed news analysis and exclusive news. Like other forms of media, the printed media also tries to reach its target audience in various ways. It can do this by bringing up news and also through columnists who establish a close and intimate relationship between the paper and its readers, reflecting the newspaper’s identity. In general, columnists in the Turkish press are the people who comment on and assess recent developments based on their own philosophy of life and their basic references. Through AKP (The Justice and Development Party) that has been in power since 2002, female columnists with conservative and islamic lifestyles have become more visible in the Turkish press, particularly with their different wording and discourses. While the majority of these authors have been writing in conservative newspapers, such as Yeni Şafak and Star, others have chosen secular newspapers, such as Taraf or Haberturk. Sibel Eraslan, Elif Çakır, and Halime Kökçe from Star and Fatma Barbarosoğlu, Hilal Kaplan and Özlem Albayrak from Yeni Şafak can be shown as examples of the first group of writers. On the other hand, Nihal Bengisu Karaca from Habertürk and Hidayet Tuksal from Taraf are the authors of the latter group. In this study, a month-long articles of these authors will be examined in the axis of the "woman" issue. The ways the authors approach the “woman” issue as well as the common and different aspects of their styles and their rhetorical statements will be tried to be revealed. Through a discourse analysis, the statements they make in their writing pieces and the subtle messages and meanings behind their texts will be exposed. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/60e8fe935dcf56b05fee731c94f03a24.pdf 990eb8bae54e88f253fe27e7d803a238 PDF Text Text Work-Scheduling Model for an Open Cast Coal Mine in Turkey with Integer Programming Necmettin Çetin Dumlupınar University, Faculty of Engineering Mining Engineering Department Kütahya/Turkey necmettin@dumlupinar.edu.tr Abstract: Tunçbilek Open Cast Coal Mine of Garp Lignite Enterprise (GLI) is located in Kütahya, Turkey and the overburden removal operations are carried out by using Truck/Shovel Systems which is faced with the problem of changing number of trucks due to equipment breakdowns. The maintenance of failed trucks are planned to occur at fixed scheduling days. It is required to determine the operating number of truck drivers for each operating shifts in a weekly planning horizon. A simple Integer Programming model is developed using LINGO software to determine the optimum number of truck drivers required to satisfy the variable number of trucks for each operating shift. The developed model schedules the trucks drivers optimally for each operating shift in a weekly scheduling period. Introduction Cyclic staff scheduling problems arise in a variety of service delivery systems including nurses in hospitals, baggage handlers in airlines, operators in telephone companies, etc. Many such systems operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week with demand for services varying in some daily or weekly pattern over each hour of the week. Full-time employees in these service organizations are often assigned to a prescribed 40-hour work schedule (eight hours per day, five consecutive days) each week Staff scheduling or rostering is the process of constructing work timetables for its staff so that an organization can satisfy the demand for its goods or services. It involves a number of hierarchical sub problems including demand modeling, shift design, days-off scheduling, lines of work construction and staff assignment. The first part of this process involves in determining the number of staff, with particular skills, needed to meet the service demand. Individual staff members are allocated to shifts so as to meet the required staffing levels at different times and duties are assigned to individuals for each shift. All industrial regulations associated with relevant workplace agreements must be observed during the process. Days-off scheduling has been extensively discussed in literature in a variety of planning context, including many contributions from the area of nurse scheduling. (Alfares et al., 2007), (Ernst et al., 2004), (Morris, J.G. and. Showalter, M. J, 1983), and Baker, (1974) are some of the research papers in this staff scheduling or rostering problems in various fields of applications. This study is concerned with scheduling the daily truck drivers for a weekly scheduling period at GLI open cast coal mine truck/shovel systems operations in Kütahya, Turkey. In this system, the daily required number of truck driver changes frequently for each working day since the maintenance of trucks and shovels are scheduled for regular inspection days in a weekly planning horizon. It is required to schedule