340 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/282b351403005ee4e94c9112dba24220.pdf c3bc8ec0035d661f6c38d33a78d6a673 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Web Application GuideMeSarajevo Author Author Amar Mujkić Abstract A summary of the resource. The goal of this project is to provide tourists and visitors with a more efficient and personalized experience in the city of Sarajevo. The idea of GuideMeSarajevo is an easy-to-use and centralized platform, both for providers and users. The problem addressed is the lack of information provided to guests upon their arrival. Enabling visitors to choose their own preferences instead of predefining their whole stay is the main goal. The methods and procedures involve designing a web platform using Java and React as main technologies, implementation of a login and registration process with hashing passwords and JWT token authentication. Featuring the categorization of locations, tours, and car rentals, along with an interactive map of different attractions across Sarajevo. The platform enables regular users to browse, book, and save services for later, while leaving room for providers (admins) to create and offer their personalized utilities. The system ensures usability across modular design and a responsive user interface. Results show a useful platform that simplifies tourism and navigation in Sarajevo. Using interactive elements like maps and categorized utilities, the application increases user engagement. Enables providers to manage offerings quickly and attract more consumers to their businesses. Keywords Keywords. Sarajevo Tourism, Web Application, Booking, Browsing Language A language of the resource English language software engineering tourism web application https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8eb425177fd367a0a5a1f60927a769a3.docx d6c34d29847defdcc54ec88e279f1b3e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/15f1d16e8853823ca8cf85591e43c016.pdf 73da62ebbc8e33d06eb0acf519464535 PDF Text Text Web Presence of Hotels in Canton Sarajevo Armin Spahić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina spaha_1@hotmail.com Abstract: Making a website has become a necessity for any modern hotel operating nowadays. Creating an effective website for a business, such as a hotel, can contribute to its success. It changes the way of presenting particular services in a way that is available to anyone from anywhere around the globe. A person who is sitting in his or her chair in front of a computer can access all the information and services that a particular hotel is providing. In general, ecommerce is an efficient way of conducting business that replaces more effortful traditional way involving physical contact. However, to be successful, the website needs to be well designed and built in order to be adopted by the customers. The key criteria for good website design suggested by the literature include: functionality (e.g. information, instruction), usability (e.g. simplicity, ease of use) and appeal (e.g. color, graphics). Every customer wants to be able to get the required information from the website in the simplest and easiest way possible. In the case of hotels, visual presentation of hotel amenities is equally significant. It can stand out as a point-ofdifference for targeted customers. A single hotel can also benefit from joining global websites that connect many hotels in one place. Higher ratings can be obtained based on the quality of provided information and presentation because these ratings are based on actual human perceptions and experiences. Given all of the above said, this research study will examine how important is web presence for ratings and business success of selected hotels in Canton Sarajevo. A survey-based method will be employed to collect customer satisfaction data. Keywords: E-commerce. E-business, web presence, user satisfaction, hotel. 145 �145 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2608 Title A name given to the resource Web Presence of Hotels in Canton Sarajevo Author Author SPAHIĆ, Armin Abstract A summary of the resource. Making a website has become a necessity for any modern hotel operating nowadays. Creating an effective website for a business, such as a hotel, can contribute to its success. It changes the way of presenting particular services in a way that is available to anyone from anywhere around the globe. A person who is sitting in his or her chair in front of a computer can access all the information and services that a particular hotel is providing. In general, e-commerce is an efficient way of conducting business that replaces more effortful traditional way involving physical contact. However, to be successful, the website needs to be well designed and built in order to be adopted by the customers. The key criteria for good website design suggested by the literature include: functionality (e.g. information, instruction), usability (e.g. simplicity, ease of use) and appeal (e.g. color, graphics). Every customer wants to be able to get the required information from the website in the simplest and easiest way possible. In the case of hotels, visual presentation of hotel amenities is equally significant. It can stand out as a point-of-difference for targeted customers. A single hotel can also benefit from joining global websites that connect many hotels in one place. Higher ratings can be obtained based on the quality of provided information and presentation because these ratings are based on actual human perceptions and experiences. Given all of the above said, this research study will examine how important is web presence for ratings and business success of selected hotels in Canton Sarajevo. A survey-based method will be employed to collect customer satisfaction data. Keywords: E-commerce. E-business, web presence, user satisfaction, hotel. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dae22e17aaaf326a2192199788e7be5b.pdf 9a0b19965edde24759d618b01046698c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Web Scraping for Price Tracking of Electronics Across E-commerce Platforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Emir Bekrija Abstract A summary of the resource. This project focuses on addressing the challenges of monitoring and comparing electronic product prices across multiple e-commerce platforms. The goal is to develop a web-based price tracking and comparison system that allows users to identify the best deals and analyze potential misleading sales practices. The problem statement highlights the increasing difficulty for consumers to navigate numerous online stores and verify price changes due to the dynamic nature of e-commerce. The methodology involves using web scraping techniques with Python libraries such as BeautifulSoup and Selenium to extract real-time product price data from targeted e-commerce websites (e.g., ekupi.ba, imtec.ba, univerzalno.ba, technomag.com). The collected data is processed and stored in a MySQL database, while the user interface is built using HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and jQuery to display the results. PHP handles server-side functionality for querying and presenting data dynamically. The results demonstrate a functional system capable of displaying product prices across multiple platforms, highlighting the cheapest and most expensive options. Users can also identify suspicious pricing trends, enhancing transparency in online shopping. In conclusion, this price comparison and tracking system provides an efficient and user-friendly solution for monitoring electronic product prices, empowering users to make informed purchasing decisions. Keywords Keywords. price tracking system, web scraping, e-commerce, product comparison, real-time data Language A language of the resource English language sdp software engineering web development https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/10fd7497b99cc2fbb04523c422a0dc08.pdf 9c0e572f27870833c0be10e5cacf8493 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 2 – Perceptions category averages. Table 3 – Perceived obstacles for optimisation of the impact measurement process LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 - Size of MCOs according to portfolio size and number of active loans. Web Technologies In Education GünayKarli1, Miljković Adnan2 1International Burch University, Sarajevo – B&H 2Bosna Sema – Educational Institutions, Sarajevo – B&H Abstract Web technologies are rapidly taking over the traditionally used desktop applications. Depending on the purpose of the use, web technologies can provide more flexible and scalable solutions. In this paper we describe the specific use of web technologies in B&H. IT in the educational field in B&H is still under rise, and several projects have been developed.This paper describes a project called Smart School that has a rise as an alternative to the current solutions available on the market. Smart School meets the requirement set for a stable, scalable and secure application. 1.INTRODUCTION In order to develop and deliver an application in the educational field few aspects should be taken into consideration. A modern application in education would allow usage by several different groups of users, including teacher/professors, students, administrative workers, head of department and other decision making groups. Web applications provide the ability to build a solution, which can be used from any location and from any device in world. In this paper we describe the information systems used in education for management of student’s information, such as marks, attendances, comments and any other resource that can be utilized to track the achievement/progress of a student. In this paper we focus only on solutions used in primary and secondary schools. For specific examples and comparison, an application already used in education is evaluated, and as it do now satisfy the current needs, a detailed work is presented on an alternative 168 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo solution called “Smart School”, which has been developed and is currently used by 8 schools in 4 cantons of B&H. “Smart school” is a web application that manages all school resources, providing access to school employees such as teacher to populate data about a student, and on the other side provides feedback to students and parents. “Smart School” differentiates itself from the other solutions, by having a much easier and friendly user interface allowing simple and fast access. A special commitment has been made in the field of security, where all data is encrypted and passed through secure layers. The security level in “Smart School” is similar to the one used in the banking industry. “Smart School” for the first time in the educational system in B&H introduces the 2-step verification process for the user authentication by utilizing security tokens for generating one time password. 2.CURRENT STATE OF IT IN B&H Information technologies are constantly emerging in all sectors of businesses in B&H. Many businesses use now the latest technologies and software available on the global market to perform everyday tasks easier, faster and with more quality. This is mainly due to the fact that businesses have to evolve and keep on innovating in order to stay competitive over the competition. Unfortunately this is not the case in the educational sector in B&H. The primary and secondary schools are back behind the use of IT technologies in education. The primary and secondary education on a large base still depends on the traditional way of teaching with the conventional methods. During the school year 2005, the Sarajevo Canton Ministry of Education, introduced for the first time in B&H, an information system for schools in Canton Sarajevo CS called Education Management Information System EMIS. The purpose of EMIS is to collect data from schools, and stores it on centralized databases. The collected data is used for statistical purposes by the Ministry(UTIC, 2012). EMIS collects all data about a school including the students, staff, premises and school inventory. EMIS offers the possibility to print student transcripts at the end of the school year. In order to achieve the following, schools are entering student marks after the end of each term. Today after more than 6 years EMIS has retain its functionality in Canton Sarajevo. The main drawbacks of EMIS are its limited functionality, where it is just a statistical application, which has the ability to collect data twice a year. This is mainly due to the complicated use of the application and the lack of knowledge by the staff in schools. The Ministry started with the campaign of basic education of teachers in CS just last October 2011(Logosoft, 2011). This campaign included basic education of teachers with the use of Microsoft line of products such as Windows 7 and Office 2010. Bosna Sema as a private educational institution has recognized the need to elevate the current educational system in B&H to a higher and more quality level. Bosna Sema has 8 primary and secondary educational schools in four cantons in B&H(Bosna Sema, 2011). Following the fact that the primary and secondary schools are mandatory in B&H for all students, the 169 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo need to involve even more the parents in the everyday aspect of a school arose. Bosna Sema recognized the need to constantly provide feedback of student’s performances and receive feedback from the parents. This private institution has 3 schools in the Canton Sarajevo where it is using and supporting EMIS for those schools. Unfortunately EMIS does not satisfy the needs of this private institution, toprovide an educational system that is transparent and able to involve the parents in the process of education. Following these requirements Bosna Sema has started a joint venture with an IT company to development an application that will meet all of the requirements set for the new and better tracking of educational system in B&H. The project started in 2010 under the name Smart School. 