336 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f57b6a1b2a199bd385af5b20ef7a91d3.pdf 09bb6cf9e8a8962f6f63bd901710aaef PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 43-52, Summer 2020 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020314 Politics and the Novel in a Post-Brexit World: Ali Smith’s Autumn Lejla Mulalić, PhD University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Philosophy, English Department Bosnia and Herzegovina lejla.mulalic@ff.unsa.ba Abstract: Hailed as the first great Brexit novel (Lyall, 2017), Ali Smith’s Autumn (2016) has been warmly welcomed by critics as a subtle analysis of the fractured national and personal identities in contemporary Britain. By repeatedly acknowledging the wounds inflicted on the British body politic by the divisive 2016 referendum, the novel yields readily to the new subgenre. As politics in the novel inevitably provokes criticism from the other side of the political spectrum, it comes as no surprise that Autumn is read as an overtly intellectual middle class response to Brexit crisis, from those interested in the mindsets of Leavers and of the less visible Remainer segments of British society. Starting with the slipperiness of the terms “political novel” and “Brexit novel”, this paper discusses the ways in which Autumn addresses the complex inscrutable present alongside ghosts from the past. It examines the novel’s representation of Brexit’s divisive effect, and relates it to the inherent subversiveness of the novel as a genre. Finally, the paper identifies Smith’s ultimate political statement in her celebration of the transforming power of language. Keywords: Ali Smith, Autumn, Brexit, Novel, Politics. Article History Submitted: 16 June 2020 Accepted: 8 July 2020 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. INTRODUCTION Autumn is the first novel in Ali Smith’s tetralogy, “Seasonal Quartet”. Released in 2016, the year of the controversial Brexit referendum, the novel consciously draws on the atmosphere of despondency and resignation that dominated Remainers, who were deeply worried for Britain’s future now that it was irrevocably tied to its own resources and the insular Shakespearean image of “the sceptered isle”. Hailed as the first great Brexit novel (Lyall, 2017), Autumn has been warmly welcomed by critics as a subtle analysis of the fractured national and personal identities in contemporary Britain. By repeatedly acknowledging the wounds inflicted on the British body politic by the divisive 2016 referendum, the novel yields readily to the new subgenre. As politics in the novel is bound to provoke criticism from other sides of the political spectrum, it comes as no surprise that Autumn is read as an overtly intellectual middle-class response to Brexit crisis, from those interested in other less visible Remainer segments of the British society, such as the immigrants, as well as the mindset of the Leavers. The urge to classify this novel within the empty Brexit literary landscape is one of the dominant features of the critical response, as university courses on “Brexlit” are being developed and the literary columns of reputable newspapers welcome the advent of a new genre. Although the strong political intertext of Autumn underlies its genre identity, Wally (2018, pp. 81-82) suggests that we should not classify it as a political novel; rather we should consider it an example of politics in a novel. Politics (Brexit) is not the thematic focus of Autumn, but it is the backdrop for the novel’s complex web of personal relations. Starting with the slipperiness of the terms “political novel” and “Brexit novel”, this paper discusses the ways in which Autumn addresses the complex inscrutable present alongside ghosts from the past. It examines the novel’s representation of Brexit’s divisive effect, and relates it to the inherent subversiveness of the novel as a genre. Finally, the paper identifies Smith’s ultimate political statement in her celebration of the transforming power of language. 2. THE FRACTURING OF BRITAIN’S POLITICAL LANDSCAPE In line with its pensive and melodious name, Autumn signifies the process of quiet transformation that follows the youthful exuberance of summer. Smith’s novel accordingly tells the story of the week after the frantic vote and media madness, when people begin to notice the cracks in the body of the state. Young protagonist Elisabeth Demand tries to pull together the fragments of her life as she keeps vigil by the bedside of her 101-year-old lifelong friend Daniel Gluck, whose prolonged sleep embodies autumn: a link or a crack between life and death. 44 �Politics and the Novel in a Post-Brexit World: Ali Smith’s Autumn Lejla Mulalić Metaphors and images of division and dismemberment create the background against which the story unfolds. When Elisabeth, an art history lecturer without permanent employment, tries to file an application for a new passport, she encounters an impenetrable wall of bureaucracy. The Post Office clerk informs her that her incorrectly proportioned photograph is “wrong in the head” (Smith, 2016, p. 25), and rejects her application. Elisabeth’s attempts to establish a bond with the clerk are drily rejected: Witticism, the man says, will make not a jot of difference to the stipulations which mean you can, in the end, be issued a passport, which you will need before you are permitted to go anywhere not in this island realm. In other words. Will get you. Nowhere. (Smith, 2016, p. 23) The image of the head, separated from the body in the photograph, invites comparison with the dismemberment of the body politic (i.e. the State) through the divisive referendum, while the clerk’s use of the poetic term “island realm” echoes Shakespeare’s Richard II and other literary texts that construct a notion of national identity embedded in insularity. However, as John Sutherland (2018) playfully notes, the long-cherished notion of Englishness articulated by John of Gaunt in Shakespeare’s play is inherently problematic: That’s all very well. But the real John of Gaunt was a French-speaking Plantagenet, born in the city of Ghent. In other words, he was a Belgian. What right does he of all people have to rhapsodise about England? Perhaps Brexiteers need to look elsewhere in Shakespeare’s work for inspiration. (p. 13) The island realm, also represented by the image of Elisabeth’s head, is to be politically and economically separated from the European Union, which implies that its inhabitants are effectively prisoners. This is especially hard for Elisabeth to accept, since her life has been moulded by the powerful influence of her much older friend Daniel, who introduced her to European art and cosmopolitan thinking. This enabled Elisabeth to transcend the limitations of her provincial upbringing, and her lack of travel opportunities. The concept of division and separation is further reinforced through the image of enclosed common land, electrified fences and security cameras in the village where Elisabeth’s mother lives. It unmistakably conjures moments in British history when the enclosure of land anticipated turning points: the eighteenth-century exodus of the rural population to cities, which enabled Britain’s rapid industrial growth, and the notorious Highland Clearances of the same period, which resulted in the eviction and emigration of the Scottish Highlanders to make space for profitable sheep farming (Stewart). In both cases, Britain’s political and economic landscape was irrevocably changed, bringing general prosperity but also misery to ordinary people. Although the novel is almost entirely embedded in the daunting present, references to the past are woven subtly into the narrative. They give us glimpses of Elisabeth’s childhood and Daniel’s extraordinary life, and summon moments of tension and division from Britain’s turbulent past, such as land enclosure. It is difficult to discuss a “Brexit novel” without contextualising Brexit alongside similar turning points in British history, when national identity was constructed 45 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 or reconstructed. Besides its references to historical enclosures, Autumn invokes another historical landmark, a Brexit before Brexit: the sixteenth-century break from Rome, which separated Britain from the Catholic Church. England became a Protestant country and other parts of today’s UK followed, while Ireland remained Catholic. As historian Norman Davies (2000) explains: The ‘Break with Rome’ […] cut England off from the cultural and intellectual community to which she had belonged for nearly a thousand years; and it forced her to develop along isolated and eccentric lines. The English have had little chance but to take pride in their isolation and eccentricity. Indeed they have recruited it as a virtue. (p. 434) Links with the Continent “were severed by a self-inflicted injury” (p. 434). Metaphoric dismemberment dominates Davies’ representation of history and reinforces the links between Smith’s Brexit narrative and its sixteenth-century alter ego. The powerful impact of propaganda (such as anti-immigrant sentiments and “GO HOME” graffiti) is articulated in Smith’s novel by Elisabeth’s mother’s anti-Brexit speeches. I’m tired of the news. I’m tired of the way it makes things spectacular that aren’t, and deals so simplistically with what’s truly appalling. I’m tired of the vitriol. […] I’m tired of the violence there is and I’m tired of the violence that’s on its way […] I’m tired of having to wonder whether they did it out of stupidity or did it on purpose. (Smith, 2016, pp. 56-57) Similarly, Davies (2000) points out that “systematic state propaganda” created “an enduring English myth” (p. 426) of Tudor achievements. He maps the myth in its various manifestations: “The myth was set running by Thomas Cromwell […], clothed in golden words by William Shakespeare, reinforced by the Protestant Establishment of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and set in stone by the dominant ‘Whig Interpretation’ of history” (p. 426). In both Smith’s and Davies’ examples the purpose of propaganda is to construct a particular national identity. In the former, it is based on twenty-first-century ideas of self-sufficiency in the face of “harmful” EU regulations and uncontrolled immigration, while in the latter it revolves around the sixteenth-century mythridden concept of an ancient yet moderni English Protestant state, which naturally progressed to become a great parliamentary democracy. While Smith does not directly implicate the sixteenth century, she does identify the Thatcher era as a time that triggered a lack of empathy for immigrants and discouraged integration. Through a spokesperson on the radio we learn that self-policing and selfishness are considered virtues in place of empathy, and the notion of society is proclaimed untenable. To complete the dialogue, a second spokesperson retorts: “Get over it. Grow up. Your time’s over. Democracy” (p. 112). The full potential of Smith’s irony lies in the fact that the outcome of the Brexit referendum is democracy at work, which, nevertheless, has left a significant number of people in Britain silenced as they are forced to watch their lives irrevocably change. As I reread Smith’s novel during the coronavirus pandemic I could not ignore the ironic shift in Conservative ideology when Prime 46 �Politics and the Novel in a Post-Brexit World: Ali Smith’s Autumn Lejla Mulalić Minister Boris Johnson addressed the nation from self-isolation in March 2020. Johnson thanked the NHS staff for their tremendous efforts to fight the virus, and admitted, somewhat prophetically, that there was such a thing as society after all. In doing so he openly challenged the doctrine of his party predecessor Margaret Thatcher, by acknowledging that solidarity and genuine care for the well-being of communities might save Britain in the present global crisis, and renew the faith of its citizens in the shared values that bind them, irrespective of their differences. Given the urgency of the political matters in Smith’s novel and the newness of Brexlit as a subgenre, it is not surprising that Autumn has been criticised by those who expected more Brexit and politics and less literature in Smith’s writingii. One such reading resents that Smith “chose to represent the views of a white, British-born, middle-class liberal whose predictable views on Brexit are already vastly overrepresented in the media” (Bradley, 2017). The author of this review indicates that those most affected by the EU referendum, such as British Muslims, migrants, and those whose views do not reflect a simple binary opposition, have only a marginal presence in the novel. Autumn is found to lack genuine political conflict; the dominant political attitude is that of disappointment and resignation from characters who will not suffer the consequences of the referendum, because they are protected in their middle-class niche. Elisabeth’s economically independent mother is thinking of buying property “up there” (probably in Scotland) because she is not leaving the EU, and she has saved the opening of the Scottish Parliament on TV so she can savour its every word (“Wisdom. Justice. Compassion. Integrity.” [Smith, 2016, p. 197]) with her girlfriend. Although the devolution in 1999 and the referendum for Scottish independence in 2014 raised tensions in England over the potential break-up of the UK (intensified by Scotland’s overwhelming Remain vote in 2016), Smith’s novel transcends reductive national identities and loyalties: Elisabeth’s mother, as well as Smith, embrace Britishness as an unproblematic label in order to explore the complexities of personal relationships. Autumn’s anti-Brexit stance does not enforce an explicit political attitude. Rather it is embodied in Elisabeth’s deep friendship with her friend Daniel Gluck, a German Jew whose life refuses to be confined by national borders. This friendship reaffirms the bond between Britain and Europe, of which more will be said in the following section. 3. REAFFIRMING THE POWER OF THE NOVEL The previous section discussed Autumn’s representation of Brexit’s disruptive effects. It explored a critical response that found the novel unwilling to explore political views divergent from those of its author, and considered it to have more in common with a monologue or a Guardian column (Bradely, 2017). This idea is particularly important because it draws attention to the inherent contradictions of the democracy of the novel genre, which gives writers freedom of choice, and 47 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 readers freedom of expectation and interpretation. Rebellious and subversive from its inception in the early eighteenth century, the novel has both instilled and undermined dominant ideologies. This partially explains the politically motivated criticism of Smith’s Autumn. In this section, I will discuss the ways in which Autumn reaffirms these premises of the genre, and invokes the power of the novel as its final political statement. In his brilliant analysis of the nature of the novel, Terry Eagleton (2005) mentions its indebtedness to other literary and non-literary forms, which makes it a “mongrel among literary thoroughbreds” (p. 1). Smith’s Autumn confirms this, being part-realistic narrative, part-modernist stream of consciousness and contemplation of art, and part-postmodernist collage of narrative techniques and nostalgic invocation of the past, while the mood of post-postmodernist renewed faith in truth and ethical consciousness eventually triumphs over political despair. Eagleton (2005) explains that the novel is a form particularly associated with the middle class, “partly because the ideology of that class centres on a dream of total freedom from restraint” (p. 2). This is exemplified in the canonical status of Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, whose unliterary narrative draws strength from its absence of economic and political barriers and the triumph of Crusoe’s re-inscription of middle-class civilisation on a desert island. Middleclass ideology of liberalism and laissez-faire capitalism, however, go hand in hand with Crusoe’s being a slave-trader who genuinely believes in the “white man’s burden” doctrine. These factors have not diminished the popularity of Defoe’s novel; rather its contradictions have created a cultural space within which we can continually reread it in manifold contexts. When explaining the novel’s diversity and its scepticism of authority, Eagleton (2005) warns us not to take these terms literally, as “not all diversity is radical, or all authority oppressive” (p. 6). Another novel whose reception is inseparable from its sociopolitical context is Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice. The lack of visible markers to denote the novel’s turbulent historical context (the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars, and their impact on Britain) forces the reader to adopt Austen’s keen observations, and look for signs of revolution not in events and statements, but in subtle changes of mind and heart and moments of self-realisation. Austen endorses the Tory belief in the moral superiority of tradition, and portrays the upper class (including Mr Darcy) as the custodians of this tradition and national culture in the face of the violent social changes incurred by the French Revolution (Irvine, 2005, p. 61). She is, however, deeply aware of the inevitability of social and political change, and accordingly represents marriage across class barriers (between Elizabeth Bennet and Mr Darcy) as an ideological compromise, necessary to ensure that Britain stems the revolutionary threat (Irvine, 2005, p. 57). Nevertheless, Austen does not “hold up romantic love as a value transcending all social convention” (Kelly, 1989, p.117), as it is carefully integrated within the social order. The change takes place within the individual self, subtly regenerating society from within while preserving its hierarchies and institutions (Kelly, 1989, p. 117). As Eagleton remarks, the novel is a selfauthorising genre (2005, p. 7), so no fixed notions of diversity, (political) 48 �Politics and the Novel in a Post-Brexit World: Ali Smith’s Autumn Lejla Mulalić radicalism and the oppressiveness of authority should mould our reading. Another defining feature, as the name suggests, is that novels address “whatever’s new to us in the contemporary” (Smith, 2017, p. 42), even when they are about the past. Austen offers us a unique insight into early nineteenth-century England, shaped by its fear of revolution; Defoe explores the early eighteenthcentury concept of the self-confident homo-economicus and slave-trader; and Smith’s novel resonates with the contemporary political fragmentation of Britain along lines drawn by the Brexit referendum. In an article based on her 2017 talk at Goldsmiths University of London, Smith defines the contemporary as the age of Trump, and contextualises the novel (i.e. fiction) in a world in which truth is redundant. She claims that “in an age in which living by fiction means having powerful fictions politically, nationally, internationally foisted upon us, fiction lets us read and understand such fictions” (p. 43). Contrasting lies with fiction, she states that the former subvert truth, while the latter helps us “get to truth, maybe truth that’s difficult to articulate, and for which reason has had to take another shape” (Smith, 2017, p. 43). The novel is, therefore, a mode of knowing and understanding in a world constantly changing and contesting its own narratives. Smith’s preoccupation with truth echoes the politically charged notion of “post-truth”, which Oxford Dictionaries announced as its 2016 word of the year, thereby endorsing the arrival of a new cultural paradigm – postpostmodernism. The prefix “post” affirms an indebtedness to postmodernist doubt, while “truth” remains an elusive but necessary part of our existence (Gibbons, 2018). Although the cracks in the post-Brexit body politic widen in Autumn’s narrative, Smith’s