34 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5d759da662749a315db8ed9253b21645.pdf 708d9ccfdc8e6cbc51a63e459f9bafa8 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Strategic Make-or-Buy Decision-supporting Process: Adaptability to Sustainable Development Aspects Robert A. GOEHLICH1 European Business School, Oestrich-Winkel, Germany robert@goehlich.com Abstract: Real world outsourcing decisions are very seldom based on a sound trade-off of risks, costs that these risks impose and benefits. The present paper attempts to overcome some of these shortcomings by developing an informal process. Dividing the make-or-buy question into many sub-questions based on, in this case, 16 objectives and characteristics, helps decision-makers generate a transparent and strategy-oriented solution with fair attention to all important considerations. By contrast, the less structured intuitive approach allows the decision-maker to weigh only a few arguments/propositions simultaneously – typically those which have current subjective importance for the decider. Due to the modularity of this process, it can be extended easily to additional objectives and characteristics, e.g., those one that representing sustainable development aspects. The process allows one to determine what organizational architecture is best suited to a specified activity. Keywords: Corporate Governance, Outsourcing, Sustainable Development, Strategic Makeor-Buy Decision, Process, Vertical Integration Introduction Spot Market Joint Venture Strategic Alliance Supply Contract Franchise Agreement Internal Production Lease Contract More Integrated Outsourcing More Outsourced Vertical Integration Figure 1: Illustration of Organizational Architectures A company has many architectural choices from which to produce its products or services (Figure 1). At one extreme, the product or service can be purchased from any supplier in the spot market. At the other extreme, the company can produce the product or service internally within a division. Between the extremes are various long-term contracts, such as strategic alliances, franchise agreements, lease contracts, joint ventures and supply contracts (Brickley, Smith & Zimmerman, 2006). Note that a certain overlap exists between different types of long-term contracts and typology can vary in some buyer-supplier relationships. Long-term contracts are introduced briefly, as follows: • Strategic Alliance: Alliances, or constellations of bilateral agreements among companies, are increasingly necessary to successfully compete in today’s global market. Strategic alliances are based on the exchange of hostages (e.g., surety bonds, exchange of debt or equity positions) and allow the development of long- 1 Alumni of European Business School, International University Schloss Reichartshausen, Department Law, Governance & Economics, Rheingaustrasse 1, 65375 Oestrich-Winkel, Germany, Mobile: +49-(0)174-25-313-87, email: robert@goehlich.com, Internet: www.goehlich.com 144 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo term collaborative intentions that permit partners to meet strategic goals (Lau, 1994; Mattsson, 1995). Alliances are difficult to define because their structural characteristics are diverse. Japanese strategic alliances, e.g., operate in networks of relationships between companies based on long-term mutuality, rather than on clearly defined regulations or on inter-firm hierarchical organizational structures (Gerlach, 1997), as commonly practiced in Western countries. Tactical alliances (e.g., code-sharing agreements), which are loose forms of collaboration, and normally do not involve major resource commitments, are another form of strategic alliances (Bennett, 1997). • Franchise Agreement: According to Todeva and Knoke (2005), franchising means that a franchiser (the buyer) grants a franchisee (the supplier) the use of a brand-name identity, but retains control over pricing, marketing and standardized service norms. • Lease Contract: Leasing implies that one company grants another the right to use patented technologies or processes in return for royalties (Todeva & Knoke, 2005). In the literature (Miller & Upton, 1976), leasing is distinguished between short- and long-term leases. Short-term leases are for the shortest practicable interval of time, e.g., three hours for renting a bicycle, one day for renting a car or several years for renting specialized industrial equipment. Long-term leases are used for an extension over more than a single period, e.g., several years for renting a copy machine. • Joint Venture: Joint ventures involve two or more organizations, each of which shares in the decisionmaking activities, such as marketing or research and development (R&D), of the jointly owned entity (Geringer, 1988). Joint ventures with 50-50 ownership are common. • Supply Contract: Suppliers can be distinguished into four categories (Kamath & Liker, 1994): (1) partner suppliers are jointly involved in specification writing from the beginning of the project; (2) mature suppliers wait for rough specifications from the buyer before they begin work; (3) subordinate suppliers manufacture based on detailed specifications given from the buyer; and (4) contractual suppliers propose standard parts that are available through a catalog. The study is structured as follows. In the next section, the process is introduced, the literature is qualitatively reviewed by presenting the pros and cons concerning vertical integration and outsourcing, and the resulting decision-supporting tool entitled “MoB-Tool” is shown. Finally, section three offers a discussion of the choice of items for the “Settings” submodule, informal versus formal statements and limitations. The Process General The make-or-buy decision-supporting process is structured as shown in Figure 2 and comprises four sub-modules. The submodule “Settings” is illustrated in detail in Figure 3. This module processes the input data of strategic objectives, organizational characteristics, product characteristics and environmental characteristics. The module is based on a balanced scorecard philosophy, of which detailed information can be found in the discussion section of this study. The submodule “Integration Pros” processes the main advantages of vertical integration from the point of view of the final assembler (Figure 4), while the submodule “Outsourcing Pros” processes those advantages of outsourcing as shown in Figure 5. The submodule “Results” processes the output data as shown in Figure 6. Vertical integration and outsourcing propositions are divided into control, stability and coordination aspects. Control aspects are those that help the organization in terms of ease of monitoring, high transparency of processes, low opportunistic behaviors and low bureaucracy. In the group of stability aspects are those propositions that support the organization’s existence, such as high quality, high protection of sensitive information, low risk and high flexibility. Coordination aspects comprise propositions that increase positive interactions, such as high organizational synergies, low costs and better strategy realization. The submodule “Results” presents the results of this process in the form of clear graphics. 145 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: Overview of the Make-or-Buy Decision-supporting Process Figure 3: Settings Submodule Figure 4: Integration Pros Submodule 146 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 5: Outsourcing Pros Submodule Figure 6: Results Submodule Qualitative Assessment Each submodule and its associated items, or propositions, is organized in the same manner for simple review. For reader-friendly use, all information is prepared in the same format. The “Settings” submodule items are introduced briefly, while the “Integration Pros” submodule propositions, “Outsourcing Pros” submodule propositions and “Results” submodule items are available upon request. a) Settings Submodule (Strategic Objectives) • Set01 Increase market share (financial Key Performance Indicator (KPI)) Description: Market share indicates the percentage of sales in a given industry segment or sub-segment that are captured by the organization. This indicator has been widely used in the strategically-oriented literature and is stressed by PIMS (1977), for instance. Range: low = less than 30% share; high = greater than 70% share 147 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Set02 Increase quality (customer KPI) Description: Quality indicates the level of flawlessness of an activity and, when high, has a positive effect on customer satisfaction. Range: low = faulty; high = flawless • Set03 Increase stability (process KPI) Description: Stability indicates the desired degree of risk avoidance. For example, leasing entails low levels of financial resource commitment, while integration reduces risks of technology plagiarism. Range: low = risk neutral, organization is not afraid to take chances and be fully responsible for any costs; high = risk averse, organization seeks to avoid risk • Set04 Increase short-term profit (financial KPI) Description: Profit is a basic measure of the profitability of the organization and reveals the returns an organization can generate from creating and selling its products. Higher profits reflect greater efficiency in turning stock into income and larger budgets available for reinvestment into the organization for research and development, marketing and other investments (Razvi, 2007). Range: low = no profit; high = high profit • Set05 Increase flexibility (process KPI) Description: Flexibility indicates the desired degree of ability to adapt organizational strategy to changing market conditions. Range: low = adaptation not possible or very costly; medium = adaptation possible, but costly; high = easy adaptation • Set06 Increase control (process KPI) Description: Control indicates the desired degree of command power by management over activities. Range: low = no control; medium = partial control; high = full control b) Settings Submodule (Organizational Characteristics) • Set07 Organization size (HR & innovation KPI) Description: Size is an indicator of the organization’s (human) resource availability. This indicator is most often interpreted as a source of organizational costs (Shepherd, 1972) because it is assumed to affect performance negatively (Rumelt, 1982). Range: low = a few hundred employees; medium = a few thousand employees; high = Large Scale Enterprise (LSE), over ten-thousand employees • Set08 Technical experience (HR & innovation KPI) Description: Experience refers to the extent to which employees are involved and learn from similar products (Koelle, 2003). Range: low = new team with no relevant product experience; medium = some experience with related products; high = extensive experience with similar products • Set09 Organizational skills (HR & innovation KPI) Description: Skills are an indicator of employee knowledge to coordinate projects and programs. Range: low = no project management experience; high = extensive project management experience c) Settings Submodule (Product Characteristics) • Set10 Product complexity (process KPI) Description: Complexity refers to the technical nature of the product. Range: low = simple unit; medium = connection of simple systems; high = connection and interaction of advanced systems 148 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Set11 Asset specificity (process KPI) Description: The degree of specificity for a certain activity is measured by the difference between the cost of the asset and the value of its second best use (Williamson, 1985). Range: low = reversible investment, e.g., capital expenditures; high = irreversible investment, e.g., knowledge acquisition • Set12 Strategic vulnerability (process KPI) Description: The degree of vulnerability of strategic organizational development is measured by the amount the activity contributes to, or even represents, the organization’s core competencies. Range: low = no relation to core competence; high = sensitive influence on core competences • Set13 Technology uncertainty (financial KPI) Description: This indicator refers to the maturity level of technology used. Range: low = variation of existing design with minor modifications; medium = new design, but with existing components; high = first generation system with advanced state-of-the-art technology d) Settings Submodule (Environmental Characteristics) • Set14 Intensity of competition (process KPI) Description: This indicator refers to the number of competitors in the market. Range: low = no competitors, monopoly; medium = several competitors, oligopoly; high = many competitors, perfect competition • Set15 Market demand uncertainty (process KPI) Description: This indicator includes unpredictable customer utilization, buying power, market seasons, standards, etc. Range: low = easy forecasting with no surprises; medium = challenging forecasting with some surprises; high = unforeseeable circumstances • Set16 Quality of business climate (HR & innovation KPI) Description: The quality of a country’s business climate is measured by the Business Environment Risk Index (BERI). BERI data is commercially available from Business Environment Risk Intelligence (2005). This data includes the following criteria with associated weights in brackets (Hollensen, 2007): political stability (12%), economic growth (10%), currency convertibility (10%), labor productivity (8%), short-term credit (8%), long-term loans (8%), attitude towards the foreign investor (6%), nationalization (6%), monetary inflation (6%), balance of payments (6%), enforceability of contracts (6%), bureaucratic delays (4%), communication infrastructure (4%), local management (4%) and services (2%). Estimating the values of these criteria leads to a sufficiently accurate indicator value for the purposes of this study. Range: low = unacceptable, very high risk; high = superior conditions, favorable environment for investors, advanced economy Results The make-or-buy decision-supporting process is structured in five phases (Phase 1: Define Mission Statement, Phase 2: Define Strategic Objectives and Independent Factors, Phase 3: Define Weighting of Factors, Phase 4: Check Plausibility of Integration Pros and Outsourcing Pros Submodules, and Phase 5: Obtain Results) and can be applied to various challenging cases. For this, I develop a tool entitled “MoB-Tool,” as shown in Figure 7. 149 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 7: Extract from the MoB-Tool Discussion General The following section attempts to widen the study’s point of view through a discussion centered on: (1) the choice of items for the “Setting” submodule; (2) a trade-off between informal and formal statements; and (3) limitations concerning the introduced process. Choice of Items for “Settings” Submodule The balanced scorecard philosophy is used to create the “Setting” submodule. The balanced scorecard, introduced by Kaplan and Norton (1992), is a widely used strategic business performance measurement system. This method seeks to report on leading indicators of an organization’s health, rather than referring to traditional accounting measures alone. These leading indicators are called Key Performance Indicators (KPI) because they are critical to the successful execution of an organization’s strategy. Based on the strategic goals of an organization, target values for KPIs are set. KPIs enable an organization to measure and monitor its performance on a strategic and operational level. The goal is to establish a common KPI language that spans all areas of an enterprise. Typically, KPIs are used in a post-ante context to evaluate an organization’s past performance. Krauth et al. (2005) reason that KPIs should be utilized in the planning phase as well, thus ex-ante. I follow this approach for the make-or-buy decision-supporting process. A key attribute of this process is its support for identifying causal linkages between components of the business that fulfill the strategy (i.e., to determine the benefit share of each proposition that contributes to either vertical integration or outsourcing). 150 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Often the balanced scorecard is broken down into a financial, customer, process and an HR & innovation perspective. This procedure aims to avoid the classic problems of measurement, such as (Van Aken & Coleman, 2002) use of too many metrics, use of exclusively cost metrics, use of only short-term focused metrics and use of metrics that drive the wrong behaviors. The choice of KPIs is organization-specific and depends upon its goals. An organization’s goals change over time (Allio, 2006). In a start-up high technology company, for example, managers focus on reliability. In the growth stage, managers concentrate on market share. In mature industries, managers focus on production costs and/or capacity utilization. In an aging industry, managers primarily focus on cash flow. I select those KPIs for the make-or-buy decision that I recommend for use by a typically mature organization. Due to the modularity of this process, it can be extended easily to additional KPIs and/or existing KPIs can be terminated. In addition, my proposed weighting (I assume equal weighting) of each KPI is easily changeable. Sustainable development is defined as a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations, 1987). The field of sustainable development aspects can be abstractly broken into three essential parts: environmental, economic and sociopolitical sustainability. In particular, I recommend selecting indicators from the database of Sustainable Measures (2009) if no other data are given. For example, the environment indicator entitled “CO2 emissions from transportation” of that list can be adapted to a strategic objective entitled “Set07 Reduce CO2 emissions” and added to the Make-or-Buy Tool. Informal Versus Formal Statements Some readers may prefer or expect formal statements to informal ones. I choose to use informal statements for two reasons. First, dealing with make-or-buy related theories from a qualitative view (i.e., using informal statements) rather than a quantitative view (i.e., using formal statements), makes it easier to determine the potential and weaknesses of investigated theories, items and propositions (Goehlich & Bebenroth, 2008). Second, my motivation and attempt is to generate an overall make-or-buy decision-supporting process for organizations toward understanding the commonalities, distinctions and interactions of the (normally isolated watched) make-or-buy theories and known recommendations. Furthermore, I am motivated to provide a combined account of the costs, risks and benefits of outsourcing versus vertical integration. To accomplish this, I discover that the top-down approach of using informal statements is superior to the bottom-up approach of using formal statements: simulating the complex architecture of organizations by only formal statements would cause a disaster due to the overwhelmingly unmanageable number of equations it would create. Use of informal statements permits the necessary distance required for the “battlefield of theories” and allows me to uncover important coherences. This is in accordance with Gibbons (2005, p. 236), who states that “firms have invented far more ways to work together than organizational economics has so far expressed (not to mention evaluated)” combined with Krugman’s (1995, p. 54) warning for “sensible ideas that could not be effectively formalized [and] formalizable ideas that seem to have missed the point.” Further consideration can be found in Baker, Gibbons and Murphy (2004). Limitations Extant make-or-buy related studies are quite voluminous. Thus, complete implementation of this literature into the make-or-buy decision-supporting process is beyond the scope of the present study. Rather, I limit my discussions and investigations on those studies that I found to have significant influence on make-orbuy decisions, especially for managers. However, I find that many extant studies suffer from measurement problems, in particular with respect to sustainable development aspects, such as follows: • Some factors, such as motivational, cultural and social factors are hard to handle, but may strongly influence decisions. • Companies from different countries generally apply divergent success criteria because of unique cultures (Yan & Zeng, 1999). In addition, each culture has specific cultural codes, e.g., the trust-based cooperative norms of Japanese society encourage high collaboration rates among companies (Todeva & Knoke, 2005). Thus, assessing international scenarios is especially complicated because results are biased by different cultural environments. 151 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • A challenge exists whether to use objective outcome indicators (e.g., financial gains, number of innovations, revenue), subjective indicators (e.g., partner satisfaction with the collaboration, customer service, corporate identity) or both, in order to fully assess the performance of organizations. Thus, the precision of propositions is limited. Yet, I assume that a preponderance of indication, gathered across plentiful studies of diverse industries, time periods and geographic regions using different approaches, yields convincing evidence as to the validity of the introduced make-or-buy decision-supporting process. Conclusion The main outcome of this study is the development of a make-or-buy decision-supporting process. A structured application procedure makes this process attractive to any manager who needs a simple and transparent tool to support make-or-buy decisions. Dividing the make-or-buy question into many sub-questions based on, in this case, 16 objectives and characteristics, helps decision-makers generate a transparent and strategy-oriented solution with fair attention to all important considerations. By contrast, the less structured intuitive approach allows the decision-maker to weigh only a few arguments/propositions simultaneously – typically those which have current subjective importance for the decider, e.g., bad news about Dollar/Euro currency trends, which would favor an outsourcing decision or bad news about risk of revealing know-how, which would favor an integration decision. The next step, which is beyond the scope of the present study, is an empirical validation of the tool in the form of interviews with experts, economists and politicians. Note The views reported in this paper are those of me alone, and not those of any institution. All errors and omissions, which may unwittingly remain are the sole responsibility of me. 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(1982). “Diversification strategy and profitability,” Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 359-369. Shepherd, W.G. (1972). “The elements of market structure,” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 54, pp. 25-37. Sustainable Measures (2009). “Database,” http://www.sustainablemeasures.com, Author, West Hartford, CT, accessed: 20.4.2009. Todeva, E. & D. Knoke (2005). “Strategic alliances and models of collaboration,” Management Decision Journal, Vol. 43, No. 1, pp. 123-148. United Nations. (1987). “Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development,” General Assembly Resolution 42/187, http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/42/ares42-187.htm, Author, New York, accessed: 2.3.2009. Van Aken, E.M. & G.D. Coleman (2002). “Building Better Measurement,” Industrial Management, Vol. 44, No. 4, pp. 2833. Williamson, O.E. (1985). The Economic Institutions of Capitalism, Free Press, New York. Yan, A. & M. Zeng (1999). “International joint venture instability: a critique of previous research, a reconceptualization, and directions for future reseach,” Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 30, pp. 397-414. 153 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 157 Title A name given to the resource Strategic Make-or-Buy Decision-supporting Process: Adaptability to Sustainable Development Aspects Author Author GOEHLICH, Robert A. Abstract A summary of the resource. Real world outsourcing decisions are very seldom based on a sound trade-off of risks, costs that these risks impose and benefits. The present paper attempts to overcome some of these shortcomings by developing an informal process. Dividing the make-or-buy question into many sub-questions based on, in this case, 16 objectives and characteristics, helps decision-makers generate a transparent and strategy-oriented solution with fair attention to all important considerations. By contrast, the less structured intuitive approach allows the decision-maker to weigh only a few arguments/propositions simultaneously – typically those which have current subjective importance for the decider. Due to the modularity of this process, it can be extended easily to additional objectives and characteristics, e.g., those one that representing sustainable development aspects. The process allows one to determine what organizational architecture is best suited to a specified activity Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a4f333220957971e7a951915ec22c791.pdf 38873a709f2ed0fe6be0edbfb50b606d PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Exploring the Sustainable Development Model within the European Union Mustafa FĐŞNE Assist. Prof., Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey fisne@aku.edu.tr Abstract: The existence of close relationship between ecology and economics was rediscovered in last quarter of the 20th Century. Consequently, calls for the implementation of a sustainable development model have increased both at the international and European levels, especially after mid-1990s. Taking these calls into account, the European Commission has prepared many documents that have started a new phase in environmental protection, during which more importance is being given to the implementation, and in this connection, to the achievement of the sustainable development model within the European Union (EU). This study aims to explore the strategies, programs, policies, and practices that are connected with the implementation of sustainable development model at the EU level. Before doing so, it will focus briefly on the meaning, importance, and emergence of sustainable development approach within the EU context. Sustainable Development at a Glance The fact that the terms “ecology” and “economy” derives from the same Greek word “oikos”, which means “home”, shows the long-rooted awareness of human being on the close connection between the two terms (Marshall, 2001, 26). However, following the Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century, this awareness was replaced by the idea that human being was superior and could master the nature. Giving the priority to economic growth, this perspective ignored ecological or environmental problems emerged as result of the established economic system (Andersson et al, 1995, 7). It was only in the last quarter of the 20th Century that the significance of such problems for national and global economy was recognised commonly. This introduced the term “sustainable development” to human being (Han & Kaya, 2006, 257; Minibaş, 1998, 49). Being used for the first time in 1987 in a report prepared by the UN Commission on Environment and Development under the chairmanship of Brundtland and titled as “Our Common Future”, the term sustainable development envisages a development model that “meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Thirlwall 1994, 212). It was also the main theme of the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, at the end of which participating world leaders listed several principles on sustainable development through a declaration. The sustainable development, in essence, reflects an understanding that notices the close connection, interdependency, and interactions between the environment and economy. Therefore, it considers these terms as complimentary to each other, seeing no contradiction or conflict between the environmental protection and economic development (European Parliament, 2001, 15). For this reason, sustainable development gives importance to the use of market and price mechanisms in environmental protection. Indeed, the so-called economic instruments, which affect the attitudes and behaviours of economic actors by affecting the costs of alternative options for them, are of great importance for sustainable development model to reach its goals (Dündar, 1997, 185-190). Following World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002, sustainable development has become a model that needs to be implemented urgently. As the most active and leading actor in the field of environmental protection, the EU has involved in this issue to a great extent. This study aims to explore the strategies, programs, policies, and practices that are connected to the implementation of sustainable development model at the EU level. Early Attempts towards Sustainable Development within the European Union Protection of the environment within the EU has, on the one hand, been shaped by six environment action programmes implemented since 1973, and on the other hand, gained a status of policy based on explicit legal provisions brought by the amendments in the Founding Treaties in the course of time. In this early phase of environmental policy, measures and practices connected with sustainable development were at a low level. 