3.SMART SCHOOL Smart school is a set of applications that manage all school resources, providing access to school employees such as teacher to populate data about a student, and on the opposite side provides feedback to students and parents. On top of those groups of users, additional decision making users are involved as well. Smart School provides detailed reports about school wide data to school principals, and executive boards. The implementation of Smart School in schools in different cantons of B&H, allows this project to be compatible and satisfy each canton’s possible specific need. Smart School closely follows to cover and give access to each parent and student. Following this guideline, parents and students can receive feedback from Smart School with different mechanisms, including access by internet and mobile phones. 3.1.Smart School Architecture Smart school is built as three-tier architecture, being composed of a data, application and presentation tier. In order to cope with the scalability, performance and efficiency, each of those reside on separate hardware with high speed interconnection in between. The bottom layer which represents the data tier is where the databases reside. The data tier acts independently from the above tiers. Smart School uses MySQL for the databases. MySQL is the world's most popular open source database software, used by hundred thousands of companies all around the world(MySQL). This database software covers the current needs for Smart School. The next tier is the application tier, which covers all of the business logic in Smart School. The application tier communicates with the database in the data tier. The application tier exposes different methods for the above tier though web services. This tier always authenticates each remote request and if accessed by an authorized user, presents the transformed data from the data to the presentation tier. This tier handles request from different presentation applications, and offers different type of data representation. Depending on the type of request the web services can return the data in either Extensible 170 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Markup Language XML or JavaScript Object Notation JSON. The traditional XML allows the representation of data to be both human and machine readable, but often contains repeated tags that describe data. XML is acceptable when exchanging data between high speed connections, but has downsides when it comes to transfer between slow connections, as the case when using mobile internet over mobile providers. In this kind of transfer it is very important to transfer the data as lightweight as possible. In order to cope with this kind of speed and bandwidth issues, JSON is used to return data in Smart School. JSON is very similar to an array or vector in major programming language. It is language independent and many languages include default implementation to read and parse this format of data. In Smart School, JSON is primarily used for data exchange between the mobile apps and this tier. Smart School has several implementation of the presentation tier. This tier first authenticates with the application tier, and then communicates with different requests and replies. The following components make up the presentation tier: Administration Web and Parent/Student Web. The administration web component is a web application that represents the user interface for the entire Smart School. This component allows the authorized users to manage the entire system from a web app. The application exchanged the information with the web services. As the school users have different privileges and overview of the system from the one of parents and students, two separate components have been created. The Parent/Student component has only modules that are directly related to a single student overview. This separation is primarily for security reason and potential bugs in the system, but as well to offer a simplified overview of modules just for parents and students. 3.2.Smart School Feedback Modules In order to cover the targeted user groups of Smart School, the following main feedback modules have been introduced: Student performance/tracking Module Reporting Module Parent/Student Module 3.2.1.Student performance/tracking module This module is used by the user groups that are consisted of subject teachers. The teachers are assigned to subject from the administrative module, and can only manage students enrolled in the teacher’s subjects. From this module the teacher can send and receive messages from parent and students. The teacher can easily and quickly get and overview of the subject average, and get details about the students above and beyond the given thresholds in average. All information from this module can be exported as spreadsheet and managed in locally on 171 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo computer from any spreadsheet tools such as Microsoft Excel or LibreOffice Calc. If a teacher is assigned the role of a class teacher (class manager), additional functionalities are available. Those functionalities enable the class teacher to manage task such as getting collective reports about an entire class, preparing data for parent meeting and scheduling parents meetings by sending bulk emails and short messages to parent mobile phones. Additionally the class teacher is responsible for the behavior tracking of each student in the assigned class. 3.2.2.Reporting Module In order to get overall feedbacks from any application, a reporting module is necessary. The reporting module in Smart School is a collection of predefined reports that given detailed insights about data in the system. The reporting module is used by different groups of users, with the ability to access different types and levels of reports. Apart the predefined reports, a dynamic form allows to create reports on the fly with custom joined data. At the first level, users with teacher privileges can query reports with data about their teaching subjects, and enrolled students. The next level allows the school principals to get school wide report. In those reports the school principal has detailed overview of all teachers, subjects and students. The reports are always collecting direct data from the databases, so they always show the accurate image of the data. In order to provide a higher level of reports over multiple schools, additional two more levels were added. Bosna Sema, which has several schools in several cantons use those levels, one for the head of departments, and one for the executive boards. For the purpose of making decision on the top level, the executive board has to have detailed insight reports for any board meeting. For this purpose, a higher level in the reporting module has been introduced. This level has access to all schools combined, offering information from a single students, and teacher to the entire school performance. This allows the executive board to have accurate and up to date information, upon which they can make crucial decisions. The Cantonal Ministries of Education in B&H could benefit from this level of reporting. Although each school is sending collective data about schools to the Offices of Statistics in B&H, the information on the official Canton web sites are more than outdated. An example can be given for the Canton of Tuzla, where the information about high schools is presented from 01.12.2003, which is outdated for 9 years(Vlada TK, 2003). A similar case is with the ZE-DO Canton, where on the 1st October 2010, a detailed document about the high schools in canton has been presented on the official web site of canton from May 2006(ZE-DO Canton, 2010). Smart School can allow the cantons to have these varieties of reports instantly on any given date. Only with accurate and up to date reports can suitable decisions be made. 172 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 3.2.3.Parents/Student Module Smart School provides an in-depth feedback to parents and students. During the initial design many aspects have been taken into consideration about the traditional way on how the parents and students get the performance information from their schools. Following these practices one of the initial requirements has been to provide first a quick and easy access to information for the preparation of a parent meeting. Smart School here allows the class teacher to collect instantly up to date data for a meeting. Also the class teacher can schedule a meeting through the application and send instant SMS and emails to parents with time and place of the meeting. In order to provide constant access to parents about the performance of their child additional methods have been introduced. One method involved a web application access for parents over the internet, and the second one allows the parent to get information on mobile phone via short messages. 4.Security in Smart School Smart School uses the latest technologies in order to provide secure access to sensitive data. The database contains privileged information about all students’ achievements as well as personal information about the employees from the institutions who utilize Smart School. To achieve a maximum level of security, all communication is exchanged through secure channels over Secure Sockets LayerSSL. Each time a user accesses the web application, a secure connection is established from the client browser to the server, meaning all information passed from the client to the server is encrypted and cannot be seen anywhere in between those two. Continuing with our security layer, with the exchange of data through SSL all communication from the client to the server is secured, but we still have one more possible point which can be vulnerable, and through which unauthorized access can be gained. By design Smart School as a web application can be accessed from any place in the world through any Internet Service Provider ISP. This is primary allowed for the purpose that teachers and professors are not limited with the location from where they can access data. Following this design it is possible, with the use of a username and password to access the web application anytime from anywhere. In case a malicious user gets the real user access details, the malicious user could logon to the web application and perform some unauthorized actions in the application. There are many possible scenarios on getting access details from an authorized user; one includes the fact that many users use similar username and password with multiple services on the internet, such as for email address, social platforms, bulletin boards, forums, chats, online shopping cards and many other. If one of those services gets compromised, the malicious user could try the same password for some other services, and then possibly get access to our application. 173 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Another possible security scenario is that the client computer is infected with a Trojan virus, or some other malicious application such as key logger, which would send access details to a malicious user, where again a possible treat against the system could be used. In order to prevent unauthorized access even when knowing the username and password, Smart School implements an additional layer of security by introducing two-factor authentication. Two-factor authentication requires the user to authenticate with more than just a username and password. There are many variations of the multifactor authentication that includes even more that two factors. Smart School uses a two-factor authentication system. The first factor in the authentication is the well-known username and private password by the user and the second factor is the process of generating an additional verification code called One Time Password OTP, which is generated by a security token. Upon each logging the security token will generate an OTP which will be valid just for once. The security token is based on the Time-based One-time Password Algorithm TOTP, where each token based on its internal serial number on the given time generates a number(TOTP: Time-Based One-Time Password Algorithm). At the time of the logging process the server performs the same algorithm and then compares the entered OTP with the one generated on the server side. The server has a match table between each token and user, so the server ‘knows’ on which serial to perform the algorithm. This security layer prevents possible unauthorized access to the web application, even if the user gets access to the username and password of the account. This method of authentication is widely used by banks for online banking.OTP is becoming more popular among everyday used web services. Google has introduced the so called 2-step verification process for accessing any Google protected resource(Google, 2012). Similarly Amazon implemented AWS multi-factor authentication when accessing the Amazon Web Service infrastructure(AWS, 2012). 5.CONCLUSION Although the majorities of components have been developed and are already in use, Smart School still undergoes under changes and copes to adapt with the new functionalities. All users of the system including the parents and students are constantly providing feedback which guides to a more quality application. The main goal behind this project wasto offer a unique application that will covers and satisfy all of the user’s requests, following the educational legislations in B&H. This goal has been meet. Currently the project is only implemented in Bosna Sema educational institutions, however future plans includes offering this application to all primary and secondary schools in B&H. The future expansion also includes the development of rising mobile applications for two major smartphone mobile platforms used in B&H that consist of iOS and Android. 