most passionate political gesture in the novel is to reaffirm the act of reading and writing – another salient feature of the genre. The novel opens with Daniel’s dream of waking up on a beach. The 101-year-old is confined to his bed in an assisted care facility, decomposing like the grains of sand in his dream. We can feel it sifting through his fingers and filling his mouth before the feeling of sandiness gives way to the shock of being surrounded by dead bodies, next to which the living sunbathe in ignorance. Daniel overpowers death by madly pursuing the thought of sand in the way John Donne pursues his thought of tears in “Valediction: Of Weeping”iii: he plays with words to feel their scent and touch, and to stretch the boundaries of his literary conceit to their limits. The dream becomes a threshold between life and death, as Daniel wonders: “Can you be hungry and dead?” (Smith, 2016, p. 6) Daniel transforms ordinariness to extraordinariness throughout Elisabeth’s childhood. He teaches her to touch and imagine colours by describing to her the art of Pauline Boty, forgotten British Pop artist from the 1960s, and his great unrequited love. Elisabeth too becomes a teacher (a lecturer in art history), and writes her dissertation on Boty’s unacknowledged work, much to her supervisor’s disapproval. Rather than pillaging the past or pursuing what Frederick Jameson sees as a meaningless postmodern pastiche of bygone times and styles, the narrative strand on Boty renews the bond of past and present in a world falling apart. Elisabeth’s exploration of the 1960s London art scene helps 49 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 her find her vocation as a teacher and as an interpreter of the past; it gives shape to her childhood memories of Daniel’s wondrous stories, as the images and colours he summoned for her now become recognisable in Pauline Boty’s work. Elisabeth’s decision to look after her lifelong teacher and friend in turn brings her back to her mother, whom she can now see without her former intellectual contempt. The novel thus enacts diverse ways of reading, which is one of Daniel’s early lessons: “Always be reading something, he said. Even when we’re not physically reading. How else will we read the world? Think of it as a constant” (Smith, 2016, p. 68). Because the political context of Smith’s novel is steeped in notions and images of fragmentation, it is natural that “only a re-affected, empathic language may heed the broken, inflected language of a political body that has for so long been alienated” (Bernard, 2019, p. 11). In line with the precepts of the emerging cultural paradigm of post-postmoderism, Smith insists on “our essential relationality – our connectedness as humans to one another in the globalizing world and with fictional characters as representations of our selves” (Gibbons, 2018). The language of empathy connects the characters in Autumn, and interlaces their narratives in a celebration of life as a form of incessant and avid reading of each other. The novel’s final question embodies this, as Daniel asks upon miraculously awakening, “What you reading?” (Smith, 2016, p. 258) 4. CONCLUSION Smith’s Autumn is deeply entrenched in the fragmentation of Britain’s political landscape after the EU referendum, but it transcends the Brexit reality to explore the autumnal interplay of life and death through Elisabeth and Daniel’s friendship. Smith upholds the power of language and empathy as a way of healing the contemporary world’s manifold divides. Accordingly, Elisabeth’s writing and teaching about Pauline Boty is a political gesture: as she inscribes the names of the forgotten women of British Pop art, Elisabeth simultaneously reestablishes her bond with her mother, and acknowledges that she never invested any real effort in getting to know her. The novel’s themes of disruption and healing are echoed in the author’s use of diverse discourses and styles. This is beautifully exemplified when Elisabeth problematises the gap between languages of dissertation and languages of passionate spontaneous thinking. The content and form of Autumn reflect and determine one another in pursuit of new ways in which to manage the contemporary. Many things are uncertain in this post-millennial world, but the survival of the novel as a genre is not one of them. It remains to be seen, however, how the novel will evolve and adapt to the vagaries of the post-Brexit reality. 50 �Politics and the Novel in a Post-Brexit World: Ali Smith’s Autumn Lejla Mulalić REFERENCES Bernard, C. (Dec. 2019). “It was the worst of times, it was the worst of times. Again': Representing the Body Politic after Brexit”. Etudes Britanniques Contemporaines. 57, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.4000/ebc.7401 Bradley, K. (2017, Mar 12). Review: Ali Smith’s Autumn, the first Brexit novel. Revolutionary Socialism in the 21st Century (rs21). Retrieved from https://www.rs21.org.uk/2017/03/12/review-ali-smiths-autumn-the-firstbrexit-novel/ Davies, N. (2000). The Isles: A History. London, Basingstoke and Oxford: Papermac Macmillan. Donne, J. Weeping: Of Valediction. Retrieved from https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44132/a-valediction-of-weeping Eagletone, T. (2005). The English Novel: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Gibbons, A. (2019, Feb 18). Postmodernism is dead. What comes next? Times Literary Supplement February. Retrieved from https://www.thetls.co.uk/articles/postmodernism-dead-comes-next/ Irvine, R. P. (2005). Jane Austen. New York: Routledge. Kelly, G. (1989). English Fiction of the Romantic Period 1789-1830. London: Longman. Lyall, S. (2017, Feb 17). From Ali Smith, it’s the first great Brexit novel. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/17/books/review/autumn-alismith.html Lynskey, D. (2019, Aug 24). Is the political novel dead? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/aug/24/is-the-politicalnovel-dead Smith, A. (2016). Autumn. New York: Anchor Books Smith, A. (2017, Oct 15). Ali Smith’s Goldsmiths Prize lecture: The novel in the age of Trump. When politics is built on fictions, it’s fiction that can help us get to truth. New Statesman. Retrieved from https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/books/2017/10/ali-smith-sgoldsmiths-prize-lecture-novel-age-trump Stewart, T. The Highland Clearances. Retrieved from https://www.historicuk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofScotland/The-Highland-Clearances/ Sutherland, J. (Sept 2018). ‘Brexit Lit’. Literary Review. 468 Retrieved from https://literaryreview.co.uk/brexit-lit There is such a thing as society, says Boris Johnson from bunker. (2020, Mar 29). The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2020/mar/29/20000-nhs-staff-returnto-service-johnson-says-from-coronavirus-isolation Wally, J. (2018). The return of political fiction?: An analysis of Howard Jacobson’s Pussy (2017) and Ali Smith’s Autumn (2016) as first reactions to the phenomena ‘Donald Trump’ and ‘Brexit’ in contemporary British literature. 51 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 AAA: Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 43 (1), 63-86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26556725 The Tudors took great pride in tracing their ancestry to King Arthur, while historian Geoffrey Elton introduced the myth that Henry VIII’s rule was the beginning of modern English government (Davies, 2000, p. 442). ii Commenting after his novel Middle England was not longlisted for the inaugural Orwell Prize for political fiction in 2019, Jonathan Coe said: “My response would be that sometimes there is a time to speak loud and clear,” [...]. “And anyway, as my character Doug Anderton says in The Rotters’ Club: ‘Subtlety is the English disease.’ I think it’s a peculiarly English thing, this recoiling from a novel whose political message seems too overt” (Lynskey, 2019). iii Let me pour forth My tears before thy face, whilst I stay here, For thy face coins them, and thy stamp they bear, And by this mintage they are something worth, For thus they be Pregnant of thee; Fruits of much grief they are, emblems of more, When a tear falls, that thou falls which it bore, So thou and I are nothing then, when on a diverse shore. i 52 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Politics and the Novel in a Post-Brexit World: Ali Smith’s Autumn https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f97c209b06e1325354a900be5572d299.pdf 2ba8bdbe76cb8a051a21eaa398301924 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 53-66, Summer 2020 Professional paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020315 The Relationship Between Covid-19, Online Learning and Intercultural Education Amila Dautbašić Jasna Saračević International Burch University International Burch University amila.dautbasic@stu.ibu.edu.ba jasna.saracevic@live.com Abstract: This paper aims to describe and analyse various effects that COVID-19 pandemic might have on online learning and multicultural education. The following questions will be investigated: Has COVID-19 pandemic made an impact on the development on multicultural education during online classes?; How have the teachers contributed to enhance online multicultural education?; and What are the positive effects of COVID-19 pandemic on multicultural online education? Multicultural online learning received unfavourable criticism and was characterized with prejudice primarily due to stereotypes that have been present from the very beginning of online education. The paper proposes constructive ways of online collaboration, various strategies applied by both teachers and students, and applicable activities and materials provided for students in order to sustain a multicultural online learning environment. Findings demonstrate that cultural diversity is beneficial for learners and that their involvement in online activities as well as their overall achievements and grades improved due to efficiently organized online lessons. Further, other factors like motivation, communication, anxiety, and confidence all proved to have been positively impacted by crosscultural learning, where students themselves contributed to learning and understanding of cultural knowledge. A multicultural community was formed during online classes and students generated their own community of learning following the guidance from their teacher. Ethnicity and cultural backgrounds of students only encouraged them to learn from their peers and merged them into a united multicultural environment. Keywords: COVID-19, multicultural education, online classes Article History Submitted: 15 April 2020 Accepted: 29 June 2020 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. INTRODUCTION The aim of this paper is to present the status of the multicultural education in the times of pandemic, to prove how well-developed multicultural classrooms are, and to indicate that students face no difficulties in communication through online platforms. Online lectures are held without any difficulties in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it was of great importance to establish good communication with students from diverse cultures and ensure a comfortable online learning experience. It was an unfamiliar environment to students, however, using the online platforms and websites which are all in a foreign language has further proved the importance of having mixed classrooms and signified comprehensive benefits of such organized classes. Multiculturalism represents a rather broad topic, but the most important component of a term is that it enlightens its participants; it helps students meet other cultures and accept everyone as they are. Online platforms used during the pandemic have shown that everyone can be connected and multiculturalism can exist even when students are not present in the same room. The importance of multicultural education has been continually emphasized, however, in the wake of predicaments like the current one caused by COVID-19 pandemic, the significance of multicultural education resurfaced and acknowledged an extensive impact of COVID-19 on the development on multicultural communication in online classes. Due to the overall contemporary social trends, the need for pedagogical reflection on the relationship between multiculturalism and education, that is, upbringing and education in a multicultural society, is of extreme importance in today's society. Hence, it is evident that there is an increasing number of authors who are tackling this issue. The phenomenon of multicultural education is gaining importance, referring not only to some distant countries, but also to closer geographical and ethnic areas, especially where and when social contradictions are resolved by conflicts and wars between nations. Analogously, the crisis of multicultural education can be at the same time a component of both cause and effect of social conflicts. Additionally, regardless of the sign in the evaluation and approach of observing the relationship between multiculturalism and education, it is certain that this phenomenon is high on the agenda of many scientific, primarily social, humanistic, cultural, sociological, and pedagogical disciplines (Ivanović, 2009). Especially significant to note is that multiculturalism is important for eliminating discrimination, which exists in classrooms on a different level, such as discrimination based on the model of assimilation, aimed at the full inclusion of individual members of minorities in the society - by abandoning their mother tongue, traditional norms and other specific cultural characteristics. The concept of assimilation is based on the belief that by complete absorption into the society, the basis for ethnic conflict ceases to exist. In such a social environment, the effort 54 �The Relationship Between Covid-19, Online Learning and Intercultural Education Amila Dautbašić & Jasna Saračević to preserve the cultural norms of minority groups implies rejection by the majority culture, perceiving it as a threat (Baron & Byrne, 1997; Van Oudenhoven et al., 1998). Many previous studies have been conducted on the topic of multicultural online learning and its affects as well as empirical studies on various online courses from different academic fields (Ke & Kwak, 2013). It is vital that studies on this topic are based on the learning environments and how student’s cultural background and ethnicity affect their online learning overall. Thus, the questions addressed in this study are: Has COVID-19 pandemic made an impact on the development on multicultural education during online classes? How have the teachers contributed to enhance online multicultural education? What are the positive effects of COVID-19 pandemic on multicultural online education? Positive effects during online lessons include interaction among students during discussions, willingness to discuss various topics and provision of responses to ideas from their peers through postings and comments, and ultimately, access to a large variety of readings and materials on LMS encouraged participation in online activities (Learning Management Systems and Course Management Systems). In comparison with traditional classroom settings, aside from the increased participation in class and lowered anxiety levels, students also interacted with each other and teachers by e-mail. 2. MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION WORLDWIDE As noted in a plethora of previously conducted studies, multicultural education plays a very important role in the development of many educational systems worldwide. According to Han Erbas (2019), multicultural education in Turkey was among its best improvements introduced there and it contributed to the connection and combination of different cultures, while helping students to communicate and create interactive discussions with people of different backgrounds. Research has showed that students were not aware of the importance of multicultural education so far, and there was a need for raising their awareness on different cultures and importance of coexistence, but of course, some pedagogical and organisational processes needed to be established, in order to create the proper environment to teach about and in people of different cultures (Salavatova, 2019). Breshkovskaya and Ezhkova (2020) agree with Salavatova on the previously mentioned insight, while explaining the dialogue approaches in multicultural education, which is needed in order to establish good communicative and interaction activities in a multicultural classroom, it is of great importance to create good educational environment and have certain problems carried out that might occur in multicultural education, as it depends on whether the students are ready to interact with people of another culture. Zamurueva (2019) argues that multicultural education certainly is a 55 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 concept which needs to create a mixture of various approaches to fight the problems concerning racism and discrimination. When speaking of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bećirević, Brdarević-Čeljo, and Zavrl (2019) agreed that in education on territory of BiH, a certain need for the development of multicultural education is evident. The afore-mentioned authors proved that it is crucial to introduce the importance of introducing multicultural education in educational systems. According to Bećirević (2012), the role of multiculturalism is to enhance diversity and promote good interpersonal activities among people of different cultures. Podojak and Bećirević (2018) proved that the culture of people who live out of their culture changes as they get acclimatized to the new culture they live in, and as such it is of great importance for everyone to learn how to embrace other cultures, and that is done best in multicultural classrooms. Nowadays people face many difficulties and many types of influences which evolve form their lives and education. It is of great importance that students study and are acquainted with the benefits of multicultural classrooms, from broadening student’s horizons about other cultures, but also making teachers’ professional lives a lot easier (Bećirović & Bešlija, 2018). Online learning has been implemented in education since the mid-1990s and has proven to be immensely successful and versatile for students of various ages and cultures. These online classes began at universities and were expected to cause issues, especially sociocultural issues. There are different opinions of whether multicultural online classes are beneficial and whether they can be compared to face-to-face learning. As claimed by Terenzini et al. (2001) and Gurin et al. (2002), in standard face-to-face classes not only was student learning promoted, but also ethnic identity, as well as growth and understanding of various racial groups. A major point that needs to be emphasized is that a lot of hard work and time go into the planning of multicultural online classes. However, during the pandemic, a mutual decision by the state was made for education to continue uninterrupted and that is how a multicultural online community began to form. Online courses saved students as well as teachers a lot of time, by not having to hold make up classes. The goals of multicultural education are meta-cultural with the ultimate goal of liberating and empowering students. By considering the issues and problems of different races and cultural groups, students will be emboldened to understand themselves and the diversity of others and thus enable them to gain insight into different interpretations of the world that various individuals have. It is believed that this way students are enabled to understand broader social problems, which is the basis for inclusion in a society characterized by a multitude of value-ideological orientations (Washburn, 1995). The learning and teaching environment can be quite isolating which makes it more challenging for teachers to further their lessons by implementing different methods. In online education, success rates based on cultural diversity mostly depend on how the teachers acknowledge students and their cultures and how they connect and implement them into their teaching materials. The teacher’s competency plays a major role and possesses great responsibility to 56 �The Relationship Between Covid-19, Online Learning and Intercultural Education Amila Dautbašić & Jasna Saračević include various reading materials and prepare various activities complemented by additional handouts so that students from diverse backgrounds are presented with a variety of resources (Bećirović, Delić & Brdarević-Čeljo, 2019; Bećirović, & Brdarević-Čeljo, 2018). During the period of COVID-19 pandemic, teachers and their preparation patterns for online classes were much easier because they have been well informed about cultural backgrounds of their students in advance, since they have been teaching the same students for years. Equally important to highlight is the fact that the multiculturalism in online classes was promoted through different learning materials which helped students of diverse cultures to be involved in discussions and online debates, where they are provided with opportunities to relate to their past experiences and culture. According to Wahyuni and Bayu (2020), multicultural education during the refugee crisis might cause some difficulties due to the sociocultural diversity. Some things that might seem unimportant to some, are considered very problematic to others; most of the issues being the ones dealing with their homecountries, ethnicities, or even social status. All of these factors might add up to creating a huge gap in communication between students. In order to overcome these issues, promotion of multicultural education by default promotes diversity and variety of different social and ethnical groups which can prompt individuals to overcome prejudice towards different groups of people, in this case refugees. Saha (2019) claims that Australian education system, contributed to Australia’s changing immigration and immigration policy due to the development of multicultural education. He claims that an assimilation policy promoted a multiculturalism policy in the time period between 1973 and 1979, and helped change the lives of immigrants coming from different cultural backgrounds, and it stayed until today. In his paper, Saha also claims that while taking into consideration backgrounds of all European children, Asian migrants, many other refugees and indigenous Australians, their educational profiles require different sociological variables. Today, educational differences between indigenous Australians and migrants are almost completely overcome. 3. MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION AND MEDIA The work within international and multicultural conditions is increasing and there is an emphasized need to learn foreign languages (Dubravac & Skopljak, 2020; Dubravac, Brdarević-Čeljo & Bećirović, 2018; Skopljak & Dubravac, 2019), as well as the need for multilingual and multicultural courses (Yaman & Bećirović, 2016) at universities. Learning foreign languages can enhance an individual's potential and can also be useful in their professional career (Kyppo, Natri, 2016). The sociocultural component of foreign language learning is the most important part of this type of education in the context of multicultural experience. It involves introducing the individual to the cultural traditions of the 57 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 community from which the foreign language comes but also enables the individual to present their own culture using a certain foreign language and thus achieve communication between the two cultures. Through learning foreign languages, dialogue between different cultures is enabled, reducing the possibilities of misunderstandings. Developing a multilingual and multicultural personality is one of the main aspects of multicultural education. It is believed that an individual with a multilingual and multicultural personality possesses an advanced linguistic consciousness but also a developed multicultural consciousness. An individual with a developed multicultural consciousness recognizes the integrity of human civilization and accepts the differences that exist between different cultures (Khairutdinova, Lebedeva, 2016). 4. BACKGROUND ON MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION This paper deals with how beneficial online classes are and how multicultural education is emphasized through these platforms. Online instruction needs to be properly designed, as stated by Banks (2004) and students need to be exposed to different voices and also exposed to online discussions on various topics in which they have many opportunities to lead cross-cultural dialogues. This has proven to be very effective in online classes, especially when different cultural backgrounds are mixed and where students learn from one another and assist one another in learning. The teacher’s role in multicultural classrooms is to motivate the students no matter what race, gender, or ethnicity they are, which is also the case in online classes. As stated by Le Roux (2001), the influence and attitudes of teachers determine the student’s expectations and outcomes. At the time of COVID-19 pandemic the teachers placed all their energy and skills into teaching diverse students online, their education program being very beneficial, proving to have communicated with students of different cultures on all given topics. Most students approached online classes with a positive and an open mind, trusting their teachers and allowing the cross-cultural experience and learning to develop. Thus, just as in a traditional classroom, the teacher in online classes must be mindful of cultural sensitivity whilst engaging in the crucial process of inspecting prejudices as well as personal biases and realizations that influence the students learning experiences. Students are also the ones who contribute to the online classes with their own resources that amplify their learning experience. Since communication is the main asset in online classes, the teacher is the one who leads the lessons and encourages all the students to speak and get involved in discussions. Cultural background and even social network diversity are the factors that affected the involvement of some students with their colleagues from different countries (Mittelmeier, Héliot, Rienties, & Whitelock, 2016). Current multicultural situation in Germany has been changing over time, and research conducted by Josefova (2016) proved that other countries such as 58 �The Relationship Between Covid-19, Online Learning and Intercultural Education Amila Dautbašić & Jasna Saračević Czech Republic are influenced a lot by migrations. Therefore, she also claims that multicultural education plays significant role in development of eLearning courses, and providing opportunities for creating intercultural dialogues. She agrees that the importance of intercultural expansion is a common topic and that more countries and nations are becoming aware of the cultural sensitivity. 5. STUDENT INTERACTION IN ONLINE CLASSES The inclusion of online cultures helps the learning process for students as they relate more to certain topics and want to participate in discussions for which they are familiar with. That in itself leads to a more successful and valuable learning that can be seen at the time of the pandemic. Students willingly wish to participate and enjoy discussions (Rizvić & Bećirović, 2017) because they express their divergent social views and their cultural background flourishes as well, making them feel confident and empowered. This type of multicultural online education which allows interaction between teachers and students as well as students and students, leads to a higher appreciation of cultural diversity among the students and indicates cultural inclusion in the online classes. Students are not only benefitting on an educational level but also their cultural experiences are broadening. One of perhaps the most important factors influencing the effectiveness of online classes is the physical distance between students and professors. If students, apart from virtual cooperation, are not introduced to at least a small number of face-to-face meetings, during which they would establish a common framework of knowledge and experience on the cognitive level, and establish mutual relations of support and understanding on the affective level, online collaboration might become very slow, complicated and crowded. In addition, the absence of a non-verbal component in virtual collaboration can slow down or completely prevent the effective exchange of ideas, which in turn can be resolved by face-to-face meetings in situations where that is possible (Walsh & Maloney, 2007). 6. TEACHERS’ ROLE IN ONLINE TEACHING When teachers provide students with activities they need to be strategically conducted and planned in order to be constructive and favorable, whether they are problem-based activities, group-based discussions or student-based content, they need to be appropriate for the students’ needs and their backgrounds. Furthermore, teachers have also been observed to have incorporated various learning activities and materials in order to help culturally diverse students achieve better results. As stated by Boone, Safrit and Jones (2002), students have individual learning strategies and needs when it comes to learning, as well as diverse interest’s communication styles, values and learning outcomes. 59 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 All of these factors must be taken into consideration and aligned in order to compose an effective online curriculum, beneficial for all students. During the time of COVID-19 pandemic and online classes, teachers have mostly been focused on motivating students, by using videos, visual tools, blogs, assigning projects, and encouraging group work and pair work; a variety of options to boost student’s motivation. Students needed extra motivation because they were not used to online classes at first, many of them have never had the opportunity to experience an online class prior to the pandemic. Through group work or pair work the students had a chance to be acquainted with each other’s backgrounds better, the activities proved to be very beneficial and allowed students to share ideas and get feedback from teachers. Communication between the teachers and students in online classes was encouraged immensely, which lead to the creation of diverse groups, and it is of great importance for teacher to introduce and incorporate more multicultural content. These multicultural online classes enhance education as well as cultural experiences for the students. Halverson and Tirmizi (2008, p. 12), claimed that students of diverse cultures bring positive aspects to online classes and also positively influences their academic success. On the other hand, Gay (2010) and Ladson-Billings (2009), argue that teachers should include as much diverse materials and use various techniques as possible to enhance the students learning outcomes. Butorac and Mraović (2013) claim that differentiation and segregation of members of a minority can generate many different types of discrimination that have shown devastating effects on human rights and freedoms. Therefore, multicultural education becomes a central element of social policy at the national and transnational level. This is why they believe how increased professional education in the field of recognizing, combating, and sanctioning discriminatory treatment is also a form of support for victims of discrimination. Potential victims of discrimination, and in particular the most vulnerable groups, must be made aware of the available protection instruments available, and the protection system must be effective and without harmful consequences for the victim. According to Marjanovic at al. (2013) a system such as an online platforms allow organizations to save their employees, the time they would spend in classroom training by accessing the system at a time and place that suits their schedules. In order for the e-learning platform to be used effectively in corporate education, it is necessary to measure learning outcomes in a systematic way. Also, various cultural resources and perspectives can be integrated into the curriculum in order to stimulate cross-cultural activities that enhance multiculturalism in online classes (Pattanpichet, 2011). Dautbasic and Saracevic (2019) agree that choosing proper learning methods and techniques will improve students’ skills and achievements. 60 �The Relationship Between Covid-19, Online Learning and Intercultural Education Amila Dautbašić & Jasna Saračević 7. IMPORTANCE OF A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Findings of several studies disclosed that teachers were not familiar with cultural diversity in their curriculums and of the importance of including those curriculums in the classes (Anakwe & Christensen, 1999; Thompson & Ku, 2005). Luckily that was not the case with online classes during the pandemic, where the teachers were well informed and well prepared to include cultural diversity in any sphere of their online teaching. Communicative activities in which students build relationships with their peers are crucial for students’ academic success, therefore their intercultural competencies need to be taken into consideration to make communication more beneficial. Students of diverse cultures need to be able to read and understand the reading materials provided, since that is one of the main steps in increasing their confidence and motivation for learning (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005). Studies by Adeoye and Wentling, (2007); Goodfellow and Hewling (2005); Mushtaha and Troyer, (2007), claim that online classes promote cross-cultural learning where students themselves contribute to the learning and cultural knowledge understanding. Teachers must consider the identities of students and not just their ethnic backgrounds in order to provide the best learning strategies for online multicultural classes Ladson-Billings (2014). He goes on by saying thsee strategies should help the student intellectually, their skills and most importantly their attitudes towards multicultural learning (Ladson-Billings, 1994, p. 16-17). The achievements of students in class are based completely on how skilful the teacher is (Ladson-Billings,2006).Since students need to be aware of their cultures and the importance of their backgrounds (Ladson-Billings, 2006, p. 36), their consciousness will develop and their beliefs will broaden, making them self-aware of the multicultural community they live in. That way they will bring that awareness to class and be willing to share it with others, creating a healthy multicultural learning community. Since students in Bosnia and Herzegovina are mostly aware of their cultures, because it is something that is taught in schools from a very early age, students had no difficulties engaging in a multicultural online class during the COVID-19 pandemic. The environment of a classroom, in this case online classe, is of great importance for the students, therefore their learning environment must feel trusting and safe so that the students will feel comfortable and motivated to learn and participate. According to Kourova & Modianos (2013), the teacher’s main obligation in a multicultural class is to create a learning environment which will empower the students to learn more about their peer’s cultures. Also the findings of Zhang, Briggs, and Nunamaker (2006), show that teachers should include as many visuals like videos, and various images to enrich multicultural learning but also to keep the classes interesting. Students like to be involved in learning (Brdarević-Čeljo & Asotić, 2017; Sinanović & Bećirović 2016), they like the feeling of their contribution to the procedure of learning and that is the reason why their needs and diverse cultural backgrounds must be carefully investigated by the teachers. Students enjoy 61 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 discussing their cultural differences and experiences and sharing their thoughts with other students, that is why different cultures collide together and make the online learning even more meaningful. There are many stereotypes claiming that students cannot learn online, that media only distracts them and the students are not interested and not motivated to learn during online classes. That is not the case at all, proven now during the COVID-19 pandemic that online multicultural education is running smoothly, and with the right preparation it is on the same success level as in traditional face-to-face classes. 8. IMPORTANCE OF APPROPRIATE LITERATURE USED IN ONLINE CLASSES The books utilized by teachers need to be appropriate and useful as well as diverse, so that all the students can locate the content that is relatable and not exclusive. Also, teachers make lesson plans just as they would normally do for traditional classes; they construct their plans according to the student’s needs, using various teaching strategies. The results of the students exceeded many expectations especially because they only had online classes, their achievements had not lowered, they remained at the same level or they improved. That was viewed with much scepticism before the online classes began; people were sceptic about how the students would adjust to the online classes and whether multicultural education would even be possible. Kim and Bonk (2002); Zhao and McDougall, (2008), encourage teachers to create diverse online classes as much as possible, the more diverse the better and more beneficial they will be. Some of the issues teachers face in online classes is linked to the situations in which they do not provide enough diverse reading materials, or if teachers fail to create a discussion among students as well as if students lack motivation. These issues can all lead to having negative results when it comes to online learning, but that has not been the case with online classes during the COVID-19 pandemic, where the teachers were very aware of their duties and very successfully engaged students in multicultural classes. 9. CONCLUSION The results of various findings proved that COVID-19 pandemic had made an impact on the development of multicultural education in online classes, benefiting the students and requiring a lot of preparation and work from the teachers. During the classes the students shared ideas and learned of different cultures, they participated in online discussions and they built a multicultural online community. The online environment motivated them to collaborate with their peers, working in groups or pairs, which is one of the most effective ways of promoting multicultural education in online classes. The curriculums and teachers lesson plans play a major role in the effective online classes, literature 62 �The Relationship Between Covid-19, Online Learning and Intercultural Education Amila Dautbašić & Jasna Saračević and materials used and student’s backgrounds evaluated in order to develop multicultural classes which will engage and benefit the students. That is how have the teachers have contributed to enhance online multicultural education during COVID-19 pandemic, they helped the students adapt to the online classes and multiculturalism as quickly as they could, by using appropriate strategies of planning the classes. Multicultural education is advanced in terms of approach to education transformation that has been criticized and corrected by following the discriminatory curricula, as well as the bad practices and policies in education. It is based on ideal social justice and equality and is dedicated to help all students become equal citizens and become culturally aware of diversities around them. Thus, multicultural education is recognized as a type of education that helps remove early injustices and connect racial ties (Ford, 2014) The positive effects of COVID-19 pandemic on multicultural online education are that students learned from their peers, they got to bond over their cultures and ethnic backgrounds more than they had in traditional face-to-face classes. A multicultural community was formed during the online classes which motivated the students and encouraged teachers for further online classes. In a community such as online classes, students have a major part when it comes to building interaction and communication amongst themselves; they build their community of learning with the guidance of the teacher (Garrison, 1997). The achievements of the students during COVID-19 pandemic were impressive, as many had doubts of how the students will adapt to online learning, the results showed few setbacks and many benefits. As Gunawardena and Zittle (1997, p. 10) claimed that social presence of the teacher is the most important, a real person is perceived differently in communication that a voice or video presence in the online classes. That proved to be wrong, communication was just as successful online through microphones and video chats, as it had been in face-to-face classes. 