477 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Fifth Environment Action Programme, prepared in parallel with the principles of Rio Declaration and came into effect in 1992, set sustainable development as a goal to be matched by the EU with an encouraging vision. However, advances towards the achievement of this goal were slow in practice, making most of the targets set by the Fifth Programme unattained at the end of its term in 1999 (Commission of the European Communities, 1999, 5-6 and 22). On the other hand, particularly since the mid-1990s onwards, calls for a stronger commitment to sustainable development at the EU level increased in parallel with the increasing international efforts. Consequently, sustainable development was incorporated into the Amsterdam Treaty among the basic goals of the Union in 1997. The Treaty also underlines the need for the integration of the environmental protection with the main EU policies in other fields (Cebeci et al, 1998, 73-177). The Six Environment Action Programme sets environmental objectives and targets to be reached at the EU level by 2010, together with necessary actions expected to contribute to the achievement of them. Depending basically on the Fifth Programme, this Programme, in addition to the principle of sustainable development, contains many new aspects such as its emphasis on the integration of environmental concerns into other policies, development of environmental headline indicators as well as those of integration, establishment of a Union liability regime and that of an environmental data-base system, new principles of “substitution” and “burden of proof”, and examination of possible impacts derived from many new issues, like GMOs, on the environment (Dündar & Fişne, 2001, 1). Upon the request of Helsinki European Council in 1999 to prepare a long-term strategy that considers all together the environmental, social, and economical dimensions related to sustainable development, European Commission developed the first sustainable development strategy for the EU in 2001. In the same year, the Göteborg European Council discussed this strategy, specifically titled as "A Sustainable Europe for a Better World: A European Strategy for Sustainable Development". This Strategy started a new phase for the efforts towards sustainable development within the EU context, giving more importance to implementation and practices. It reflected an understanding that noticed the effectiveness of the economical instruments compared to adopting legislation in attaining the determined targets connected to sustainable development. The Strategy focused particularly on the issues of climate change, poverty, and emerging health threats and proposed a number of measures to deal with them (European Commission, 2001, ). It can be said that this first Strategy is successful in bringing good results and some progress in many areas towards sustainable development across the EU. The Present Sustainable Development Strategy of the European Union To achieve further progress towards long-term sustainable development, the Council adopted some guiding principles in 2005. In addition, the Commission reviewed the first strategy, assessing the progress made and the tasks remained. Developed on the basis of this assessment, the Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy was adopted by the European Council in June 2006. It is a complex strategy that covers all EU policies connected to sustainable development. Like its predecessor, the present Strategy deals with economic, environmental and social issues in an integrated way. However, the Strategy differs from the previous one in including some additional key challenges that are listed as climate change and clean energy; sustainable transport; sustainable consumption and production; conservation and management of natural resources; public health; social inclusion, demography and migration; and finally global poverty. The present Strategy also has a stronger stress on the need to change the behaviors and attitudes of European citizens in order to reverse the unsustainable trends. For this purpose, it makes several suggestions to them to follow in their daily life to make a difference towards sustainable development in each of the listed areas. The basic targets set out by the Strategy related to the determined challenges are examined in the following pages together with the main suggestions to the citizens to make a difference towards sustainable development. Before this examination, it should be noted that the Strategy envisages the use of the following means to achieve the listed goals: education and training; research and development; economical instruments; communication; and finally follow-up work (European Commission, 2007, 9-10). Climate Change and Clean Energy The EU has been tackling with the challenge of climate change since mid-1990s when it was discovered as a potential threat. In this connection, it committed to cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 8%, from 1990 levels, by 2012 under the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. In addition, in 2007, the Council agreed to establish a new integrated climate change and energy policy, adopting a comprehensive package of measures. To contribute sustainable development, the new targets to be matched by the EU in this area by 2020 are as follows: • Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 20% and if agreed internationally by 30%, • Improving energy efficiency by 20%, 478 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • Raising the share of renewable energy to 20%, Increasing the level of bio-fuels in transport fuel to 10%. In attaining these targets, besides a wide range of programmes and laws, the Strategy suggests to the European citizens to use a carbon-dioxide footprint calculator; opt for a cleaner mode of transport, unplug electrical appliances when not in use; choose higher energy efficient products; and install home insulation (European Commission, 2007, 16-21). Sustainable Transport In order to provide European citizens with the cleanest and most efficient modes of transport, the EU has involved in coordinating actions in several related areas. The targets to be met by the EU through these coordinated actions include: • Reducing pollutant emissions to minimize effects on human health and the environment, • Achieving a balance in the frequency of use between different modes of transport, • Cutting vehicle CO2 emissions, targeting 140g/km by 2009 and 120g/km by 2012, • Halving the number of road deaths occurred in 2000 by 2010. For the given targets to be met, in addition to a number of legislative and economic measures, the Strategy invites people to make a difference through sharing their cars; using public transport as much as possible; traveling by bike; and considering safety by wearing a seat belt, smart driving, listening to music at a lower tempo, choosing lighter colors for car as well as fitting safety devices for children (European Commission, 2007, 25-27). Sustainable Consumption and Production Today, the average product lines in a supermarket in Europe have risen to over 15,000 compared to those in a grocery in the 1960. This can be seen as a simple sign of the changed consumption and production patterns in Europe. In order to make these patterns less harmful, the present Strategy underlines the need to change how Europeans produce, buy and throw away. For this purpose, it identifies the following main targets: • Terminating the destructive link between economic growth and damage to the environment, • Increasing the use of objects that have been produced responsibly, • Urging the public authorities in all member states to buy environmentally-friendly products and services by 2010, • Extending the market for environmentally-friendly technologies and innovations, • Improving the welfare of animals both at EU and international level. In addition to a variety of measures and schemes, the Strategy asks Europeans to add the following practices among their shopping habits and attitudes to make a difference towards sustainable consumption and production: collecting information about sustainable practices at potential destinations for them in traveling and tourism; looking for energy efficient household appliances; buying in local farmers’ markets; purchasing FairTrade products that are produced responsibly; trying to be avoided from being manipulated by clever advertising by thinking carefully about their needs; giving the things that they no longer need to a charity; and following the instructions for recycling of an unwanted object (European Commission, 2007, 31-35). Conservation and Management of Natural Resources The overall objective of the EU Strategy in this field is to improve the management of natural resources and to prevent their overexploitation in such a way that ensures regeneration. In accordance with this objective, it sets these goals: • Reducing the rate of biodiversity loss across the world by 2010 and beyond, • Restoring degraded marine environments by 2015 and protecting fish stocks from being over-exploited, • Meeting the targets on forest protection set by the United Nations by 2015, • Improving the efficiency of using natural resources, • Encouraging recycling and reducing the generation of waste. Besides a variety of measures for attaining these aims, the Strategy invites people to grow native plants in their garden; use eco-friendly products; visit nature reserves; educating children about the nature (European Commission, 2007, 40-42). 479 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Public Health It is a legal duty deriving from the Founding Treaties for the EU to ensure a high level of health protection to its citizens through preventing illness and diseases and reducing the dangers to human health. In fulfill this duty , the EU has involved in a number of actions. The particular aims listed by the present Strategy include the followings: • Ensuring safety in relation to chemicals by 2020, • Halting lifestyle-related diseases, including alcoholism and obesity, • Trying to reduce the inequalities in life expectancy, • Ensuring health threats to be dealt with quickly and efficiently, • Reducing suicide rates and improving mental health, • Increasing the safety of food both for people and animals, particularly through hygiene and labeling, • Providing high welfare standards to animals. In addition to several legislative and coordinating measures, the Strategy ask European people to move more; balance their diet by cutting fat; stop smoking; reduce their stress levels; wear their seat belt in cars; avoid excessive drinking as well as pollution (European Commission, 2007, 48-50). Social Inclusion, Demography and Migration In order develop a safe, dynamic, and democratic society throughout Europe, which provides protection and jobs to its members with a special care for the vulnerable ones among them, the Strategy outlines the following basic goals: • Reducing risk of poverty and social exclusion by 2010, • Ensuring territorial and social cohesion, • Support the member states in modernizing their social protection systems that are under the pressure of falling birth rates and longer life spans, • Promoting employment, particularly for women, older workers and migrants by 2010, • Ensuring better integration of migrants into European society, • Making young people more employable via vocational education, apprenticeship, training or some experience or qualification, • Helping disabled people to find job. Besides a range of funds, programmes, and laws, the Strategy makes many suggestions to Europeans to make a difference in this area. They include attending to evening classes; learning another language, voluntary teaching and running a conversation class; starting up their own business as well as starting up a club or a team (European Commission, 2007, 56-60). Global Poverty The EU also works for sustainable development on a global level. In this connection, it declared its commitment to “the Millennium Development Goals” set by the UN Millennium Summit in 2000. Having a deadline of 2015, these goals include: • Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger, • Achieving universal primary education, • Strengthening gender equality, • Reducing child mortality, • Improving maternal health, • Combating HIV /AIDS, malaria and other diseases, • Ensuring environmental sustainability, • Developing a global partnership for development. Particularly in accordance with the last goal, the EU adopted in 2002 a document titled as “Towards a Global Partnership for Sustainable Development”. Since then, it has involved in many initiatives and actions to achieve progress towards sustainable development on the global level. As regards the first goal, that is eradicating global poverty and hunger, the Strategy considers development cooperation with major international and regional actors as an effective means. While the former include United Nations, World Trade Organization, and international financial organizations, the latter consists of African, Latin American, Caribbean and Pacific countries. In cooperation with these partners, the EU aims to supply water and energy to the poors in the world, which are two essential components for the reduction of their poverty. More precisely, the Strategy aims to ensure a 50 % reduction in the number of people without access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation by 2015. As regards providing energy, it aims to attract capital, 480 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo technology and human resources to the needy parts of the world. Trade, aid, and debt relief are seen as the supporting means to overcome global poverty. In supporting these policies, the Strategy asks European citizens to be involved in so-called cause marketing; buy FairTrade products; donate in various ways; or sponsor a specific child (European Commission, 2007, 64-66). Conclusions In the light of the above given examination, it is obvious that sustainable development is no longer a theoretical model for the EU. On the contrary, it has become a deep-seated value that guides not only the EU official policies, programs, and practices but also European people’s way of life. This is particularly valid since the early 2000s following the adoption of the Six Environment Action Programme and the first European Strategy for Sustainable Development. Compared to their predecessor, these documents have been more effective in making progress or difference towards sustainable development given that they are prepared in a more integrated and comprehensive way that covers all major EU policies. Prepared basically with the same qualities, the present Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy deals with some additional key challenges to ensure the sustainable development. They are listed as climate change and clean energy; sustainable transport; sustainable consumption and production; conservation and management of natural resources; public health; social inclusion, demography and migration; and finally global poverty. Establishing certain goals or targets to be met usually in ten years time in relation to each challenge, the present Strategy also has a stronger stress on the need to change the behaviors and attitudes of European citizens in order to reverse the unsustainable trends. For this purpose, it makes several suggestions to be followed in the daily life of the European citizens. Finally, the EU is also eager to work for sustainable development on a global level. In this connection, it has involved in many initiatives and actions to achieve progress towards sustainable development on the global level in cooperation with all leading international and regional players. References Andersson , T., Folke, C., & Nyström, S. (1995). Trading with the environment. London: Earthscan Publications. Cebeci, M. (1998). The Amsterdam treaty: the european union on the eve of 21st century. Marmara Journal of European Studies, 6 (2) , 73-177. Commission of the European Communities. (1999). Communication from the commission on the global assessment of the ec programme of policy and action in relation to the environment and sustainable development, ‘towards sustainability’. Brussels: Publications Office. Dündar, Y. (1997). Sürdürülebilir yaşam koşullu sürdürülebilir kalkınma, Sürdürülebilir kalkınmanın uygulanması. Ankara: Türkiye Çevre Vakfı Yayını. Dündar, Y., & Fişne, M. (2001). Avrupa topluluğu çevre politikaları ve altıncı çevre eylem programı. AKÜ Đ.Đ.B.F Dergisi, 3 (1), 137-153. European Commission. (2001). A sustainable europe for a better world: a european union strategy for sustainable development. COM(2001) 264. European Commission. (2007). A sustainable future in our hands – a guide to the eu’s sustainable development strategy. Brussels: Publications Office. European Parliament. (2001). Report on environment policy and sustainable development: preparing for the gothenburg european council. Final A5-0171/2001, 15 May. Han, E., & Kaya, A.A. (2006). Kalkınma ekonomisi – teori ve politika. Ankara: Nobel Yayın ve Dağıtım. Marshall, P. (2001). Liberation ecology. Resurgence, 205 (March-April), 26-36. Minibaş, T. (1998). Çevre ekonomisi ve politikası. S.O.S Yayınları. Thirlwall, A.P. (1994). Growth and development. London: Macmillan. 481 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 296 Title A name given to the resource Exploring the Sustainable Development Model within the European Union Author Author FiSNE, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. The existence of close relationship between ecology and economics was rediscovered in last quarter of the 20th Century. Consequently, calls for the implementation of a sustainable development model have increased both at the international and European levels, especially after mid-1990s. Taking these calls into account, the European Commission has prepared many documents that have started a new phase in environmental protection, during which more importance is being given to the implementation, and in this connection, to the achievement of the sustainable development model within the European Union (EU). This study aims to explore the strategies, programs, policies, and practices that are connected with the implementation of sustainable development model at the EU level. Before doing so, it will focus briefly on the meaning, importance, and emergence of sustainable development approach within the EU context. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3d2e57dca77981cbfe062da2c7c4a72.pdf 32542adaa5c6ce4e566f2acb2392c1c0 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo An Implementation Of a New Video Parsing Algorithm For Uncompressed Digital Video Stream HalilIbrahim Eskikurt Sakarya University Technical Education Faculty, Sakarya, Turkey, eskikurt@sakarya.edu.tr Barıs Boru Sakarya University Technical Education Faculty, Sakarya, Turkey, barisb@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Today, the use of digital videos instead of analog ones has become most popular in terms of their easy recordability and low-cost storage. Hence, huge amount of digital video archives have come out dramatically. The meaningful search in a video has been an important demand in order to access the video database very fast. While the standard picture and text searching methods cannot be used in a digital video, the video indexing has become a popular interest, and lots of research has been done. In this study, an implementation of a new video parsing algorithm design used for uncompressed videos is presented. Through the investigation of the parsing algorithms in the existing literature, lack of these algorithms has been defined and a new algorithm for achieving high performance has been proposed. It is been determined that the proposed algorithm is much better than the other algorithms considering the computational overhead and the performance. Keywords: Video Parsing, Video Indexing 1. Introduction With wide spread use of computers and digital equipments, and digital communication getting easier and more common to apply than the analogue communication through the platforms like internet, the need for transferring the video information to the digital medium has arisen, asit happened in alltypes ofinformation. Digital video is applied by benefiting from the weakness of the human eye. A human eye can only sense consecutive figures changing more than 15-20 frames in a second. A digital video is obtained by photographing a video scene as much as 15~30 frames in a second. The information about how many frames in a digital video are taken and recorded in a second is called “fps (frame per second)”. As mentioned above, digital video information is digital data coming one after another.Ifthereis a sound record in a video,itconsists of both picture frames and sound information. 2. Video Parsing and Indexing As a result ofthe technological advances today, almost allvideos are used by recording in a digitalform. Since digital video records are increasing more and more, the need for fast access appears when a search is desired. For example, to get the information about the video records of a person or a vehicle in an archive of security videos recorded,the old records in the archive should be searched from beginning to end. As the standard text search methods cannot be used in digital video,the picture comparison methods are not suitable as well, because ofthe need for computational overhead and the demands forthe meaningful search [Cotsaces et al. 2006]. Therefore, special methods should be used for video access. Researchers dealing with video access have made a suggestion thatinstead of searching in the whole video,it would be betterto search in a video index got by processing the video before, and then access to video segments referenced by the suitable results[Cotsaces et al. 2006,Koprinska et al. 2001]. If a subjecttitlein a book is wanted to be accessed,the word can be found from the index or contents of the book and then the page referenced is directed. In a video wanted to make a search, scanning all the information every time would make the access as difficultas scanning the pages in a book one by one. For 369 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo this reason, to search in a video and be able to access to a wanted scene, itis better to make an index for the video and store itto the special database (Fig. 1). Each video added to the video database could be saved after having an index with a number of procedures. When a browsing is made, the required objectis scanned in the index. If a matching isfound the video segment referenced is showed to the user. Figure 1: Parsing a video and storing the summarized information to the database by referring to the segments. Video segments consist of consecutive frames having a meaningful integrity. Features and key frames defined for each segment constitute the video index. Video parsing, the most important section of video indexing,isthe grouping ofthe frames having a meaningfulintegrity(Fig. 2). Thus,this group is defined with an information in the index. Also,it provides the preparation of defining the segments showed after browsing. Figure 2: Examples of consecutive video frames and segments. In the literature, most of researches about video databases and access can be found dealing with video parsing [Cotsaces et al. 2006, Koprinska et al. 2001]. The developed methods in these researches are focused on the right comprehending of video segments as defining the transitions in which there are meaningful changes on consecutive video frames. There are two type segment transitions, such as gradual and sudden. Sudden segment transitions are usually formed by stopping the record of the camcorder like in filming and restarting for a different scene. Gradual segment transitions are the switching the scene contents gradually as happening by using to combine two segments in the film effects. The best examples of gradual transitions are fade-effect and dissolve effect. Because of the soft change instead of sharp change between consecutive frames,itis difficultto define gradual segment transition. These types of sensing should be separated from camcorder and object movements. Especially,itistoo difficultto sense the segment transitions consisting of brightness level change compared to the other segmenttransitions. Video parsing algorithms are usually making segment sensing by getting visual changing rates between consecutive frames based on the ideathatthereis a passing through the segments when the changing rateis high. Parsing algorithms startto browse from the first frame of video and evaluate the consecutive video frames. In some cases, even if there is no meaningful difference between two video frames, some big differences could appear when the numerical values were examined. The best examples of these types of changes are camcorder 370 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo movement and brightness levelchange. (a) (b) Figure 3: (a) An example of camcorder movements,(b) An example of brightness level changes. During the filming, even though the contents of the scene are the same, the objects in the scene move a few pixels between two consecutive frames (Fig. 3.a). Similarly again, changing the light source and the camcorder viewing angle result in change in the darkness level of all pixels in the video frame (Fig. 3.b). Although, these are big changes in the pixel values of two consecutive frames, mostly it is not a segment transition. Therefore, parsing algorithms should have low sensibility to camcorder movement and brightness level change. The parsing algorithms for uncompressed videos usually obtain a similarity rate between the consecutive frames due to the technique used. Ifthe similarity rate of two consecutive frames is too low, itis accepted that there is segment distinction and the video parsing can be done. In these techniques, over which values for consecutive frame similarities can be assumed as a segment transition, are defined with a threshold value. In literature,these types of algorithms are called threshold based algorithms. The algorithm having the simplest approach among the video parsing algorithms and being the fundamental ofthe other algorithms isthe pixel comparison algorithm. This algorithm defines a change value for each video frame as calculating the total differences of the overlapped pixels between two consecutive video frames. Defined change value is compared with a predefined threshold value and then itis decided whetheritis segment transition or not. Due to the higher computational overhead and the sensitivities of the camcorder movement and brightnesslevelchange,this simple method is not preferred today. Block based pixel comparison algorithm, developed as an alternative to the pixel comparison algorithm has been designed by [Kasturi et al. 1991] in a way that comparing the overlapped blocks with a similarity rate obtained from the pixel values and average darkness level values as dividing the video frame into blocks. This algorithm increased the computational overhead together with decreasing the sensibility ofthe brightness level change. To decrease the computational overhead and the sensibility to the camcorder objects movement, Histogram based comparison methods instead of pixel based approaches have been developed. The main idea of histogram comparison methodsisthatthereis not a big difference withthe histograms oftwo consecutive frames which have unchanging background and objects (moving or not) [Koprinska et al. 2001]. In addition to that, histogram is not sensible to the picture rotation and the changing of the shooting angle. According to these principles,there are a number of studies related to histogram comparisons ofthe consecutive frames. In the first histogram based parsing algorithm, the histograms of two consecutive frames have been compared and a segment transition approach has been applied by [Koprinska et al. 2001]. In literature, some amendments to this algorithm can be seen [Boreczky et al.1996]. In these methods, although the sensibility to the camcorder and object movementsislower,the sensibility tothe brightnesslevel change is considerably high, because the brightness level change is completely replacing the histogram of the picture [Gargi et al. 1995]. Block based comparison techniques have been developed by [Swanberg et al. 1993], based upon the histogram comparison techniques as mentioned above. In this technique, a histogram comparison for the overlapped blocks in consecutive frames has been done by dividing the video frames into blocks. Due to the failure of these methods in gradual segment transitions, twin comparison technique has been developed by [Zhang et al. 1994]. In this technique, a second sub-threshold value has been used for sensing the differences between the frames occurred in gradual segment transition and then the values above this sub-threshold value and the differences between the consecutive frames have been added. If the result is higher than the real threshold value, gradual segment transition could be defined. Boreczky and Rowe have decided that twin comparison technique was simple and reliable [Boreczky etal. 1996]. 