174 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo BIBLIOGRAPHY AWS. (2012, 04 07). AWS Multi-Factor Authentication. Retrieved from AWS Multi-Factor Authentication: https://aws.amazon.com/mfa/ Bosna Sema. (2011). About Bosna Sema - Educational Institutions. Retrieved from http://bosnasema.ba/en/about-us/d-9hd4f5zm Google. (2012). 2-step verification. Retrieved from http://support.google.com/a/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=175197 2-step verification: Logosoft. (2011, 10 27). Logosoft započeo edukaciju nastavnika informatike u KS. Retrieved from http://www.logosoft.ba/prodaja.aspx?docid=49 MySQL. (n.d.). About MySQL. Retrieved from http://www.mysql.com/about/ TOTP: Time-Based One-Time http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6238 Password Algorithm. (n.d.). Retrieved from UTIC. (2012, 03 14). About EMIS. Retrieved from http://www.emis.edu.ba/page/Opcenito-osistemu-EMIS.aspx UTIC. (n.d.). Education Management Information Sistem. Retrieved 01 29, 2012, from http://www.emis.edu.ba/page/Opcenito-o-sistemu-EMIS.aspx Vlada TK. (2003, 12 1). PODACI O UČENICIMA - SREDNJE ŠKOLE TK. Retrieved from http://www.vladatk.kim.ba/Ministarstva/MONKS/nastavnici/UceniciSS.htm ZE-DO Canton. (2010, 10 1). Informacija o nastavnicima i stručnim saradnicima u srednjim školama. Retrieved from http://www.zdk.ba/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&task=download&id=62 175 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1166 Title A name given to the resource Web Technologies In Education Author Author Gunay, Karli Abstract A summary of the resource. Web technologies are rapidly taking over the traditionally used desktop applications. Depending on the purpose of the use, web technologies can provide more flexible and scalable solutions. In this paper we describe the specific use of web technologies in B&H. IT in the educational field in B&H is still under rise, and several projects have been developed.This paper describes a project called Smart School that has a rise as an alternative to the current solutions available on the market. Smart School meets the requirement set for a stable, scalable and secure application. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/11f444a2bbe4625c0ab354c356389e89.pdf bed609e416bd3a504130215a4d16245d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Western pedagogical models of writing center tutorials: Can they be effective in the Middle East? Maria Eleftheriou Department of Writing Studies American University of Sharjah meleftheriou@aus.edu Abstract: This paper presents the findings of a study of writing center tutorial practices in a Middle Eastern university where the language of instruction is English. Data from stimulated recall activities, written observations, and interviews were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of writing center tutorials in a Middle-Eastern Writing Center. The data revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments, believed that their concerns had been addressed, and that they had acquired transferable skills. Most tutees assessed their tutors positively, valuing tutors who inspired confidence and were able to explain concepts clearly. Although tutees appreciated knowledgeable tutors, they valued egalitarian peer-tutoring relationships. Tutors reported that tutorial sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical of their own performance. Some tutors admitted to lacking the knowledge necessary to explain certain writing concepts, including grammatical concepts; some felt they dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees preferred the directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. This study shows that diverse tutoring models that accommodate the background and experiences of Middle Eastern students, and their particular strengths and weaknesses, should be considered. It recommends tutorial training that emphasizes flexibility and recognizes the distinctive nature of each tutorial situation and the opportunity it presents to address the needs and expectations of individual students. These findings could signal a direction for the development of writing center pedagogy that focuses on the linguistically and culturally diverse students in the Middle East. Key Words: Tutorial interaction, NNS tutorials, Middle Eastern students, Peer tutoring Introduction In recent years, educators have become increasingly aware of the importance of developing writing centers in educational institutions. In North America, most high schools, colleges, and universities today provide writing centers to help students improve their writing skills. Writing centers offer free, individualized writing assistance from trained consultants or trained peer tutors. During writing center tutorials, students and peer tutors work together on various aspects of writing, including thesis development, organization, outlining, paragraphing, sentencestructure, wording, vocabulary, and mechanics. Most writing centers strive to teach students to recognize and correct their own errors with the goal of making them more confident, self-sufficient writers (North, 1984). Writing centers in North America have typically eschewed a directive approach to instruction, preferring a non-directive, collaborative approach. With non-directive strategies, learners take an active role in the tutorial. Tutors are encouraged to promote a sense of responsibility in the student for their writing: ―Make sure that writers take ownership,‖ ―Trust the writers‘ ideas of the text,‖ ―Ask them their plans for revision,‖ and ―Keep hands off and let writers make corrections‖ (Gillespie & Lerner, 2006, p. 45). With directive tutorial strategies, the responsibility for the tutorial is placed in the tutor‘s hands. The strategies used with this approach include ―mak[ing] corrections on the page‖ and ―tell[ing] writers what to do‖ (Gillespie & Lerner, 2006, p. 45). The directive approach to instruction has been supplanted by the non-directive approach, and many tutors attempt to honor non-direction in their interactions with their writing center tutees (Blau & Hall, 2002; Brooks, 1991; Carino, 2003; Jones, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). There is a compelling amount of evidence, however, that even though tutors seek to maintain a non-directive role with their writing center tutees, in actual practice, the peer relationship reflects a more complicated dynamic. Grimm (1996) identifies the ―loss of innocence‖ among researchers and practitioners regarding the dynamic and influence of the tutor-tutee relationship in day-to-day writing center work, while Shamoon and Burns (1995) critique the notion of ―pure tutoring‖ in writing center pedagogy. Some researchers have observed that the notion of the tutor-tutee relationship that envisions an egalitarian balance and does not allow for an authoritarian aspect in the interaction is 790 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo untenable. Over the last 15 years there has been a growing movement to challenge the orthodoxy of the non-directive peer tutoring perspective and to identify and consider the real-life conduct of the peer interaction to determine its impact on the effectiveness of instruction (Clark & Healy, 1996; Grimm, 1996; Henning, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004; Weigle & Nelson, 2004). Non-Native Speaking Students in the Writing Center The questioning of the peer relationship and the effectiveness of a strictly non-directive approach to tutoring have emerged out of the growing research focus on the learning of non-native speaking (NNS) students who come to English-language writing centers (Harris & Silva, 1993; Thonus, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). Some studies indicate that NNS students may benefit from a more directive approach in their tutoring interactions (Blau & Hall, 2002; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). A study was conducted to examine the tutor-tutee relationship in an English-language writing center in the Middle East, serving students for whom English may be a second or third language. There is relatively little research on English language learning on writing center work with this population. Context of the Study The Middle East University (MEU), a pseudonym for a university located in the United Arab Emirates, receives hundreds of foreign students annually. According to the 2009 Institutional Research University Board, the student body consists of 20% Emirati students, 42% students from the rest of the Arab world including Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, and Syria and the remainder are from countries including Iran, India, and Pakistan. The university curriculum is modelled on the curriculum of American universities; it has received American accreditation, and the language of instruction is entirely in English. Approximately half the MEU students have been educated in schools where the language of instruction has not been English. Most of the students in this group have been educated in Arabic school systems. The remaining students have been educated in a number of school systems, including Urdu, Hindi, Persian, and Afghani. English is the second or third language and occasionally the fourth for many of the students. This situation is characteristic of many American, British, or Australian universities in the United Arab Emirates. All students at the university are required to take 15 credits of communications courses as part of their major programs. The challenges these students face while writing in English is a serious concern for faculty members and students. As part of an effort to address writing issues, the university established a Writing Center with a peer tutoring program in the 2004/2005 academic year. Students are strongly encouraged by their instructors to visit the MEU Writing Center where they will receive individualized instruction. Following the American writing center model, both in the use of the term peer tutoring and in the organization of the Writing Center, MEU offers one-on-one tutoring sessions by appointment or on a drop-in basis to all students throughout the university. Instructors teaching writing-intensive courses or courses with a writing component often encourage or even require their students to visit the Writing Center for supplemental help. Students can also self-refer. During the tutoring sessions, tutees and tutors work on global concerns such as improving content, organization, and tone and/or local concerns such as clarifying confusing or improperly constructed sentences, correction punctuation, grammar, and mechanics. The Nature of the Research Problem In the peer tutoring program which was implemented in 2004/2005, tutors were trained to use a nondirective, collaborative approach to tutoring. They were encouraged to promote an egalitarian relationship by establishing rapport with their tutees at the beginning of the session, sitting ―side-by side‖ with their tutees to mitigate the nature of the authoritarian tutor-tutee relationship. They were advised to encourage the tutee to be an active participant in the tutorial discussion by asking the tutee to read aloud, placing the assignment in front of the tutee, and giving the tutee control of the pen or pencil or keyboard if working at the computer. Tutors were advised to use non-directive strategies, such as asking questions about the tutees‘ goals and assignments, negotiating an agenda, outlining/mapping with the tutees, asking tutees to explain and clarify their ideas orally, asking tutees to write independently, and asking questions to develop critical self-awareness. The tutors were trained to facilitate this process by responding as readers, and by practicing the use of silence and wait time. Although tutors tried to implement the recommended strategies, it soon became increasingly clear that this approach was not always effective. Tutors expressed frustration about trying to elicit knowledge tutees did not have; they suggested the tutors were deliberately withholding information, or that they were not sufficiently knowledgeable about writing. Tutors were then advised to modify their approach and to use a directive approach when they thought the non-directive approach was not effective. Tutors were advised to use the directive approach when they felt they had no other recourse. They were cautioned against simply fixing errors and told to provide the tutee with strategies for correction. Informal 791 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo observation indicated the emergence of problems relating to the tutors‘ attempts to implement this advice. A study was designed to determine the ways in which tutees and tutors perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials when tutors who have been trained to use directive approaches are now trying to decide when and if they are appropriate. It takes into account the particular circumstances of a Middle Eastern university where the students come from ethically, culturally, and linguistically diverse backgrounds to study in an English medium university. Unlike tutors in the US who are usually native speakers (NS) of English, the tutors at MEU are native speakers of languages such as Arabic, Hindi, Urdu, and English. Most writing center scholarship and research has been conducted with NS tutees, NNS tutees, and NS tutors in North America. Research Questions Many writing center researchers emphasize the importance of improving assessment practices and maintaining a willingness to question accepted notions of writing center pedagogy across the range of NS and NNS populations (Thonus, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). This study sought to understand and evaluate the effectiveness of the interactive process of the writing center tutorial by exploring tutor and tutee perceptions of the tutorials. Discerning patterns that recur during the sessions could lead to a deeper awareness of the perceptions of the tutors and the tutees, which will help the writing center director to improve the training of tutors and maximize the benefits of the Writing Center. The following research questions were addressed within the given NNS context: 1. 