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Multicultural education: concept, goals and objectives. education and science without limits: Fundamental and Applied Researches Актуальные Аспекты Фундаментальных и Прикладных Исследований, (10), 256– 257. 66 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource The Relationship Between Covid-19, Online Learning and Intercultural Education https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6260826265ae8452197005fac432bc23.pdf 78bf3d856e4a6481503f75eaaa197734 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 67-80, Summer 2020 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020316 Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić, MA International Burch University harisdelic91@gmail.com Abstract: Attitude of students towards learning and learning outcomes is one of the main predictors on the basis of which teachers can establish a productive and successful learning environment. This study aims to investigate the negative attitudes that students may have towards language learning in high school. This is a descriptive study with a quantitative approach. The data has been collected from 160 high school students in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) using a questionnaire adapted by researchers. The data analysis encompasses means, standard deviations, frequency, multiple comparisons, Pearson correlation coefficient, ttest and One-way ANOVA. We looked into the frequency of reported attitude towards English language learning, the differences between positive and negative attitude, as well as the differences between genders and grades in terms of the representation of reported attitudes. The results show that our participants report more negative than positive attitudes towards language learning and that the factors which influence their negative attitudes are school policy, learning environment and teaching methodology. The results also indicate that there exists no statistically significant difference between genders, as well as between four high school grades in terms of their interpretation on positive and negative attitude towards English language learning. Keywords: Negative attitude, language learning, learning environment. Article History Submitted: 22 May 2020 Accepted: 6 July 2020 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. INTRODUCTION Students’ attitudes towards language learning as well as the factors that influence them have been studied by various researchers using different methods. According to one definition, attitudes are beliefs or opinions about a certain issue, in this particular case, the language (Gardner, 1985), and Wenden (1991) classifies the term “attitude” into three interrelated components: cognitive (beliefs, thoughts or viewpoints), affective (an individual’s feelings and emotions), and behavioral (the tendency to adopt particular learning behaviors). Among authors, Gardner (1985), Dörnyei (2001) and Allport (1935), to name a few, serve as pioneers in this scientific field. Since the school represents the environment of community and education there are, according to Gardner (1985), educational and social types of attitudes, the first observing teachers, materials and the language, and the latter concerned more with cultural and environmental aspect of the school. Students’ attitude towards a language, whether positive or negative, represents impressions of linguistic difficulty or simplicity (Dervić & Bećirović, 2019), i.e. ease or difficulty of learning. They can also shape an image about the speakers of that language. Language attitudes may have an effect on second language or foreign language learning. The measurement of language attitudes provides information which is useful in language teaching and language learning. However, the negative attitudes of students, as predictors of possible failure to succeed in the process of second language (L2) learning (possible failure to learn a second language), have not been extensively studied. As such, the concept was adopted and research has been conducted by Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019), whose questionnaire was used in this research. Successful teachers lead their students towards the goals of education (Delić & Bećirović, 2016) and creating positive attitudes about learning. This study looks into the concept of attitude, focusing on its negative aspects as one of the major affective factors for failure in learning a foreign language. More specifically, it investigates Bosnian high school students’ negative attitudes towards learning English language. Additionally, it attempts to determine the influence of students’ demographic profile i.e. gender, class and English language final grade on their negative attitudes towards learning English. Thus, the current research may serve as a pioneer project in the context of Bosnian high school students’ language learning and may, together with the research on motivation, gender, and age (Ahmetović, Bećirović, & Dubravac, 2020; Bećirović et al., 2018; Dubravac & Latić, 2019; Kovačević & Akbarov, 2015; Latić & Dubravac, 2019; Mašić et al., 2020) contribute to the improvements in the L2 learning processes in general. 68 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. RESEARCH ON ATTITUDES Attitude has been regarded as an important factor of academic success. Attitude as a concept is as important as cognitive behaviors (Bloom, 1995). Gardner (1985) sees attitude as a component of motivation, while the existence of motivation depends on three elements: effort, desire to attain and favorable attitudes. Among the factors that influence students’ attitude towards language learning are teacher’s pedagogical approach, family expectations, parents’ socioeconomic status, gender, age, etc. (Abolfazli & Sadeghi, 2018). Based on their investigation, Abolfazli and Sadeghi (2018) have concluded that “gender and age range do not contribute significantly to the differentiation of participants according to their attitudes towards English, even though males had a slightly higher mean score than females and elder students had more positive attitude than younger students” (p. 14). Other authors, such as Lasagabaster (2005), investigated whether language competence, the socio-linguistic context and the knowledge of the second/foreign language play a significant role in shaping students’ attitudes towards a language. Attitude towards language learning can be both negative and positive. The positive attitude enhances learning, since the willingness to be able to communicate with native speakers of the language they are learning motivates learners to learn more and the process is therefore more likely to succeed (Noels et al., 2003, p. 36). On the contrary, negative attitude can hinder or slow down language learning because those attitudes emerge when learners are not motivated, not interested or have difficulties with the teacher (Ellis, 1994, p. 197201). Negative attitudes, even though producing negative effect on learners, may also have a positive effect. This may happen if the learners have a strong will to learn a language (Ellis, 1994, p. 200), or when students are persistent and struggle hard and fight those negative attitudes. The willingness to achieve a good grade or language fluency may turn negative attitudes into positive ones (Lennartsson, 2008). Another characteristic of students’ attitudes is that they can change. They may have negative attitudes at the beginning of the language learning process and later on they may get used to it and acquire positive attitudes, or their positive attitudes may change into negative ones due to low grades, failure to lead a fluent conversation, and the like. Dewaele (in Wei & Cook, 2009) states that attitudes “shift as a consequence of political circumstances (war), or migration patterns, when a new language suddenly emerges in the local linguistic landscape and becomes associated with a particular style of music or activity” (p. 172). He mentions other works on this issue (such as Dörnyei & Clément, 2001), and provides results which say that attitudes vary within a particular country and even between regions. He also concludes that “macro contextual, geopolitical factors significantly affect people’s language attitudes” (p. 173). These factors, along with age and gender, are likely to affect the attitudes towards EFL learning. 69 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 2.2. NEGATIVE ATTITUDES Attitudes towards language learning, since they represent reactions to objects and environmental factors in the learning process that can be evaluated, can be positive and negative. Certain factors contribute to each type. Zainol Abidin et al. (2012) state that “negative beliefs may lead to class anxiety, low cognitive achievement, and negative attitudes” (p. 120). Aliakbari & Gheitasi (2017) researched the connection between attitudes towards foreign language learning and test anxiety and they found that there was a relationship between test anxiety and attitude and that females showed more optimistic attitudes towards English language learning (ELL). Shvidko (2013), presenting the results of the findings of students' attitude towards English-only environments in school reports that their expressed negative attitude is due to forcing students to speak English, and punishments, teachers' reactions to students speaking L1 (p. 2). Negative attitudes have a detrimental effect on learners’ motivation (Bratož et al., 2019, p. 3). Gömleksiz (2010) concludes that, in order to understand how negative attitudes can be changed into positive ones, “teachers should be aware of the factors affecting students negatively and should take the needs of students into consideration” (p. 917). Rahimi & Hassani (2012) investigated the role of learning materials in learners’ attitude shaping and they found correlation between them. They conclude that “it is evident that students often develop negative attitudes towards learning English as a foreign language due to the lack of stimulating and authentic learning material and tasks” (p. 71). The analysis of predictors of negative attitudes towards language learning can be found in Ghaedsharafi et al.’s paper “Investigating Predictors of High School Students’ Negative Attitudes Towards Learning English by Developing, Validating, and Running a Questionnaire“ (2019). There, the authors have reported that the materials that students use for English language learning are “the best predictor of negative attitudes that can be considered as the most practical and key finding of the present study” (p. 147). Materials, they conclude, can have an effect on other teaching and learning factors and contribute to inappropriate learning environments. Moreover, they found that the learning environment and difficulty to learn English contribute to the development of negative attitudes as well. 2.3. ATTITUDES AND GENDER, CLASS AND SUCCESS The overall findings of a great deal of research on the attitudes’ role in second language learning show that positive attitudes and motivation are related to success in second language learning (Gardner, 1985). Among the factors that affect attitudes are gender differences, education level, socio-economic status, grade level, GPA and proficiency level, etc. 70 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić Investigating 1275 students, Gömleksiz (2010) found out that there exists a statistically significant difference between gender, grade level and department variables. In his research, female students obtained more positive attitudes than males, and in terms of grade level sophomores demonstrated more positive attitudes than freshmen. Bećirović (2017) found that females are significantly more motivated to learn English as a second language than males are. Pourfeiz (2014) conducted similar research on 157 students learning English language in the Turkish context. The findings of his research reveal that 75% of Turkish EFL students have positive attitudes toward FLL. In terms of the BiH educational context, there are various research papers that took into consideration language acquisition processes. Latić and BrdarevićČeljo (2018) investigated the differences in language use by men and women and found no significant differences between genders regarding their beliefs about communication. According to Bratož et al. (2019), to define language attitudes one needs to include various concepts such as “attitudes towards language variety or dialect, attitudes towards speakers of a specific language or variety, attitudes towards language learning, attitudes towards the learning situation, and attitudes towards language related behaviors, such as language use and language maintenance” (p. 3). Despite the importance of students’ attitude in the language learning process and its impact on their achievement, the role of L2 students' attitude towards English has not met sufficient observation in the context of B&H, and thus the importance of this study is a try to bridge such a gap. 3. METHODOLOGY In this research a quantitative approach to data collection and analysis was employed. For the purpose of the research a questionnaire was used. Questionnaires in general, and in this particular case a questionnaire distributed online, are easy to construct and allow researchers to gather data practically, economically, and in a short period of time. By using the questionnaire researchers can easily collect information about students’ habits, preferences and backgrounds. 3.1. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT The instrument used for this research was developed and validated by Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019) and was used in this research with the authors’ permission. The questionnaire was translated into Bosnian language and as such delivered to students so that its administration to the Bosnian students at different levels of language proficiency would be easier. It was delivered to students in online form (using surveyplanet platform). It contains 30 questions with response options on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 5 (1= Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Neutral, 4= Agree, 5= Strongly agree). Following the 71 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 explanation of the nature and purpose of the study, students were asked to complete the questionnaire anonymously and without time limit. It contains statements of attitudes towards language learning which were later grouped into six groups, namely teaching methodology, difficulty to learn English, learning environment, materials, affective factors and school policy. Cronbach’s alpha was employed to assess the reliability of the instrument and the coefficient amounted to 0.86, which is an acceptable index. Each set of questions was assessed for internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha (see Table 1). Table 1 Reliability Indices N of items Cronbach’s alpha Affective Factors 4 .81 Teaching Methodology 4 .71 School Policy 4 .63 Learning Environment 4 .50 Materials 9 .84 Difficulty of Learning 5 .81 English 3.2. PARTICIPANTS Participants in this research were 160 high school students, both males and females, studying at four different grade levels in a public high school in Visoko, Bosnia and Herzegovina. There were 47 girls (47.5%) and 52 boys (52.5%). As for the grade level, there were 30 first grade students (30.3%), 24 second grade students (24.2%), 26 third grade students (26.3%) and 19 fourth grade students (19.2%). Almost half of the participants, precisely 45.6 %, indicated that they had an excellent average grade in English language course. Table 2 summarizes participant information. Table 2 Gender, grade, and average course grade of participants Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Mark 1 4 Gender Male 74 46.3 2.5 Female 86 53.8 2 16 10.0 Class First 39 24.4 3 29 18.1 Second 54 33.8 4 38 23.8 Third 37 23.1 5 73 45.6 Fourth 30 18.8 Total 160 160 3.3. DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES The collected data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, v. 26). Frequencies and means were computed to ascertain the types and frequencies of the students’ attitudes towards language learning. Firstly, 72 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić descriptive analysis including mean, standard deviation (SD) and frequencies was employed. An independent samples t-test and a one-way ANOVA were used to show the differences between the grade levels. 3.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The following research questions guided the study: 1. Will Bosnian EFL learners report more negative than positive attitude towards foreign language learning? 2. Is there any statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and gender? 3. Is there any statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and different grade levels of students? Based on the research questions, the following hypotheses have been tested: 1. Bosnian EFL learners will not report more negative than positive attitude towards foreign language learning. 2. There is no statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and gender. 3. There is no statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and different grade levels of students. 