371 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. The Proposed Algorithm for the Filtered Video Histogram Comparison The success of parsing algorithms on uncompressed videos has been defined as low level. These algorithms have better sensibilities to the brightness level change and camcorder movements. This work introduces a new algorithm for filtered video histogram comparison to eliminate the disadvantages in the histogram based methods. The video parsing process have benefited from the picture filtering techniques to be more fastand functional. Afterthe whole video stream has been filtered withthe picturefiltering techniques,itis subjected to histogram comparison. The main idea of designing the algorithm is to consider pixel movement, occurred from camcorder movement, and to interest with the objects in the scene. Consequently, motion blur and sobel filters have been applied for picture processing. Sobel picture filter has putforward the section, having sharp colour change in the filtered picture.In other words,sobel filter makes the objectedges inthe picture clear. To lower the sensibility to the camcorder movements,itis foreseen that the neighbour pixels are copied intothemselves with the specified weights. Hence, sharp edge values obtained by sobelfilter are being softened and the effects of sections (background and object edge sections) near to the edges are investigated. For this purpose, motion blur filter has been used. With this method following object edge moving, videos have been processed by converting black-white video. The steps of filtering process are shown in Fig. 4. Ifthe standard formulas of histogram comparison are used to obtain the difference values of consecutive frames, the flat areas, not interested in this method, will be causing false results to increase. To remove this disadvantage, the formula (Equation 1) used in the filtered video histogram comparison method, has been obtained with neglecting “0” value representing black colourinthe standard histogram comparison formula. The formula in Equation 1, can be used in digital videos having an 8-bit colour darkness value (darkness values: 0255, n=256). D value shows the difference value between i and i+1 frames, H value showsthe histograms of the corresponding frames and j value shows the darkness values. In the formula,the reason for the darkness values between 1 and 255, as mentioned above, is to neglect the darkness values representing the flat areas in the filtered histograms. 255 D(i, i + 1) = ∑ H i ( j ) − H i +1 ( j ) (1) j =1 Figure 4: Picture filtering steps. The working steps forthe Filtered Video Histogram Comparison method can be summarized as follows: 1- Making the video gray shading. 2- Filtering the video with Motion Blur Filter. 3- Filtering the video with SobelFilter. 4- Getting the difference values of consecutive frames with histogram comparison, while neglecting the black components ofthe filtered video (“0” darkness value). 5- Defining the frames overthe threshold value as a segmenttransition. 6- Making the segments generated using the defined segment transitions. 372 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Evaluation and Comparisons W hen the results, obtained from the application of proposed algorithm evaluated,itis easy to say thatthe sensibilityto camcorder movements and brightness level changes is much less compared to other uncompressed video segmentation algorithms. Test with several videos showed that especially sensibility to brightness level changes reduced much and videos including camcorder lighting changes have been segmented with very high accuracy. In Fig. 5, sequential frame differences, resulted by HSV Histogram Comparison and Filtered Video Histogram Comparison for a video including lots of brightness level changes and camcorder movements, has been shown with graphics. HSV Histogram Comparison was chosen for comparing proposed algorithm because it has less sensibilityin standard algorithms. Real segmenttransitions are shown in graphics with an arrow. HSV Hist. Compare Segments:9 Proposed Method Segments:6 Figure 5: Computed consecutive frame differences for a sample video. Video, used for comparison, is recorded specially with a poor camera and it has camcorder motions, brightness level changes also it consists of 6 segments. The fourth segment of sample video (between 300th and 515th frames) has lots of brightness level changes and camcorder motions. In the graphics itis shown that, the differences computed with HSV Histogram Comparison algorithm for fourth segment’s brightnesslevel changes is higher than real segment transitions. In addition, HSV Histogram Comparison computed difference level for camcorder motion just afterthe starting of 5th segment as nearto realtransition difference level. For measuring of the proposed algorithm, all algorithms mentioned above have been applied to several videos [NIST 2009]. After getting resultsitis observed that proposed algorithm has better performance than the other algorithms. In Tab. 1, comparison results for Chevrolet.avi [NIST 2009] (including 5 segments) video are given. In results, computing times, number of segments detected by algorithm, accuracy rate for real segment transitions, and extra (unnecessary) number of segments detected have been shown. For the best performance it is expected to have minimum computing time, best accuracy rate (%100), and not to detect any other extra segments. For comparison of computing overhead, itis clear that filtering steps used in Filtered Video Histogram Comparison algorithm are making computation time longer. But in the computation part of the frame differences, the proposed method computes faster in rate 1/3 because of using only gray scale darkness level. Other methods use Red, Green, Blue levels for computing consecutive frame differences. For this reason their computing times are much longer than the proposed method. The interface shown in Fig. 6 has been designed to apply the algorithms, include the proposed and existing algorithms. With this interface, a video loaded can be divided into sections according to the parsing method and then these segments can be stored for access. ALG ORITH M Time (s) Number of Accuracy Extra Segment (%) Segment Pixel Comparison 153.41 7 100 2 Block Based Pixel Comparison 212.23 9 80 5 373 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo RGB Histogram Comparison 2.74 8 40 6 Block Based Histogram Comparison 27,09 7 60 4 HSV Histogram Comparison 8 100 3 34.98 Filtered Video Histogram Comp. 17.67 5 100 Table 1: Comparison resultsfor Chevrolet.avi video. 0 Figure 6: Parsing interface. 5. Conclusion In this work, a new parsing algorithm design has been proposed which has superiority over the existing parsing algorithms, used with uncompressed videos. In literature, existing algorithms has been investigated and the lack of the algorithms have been defined. The new method has been applied to a number of example video streams. Also the other algorithms have been applied to the same video streams and then a comparison of these algorithms has been made. As a result of the comparison, it is seen that the algorithm has a better segment transition, and an acceptable level of computational overhead. References Cotsaces C., & Nikolaidis N., Pitas I. (2006). Video shot detection and condensed representation – A review, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, vol.23, iss.2, 28-37. Koprinska I., & Carrato S. (2001). Temporal Video Segmentation: A Survey, Elsevier Science, Signal Processing: Image Communication, vol.16, iss.5, 477-500. Kasturi R., & Jain R. (1991). Dynamic Vision, in Computer Vision: Principles IEEE Computer Society Press, Washington DC, 469-480. Zhang H.J., Low C.Y., & Smoliar S.W. (1994). Video Parsing and Browsing Using Compressed Data, in Proceedings of SPIE Conf. Image and Video Processing II, 142-149. Gargi U., Oswald S., Kosiba S., Devadiga S., & Kasturi R. (1995). Evaluation Of Video Sequence Indexing And Hierarchical Video Indexing, in Proceedings of SPIE Conference on Storage and Retrieval in Image and Video Databases, 1522-1530. Swanberg D., Shu C. F., & Jain R. (1993). Knowledge guided parsing in video databases, in Proceedings of SPIE Conference, vol.1908, 13-24. Boreczky J. S., & Rowe L. A. (1996). Comparison of Video Shot Boundary Detection Techniques, in Proceedings of IS&T/SPIE International Symposium on Electronic Imaging, vol.2670, 170-179. NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology (2009). TREC Video Retrieval Evaluation, http://trecvid.nist.gov/, USA. 374 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 510 Title A name given to the resource An Implementation Of a New Video Parsing Algorithm For Uncompressed Digital Video Stream Author Author Eskikurt, Halil Ibrahim Boru, Barıs Abstract A summary of the resource. Today, the use of digital videos instead of analog ones has become most popular in terms of their easy recordability and low-cost storage. Hence, huge amount of digital video archives have come out dramatically. The meaningful search in a video has been an important demand in order to access the video database very fast. While the standard picture and text searching methods cannot be used in a digital video, the video indexing has become a popular interest, and lots of research has been done. In this study, an implementation of a new video parsing algorithm design used for uncompressed videos is presented. Through the investigation of the parsing algorithms in the existing literature, lack of these algorithms has been defined and a new algorithm for achieving high performance has been proposed. It is been determined that the proposed algorithm is much better than the other algorithms considering the computational overhead and the performance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a978118fc30692b90c4cf8143f73e9a.pdf 52fc563f0b07722122d794bf4c8ad042 PDF Text Text “Innovation of Turkish Language Learning and Teaching for Foreigner” Mehmet A. Eroğlu, Fatih University emali@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: Classroom discourse and language assessment, and at this paper has been interest in Turkish as a lingua franca. As well as examining how language develops inside and outside the classroom, article is about commonly teacher education, knowledge and stance in relation to the languages taught. It has been deal with the growing use of computers in the teaching and learning Turkish Language as a Foreing Language writing, looking particularly at work on word processing, software for teaching and research, at the relationships between network-based language teaching or learning. 1. Giriş Dil öğrenme teorilerini öğrenme hiç de kolay değildir. "İkinci dili yeterince öğrenme teorisi , o dili tam anlamıyla bütüncül olarak kavrama demek değildir. Dilin okuma, yazma dinleme, konuşma gibi tüm yönleriyle uyum içersinde sürdürülebilir bir başarı olmasıdır."(Mitchell & Myles, 1998, pp. ix-x)1 Dil öğretiminin en güzel yollarından birisi de okuma, dinleme, konuşma ve yazma gereksinimlerini karşılayan zengin bir öğretme-öğrenme ortamı oluşturmak olduğunu da hepimiz bilmekteyiz. Böyle bir ortamı meydana getirmek için muhtelif araç ve gereçlerden faydalanabiliriz. Bu farklı araç gereçlerle oluşan ortamların kullanılması dil öğretimine farklı bir zenginlik getirecektir. İngilizce, Fransızca, İspanyolca, Arapça, Rusça gibi dillerde yabancılara dil öğretiminde kullanılan teknik ve uygulamaların Türkçe için de dil yapısına göre geliştirilmesi, yaygın hale getirilmesi fayda sağlayacaktır. Öğrenci ile öğretmen arasındaki sağlıklı ve iyi bir iletişim etkili bir öğretme-öğrenme sonucunu gerçekleşir. Eğiticinin öğrencileri etkilemesi ve/veya uyarıcı araç gereçlerle fonksiyonel olarak hissedilen eğitim ortamlarının öğretme - öğrenme sürecinde kullanılmasıyla daha imkanlı hale gelir. Öğretimde gelişen teknoloji ile ortaya çıkan araç-gereçlerden yararlanma, konunun daha etkili olarak sunulması, öğrenmeye açıklık getirilmesi, gözlem fırsatlarının artırılması ve öğrencilerin birkaç duyu organına bir anda hitap edilmesi gibi imkanları yakalamasına zemin hazırlayacaktır. Bunların yanı sıra araç-gereçlerin, öğrenme zamanından ekonomi sağladığı, öğrenmeyi daha etkin olarak bireyselleştirdiği, öğrenmenin niteliğini yükselttiği, öğretimi daha etkin kullanarak verimli ve zevkli kıldığı bilinmektedir. Zevk alınan bir öğretim şekli ise öğrencinin ders dışı veya eğitim ortamından uzak kaldığı zaman diliminde dahi konu ile birlikte olmasını sağlayacaktır. Bu ise dil öğretiminde daha etkin ve yaygın bir öğretim sürecini getirecektir. Teknoloji hayatımızın her safhasında hızla etkin olmaktadır. İnsan yaşamının daha kolay daha etkin olmasında teknolojinin kullanılması herkes tarafından kabul edilen bir gerçektir.Tabii ki dil öğretiminde de teknolojinin imkalarından yeterinde yararlanma, Türkçe'nin yabancılar için öğretiminde de kullanılması fayda sağlayacaktır. Bundan yıllar önce ortaya çıkan ve her geçen gün gelişen teknik imkanlar dil öğretiminde kullanılmaktadır. " İlk önceleri basılı materyeller olarak dil kitapları olarak gramer, sözlük, okuma, ders ve alıştırma kitapları olarak varken daha sonraları dinleme teyp, video, CD-DVD, bilgisayar programları, şimdilerde de mobil iletişim araç gereçleri ile her geçen gün daha da zenginleşmektedir." (Salaberry, 2001)2 Teknolojinin getirdiği yenilikler her zaman dil öğretiminde pedegojik olarak etkin kullanılır diye bir kuralın olmadığı bilinmelidir. Önemli olan eğiticinin teknik imkanlardan pedegojk olarak maksimum faydayı sağlayabilecek ortamları oluşturmasıdır. En temel etkinlik teknolojik fırsatların öğrenciye eğitmen tarafından pedogojik kullanımın sağlanmasıdır. Burada eğiticinin daha etkin bir teknik bilgi ve donanıma sahip olmasını gerektirmektedir. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde yenişim en temel espirisi, eğiticinin kendini sadece teorik dil bilgisi yönüyle geliştirmesinin yanında, dil öğretiminde kullanabileceği diğer yeniliklerle de kendini güncellemesi gerekmektedir. 2. Dil Öğretimi ve Araç Gereç Dil öğretenlerin araç ve gereç kullanmaya özen göstermeleri ve bu araçların seçiminde itinalı olmaları beklenmektedir. Dil öğretiminde kullanılan araç ve gereç çeşidi oldukça fazladır. Günümüzde yabancı dil öğretiminde ingilizce, fransızca gibi yaygın olarak öğretilen dillerde kullanılan muhtelif metodların Türkçe öğretiminde de kullanılması yanında Türkçe'ye özgü kullanılabilecek yeni ve geleneksel uygulamalardan da istifade 180 �edilmelidir. Eskiden dil öğretimi daha çok yazılı materyaller ve sözlü konuşmalara dayalı olarak yapılırken, çağımızda teknolojinin gelişmesi sonucu görsel-işitsel araçlar, bilgisayar teknolojileri öğretmen ve öğrencilere çalışmalarında büyük ölçüde yardımcı olmaktadır. Temel düzey Türkçe derslerinde kullanılması önerilen araçlar; görsel, işitsel ve görsel-işitsel olmak üzere genelde üç grupta toplanmaktadır. Bu araçları özelliklerine göre şu şekilde sınıflandırabiliriz. 2.1. Görmeye yönelik araçlar; ‰ Kitaplar ve basılı gereçler ‰ Yazı tahtası ‰ Muhtelif resimli kartlar ‰ Projektör, tepegöz ‰ Akıllı tahta ‰ Bilgisayar 2.2. İşitmeye yönelik araçlar; ‰ Radyo ‰ CD ve kaset çalar ‰ mp3 çalarlar ‰ cep telefonları 2.3. Hem görmeye hem de işitmeye yönelik araçlar; ‰ Televizyon ‰ Video ‰ Bilgisayar ‰ İnternet ‰ Sinema ‰ Dvd çalar Görmeye yönelik araçların ne kadar etkin ve ilgi çekiciği yüksek olursa, o oranda öğrencinin dile karşı zihnindeki somut yaklaşımlar artar. Dil genel olarak soyut ve somut kavramların bileşimden oluşan bir etkileşim şeklidir. Öğerten ile öğrenen arasındaki ilişki ne kadar çok somutlaşır ne kadar çok hayatın içine girerse o kadar kalıcı hale gelecektir. Basılı malzemelerin çokluğu görselliğinin cazibesi öğrencinin dikkatini daha çok toplayacaktır. Dolayısıyla basılı malzemenin çeşitliliği de gösrellik için önem arzetmektedir. Sadece ders kitabı, alıştırma kitabı dil öğretiminde yeterli değildir. Mutlak surette yardımcı kaynaklar nevinden hikaye kitapları cv okuma materyeli, tarihi turistik tanıtım broşürleri, bazı ilgi çekici ürünlerin basılı reklam malzemeleri de Türkçenin yabancılar için öğretiminde etkin olacaktır. 3. Sınıf İçi Etkin Öğretim Sınıf içi görsellikle en fazla kullanılan bir başka malzeme de yazı tahtasıdır. Yazı tahtası kullanımı klasik şekilde eğitmenin tek başına kullanarak öğrencinin gördüğünü defterine aktarması veya tahtaya yazılan bir takım soruların öğrenciler tarafından cevaplandırılması şeklindeki uygulama, özellikle yabancılara dil öğretiminde en fazla zaman kaybettirmektedir. Yazı tahtası projektör ile birlikte etkin kulanımında hem zaman kazınımı hem de öğrenci ile öğretmen birlikteliğinde bol uygulama fırsatı verecektir. Sınıf içi yapılan bu uygulamalar öğrencinin doğru cevabı yanlışı ile birlikte görmesini sağlayacaktır. 181 �Ayrıca yapılan bu tür uygulamalardaki çeşitlilik Türkçe öğreniminde çok fazla kazanımlar sağlayacaktır. Cümle eşleştirme, kelime anlamı bulma, eksik cümle tamamlama. Diyalog metinlerindeki eksik ve muhtemel alternatif konuşma cümleler kurabilme imkanları sağlayacaktır. Sadece kitapta olan bu alıştırmalar. Öğrencinin dikkatini tek merkezde toplamaktan daha çok kendi yakın çevresi ile ilgilenmesini ortaya çıkarmaktadır halbuki sınıf içi aktivitelerde eğitmen ne kadar aktif ve bu aktivitenin yanında öğrenci dikkati ne kadar kontrollü olursa o kadar etkin bir öğretim imkanı sağlanacaktır. Şekillerde görülen uygulamalar ve çok daha fazla çeşitlisi, sınıf içerisinde dikkatleri tahtaya toplayıp sadece boş bırakılan yerlerin öğrenciler tarafından doldurulması istenir. Diğer bir uygulamada ise cevap alternatifleri vererek öğrencinin kelime bilgisindeki seçicilik, cümleler arası eşleştirme yapmaları istenir. Bu uygulamalar klasik metotta her öğrencinin kendisinin yapması daha sonra eğitmenin doğru cevapları vererek düzeltmeler şeklindedir. Burada ise Türkçe öğretiminde görsellik ile zenginleştirerek sınıftaki tüm öğrencilerin dikkatleri bir merkeze toplanır. Şurası bilinmelidir ki; yabancı birisine Türkçe öğretiminde temel hedeflenen amaçlara ulaşmak için geleneksel yöntem olan kara tahta ve silgi yetersiz kalacaktır. Türkçe öğretiminde öğretmenlerin göz önünde bulundurması faydalı olan aşağıdaki hususlar hiç bir zaman göz ardı edilmemelidir.: • Dil mümkün olan en doğal bir ortam içinde öğretilmelidir. • Öğretimde öğrencinin kendi dilinden hareket edilmelidir. • Dil öğretiminde muhtelif çalışmalarda bulunulmuş dil çalışmaları arasında sıkı bir ilişki kurulmalıdır. • Mümkün olan en fazla sayıda çeşitli ders araç ve gereçlerinden yararlanılmalıdır. (Kavcar,1995,s.9) 3 Türk eğitim sistemi bünyesinde Türkçe öğreten Türkçe öğretmenlerin çeşitli araç gerek kullanmada yeterince istifade edilmediği yapılan bir araştırmada da ortaya çıkmaktadır. (Susar. 2001, say;10 ) Türkçe öğreten eğitmenler gerek sınıf içersinde gerekse sınıf dışında öğrencinin dil öğrenmesi ile ilişkisini sürekli devam ettirebilecek muhtelif araç gereçleri kullanama yoluna gitmelidir. araştırmaya göre çıkarılabilecek bir sonuçta mevcut öğretim şeklinde öğretmen sınıf içerisinde konu anlatımı veya öğrenci ile daha fazla ilişki içerisinde bulunma yerine eldeki kitap defter, tahta tebeşir kullanarak zamanın büyük kısmını geçirmektedir. 4. Dinleme, Anlama ve Çözümleme Yabancılar için Türkçe öğretiminde dinleme, anlama ve çözümleme kavramların geliştirilmesi en önemli bir basamaktır. Kelime hazinesinin genişliği, konuşma kolaylığı, dilde akıcılık ve söz söyleme cesareti sağlar. Bu nedenle, iyi ve güzel konuşmak için kelime bilgisini geliştirmek elzemdir. (Türkçe Eğt. ve Öğr. Kılavuzu 1986, s.219)4 182 �Dil öğrenimi becerilerinde alışkanlıkların oluşması, öğrenimin etkinlik kazanması yapmayı ve uygulamayı gerektirmektedir. Anlamın ve çözümün öğrenciye kazandırmanın temelinde gösterme ve yaptırma olduğu; anlama kavramının bir beceri haline gelip, becerilerin alışkanlığa dönüştürülmesinde tekrarın önemine dikkat çekilmektedir. Sever (2006:17)5 bu hususta öğrencilerin ana dillerini doğru ve etkili bir iletişim aracı olarak kullanabilmeleri için bir takim kriterler belirlemiştir ona göre bizim de yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde dikkat çekmek istediğimiz kriterler bundan pek farklı değildir. Eğitim sürecinde dört temel dil etkinliği bir bütün olarak geliştirilmesinin gerekliliğine önemlidir. Öğrenci bilgi edinmek, zevk almak, eleştirmek ve değerlendirmek için belirli düzeyde bir dinleme alışkanlığı edinmiş olması gerektiği belirtilmelidir. Özellikle yabancı öğrenciler daha fazla zevkli hale getirilmiş bir ders ortamında bulunmalıdır. Yabancısı olduğu kültür hakında henüz yeni yeni öğrenmeye başladığı kelime ses ve kavram bilgisi, ilgi çekici merak uyarıcı olmalıdır. İşte ortamı sınıf içersinde oluştururken olabildiğince farklı araç gereçleri mümkün olduğunca fonksiyonel kullanılmalıdır. Örnekte Multimedya destekli kelime ve diyalog kavramları okunması ile başlayan bir diyalog görülmektedir.(TürkçeAkademisi,2009)6 Türkçe öğretimin ilk haftalarında olabilecek bu parça kullanımı için öğrenci ilk önce kullanacağı kelimeler ve diyalog kavramlarının anlaşılması öğretmen eşliğinde yapılır. daha sonraki uyulama dinleme dinlerken eksik bulunan diyalog parçalarının tamamlanması sağlanır. bu durum öğrencinin doğru kelimeyi kavram bütünlüğü içeresinde yakalaması sağlanır. Doğru kelime buluncaya kadar tekrar etmesi sağlanır. Doğruluğundan emin olunca kontrol seçeneği tıklanarak sonuç değerlendirmesi yapılır. yine yanlışlar varsa diyalog tekrar edilerek kavram tam anlaşılır hale getirilir. Sınıf içersinde yapılan bu çalışmalar öğrencinin sınıf dışı ortamlarda da tekrar edebilmesi için CD,DVD,internet ortamı gibi araçlar vasıtası ile öğrencinin Türkçe ile ilişkisinin devamlılığı sağlanır. Klasik usulle kitap ses kaydı veya video gibi sadece öğrencinin pasif olduğu ortamlar yerine karşılıklı aktif ortamı olan interaktif metotlar kullanan ayrıca öğrencinin gelişimini kendi gözlemleriyle de görebileceği web tabanlı yazılımlar kullanılması Türkçe öğretimde yenileşim getirecektir. Yabancı bir öğrenciye Türkçe öğretirken öncelikle Türkçemizin söz varlığının ne kadar zengin olduğunu hissetmek için, kelimelerin aslının nereden ve nasıl geldiğine bakılmaksızın eş anlamlı ya da benzer anlamlı olanların aslî ve mecazi anlamlarının kullanımdaki farklılıklarına dikkat etmek ve bunun üzerinde öğretimine özellikle vurgulanarak durmak gerekir. Örnek: “basit” ve “kolay” kelimeleri eş anlamlı diye öğretilmeye kalkılırsa; “Bu ödevi yapmak çok basit.” = “Bu ödevi yapmak çok kolay.” denilebilir. Ama; “Bu ödev çok basitleşti.” cümlesi ödevi veren öğretmen tarafından daha sade daha kolaylaştırıldı anlamı yüklerken, “Bu ödev çok kolaylaştı.” cümlesi ise ödev üzerinde çalışarak bir kısmı yapılmış geriye kalan kısmı ise az kalmış anlamı taşır. Yine; “Bu delikanlı basiti sever.” cümlesi sade yalın anlaşılabilir karmaşık olamayan anmalı yüklerken diğer şekliyle; “Bu delikanlı kolayı sever.” cümlesi yapılışı kolay daha kısa sürede anlaşılır kendi bilgisinin zorlanmayacağı bir anlam taşır. dolayısıyla iki cümle farklı değil mi? (Barın,2003)7 5. Eğitim Materyallerinde içerik Yabancılara Türkçe öğretim materyallerinde bulunması gereken bazı temel unsurlar vardır. Bu temel unsurların yanında özellikle içerik kısmında dikkat edilmesi gereken bazı hususlar ana dili Türkçe olan öğrencilerden farklılık da göstermesi gerekebilir. Ana dili Türkçe olan öğrenciler için MEB in hazırlamış olduğu 2006 Türkçe Dersi Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu’nda öğrencilerin etkin Türkçe iletişim kurmasındaki becerilere ait belirlemeler “Dinleme/izleme, iletişim kurmanın ve öğrenmenin temel yollarından biri olup verilen iletiyi doğru bir şekilde anlama, yorumlama ve değerlendirme becerisidir. Görsel ve işitsel araçların hayatın her alanında giderek yaygınlaşması ve bu araçların eğitimde kullanılması etkili bir dinleme/izleme eğitimini gerekli kılmaktadır. Bu becerinin geliştirilmesiyle, öğrencilerden dinlediklerini/ izlediklerini sıralama, sınıflama, sorgulama, ilişkilendirme, eleştirme ve bunlarla ilgili çıkarımlarda bulunma gibi üst becerileri gerçekleştirmesi beklenmektedir (MEB 2005:6).8 ” şeklinde ifade edilerek, öğrencinin dil öğreniminde görsel ve işitsel eğitiminin önemine dikkat çekilmektedir. Eğitim materyallerinde bulunması gereken temel unsurlar şöyle sıralanabilir; İçerik Kapsamı Biçim Şekli Dil Yapısı Öğreticilik 183 �5.1 Kapsam Nitelikli Türkçe öğretim malzemeleri görsel ve işitsel olarak kullanılan CD,DVD, Film, yardımcı okuma kitapları, ders kitapları, içerik yönünden anadili yabancı olan öğrencilere Türk dili ve kültürü hakkında yeterli açıklayıcı bilgileri içermelidir. Bu durumda Ders ile iligli tüm basılı görsel işitsel materyallerde; Türk Aile, kültür, gelenek, görenek, Türk toplumunun insanlığa, doğaya ve yaşam sevgisine bakışını yansıtmalıdır. Kültürümüzün incelikleri, geçmişten gelen adalet, hoşgörü, kahramanlık, hakka saygı, haksızlıkla mücadelesi, başkalarına yardım, mertlik, doğruluk ve özveri gibi değerleri barındırmalı. Türk insanının doğru ve yanlış konusunda nasıl ölçümler geliştirdiğini ve hangi olayda nasıl tepki verebileceğini anlatmasında yardımcı olmalıdır. Türk kültürüne yeni ufuklar açmalıdır. Bu kültürde yaşayan insanların anlayış ve yeteneklerini anlatmalıdır. Güzelliğe karşı hayranlık duygularının, hayal güçlerinin artmasına imkan verir şeklide bilgilerle donatılmalıdır. Türk Dil yapısının diğer dillere göre üstün özellikleri konusunda anlaşılabilir uygulamalarla Türkçenin söz varlığı anlatım gücü ve ifade netliği konusunda bol örneklerle ders materyalleri beslenmelidir. Dikte programı geliştiricileri Türkçe Dil modeli geliştirilirken türetilmiş kelimelerin görülme sıklıklarını incelemek için toplam 640 Milyon kelimeden müteşekkil bir metin incelemesinde, birbirinden farklı kelime sayısının 1,410,000 adet olduğu görülmüştür. Grafiğe bakılırsa görülecektir ki; anlatılan durum açıkça belirmektedir. "Birbirinden farklı 1,410,000 kelimenin 370,000 tanesi yalnızca 1 defa görülmüştür. İncelenen veri tabanında 2 defa tekrar eden kelime sayısı yaklaşık 170,000, 3 defa tekrar eden kelime sayısı yaklaşık 100 bindir. Tekrar sayısı arttıkça kelime sayısı hızla azalmaktadır. 