2. 3. 4. How do tutees perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials? How do tutors perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials? Which type of tutoring approach (e.g. non-directive vs. directive) do tutees find most effective? Which type of tutoring approach (e.g. non-directive vs. directive) do tutors find most effective? Methodology Fifteen writing Center tutorials at the MEU Writing Center were videotaped and analyzed, and stimulated recall was conducted with the tutees and tutors within 24 hours after the tutorials. The stimulated recall was taperecorded and transcribed. Interviews were conducted with all participants within 72 hours of the stimulated recall and were also transcribed. Data for the study came from videotapes of the tutorials, stimulated recall and interviews. By coding the transcribed stimulated recall sessions and interviews with the tutors and tutees, the researcher was able to gain a clearer understanding of the following: tutors‘ and tutees‘ expectations of writing tutorials in general, their perceptions of the tutorials‘ effectiveness overall, and an understanding of which types of strategies (non-directive vs. directive) they felt were most effective. Results The findings revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments. They reported that their tutors addressed their concerns and that they had acquired transferable skills. Tutees appreciated and responded well to tutors who were able to explain concepts with clarity, accuracy and precision, but they were unsatisfied with tutors who dominated the session and with those who did not provide explanations for changes or corrections. They appreciated the authority of knowledgeable tutors, but they valued an egalitarian peer tutoring relationship. Tutors also claimed that the tutorials were effective. They reported that the sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that they believed that the tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical about their own performances. Some tutors admitted that their knowledge and understanding of certain writing concepts was insufficient; some felt they had dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees generally preferred a directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. Though many of the findings of this study are similar to findings with NNS students in North American contexts, there are some differences. NNS tutees at all levels of proficiency in this study enjoyed the peer-like aspects of the relationship with their tutors. They appreciated having a sense of control over their tutorials and did not like their tutors to dominate tutorials. Like NNS tutees in North American contexts, the tutees in this context claimed that they preferred a directive approach for lower order concerns when they did not have sufficient knowledge to respond to their tutors‘ non-directive approaches. Although there has been a greater emphasis in recent literature on the role of more directive strategies in writing center instruction (Bringhurst, 2006; Harris & Silva, 1993; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams, 2005), this study indicates that writing center practitioners should not abandon constructivist practices of collaboration and non-directive strategies; rather, they should use these strategies when it is appropriate to do so. The current evidence suggests that a combination of non-directive and directive practices may provide a solution to addressing the variety of learning needs exhibited by NNS writers in particular (Blau & Hall, 2002; 792 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Carino, 2003; Harris & Silva, 1993; Henning, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 2001; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). This study confirms that the non-directive/directive binary alternatives are too simplistic to be helpful in practice because individuals with varying abilities and experiences need tutoring approaches that can be adapted to their requirements at different times. It emphasizes the importance of flexibility, of the judicious use of both directive and non-directive strategies. This exploratory study reveals that strategies deemed successful with NS and NNS students in North American contexts may not be effective in Middle Eastern contexts. It raises questions about several well-established strategies in writing center tutorials. The strategy of silence, for instance, was generally not well received by tutees. Reading aloud, a strategy commonly used by many tutors, was also not well-received by several tutees. Determining the reasons for the tutees‘ negative assessment of these strategies warrants further research. Another finding is the tutees‘ preference for a peer tutoring, egalitarian relationship that enabled the generation of ideas through collaborative interaction and the strengths and limitations of this approach. The difference between the students in this study and those in the North American context may be explained by their experiences living in and adapting to two or more cultures and languages. The findings of this study reveal the distinctive nature of this cohort and the implications this has for future research. Implications of the Study Although tutors and tutees claimed that the tutorial sessions were generally effective, the study shows that both groups were aware of aspects of the sessions that require alteration and improvement. Emphasize the Importance of Pre-Tutorial Discussion Tutees responded positively to tutors who spent time at the beginning of the tutorial asking questions about their assignments, their concerns and negotiating an agenda for the session. This aspect of tutorials could be emphasized during training, and tutors reminded of its importance throughout their employment at the Writing Center. This information gathering is particularly important for NNS tutees who may not be sufficiently fluent in English to understand the requirements of the assignments or to explain their own intentions about the assignment. Decisions about whether or not the tutee will read the text aloud or at what points during the reading the tutor will provide feedback could be made during this section of the tutorial. This initial dialogue also gives the tutorial direction and establishes rapport between tutor and tutee. The study revealed that the tutoring relationship can be affected by many NNS students‘ unfamiliarity with the type of discussion that is typically used in the writing center. According to Bruce (2009), ―the concept of shared responsibility for writing is alien‖ to NNS students (p. 34). This study confirmed her observation and affirmed the desirability of encouraging tutors to explain the writing center approach to first time clients at the beginning of the session and to implement it with sensitivity. Avoid Appropriation Although tutees preferred a directive approach while addressing lower order concerns, they were resistant to this approach if it bordered on appropriation. Several tutees reported that their tutors occasionally assumed too much control of their papers. This situation can be ameliorated if tutors have had adequate training so that they are aware of the need to involve their tutee in each stage of the discussion and to explain suggested changes. If the directive approach is used with sound judgment, it can provide the tutees with the conventions of discourse that are expected in academic institutions giving them more control over their writing. When tutors were rushed and felt they did not have the time to explain adequately the reasons for their suggestions, the possibility of appropriation was heightened. In this situation, the tutee could be given a handout that specifically addresses the issues, directed to a relevant online site, or asked to make another appointment at the writing center at which time the specific problem could be addressed. Tutors who have been trained to value the non-directive approach and to use directive approaches only when required find it difficult to know when to intervene with a directive approach, and how to determine the extent and the effect of their interventions. They lack the experience and the expertise to confidently negotiate this indeterminate area; moreover, they have acknowledged this difficulty and asked for guidance. Although tutors have misgivings about using the directive approach because of their training, some of them realize that it has proven to be effective on several occasions. If congenial learning situations were created where tutors could reflect on the teaching styles they are developing, perhaps they could change or modify them, if necessary. Activities such as role playing, stimulated recall or close vertical transcriptions, for instance, could help them to identify their characteristic teaching patterns and the resources they require in order be more confident and effective. Provide in-Service Grammar Training 793 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This study indicates that tutors‘ knowledge of grammar and related issues such as parts of speech, sentence structure and punctuation is insufficient. Grammar training throughout tutor training and with continuous professional development may be offered to tutors throughout their employment. In his article, ―English for those who think they already know it,‖ Rafoth (2009) says that successful tutoring sessions start with appropriate tutor resources and training, and argues that a familiarity with the framework of the English language ―brings about more interesting and helpful interactions with the students we tutor‖ (p. 120). Tutors are not always able to explain the errors in the tutees‘ assignments. Brooks (1991) claims that ―fixing flawed papers is easy; showing the students how to fix their own papers is complex and difficult‖ (p. 224). Tutors who are able to identify the errors in grammar themselves and to access resources through handbooks and reliable online grammar sites, including interactive grammar sites may be better able to engage in a discussion with tutees about their papers. An understanding of grammar is one of the interrelated activities involved in writing, and once the basic grammatical elements are acquired, it would be useful to tutors to know how to access further details when they are required. In some instances NNS tutees may be more familiar with grammatical terminology than their tutors; therefore, knowledge of English grammar is a valuable tool for tutors, both to instruct their tutees, and to maintain their credibility as authorities on English writing. In addition to knowing how to access resources that explain rules of grammar, tutors could be offered workshops that focus on specific elements of grammar. Furthermore, reading student texts and discussing how to approach grammatical errors in the context of the assignment may help tutors feel more confident when addressing grammatical errors during tutorial sessions. Although tutors prepare a short grammar presentation during their peer tutoring course, this aspect of tutorials has not been emphasized during in-service training. The findings of this study reveal that a more detailed understanding of grammatical rules is necessary because the tutees requested information the tutors could not provide. If tutors have a more comprehensive understanding of lexical and syntactical aspects of grammar, they will be in a stronger position to help their tutees to achieve greater coherence, cohesion, clarity, and precision. Knowledge of grammar will enhance the students‘ ability to organize knowledge, to generate ideas and insights, and to develop persuasive arguments. Knowledge of grammar can form an important part of the recursive process of writing. Provide Tutors with Information in Contrastive Rhetoric Informal observation and the results of this study reveal that tutors do not engage their tutees in discussion about contrastive rhetoric. Raising learners‘ awareness of some of the basic differences between English and Arabic may help Arabic NS students, particularly low proficiency students, who did not attend English language high school. For example, the inclusion of a pronoun is required in relative clauses; in English, it is omitted. This tendency may result in errors such as ―Where is the book which I gave it to you last week?