4. RESULTS A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the grouped variables of different types of students’ attitudes. There is a strong positive correlation between the affective factors and the variable “difficulty to learn English”, r = .681, n = 160, p < .001, between affective factors and “materials” variable, r = .768, n = 160, p < .001, and between “difficulty to learn English” and “materials” variables, r = .827, n = 160, p < .001. The correlation between other subscales is low and even insignificant, such as between the variables “materials” and “school policy”, r = .035, n = 160, p < .001. Table 3 below represents grouped variables correlation and descriptive statistics. Table 3. Descriptive statistics and correlation for grouped variables M SD (1) (2) (3) (4) ** (1) Affective factors 2.28 .94 1 -.255 .011 .027 (2) Teaching methodology 3.44 .71 -.255** 1 .291** .368** ** (3) School policy 3.62 .70 .011 .291 1 .364** ** ** (4) Learning environment 3.44 .58 .027 .368 .364 1 ** ** (5) Difficulty to learn English 2.31 .90 .681 -.258 -.055 .038 (6) Materials 2.37 .77 .768** -.169* .035 .132 (5) .681** -.258** -.055 .038 1 .827** (6) .768** -.169* .035 .132 .827** 1 73 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) After dividing the questions on attitudes into 6 groups or subscales and analyzing them separately, a general distinction was made between positive and negative attitudes to check whether students experience more positive or negative attitudes towards language learning, as well as to be able to conduct an independent t-test and a one-way ANOVA test on the overall students' attitude. To do so, the median of the scores was considered as the measure of central tendency; the scores equal or higher than the median were considered to reflect negative attitudes and those lower than the median were interpreted as positive attitudes. This is due to the fact that responses in the questionnaire are marked on a Likert scale ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 5(strongly agree) Table 4 given below presents descriptive statistics of scores from the questionnaire. N Valid Missing Median Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Scores from the Questionnaire Investigating Attitudes Affective Teaching School Learning Difficulty to learn factors methodology policy environment English 160 160 160 160 160 0 0 0 0 0 2.00 3.50 3.75 3.50 2.20 After conducting descriptive analysis of the median score of 6 grouped variables, the teaching methodology, school policy, and learning environment variables were categorized into negative attitudes group, and affective factors, difficulty to learn English, and materials variables were categorized into positive attitudes group. Having determined positive and negative attitudes that the participants reported, conditions were created to answer the second research question which aims to determine which attitudes are more reported by the participants. As presented in Table 5 below, the participants reported more negative attitudes towards language learning (M = 3.49, SD = .78) than positive ones (M = 2.22, SD = .50). Table 5. Descriptive statistics of overall attitudes scores N Mean Std. Deviation Positive attitudes 160 2.33 .78 Negative attitudes 160 3.49 .50 Valid N (listwise) 160 The next research question aimed at investigating whether there exists a statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitudes toward foreign language learning in case of different genders. An independent samples t-test was conducted to investigate this. The results show that there exists no statistically significant difference between positive attitudes in the scores for 74 Materials 160 0 2.22 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić males (M = 2.25, SD = .75) and females (M = 2.40, SD = .81); t(158) = -1.27, p = 0.20. Also, scores on negative attitudes for males (M = 3.43, SD = .58) and females (M = 3.55, SD = .41); t(158) = -1.51, p = 0.13 were statistically insignificant. Thus, gender does have an effect on neither positive nor negative attitude towards language learning (see Table 6). Positive attitudes Negative attitudes Table 6. Independent samples t-test Gender N M SD F Male 74 2.25 .75 .801 Female 86 2.40 .81 Male 74 3.43 .58 2.56 Female 86 3.55 .41 t -1.27 Sig. .205 -1.51 .132 A one-way ANOVA between subjects was conducted to compare the effect of positive and negative attitudes towards language learning on four different high school grades. Conditions of four different grades did not have significant effect on positive attitudes on language learning at the p < .05 F(3, 156) = .958, p = .414. Insignificant difference was also found between negative attitudes and four grades at the p < .05 level, F(3, 156) = .071, p = .976 (see Table 7). Table 7. A one-way ANOVA between subjects Negative attitudes Positive attitudes M 3.40 2.57 SD .57 .82 Second M 3.76 2.03 SD .36 .67 Third M 3.61 2.50 SD .43 .80 Fourth M 3.57 2.52 SD .37 .69 F .071 .958 Sig. .976 .414 Class First 5. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY As mentioned earlier in this work, English language plays an important role in the Bosnian educational system (Dubravac, Brdarević-Čeljo & Bećirović, 2018). Given that it is a mandatory foreign language in all primary and high schools its importance, the need to learn it and use it, is growing and developing (Kovačević, Brdarević-Čeljo & Bećirović, 2018). Numerous researchers have conducted investigations of English language acquisition among Bosnian primary school, high school and university students so far, thereby investigating processes, implications, similarities and differences among procedures, approaches, and methods of language acquisition, taking into consideration participants’ age, 75 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 gender, grade level, socio-economic status and other social, cognitive, or affective differences (Bećirović et al. 2018; Brdarević-Čeljo & Asotić, 2017; Dubravac & Latić 2019; Kovačević & Akbarov 2015; Mašić et al. 2020; Rizvić & Bećirović, 2017). However, this particular research aimed to investigate what kind of attitudes, positive or negative, towards language learning will Bosnian high school students demonstrate while learning English language in a school setting. Based on the results of the questionnaire items’ analysis, variables that are reported as negative predictors are teaching methodology, school policy and learning environment, where the items investigating the school policy variable show the highest score, i.e. school policy is the strongest cause of negative attitudes. These results, particularly school policy as the main cause of students’ negative attitudes, do not support the results reported by Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019) where this type of variable is not among negative ones. The items referring to school policy in the questionnaire used in this research were mainly concerned with the way of teaching English language in schools, the ways of distributing and covering materials during lessons and the time English language enters the school curriculum. Based on the reported results, students seem to have negative attitude towards language learning if these conditions are not met in the school. The next predictor of students’ negative attitudes as reported by the participants is the learning environment variable. Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019) have reported that learning environment and teaching methodology, which are relatively close issues in the language learning process, are among the sources of negative attitudes. Learning environment has been extensively observed in the classroom management procedures (Jones & Jones, 2007; Delić, Bećirović & Brdarević-Čeljo, 2018) where the positive atmosphere in the classroom has been determined as one of the main predictors to a learning process success. Moreover, Tsuda (2003) points out that an unpleasant environment cannot offer students, as well as teachers, a place to successfully apply English language in learning and communication. The statistical analysis displayed in the previous section confirms the last two hypotheses of this investigation. Gender and grade level did not significantly differ in reporting the types of attitudes asked in the questionnaire. Interestingly, at each point of research questions they obtained almost identical mean scores. The concept of gender in Bosnian EFL context has been studied. Dubravac and Latić (2019), for example, researching students’ language learning beliefs, insignificant main effect of gender and grade on students’ learning beliefs. Thus, it appears that gender and grade level do not play a key role in modifying students’ attitudes in this case, as both male and female participants, across all four grade levels, shared more or less the same attitudes towards the English language learning experience. 76 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić 6. CONCLUSION The aim of this study was to determine the presence and the nature of high school students’ attitude towards English language learning. The results show that participants express more negative attitudes and that school policies are the factor that contributes to this type of attitude the most. Other factors that also contribute to negative attitudes towards L2 learning are learning environment and difficulty to learn English language. Moreover, a conclusion was reached that gender and grade level differences play no significant role in rendering these types of attitudes. A suggestion for further study of this concept would be the inclusion of other educational contexts (primary schools, universities), since the data collected and analyzed in this research do not provide a strong basis for generalization due to narrow research context. Furthermore, the concept of (negative) attitude can be investigated in combination with motivation, learning styles and strategies, and gender and grade level differences between students. 77 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 LIMITATIONS This study is limited to one public high school in Bosnia and Herzegovina and, therefore, provides only a partial representation of students’ attitudes towards learning English. REFERENCES Abolfazli, Z. & Sadeghi, K. (2018). Iranian language learners’ attitudes towards teaching/learning english: the role of university major, gender, and age. Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, 5(1), 1-26. doi: 10.30479/jmrels.2019.10399.1297 Ahmetović, E., Bećirović, S., Dubravac, V. (2020). Motivation, anxiety and students’ performance. European Journal of Contemporary Education 9(2), 271 – 289. Aliakbari, M. & Gheitasi, M. (2017). 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Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 26(4), 296-316. Latić, E. & Brdarević-Čeljo, A. (2018). An Exploration of Beliefs about Gender Differences in Language Use. Journal of Language and Education. 4(3), pp. 48-57. doi:10.17323/2411-7390-2018-4-3-48-57. Latić, E., Dubravac, V. (2019). Bosnian students’ language learning beliefs with respect to their proficiency level. Zbornik radova Islamskog pedagoškog fakulteta u Zenici, 17, 377- 400. Li, W., Cook, V., & Flowerdew, J. (2009). Contemporary Applied Linguistics. London: Continuum. Mašić, A., Polz, E., Bećirović, S. (2020). The relationship between learning styles, GPA, school level and gender. European Researcher. Series A, 11(1), 51-60. doi: 10.13187/er.2020.1.51 Noels, K., Pelletier, L., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. (2003). Why are you learning a second language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language Learning, 53(S1), 33-64. doi: 10.1111/1467-9922.53223 79 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Zainol Abidin, M., Pour-Mohammadi, M., & Alzwari, H. (2012). EFL students’ attitudes towards learning english language: the case of libyan secondary school students. Asian Social Science, 8(2). doi: 10.5539/ass.v8n2p119 Wenden, A. (1991). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. London: Prentice Hall. Rahimi, M., & Hassani, M. (2012). Attitude towards EFL textbooks as a predictor of attitude towards learning English as a foreign language. Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences, 31, 66-72. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.018 Rizvić E., & Bećirović, S., (2017). Willingness to communicate in english as a foreign language in Bosnian-Herzegovinian EFL context. European Researcher, 8(3), 224-235. doi: 10.13187/er.2017.3.224 80 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cda931f28f60b13108ffe7211f60e54d.pdf 78bf3d856e4a6481503f75eaaa197734 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 67-80, Summer 2020 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020316 Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić, MA International Burch University harisdelic91@gmail.com Abstract: Attitude of students towards learning and learning outcomes is one of the main predictors on the basis of which teachers can establish a productive and successful learning environment. This study aims to investigate the negative attitudes that students may have towards language learning in high school. This is a descriptive study with a quantitative approach. The data has been collected from 160 high school students in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) using a questionnaire adapted by researchers. The data analysis encompasses means, standard deviations, frequency, multiple comparisons, Pearson correlation coefficient, ttest and One-way ANOVA. We looked into the frequency of reported attitude towards English language learning, the differences between positive and negative attitude, as well as the differences between genders and grades in terms of the representation of reported attitudes. The results show that our participants report more negative than positive attitudes towards language learning and that the factors which influence their negative attitudes are school policy, learning environment and teaching methodology. The results also indicate that there exists no statistically significant difference between genders, as well as between four high school grades in terms of their interpretation on positive and negative attitude towards English language learning. Keywords: Negative attitude, language learning, learning environment. Article History Submitted: 22 May 2020 Accepted: 6 July 2020 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. INTRODUCTION Students’ attitudes towards language learning as well as the factors that influence them have been studied by various researchers using different methods. According to one definition, attitudes are beliefs or opinions about a certain issue, in this particular case, the language (Gardner, 1985), and Wenden (1991) classifies the term “attitude” into three interrelated components: cognitive (beliefs, thoughts or viewpoints), affective (an individual’s feelings and emotions), and behavioral (the tendency to adopt particular learning behaviors). Among authors, Gardner (1985), Dörnyei (2001) and Allport (1935), to name a few, serve as pioneers in this scientific field. Since the school represents the environment of community and education there are, according to Gardner (1985), educational and social types of attitudes, the first observing teachers, materials and the language, and the latter concerned more with cultural and environmental aspect of the school. Students’ attitude towards a language, whether positive or negative, represents impressions of linguistic difficulty or simplicity (Dervić & Bećirović, 2019), i.e. ease or difficulty of learning. They can also shape an image about the speakers of that language. Language attitudes may have an effect on second language or foreign language learning. The measurement of language attitudes provides information which is useful in language teaching and language learning. However, the negative attitudes of students, as predictors of possible failure to succeed in the process of second language (L2) learning (possible failure to learn a second language), have not been extensively studied. As such, the concept was adopted and research has been conducted by Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019), whose questionnaire was used in this research. Successful teachers lead their students towards the goals of education (Delić & Bećirović, 2016) and creating positive attitudes about learning. This study looks into the concept of attitude, focusing on its negative aspects as one of the major affective factors for failure in learning a foreign language. More specifically, it investigates Bosnian high school students’ negative attitudes towards learning English language. Additionally, it attempts to determine the influence of students’ demographic profile i.e. gender, class and English language final grade on their negative attitudes towards learning English. Thus, the current research may serve as a pioneer project in the context of Bosnian high school students’ language learning and may, together with the research on motivation, gender, and age (Ahmetović, Bećirović, & Dubravac, 2020; Bećirović et al., 2018; Dubravac & Latić, 2019; Kovačević & Akbarov, 2015; Latić & Dubravac, 2019; Mašić et al., 2020) contribute to the improvements in the L2 learning processes in general. 68 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. RESEARCH ON ATTITUDES Attitude has been regarded as an important factor of academic success. Attitude as a concept is as important as cognitive behaviors (Bloom, 1995). Gardner (1985) sees attitude as a component of motivation, while the existence of motivation depends on three elements: effort, desire to attain and favorable attitudes. Among the factors that influence students’ attitude towards language learning are teacher’s pedagogical approach, family expectations, parents’ socioeconomic status, gender, age, etc. (Abolfazli & Sadeghi, 2018). Based on their investigation, Abolfazli and Sadeghi (2018) have concluded that “gender and age range do not contribute significantly to the differentiation of participants according to their attitudes towards English, even though males had a slightly higher mean score than females and elder students had more positive attitude than younger students” (p. 14). Other authors, such as Lasagabaster (2005), investigated whether language competence, the socio-linguistic context and the knowledge of the second/foreign language play a significant role in shaping students’ attitudes towards a language. Attitude towards language learning can be both negative and positive. The positive attitude enhances learning, since the willingness to be able to communicate with native speakers of the language they are learning motivates learners to learn more and the process is therefore more likely to succeed (Noels et al., 2003, p. 36). On the contrary, negative attitude can hinder or slow down language learning because those attitudes emerge when learners are not motivated, not interested or have difficulties with the teacher (Ellis, 1994, p. 197201). Negative attitudes, even though producing negative effect on learners, may also have a positive effect. This may happen if the learners have a strong will to learn a language (Ellis, 1994, p. 200), or when students are persistent and struggle hard and fight those negative attitudes. The willingness to achieve a good grade or language fluency may turn negative attitudes into positive ones (Lennartsson, 2008). Another characteristic of students’ attitudes is that they can change. They may have negative attitudes at the beginning of the language learning process and later on they may get used to it and acquire positive attitudes, or their positive attitudes may change into negative ones due to low grades, failure to lead a fluent conversation, and the like. Dewaele (in Wei & Cook, 2009) states that attitudes “shift as a consequence of political circumstances (war), or migration patterns, when a new language suddenly emerges in the local linguistic landscape and becomes associated with a particular style of music or activity” (p. 172). He mentions other works on this issue (such as Dörnyei & Clément, 2001), and provides results which say that attitudes vary within a particular country and even between regions. He also concludes that “macro contextual, geopolitical factors significantly affect people’s language attitudes” (p. 173). These factors, along with age and gender, are likely to affect the attitudes towards EFL learning. 