25 defa tekrar eden kelime sayısı 5 bin iken 100 defa tekrar eden kelime sayısı sadece 885’dir. (Dikte 2009) "9 5.2 Biçim Başlangıç seviyesindeki Türkçe kitapları yardımcı ders kitapları hikayeler vs gibi öğretim materyallerinde içerik kadar, biçimsel özellikler de önemlidir. Bu nedenle, iyi bir Türkçe öğretim için basılan yayınlarda bulunması gereken biçimsel özellikler şunlardır: • Kapak resimleri Türk kültürü, tarihi, coğrafyası vs. gibi ilgi çekici görsellikle, canlı ve ilgi çekici olarak dizayn edilmelidir • Kitabın kağıdı olabildiğince kaliteli ve en az ikinci hamurdan, kağıt olarak da mat renkli cinsinden tercih edilmelidir. Resim ve görsellik öne çıkar şekilde belirgin olmalıdır. • Ders kitap, hacim bakımından ne çok küçük, ne de çok büyük olmalıdır. • Kitap, bol resimli olmalı, bu resimler yabancıların hoşlanacağı özellikleri de kapsamalıdır. • Sayfa düzeni rahat ve çekici olmalı, satırlar arasındaki boşluklar, kenar boşlukları ve paragraflar iyi ayarlanmalıdır. • Görsel ve işitsel materyaller de dikkat edilmesi gereken en önemli husus, ses, görüntü kalitesi yeterince iyi olmalı, mutlaka akıcı ve ilgi uyarıcı şekilde tasarlanmalıdır. 184 �• Mümkün mertebe ders kitabı ile birlikte uyumlu bir görsel ve işitsel içerik olmalı kolay erişilebilir. Bilgisayar program formatında olabileceği gibi CD-DVD çalarlarda da çalışabilen format olmalıdır. • Ders materyalleri gerek kitap gerek diğer görsel ve işitsel bilgiler güncel konulardan tercih edilmeli ve sık aralıklarla güncellenmelidir. • Güncel bilgilerin daha rahat ve daha hızlı öğrenciye ulaşılması için ders malzemelerinin de bir arşivinin bulunduğu web tabanlı destek çok daha ilgi çekici olabileceği gibi eğitmen açısından da daha gözlemlenebilir imkan sağlayacaktır. 5.3 Dil yapısı Dil yapısının bilgileri hakkında öğrenciye uygulamalı anlatım yapılırken, öncelikle Türkçenin anlatım gücünü tam olarak ortaya koyacak çalışmalara ihtiyaç olduğunu çok daha iyi hissederiz. Çünkü Türkçede “Köklere eklenen eklerin teker teker değişik görevleri yüklenebilmeleri de anlatıma güç verir, kolaylık sağlar. Bizce, bir dilin zenginliğine ölçü alınması gereken önemli özelliklerden biri ve Türkçenin bugüne kadar değeri yeterince kavranmamış yönü budur. Türkçe, dile getirilmesi en güç olan, ayrıntı sayılabilecek kavramları son derece canlı imgelerle anlatan, söz fırçasıyla insan zihninde canlı resimler çizebilen güçlü bir dildir." (Aksan, 1994, s.34)10 Türkçe daha az sembolle çok bilgi aktarır. Pek çok durumda bir kelimeden oluşan Türkçe ifadeyi İngilizceye çevirmek için bir cümle kurmanız gerekir. Aşağıdaki “Oku” fiil kökü için verilen örneklere bakınız. • Okuyamadım = İngilizce: “I was not able to read.” • Okuyabilseydim = İngilizce: “I wish I were able to read.” • Okuyabilenlerdense = İngilizce: “If he is one of those that were able to read.” İyi bir ders kitabı, iyi anlaşılır bir kitap demektir. Kullanılan dil, öğrencinin yaş seviyesine göre kendi dünyasından parçalarda hissedeceği, kendi dünyasında derhal anlaşılır bir nitelikte olmalıdır. Aynı zamanda Türkçe dersinde kullanılan bir kitap, yazım, noktalama ve cümle düzeni bakımından kusursuz olmasına özen gösterilmelidir. 5.4 Öğreticilik Ders materyallerinin içersinde yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde özellikle öğrenimlerini daha etkin bir şekilde geliştirecek alıştırma teknikleri aşağıdakiler gibi olabilir. Gramer çalışmaları, dinleme ve okuma metinlerinde, anlam kavram yorumlamalarda kullanılabilecek seçenekler daha da çoğaltılabilir. Uygulamalar ders kitapları ve alıştırma kitapları ile sınırlı kalmayıp web tabanlı çalışmalarda daha etkin bir şekle getirerek interaktif olarak multimedya desteği ile daha da zenginleştirerek anlaşılabilir ve daha zevkli hale getirmek için ilgi çekici seneryolaştırılalabilir. Öğrenci ile öğretmenin birlikte yapacakları uygulamalarla birlikte, öğrencinin web tabanlı yardımcı uygulamalarında kendi kendini geliştirme ve hatalarını görebilme geliştirebilme imkanlarına da sahip olacaktır. Doğru / yanlış ile değerlendirmeye tabi tutulmuş dinleme ve okuma parçaları Ne, nerede soruları, anlamaya yönelik sebep sonuç ilişkisini çözmeye yönelik alıştırmalar Sözcük eşleştirme, aynı anlama gelecek bir sözcükleri bir okuma parçasında farklı ifadelerle eşleştirme yapılabilir. veya ilk aşamalarda bir cümle içerisinde muhtemel benzer sözcükler tespit edilir. Kim ne söylüyor, daha çok diyalog metinlerinde anlaşılsa da hikaye türü anlatımlarda söylenen ifadenin sahibini bulmaya yönelik çalışmalar Metni sıraya koyma; bir hikayecik veya paragraf şeklinde oluşan bir metnin mantıklı olarak sıralanmasına yönelik seçenekler. Çoktan seçmeli; kelime bilgisinin benzer kelimelerle birlikte kullanılması ve farklı olanı tespit ederek en doğrusunu ayır edebilme. Cümleleri tamamlama; yarım bırakılmış bir hikayeciğin tamamlanması olabileceği gibi, ögeleri eksik verilmiş cümlelerin tamamlanması. Doğru yanıtı seçme; okuma parçası veya dinleme parçasına yönelik doğru yanlışı tespitte kavram ve anlam ilişkisini ortaya çıkarmaya yönelik olan çalışmalar. Cümleleri birleştirme;bağlaçlar kullanılarak farklı iki cümlenin anlamlı bir bütün oluşturulmasına çalışacak uygulamalar. Boşluk doldurma; eksik kalan cümle ögelerini tamamlama. 185 �Sözcükleri eşleştirme; eş anlamlı veya zıt anlamlı kelimeleri eşleştirmeye yönelik seçenekler. Sözcükleri gruplama; belli bir konu çerçevesinde kelimeleri toplama ve anlamlı bir bütün oluşturacak kullanım alanları yakın olan gruplama yapma örneğin; bahçe ile ilgili kelimeler, sebze yemeklerine ait kelimelerden grup oluşturma. Sözcükleri yeniden yazma; benzer anlamlı kelimeleri kullanarak anlamca aynı fakat okunuşta farklı olan ifade tarzları oluşturma da bu kapsamda değerlendirilebilir. Gruptaki anlamsız sözcüğü bulma; anlamlı bir bütünlük oluşturan sözcük gruplarında anlamsız olanı keşfetme ve anlama, Sözcükleri sınıflandırma; sıfat, isim, fiil. gibi kelime yapılarını sınıflandırma olduğu gibi okulda kullanılan sözcükler lokantada kullanılan kelimeleri sınıflandırma gibi uygulamalar, Doğru sözcüğü bulma; metin içersinde eksik bırakılan veya anlamca uymayan bir sözcük yerine doğru olan kelimenin bulunmasına yönelik çalışmalar. öğrencinin kelime haznesine ciddi katkı yapacaktır. Bulmacalar; merak uyandıran bu tür çalışmalar yabancılar için Türkçe öğretiminde olmazsa olmazlardan bir uygulama olmalıdır. Tamamlama Birleştirme; Türkçe de epey yaygın olan tamlamaların uygulamalarına yönelik birleştirme bu kapsamda değerlendirilebilir. Sözcük bilgisini artırmaya yönelik çok daha farklı bilgi kartları oyun kartları resimli kartlar vs oluşturulabilir Cümle yapılarına yönelik ögeler ayrı ayrı belirtilerek öğrenci tarafından tamamlanması veya sıralanmasına yönelik çalışmalar. Yan cümle oluşumunda ana cümleye eklenebilecek ilave küçük cümlecikler oluşturulmayabilir. Yeniden yazma;okuma veya dinleme parçalarının yeniden yazılmasına yönelik çalışmalar. Tümce kurma; başlangıç seviyesinden daha ileri seviyelere kadar muhtelif zorluklarda cümle kurma çalışmaları Sözcük ve tümceleri tamamlama; metin içerisinde eksik cümle tamamlama ile birlikte eksik olan kelime tamamlamaları da iç içe geçen uygulamalar. Tümceleri birleştirme; bir bütünün parçası olarak dağınık bulunan cümleleri bir araya getirerek metin tamamlama çalışmaları. İyi bir Türkçe öğretim materyali, bir konuyu sunar ve öğretirken yeteri derecede basit, anlaşılır bir metot uygulamalıdır. Bir ders kitabını gözden geçirirken ele alacağımız hususlar şunlar olmalıdır: • Kitapta baskı yanlışlıkları var mıdır? • Kitaptaki bilgi öğrenci seviyesinin neresindedir? • Kitaptaki bilgiler, önceki derslerde verilen bilgilerle nasıl bir ilişki üzerine kurulmuştur? • Kitaptaki öğretim metodu ile öğretmenin öğretim metodu arasında bir ayrılık var mıdır? 186 �• Ders kitabı ile birlikte işlenen diğer eğitim materyalleri arasındaki ilişki ortak mıdır? okuma parçaları DVD destekli diğer video ve CD Kaset vb dinleme konuları • Bizce önemli sayılan kültür, tabii güzellikler, tarih, sosyal etkiletişim; gelenek görenek vs. gibi hususlara tüm eğitim malzemelerinde aynı önem verilmiş midir? • Öğrencinin milliyeti itibariyle bölgesel olarak anlayamayacağı noktalar nelerdir? • Sorular yabancıların anlayabileceği şekliyle iyi sorulmuş mudur?• Özet olarak verilen bilgiler yeterli midir? • Web tabanlı uygulamalarda öğrencinin daha aktif daha hayatın içinde örneklerle dinamik tutulması için uygulamar var mıdır? • Öğrencileri tartışmaya götürebilmek için, eğitim materyallerinde ne gibi hususlar ele alınmalıdır? • Derslerdeki bilgileri pekiştirecek daha anlaşılır hale getirecek kaynaklar nelerdir? • Saatler ve ülkeler anlatırken öğrencinin ait olduğu ülke ile sınıf içersindeki diğer arkadaşlarının ülkelerinde saat kaçta ne iş yaptıkları ne yapacaklarına dair uygulamalar dinamik olarak ve anlık değişmeler ile web üzerinden daha interaktif olarak hem görsel hem işitsel öğretim imkanı sağlanır. 5.5 Yazı ve okuma Materyalleri Kullanımı Geleneksel sınıf ortamında her öğretmenin en çok kullandığı araç kara tahtadır. Kara tahta üzerinde renkli tebeşirle yazılan yazı, çizilen şekil, resim ve diyagramlar öğrenmeyi somutlaştırmak için çok sık kullanılan görsel öğretme yoludur. Öğretmen kara tahtadan daha farklı görsel yazı malzemeleri kullanma yolunu keşfetmelidir. Bunlar bilgisayar yazılımları ile desteklenerek perdeye yansıtma ya da daha önce yazılmış bilgilerin soru cevapları , diyalog parçalarını kalem ile yazılan beyaz tahtaya yansıtma sağlanır. Öğrenci eksik olan kısımları tamamlar ya da konu hakkında eksiklikleri tamamlaması istenir resim gösterilerek anlatması, tasvir etmesi vb istenebilir. Klasik usulle yazı tahtası kullanılarak yapılacak çalışma hem öğretmenin hemde öğrencinin çok fazla vaktini alacaktır. Sınıf içi aktivitelerde yazı tahtası ve sınıf dışında web tabanlı iletişim ortamlarında; • Yeni sözcükleri tanıtmak, açıklamalarda bulunma, • Bir ödev vb çalışmalara ilişkin işlem aşamalarını göstermek, • Konuları esas noktalarıyla özet olarak verme, • Bilgi gruplarını ve bu gruplar arasındaki ilişkileri gösterme, • Bir öğrenme sürecinin aşamalarını mantıklı bir sıra içinde sunma, • Ev ödevi ve proje çalışmalarını açıklama, • Kaynaklar listesini görsel olarak vermek, • Araçların çalışma ilkelerini açıklamak, • Grafik, tablo ve şemaları net bir şekilde açıklamak, • Diğer eğitim amaçlı yardımcı araçları desteklemek amacıyla kullanılabilir. 6. Sonuç ve Öneriler 6.1. Sonuçlar 1. Türkçe öğretiminde öğrencilerin öğrenmeye yönelik becerisini geliştirme için önerilen etkinliklerin uygulandığı örnek seçilen yabancı öğrenci grubunun geleneksel olarak derslerin işlendiği ve aynı testlerin uygulandığı kontrol grubuna göre testlerin sonuçlarına bakılarak aralarında anlamlı bir farklılık oluştuğu saptanmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlar Türkçe öğrenme etkinliğini geliştirmek için programında belirtilen amaçlara ulaşmada önerilen etkinlikler tam olarak uygulandığında öğrenme becerisini geliştirmeye ciddi katkı sağladığı söylenebilir. 2. Gerek sınıf içi gerek ders dışı öğrencinin önerilen ders materyalleri ile yapmış oldukları uygulamalar; Okuma Düzenleme, Okuma- Seçim Yapma, Boşluk doldurma, Sözcükleri eşleştirme, Sözcükleri, Gruplama, Sözcükleri yeniden yazma, Gruptaki anlamsız sözcüğü bulma, Sözcükleri sınıflandırma, Doğru sözcüğü bulma, Bulmacalar, Tamamlama- Birleştirme, Dinleme-Yeniden Yapılandırma, Dinleme-Boşluk- Doldurma, Dinleme-Not Tutma, Dinleme-İzleme, Dinleme-Müzik, Dinleme-Haber vb etkinliklerle kıyaslanan iki grup öğrenciler benzeri kontrol grubu öğrencileri aralarındaki fark deney grubu lehine anlamlı çıkmıştır. Bu çalışmayla daha etkin ve yeni sayılabilecek araç gereçlerle entegre edilmiş ders materyalleri öğrenciyi etkin sürece katan etkinliklerle, öğrencilerin etkin öğrenme becerilerinin geliştirdiği ve başarılı sonuçlar alındığı ortaya çıkmıştır. 187 �3. Sınıf dışına yayılmış ders materyalleri etkinliklerin uygulanma sürecinde ‘öğrenme sorumluluğu’nun öğrencilerde oluşmasına yönelik kısa bilgilerin verilmesi; ders dışı özellikle web tabanlı uygulamarın kullanımına yönelik bilgiler, öğrencinin de eğitici kadar kadar sorumlu olduğunun hissettirilmesinin yararlı olduğu görülmüştür. Sınıf içi etkinliklerin uygulanmasında sorumluluğu hisseden öğrencilerin; dik oturma, konuşanla göz teması kurma, not tutma, dinlediklerine uygun geri bildirimler verme, soru sorma gibi dinleme davranışı gösterdikleri görülmüştür. Ders dışı etkinliklerde de kendi kendini takip, başarısının ve gelişimini gözlemleme fırsatı tanımıştır. Bu da öğrenci motivasyonunu tetikleyerek Türkçe öğreniminde müspet anlamda katkı yapmıştır. 4. Dinleme ve okuma uygulamalarında öğrencilerin boşluk doldurma, anlamsız sözcüğü bulup çıkarma cümleyi yeniden yapılandırma, dinleme-izleme, okuma - yazma, ders dışı materyaller - kendi keşfettiği materyaller gibi haber magazin etkinliklerinde başarılı oldukları görülmüştür. Bir kaç kur ilerideki öğrenciler ilk kurdakilere göre daha nitelikli olarak söz konusu aktiviteleri kullanmışlardır. 5. Farklı ve eğiticinin yenilikçi olarak geliştirdiği her türlü ders araç gereçleri dil öğrenimindeki gelişimine katkı olarak, öğrencinin sürece etkin olarak katıldığı okuma, yazma, konuşma, dinleme becerilerinin yeniden yapılandırma etkinliğinin sonuçları (Yangın, 1998:118)11 ’deki “Öğrencilere, duyduklarını zihinlerinde görsel olarak canlandırabilme becerisi kazandırılmalıdır. Zihinsel canlandırma, öğretiminde resimlerden ve yönlendirici sorulardan yararlandırılmalı” önerisi bu bizim uygulama sürecimizde de desteklendiği görülmektedir. 6.2 Öneriler 1. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde, amaç doğrultusunda planlı olarak, çok farklı özellikle ingilizce fransızca, ispanyolca öğretiminde kullanılan uygulamalar gözden geçirilerek Türkçe dil yapısına uygun olanlar dil öğretiminde çeşitli etkinliklerle geliştirilmelidir. Dil öğretiminde ana dilde öğretilen bazı uygulamaların yabancılar için de benimsenebileceği makuldur ama yeterli olmadığı bilinerek, okuma yazma, dinleme beceri alanlarına yeterince ehemmiyet verilmeli ve programda belirtilen ders araç gereçleri ile öğrencinin tüm vaktini alacak şekilde uygulama araç gereçleri geliştirilmelidir. öğrencinin dil öğrenime ayıracağı vakit farklı ve hayatının her safhasında kullanabileceği malzemelerle kullanabilir hale getirilerek dil öğrenme gelişimine ayrılan zaman arttırılmalıdır. 2. Dil öğretiminde özellikle yabancılara öğretiminde öğrenci motivasyonu oldukça iyidir. Öğrenci istekli olarak bir yabancı dil öğrenme arzusundadır. Öğrenci motivasyonu öğretmen motivasyonu ile eşdeğer bir şekilde sorumluluk yüklenmelidir. yalnız şu var ki; Okul türü bir yerde öğretmenlerdeki heyecan kadar öğrencide bulunmayabilir. Bu durumdaki öğrenmelerde etkin tarafın (öğretmenin), ne kadar sorumluluğu varsa öğrenenin (öğrencinin) de en az onun kadar sorumluluğu olduğu bilinci verilerek öğrencilerin aksiyoner olarak sorumluluğunu fark etmesi sağlanmalıdır. 3. Etkili iletişimin kurulabilmesi için birbirini anlayan ve anladıklarına uygun davranışlar gösteren bireylere gereksinim duyulduğundan eğitimin ve öğrenimin geliştirmede iletişim odaklı etkinliklere daha fazla yer verilmelidir. Mümkün olan en fazla iletişim araçları kullanılmalıdır. Sınıf içi iletişim zorunlu olduğundan tarafların birisinin iletişimsizliği hemen fark edilir ve karşılıklı olarak çözüm yolları bulunmaya çalışılır. Ders dışında iletişimi daha çok kendi kendine etkin hale gelebilecek çözümler üretilmeli ve öğrenci kendisini devamlı etkin olarak iletişim içersinde bulmalıdır. Öğretmen ders dışında bu iletişimi kontrol eden gerektiğinde uyarılar yapan bir konumda olmalıdır. Web tabanlı uygulamalarda öğrencinin dil öğrenimindeki çalışma ve etkin iletişimi öğretmen tarafından zaman zaman değerlendirmelerle öğrenciye geri dönüşüm yapılmalıdır. 4. Muhtelif etkinliklerin uygulamalarında faaliyet öncesi, aktivite anı ve uygulama sonrası yeterli bir biçimde planlanmalıdır. Başlangıç seviyesinden daha üst seviyeye sınıflarda faaliyetlere göre bir takım beceriler de kazandırılmalıdır. Eğer yetişkinlere dil öğretiyorsak onlar bazı alışkanlıklara zaten sahiptir. Bu alışkanlıklar dinlerken not tutma, okurken önemli noktaları tespit etme vb. olabilir yetişkin olmayanlarda ise zaman zaman uyarılarla bu tür alışkanlığının kazandırılması gerekmektedir. Türkçe Dersi Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu’nda belirtilen dinleme, anlama ve çözümleme başlığı altında 26. madde olarak “Dinlediklerinden önemli bilgileri / durumları / kavramları fark edip notlar tutar.”12 biçiminde yer alan ifadenin her ne kadar ana dil eğitimi için söylenmiş olsa da yabancılar için öğretilen Türkçe derslerinde de geçerliliği mutlaka vardır. 5. Yetişkin öğrenciler, yetişkin olmayanlara göre araç gereç kullanımında farklılıklar gösterebilir. Sadece araç gereç açısından değil içerik bakımından da farklılıklar olmalıdır. Yetişkin öğrenciler için sınıf dışı dil malzemeleri daha ağırlık kazanırken, diğerlerinde ise daha çok sınıf içi ders materyalleri yoğun olmalıdır. 6. Yabancılara dil öğretiminde etkili iletişim, tüm öğrencilere, günlük yaşamda gerçekleşen olaylar, durumlar, gelişmeler ile ders içi öğrenmelerini karşılaştırarak etkili iletişimi gerçekleştirecek, önemli olgular ve önemsiz olguları ayırt edebilecek ve bireysel gelişimine yönelik çok farklı kazanımlar sağlayacak ve muhtelif araçları etkili bir biçimde kullanmasını gerçekleştirecektir. Dolayısıyla, ana dilli eğitim için belirlenen, Türkçe Dersi Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu’nda belirtilen Fonksiyonel Dil Öğrenim Amaç ve Kazanımlar başlığı altındaki Etkili Dinleme 188 �ve İzleme Alışkanlığı Kazanma alt başlığı ile belirtilen hususlardan biri olan “Günlük gelişmeleri yazılı, görsel ve işitsel basın yayın organlarından okur, dinler ve izler.” şeklinde geliştirilmesinin uygun olacağı önerilmektedir. Kaynaklar 1. 2. Mitchell, R Myles, F. (1998). Second Language Learning Theories, London, UK: Oxford University Press. Salaberry, M. R. (2001). The use of technology for second language learning and teaching: A retrospective. The Modern Language Journal, 85 (1), 39-56. 3. Kavcar, Cahit. (1995) Türkçe Eğitimi. Ankara: Rekmay Basımevi 4. Türkçe Eğitimi ve Öğretimi Kılavuzu, s.219, Millî Eğitim Gençlik ve Spor Bakanlığı, Ankara 1986 5. Sever, S. vd. (2006). Etkinliklerle Türkçe Öğretimi. İstanbul: Morpa Yayınları.sh 17 6. TurkceAkademisi.com, ilk hafta diyalog metni,şubat 2009 7. Barın E. “Yabancılara Türkçenin Öğretiminde Temel Söz Varlığının Önemi” Türklük Bilimi Araştırmaları, sayı 13, s.311-317, Niğde 2003 8. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı. (2005). İlköğretim Türkçe Dersi (1-5) Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu. Ankara: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. 9. http://www.dikte.com.tr/diktegenel.php?id=satinal,5,2009 10. AKSAN, Doğan, “Türk Dili Zengin Bir Dil Midir?”, A.Ü TÖMER Dil Dergisi, sayı 16, s.34, Ankara 1994 11. Yangın, B.1998:118,. Dinlediğini Anlama Becerisini Geliştirmede Elves Yönteminin Etkisi.Doktora Tezi, Ankara: Hacettepe Üniveristesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. 12. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı.Orta öğrenimler için Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu. Ankara, 2005: Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. 189 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 390 Title A name given to the resource Innovation of Turkish Language Learning and Teaching for Foreigner Author Author Eroğlu, Mehmet A. Abstract A summary of the resource. Classroom discourse and language assessment, and at this paper has been interest in Turkish as a lingua franca. As well as examining how language develops inside and outside the classroom, article is about commonly teacher education, knowledge and stance in relation to the languages taught. It has been deal with the growing use of computers in the teaching and learning Turkish Language as a Foreing Language writing, looking particularly at work on word processing, software for teaching and research, at the relationships between network-based language teaching or learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fb8e5d0ee7a6d7f92a0423829b18a61c.pdf c3cd9c4d0304a20688ae8b6905fe5c51 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Measuring the Effect of the Change in Climate Condition on Input Use in Agriculture in Konya, Turkey Onur Erkan Cukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Adana, Turkey oerkan@cu.edu.tr Cennet Oğuz Selcuk University, Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Konya, Turkey coguz@selcuk.edu.tr Arzu Kan Selcuk University, Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Konya, Turkey akan@selcuk.edu.tr Ufuk Gültekin Cukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Adana, Turkey ugultek@cukurova.edu.tr Abstract: This study was conducted to determine effect of climate change (temperature and rainfall) on the amount of ınput uses such as fertilizer, pesticide, animal manure, family labour, paid labour and machine by selected farmer’s.The minumum usable sample of farm enterprises were determined as 124 based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from six villages in Çumra and Sarayönü districts in Konya. Input applications as farmer preference under the increasing temperature and rainfall were compared with its under the decreasing temperature and rainfall situations. The binary logistic regression was applied to determine the influence of each selected agricultural practise on the probability that the change of temperature and rainfall conditions. The results showed that when the temperature rises, the percantage of farmers who decrease the amount of chemicals (fertilizer and pesticide), the amount of paid labour increase. When the rainfall rises, the percantage of farmers who increase the amount of chemicals and the amount of family labour decrease. The other factors weren’t significantly important at the level of probability or beter as 0.05. Keywords: Climate change, Agriculture, Logit Model Introduction Itseems obviousthat any significant change in climate on a global scale shouldimpactlocal agriculture, and consequently affect the world's food supply. Considerable the study has gone into questions of just how farming might be affected by climate change in different regions, and by how much; and whether the net result may be harmful or beneficial,and to whom. As a result of study several uncertainties contrats occur for current projections. One relates to the degree of temperature increase and its geographic distribution,the other pertains tothe concomitant changes likely to occur in the precipitation patterns that determine the water supply to crops, and to the evaporative demand imposed on crops by the temperaturer climate (Rosenzweig and Hillel, 2005). The economic and social implications of global climate change, due to increases in atmospheric trace gas concentrations, are presently the subject of intense national and international political debate. In order to formulate policies to address this issue, the costs and benefits of the impacts of potential climate change recommended to be identified (Kane et al.1992). The economic effects of climate change on agriculture are particularly important since agriculture is among the more climate sensitive sectors. However,the assesments on economic impact of climate change on 26 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo agriculture are few. Notable exceptions include Adams et al. (1988, 1990) and Arthur (1988). Adams incorporates climate change into a spatial equilibrium modelto determine its effects on U.S. agricultural supply and demand. Arthur uses a linear programming model to calculate the effect of climate change on net revenues in Canadian agricultural sector. Also Arthur used an input/output model to estimate production effects in other sectors ofthe Canadian provincial economy. For Turkey,the study which was conducted was aboutthe effect of climate change on wheat production.It is prepared by Tsuji et al. (2006). The result of made econometric analyses was showed thatthe farmers in Turkey responded to increase their wheat yield to the higherlast year’s real farm gate wheat price. W heat yield in Turkey responded positively changes to the higher cumulative temperature and rainfall. Especially this resultshowed that Turkey wheat yield declines when Apriltemperature become higher than 15 degree centigrade. This reflected heat damage to wheat in Turkey. Hence, the climate change decreases wheat yield. Another study was conducted by Oguz et al.in Konya and Adana provinces in Turkey. The results of the study showed that the farmers in Konya changed crops production pattern relatively concern on rainfall quantity in March-May. At the same time the farmers in Adana changed crop production pattern by taking into consideration climate change such as globaltemperature and rainfall decrease in Adana too. The climate change impact on crop pattern