the truck drivers for each operating shift in a weekly planning horizon. Problem and Background Tunçbilek Lignite Reserve which is operated by Garp Lignite Enterprise (GLI) is located in Kütahya, Turkey and is one of the most important lignite deposits being in production since 1940’s. The overburden removal operations are carried out by using truck/shovel systems with 85-ton and 100-ton trucks and 10 and 20 cu-yd capacity shovels. The open cast coal mine is faced with the problem of changing number of trucks due to regular machinery maintenance. The maintenance of truck and shovel resources are planned to occur at fixed scheduling days. It is required to determine the operating number of truck drivers for each operating shift in a week period. The problem considered in this paper focuses on the days-off scheduling phase of the rostering process, and has been dealt with in the context of open cast coal mine truck/shovels systems. The main concern in days-off scheduling is to determine the off-work days for each staff member over the rostering planning 592 �horizon. The constraints refer to the individual days of the planning horizon and are concerned with satisfying the required daily staffing levels for each shift. In this paper, it is assumed that the required shifts and their staffing levels for each day have been determined prior to the days-off scheduling phase and hypothetical data for a case study are given in (Tab. 1). Each truck driver is scheduled to work for six successive day shifts and is off-work for the following single day. It is also assumed that the scheduling model is developed for a single shift in a day for week duration. Required Daily Number of Truck Drivers, r i Days-off Patterns xj Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7 17 13 15 19 14 16 11 r1 r2 r3 r4 r5 r6 r7 Table 1. Hypothetical Data for Daily Number of Truck Drivers Demanded Models and Scheduling Shift and days-off scheduling problems have received much attention in the literature of integer programming approaches to workforce scheduling. A typical managerial use would be to schedule full-time employees to minimize the number of labor hours while satisfying variable workforce requirements of a service delivery system. To satisfy the daily demand for truck drivers shown in (Tab. 1) most efficiently with minimum cost, the optimum number and schedule of truck driver needs to be determined for the open cast coal mine at GLI which currently employs a (6,7) work schedule. The (6,7) work schedule assigns workers to seven day-off patterns with one-single day off per week. The (6,7) days-off scheduling problem can be represented as an integer linear programming model as follows: Minimize W= ∑ (1) xj Subject to   7  ∑ xj      j =1 – x i+1 ≥ ri x j ≥ 0 and an integer, for i = 1, 2, 3… 7 (2) for j = 1, 2, 3… 7 (3) xj = number of workers assigned to a days-off pattern j , (i.e. number of workers off on just day j+1) ri = minimum number of workers required on day i, W = workforce size, (i.e. total number of workers assigned to all days-off patterns) During the planning stage of operations in open cast coal mining at GLI, a mathematical model is established with Integer Programming method and is used to find answers to truck drivers scheduling and reduce costs. The above formulated days-off scheduling model for determining the optimum number of truck drivers in GLI open cast coal mine truck/shovel systems operations is developed with Integer Programming using LINGO software package very easily and is given in (Fig. 1). (Fig. 2) gives the generated LINGO display of the developed model. (Fig. 3) gives the LINGO model formulation report for scheduling truck drivers. 593 �Figure 1: LINGO Model Program for Scheduling Truck Drivers at GLI Figure 2: LINGO Generated Model Display for Scheduling Truck Drivers at GLI 594 �LINGO Model Statements 1] 2] 3] 4] 5] 6] 7] 8] 9] 10] 11] 12] 13] 14] MODEL: ! A Work-Scheduling Model for Truck Drivers at GLI; SETS: DAYS/1..7/:RQMT,X; ENDSETS MIN=@SUM(DAYS:X); @FOR(DAYS(I):@SUM(DAYS(J)| (J#GT#I+1)#OR#(J#LE#I#AND#J#GT#I-6): X(J))> RQMT(I);@GIN(X(I));); DATA: RQMT=17,13,15,19,14,16,11; ENDDATA END END Figure 3: LINGO Model Formulation Report As shown in (Fig. 3), Line 3 defines the sets needed to solve the problem. Line 4 defines the days of the week (Monday, Tuesday… Sunday) and associates each with two quantities: the number of truck drivers needed (RQMT) and the number of truck drivers that will begin work on that day of the week (X). Line 5 ends the definitions of the sets. In line 6, an objective function is created by summing the number of truck drivers starting work on each day of the week. Lines 7-9 create for each day of the week the constraint that ensures the number of truck drivers working on that day is at least as large as the day’s requirement. For