69 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 2.2. NEGATIVE ATTITUDES Attitudes towards language learning, since they represent reactions to objects and environmental factors in the learning process that can be evaluated, can be positive and negative. Certain factors contribute to each type. Zainol Abidin et al. (2012) state that “negative beliefs may lead to class anxiety, low cognitive achievement, and negative attitudes” (p. 120). Aliakbari & Gheitasi (2017) researched the connection between attitudes towards foreign language learning and test anxiety and they found that there was a relationship between test anxiety and attitude and that females showed more optimistic attitudes towards English language learning (ELL). Shvidko (2013), presenting the results of the findings of students' attitude towards English-only environments in school reports that their expressed negative attitude is due to forcing students to speak English, and punishments, teachers' reactions to students speaking L1 (p. 2). Negative attitudes have a detrimental effect on learners’ motivation (Bratož et al., 2019, p. 3). Gömleksiz (2010) concludes that, in order to understand how negative attitudes can be changed into positive ones, “teachers should be aware of the factors affecting students negatively and should take the needs of students into consideration” (p. 917). Rahimi & Hassani (2012) investigated the role of learning materials in learners’ attitude shaping and they found correlation between them. They conclude that “it is evident that students often develop negative attitudes towards learning English as a foreign language due to the lack of stimulating and authentic learning material and tasks” (p. 71). The analysis of predictors of negative attitudes towards language learning can be found in Ghaedsharafi et al.’s paper “Investigating Predictors of High School Students’ Negative Attitudes Towards Learning English by Developing, Validating, and Running a Questionnaire“ (2019). There, the authors have reported that the materials that students use for English language learning are “the best predictor of negative attitudes that can be considered as the most practical and key finding of the present study” (p. 147). Materials, they conclude, can have an effect on other teaching and learning factors and contribute to inappropriate learning environments. Moreover, they found that the learning environment and difficulty to learn English contribute to the development of negative attitudes as well. 2.3. ATTITUDES AND GENDER, CLASS AND SUCCESS The overall findings of a great deal of research on the attitudes’ role in second language learning show that positive attitudes and motivation are related to success in second language learning (Gardner, 1985). Among the factors that affect attitudes are gender differences, education level, socio-economic status, grade level, GPA and proficiency level, etc. 70 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić Investigating 1275 students, Gömleksiz (2010) found out that there exists a statistically significant difference between gender, grade level and department variables. In his research, female students obtained more positive attitudes than males, and in terms of grade level sophomores demonstrated more positive attitudes than freshmen. Bećirović (2017) found that females are significantly more motivated to learn English as a second language than males are. Pourfeiz (2014) conducted similar research on 157 students learning English language in the Turkish context. The findings of his research reveal that 75% of Turkish EFL students have positive attitudes toward FLL. In terms of the BiH educational context, there are various research papers that took into consideration language acquisition processes. Latić and BrdarevićČeljo (2018) investigated the differences in language use by men and women and found no significant differences between genders regarding their beliefs about communication. According to Bratož et al. (2019), to define language attitudes one needs to include various concepts such as “attitudes towards language variety or dialect, attitudes towards speakers of a specific language or variety, attitudes towards language learning, attitudes towards the learning situation, and attitudes towards language related behaviors, such as language use and language maintenance” (p. 3). Despite the importance of students’ attitude in the language learning process and its impact on their achievement, the role of L2 students' attitude towards English has not met sufficient observation in the context of B&H, and thus the importance of this study is a try to bridge such a gap. 3. METHODOLOGY In this research a quantitative approach to data collection and analysis was employed. For the purpose of the research a questionnaire was used. Questionnaires in general, and in this particular case a questionnaire distributed online, are easy to construct and allow researchers to gather data practically, economically, and in a short period of time. By using the questionnaire researchers can easily collect information about students’ habits, preferences and backgrounds. 3.1. DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT The instrument used for this research was developed and validated by Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019) and was used in this research with the authors’ permission. The questionnaire was translated into Bosnian language and as such delivered to students so that its administration to the Bosnian students at different levels of language proficiency would be easier. It was delivered to students in online form (using surveyplanet platform). It contains 30 questions with response options on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 5 (1= Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree, 3= Neutral, 4= Agree, 5= Strongly agree). Following the 71 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 explanation of the nature and purpose of the study, students were asked to complete the questionnaire anonymously and without time limit. It contains statements of attitudes towards language learning which were later grouped into six groups, namely teaching methodology, difficulty to learn English, learning environment, materials, affective factors and school policy. Cronbach’s alpha was employed to assess the reliability of the instrument and the coefficient amounted to 0.86, which is an acceptable index. Each set of questions was assessed for internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha (see Table 1). Table 1 Reliability Indices N of items Cronbach’s alpha Affective Factors 4 .81 Teaching Methodology 4 .71 School Policy 4 .63 Learning Environment 4 .50 Materials 9 .84 Difficulty of Learning 5 .81 English 3.2. PARTICIPANTS Participants in this research were 160 high school students, both males and females, studying at four different grade levels in a public high school in Visoko, Bosnia and Herzegovina. There were 47 girls (47.5%) and 52 boys (52.5%). As for the grade level, there were 30 first grade students (30.3%), 24 second grade students (24.2%), 26 third grade students (26.3%) and 19 fourth grade students (19.2%). Almost half of the participants, precisely 45.6 %, indicated that they had an excellent average grade in English language course. Table 2 summarizes participant information. Table 2 Gender, grade, and average course grade of participants Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Mark 1 4 Gender Male 74 46.3 2.5 Female 86 53.8 2 16 10.0 Class First 39 24.4 3 29 18.1 Second 54 33.8 4 38 23.8 Third 37 23.1 5 73 45.6 Fourth 30 18.8 Total 160 160 3.3. DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES The collected data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, v. 26). Frequencies and means were computed to ascertain the types and frequencies of the students’ attitudes towards language learning. Firstly, 72 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić descriptive analysis including mean, standard deviation (SD) and frequencies was employed. An independent samples t-test and a one-way ANOVA were used to show the differences between the grade levels. 3.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The following research questions guided the study: 1. Will Bosnian EFL learners report more negative than positive attitude towards foreign language learning? 2. Is there any statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and gender? 3. Is there any statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and different grade levels of students? Based on the research questions, the following hypotheses have been tested: 1. Bosnian EFL learners will not report more negative than positive attitude towards foreign language learning. 2. There is no statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and gender. 3. There is no statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitude towards foreign language learning and different grade levels of students. 4. RESULTS A Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the grouped variables of different types of students’ attitudes. There is a strong positive correlation between the affective factors and the variable “difficulty to learn English”, r = .681, n = 160, p < .001, between affective factors and “materials” variable, r = .768, n = 160, p < .001, and between “difficulty to learn English” and “materials” variables, r = .827, n = 160, p < .001. The correlation between other subscales is low and even insignificant, such as between the variables “materials” and “school policy”, r = .035, n = 160, p < .001. Table 3 below represents grouped variables correlation and descriptive statistics. Table 3. Descriptive statistics and correlation for grouped variables M SD (1) (2) (3) (4) ** (1) Affective factors 2.28 .94 1 -.255 .011 .027 (2) Teaching methodology 3.44 .71 -.255** 1 .291** .368** ** (3) School policy 3.62 .70 .011 .291 1 .364** ** ** (4) Learning environment 3.44 .58 .027 .368 .364 1 ** ** (5) Difficulty to learn English 2.31 .90 .681 -.258 -.055 .038 (6) Materials 2.37 .77 .768** -.169* .035 .132 (5) .681** -.258** -.055 .038 1 .827** (6) .768** -.169* .035 .132 .827** 1 73 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) After dividing the questions on attitudes into 6 groups or subscales and analyzing them separately, a general distinction was made between positive and negative attitudes to check whether students experience more positive or negative attitudes towards language learning, as well as to be able to conduct an independent t-test and a one-way ANOVA test on the overall students' attitude. To do so, the median of the scores was considered as the measure of central tendency; the scores equal or higher than the median were considered to reflect negative attitudes and those lower than the median were interpreted as positive attitudes. This is due to the fact that responses in the questionnaire are marked on a Likert scale ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 5(strongly agree) Table 4 given below presents descriptive statistics of scores from the questionnaire. N Valid Missing Median Table 4. Descriptive Statistics of Scores from the Questionnaire Investigating Attitudes Affective Teaching School Learning Difficulty to learn factors methodology policy environment English 160 160 160 160 160 0 0 0 0 0 2.00 3.50 3.75 3.50 2.20 After conducting descriptive analysis of the median score of 6 grouped variables, the teaching methodology, school policy, and learning environment variables were categorized into negative attitudes group, and affective factors, difficulty to learn English, and materials variables were categorized into positive attitudes group. Having determined positive and negative attitudes that the participants reported, conditions were created to answer the second research question which aims to determine which attitudes are more reported by the participants. As presented in Table 5 below, the participants reported more negative attitudes towards language learning (M = 3.49, SD = .78) than positive ones (M = 2.22, SD = .50). Table 5. Descriptive statistics of overall attitudes scores N Mean Std. Deviation Positive attitudes 160 2.33 .78 Negative attitudes 160 3.49 .50 Valid N (listwise) 160 The next research question aimed at investigating whether there exists a statistically significant difference between positive and negative attitudes toward foreign language learning in case of different genders. An independent samples t-test was conducted to investigate this. The results show that there exists no statistically significant difference between positive attitudes in the scores for 74 Materials 160 0 2.22 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić males (M = 2.25, SD = .75) and females (M = 2.40, SD = .81); t(158) = -1.27, p = 0.20. Also, scores on negative attitudes for males (M = 3.43, SD = .58) and females (M = 3.55, SD = .41); t(158) = -1.51, p = 0.13 were statistically insignificant. Thus, gender does have an effect on neither positive nor negative attitude towards language learning (see Table 6). Positive attitudes Negative attitudes Table 6. Independent samples t-test Gender N M SD F Male 74 2.25 .75 .801 Female 86 2.40 .81 Male 74 3.43 .58 2.56 Female 86 3.55 .41 t -1.27 Sig. .205 -1.51 .132 A one-way ANOVA between subjects was conducted to compare the effect of positive and negative attitudes towards language learning on four different high school grades. Conditions of four different grades did not have significant effect on positive attitudes on language learning at the p < .05 F(3, 156) = .958, p = .414. Insignificant difference was also found between negative attitudes and four grades at the p < .05 level, F(3, 156) = .071, p = .976 (see Table 7). Table 7. A one-way ANOVA between subjects Negative attitudes Positive attitudes M 3.40 2.57 SD .57 .82 Second M 3.76 2.03 SD .36 .67 Third M 3.61 2.50 SD .43 .80 Fourth M 3.57 2.52 SD .37 .69 F .071 .958 Sig. .976 .414 Class First 5. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY As mentioned earlier in this work, English language plays an important role in the Bosnian educational system (Dubravac, Brdarević-Čeljo & Bećirović, 2018). Given that it is a mandatory foreign language in all primary and high schools its importance, the need to learn it and use it, is growing and developing (Kovačević, Brdarević-Čeljo & Bećirović, 2018). Numerous researchers have conducted investigations of English language acquisition among Bosnian primary school, high school and university students so far, thereby investigating processes, implications, similarities and differences among procedures, approaches, and methods of language acquisition, taking into consideration participants’ age, 75 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 gender, grade level, socio-economic status and other social, cognitive, or affective differences (Bećirović et al. 2018; Brdarević-Čeljo & Asotić, 2017; Dubravac & Latić 2019; Kovačević & Akbarov 2015; Mašić et al. 2020; Rizvić & Bećirović, 2017). However, this particular research aimed to investigate what kind of attitudes, positive or negative, towards language learning will Bosnian high school students demonstrate while learning English language in a school setting. Based on the results of the questionnaire items’ analysis, variables that are reported as negative predictors are teaching methodology, school policy and learning environment, where the items investigating the school policy variable show the highest score, i.e. school policy is the strongest cause of negative attitudes. These results, particularly school policy as the main cause of students’ negative attitudes, do not support the results reported by Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019) where this type of variable is not among negative ones. The items referring to school policy in the questionnaire used in this research were mainly concerned with the way of teaching English language in schools, the ways of distributing and covering materials during lessons and the time English language enters the school curriculum. Based on the reported results, students seem to have negative attitude towards language learning if these conditions are not met in the school. The next predictor of students’ negative attitudes as reported by the participants is the learning environment variable. Ghaedsharafi et al. (2019) have reported that learning environment and teaching methodology, which are relatively close issues in the language learning process, are among the sources of negative attitudes. Learning environment has been extensively observed in the classroom management procedures (Jones & Jones, 2007; Delić, Bećirović & Brdarević-Čeljo, 2018) where the positive atmosphere in the classroom has been determined as one of the main predictors to a learning process success. Moreover, Tsuda (2003) points out that an unpleasant environment cannot offer students, as well as teachers, a place to successfully apply English language in learning and communication. The statistical analysis displayed in the previous section confirms the last two hypotheses of this investigation. Gender and grade level did not significantly differ in reporting the types of attitudes asked in the questionnaire. Interestingly, at each point of research questions they obtained almost identical mean scores. The concept of gender in Bosnian EFL context has been studied. Dubravac and Latić (2019), for example, researching students’ language learning beliefs, insignificant main effect of gender and grade on students’ learning beliefs. Thus, it appears that gender and grade level do not play a key role in modifying students’ attitudes in this case, as both male and female participants, across all four grade levels, shared more or less the same attitudes towards the English language learning experience. 76 �Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Haris Delić 6. CONCLUSION The aim of this study was to determine the presence and the nature of high school students’ attitude towards English language learning. The results show that participants express more negative attitudes and that school policies are the factor that contributes to this type of attitude the most. Other factors that also contribute to negative attitudes towards L2 learning are learning environment and difficulty to learn English language. Moreover, a conclusion was reached that gender and grade level differences play no significant role in rendering these types of attitudes. A suggestion for further study of this concept would be the inclusion of other educational contexts (primary schools, universities), since the data collected and analyzed in this research do not provide a strong basis for generalization due to narrow research context. Furthermore, the concept of (negative) attitude can be investigated in combination with motivation, learning styles and strategies, and gender and grade level differences between students. 77 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 LIMITATIONS This study is limited to one public high school in Bosnia and Herzegovina and, therefore, provides only a partial representation of students’ attitudes towards learning English. REFERENCES Abolfazli, Z. & Sadeghi, K. (2018). Iranian language learners’ attitudes towards teaching/learning english: the role of university major, gender, and age. Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, 5(1), 1-26. doi: 10.30479/jmrels.2019.10399.1297 Ahmetović, E., Bećirović, S., Dubravac, V. (2020). Motivation, anxiety and students’ performance. European Journal of Contemporary Education 9(2), 271 – 289. Aliakbari, M. & Gheitasi, M. (2017). 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Language Learning, 53(S1), 33-64. doi: 10.1111/1467-9922.53223 79 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Zainol Abidin, M., Pour-Mohammadi, M., & Alzwari, H. (2012). EFL students’ attitudes towards learning english language: the case of libyan secondary school students. Asian Social Science, 8(2). doi: 10.5539/ass.v8n2p119 Wenden, A. (1991). Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. London: Prentice Hall. Rahimi, M., & Hassani, M. (2012). Attitude towards EFL textbooks as a predictor of attitude towards learning English as a foreign language. Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences, 31, 66-72. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.018 Rizvić E., & Bećirović, S., (2017). Willingness to communicate in english as a foreign language in Bosnian-Herzegovinian EFL context. European Researcher, 8(3), 224-235. doi: 10.13187/er.2017.3.224 80 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language Attitude towards learning English as a foreign language https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/65db79d591210f164c7b928b4f0779e1.pdf 32fc89b26cbe6321026bd642b4c4a758 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 81-104, Summer 2020 Professional paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020317 Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, PhD Adem Olovčić, MA Selma Delalić, PhD International Burch University adis.maksic@ibu.edu.ba adem.olovcic@ibu.edu.ba selma.delalic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: This paper discusses the main structures and processes of globalization in the context of the coronavirus pandemic. It begins by revisiting the historical processes that have led to interstate economic, cultural, political, and security interdependence, and the consequent erosion of the capabilities of nation - states. The paper then proceeds to examine the inability of global institutions to cope with the pandemic, which has demonstrated that the nation – state remain the primary actor at the global political map. Yet, the discussion also shows that there is no viable alternative to global interdependence, and there is the resultant need for a more effective transnational governance. Keywords: Globalization, pandemic, coronavirus, nation – state, global governance, crisis. Article History Submitted: 30 June 2020 Accepted: 15 July 2010 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. INTRODUCTION It has been said that high expectations produce deep frustration. This phrase has found its empirical instantiation in the recent disappointments with the outcomes of globalization. The past few decades have been characterized by a great enthusiasm for globalization, where the world, in the form of a “global village,” (McLuhan & Powers, 1992) would be able to respond to challenges in ways that had not been seen in the earlier eras of human societies. Yet, the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic has shown that globalization is not a panacea for the world's ills. On the contrary, the pandemic has revealed the unpredictable and often contradictory consequences of global interconnectedness. The discussion that follows argues that the pandemic has indeed demonstrated the ongoing centrality of the nation-states at the level of global politics. Yet, it also concludes that there will be no permanent reversal of the trends of economic integration and cultural exchange. The first task is to provide conceptual clarity and situate the discussion in the historical context by revisiting the emergence of patterns of social interaction that are grouped under the term “globalization”. 2. GLOBALIZATION AND THE EROSION OF THE NATION-STATE Although there are different understandings of the concept of globalization, at the most basic level, it signifies the process of creating new, multiplying and expanding social networks and activities. David Held (1997) thus understands globalization as “the expansion and the deepening of social relations and institutions in space and time that make daily activities increasingly influenced by the events that take place on the other side of the world” (p. 310). Globalization includes two interrelated elements: the openness of international borders to increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the changes in institutions and policies on national and international level that facilitate or promote such flows. As patterns of human interaction assume transnational forms, they create a new demand for governance, to be addressed with what Ulrich Beck has termed “institutionalized cosmopolitanism” (Beck, 2007, p. 9). This globalized governance signifies the emergence of the various transnational institutional forms, from non – state political actors, to global agencies and judicial structures. Globalization can be disaggregated into “three general aspects” (National Geography Encyclopedia, 2020). The first one is cultural, which speaks of cultural interdependence, and the potential emergence of a global culture. The second one is economic, and deals with trade and financial integration, along with the reduction of the impact of government policies in the economy. Finally, the 82 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić political/legal aspect relates to the role of a state in a globalized world. All three aspects are driven by the development of new technologies, such as the internet, satellite, and high – tech computers. The inevitable and the most significant changes in the globalization process are evident in the field of economics and politics, and to a lesser extent on the cultural plane, therefore the following two sections discuss the economic and political aspects in greater depth. 2.1. ECONOMIC ASPECT OF THE GLOBALIZATION AND EROSION OF THE NATION – STATE Economic globalization refers to strengthening and expanding of economic relations worldwide. International economy, in the era of globalization, has become closely integrated in a system based mainly on global production and global finances aided by the global economic institutions and their agencies. Thus, the end of the Cold War increased the power of the international economic system by emphasizing the role of two main actors of economic globalization: Multinational corporations (MNCs) and international economic institutions. Global economy knows no boundaries and operates as if there are no political barriers. All that is happening in the name and for the benefit of the world community. The roots of globalized economy, according to Baalam and Dillman (2014), can be found “in the early 1980s when U.S. President Ronald Reagan and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher popularized the ideas and policies associated with economic liberalism and free trade” (Baalam & Dillman, pp. 17 – 19), whereupon, in the late 1980’s and through 1990’s many of the newly industrializing countries in East and Southeast Asia integrated themselves into the new global economy. Economic globalization is offered as universal, benevolent, self – understanding, systematic, scientifically legitimate and justified. Still, many dramatic events and the phenomena of the modern world showed how the new management and the new knowledge economy, through sophisticated and coarse practices, is transformed into the dangerous and largely deceptive ideology, which rests on pure commercial interests and consumerism. For this aspect are particularly noteworthy the activities of international economic institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank Group. The establishment of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank as a result of the conference in Bretton Woods in 1944, and after that, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, (GATT) in 1947 are important moments of the economic globalization, especially, considering their main task to “create more peaceful relations between states that traded with one another” (Baalam & Dillman, p. 19) It is widely known that these organizations undoubtedly affect the globalized economy nowadays by involving 95 – 100% of the total number of countries worldwide in their activities. Their main task is to implement and supervise the common global economy rules and policies that all countries are 83 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 expected to follow. For example, WTO has about 160 members today (covers approximately 95% of world trade) and the IMF today has 189 members (same as the World Bank), with its mission to “foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world” (International Monetary Fund, 2020). On the other hand, the main objectives of the World Bank are reduction of poverty and improvement of living standards among its member states. (World Bank, 2020) So how can all this be connected with the nation – state? First and foremost, traditional economic assumptions that the state encompasses a national economy, that international economic activity takes place between such national economies, that international trade takes place between national firms, and that the primary function of international financial transactions was to facilitate trade, in the era of globalized economy, are no longer valid. Globalization has encouraged the development of a global capitalist economic system in which every country has a stake. Capra (1983) claims that this is because world systems are “integrated wholes whose properties cannot be reduced to those of smaller units (such as nation states)” (p. 15). In the book Losing control? Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization (1996) Dutch – American sociologist Saskia Sassen, argues that economic globalization has contributed to a “denationalization of national territory, in a highly specialized and functional way” (Sassen, p. 33), caused mainly by international corporate practices. The author identifies two important moments of influence of the global economy on nation state, both based on practices of MNCs. First, MNCs, although they are multinational (which is opposite to the traditional concept of mono – national corporations) are highly centralized, and, second, despite this, globalized companies are not strengthening countries in which they are established. The first implication is connected with the fact that multinational corporations are relying on themselves and not on the countries where they are situated or have affiliates. In such conditions, they are focused on strengthening their own establishments, hierarchies of control, and degrees of autonomy. Yet, these central functions are disproportionately concentrated in the national territories of the highly developed countries. This means not only that a single state is not able to tackle this, but also the necessity to include all the top – level financial, legal, accounting, managerial, executive, and planning functions of the company, nationally and worldwide, in order to run a corporate organization properly. Involving all these national and international actors, the company is confirming its global position and excludes the possibility of national domination in its central structures and processes. This is creating what the author names a “space economy” (Sassen, p. 10), which affects the state in the way that one has lost its significance on its own companies and their transactions. The second important moment of the space economy is the influence of international institutions; whose influence we have already presented. 84 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić With such a thesis, we can see that Sassen expanded the thesis of the role of MNCs on the erosion of the nation – state, which is the one that most authors agree with. The thesis is summarized by the former Malaysian prime – minister Mahathir Mohamad, who claimed that international economic giants are not only much bigger than developing countries, but also that such giants have an aspiration to enter those countries. Once this is achieved, “local businesses will simply shut down”. Furthermore, although their intention is not to influence the state – policies, “the temptation to interfere with local politics may be too great for these foreign giants to resist” (Mohamad, 2002, p. 134). Raghavan (1996) expresses the significance of MNCs in terms of influence, estimating that MNCs account for around one - third of total world economic output and control around “two - thirds of the world economy” Based on liberal aspirations of the liberation of the economy from the influence of the state and relying on the aforementioned corporate practices and the influence of international organizations, globalization, in economic sense has contributed to the erosion of the nation – state and the strengthening of global interdependence. From this point of view, we need to agree with scholar Thomas Friedman, who was concerned about the extent to which globalization has a homogenizing effect on societies around the world.i Friedman even argues that the basic characteristic of contemporary economic markets is that “no one is in charge” and that “today, more than ever, the traditional boundaries between politics, culture, technology, finance, national security and ecology are disappearing” (Friedman, 1999, p. 15). Albeit the economy plays an essential role in the processes of globalization, and contributes, as we have seen, to erosion of the nation – state, the strengthening of global economic relationships is intertwined in a relationship of mutual reinforcement with a series of political decisions. The next section offers a more targeted analysis of the role of politics in the erosion of the nation – state. 2.2. POLITICAL ASPECT OF THE GLOBALIZATION AND EROSION OF THE NATION– STATE Just as economic globalization has involved the strengthening and expansion of economic relations around the world, political globalization refers to the same processes when it comes to global political relations. Political processes raise an important set of policy issues, pertaining to the principle of state sovereignty, the growing influence of NGOs and the prospect of potential global leadership. It is evident that these outgrow frames of nation-state, thus promoting nation-state erosion. Political globalization refers to the transfer of decision – making places from national to international organizations and institutions. This is achieved through interstate integration (e. g. European Union)ii and by ordering the world as a global civil society that promotes the achievements of democratic citizenship, i.e. universal human rights and the rule of law. With this said, and with our purpose in mind, we will take into consideration the most significant political structures and processes of the globalized world. 85 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Contemporary manifestations of globalization led to permeation of the nation state boundaries founded during the previous several centuries, dating back to rise of the concept of state sovereignty in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia iii. Author David Held in his work Global Transformations (1999) describes the impact of the Peace of Westphalia on creating a modern nation-state, emphasizing that with this agreement the world is made up, and divided into sovereign territorial states that do not recognize any higher authority. Creating long lasting relations between countries is a goal, but only in order to meet national goals. Furthermore, the common priority of every nation state should be minimizing the interference of the state freedom(s). In the centuries following the Peace of Westphalia, there was a centralization of political power, the expansion of state administration, and the development of professional diplomacy. Although trade ties between the states strengthened (and with that the emergence of capitalism as an economic system), they were controlled and conducted by the states themselves. The nation – state system got its full swing at the end of the First World War in the so – called Fourteen Points declaration, given by the former U.S. president Thomas Woodrow Wilson, based on the principle of national self – determination, and with aim to propose a postwar peace settlement. Relying on liberal values, Wilson advocated that civic and political rights in all countries of the international community should be as equal as possible, which would serve as the basis not only for faster development of universal international legal norms, but also for the liberalization of economic systems in the international community. Wilson’s presumption that all forms of national identity should get their territorial expression in a sovereign national state led him, however to the idea of establishing global system of collective security known as The League of Nations. This international organization aimed to ensure collective security as global regime based on agreement between the states that would join forces to check any potential violator of international order. The basic idea of The League of Nations was to reject war as a legitimate instrument of national policy and to insist on collective security, which would find ways to prevent war by threatening based on collective action. Yet, the League of Nations had quickly shown its impotence, and was utterly unable to respond to the rise of fascism in Italy and Germany, and militarism in Japan. Wilson’s idea to give international cooperation a new institutional expression was eventually realized through the founding of the United Nations in 1945. Although deeply rooted in a political order based on a modern nation – state system, the UN also served as a catalyst for the gradual expansion of political action across state borders. While this mission in theory weakened the principle of state sovereignty, in practice the next 45 years were shaped by power politics between two super states – the USA and the Soviet Union. The decisions on major political issues could be undertaken only with the approval of the UN Security Council, which served as a club of powerful states, 86 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Thus, UN decisions could be made and implemented only if they also overlapped with these national interests. When it came to specialized agencies whose activities were not as central for the Cold War power competition, the picture was somewhat different. The agencies such are World Health Organization (WHO) and International Labor Organization (ILO), and funds and programs like United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) were able to provide humanitarian relief in many parts of the world, thus manifesting the principle that international organizations were genuinely global, and that their subjects were human beings regardless of their various subdivisions. With the end of the Cold War, this role has become even more pronounced, and humanitarian interventions, sometimes without the immediate agreement of the host government, have become more frequent. In this context, Paul Taylor (2001) observed that „The United Nations had become involved in a multilayered system of governance sometimes working with the states, sometimes alongside them and sometimes apart from them”. (p. 340) Basically, the UN’s involvement in states does not necessarily depend on actual government approval, but rather, once present, it could act independently of governments. With such impact, the matters of state became the matter of international order, where states are no longer homogeneous entities and they must be understood as open systems, having many channels for governmental, non – governmental and transnational connections to international systems. Another significant moment was the institution of international law. As a historical artefact and product of revolutions, international law has emerged as the expression of the mutual will of nations, undermining the traditional concept of a legitimate hegemon derived from natural law. Designed to facilitate international order, and first and foremost, to regulate the inter – state relations, international law, with its multilateral form of legislation and its discourse of institutional autonomy, in the age of globalization, is increasingly affecting domestic legal regimes and practices. ivAs a mutual will of nations and based on presumption that there’s no international legislature, executive and/or judiciary, international law emerges as a normative force “generally accepted by states as rules of conduct, with expectations that states will follow suit” (Joyner, 2005, p. 6) Although, states were the primary agents of international law, being the only actors empowered to formulate, enact, and enforce international law, as, Rosalyn Higgins emphasizes, “that international law applies only to states”, (Higgins, 1995, p. 40) rules of international law, nowadays, are no longer confined to issues of establishing and maintaining order only among states. Events of the modern world have contributed that individuals, groups, and organizations are increasingly becoming recognized subjects of international law. In this sense, Saskia Sassen emphasizes that in the age of globalization international law “emerges as a site for regulatory competition among essentially national approaches, whatever the issues – environmental protection, 87 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 competition policy, or human rights” (Sassen, 2007, pp. 222 – 223). As a consequence of this, a new and expansive body of international humanitarian law was ushered in, supported by a mechanism of enforcement. This in turn has given individuals, as well as some wider groups, such as various minorities, clear rights under international law, effectively turning international law into supranational law in that aspect. Finally, it is not only the UN and international law that shape the contemporary world. On the contrary, globalization has important political functions in the context of maintaining peace, bringing peoples and their cultures and civilizations closer together, thus fulfilling its cosmopolitan significance. For that purpose, thousands of voluntary and non – governmental organizations represent millions of ordinary citizens who are willing to oppose the economic and political nation – states. Over the past fifty years, NGOs have increased rapidly in number. The spread of their influence shows that the nation – state is finding it increasingly difficult to manage these widespread networks of social interdependence. The aim of this part of the paper was to briefly mark contemporary structures and processes that, as we have seen, from a political point of view have contributed to the erosion of nation – states. However, globalization grounded in this way has its risks, which will be discussed below, and will ultimately lead us to the answer to our central question. 