was more significant in Konya than its in Adana since soil fertility is higher, ang irrigation area islargerin Adana. In this study binary logistic regression was used to determine the impact of climate change on the farmers behaviours aboutınputuse. Therefore,the change ofthe farmers behaviour willshow that probability of which climatic condition happen. Materials and Methods Population and Sample Target population for this study was defined as Konya farm operators in the Cumra and Sarayonu districts. From these two locations, six villages were selected based on agricultural potential, geographic location, population intensity, and posibilities of representing socio-economic characteristics of rurallife in the region. From each village a list of farm operators showing their farm sizes was obtained from the District Agricultural Office. List of six selected villages for each district made the accessible population of the study. Yamane’s(2001) stratified sample size determination formula was used toidentifythe sample size. The equation forthis formula is: n = D= ∑ (N S ) D +∑ N S 2 N N e2 t2 2 h h 2 h 2 (1) h (2) W here n = sample size, N = accessible population, Nh = number of farms in a stratum, Sh = standard deviation within a stratum, D2 = desired variance, E = accepted error from the mean t = t value corresponding the accepted confidence interval Accepting 5 percent error from the mean (e) and 95 percentconfidence interval(t = 1.645),the sample size was calculated as 124 (farm operators). This number was randomly selected. Developing a Farm Level Sustainability Indicator In order to compare farmers’ behaviour about input use in the two different climatic conditions-the changing oftemperature and rainfall-and the effects of climate changes on agricultural production systems were examined by the researches. These changes were the numbers of farmer who decreased or levelled-off the 27 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo amount of fertilizers, pesticide, animal manure, family labour, paid labour rather than family labour and machine. Data Collection The 6 farm level practices about input use indicators were properly worthed with two choices. If the amount of each practices decreases,the answer is “decreasing” and “no” otherwise. These were the independent variables ofthe study. Respondents were also asked whether or notthey change of behaviour aboutinput use and this was treated asthe dependent variable ofthe study. Panelof experts established validity forthe data colection instrument.It was also pre-tested and slight changes were made for establishing reliability. Data were collected in March and April 2006. SPSS – Version 10.0 (Statistical Package for the social sciences) was used for data analyses. Analytical Procedures The study used the chi-square contingency test for independence to determine whether significant differences existed between decreasing of temperature and increasing of temperature;increasing of rainfall and decreasing of rainfallin terms of the selected 6 factors which is about that farmers use the inputs in agriculture like the amount of fertilizer, pesticide, animal manure,family labour, paid labour and machine. X2 =∑ ( ni − E i ) Ei (3) W here, ni = are the observed frequencies in the k categories and Ei = representthe expected frequencies (Freund and Wilson,1993) For each factor (temperature and rainfall) 6 Chi-square tests were conducted to determine whether each of the agricultural practices selected was independent of changing climate condition (temperature and rainfall). “Although this test can describe relationships between or among variables, it cannot measure the combined influence of a group of explanatory variables on a specific dependent variable” ( McLean – Meyinse 1997). Therefore, to analyse the influence of each explanatory variable on the dependent variable, which is a dichotomous variable, the binary logistic regression was used as a method (Maddala 1983; Grene 2000). Two different binary logistic regressions were applied for dependent variables such as temperature increase (y=1), or decrease (y=0). The dependent variable which was rainfall was coded ifthe rainfallincrease (y=1), or decrease (y=0). The logit modelis written: Pr ob( y = 1) = e xβ 1& (4) where; Prob (y=1) isthe probability pof 1, E isthe base of naturallogarithm, F(xβ) isthe standartlogistic distribution function, and X isthe explanatory variable vector, which include the selected agriculture practises These were also collected as dichotomous variables with 1= the farmers decrease inthe amount ofinput, and 0= otherwise. Six explanatory variables as showen below were used in this study (Table 1). 28 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Explanatory variables Using chemical fertilizers (DU M CF) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using chemical pesticides (DU M CP) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using animal mannure (DUM A P) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using family labour(DU M F L) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using paid labour (DU MPL) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using farm machinery (DUM F M) Decreasing (1)Leveling-off (0) Table 1. Having used explanatory variables in the equations Factors Decreasing of temparature N Increasing of temparature N Increasing of rainfall N Decreasing of rainfall N Using Chemical Fertilizer Levelling-off (0) 37 13 1 44 Decreasing (1) 21 39 11 17 Increasing (2) 4 10 50 1 Using chemical pesticides Levelling-off (0) 30 13 1 35 Decreasing (1) 32 47 24 27 Increasing (2) 0 2 37 0 Using animal mannure Levelling-off (0) 26 17 5 28 Decreasing (1) 35 44 45 34 Increasing (2) 1 1 12 0 Using family labour Levelling-off (0) 8 19 2 9 Decreasing (1) 31 38 24 40 Increasing (2) 23 5 36 13 Using paid labour Levelling-off (0) 8 20 0 7 Decreasing (1) 33 41 30 43 Increasing (2) 21 1 32 12 Using farm machinery Levelling-off (0) 6 20 1 4 Decreasing (1) 29 37 23 31 Increasing (2) 27 5 38 27 Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of explanatory variables by the different climatic conditions (the number of farmers) 29 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The odds ratios forthe explanatory variables were calculated considering the fallowing formula; odds = P 1− P (5) Itindicates for a single explanatory variable that when holding all other variable constants,farmers who decrease the amount ofinput use is more orlesslikely to farmers who levell offthe amount ofinputuse regarding to the sign oftheir coefficient. Results and discussion Results ofthe study are presented by the objectives. One ofthe study objective was to determine the descriptive statistics by the different climatic conditions.Itwas showed in Table 2. The second objective ofthe study was to determine ifthe using of each selected factors differs between behaving farmers in the increasing and decreasing temperature situations. Chi-square test of independence procedure was used to accomplish this objective and the results were showed in Table 3. From the table, 5 of totalfactors were found significant atthe level of 0,01 probability or better. One factor wasn’tfound significant atthe level of 0,05 probability. W hilethirty-four percent ofthe farmers decrease in amount of using chemicalfertilizersin the situation oftheincreasing oftemperature,about sixty percent offarmerslevel-offtheiramount of using chemicalfertilizer in the situation of the increasing of temperature. These findings show that in the situation of the increasing of temperature,farmers have moretendency oflevelling-offin amount of using chemical fertilizers. About seventy-six percent ofthe farmers decrease in amount of using chemical pesticides in the situation of the decreasing of temperature, and about fourty-eight percent of farmers level-off their amount of using chemical fertilizer in the situation of the increasing of temperature. These findings show that in the situation of the decreasing oftemperature,farmers have more tendency of decreasing in using of chemical pesticides. W hen the relationship between temperature and using of animal manure examine, it wasn’t significant inthelevel of 0,05 probability. Whilethe percentage offarmers who decreasein amount of using animal manure inthe decreasing temperature situation is 70,97 %, the remended (20,97%) wasn’t change their behaviour. The relationship between the temperature and using of family labour was found as significantly in the level of 0,01 probability by using Chi-square anlyses. However, when the temperature increases, the farmers have more tendency of decreasing in using of family labour. The relationship between the temperature and paid labour was found as significantly at the level of 0,01 probability with Chi-square analyses. So that when the temperature increases,the farmers have more tendency of decreasing in using of paid labour. The last significant factor was the using of machine. The result of Chi-square analyses was found as significant atthelevel of 0,01 probability. The percentage offarmers who decreasein using of machine when the temperature rises was 46,77%. It can be said that the percentage of decreasing in machine use was more significantthan the other situations,the temperature rises. Factors Using Chemical Fertilizer Levelling-off (0) Decreasing (1) Increasing (2) Using chemical pesticides Levelling-off (0) Decreasing (1) Increasing (2) Using animal mannure Levelling-off (0) Decreasing (1) Increasing (2) Using family labour Levelling-off (0) 30 Increasing of tempearture Decreasing of temperature 2 χ N % N % P 37 21 4 59,68 33,87 6,45 13 39 10 20,97 62,90 16,13 19,491 0,000 30 32 0 48,39 51,61 0,00 13 47 2 20,97 75,81 3,23 11,569 0,003 26 35 1 41,94 56,45 1,61 17 44 1 27,42 70,97 1,61 2,909 0,234 8 12,90 19 30,65 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Decreasing (1) 31 50,00 38 61,29 Increasing (2) 23 37,10 5 8,06 16,763 0,000 Using paid labour Levelling-off (0) 8 12,90 20 32,26 Decreasing (1) 33 53,23 41 66,13 Increasing (2) 21 33,87 1 1,61 24,190 0,000 Using farm machinery Levelling-off (0) 6 9,68 20 32,26 Decreasing (1) 29 46,77 37 59,68 Increasing (2) 27 43,55 5 8,06 23,633 0,000 Table 3. Differences between the number of farmers decreasing the amount ofinput use and levelling offinthe two differentrainfall condition W hen we examine the relationship rainfalland the input use,it was found thatthe relationship among 5 factors with rainfall were significant at the level of 99% confidence interval. Only the factor of machine use wasn’t significant atthe level of 95% confidence interval.But it was significant atthe level of 0.10 probability level (Table 4). When both temperature increase and rainfall decrease,the amount of using fertilizer decreases. Also planting time of wheat extended from first week of Septembertolast week of Octoberthrough first week of November in the rainfall area. Harwested time changed from middle of July to first week of August in last decade. When the amount of rainfall decreases,the percantage of farmers who use animal manure,familylabour paid labour and farm machinery have more tendency to decrease in amount of them. But when the amount of rainfall increase, it most of the farmers tend to increase the amount of using chemical fertilizer and chemical pesticide. Factors Increasing of rainfall Decreasing of rainfall N % N % χ2 P Using Chemical Fertilizer Levelling-off (0) 1 1,61 44 70,97 Decreasing (1) 11 17,74 17 27,42 Increasing (2) 50 80,65 1 1,61 89,453 0,000 Using chemical pesticides Levelling-off (0) 1 1,61 35 56,45 Decreasing (1) 24 38,71 27 43,55 Increasing (2) 37 59,68 0 0,00 69,288 0,000 Using animal mannure Levelling-off (0) 5 8,06 28 45,16 Decreasing (1) 45 72,58 34 54,84 Increasing (2) 12 19,35 0 0,00 29,562 0,000 Using family labour Levelling-off (0) 2 3,23 9 14,52 Decreasing (1) 24 38,71 40 64,52 Increasing (2) 36 58,06 13 20,97 19,250 0,000 Using paid labour Levelling-off (0) 0 0,00 7 11,29 Decreasing (1) 30 48,39 43 69,35 Increasing (2) 32 51,61 12 19,35 18,406 0,000 Using farm machinery Levelling-off (0) 1 1,61 4 6,45 Decreasing (1) 23 37,10 31 50,00 Increasing (2) 38 61,29 27 43,55 4,847 0,089 Table 4. Differences between the number of farmers decreasing the amount ofinput use and levelling offinthe two differentrainfall condition Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the probability of respondentsthe farmers’ behaviour with the temperature and rain change. Because of that the effect of the temperature and the rain change on the behaviour of farmer aboutinput use examined in two different equations. First of all when we look at the effect of the temperature change on farmer behaviour,the full model was significant, X2 =48,295, p<0,01. The model had a -2Log Likelihood statistic of 123,605, a Cox and Snell R Square of 0,32, and Nagelkere R Square of 0,43. It was able to correctly classify 93,5% of temperature 31 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo decrease and 58,1% of temperature increase,for an overallsuccess rate of 75,8%. The logistic binomial model estimation for whether or not change of temperature was presented in Table 5, which includes the explanatory variables, coefficients, standart error, the Wald X2, p values and odd ratios. Of 6 explanatory variables 3 had significant effects atthe level of 0.05 probability. These are the using of chemical fertilizers, chemical pesticide and paid labour. All of the significant variables had the expected signs. The odds ratios for the significant variables can be interpreted asthe fallowing. Holding all other variables constant,the percantage of farmers who decreasing in the amount of using chemicalfertilizer was 10,01 times more likelythan the percantage of farmers who levelling offthe amount of using chemicalfertilizerin the situation ofincreasing temperature. Farmers who decreasing in the amount of using chemical pesticide was 20,84 times, farmers who increasing of using paid labour are 0,05 times less likely to the percantage of farmers who levelling off using them in the situation of increasing temperature. Factors Coefficient Standart Error W ald χ2 P Value Odds-ratio D U M CF 2,304*** 0,762 9,131 0,003 10,0142 D U M CP 3,037** 1,529 3,947 0,047 20,8426 DU M A M -1,678 1,339 1,571 0,210 0,1867 D U M FL -0,318 1,161 0,075 0,784 0,7276 D U M PL -3,043* 1,283 5,622 0,018 0,0477 DU MF M -0,399 1,179 0,114 0,735 0,671 Constant -0,480 0,268 3,219 0,073 0,6188 Table 5. Logistic binomial model estimation forincreasing temperature and decreasing temperature *** 0,01, **0,05, *0,10 First of all, when we look at the effect of the rainfall change on farmer behaviour,the full model was significant, X2 =106,98, p<0,01. The model had a -2Log Likelihood statistic of 64,92, a Cox and Snell R Square of 0,58, and Nagelkere R Square of 0,77. It was able to classify correctly 77,40% of temperature decrease and 96,80% of temperature increase,for an overallsuccess rate of 87,108%. The logistic binomial model estimation for whether or not change of rainfall is presented in Table 4, which includes the explanatory variables, coefficients,standart error,the Wald X2, p values and odd ratios. W hen we look atthe model about rainfall, we use same 6 factors again in this model.In this model the amount of using chemical fertilizers,family labour and chemical pesticide were found thatthey were significant at 99% and 95% significantlevel,respectively. So that,the decreasing ofthe number offarmer who decreasethe amount of chemical fertilizer (dummy=1) closes p probability value to the number of zero “0” that means of decreasing ofthe rainfall because the coefficient of chemicalfertilizeris negatif value. So that diminishing ofthe number of farmer who decrease in using of chemical fertilizer means that the amount of rainfalllessen. This situation was valid for chemical pesticide.However,the effect of using offamilylabour was differentfrom the others, because its coefficient has positive value. So that decreasing of the farmers who diminish the amount of family labour means that the amount of rainfallincreases. If the dummy is equal to 1 (decreasing of family labour) closes p probability value to number of one “1”. It means that the amount of rainfallincreases. The odds ratios for the significant variables can be interpreted as the fallowing. Holding all other variables constant, the percantage of farmers who decreasing of proper use chemical fertilizer are 0,02 times less and farmers who decreasing of proper use chemical pesticide are 0,05 times likely to the percantage of farmers who levelling offthe amount of using chemicalfertilizer and pesticide respectivelyinthe situation of decreasing rainfall.Farmers who increasing of proper use family labour are 62,16 times more likely to the percantage of farmers who levelling off using them in the situation of decreasing rainfall. Factors Coefficient Standart Error W ald χ2 P Value Odds-ratio D U M CF -3,662*** 1,187 9,52 0,002 0,026 D U M CP -2,971** 1,399 4,511 0,034 0,051 DU M A M -2,477 1,852 1,79 0,181 0,084 D U M FL 4,13*** 1,601 6,65 0,010 62,159 D U M PL -12,154 74,579 0,027 0,871 0,000 DU MF M 7,512 58,583 0,016 0,898 1829,595 Constant 0,629 0,338 3,467 0,063 Table 6. Logistic binomial model estimation forincreasing rainfall and decreasing rainfall *** 0,01, **0,05, *0,10 32 1,875 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusions As a result of the study, most of the farmers in Adana and Konya stated thatthe production technique (cultivation method, amount and variety of seed, amount and kind of fertilizer and pesticities, method and number ofirrigation) had not changed due to climate change inthelast 20 years. Farmers are not very sure about cropping pattern if temperature rises and precipitation decreases. The impact of the climate change on farmers behaviours was found significant decreasing amount of chemicals(fertilizier and pesticide) and increasing the amount of paid labour when the temperature rised. References Adams, R., McCar, B., Dudek, D., and Glyer,J. (1988). Implications of Global Climate Change for Western Agriculture, Western J.Agric.Econ. 12(2), 348-356. Adams, R., Rosenzweig, C., Peart, R., Ritchie,J., McCar.,R., Glyer,J.,Curry, R.,Jones, J.,Boote, K., and Allen, Jr., L.(1990). Global Climate Change and U.S. Agriculture,Nature 345(17), 219-223. Arthur, L.(1988). The Greenhouse Effect and the Canadian Prairies,in Johnston,G., Freshwater, D.,and Favero, P.,(eds.), Natural Resource and Environmental Policy Issues, Westview Press,Inc., Boulder. Freund, R.J.,and Wilson W.J. (1993). Statistical Methods.Academic Pres, San Diego, CA. Grene W.H. (2000). Econometric Analysis 4th edition. Prentice Hall. Kane, S., Reilly,J.,and Tobey, J.(1992). An Empirical Study Of The Economic Effects Of Climate Change On W orld Agriculture. Climatic Change 21: 17-35. (http://www.ciesin.org/docs/004-154/004-154.html). McLean- Meyinse P.E. (1997). Factors influencing early adaption of new food products in louisiana and texas. Journal of food distrubution research Volume 28. Maddala G.S. (1983). Limited-Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics. Cambridge University Pres. Oguz, C., Peker, K., Gultekin, U.,and Erkan, O. (2006). The Impact of Rainfalland Temparature Increase in the Change of Crop Pattern in Adana and Konya, The Advance Report of ICCAP Publication 9. Rosenzweig, C., Hillel, D. (2005). PotentialImpacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Supply. Consequences Vol.1, No.2, Sum mer1995,http://www.gcrio.org/CONSEQUENCES/summer95/agriculture.html). Tsuji, H., Kusadokoro, M., Maru, T., Gultekin, U.,and Tasdan, K. (2004). Current Research Status ofthe SocioTeam of the ICCAP and One Analyses of the Impacts of Weather to Wheat Production in Adana and Konya. ICCAP Publication 4. Capadoia, Turkey. Yamane, T. (2001). Elementary Sampling Methods (Turkish translation) Literatür Yayıncılık, Dağıtım, Pazarlama, Sanayi ve TicaretLtd. Şti. Acknowledgements This study’s data was gathered from the Project “ An Economic and Institutional Analysis of the Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Farm Economy in Eastern Mediterranean and Central Anatolia Regions in Turkey” which was supported by “Research Institute for Humanity and Nature” (RHIN), and “The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey”(Tübitak). 33 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 464 Title A name given to the resource Measuring the Effect of the Change in Climate Condition on Input Use in Agriculture in Konya, Turkey Author Author Erkan, Onur Oğuz, Cennet Kan, Arzu Gültekin, Ufuk Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was conducted to determine effect of climate change (temperature and rainfall) on the amount of ınput uses such as fertilizer, pesticide, animal manure, family labour, paid labour and machine by selected farmer’s.The minumum usable sample of farm enterprises were determined as 124 based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from six villages in Çumra and Sarayönü districts in Konya. Input applications as farmer preference under the increasing temperature and rainfall were compared with its under the decreasing temperature and rainfall situations. The binary logistic regression was applied to determine the influence of each selected agricultural practise on the probability that the change of temperature and rainfall conditions. The results showed that when the temperature rises, the percantage of farmers who decrease the amount of chemicals (fertilizer and pesticide), the amount of paid labour increase. When the rainfall rises, the percantage of farmers who increase the amount of chemicals and the amount of family labour decrease. The other factors weren’t significantly important at the level of probability or beter as 0.05. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1fc1c13f0c5a79a0de88f151e3f941a2.pdf 35d4c8801a5ba484aeaa1ad867c1fbf5 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Drying Behaviour and Mathematical Modeling of Mistletoe (Viscum Album L.) in UV Combined Convective Drier Saliha Erentürk Ataturk University Erzurum, Turkey serenturk@yahoo.com Bircan Köse Ataturk University Erzurum, Turkey bircank28 @hotmail.com Abstract: The thin layer drying behavior of Viscum album L. (mistletoe) leaves was investigated in UV combined convective drier. Drying air temperatures and velocities were selected as 60-70 and 80OC, and 0.5-1 and 1.5m/s respectively. Drying curves obtained by using experimental data were fitted to the six models reported in the literature. Comparing the determination of coefficient (R), reduced chi- square (χ2) values of six models, it was obtained that the Modified Page model represents the best fitting. Introduction Viscum album L. commonly known as mistletoe is a semi parasitic plant, which normally grows on a variety of trees. The major constituents of Viscum album L. are the lectins, which include viscumin, polypeptides known as viscotoxins and a number of phenolic compounds found in their free state or as glycosides(Al-Achi, 2005) and also typically include lignans, caffeic acid, vitamin C (Ergun&Deliorman,1996) Because ofthe rich chemical content, Viscum album L. has been used forthe treatment of many diseases, both in traditional medicine and in complementary medicine. It was firstly used for the treatment of epilepsy and dermatitis in Europe (Tenorio et al.,2005). A number of biological effects, such as anticancerand, antimycobacterial, antiviral have been reported. Drying can be described as an industrial preservation method in which water content and activity of fruits and vegetables are decreased by heated air to minimize biochemical, chemical and microbiological deterioration (Doymaz and Pala, 2003). Drying provides not only a longer shelf-life to the food but also resultsinlight weighttransportation and comparatively smaller storage space (Sharma et al,2005). Nowadays some new techniques intending to shorten the drying time and improve the final quality of the dried products such as microwave,IR and UV assisted drying have begun to use. UV drying is an especially used in field of printing and packaging industry where fast drying. UV drying is also used in carton including medicine and food labeling, plastic material, the wood finishing industry and metal decorating (http://www.noblelight.net/products/ultraviolet_curing/curing.asp).(http://www.wluv.de/uvtrocknung.html?&L=1). Viscum album L. extracts is used for the treatment of many diseases as mentioned above. In many treatments,in order to increase the extraction yield, materials which will be extracted are first dried and then grinded to be expanded the surface area.In orderto get easierthe grinding process and longer the storage period, drying is selected as preservation methods of Viscum Album L. leaves. Although numerous thin layer drying models have been published in the literature describing the drying behavior of leaves during convective drying such as parsley (Soysal, 2004), spinach (Karaaslan&Tuncer,2008),rosemary leaves (Aslan & Özcan, 2008), mint leaves (Özbek & Dadali, 2007), mate leaves (Zanoelo,2007). There is no information concerning the drying of Viscum album L. and UV assisted dying of foodstuffs. The aim of this study was; to determine the drying characteristics of Viscum album L.leaves in UV assisted convective drier and to obtain the most suitable mathematical model defined the drying. 