‖ A tutor who notices that her tutee is including a pronoun in relative clauses would be expected to explain the difference. An understanding of contrastive rhetoric and an awareness of exemplary instances can form part of the tutors‘ arsenal, but tutors should not be constrained by the rhetoric of this approach because it can lead to prescriptivism. Many researchers caution against being prescriptive (Harris & Silva, 1993): an alternative to being prescriptive is to point out to writers the choices that are available to them, including the choices native speakers of English tend to make. Although tutors should be aware of characteristic instances of contrastive rhetoric, they should not pigeonhole Arabic NS students, for instance, by assuming they will make similar errors in their writing. In addition to providing tutors with readings in contrastive rhetoric, tutors could be provided with examples of students‘ writing and the opportunity to discuss characteristic errors made by Arabic, Persian, Urdu NS students, for instance. Adopt a Flexible Approach to Tutoring This study shows that more flexible tutoring models that accommodate the experiences of our tutors and tutees and their particular strengths and weaknesses may be of value. Much of the writing center scholarship discussing NNS writers recommends more flexible tutoring models than those used with NS writers (Blau & Hall, 2002; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams, 2005; Williams & Severino, 2004). The results of this Middle Eastern study support a similar recommendation. Pedagogical models designed to accommodate NNS students in North American contexts provide valuable insights about the relation between writing and learning. Middle Eastern writing center studies can build on this body of research and develop approaches that are flexible in ways that take into account the particularities of our clientele. It is up to writing center directors, however, to be aware of writing center pedagogy as it evolves in response to research; tutors should be able to assume that advice from directors is based on such research. If this level of confidence is established, tutors may be less inclined to regard established writing center models as prescriptive and more inclined to be flexible and to take into account the disparate needs of the tutees. The study revealed, for instance, that the reading aloud strategy occasionally distracted the tutees‘ attention rather than focusing it. Future tutors will be trained to take this into account and to recognize that this change in strategy derives not from personal preference but from research. It cannot automatically be assumed that the strategy of reading aloud or other strategies will work with all tutees in all situations. 794 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Promote an Egalitarian Tutorial Relationship The peer aspect of tutorials was deemed effective by both tutors and tutees. Tutees want access to authoritative, reliable knowledge in a friendly, egalitarian atmosphere. They claimed that they liked their tutors to involve them in the discussions as much as possible. Tutors have been trained not to control and dominate the conversation, but both sets of data revealed that many had a tendency to do so. In order to make tutors aware of this tendency and of the importance of involving the tutee in the session in meaningful ways, it is necessary to draw attention to that weakness in their tutorials. It is important to promote an atmosphere of collegial collaboration so that tutors will be self-critical and willing to accept helpful suggestions. Involving tutors in self-observation so they can be aware of conversational elements such as interruptions, turn length, timed pauses, back-channels, and overlaps may help tutors notice patterns and detrimental practices in their tutoring. This study used stimulated recall activities following a recorded tutorial session. The enlightened self-criticism that was generated suggests that this method can promote an egalitarian tutorial relationship by providing a context whereby the tutors can see and hear themselves in action. Conclusion Writing center directors should be receptive to emerging research in order to continue to evolve standards of best practice. Insights derived from research and scholarship indicate the need for additional, clear-sighted research that takes into account the actual working conditions of writing centers in different countries. The tutors who are expected to be knowledgeable, flexible and sensitive to individual needs are often students themselves. They are students from a variety of disciplines who have excellent academic records and an interest in writing and tutoring. It is unreasonable, however, to assume that their education encompasses the breadth of knowledge that is required to meet the needs of individual students in the Writing Center. It is the responsibility of the writing center specialists or directors to be familiar with traditional and contemporary writing center theories and to be part of the ongoing discourse about writing in order to recognize the viability of particular strategies and the possibility of adapting them, in this case, to the requirements of a Middle Eastern university writing center. References Blau, S., Hall, J., Davis, J., & Gravitz, L. (2001). Tutoring ESL students: A different kind of session. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 25(10), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.writinglabnewsletter.org/new/ Bringhurst, D. (2006). Identifying our ethical responsibility: A criterion-based approach. In C. Murphy & B. Stay (Eds.), The writing center director‘s resource book (pp. 165-178). Englewood, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brooks, J. (1991). Minimalist tutoring: Making the student do all the work. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 15(6), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.writinglabnewsletter.org/new Bruce , S. (2009). Breaking ice and setting goals. In: S. Bruce & B. Rafoth (Eds.), ESL writers: A guide for writing center tutors (2nd ed.), (pp. 33-41). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Heinemann. Carino, P. (2003). Power and authority in peer tutoring. In M.A. Pemberton & J. Kinkead (Eds.), The center will hold: Critical perspectives on writing center scholarship (pp.96-113). Logan, UT: Utah Tate UP. Clark, I. L., & Healy, D. (1996). Are writing centers ethical? Writing Program Administration, 20(1-2), 32-38. Retrieved from http://eng1020.pbworks.com/f/Clark_Healy.pdf Gillespie, P., & Lerner, N. (2000). The Allyn and Bacon guide to peer tutoring. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Grimm, N. (1996). The regulatory role of the writing center: Coming to terms with a loss of innocence. The Writing Center Journal, 17, 5-29. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ 795 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Harris, M. (1997). Cultural conflicts in the writing center: Expectations and assumptions of ESL students. In C. Severino, J. C. Guerra, & J. E. Butler (Eds.), Writing in multicultural settings (pp. 220-235). New York: MLA. Harris, M., & Silva, T. (1993). Tutoring ESL students: Communication, 44, 525-537. doi:10.2307/358388 Issues and options. College Composition and Henning, T. (2001, March). Theoretical models of tutor talk: How practical are they? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication, Denver, CO. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED451569) Jones, C. (2001). The relationship between writing centers and improvement in writing ability: An assessment of the literature. Education, 122(1), 3-20. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3673/is_1_122/ai_n28879462/ North, S. (1984). The idea of a writing center. College English, 46, 433-446. doi:10.2307/377047 Rafoth, B. (2009). English for those who (think they) already know it. In S. Bruce & B. Rafoth (Eds.), ESL writers: A guide for writing center tutors (2nd ed.; pp. 116–131). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers. Shamoon, L., & Burns, D. (1995). A critique of pure tutoring. Writing Center Journal, 15, 134-151. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ Thonus, T. (2001). Triangulation in the writing center: Tutor, tutee, and instructor perceptions of the tutor‘s role. Writing Center Journal, 22, 59-81. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ Thonus, T. (2004). What are the differences? Tutor interactions with first- and second-language writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 227-242. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.012 Weigle, S. C., & Nelson, G. L. (2004). Novice tutors and their ESL tutees: Three case studies of tutor roles and perceptions of tutorial success. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(3), 203– 225. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.011 Williams, J. (2005). Writing center interaction: Institutional discourse and the role of peer tutors. In B. H. K. Bardovi-Harlig (Ed.), Institutional talk and interlanguage pragmatics research (pp. 37-65). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Williams, J., & Severino, C. (2004). The writing center and second language writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 165-172. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.010 796 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 116 Title A name given to the resource Western pedagogical models of writing center tutorials: Can they be effective in the Middle East? Author Author Eleftheriou, Maria Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper presents the findings of a study of writing center tutorial practices in a Middle Eastern university where the language of instruction is English. Data from stimulated recall activities, written observations, and interviews were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of writing center tutorials in a Middle-Eastern Writing Center. The data revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments, believed that their concerns had been addressed, and that they had acquired transferable skills. Most tutees assessed their tutors positively, valuing tutors who inspired confidence and were able to explain concepts clearly. Although tutees appreciated knowledgeable tutors, they valued egalitarian peer-tutoring relationships. Tutors reported that tutorial sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical of their own performance. Some tutors admitted to lacking the knowledge necessary to explain certain writing concepts, including grammatical concepts; some felt they dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees preferred the directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. This study shows that diverse tutoring models that accommodate the background and experiences of Middle Eastern students, and their particular strengths and weaknesses, should be considered. It recommends tutorial training that emphasizes flexibility and recognizes the distinctive nature of each tutorial situation and the opportunity it presents to address the needs and expectations of individual students. These findings could signal a direction for the development of writing center pedagogy that focuses on the linguistically and culturally diverse students in the Middle East. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cbbae41f2600238e77e510a4d63b0532.docx 7f0590b05b008040db214e0137e00ffb https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9ec75e4e111cad794ce676556390392e.pdf 35ec26322b60894e94628019228a3aa6 PDF Text Text What Are the Measures for the Best Fiscal Policy in Albania? BesjanaLaçi Epoka University Albania blaci10@epoka.edu.al EglantinaHysa Epoka University Albania ehysa@epoka.edu.al Abstract: Albania is a country in transition and after the communism period it has been in a difficult path for overcoming many social, political and economic difficulties. This paper emphasizes the importance of fiscal policy such as government spending and tax collection to foster and promote economic growth and to reduce the poverty. This research paper will be focused on the effectiveness of fiscal policy and the taxation system of this developing country. Albania is currently using a flat tax system where this tax is 20% for consumption and 10% for income. The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between fiscal policy and economic growth which is measured by GDP per capita. Through the regression analysis, it will be defined which policy, government spending or tax collection, has a better and stronger effect on the economy. The main points of this study are related to the analysis of what are the effects of government activities on the economic growth? What is the fiscal policy in Albania during the last decade? Is the tax system effective and profitable? Can Albania be a potential place for investment and doing business? Keywords: Government spending, tax system, economic growth, investment, business. 87 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2522 Title A name given to the resource What Are the Measures for the Best Fiscal Policy in Albania? Author Author LAÇI, Besjana HYSA, Eglantina Abstract A summary of the resource. Albania is a country in transition and after the communism period it has been in a difficult path for overcoming many social, political and economic difficulties. This paper emphasizes the importance of fiscal policy such as government spending and tax collection to foster and promote economic growth and to reduce the poverty. This research paper will be focused on the effectiveness of fiscal policy and the taxation system of this developing country. Albania is currently using a flat tax system where this tax is 20% for consumption and 10% for income. The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between fiscal policy and economic growth which is measured by GDP per capita. Through the regression analysis, it will be defined which policy, government spending or tax collection, has a better and stronger effect on the economy. The main points of this study are related to the analysis of what are the effects of government activities on the economic growth? What is the fiscal policy in Albania during the last decade? Is the tax system effective and profitable? Can Albania be a potential place for investment and doing business? Keywords: Government spending, tax system, economic growth, investment, business. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0c7a24f59211c00d0520f838d2f232b2.docx c05f30c332f5ce0e00c515da713e82d8 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0aa378f7c3d0e2fb32985b86539cf695.pdf e680d9e83736458534761597143b9d59 PDF Text Text Keynote Speaker What Are The Ten Most Effective Vocabulary Activities? Paul Nation Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand ABSTRACT This talk presents ten proven and very useful activities for helping learners increase their vocabulary knowledge. In addition, reasons are given why these techniques were chosen to be in the top ten. These reasons relate to the five most important jobs of the vocabulary teacher. 1 2 3 4 5 Plan and provide a well-balanced course Organize learning opportunities both in and outside the classroom Train the learners in the four most useful vocabulary strategies Test the learners Teach vocabulary By the end of the talk, participants should know ten very useful ways to encourage the learning of vocabulary, should know why they are useful, and should have an awareness of some very important principles that should guide the learning of vocabulary. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1714 Title A name given to the resource What Are The Ten Most Effective Vocabulary Activities? Author Author NATION, Paul Abstract A summary of the resource. This talk presents ten proven and very useful activities for helping learners increase their vocabulary knowledge. In addition, reasons are given why these techniques were chosen to be in the top ten. These reasons relate to the five most important jobs of the vocabulary teacher. 1 Plan and provide a well-balanced course 2 Organize learning opportunities both in and outside the classroom 3 Train the learners in the four most useful vocabulary strategies 4 Test the learners 5 Teach vocabulary By the end of the talk, participants should know ten very useful ways to encourage the learning of vocabulary, should know why they are useful, and should have an awareness of some very important principles that should guide the learning of vocabulary. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3572 Title A name given to the resource What Are The Ten Most Effective Vocabulary Activities? Author Author NATION, Paul Abstract A summary of the resource. This talk presents ten proven and very useful activities for helping learners increase their vocabulary knowledge. In addition, reasons are given why these techniques were chosen to be in the top ten. These reasons relate to the five most important jobs of the vocabulary teacher. 1 Plan and provide a well-balanced course 2 Organize learning opportunities both in and outside the classroom 3 Train the learners in the four most useful vocabulary strategies 4 Test the learners 5 Teach vocabulary By the end of the talk, participants should know ten very useful ways to encourage the learning of vocabulary, should know why they are useful, and should have an awareness of some very important principles that should guide the learning of vocabulary. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/727f2c953a6a82fc1b9d160ef68a868d.pdf 85b1b0461fa7e1f9ef1b64d15c6c9d16 PDF Text Text Journal ofEconomic and Social Studies What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms Fitim Deari South East European University Tetovo, Republic of Macedonia f.deari@seeu.edu.mk Abstract: This paper analyses the net trade credit and its determinants for a sample of 25 non-financial firms for the period 2011-2013. The sample is derived from the Macedonian Stock Exchange. The net trade credit is the dependent variable. The dependent variable is defined as the difference between trade receivables and liabilities, and then this difference is divided by total assets. The maturity structure of assets, profitability, inventory investment, cash to assets ratio, long-term financing, total debt financing, and converting sales into cash are the independent variables. This study used the Shapiro-Wilk W test for normality, Kernel density estimation, Variance Inflation Factor for multicollinearity, and the model specification link test for singleequation models. The obtained results show that more profitable firms and with higher current assets and cash ratio have positive net trade credits. The net trade credit is significantly negatively associated with inventory to total assets ratio and net cash flows from operating activities to sales. On the other hand, the net trade credit is significantly positively associated with current assets to total assets ratio and profitability. Keywords: Net Trade Credit; Financial Ratios; Regression. JEL Classification: C10, G30, G32. Article History Submitted: 26 May 2014 Resubmitted: 17 September 2014 Resubmitted: 13 December 2014 Resubmitted: 21 January 2015 Accepted: 6 March 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS1 5521 7 �Fitim Deari Introduction Days’ sales in receivables, days’ purchases in payables and days’ sales in inventory determine a firm’s net trade credit. Hence, the longer the net trade cycle, the larger is a firm’s working capital requirement (Bernstein and Wild, 1998, p. 418). On the other hand, the operating cycle (conversation period) is found as days to sell inventory plus collection period (see Bernstein and Wild, 1998, p. 425). There is no doubt that neither net trade credit nor operating cycles can be analysed as short-term liquidity measures isolated from others financial measures. Namely, the purpose of this paper is to take into account some of factors that are thought to explain the conjunction between the credit offered to clients and credit obtained from suppliers. This is a pioneer study in Macedonia. The approach used could be a starting point for further studies in this subject. At the same time, it can support decision makers at the macro and micro economic levels, at a time when the Law for Financial Discipline in the Republic of Macedonia has already entered into force. The basic problem starts from selling and buying on credit. Firms do not realize all sales in cash, as they do not pay all invoices (bills) with cash on the transaction date. Thus, in this process between debtor and creditor, goods are delivered, and/or services are provided without cash involvement. For accountants, this problem is known as accrual vs. cash base. To be precise, the concept of trade credit explains those relationships between a firm, its customers and suppliers. Petersen and Rajan (1996, pp. 2-4) list three main theories which explain trade credit. These are financing advantage theories of trade credit (advantage in information acquisition, advantage in controlling the buyer, advantage in salvaging value from existing assets), price discrimination through trade credit, and transactions costs theories. For trade credit, many papers have been written and different evidence found from the micro and macro perspective. For example, Ferrando and Mulier (2012, p. 1) found that “firms that are more vulnerable to financial market imperfections, and therefore more likely to be financially constrained, rely more on the trade credit channel to manage growth.” Kohler, Britton and Yates (2000, p. 20) found that “firms with direct access to capital markets – firms that are quoted on the UK stock exchange – both extend more and receive less trade credit during a recession. They therefore unambiguously provide unquoted firms with more net trade credit.” Delannay and Weill (2004) have examined the determinants of trade credit of about 9,300 firms from nine transitional countries (Central and Eastern European Countries). They provided evidence which suggest that “both financial and commercial motives explain the credit behaviour of firms.” (p. 1) Moreover, they came to the conclusion that “suppliers act as financial intermediaries in favour of firms with a limited access to bank credit.” (p. 21) Altunok (2011, p. 2) found evidence that “suppliers' willingness to price discriminate, information asymmetry between suppliers and customers, market structure, stages of 8 �What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms business cycles, and customers' creditworthiness all play an important role in the determination of contract terms.” Garcia-Teruel and Martinez-Solano (2006) analyzing 3,589 small and medium sized firms in the UK found evidence that “larger firms, with better access to alternative internal and external financing and with a lower cost, use less credit from suppliers.” This paper also tries to study some of factors that are supposed to determine the net trade credit for selected firms. The paper is organized as follows: introduction, research design, analyses, and discussion of results, conclusions, references, and appendixes. Research Design The analysis performed in this study includes three basic financial statements. Firstly, the dependent variable, defined as (Trade receivables – Trade liabilities) / Total assets, means that both numerator and dominator are balance sheet articles. On the other hand, independent variables such as Current assets / Total assets, Inventory / Total assets, Cash and cash equivalents / Total assets, Long-term debt / Total assets, and Total liabilities / Total assets, contain balance sheet articles. Secondly, independent variable defined as Profit (Loss) / Sales contains income statement articles. Finally, the independent variable defined as Net cash flows from operating activities / Sales contains cash flow statement and income statement articles. From an accounting point of view, it is well known that a balance sheet as a statement can be viewed as a photo, whereas the other two statements (cash flow and income statement) can be viewed as a movie. This is because a balance sheet denotes a balance sheet equation expressed as Assets = Liabilities + Equity at a specific point in time (usually a specific date, as it is in Macedonia, i.e. 31 December). On the other hand, cash flow statements list cash flows from operating, investing, and financing activities over a given accounting period. In this case, cash flows from operating activities cover one year, for example from 01 January to 31 December, 2013. This is a reason why in cash flow statements and income statements it is written “as for the year ended at 31 December”, and not “as of 31 December 2013” as in the case of balance sheets (financial position). Finally, an income statement denotes a firm’s financial performance over a certain accounting period. In this case, this accounting period covers one year, i.e. from 01 January to 31 December, 2013. With other words, the regression model contains some variables that express something as it was at date 31 December 2013, and others express something that was generated during year 2013. After all, at the end of the accounting period, income statements, cash flow and statements of changes in equity are merged on the balance sheet. In this study quantitative methods and regression and spearman analyses are used.The study begins with a brief theoretical framework for trade credit and its determinants. The study ends up with conclusions related with net trade credit for analysed firms. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 �Fitim Deari The section below is focused on the process of data selection, sample-selected firms, processing the data, panel data, and finally the methodology of quantitative variables calculation. This study starts from the general and a briefly theoretical part in order to come later to some specific conclusions. With other words, a deductive and result-oriented approach is used. Principally, case study as a research method is used in this study. Case study is used because the study is limited in two aspects. Firstly, the sample comprised just non financial firms which are listed on the Macedonian Stock Exchange, and therefore limited in the aspect of the number of firms. Secondly, the analysed period covers 2011-2013. The sample is comprised of 25 non-financial firms (for more see the list of firms in the Appendix). Banks were not selected for analyze due to their specific characteristics that they have in comparison with other selected firms. In total, 74 observations are examined and regression analysis is performed. Selected firms are non-financial entities. They belong to different types of businesses such as industry, services, construction, catering, trade and agriculture. In the industry sector there are nine firms or 36 percent as a structure of the sample; in the services sector there are five firms or 20 percent; in the construction sector are two firms or 8 percent; in the catering sector are three firms or 12 percent; in the trade sector are five firms or 20 percent; and in the agriculture sector there is one firm or 4 percent of the total of 25 firms. Data are derived from firms’ annual reports published on the Macedonian Stock Exchange web page (for more see: http://www.mse.org.mk/). Data are organized in the form of panel data. Unbalanced panel data are used. Analyses are performed by the Stata 10 software package. Some statistically performed analyses in this paper are based on concepts, ideas, and methodologies from UCLA. In this study, seven independent variables are used. Net trade credit is a dependent variable. Maturity structure of assets, profitability, inventory investment, cash to total assets ratio, long-term financing, total debt financing, and converting sales into cash are independent variables. Both types of variables, dependent and independent, are expressed as their book values. Table 1 describes the methodology of measuring quantitative variables used in this study. By using those seven independent variables in the regression model, there is an attempt to analyse the dependence of the net trade credit on these proxies. The initial generalized regression model used in this study can be written as: 7 Yit     X kit  kit   it k 1 where, 10 Yit is the net trade credit of a firm (i) to the period (t), i = 1, 2, 3,..., 25, (1) �What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms k = 1, 2, 3,…, 7, and. t = 1, 2, 3. Since net trade credit is a function of variables of interest, and then regression, model (1) can be expanded as follow (2):  Currentasset s  T radereceivables - T radeliabilit ies       1 T ot alasset s T ot alasset s   it  it  P r ofit (Loss) 2    Sales   it  Invent ory  Cash and cash equivalents   Long t ermdebt   T ot alliabilit ies  3    4    5   6    T ot alasset s  T ot alasset s  it  T ot alasset s it   it  T ot alasset s  it  Net cash flows fromoperat ingact ivit ies 7     it Sales   it (2) In this study, two types of regression are used: Pooled OLS (OLS regression without option vce, i.e. default standard errors) and OLS with vce (cluster-robust standards errors). Vce option performs cluster-robust standard errors. Clustering is done on the firm. As Cameron and Trivedi (2010) explained the error (here  it in equation 1) is likely to be correlated over time for a given individual (here firm) which is within correlation and possible correlation over individuals (here firms) which is between correlation. Hence, vce option is used to control this issue. According to Wiggins (1999) … “regress ..., vce (cluster) estimates the model by OLS but uses the linearization/Huber/White/sandwich (robust) estimates of variance (and thus standard errors). These variance estimates are robust in the sense of providing correct coverage rates to much more than panel-level heteroskedasticity. In particular, they are robust for any type of correlation within the observations of each panel/group.” Table 1: The Methodology of Quantitative Variables Calculation Description Net trade credit Maturity structure of assets Profitability Inventory to assets ratio Cash to assets ratio Long-term financing Total liabilities ratio Converting sales into cash Abbreviation trtpas currasas profsales invas cashas ldebtas liabas coasales Calculation (Trade receivables – Trade liabilities) / Total assets Current assets / Total assets Net income / Sales Inventory / Total assets Cash and cash equivalents / Total assets Long-term debt / Total assets Total liabilities / Total assets Net cash flows from operating activities / Sales Source: Grave (2011), Garcia-Teruel and Martinez-Solano (2006), Xhafa (2005), author. Net trade credit, generally, net trade credit as a dependent variable, is differently defined by different authors. Net trade credit as a dependent variable used in this study is calculated as the difference between trade receivables (accounts receivables or debtors) and trade liabilities (accounts payables or creditors), and then this difference is Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 �Fitim Deari divided by total assets. This calculation is based on Grave (2011), which also analyses trade receivables divided by total assets and trade payables divided by total assets. Some authors examined separately trade receivables and payables with others determinants, while some others authors separately and jointly. For example, Alatalo (2010, p. 27) uses trade credit provided (trade receivables per sales), trade credit obtained (trade credit payables per cost of goods sold) and net trade credit (difference between trade receivables and payables scaled by sales). Ge and Qiu (2007, p. 521) as a dependent variable use accounts payable/total assets, accounts payable/sales, (accounts payable - accounts receivable)/total assets, (accounts payable - accounts receivable)/sales. Analyses This section includes descriptive statistics, data and regression analyses. This section presents the overall picture of data and variables analysed in this study. Shapiro-Wilk W test for normality is performed. Obtained results from regression analysis are controlled and tested via necessary tests. These processes are carried out in order to get as far as possible reliable conclusions at the end of this study. Descriptive statistics and analyses Descriptive statistics presented in this section include number of observations, mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum. Table 1 presents descriptive statistics and table 2 presents the mean for each variable according to years. As table 2 shows, there are 74 observations per each variable. For one firm, there is missing data for one year. This implies that the panel data is unbalanced. Mean and standard deviation of each variable are less than one, except standard deviation for ‘profsales’. From observed data, there are cases where firms have minus net cash flows from operating activities, i.e. inflows are less than outflows from the operating activities section. This is why on the ‘min’ column for ‘coasales’ is appeared a negative value. In the ‘min’ column, negative values appear also for the dependent variable ‘trtpas’ and the profitability variable ‘profsales’. On the other hand, the ‘max’ column denotes that all values are less than one, except for ‘profsales’ and ‘coasales’. Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for 25 Firms Variable Obs Mean trtpas 74 0.028 currasas 74 0.395 profsales 74 0.182 invas 74 0.108 cashas 74 0.029 12 Std. Dev. 0.111 0.186 1.207 0.102 0.039 Min -0.301 0.045 -1.693 0.003 0.000 Max 0.288 0.789 9.850 0.366 0.160 �What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms ldebtas 74 liabas 74 coasales 74 Source: author’s calculations 0.106 0.397 0.128 0.115 0.233 0.676 0.000 0.018 -0.613 0.379 0.840 5.744 On average, based on obtained results from descriptive statistics, the following interpretation can be drawn for selected firms and the analysed period. Firstly, trade receivables are slightly higher than trade payables. Secondly, long-term assets are higher than short-term assets, i.e. 39% short-term and rest 61% are long-term assets. Thirdly, for each 100 denar sales, 18 denar profits is generated. Fourthly, inventory to total assets participates with 11%, and cash and its equivalents with 3%. Fifthly, for each 100 denar sales, 13 denar net cash flow from operating activities is received. Finally, assets are financed more with capital than liabilities. Table 3: Mean of the Variables by Years Years trtpas currasas profsa~s 2011 0.020 0.389 0.496 2012 0.038 0.407 -0.014 2013 0.025 0.387 0.059 Total 0.028 0.395 0.182 Source: author’s calculations invas 0.111 0.108 0.104 0.108 cashas 0.030 0.032 0.024 0.029 ldebtas 0.103 0.101 0.115 0.106 liabas 0.409 0.406 0.377 0.397 coasales 0.064 0.038 0.290 0.128 Figure 1 shows the trend analysis of mean for trade receivables to total assets, trade payables to total assets, and the net trade credit to total assets. For the analysed period 2011-2013, on average accounts receivable are higher than account payables. The difference is even higher in 2012 when the mean of net trade credit is obviously increased. Based on the concept of the time value of money, in this case it is preferable to have a negative percentage of the net trade credit. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 �Fitim Deari mean of trtpas mean of tpas mean of tras mean of trtpas mean of tpas mean of tras mean of trtpas mean of tpas 0 mean of tras .05 .1 .15 .2 Figure 1: Trade Receivables, Trade Payables, and Net Trade Credit to Total Assets, Mean by Years 2011 2012 2013 Source: author’s calculations Current assets to total assets ratio–besides others classifications, assets are classified on short-term and long-term, or current and non-current assets. Knowing the structure of assets based on time to maturity, or using period classification is important on the financial decision making process. The portion of current assets to total assets is different for different firms. In fact, this ratio can change for one firm’s view from different periods. However, many explanations can be found why some firms have lower current assets to total assets ratio, and others have higher. Selected firms for the period 2011-2013 on average have remained almost the same for the current assets to total assets ratio. Profitability–there are many indicators for showing the profitability of an entity. For example, profitability may be measured by gross margin, operating margin, contribution margin, profit margin, return on assets (ROA), return on equity (ROE), return on total capital (ROTC), etc. In this study, a measure that takes into consideration sales and costs is used. Hence, in this study profitability is measured using profit margin. This ratio denotes how much denar profit every sales in denar generates. It is calculated as profit (loss) / sales. There are observations in this study where net income (profit or loss) for the period (year) is not equal with the overall profit (loss) for the period (year). This is due to some accounting adjustments made after net profit (loss) for the period is calculated. Obtained results show that more profitable firms and with higher 14 �What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms current assets and cash to total assets ratio have more trade receivable than payables. On the other hand, profitable firms have financed business activities more with capital rather than debt. Inventory investment–inventory to total assets is a regular ratio which found in order to analyse the inventory level or investment. It is a very helpful analysis which gives a picture of assets composition. Selected firms for the period 2011-2013 on average have remained almost at the same inventory level. mean of cashas mean of invas mean of cashas mean of invas 0 mean of invas mean of cashas .05 .1 Figure 2: Inventory to Assets; Cash and Cash Equivalents to Assets, Mean by Years 2011 2012 2013 Source: author’s calculations Cash to total assets ratio–this ratio is calculated based on the same methodology as the previous ratio for inventory using vertical analysis. So, cash and its equivalents are divided by total assets. Figure 2 shows cash and its equivalents to assets for the period 2011-2013. As it can be noticed, selected firms on average have almost the same cash ratio for the analysed period. Obtained results show that firms with higher cash ratio are more able to convert sales into cash than counterparties. Long term financing and total liabilities ratio–those two ratios explain how assets are financed. In other words, what percentage is long-term financing, or total debt on total assets? They both belong to the leverage ratios group. Firms finance their assets by both, short-term and long-term debt. On the other hand, assets can be financed by debt and (or) equity, and this issue is well known in financial management as the capital structure. On average, there is a decrease of total debt financing in 2013. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 �Fitim Deari Converting sales into Cash – a cash flow statement is prepared because of an accrual versus cash accounting base problem. All sale revenues perhaps are not done on the cash basis. This means that a sale is recognized as an accounting transaction (record) on one date, and receiving money is done on another date. Due to this, the ratio net cash flows from operating activities / sales helps us to analyse how much denars from sales are converted into cash. Obtained results show that firms with higher leverage ratio are not able to convert sales into cash compared with counterparties. On the other hand, on average in 2013, selected firms have been more able to convert sales into cash. Data and regression analyses The Shapiro-Wilk W test for normality is used to check whether residuals are normally distributed. The results of the Shapiro-Wilk W test are presented in table 4. The pvalue is 0.061. So, it is greater than 0.05, indicating that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. In other words, it can be concluded that residuals are normally distributed. Table 4: Shapiro-Wilk W Test for Normal Data Variable Obs W r 74 0.968 Source: author’s calculations V 2.031 z 1.546 Prob>z 0.061 Kernel density estimate is performed for 25 firms, and is presented on figure 3. .2 0 .1 Density .3 .4 Figure 3: Kernel Density Estimate for 25 Firms -4 -2 0 Studentized residuals Kernel density estimate 2 Normal density kernel = epanechnikov, bandwidth = 0.3150 Source: author’s calculations 16 4 �What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) is used for as a measure of control for mulitcollinearity, results of which are in table 5. The results indicate that for all variables VIF is lower than 10, which means that multicollinearity is not a problem in this study. Table 5: VIF for the Independent Variables Variable VIF currasas 1.78 invas 1.51 liabas 1.42 ldebtas 1.34 cashas 1.19 coasales 1.18 profsales 1.17 Mean VIF 1.37 Source: author’s calculations 1/VIF 0.56 0.66 0.70 0.75 0.84 0.85 0.86 Moreover, in order to analyse whether the regression model is correctly specified, a model specification link test for single-equation models is used. The results of this test are in table 6. Since hatsq is not significant (t = -1.25), then it looks like that there is no specification error for this model in this study. Table 6: A Model Specification Link Test for Single-equation Models Source SS df MS Number of obs = 74 Model 0.448 2 0.224 F (2, 71) = 34.77 Residual 0.457 71 0.006 Prob > F = 0 Total 0.905 73 0.012 R-squared = 0.495 Adj R-squared = 0.481 Root MSE = 0.080 trtpas Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. hat 1.116 0.153 7.31 0.000 0.811 _hatsq -1.710 1.372 -1.25 0.217 -4.446 _cons 0.008 0.012 0.69 0.492 -0.016 Source: author’s calculations Interval] 1.420 1.026 0.032 Discussion of Results This section discusses obtained results based on performed analyses. Based on the Spearman analysis (see table 7), significant positive relationships are found between the net trade credit and current assets, profitability and cash to total assets ratio. This implies that more profitable firms and with higher current assets and cash to total assets ratio have more trade receivables than