DAY (I), lines 7 and 8 sum the number of truck drivers starting work over the values of J satisfying J > I + 1 or J ≤ I and J > I – 6. For instance, for I = 1, this generates the sum X( 1) + X( 3) + X( 4) + X( 5) + X( 6) + X( 7) which is indeed the number of truck drivers working on DAY 1 (Monday). Line 9 (in concert with lines 7 and 8) ensures that the number of truck drivers working on Day I is at least as large as the number needed on Day I [RQMT (I)]. Line 10 begins the DATA section of the program. In line 11, the input requirement for each day of the week is inputted. The Open cast coal mine must ensure that sufficient number of truck drivers is working on each day of the week. For example, to ensure that at least 17 truck drivers are working on Monday, it is required that the constraint [2] in (Fig. 2). X( 1) + X( 3) + X( 4) + X( 5) + X( 6) + X( 7) ≥ 17 must be satisfied which does not include X(2) term since it is the number of truck drivers who begin work on Tuesday and they will be off-work on Monday. The constraints [3- 8] must be added to the model for the remaining six days in a similar way to complete the whole off-day patterns. GIN X(I) statements are needed for i = 1,2,…,7 to make all decision variables as integer values since number of truck drivers starting work on any day can be positive-valued integers only. Results and Conclusions The objective of this paper is to determine the optimum number of truck drivers workforce for (6, 7) work schedule that satisfies each daily demand with minimum cost. The results of days-off assignments for optimum number of truck drivers determined from LINGO Solution Report are given in (Fig. 4). As it can seen from the LINGO Solution Report, the optimum total number of truck drivers is determined as 19 truck drivers and the number of truck drivers beginning work on each days-off work pattern are as follows: 595 �x1 = 8, x2 = 2, x3 = 6, x4 = 0, x5 = 0, x6 = 0, x7 = 3 An Integer Programming model is developed using LINGO software for determining the optimum number of truck drivers for truck/shovel systems operations to meet the daily work schedule demand at GLI open cast coal mine in Kütahya, Turkey. If there is a future change in daily required number of truck drivers as the mine progresses over time, the LINGO program can easily be modified to determine the required size of truck drivers and the days-off assignments to satisfy the new demands. The developed model is site–specific and can only be used for the given specific mine conditions that prevail. The developed model assumes deterministic equipment breakdowns, which is not realistic for actual operating mines. Stochastic models will be needed to provide more accurate systems performance measures. It is hoped that the developed model to the GLI’s open cast truck driver’s days-off scheduling problem will provide convenient timetables to improve the efficiency of operations. Figure 4: LINGO Solution Report for Scheduling Truck Drivers at GLI References Alfares, H., K., Lilly, M., T., and Emovon, I., (2007). Maintenance Staff Scheduling at Afam Power Station, (pp. 22-37), IEMS Vol. 6, No 1, June. Ernst, A., T., Jiang, H., Krishnamoorthy, M., and Sier, D., (2004). Staff Scheduling and Rostering: A Review of Applications, Methods and Models, (pp.3-27), European Journal of Operations Research Vol. 153. Morris, J., G., and Showalter, M.J., (1983). Simple Approaches to Shift, Days-off and Tour Scheduling Problems, (pp. 942950), Management Science, Vol. 29. Baker, K., (1974). Scheduling a Full-time Work Force to Meet Cyclic Staffing Requirements, (pp. 1561-1568), Management Science, Vol. 20. 596 �Winston, W., L., (2004). Operations Research – Applications and Algorithms, Brook/Cole-Thomson Learning, Belmont, CA, USA. 597 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 606 Title A name given to the resource Work-Scheduling Model for an Open Cast Coal Mine in Turkey with Integer Programming Author Author Çetin, Necmettin Abstract A summary of the resource. Tunçbilek Open Cast Coal Mine of Garp Lignite Enterprise (GLI) is located in Kütahya, Turkey and the overburden removal operations are carried out by using Truck/Shovel Systems which is faced with the problem of changing number of trucks due to equipment breakdowns. The maintenance of failed trucks are planned to occur at fixed scheduling days. It is required to determine the operating number of truck drivers for each operating shifts in a weekly planning horizon. A simple Integer Programming model is developed using LINGO software to determine the optimum number of truck drivers required to satisfy the variable number of trucks for each operating shift. The developed model schedules the trucks drivers optimally for each operating shift in a weekly scheduling period. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)