326 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Material and Methods Sample preparation and drying equipment Viscum Album L. plants collected from peartrees and provided from Giresun, Turkey in March, 2008 were used in drying experiments. Leaves of plants were diminished from handle, washed and dried on a filter paper to eliminate the surface water. Afterthen leaves are placed into plastic bags and stored at +4o C until drying. The initial moisture content of Viscum Album L. sample was 70% (wet basis, wb). The UV combined convective dryer consists of a fan,fan speed controller, air heater, heat power controller,thermometers, and stainless-steel mesh sieve and three UV lamps (Philips) were located onto sieve with the distance of 15cm. Air velocity was measured by an anemometer (LCA 6000, Lufttechnik GmbH, England). The schematic diagram of the dryeris shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic diagram of experimental drier Drying procedure Drying experiments were carried out attemperatures of 60, 70 and 80ºC, velocities of 0.5,1 and 1.5 m/s in horizontal-flow. UV lamps, air heaters and fan adjusted to required flow rate had been operated to obtain the steady state conditions before drying experiments have been started. Samples of about 15 g were used for drying experiments. Dimensions oftray were 21x18 cm. The weighing tray with the sample was placed in the dryer.In all experiments, samples were placed as a thin layer. The samples were weighed at various time intervals, ranging from 5 min at the beginning to 30 min during the last stage of the drying process. A digital electronic balance with accuracy of 0.01 g (Precisa, BJ610C) was used to measure the weight of the samples. The drying process was continued untilthe material achieves its final moisture content at which the moisture content does not decrease significantly. Final moisture content was taken as the equilibrium moisture content. Each test was replicated three times and the average values were used to construct the drying curves. Dryer walls were insulated with polystyrene. Mathematical modeling For mathematical modeling, the six commonly used thin layer drying models shown in Table 1 were tested to selectthe best model for describing the drying behavior of Viscum album L. leaves during UV assisted convective drying process. The regression analysis was performed using Statistica Computer Program. The goodness offitof each model was evaluated using the correlation coefficient(R) and the reduced chi-square (χ2). The higher the values of R and the lower the values of χ2,the better is the goodness of the fit(Akpinar, 2005; Midilli et al. 2002). χ2can be calculated as follows: 327 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Models Newton Page Modified Page Henderson & Pabis Logarithmic Midilli et al. Equations MR=exp(-kt) MR=exp(-ktn) MR = exp[-(kt)n] MR=a exp(-kt) MR=a exp(-kt)+c MR=aexp(-ktn)+bt References Mujumdar(1987) Erentürk et al. (2004) Diamante and Munro (1993) ,Akpınar (2006) Yaldiz and Ertekin (2001) Henderson and Pabis (1961) Yağcıoğlu et al. (1999) Midilli et al. (2002) Table 1 : Thin layer drying curve models Results and Discussion Effects of air temperature The variations of dimensionless moisture ratio with drying time attemperatures of 60, 70 and 80ºC at 0.5 m/s was given in Fig. 2. An increase in airtemperature resulted in a decrease in the drying time. The required drying times to reach equilibrium moisture content from the initial moisture content at 0.5m/s for the selected drying airtemperatures of the Viscum album L. leaves were found to be as 400, 280 and 180 min . As it would be expected, similar drying curves except for slopes were obtained for the 1m/s and 1.5 m/s drying conditions. The times required reaching equilibrium moisture content for 1 m/s were obtained as 360, 200 and 160 min for the selected temperatures. The drying times for air velocity of 1.5 m/s at air temperatures of 60, 70 and 80ºC were obtained as 360, 200, 160 min.It could be concluded that from the Figure 2; drying airtemperature has an important effectforthe drying of Viscum album L.leaves. Figure 2: Drying curves for Viscum album L. at various airtemperatures Effects of air velocity In order to investigate the effect of air velocity on drying of Viscum album L. leaves, air velocity values were selected as 0.5, 1 and 1.5 m/s. Due to the similarity ofthe drying curves,the effects of different drying air velocity were drawn for only 60o C. The effects of drying air velocities at airtemperature of 60o C were shown in Figure 3. As it can be seen from the figure, with an increase in air velocity causes a smallincrease in the drying rate. When the drying air velocity was increased from the 0.5 m/s to 1 m/s drying rate was also increased. However drying rates are almost similar at 1 m/s and 1.5 m/s velocities. 328 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 3: Drying curves for Viscum album L. at various airvelocities M odeling The results of the statistical analysis were in Table 2. Among the considered mathematical drying models,the Modified Page model was found to be more suitable for predicting the drying behavior of Viscum album L., with the values for R above 0.99 and with the lowest value of χ2.In orderto take into account for the effect of the drying variables on the Modified Page model a multiple regression analysis was performed on the drying variables in terms of drying air temperature (T, o C); and air velocity (V, m/s) since they affected the drying coefficients k and n ofthe Modified Page model. The multiple combinations of the different parameters that gave the highest R value were included in the final model. Arrhenius type modeling was one of the best methods to describe the drying rate k and drying parameter n of the Modified Page model,related details and values forthese coefficients were given below: k = 3.185* V0.452 *exp (-349.69/T) n = 1.495*V-0.049 *exp (0.589/T) These models can be used to estimate the moisture content of the Viscum album L. at any time during the U V asisted drying process with an acceptable accuracy. Validation of the selected model was made by comparing the computed moisture contents with measured valuesin all drying runs. The performance analysis of the models at different velocities and temperatures of drying air was illustrated in Figure 4. As can be observed inthisfigure,consistency offittingthe drying dataintothismodelis very good for all ofthe experimental drying air conditions. Thus, this model may be assumed to represent the drying behavior of Viscum album L. for UV assisted drying. 329 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo M odel T (°C) 60 70 Newton 80 60 70 Page 80 60 70 M odified Page 80 60 70 Henderson & Pabis 80 60 70 Logarithmic 80 60 70 Midilliet al. 80 Table2: The results ofthe statistical analysis 330 V (m/s) R χ2 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9933 0.9905 0.9849 0.9917 0.9906 0.9925 0.00793 0.005954 0.009083 0.004039 0.004377 0.003069 0.5 1 1.5 0.9892 0.9898 0.9936 0.004069 0.003179 0.00165 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9989 0.9939 0.9707 0.998 0.9994 0.9985 0.001719 0.002731 0.016193 0.001573 0.00023 0.000438 0.5 1 1.5 0.9922 0.9993 0.9994 0.004608 0.000194 0.000311 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.999 0.998 0.989 0.9991 0.9993 0.9987 0.001518 0.000604 0.005669 0.000265 0.000249 0.000665 0.5 1 1.5 0.9994 0.9996 0.9999 0.000148 0.000105 0.000065 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9914 0.9868 0.9791 0.9895 0.9899 0.9927 0.005771 0.004145 0.007519 0.002967 0.003371 0.002648 0.5 1 1.5 0.9882 0.9892 0.9933 0.00329 0.00271 0.001467 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9936 0.9926 0.9893 0.9923 0.9794 0.992 0.001956 0.003791 0.011565 0.002121 0.018244 0.002336 0.5 1 1.5 0.9893 0.9899 0.9936 0.002835 0.002383 0.001426 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9975 0.9963 0.9755 0.9961 0.5559 0.9987 0.001692 0.002405 0.016067 0.002354 0.156692 0.00043 0.5 1 1.5 0.9897 0.9994 0.9989 0.005692 0.00016 0.000547 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4. Comparison ofthe experimental and predicted moisture ratios for UV-combined convective drying. Conclusion In this study, drying behavior of Viscum album L. in UV combined convective drier was investigated. Drying airtemperature has the most important effect for the drying of the Viscum album L. Drying air velocity has a little effect on drying. Drying rateis different only at 0.5 m/s but at 1 and 1.5 m/s drying rates are similar. Within the six thin-layer drying correlations considered, the Modified Page model provided the best representation ofthe Viscum album L. drying kinetics forthe UV combined convective drier. Acknowledgements This study was supported by the Research Foundation of Ataturk University (project no: 2003/258). The authors want to thank Mr. K. Erentürk for the dryer equipment. References Al-Achi, A. (2005). Mistletoe (Viscum album L.). U.S. Pharmacist, 30, 12-18. Arslan, D., Özcan, M.M. (2008). Evaluation of drying methods with respect to drying kinetics, mineral content and colour characteristics of rosemary leaves, Energy Conversion and Management, 49(5), 1258-1264. Akpinar, E.K. (2006). Mathematical modelling of thin layer drying process under open sun of some aromatic plants. Journal of Food Engineering, 77(4), 864-870. Akpinar, E. K. (2005). Determination of suitable thin layer drying curve model for some vegetables and fruits. Journal of Food Engineering, 73(1), 75–84. Diamante, L.M., Munro, P.A. (1993). Mathematical modeling of thin layer solar drying of sweet potato slices. Solar Energy, 51(4), 271–276. Doymaz,I.,& Pala, M. (2003). The thin-layer drying characteristics of corn. Journal of Food Engineering, 60, 2, 125-130. Erenturk, S., Gulaboglu, M.S., Gultekin, S. (2004). The Thin-layer drying characteristics of rosehip, Biosystems Engineering 89(2), 159–166. 331 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ergun, F., Deliorman, D. (1996). HPLC analysis of ascorbic acid in Viscum album L. samples. J .Fac. Pharm. Gazi, 13(2) 121-126. Henderson, S.M., Pabis, S. (1961). Grain drying theory I: temperature effect on drying coefficient. J Agric Res Eng, 6:169– 74. Karaaslan, S.N., Tunçer, Đ.K. (2008). Development of a drying model for combined microwave–fan-assisted convection drying of spinach. Biosystems Engineering, 100(1), 44-52. Midilli, A., Kucuk, H., Yapar, Z. (2002). A new model for single layer drying. Drying Technology, 20(7), 1503–1513. Mujumdar, A.S. (1987). Handbook of industrial drying. Marcel Dekker, New York. Özbek, B., Dadali, G., (2007). Thin-layer drying characteristics and modelling of mint leaves undergoing microwave treatment. Journal of Food Engineering, 83(4), 541-549. Sharma, G.P., Verma, R.C., & Pathare, P. (2005). Mathematical modeling of infrared radiation thin layer drying of onion slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 71(3), 282–286. Soysal, Y. (2004). Microwave drying characteristics of parsley. Biosystems Engineering, 89(2), 167–173. Tenorio, F.A., del Valle, L., Gonzalez, A., & Pastelin, G., (2005). Vasodilator activity of the aqueous extract of Viscum album. Fitoterapia, 76(2), 204-209. Yağcıoğlu, A. (1999). Tarım ürünleri kurutma tekniği. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, No:536. Đzmir. Yaldız, O., Ertekin, C. (2001). Thin layer solar drying some vegetables. Drying Technology, 19(3-4), 583–596. Zanoelo, E.F., di Celso, G.M., Kaskantzis, G. (2007). Drying Kinetics of Mate Leaves in a Packed Bed Dryer. Biosystems Engineering, 96(4), 487-494. http://www.noblelight.net/products/ultraviolet_curing/curing.asp http://www.wluv.de/uv-trocknung.html?&L=1 332 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 496 Title A name given to the resource Drying Behaviour and Mathematical Modeling of Mistletoe (Viscum Album L.) in UV Combined Convective Drier Author Author Erentürk, Saliha Köse, Bircan Abstract A summary of the resource. The thin layer drying behavior of Viscum album L. (mistletoe) leaves was investigated in UV combined convective drier. Drying air temperatures and velocities were selected as 60-70 and 80OC, and 0.5-1 and 1.5m/s respectively. Drying curves obtained by using experimental data were fitted to the six models reported in the literature. Comparing the determination of coefficient (R), reduced chi- square (χ2) values of six models, it was obtained that the Modified Page model represents the best fitting. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72a3726b21149afdd847d090d93eb647.pdf e27c00accab507da41e79d1230bb8ce2 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Food Drying Technology Koksal Erenturk Ataturk University College of Engineering Department of Electrical&Electronics Eng. Erzurum, Turkey erenturk@yahoo.com Abstract: Applications of artificial intelligence techniques, such as artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms and neural-fuzzy systems, in engineering have gained momentum in past decade. Main applications of these techniques in engineering are estimation, optimization and control process. In this paper, some of the applications are studied and both simulation and real-time experimental results are given. Artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are very useful for estimation and optimization process for drying technologies. However, fuzzy logic is also capable of both classification and control of the drying process. Estimation, optimization and control applications of artificial intelligence methods are given in detail for different types of food drying applications. Echinacea angustifolia and carrot are selected as application examples. A fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Estimation and optimization applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are compared with non-linear regression analysis. In addition, fuzzy control is also compared with a classical control technique to conclude the robustness of the fuzzy control in terms of classical control. According to the results, it is observed that artificial intelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Moreover these techniques could be applicable for different type processes with simple changes in configuration. Introduction Drying behavior of differentmaterials has been proposed in theliterature by various researchers on both theoretical and application grounds during the past 60 years. There have been many studies for modeling of drying behavior and determining the drying kinetics of various vegetables and fruits such as onion (Sarsavadia, Sawhney, Pangavhane, & Singh, 1999), grape (Dincer, 1996), potato (Diamante & Munro, 1993), pistachio (Midilli, 2001), kiwifruits (Maskan, 2001), red pepper (Akpinar, Bicer, & Yildiz, 2003), rosehip (Erenturk, Gulaboglu, & Gultekin, 2004a and b) and Echinacea roots (Erenturk, Erenturk, & Tabil, 2004c). Dynamic modeling of the drying characteristics of agricultural products, using artificial intelligence methods including genetic algorithms and neural networks has gained momentum, because learning ability ofthe neural network is suitable for identifying plant and fruit responses, which are complex processes to which mathematical approaches are not easily applied. Studies to identify nonlinear and difficult-to-define system behavior with aid of neural networks were conducted on grain drying by Farkas, Reményi, & Biró (2000a and b) and Trelea, Courtois, & Trystram (1997). Kaminski, Strumillo, & Tomczak (1998) also used an artificial neural network for modeling of moisture content and quality index for vitamin C in sliced potatoes and green peas. On the other hand, the genetic algorithm is one of the search methods and optimization techniques for an optimal value of a complex objective function by simulation of the biological evolutionary process based, as in genetics, on crossover and mutation. Morimoto, De Baerdemaeker, & Hashimoto (1997a) developed an artificial neural network-genetic algorithm intelligence approach for optimal control of fruit-storage process. Morimoto, Purwanto, Suzuki, & Hashimoto (1997b) used genetic algorithm for optimization of heat treatment for fruit during storage. Hashimoto (1997) introduced applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms to agricultural systems. Fuzzy settheory is atheory about vagueness and uncertainty. Thistheory provides an approximate, and yet effective, means of describing the behavior of systems that are too complex or ill-defined to permit precise mathematical analysis. Fuzzy controllers were developed to imitate the performance of human expert operators by encoding their knowledge in the form of linguistic rules. The fuzzy controlis also nonlinear and adaptive in nature, which gives it a robust performance under parameter variations. Fuzzy control systems provide control through a set of membership functions quantified from ambiguousterms in controlrules.As fuzzy control can be implemented by a small number of rules,it has a short initial development period. The number of the rules is determined by required accuracy. 375 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Afterthe invention of fuzzy logic by Zadeh,the fuzzy modeling and fuzzy identification of systems has found numerous practical applications in control, prediction and inference. In many cases, reducing to design time and costs the fuzzy logic approach allows the designer to handle efficiently very complex closed-loop control problems. Fuzzy control also supports nonlinear design techniques that are now being exploited in motor and temperature control applications. A fuzzy logic based controller adjusts the system input to get a desired output by justlooking atthe output without any requirement mathematical model ofto be controlled system. For this reason fuzzy logic based controller systems differ from classical control systems and it is possible to get desired control actions for complex, uncertain, and non-linear systems by using fuzzy logic controller (FLC) withoutthe requirement oftheir mathematical models and parameter estimation. In this study, applications of artificialintelligence techniques,such as artificial neural networks, genetic algorithms and fuzzy logic, for food drying technologies are studied. Estimation, optimization and control applications of artificialintelligence methods are given in detailfor differenttypes of food drying applications. Echinacea angustifolia and carrot are selected as application examples. A fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Estimation and optimization applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are compared with non-linear regression analysis.In addition, fuzzy control is also compared with a classical control technique to conclude the robustness of the fuzzy control in terms of classical control. Mathematical Model of Food Drying Process The flow of moisture from the agricultural materialto its surroundings can be considered as analogous to the heattransfer from a body immersed in cold fluid. Comparing the drying phenomenon with Newton’s law of cooling,the drying rate will be approximately proportionalto the difference in moisture content between the material being dried and equilibrium moisture content atthe drying air state. Hence: Drying rate = M t + dt − M t dt (1) Similarly,the moisture ratios of Echinacea and carrot are obtained from: MR = M − Me M0 − Me (2) As proposed by earlier authors and given in Table 1,the drying curves obtained were processed for drying rates to find the most suitable modelamong the four different expressions (Akpinar et al, 2003). Model no: 1 Model name: Model equation: Newton MR = exp(−kt) 2 Page MR = exp(− kt n ) 3 M odified Page 4 Henderson and Pabis MR = exp(−(kt ) n ) MR = a. exp(−kt) Table 1: Thin layer drying curve models considered. The correlation coefficient (r) was one of the primary criteria for selecting the best equation to define the drying curves. In addition to r, the coefficient of determination (r2), reduced Chi-Square (χ2), and sum of squares ofthe difference between the data and fit values (SSR) were used to determine the quality ofthe fit. The best results of the proposed criteria were obtained by using the modified Page equation (Madamba et al., 1996; Panchariya et al., 2002) as shown in Eq. (3): MR = exp(−(kt ) n ) (3) The dependence of the drying rate constant, k, and drying parameter, n, on the drying air variables was modeled as an Arrhenius-type equation. This dependence of both constants on the variables can be expressed in the following form: k = a 0 V a1 d a 2 exp(− 376 a3 ) T (4) �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo n = b 0 V b1 d b 2 exp(− b3 ) T (5) Artificial intelligence techniques for food drying process The selected structure ofthe applied neural network, with its four inputs and single output,is shown in Figure 1. There is no feedback from the output to the inputs. Since the physical structure of a thin layer dryer consists ofthree main parts(the input variables,the drying bed itself and the output variables) athreelayerfeedforward neural network was chosen for modeling purposes (Farkas et al., 2000a).In the hidden layer, 30 hidden neurons were used for Echinacea and 25 hidden neurons were used for carrot. For training, the classical backpropagation algorithm was used (Farkas et al., 2000b) for the both cases. In this study, a logarithmic sigmoid activation function was used. (a) (b) Figure 1: Neural network structure for a) Echinacea and b) carrot. Higher r, r2, χ2 and SSR values were obtained by using the neural network compared with that of modified Page model. The results have shown that the indicators for goodness of fit of the proposed neural network model are betterthan the values obtained by the modified Page model. These results are shown in Table 2. Therefore,the proposed neural network model was selected to represent the thin layer drying behavior of E. angustifolia because of the higher values of r and r2, and the lower values of χ2 and SSR than that by the modified Page model. It can be clearly seen from Table 2 that the accuracy of the neural network model provided a better fit and better results. The performance of the neural network model for E. angustifolia is illustrated in Fig.2a, 2b and 2c for different drying airtemperatures, drying airflow rates and root sizes. Detailed information forthis case could be found in (Erenturk, Erenturk, & Tabil, 2004c) Model name Newton Page M odified Page Henderson &Pabis N NET Model constants k=0.004 k=0.014 n=0.790 k=0.004 n=0.790 k=0.004 a=0.915 - Coefficient of Correlation determination coefficient (r) (r2) 0.9862 0.9938 0.9965 0.9896 0.9994 0.9726 0.9876 0.9930 0.9793 0.9989 χ2 SSR 1.27E-3 3.78E-4 3.29E-4 9.64E-4 3.96E-05 0.348 0.089 0.089 0.262 0.0109 Table 2: Results of statisticalanalyses on the modeling of moisture contents and drying time. 377 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo (a) (b) (c) Figure 2: The performance of the neural network model forE. angustifolia for a)root sizes b) drying airflow and c) different drying airtemperatures. Similiarto the previous case, the drying rate k and the drying parameter n of the modified Page model for carrot were best described by Arrhenius-type model and shown below: k = 42.66 V 0.3123d −0.8437 exp(− 2386.6 ) T (r=0.987) n = 5.48 V −0.0846 d −0.1066 exp(− 452.5 ) T (r=0.954) Above expressions can be used to estimate the moisture content of carrot at any instant during drying, because the regression coefficient,r,is found with acceptable accuracy. The accuracy of the established model was evaluated by comparing the computed moisture ratio under any particular drying conditions with the observed moisture ratio. During both regression routines and determination ofthe dependence ofthe drying rate constant, k, and drying parameter, n, on the drying air variables,the proposed GA approach in (Erenturk, Erenturk, 2007d) was employed for all experimentalruns. After the step by step procedure described in (Erenturk, Erenturk, 2007d), the following relationship between drying variables and drying characteristics was obtained. k = 26.64 V 0.4199 d −0.8362 exp(− 2223.1 ) T (r=0.996) n = 5.29 V −0.0856 d −0.1023 exp(− 443.4 ) T (r=0.962) Regarding above r,r2,χ2 and SSR values determined by using regression analysis and the mathematical model optimized by applying G A were listed in Table 3. The accuracy of the mathematical model optimized by using GA was observed more satisfactory than that of regression analysis. Model name Newton Page M odified Page Henderson &Pabis M odified Page before optimization Correlation coefficient (r) Coefficient of determination (r2) χ2 SSR 0.9964 0.9938 0.9991 0.9976 0.9928 0.9876 0.9981 0.9917 2.36E-3 2.62E-3 2.45E-3 2.42E-3 2.553 2.825 2.698 2.611 0.9985 0.9971 2.52E-3 2.725 Table 3: Statisticalresults ofthe mathematical models optimized by using GA Another AI technique suitable for drying process is fuzzy logic. Fuzzy controllers were developed to imitate the performance of human expert operators by encoding their knowledge in the form of linguistic rules. Since the fuzzy controlis also nonlinear and adaptive in nature,these properties give FC a robust performance under parameter variations. Fuzzy control systems provide control through a set of membership functions quantified from ambiguous terms in control rules. As fuzzy control can be implemented by a small number of rules,it has a shortinitial development period. The number of the rules is determined by required accuracy. A fuzzy logic based controller adjuststhe system inputto get a desired output by justlooking atthe output without any requirement mathematical model ofto be controlled system. For thisreason fuzzy logic based controller 378 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo systems differ from classical control systems and it is possible to get desired control actions for complex, uncertain, and non-linear systems by using fuzzy logic controller (FLC) without the requirement of their mathematical models and parameter estimation. For this purpose, a fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Simulation resultisillustrated in Fig. 3. Fuzzy control (FC) is also compared with a classical controltechnique to conclude the robustness ofthe fuzzy controlin terms of classical control. Comparison results are given in Table 4. According to the results, it is observed that artificial intelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Figure 3: Fuzzy logic based temperature control of a convective drier. Controllertype Fuzzy control PID Overshoot (%) Rise time (h) Steady state error (o C) 1.22 0.28 0.61 1.23 3.52 Table 4: Performance evaluation of controllers. Conclusions Inthisstudy, applications of artificialintelligence techniquesforfood drying processes are presented.In order to estimate the drying behavior of different type foods, a feed-forward artificial neural network (ANN) structure is designed and applied to Echinacea and carrot. It is observed that ANN based estimation is more accurate than that of nonlinearregression analysis.In addition, for more complex operation, such as Arrheniustype modeling, GA based optimization technique is applied and more reliable results are observed. Fuzzy logic based control of a convective drier is also given and compared with a classical PID-type control technique to conclude the robustness ofthe fuzzy controlinterms of classical control. According to the results,itis observed that artificialintelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Moreover these techniques could be applicable for different type processes with simple changes in configuration. 379 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Akpinar, E. K., Bicer, Y., & Yildiz, C. (2003). Thin layer drying of red pepper. Journal of Food Engineering, 59, 99-104. Diamante, L. M., & Munro, P. A. (1993). Mathematical modelling of the thin layer solar drying of sweet potato slices. Solar Energy, 51, 271–276. Dincer, I. (1996). Sun drying of sultana grapes. Drying Technology, 14, 1827–1838. Erenturk, K., Erenturk, S., & Tabil, L. G. (2004c). A comparative study for the estimation of dynamical drying behavior of Echinacea angustifolia: regression analysis and neural network. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 45, 71–90. Erenturk, S., & Erenturk, K. (2007d). Comparison of Genetic Algorithm and Neural Network Approaches for the Drying Process of Carrot. Journal of Food Engineering, 78 (3), 905-912. Erenturk, S., Gulaboglu, M. S., & Gultekin, S. (2004a). The Thin-layer Drying Characteristics of Rosehip. Biosystems Engineering, 89, 159-166. Erenturk, S., Gulaboglu, M. S., & Gultekin, S. (2004b). The effects of cutting and drying medium on the vitamin C content of rosehip during drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 68 (4), 513-518. Farkas, I., Reményi, P., & Biró, A. (2000a). A neural network topology for modelling grain drying. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 26, 147–158. Farkas, I., Reményi, P., & Biró, A. (2000b). Modelling aspects of grain drying with a neural network. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 29, 99–113. Hashimoto, Y. (1997). Applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms to agricultural systems. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 18, 71-72. Kaminski, W., Strumillo, P., Tomczak, E. (1998). Neurocomputing approaches to modelling of drying process dynamics. Drying Technology, 16, 967–992. Madamba, P. S., Driscoll, R. H., & Buckle, K. A. (1996). The thin layer drying characteristic of garlic slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 29, 75-97. Maskan, M. (2001). Drying,shrinkage and rehydration characteristic of kiwifruits during hot air and microwave drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 48, 177–182. Midilli, A. (2001). Determination of pistachio drying behavior and conditions in a solar drying system. International Journal of Energy Research, 25, 715 –725. Morimoto, T., De Baerdemaeker, J., & Hashimoto, Y. (1997a). An intelligent approach for optimal control of fruit-storage process using neural networks and genetic algorithms. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 18, 205-224. Morimoto, T., Purwanto, W., Suzuki, J., & Hashimoto, Y. (1997b). Optimization of heat treatment for fruit during storage using neural networks and genetic algorithms. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 19, 87-101. Panchariya, P. C., Popovic, D., & Sharma, A. L. (2002). Thin-layer modelling of black tea drying process. Journal of Food Engineering, 52, 349-357. Sarsavadia, P. N., Sawhney, R. L., Pangavhane, D. R., & Singh, S. P. (1999). Drying behaviour of brined onion slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 40, 219-226. Trelea, I. C., Courtois, F., & Trystram, G. (1997). Dynamic models for drying and wet-milling quality degradation of corn using neural networks. Drying Technology, 15, 1095–1102. 380 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 512 Title A name given to the resource Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Food Drying Technology Author Author Erenturk, Koksal Abstract A summary of the resource. Applications of artificial intelligence techniques, such as artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms and neural-fuzzy systems, in engineering have gained momentum in past decade. Main applications of these techniques in engineering are estimation, optimization and control process. In this paper, some of the applications are studied and both simulation and real-time experimental results are given. Artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are very useful for estimation and optimization process for drying technologies. However, fuzzy logic is also capable of both classification and control of the drying process. Estimation, optimization and control applications of artificial intelligence methods are given in detail for different types of food drying applications. Echinacea angustifolia and carrot are selected as application examples. A fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Estimation and optimization applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are compared with non-linear regression analysis. In addition, fuzzy control is also compared with a classical control technique to conclude the robustness of the fuzzy control in terms of classical control. According to the results, it is observed that artificial intelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Moreover these techniques could be applicable for different type processes with simple changes in configuration. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27ad977a2ffc3183c1137636304545e5.pdf 821315dec698f5ad8af1c68a54dfe9ab PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey Sezai Ercişli Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty Department of Horticulture Erzurum, Turkey M uharrem Güleryüz Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty Department of Horticulture Erzurum, Turkey E mine Orhan Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty Department of Horticulture Erzurum, Turkey Yaşar Ertürk Ataturk University Hamza Polat Vacational School Erzurum, Turkey Hüseyin Karlıdağ Ataturk University Hamza Polat Vacational School Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world. These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry, wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been discussed Introduction Horticulture plants including fruits, vegetables and grapes are important to the well-being of people in every country of the world, providing essential ecological,economic and cultural services. They are main food resources for humans because they include several vitamines for example vitamin C, A, B6,thiamine, niacin, E, several minerals and dietary fiber (Quebedeaux and Bliss, 1988; Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Wargovich, 2000). As well known, most of the vitamins are produced by horticultural plants. Their contribution as a group is estimated at 91% of vitamin C, 48% of vitamin A, 27% of vitamin B6, 17% of thiamine,and 15% of niacin in diet. Horticultural plants are also supply 16% of magnesium,19% of iron, and 9% of the calories. They are also an important protein sources,particularly nutsincluding almond, hazelnut, pecan, pistachio, chestnut and walnut fruits. When compared proteins between fruits and the other plant crops,itis clear that proteins of fruits are of high quality as to their content of essential amino acids. Fruits, particularly nuts are well known for their high fatty acid content as well (Verma and Joshi, 2000). However there were wide genotypic effects on these parameters which mostly related to genetic derivation. Environmental and pre and post harvest conditions are also affecting its contents. Fruits in the daily diet have been strongly associated with reduced risk for some forms of cancer, heart 78 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo disease, stroke, and other chronic diseases (Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Tomas-Barberan and Robins, 1997; Prior and Cao, 2000; Southon, 2000; Wargovich, 2000). Some components of fruits are strong antioxidants and antioxidant capacity varies greatly among fruitspecies and genotypes (Prior and Cao, 2000). There are some fruit growing countries such as China, Turkey etc. has great ecological diversity within the country. This ecological diversity has contributed not only to a high genetic diversity, but has also allowed the successfulintroduction and cultivation of a great number of fruittree taxa. On the other hand these countries have also a long history offruit cultivation. Fruit culture has played an important role in Turkey’s history. Over 85 fruit species including almost all the deciduous, most of the subtropical and some tropical fruits are grown. Deciduous fruits are spread all over the country. However, the subtropical and tropicalfruitsare grown mainly in the south where the winteris warm and the summer is hot.In the north of Turkey, tea, some citrus,loquat, persimmon and kiwi can be grown (Agaoglu et al. 1997; Ercisli, 2004). In rural areas, apricot, almond, walnut, chestnut, cornelian cherry, plum, hawthorn, rose hips etc. have been propagated to alarge extent from seed, resulting in a wide range of variability (Ercisli, 2004). In this review we are discussed about wild growing fruits and possible use of in sustainable fruit production in Turkey. Classification of Fruits Fruitspecies are mainly classified either climatic orfruit properties. According to climatic properties,fruit species can be classified into 3 main groups (Temperate fruits, subtropical fruits and tropical fruits). In fruit properties, the species can be classified as citrus fruits, pome fruits, stone fruits, nuts, berries, Mediterranean fruits etc.(Agaoglu et al., 1997). Fruitspecies can also classified as cultivated or domesticated,semi domesticated and wild.In most part of Turkey,itis possibleto see all 3 kinds of fruits. The cultivated fruits mostly seen in commercial orchards, semi-domesticated are can be seen near cities, towns, villages. Howeverthe wild edible fruits are widely distributed far away from cultivated araes. Particularly rural areas of Turkey are very rich interms of wild edible fruits. The most distinct characteristics ofthree groups are fruit sizes. The fruit size of three groups as follow; cultivated>semi-domesticated>wild. Sometimes wild term is as ‘Black box’ because in general wild plants are belongs to different speciesthen cultivated ones. Wild Fruit Diversity in Turkey The biodiversity ofthe wild fruitsin Turkey is an important bio-gene poolthatis essentialto human life, biological and agricultural development in the future. Areas of wild fruitsin Turkey are mainly concentrated in Mediterannean, Black Sea, Middle, East, North East and South Anatolia regions (Ercisli, 2004). Turkey holds a greatrichness of wild fruits with regardto variety and biological diversity. Withtheir wide variety of form the wild fruits create unbelievable displays in the region's unique landscape. Since the availability of land for cultivation in some region (North East Anatolia, Black Sea Region)islimited due to the steepness of the land, wild fruits dominates fruit production and collecting wild fruits in these areas has been more important than fruit growing. The rich diversity of fruit species in the country can be explaining of its unique location. As well known Turkey is junction of different gene centers of crop origin and domestication. The main families in Turkey including fruits are; Juglandaceae, Berberidaceae, Saxifragaceae, Rosaceae, Rhamnaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Grossulariaceae, Anarcadidaceae, Cornaceae, Coryllaceae, Ericaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Moraceae etc.(Ercisli, 2004). To exploitation of the bioresources of the wild fruitsin Turkey, more recently several projects were started. In order to conserve the resources of the semi-wild and wild fruits some institutes belongs to Ministry of Agriculture in Turkey set up some collections from them. Nutritive Value of Wild Fruits Having lower water content and nutritionally richerthan cultivated fruitsthe wild fruits areindispensable foods not only for wild animals but also forlocal people. The wild fruits collected are consumed fresh orin dried forms or alternatively some of them are used for making syrup and pestils(dried fruit pulp).Itcan be concluded thatthe wild edibles eaten by thelocal peoples are a good source of nutrients,and considering theirlow cost and easy availability, need to be popularized and recommended for commercial exploitation.Considerableinterest 79 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo has been generated by recent studies on the chemical composition of some wild fruitsin most parts ofthe world. Some of these wild fruits have higher nutritional values compared with levels found in cultivated fruits (Eromosele, 1991; Netzel et al.,2007; Wang and Lewers, 2007). Wild fruits which are pesticide residue free are important food sources for rural populations. Nutritious wild fruits have the potentialto be promoted for wider use, domestication and comm ercialization. As has been evidenced by studiesin many parts of world, wild fruits provide an important component of the diet, particularly for children (Falconer, 1990). Wild fruits contribute greatly to diet quality ratherthan quantity. Anotherimportant characteristic of some wild fruits are their storage capacity. Secondary Metabolite Production Plant secondary metabolites are a generic term used for more than 30,000 different substances which are exclusively produced by plants. The plants form secondary metabolites e.g. for protection against pests, as colouring,scent, or attractants and asthe plant's own hormones.It used to be believed thatsecondary metabolites were irrelevant for the human diet. The importance of these substances has only recently been discovered by scientists. Secondary metabolites carry out a number of protective functions in the human body. Plant secondary metabolites can boostthe immune system, protectthe body from free radicals, kill pathogenic germs and much more (Agrawal, 1999; van Baarlen et al., 2007). Among seconder metabolites anthocyanins which is very abundan particularrly wild and semi-domesticated colorfulberries and smallfruitssuch as wild strawberry, wild raspberry, wild blackberry, sea buckthorn, bilberry, wild bluberry, black and red mulberry, barberry, cornelian cherry etc. has anticancerogen, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antiinflammation effects. Caratenoids has anticancerogen, antioxidant and antiinflammation effects. Flavonoids has anticancerogen, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, strength immune system. Glucosinalats has antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancerogen and also reduce cholesterol levels. These seconder metabolites are also the most importan raw materialsfor medicines. The studies have shown thatthese compounds prevent harmful UV radiation penetrating through leaves. The wild plants are more tolerant than cultivated plant to damaging effect of UV radiation and water stress because in these negative conditions they accumulate more seconder metabolites (Davies, 2004). In contrast to the primary metabolites (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and mineral nutrients) secondary metabolites do not have nutrient characteristics for human beings. They are usually found in very small amounts but have an effect on humans. The function or importance ofthese compounds to the organism is usually of an ecological nature as they are used as defenses against predators, parasites and diseases, for interspecies competition, and to facilitate the reproductive processes (coloring agents, attractive smells, etc). Wild fruits can synthesize and accumulates a variety of secondary metabolites. Some of the biologically active secondary metabolites substantiate the claim made in traditional system of medicine. Wild fruits appear to be a resource of many biologically active compounds. Their derivates are already in extensive use for the control of drug-resistant malaria. In vitro studies on some of the other active compounds identified in wild fruits will hopefully give new therapeutic and agricultural products ofcommercialimportance Threats on Wild Fruits in Turkey As elsewhere in the world, the wild fruits in Turkey face an onslaught of threats from human activities, habitat destruction, over-grazing, over-harvesting and the increasing impact of global climate change. For rural communities the forests including numerous wild fruits also provide grazing for livestock and the under-storey of wood pastures is cut for hay to provide fodder during the winter months. A high proportion of the threatened taxa are critically endangered,thatis,they face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Many of these are narrow endemics, such as Crataegus tanacetifolia, whose fragmented populations are threatened by cutting and/or over-grazing. Others, relatives of domesticated fruit trees and shrubs such as Pyrus elaegnifolia is threatened by collection of saplings as rootstock for grafting. Although an important source ofincome for rural communities, unsustainable rates of harvesting of these plants such as chestnuts continue to pose a huge threattothe country’s unique fruit and nut forests. The threatis further compounded by unregulated logging, grazing, hay-making and, more recently, a number of the species that are endangered or vulnerable are wild relatives of domesticated fruit and nut varieties. This includes seed propagated semi-wild apricots(Armenica vulgaris), which isthreatened by unsustainable harvesting and cutting. The wild apple species are still found in the fragmented fruit in Turkey and are threatened by habitat degradation, mainly from agricultural development and overgrazing. Therefore, there is necessity to come to 80 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo grips with conservation of invaluable bioresources, understanding of the relationships between eco-environment and humankind. During the initial stages of agricultural development, the wild fruit forest was seriously damaged through the reclamation of wasteland. In order to gain great benefits from the wild fruits,the peoples cut down ancient wild fruittrees/shrubs. Some herdsman also cut down wild fruittreesto enlarge their meadow area, leading to the disappearance of primary wild chestnut forest. According to previous investigations, there has been a reduction inthe number of wild appletree seedlings due to over-grazing and dung injuries,leading to a decrease in the activity of wild apple trees to reproduce. The human activities have accordingly caused environmental degradation and a reduction in species numbers and distribution area, which willinevitably lead tothe endangerment and extinction of many rare species. The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production Wild fruit species are very important source of adapted plant material especially when unfavorable climatic and soil conditions are present. These species are also more effective than non-native species in controlling soil erosion. Once established, since they are adapted to local dry conditions,their care is easierthan non-native species. Deep spreading roots help combat soil erosion (Kaya, 1999). They also grows in a tremendous range of conditions from very dry, sterile, sandy woodlands to river bottoms to rocky hillsides and moist or very dry locations.Itthrives on almost any type of soil. The wild fruitshrubs orthreestolerates drought and cold. It develops strong lateral roots and grows fast (Gungor et al., 2002) and is valued for their ability to reclaim degraded soils. It has also been used for wildlife habitat plantings. There is some indication that new markets for specialty native berries and fruits may be opening up. Considerations for a Rural Development Strategy As well known wild or indigenous fruit species has been played an important role in Anatolia’s history. As mentioned before in the past Anatolia had the host a lot of civilization. All previous civilizations have been used fresh and dried fruits as well as extracts for medicinal and social purposes. However,atthe beginning 19th century the commercial orchards established with monoculture fruit species and thus wild fruits are neglected. As well known wild fruits, particularly berries widely found in foreststhus one strategy would be to enhance the recreational and tourism potential value of wild harvesting. This could be done in conjunction with innovative interpretive programs toimpartto visitorssome ofthe historicalsignificance of native fruits and berries and their uses by local peoples living rural areas in Turkey. To be successful on this topic, harvesting areas remain in as natural because the tourists will be seek wild experience. Also,itisimportantthatthese areas should be not far away for walk and suggested distance from town, village or resorts should be maximum 40 km. These areas are also must be uncontaminated. Local festivals and celebrations, native recipes and cooking traditions, and local history can be helpfulto success on thisstrategy. Near villages ortowns each house can produce special products from these wild fruits and can be sellrelatively higher prices because visitors may have remote this culture. The one ofthe mostimportantthings for selleristhatthey mustimply that all products are fully nature. The villagers can also establish some small nurseries to multiply nature wild fruits and can sellthem as planting material to tourists. References Agaoglu Y.S., Celik H., Celik M., Fidan Y., Gulsen Y., Gunay A. et al. (1997). General Horticulture. A.U.Z.F. No:4, p 339. Agrahar-Murugkar, D., & Subbulakshmi, G., (2005). Nutritive values of wild edible fruits, berries, nuts, roots and spices consumed by the Khasi tribes of India. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 44, 207-223 Agrawal, M., (1999). Environmental pollution and plant responses. CRC Press, ISBN 1566703417, pp. 393. Davies, K.M., (2004). Plant pigments and their manipulation. Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 1405117370, pp 352. Ercisli, S., (2004). A short review of the fruit germplasm resources of Turkey Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51, 419-435. Eromosele, I.C., Eromosele, C.O., & Kuzhkuzha, D.M., (1991). Evaluation of mineral elements and ascorbic acid contents in fruits of some wild plants. Plant Food Human Nutrition. 41,53-57. 81 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Falconer, J., (1990). `Agroforestry and Household Food Security', in Agroforestry for Sustainable Production, Economic Implications, R T Prinsley (ed), Commonwealth Science Council, London. Gungor, I., Atatoprak, A., & Ozer, A., (2002). Bitkilerin Dunyasi, Bitki tanıtımı detayları ile fidan yetistirme esaslari, Lazer Ofset Matbaa, Ankara Kaya, Y., (1999). Fırat vadisi'nde erozyon ve erozyon alanında iyi gelisen bitkiler. Türk Tarım ve Ormancılık Dergisi, 23,724. Netzel, M., Netzel, G., Tian, Q., Schwartz, S., & Konczak, I., (2007). Native Australian fruits-a novel source of antioxidants for food. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 8, 339-346. Prior, R.L., & Cao, G., (2000). Antioxidant phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables; diet and health implications. HortScience 35:588-592. Quebedeaux, B., & Bliss, F.A., (1988). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 1st Intl. Symp. Hort. and Human Health. Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ. Quebedeaux, B., & Eisa, H.M., (1990). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 2nd Intl. symp. Hort. and Human Health. HortScience 25,1473-1532. Southon, S. 2000. Increased fruit and vegetable consumption within the EU: potential health benefits. Food Research International, 33,211-217. Tomas-Barberan, F.A. and Robins, R.J. (eds.). 1997. Phytochemistry of fruits and vegetables. Oxford Science Publ., Oxford, UK, 375 pp. Van Baarlen, P., Van Belkum, A., & Thomma B.P.H.J., (2007). Disease induction by human microbial pathogens in plantmodel systems: potential, problems and prospects. Drug Discovery Today. 12, 167-173. Verma, L.R., & Joshi, V.K., (2000). Postharvest technology of fruits and vegetables. Indus publishing Co. New Delhi, India. Wang., S.Y., & Lewers, K.S. (2007). Antioxidant capacity and flavonoid content in wild strawberries. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 132, 629-637. Wargovich, M.J., (2000). Anticancer properties of fruits and vegetables. HortScience 35:573-575. 82 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 478 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey Author Author Ercisli, Sezai Güleryüz, Muharrem Orhan, Emine Ertürk, Yasar Karlıdağ, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world. These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry, wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been discussed Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/14db640bb85093bb535435e711e38ef2.pdf 0d494f9304c48113a822128701e96f8c PDF Text Text Using Multimedia Technologies as a Current Trends on Social Sciences Education Deniz Ekinci Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Department of Geography, Istanbul, Turkey, 34459. ekincideniz@hotmail.com. Ercan Karakoç Gebze Institute of Technology, Faculty of Business, Department of Strategy Science, Kocaeli, Turkey, ercankarakoc@hotmail.com. Davut Hut Marmara University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of History, Istanbul, Turkey. davuthut@hotmail.com. Halil Ersin Avcı Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Department of History, Istanbul, Turkey, 34459 halilersinavci@yahoo.com Abstract: Last decade’s mere technology that includes only writing, speaking skills and static graphics were used but this technique is simple and inadequate for social sciences and its education. However, multimedia technologies include high, advanced and sophisticated technology. Such technologies are used a lot of field in social sciences education. These are showing up in every walk of education and every aspect of community; architecture, business, education as social sciences. Now multimedia technologies which are including video, audio, animation, interactive map, graphic, table, and GIS, RS technologies are used for social sciences education. These new techniques, which are based commonly on computer, provide good education and better learning. Proponents of multimedia and modern techniques show that they can change the way we understand, think, learn, and work; they have heralded it brings the end of printed books and static graphics. Advocates of modern methodology and tools, both in their research and educational applications, see them better than mere technology. Modern and last systems are garnering to increase attention in cartography, history and geography, although there is a paucity of literature on the prospects of multimedia as a research or educational method in history, and geography. They are used a lot of sample area which occurs our study subject. Some of them allow us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. They help people answer questions and solve problems by looking at people’s data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. This presentation describes an educational application of multimedia and modern tools for geography and history education as social sciences based on the assumption that multimedia and high and advanced technology are better than mere skill. As a result, the aim of this study is presenting some multimedia technology based on examples and applications in social sciences. Introduction The technological advancements have made society take a leap towards success. Every technological reform is a small step towards advancement. Every new invention in technology is a step towards progress of mankind. Centuries ago, hardly anyone would have even dreamt of working on a computer. Generations of the yester years would have hardly imagined being able to communicate with people on the other side of the globe. But there were some intelligent minds to dared to dream of such revolutionary discoveries and they made the impossible possible. Since several years ago, education experts had been proposing a new style of education involving using multimedia, which differs radically from the traditional ways. Changing the education systems as a new ways is towards a new paradigm for teach (Rosenberg, 2001). The development of multimedia technologies for learning offers new ways in which learning can take place in education areas. In last decades, there has been a growing 93 �interest in the creation and use of multimedia technologies throughout the education world. There have been many experiments and innovations in the field of education and training regarding knowledge delivery (Tally, 2002). From face to face to virtual education, different technologies have played great roles at different times. In the last decades, due to the advent of multimedia technologies has got new meaning (Del, 1998; Moreno, 2000). Development, access, and transfer of text, sound, and video data gave given a unique face to education centers, in the form of multimedia learning. The development of multimedia systems can be very rewarding. So interest and investment in this technology are increasing and multimedia technologies are the need of the day (Bransford, 1990; Mayer, 1990; www.zwire.com). This study reviews the use of multimedia technologies and is to provide a panorama of the application of multimedia technologies in social sciences education. As such, this page is addresses pedagogical issues and applications. The aim of this page is to highlight