payables. Probably profitable firms have Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 �Fitim Deari generated internal funds and were more able to wait for their clients than counterparties. Table 7: Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coefficients trtpas currasas profsa~s invas cashas trtpas 1.00 currasas 0.52* 1.00 profsales 0.23* 0.20 1.00 invas 0.04 0.61* -0.07 1.00 cashas 0.31* 0.44* 0.37* 0.18 1.00 ldebtas -0.10 -0.15 -0.13 0.00 -0.17 liabas -0.07 0.09 -0.52* 0.26* -0.22 coasales -0.07 0.08 0.49* -0.16 0.30* (Obs = 74, * 0.05 Significance level) Source: author’s calculations ldebtas liabas coasales 1.00 0.37* 0.04 1.00 -0.35* 1.00 Significant positive relationships are found between current assets, the inventory ratio, and the cash to total assets ratio. As firms increased investments on inventories, current assets are increased too. Also cash are current assets. Significant positive relationships are found between profitability, cash ratio, and converting sales into cash. This implies that more profitable firms have a higher liquidity level and are more able to convert sales into cash than counterparties. On the other hand, profitability is significantly negatively associated with total debt financing. This implies that profitable firms have financed business activities more with capital than debt. A significant positive relationship is found between inventory ratio and total debt financing. A significant positive relationship is found between cash ratio and converting sales into cash. Firms with higher cash ratio are more able to convert sales into cash than counterparties. A significant positive relationship is found between long-term financing and total debt financing. As firms have increased long-term debt, total debt financing is increased too. A significant negative relationship is found between total debt financing and converting sales into cash. This result implies that firms with higher leverage ratio are less able to convert sales into cash compared with counterparties. Regression analyses are performed and results are presented in table 8. Both OLS regressions show that current assets to total assets ratio and inventory to total assets ratio are statistically significant determinants (0.05 significance level). R2, the number of observations, signs, and coefficients (b) remain same in both OLS regressions. Table 8: Regression Results According OLS and OLS with vce Option Variable OLS OLSVCE 0.48 0.48 currasas 0.07 0.1 18 �What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms profsales invas cashas ldebtas liabas coasales _cons N r2 6.75 0.01 0.01 0.79 -0.33 0.12 -2.75 0.07 0.27 0.26 0.15 0.1 1.47 -0.17 0.05 -3.41 -0.03 0.02 -1.88 -0.07 0.03 -2.36 74 0.48 Legend: b/se/t 4.57 0.01 0 2.16 -0.33 0.13 -2.42 0.07 0.3 0.23 0.15 0.12 1.18 -0.17 0.09 -1.88 -0.03 0.01 -2.74 -0.07 0.04 -1.85 74 0.48 Source: author’s calculations Based on the results of the second regression model, the net trade credit is significantly negatively associated with inventory to total assets ratio and net cash flows from operating activities to sales. On the other hand, the net trade credit is significantly positively associated with current assets to total assets ratio and profitability. Conclusions The purpose of this paper was to analyse the net trade credit and its determinants for 25 non financial firms for the period 2011-2013. The paper has as its limitations the Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 �Fitim Deari number of firms and the analysed period. Hence, the paper provides evidence which cannot be generalized to other firms. In this context, the paper can serve as a starting point for future studies in terms of domestic firms, at least viewed from the methodological side. Significant relationships between the net trade credit and analysed determinants are found using Spearman and regression analyses. The net trade credit is significantly negatively associated with inventory to total assets ratio and net cash flows from operating activities to sales. On the other hand, the net trade credit is significantly positively associated with current assets to total assets ratio and profitability. Selected firms for the selected period on average have provided more than obtained trade credit. Therefore, this implies that working capital needs are increased. The study also revealed the following evidences: - More profitable firms and with higher current assets and cash to total assets ratio have more trade receivables than payables; - More profitable firms have a higher liquidity level and are more able to convert sales into cash than counterparties; - Profitable firms have financed business activities more with capital than debt; - Firms with higher cash ratio are more able to convert sales into cash than counterparties; - Firms with higher leverage ratio are less able to convert sales into cash than counterparties. Without a doubt this issue remains an open issue window for domestic firms. For future studies, it might be interesting to focus on the following aspects: Extend the analysed period and increase the number of firms in the sample, Add new independent and dependent variables, and Include financial crisis effects. References Alatalo, R. (2010). Trade credit use during a financial crisis: evidence from the U.K. of a non-existing trade credit channel. Master's thesis, Department of Accounting and Finance, Aalto University, School of Economics. Retrieved October 18, 2012, fromhttp://epub.lib.aalto.fi/fi/ethesis/pdf/12388/hse_ethesis_12388.pdf. Altunok, F. (2011). Determinants of trade credit contract terms. North Carolina State University. Retrieved September 11, 2014, from http://www4.ncsu.edu/~faltuno/JM/fatihaltunok_jobpaper.pdf. Bernstein, L. A. & Wild, J. J. (1998). Financial Statements Analysis: Theory, Application, and Interpretation. Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill. Cameron, A. C. & Trivedi, K. P. (2010). Microeconometrics Using Stata. Texas: StataCorp LP. 20 �What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms Delannay, A. F., & Weill, L. (2004). The determinants of trade credit in transition countries. LARGE, Institut d’Etudes Politiques, Université Robert Schuman, France. 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Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 �Fitim Deari Appendix: List of Analysed Firms Firm Firm code Alkаloid AD Skopje Beton AD Skopje EMO AD Ohrid ALK BESK EMO Fersped AD Skopje Grаnit AD Skopje Hoteli Metropol Ohrid Internesnel Hotels AD Skopje Mаkedonijаturist AD Skopje Mаkosped AD Skopje Mаkoteks AD Skopje FERS GRNT MPOL INHO MTUR MKSD MAKS Mаkpetrol AD Skopje Mаkstil AD Skopje Replek AD Skopje MPT STIL REPL 22 Firm RZ Institut AD Skopje Toplifikacija AD Skopje VV Tikves AD Skopje RZ Inter-Trаnssped AD Skopje RZ Uslugi AD Skopje Skopski Pаzаr AD Skopje Teteks AD Tetovo Zito Luks AD Skopje ZitoVаrdаr AD Veles ZK Pelаgonijа AD Bitolа Tehnometаl-Vаrdаr AD Skopje Vitаminkа AD Prilep Firm code RZIN TPLF TKVS RZIT RZUS SPAZ TETE ZILUP ZTVR ZPKO TEH VITA � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2847 Title A name given to the resource What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade Credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms Author Author DEARI, Fitim Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This paper analyses the net trade credit and its determinants for a sample of 25 non-financial firms for the period 2011-2013. The sample is derived from the Macedonian Stock Exchange. The net trade credit is the dependent variable. The dependent variable is defined as the difference between trade receivables and liabilities, and then this difference is divided by total assets. The maturity structure of assets, profitability, inventory investment, cash to assets ratio, long-term financing, total debt financing, and converting sales into cash are the independent variables. This study used the Shapiro-Wilk W test for normality, Kernel density estimation, Variance Inflation Factor for multicollinearity, and the model specification link test for single-equation models. The obtained results show that more profitable firms and with higher current assets and cash ratio have positive net trade credits. The net trade credit is significantly negatively associated with inventory to total assets ratio and net cash flows from operating activities to sales. On the other hand, the net trade credit is significantly positively associated with current assets to total assets ratio and profitability. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/881fcdd9422c6fac02025ef1a42a8fbc.docx 0f9bb4863bd4473c34ac3351ca80c4f4 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fb22bc7d72e5f20995569f6967df95af.pdf d15f2123143229829765904b8ea1cfe6 PDF Text Text What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms Fitim Deari South East European University Macedonia f.deari@seeu.edu.mk Abstract: This paper analyzes the net trade credit and its determinants for a sample of 23 nonfinancial firms for the year 2011. The sample is derived from Macedonian Stock Exchange. The net trade credit is the dependent variable. Dependent variable is defined as the difference between trade receivables and liabilities, and then this difference is divided by total assets. Maturity structure of assets, size, profitability, inventory investment, and cash to assets ratio, long-term financing, total debt financing, and converting sales into cash are the independent variables. Both types of variables, dependent and independent are quantitative variables. Both are expressed on their book values. Variables are transformed and necessary post-selection adjustments will be done. Data and results are checked using Shapiro-Wilk W test for normality, Kernel density estimation, Cameron & Trivedi’s decomposition of IM-test and Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisberg test for heteroscedasticity, Variance Inflation Factor for multicollinearity, the model specification link test for single-equation models, and the regression specification error test for omitted variables. Relevant conclusions are drawn based on Spearman and regression analysis. Obtained results show that firms with more net trade credit are more profitable. Firms with higher portion of current assets are bigger firms and invest more in inventory than counterparties. Bigger firms have more inventory than smaller firms. Firms with higher leverage ratios are less able to convert sales into cash. Net trade credit is negatively significant associated with inventory to assets ratio, leverage ratio, and net cash flows from operating activities to sales. Net trade credit is positively significant associated with current assets to total assets ratio. Profitability is found statistically significant determinant, but with beta and standard error equal zero. Results show that net trade credit ratio on average is slightly small, but positive. A positive net trade credit indicates that on average trade receivables are higher than trade payables. With other words, analyzed firms for the analyzed period have sell more than have bought on credit. Keywords: net trade credit, accounts receivable, accounts payable, financial ratios, regression. 107 �107 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2543 Title A name given to the resource What Determines the Firm’s Net Trade credit? Evidence from Macedonian Listed Firms Author Author DEARI, Fitim Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper analyzes the net trade credit and its determinants for a sample of 23 non-financial firms for the year 2011. The sample is derived from Macedonian Stock Exchange. The net trade credit is the dependent variable. Dependent variable is defined as the difference between trade receivables and liabilities, and then this difference is divided by total assets. Maturity structure of assets, size, profitability, inventory investment, and cash to assets ratio, long-term financing, total debt financing, and converting sales into cash are the independent variables. Both types of variables, dependent and independent are quantitative variables. Both are expressed on their book values. Variables are transformed and necessary post-selection adjustments will be done. Data and results are checked using Shapiro-Wilk W test for normality, Kernel density estimation, Cameron & Trivedi’s decomposition of IM-test and Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisberg test for heteroscedasticity, Variance Inflation Factor for multicollinearity, the model specification link test for single-equation models, and the regression specification error test for omitted variables. Relevant conclusions are drawn based on Spearman and regression analysis. Obtained results show that firms with more net trade credit are more profitable. Firms with higher portion of current assets are bigger firms and invest more in inventory than counterparties. Bigger firms have more inventory than smaller firms. Firms with higher leverage ratios are less able to convert sales into cash. Net trade credit is negatively significant associated with inventory to assets ratio, leverage ratio, and net cash flows from operating activities to sales. Net trade credit is positively significant associated with current assets to total assets ratio. Profitability is found statistically significant determinant, but with beta and standard error equal zero. Results show that net trade credit ratio on average is slightly small, but positive. A positive net trade credit indicates that on average trade receivables are higher than trade payables. With other words, analyzed firms for the analyzed period have sell more than have bought on credit. Keywords: net trade credit, accounts receivable, accounts payable, financial ratios, regression. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General)