the range of innovative use of multimedia technologies in social sciences education with reference to their relative pedagogical value. This study is also hoped to awaken critical enthusiasm for an effective and beneficial implementation of the multimedia technology in the social sciences education. Particular emphasis is put on the history and geography sciences as a social sciences use of multimedia technologies (Brown, 1993; Ferry, 1993; White, 2006). Multimedia Technologies as an Educational Tool Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the concept of multimedia took on a new meaning, as the capabilities of satellites, computers, audio and video converged to create new media with enormous potential. Combined with the advances in hardware and software, these technologies were able to provide enhanced learning facility and with attention to the specific needs of individual users (Fenrich, 1997; Meyer, 2001; Mayer, 2003). Multimedia is a term frequently heard and discussed among educational technologists today. Now multimedia technologies these called "new media," "hypermedia," "integrated media," or more commonly "multimedia" have been defined in a number of ways. Actually the term “multimedia” covers a lot of territory. "Multimedia", in its broadest sense, means graphics, music, sound effects, voice, video, and animation, in any combination, in the same program or presentation (Blumenfeld, 1991. Fensham,, 1990; www.aare.edu.au). It can be defined as an integration of multiple media elements (audio, video, graphics, text, animation, etc.) into one synergetic and symbiotic whole that results in more benefits for the end user than any one of the media elements can provide individually. Multimedia can be defined generically as any combination of two or more media such as sound, images, text, animation, and video. For educational technology purposes, multimedia refers to computer-based systems that use associative linkages to allow users to navigate and retrieve information stored in a combination of text, sounds, graphics, video, movies, music, lighting and other media as for education (Meyer, 2001; www.wps.prenhall.com; Sandholtz, 1997; Vanbuel, 2006). When the term is used with computer technology, multimedia refers to a variety of applications that combine media and that use CD-ROM, video, audio, DVD, and other media equipment. As it seen multimedia is the combined use of media, such as images, video, audio, CD/DVD-ROMs, the internet and interactive applications such as applets and flash for education and entertainment (Chang, 2004; Finn, 2002). Multimedia hardware requirements include a basic computer system with the standard input devices, central processor, and output devices, CD-ROMs or DVDs, sound boards or cards, speakers, video boards, highspeed central processors, extensive secondary storage or hard disk (Lieshout, 2001; Millar, 2005). Multimedia’s basic technologies include text, maps, graphic images, electronic presentations, animation, videoconferencing, digital audio and video, web learning environment, videoconferencing systems (Lieshout and etc, 2001; Phillips, 1997; Behrens, 1996, 1997; Bijnens 2004, 2005; Cleveland, 1998). As a result this study is used the term ‘multimedia’ quite loosely, referring to anything interactive or with visuals, audio, video. Multimedia combines five basic types of media into the learning environment; text, video, sound, graphics and animation, thus providing a powerful new tool for education (Duke, 1993). These are to demonstrate abstract concepts, to accommodate students with a variety of learning styles, to engage students, to enable active learning, by incorporating multimedia into learning, activities, students can manipulate, create and interact with material rather than just absorb representations created by others (Kearsley, 1998; Person, 2003). Multimedia technologies have a lot of advantages such as; widely available, reusable, multimedia, and decrease pressure on lecturer, better individual student engagement, globality (Repman, 1993; West, 2006). These are fun and interesting, provide a pre question, and make description a narration, no need to include an image or video of the narrator, unless there’s some demonstration. Do not include explanation in both text and narration styles, Give students chance to pause the video/audio and ask questions, Make the multimedia interactive, Provide pre training on key components, concepts in the multimedia to enhance students’ understanding of the multimedia resource, Presenting more materials may result in less understanding (Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn, 2001; Mayer, Dow and Mayer, 2003; Wallace, 2006; www.clickandgovideo.ac.uk; www. buzzle.com). 94 �Advantages and Benefits of Using Multimedia Technologies in Social Sciences Education The pedagogical strength of multimedia is that it uses the natural information processing abilities that we already possess as humans. Our eyes and ears, in conjunction with our brain, form a formidable system for transforming meaningless sense data into information. The old saying that "a picture is worth a thousand words" often understates the case especially with regard to moving images, as our eyes are highly adapted by evolution to detecting and interpreting movement. For example, a photograph of Ganges in Varanasi, apart from being aesthetically pleasing, can contain a wealth of information relating to the culture, religion, geography, geology, climate, history, and economics of the area. Similarly, a recording of a politician's speech can allow us to discern significant semantic features not obvious in a written transcript (Sherin, 2002). For the student, one advantage of multimedia courseware over the text-based variety is that the application looks better. If the courseware includes only a few images at least it gives relief from screens of text and stimulates the eye, even if the images have little pedagogical value (Yadav, 2006). More often than not, the inclusion of non- textual media into courseware adds pedagogical value to the application. For example, a piece of courseware describing a dig at an archeological site would be more valuable to the student, if it included images of the site, such as enhanced aerial images showing features like old field boundaries, or diagrams illustrating where the digging and scanning took place. In this respect, using the text only, even in a creative way, has obvious limitations as compared to the use of both text and pictures (Jonassen, 1995; Kameyama, 2001; www.athensacademy.org). Benefits to learners; work at own pace and control their learning path, learn from an infinitely patient tutor, actively pursue learning and receive, feedback. Provide students with opportunities to represent and express their prior knowledge. Allow students to function as designers, using tools for analyzing the world, accessing and interpreting information, organizing their personal knowledge, and representing what they know to others (Smith, 1993). Multimedia applications engage students and provide valuable learning opportunities. Empower students to Produce and design rather than absorbing representations created by others. Produce personally meaningful learning opportunities (www.tech4learning.com). Benefits to teachers; allows for creative work, saves time for more challenging topics, replaces ineffective learning activities, increases student contact time for discussion (Moursund, 1999). Educational benefits of multimedia tools; giving students an opportunity to produce documents of their own provides several educational advantages. Students that experience the technical steps needed to produce effective multimedia documents become better consumers of multimedia documents produced by others. Students indicate they learn the material included in their presentation at a much greater depth than in traditional writing projects. There is another aspect to developing multimedia documents that empowers students. Students quickly recognize that their electronic documents can be easily shared. Because of this, students place a greater value on producing a product that is of high standard (Ambrose, -1991; Kinnear, 2002). Applications and Case Studies Based Multimedia for Effective Social Sciences Education Human knowledge and the study of the world and everything in it have developed over thousands of years. More recently, over only the last two centuries or so, accompanying the rise of industrialization and imperialism in the world, new methods, claims, assumptions, theories, and practices of knowledge production have emerged through the rise of specialized fields, usually referred to as disciplines. These disciplines can be further grouped together under broad umbrella categories: Math and Sciences, Engineering, Business, and Social Sciences, etc. The Social Sciences can be said to be the study of human systems. There are various disciplines within this broad classification, all of which have developed their unique approaches over time, though with significant overlap (www.instruction.greenriver.edu). History, geography, anthropology, political science, psychology, sociology are main social sciences disciplines or Social science Sub-branches. Two sub-disciplines of social sciences (history and geography) are selected for the effective use of multimedia in social sciences education as a case study. History and geography described briefly below and their a few subjects are explained using multimedia as a key study. As mentioned earlier, multimedia learning integrates five types of media to provide flexibility in expressing the creativity of a student and in exchanging ideas. Out of all of the elements, text has the most impact on the quality of the multimedia interaction. Generally, text provides the important information. Text acts as the keystone tying all of the other media elements together. It is well written text that makes a multimedia communication wonderful. Sound is used to provide emphasis or highlight a transition from one page to another. Sound synchronized to screen display, enables teachers to present lots of information at once. A great advantage is that the sound file can be stopped and started very easily. The representation of information by using the visualization capabilities of video can be immediate and powerful. While this is not in doubt, it is the ability to choose how we view, and interact, with the content of digital video that provides new and exciting possibilities for the use of digital video in education (Young, 2002). Animation is used to show changes in state 95 �over time, or to present information slowly to students so they have time to assimilate it in smaller chunks. Animations, when combined with user input, enable students to view different versions of change over time depending on different variables. Animations are primarily used to demonstrate an idea or illustrate a concept. Graphics provide the most creative possibilities for a learning session. Some of the prototype multimedia lessons are also given below as features of multimedia examples from two science branch. History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research of past events as relating to the human species; as well as the study of all events in time, in relation to humanity. It is classified History as a Social science. History can be seen as the sum total of many things taken together and the spectrum of events occurring in action following in order leading from the past to the present and into the future (http://en.wikipedia.org). Historians are to interpretation of the past, how it affects our views of the present, understanding trends or the lack thereof in the past. The subject in the history lesson was selected Canakkale wars into Turkey in the 20 century. To deeply understand it, the teacher thought that remembering the names of famous historical people, events and their activities was not sufficient and that it was important to provide multimodal information through images and moving ships, pictures, including sound and speech. For the student, graphics, animations, a replica of war equipments were prepared. Famous ships and geographical locations in Gelibolu (Gallipoli) were illustrated and presented (Figure 1-6). These videos consist of high degree of reality and visualization. Figure 1: April 25th 1915 04.00, Sector Seddülbahir. Figure 2: April 27th 1915 Turks and Anglo-French troops’ position. 96 �Figure 3: August 6th -10th 1915 Anafartalar Battles. Figure 4: August 6th -10th 1915 Anafartalar Battles (Last Day). 97 �Figure 5: February 1915, Limni, Allied Preparations for Gallipoli Landing. Figure 6: March 1915, Turkish Preparations for Coastal Defense. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. Human geography focuses on fields as diverse as cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations, and cities. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation, soil, water and landforms are produced and interact. Geographers attempt to understand the earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of mapmaking and finding ways to precisely project the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. Modern geography is an allencompassing discipline that seeks to understand how the world has changed in terms of human settlement and natural patterns. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as remote sensing, geographic information systems, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning systems (GPS) 98 �(www.hudtech.net). Geography lessons use many map, animation and video, etc... as a social sciences. One of them is enlargement European Union map according to years by years. Other animation examples are Pangea, earthquakes, faille, the Himalayas forming, chine earthquakes and, river morphology; tectonics is selected for video sample (Figure 7-19). Animations represent medium for simulation, can visualize abstract relations, to explain concepts and procedures that requires movement that cannot be filmed, movements in the universe or within a body, figurative movements such as ideas, economic tendencies can be clarified through moving graphs. Videos represent high degree of reality and visualization can show practices that take place over a long distance or period. Video and animation can be viewed on demand. The student himself has control over the material and can work on his own pace, by navigating through the subject matter. In multimedia information that is being presented both visual and in audio, is better understood and remembered. It is easier to learn through different channels. However, these channels cannot appear separate from each other. It is better to present video and text on the same subject together on the page than to put them in different folders. However, make sure you always think of the material’s relevance in order not to overload the senses. The advance of digital television and the key word interactivity as the prerequisite for good educational practice came together in the demand for totally integrated use of videos in education. From the mid nineties, the web reinforced further the ideas of accessibility and interactivity, but added a new element, integration. This refers to interlinking with other web materials including communication and collaborative tools. This trend, in which several types of media in education are combined is called “Multimedia or hypermedia Learning”. The streamed video is then part of a whole package of educational material, like for instance printed documents, websites, PowerPoint presentations etc. There are plenty of possibilities of elaborating a simple video by means of other tools and methods. Figure 7: Enlargement European Union map Figure 9: Land slide 99 Figure 8: Inside during to earthquake �Figure 10: Convergent Plates, Subdiction Zone Figure 11: Faille and Earthquake Figure 12: Inside the Earth 100 �Figure 13: Pangea Figure 14: Tectonic Figure 15: Convergent Plate Zone and explain of Chine Earthquake 101 �Figure 16: Meandering river and ox-bow lake Figure 17: Fluvial processes and its relief Figure 18: Earth Systems and Processes Figure 19: Plates 102 �Feedback Score 80 students have been given the new style of lectures in which “multimedia technologies” are mainly used. First of all, students were asked what they are thinking about the new style of lectures. As Figure 20 shows, quarter of the students find no change about the progress speed of the lectures, whereas 75% of them feel it increasing. Figure 21 shows that almost 15 percent of the students think there is no change in terms of intelligibility, while the rest of them are divided into both sides. The change in the amount of contents of the lectures that the students must learn is shown in Figure 22. Where 20% of the students think there is no difference, while the rest of them think it increased than those who think it decreased. Figure 23 shows how easy the students feel to ask teachers questions. 90% of them feel difference, but those who feel uneasiness exceed the opposite. Figure 24 shows that almost 90% of the students think there is good and enough in term of Pedagogy, while the rest of them is not enough. According to Figure 25, approximately 90% of the students think their attitudes to course have changed. This result might mean that the students much learn because of the implementation of multimedia equipments. As a result feedback is positive and appropriate to the intended student population. Feedback does not threaten or reward incorrect responses. Feedback is relevant to student responses, Feedback is corrective when appropriate, and Feedback remedies and explains when appropriate. Feedback employs a variety of responses. Feedback remains on the screen for the appropriate amount of time; branching is used effectively to remediate. 60 80 50 60 40 30 No change No difference Much faster 40 20 20 10 0 Easy to understand 0 Figure 20: What do you think about the progress speed? 70 Figure 21: What do you think about the lectures using the devices? 80 60 60 50 40 No difference 30 Much more 20 40 0 0 Figure 22: Do you think the contents of the lectures increased? Figure 23: Do you think it’s easy to ask teachers questions? 80 80 60 60 Not enough Good 40 20 20 0 0 Figure 24: What do you think about the pedagogy? 103 Easier 20 10 40 Harder Figure 25: Do you think yours changed? Not at all Changed �Results and Discussion Besides being a powerful tool for making presentations, multimedia offers unique advantages in the field of education. Traditional learning: verbal message as the primary means of explaining ideas to learners; Lectures, printed lessons and text. Multimedia: the presentation of material using both words and pictures. For instance, text alone simply does not allow students to get a “feel” of any of plays. The key to providing this experience is having simultaneous graphic, video and audio, rather than in a sequential manner. The appeal of multimedia learning is best illustrated by the popularity of the video games currently available in the market. These are multimedia programs combining text, audio, video, and animated graphics in an easy to use fashion. It is here that the power of multimedia can be unleashed to provide long term benefit to all. Multimedia enables learning through exploration, discovery, and experience. Technology does not necessarily drive education. That role belongs to the learning needs of students. With multimedia, the process of learning can become more goals oriented, more participatory, and flexible in time and space, unaffected by distances and tailored to individual learning styles, and increase collaboration between teachers and students. Multimedia enables learning to become fun and friendly, without fear of inadequacies or failure. As we known human brain has dual channel and they separate information, processing channels for visual and verbal materials. These channels have limited capacity. For active processing: learning requires substantial cognitive processing in the verbal and visual channel. Multimedia is to make; maximize the usage of both channels, balance the processing load of both channels, use one channel to share the burden of the other, prime related concepts and knowledge to structure learning, As a result learning through experience, learning by doing, learning while enjoying learning when you need to know at using Multimedia systems (Young, 2006). Also multimedia include Pedagogical assessment; constructivism: inquiry-based, problem-based, project-based; creation of meaning using prior knowledge and experience; socratic method with levels of probing questions, systematic observation, hypotheses testing, and problem-solving, real-world situations, public venues, cooperative learning, community of learners. As a result pedagogic approach is superior and pedagogy is innovative. Questions are appropriate to the content and effectively measure student mastery of the content. Approach is appropriate for the intended student population. Overall tenor of interaction is helpful. Student is an active participant in the learning process. Graphics, video and audio are used to motivate (www.wps.prenhall.com). There are a lot of reasons to use Multimedia in social sciences education. Multimedia is fast, cheap, consistent, private, personal, a strong foundation, a tool to make remembering longer, easier, more information faster and fun. The pedagogical vision is clear: only when multimedia technologies have become routine components of education and e-learning will we have an educational environment that reflects the media-rich world in which we now live. 104 �References Ambrose, D. W. (1991). The effects of hypermedia on learning: A literature review. Educational Technology, 31(12), 51-55. Behrens, J. T. (1997). Principles and procedures of exploratory data analysis. Psychological Methods, 2,131-160. Behrens, J. 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Yadav, V., (2006), Using Multimedia in Education, New Delhi, Pragun. Young, C., Asensio, M., (2002), “Looking through Three .I’s: the Pedagogic Use of Streaming Video”, in: Banks, S., Goodyear , P., Hodgson, V., McConnell, D., (eds), “Networked Learning”, Conference Proceedings, pp. 628-635, Sheff ield. Young, C.P.L., Meldgaard, H., (2006) “Top ten uses of video in education”, eStream Conference, Patras, Greece. www.aare.edu.au. www.iste.org. www.zwire.com. www.buzzle.com. www.clickandgovideo.ac.uk. www.wps.prenhall.com. www.athensacademy.org. 106 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 658 Title A name given to the resource Using Multimedia Technologies as a Current Trends on Social Sciences Education Author Author Ekinci, Deniz Karakoç, Ercan Hut, Davut Avcı, Halil Ersin Abstract A summary of the resource. Last decade’s mere technology that includes only writing, speaking skills and static graphics were used but this technique is simple and inadequate for social sciences and its education. However, multimedia technologies include high, advanced and sophisticated technology. Such technologies are used a lot of field in social sciences education. These are showing up in every walk of education and every aspect of community; architecture, business, education as social sciences. Now multimedia technologies which are including video, audio, animation, interactive map, graphic, table, and GIS, RS technologies are used for social sciences education. These new techniques, which are based commonly on computer, provide good education and better learning. Proponents of multimedia and modern techniques show that they can change the way we understand, think, learn, and work; they have heralded it brings the end of printed books and static graphics. Advocates of modern methodology and tools, both in their research and educational applications, see them better than mere technology. Modern and last systems are garnering to increase attention in cartography, history and geography, although there is a paucity of literature on the prospects of multimedia as a research or educational method in history, and geography. They are used a lot of sample area which occurs our study subject. Some of them allow us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. They help people answer questions and solve problems by looking at people’s data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. This presentation describes an educational application of multimedia and modern tools for geography and history education as social sciences based on the assumption that multimedia and high and advanced technology are better than mere skill. As a result, the aim of this study is presenting some multimedia technology based on examples and applications in social sciences. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d532b1002a9d639a64dfdf5679da373b.pdf 105cb4e08c562ce911af7b2c074fa2be PDF Text Text EFFECTS OF GRAFTED SEEDLING ON PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF MELON GROWING IN GREENHOUSE Rana ERTOK Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey rertok@yahoo.com M. ÜNLÜ Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey A. FIRAT Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey C. ÖZKAN Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey In this study, the effects of different rootstocks on plant growth and uptake of plant nutrient elements were studied. Batem 5 and Batem 7 inbred lines which are resistant to Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis races 0, 1, 2 and tolerant to races 1-2 were used as rootstocks. Canay F1, self grafted Canay F1, Cıtırex F1 and 7-42-47 F1 hybrids were used as controls. Canay F1 was used as scion. The experiment was designed in four randomized blocks. Rootstock diameter, scion diameter, plant height, plant nutrient elements in leaves were statistically analysed. Significant differences were found betweeen rootstocks but scion diameter wasn’t significant statistically. Rootstocks showed no significant difference in uptaking N, P, Ca. Keywords: Melon, Plant growth, Nutritional status, Rootstock 66 �First International Symposium on Sustainable Development (ISSD’09) June 9-10, 2009 Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Education Proceedings IBU Publications Francuske Revolucije bb Sarajevo / Bosnia and Herzegovina Tel : +387 33 782 100 www.ibu.edu.ba 67 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 652 Title A name given to the resource EFFECTS OF GRAFTED SEEDLING ON PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF MELON GROWING IN GREENHOUSE Author Author ERTOK, Rana ÜNLÜ, M. FIRAT, A. ÖZKAN, C. Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, the effects of different rootstocks on plant growth and uptake of plant nutrient elements were studied. Batem 5 and Batem 7 inbred lines which are resistant to Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis races 0, 1, 2 and tolerant to races 1-2 were used as rootstocks. Canay F1, self grafted Canay F1, Cıtırex F1 and 7-42-47 F1 hybrids were used as controls. Canay F1 was used as scion. The experiment was designed in four randomized blocks. Rootstock diameter, scion diameter, plant height, plant nutrient elements in leaves were statistically analysed. Significant differences were found betweeen rootstocks but scion diameter wasn’t significant statistically. Rootstocks showed no significant difference in uptaking N, P, Ca. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)