2.3. GLOBALIZATION AND THE CHANGING CONCEPT OF SECURITY In the hierarchy of physical and emotional needs of human beings, security ranks high second place immediately after meeting the basic psychological impulses for survival. Human perception of security is extremely complex. Man, by nature, has had the primordial urge to achieve safety and security against myriad threats such as conflict, war, and violence. Apart from that, a constant drive to attain economic security, job security, access to health and education, undisturbed retirement revenue, guaranteed human rights, and equality, i.e. security against any kind of social discrimination, has been ubiquitous (Manning & Curtis, 2014). In other words, people, throughout their lives, aspire to protect whatever they value and hold dear. With the evolution of human race, values have changed, but the aspirations remained consistent. “Feeling secure and well protected is one of humankind’s most cherished goals” (Hough et al., 2015, p. 21). Yet insecurity, violence, and conflicts are as old as social communities and omnipresent in human life. If we rise above the individual level, nation-states on the same matrix strive to achieve security, economic, first of all, through the accumulation of wealth, which is consistent with the Mercantilist theory, but also the military security through the accumulation of weapons, as the Realism theory teaches us. According to Realists, we live in an anarchic world with no supreme authority that would bring order and protect states from the pervading violence, wars, and conflicts (Brown & Ainley, 2005). Viewed from a historical perspective, different economic, cultural, political, and social changes and developments have 88 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić influenced the occurrence and spread of violence and conflict. In this context, globalization has brought about revolutionary changes in all spheres of social, economic, political and cultural life, especially in the field of information and communication, which in terms of volume cannot be measured with any period in the development of human societies. The pace of changes taking place in the modern globalized world is perhaps best illustrated by the words of Bill Gates: “The pace of technological change is so fast that sometimes it seems the world will be completely different from one day to the next.” (Gates, 2019, p. 16). In this regard, Sorokin (1937, p. 430) in his classic work on social relations and war emphasizes that globalization is "inherently disruptive and that an increasing incidence of conflict is an inevitable bi-product of it." During the last decade of the twentieth century, as the world suddenly entered a new era of unipolar world order, which was created following the collapse of the Soviet Union as one of the two Cold War superpowers, ideological competition, arms race and fear of nuclear war were replaced by geo-economics and plethora of non-traditional, unconventional and non-military risks and threats. Liberal ideas have flooded the world, becoming generally accepted guidelines even in the orthodox communist countries. As Oliver Ramsbotham et al. (2011) argue “the dissolution of the Soviet Union brought to close the long period in which a single international conflict dominated the international system.” (p. 5) The processes of political and economic globalization were given full swing, conferring, at the same time, a strong impetus to security aspect of globalization, which gained its full momentum after 9/11 with George W. Bush declaring a global war on terrorism. Interstate conflicts have been replaced by intra-state, extra-state, religious and ethnic conflicts, and secessionist movements. The traditional concept advocated by Realists, which focuses on the teachings of sovereign nation-states, established by the 1648 Treaty of Westphalia that face almost exclusively military threats, has long been outlived and deficient (Buzan & Hansen, 2012). In contrast, “neoliberals suggest that military force is declining as a tool of foreign policy as states seek the greater economic interaction necessary to prosper in a globalized world.” (Keohane & Nye, 2001, p. 98). Although nation-states are still the backbone of the international system, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, particularly following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the system have come to be dominated by myriad non-state actors, both in political and economic, as well as in the sphere of security. The most notable are multinational corporations, regional and international organizations, non-governmental and intergovernmental organizations, but also international organized criminal groups and terrorist organizations. Hence, the concept of security in a globalized world is not limited exclusively to the state, but to the individual, state, and non-state, and apart from military aspects (wars, ethnic and religious conflicts, proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, terrorism), it comprises manifold nonmilitary facets such as organized crime, environmental, disasters, food, health, economic, and political 89 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 security. In addition to the extended scope, the concept of security has different meanings and interpretations in different parts of the world. Some people spend almost their entire lives fearing earthquakes, floods and other natural disasters, some have daily fears that they will have nothing to feed their families the next day, while some fear terrorist attacks and violence from mafia or other criminal groups (Booth, 2012). Therefore, for man to be truly safe and secure, it is necessary to live in a society free of direct violence (war and conflict), as well as indirect structural violence in the form of economic and political insecurity, inequality, segregation, vulnerable human rights, etc. In this regard, Johan Galtung, one of the most remarkable scholars and founders of modern peace and security studies coined the terms ‘positive’ and ‘negative peace. In his view, "thinking solely in terms of a negative conception is insufficient because this fails to take into account the deep-rooted causes of conflict, as well as less obvious forms of violence" (Galtung, 1990, p. 104). Globalization has dramatically affected the increase of free trade, free and fast flow of information, ideas, knowledge, but also the movement of people, goods and services, especially those in the field of banking and insurance. These developments have influenced economic, political, cultural, but also security interdependence of countries unprecedented in human history. In the context of security, the post-Cold War globalization favored the emergence and spread of the influence of plentiful terrorist organizations, organized criminal and insurgent groups, as well as mercenaries and warlords. “Such groups begin to compete with one another for the resources of the failing states and this competition has often taken a violent turn” (Kaldor, 2006, p. 92). These groups began to behave and act in the same way as economic entities ignoring national borders. Like multinational corporations, transnational organized criminal and terrorist groups have their 'headquarters' in one country in which they plan operations; the same operations are carried out in countries around the world; they use some of them as transit countries, i.e. to transport 'goods' across the territory to the final destination; and deposit their criminal proceeds in those countries that have favorable banking and financial regulations (Godson & Williams, 2002). In other words, we are witnessing the globalization of crime, to the same extent as is the case with the economic and all other aspects of modern life. With this in mind, and the fact that today countries and societies around the world are faced with a number of unconventional security challenges, significantly different from those of the past, nation-states have found themselves in a situation no longer able to make their own respond to these threats. “Whereas in the past states were able to maintain internal order within their territories, in large part as a result of globalization this ability has been severely energized”. (Hough et al., 2015, p. 109) Therefore, states seek to eliminate security threats and establish order, security and the rule of law in their territory, through bilateral and multilateral agreements and association in various regional organizations like the League of Nations, NATO, OSCE, EU, Europol, SELEC, 90 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić and global agencies such as the United Nations, as a collective security system, whose mission, in addition to conflict prevention, consists of peacebuilding, peacemaking, and peacekeeping. The core UN mission is carried out with the support of different programs and agencies such as: − UN International Drug Control Program – UNDCP − UN Centre for International Crime Prevention – CICP − UN Office for Drugs and Crime – UNODC − UN Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division – CCPCJ (Hough et al., p. 252) − World Health Organization – WHO – an organization that has a leading role in combating the coronavirus pandemic. − Interpol − World Customs Organization Due to the current moment in which we live, constantly in fear for our lives endangered by the invisible enemy COVID-19, we will finally pay special attention to this serious security threat. Good connoisseurs of history are familiar with the fact that infectious diseases since the Middle Ages onwards have claimed more human lives than all wars combined. "Today, AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is the second biggest killer in history." (Hough et al., p. 271) From the Second World War onwards, international relations were dominated by military threats - organized crime, weapons of mass destruction proliferation and terrorism. The outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic re-emphasized importance of non-military, health threats to the security of people, but also the national and economic security of states, and showed the extent to which we are vulnerable to events occurring thousands of kilometers away from our home. It only took a few months for the coronavirus to spread, affecting almost every part of the planet. And all this took place precisely 'thanks' to the immense mobility of people made possible by globalization. (Chen & Wilson, 2008) The seriousness of the situation regarding the COVID-19 pandemic will undoubtedly push us to rethink and prioritize security threats. “The health of all peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and security” (Preamble to the WHO Constitution) By making individual efforts or by joining various regional and international security organizations to combat a myriad security threats, states seek to preserve peace and order in society, as a precondition for prosperity and economic well-being, and to provide security to their citizens, which is the primary function of every state. 91 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 3. THE POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC RISKS OF GLOBALIZATION AND COVID-19 Uncertainty, as an inherent condition of globalization, is themed by various authors such as Giddens (1991, 2009) and Beck (2001). Globalization has its risks, and our goal in this part of paper is to understand them and related them to the current pandemic. 3.1. GLOBALIZATION AND RISK Throughout history, human societies were exposed to “external risks” (Giddens, 2009, p. 193), whose appearance wasn’t caused by human action. By this we primarily mean the dangers from natural phenomena, such as droughts and earthquakes. With globalization, however, we are increasingly confronted with different types of “manufactured risks” (Giddens, p. 193), or those risks created by the impact of our own knowledge and technology on the natural world. These kinds of risks are outcomes of human interventions. What is unique in the era of globalization is the creation of a space in which responsibility for addressing the risks cannot be allocated to any single actor. As in The Consequences of Modernity, Giddens observes, that the global spread of modernity tends to produce a “runaway world” (Giddens, 1991, p. 137) in which it appears that no one and no government is in overall control. In a world of rapid change, traditional forms of trust are dissolved. While in the years past humans engaged in social activities and shared responsibilities for their excesses through tight-knit local communities, nowadays people influence one another in numerous distinct ways and across large distances. Such impersonal relations mean that humans are pushed to “trust” or have confidence in “abstract systems”, as in environmental regulation agencies, multinational corporations or international systems. Furthermore, people also rely on different policies and laws (e.g. international law) that are closely related with quality of their lives, believing that these structures will protect them in a certain way. Based on this, trust and risks are closely bound together. For Ulrich Beck (2001) German – born American sociologist, globalization implies the processes that result from activities of transnational actors, while identity and networks undermine nation – states and their sovereignty and interconnectedness (p. 28). Events in different corners of the world produce global shockwaves a phenomenon that Beck names “reflexive modernity”. This reflexive modernity is a paradigm shift of the “industrial modernity” and appears as “a multidimensional, polycentric, contingent and political” risk – based society (Risikogesellschaft) (Beck, p. 25). The notion of a risk society means that the past is losing its determining power for the present. In a nutshell, we’re not able to learn from the past anymore. Beck argues that this situation should be changed by reorganizing our lives, behaviors, and processes on the “local – global” basis (Beck, p. 30). One area of this reorganization is global health. Along with the people, diseases travel to all corners of the globe at an increasingly fast rate, creating a 92 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić need for global health governance. No case has made this as evident as the 2020 rapid spread of the coronavirus from a market in the Chinese city of Wuhan to nearly every country in the globe in a span of a couple of months. The case has demonstrated a global threat on the one hand, and the absence of a global institution equipped with staff, finances and policy enforcement capacities to effectively address it on the other. In response to the crisis, the most relevant international organization, the World Health Organization (WHO), has been forced to take a back seat. It was the nation-states that quarantine citizens, closed borders, and created social distancing practices, in some cases in disregard of the WHO analyses and recommendations. The most powerful of these and the primary WHO funder, the United States, has accused the WHO of mishandling the crisis and threatened to hold back the funds. COVID – 19 pandemics has undoubtedly shown that neither international organizations with their agencies, nor national governments were ready for an immediate and effective response in the face of a deadly global pandemic. Therefore, our main task, in the following rows, is to understand the impact of the coronavirus on the main structures and processes of the globalized world. 3.2. THE EMERGENCE OF CORONAVIRUS AND ITS IMPACT ON GLOBALIZATION Based on Giddens’ theory of “external” and “manufactured” risks of globalization, we can say that the emergence of coronavirus is, undoubtedly a manufactured risk based on human activity, and/or human influence on nature. The emergence and spread of the coronavirus (an animal virus) arose as a result of the meat consumption of certain animal species in China, in the Wuhan region, where the virus first appeared. If we take into consideration Beck's understanding that globalized risk society is multidimensional, polycentric and political, we can see that coronavirus has affected several dimensions of global society at the same time – mainly the processes and structures that we’ve discussed in the first part of this paper. Now all these processes and structures are in question, and their order is on the brink of survival. The coronavirus pandemic has undoubtedly had a devastating effect on the global economy. OECD identifies this crisis as the largest economic crisis of the 21st century, even bigger than the crisis that followed after the 9/11 terrorist attacks and the 2008 financial crisis (OECD, 2020). The following chart shows the impact of the pandemic on national economies, based on the decline of annual GDP. 93 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Figure 1. Decline of annual GDP as a sign of a recession (Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52089127) However, the first real indicator of this crisis is the rapid decline in world oil prices, bringing the price of a barrel of oil below 30 USD/barrel. The price of crude oil fell even below 20 USD/barrel, which is the lowest price recorded in the last 18 years, and OPEC and other countries have now agreed to cut production. Besides this, the world still has more crude oil than it can use, so, the predictions are that the Gulf states, dependent on oil exports, will feel the brunt of the crisis. On the chart below, we can see the fall of oil prices on the world market at the time of the pandemic. 94 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Figure 2. Oil Prices from 2000 to 2020 (Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52089127 ) On the other hand, all world stock markets recorded a large slump. Many investors fear that the spread of the coronavirus will destroy economic growth. In response, central banks in many countries reduced their interest rates. In order to boost the economy, this process should make borrowing much cheaper and affordable and therefore encourage spending rate. Still, the fact is that the poor countries will, due to their inability to answer properly, encounter the greatest effects of the crisis. On the following chart, we can see the impact of coronavirus on stock markets since the beginning of the pandemic. Figure 3. The impact of coronavirus on stock markets (Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/business51706225?intlink_from_url=&) 95 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 However, despite the efforts of governments, the global economy cannot survive without the influence of international economic actors. For the purpose of this paper, we will focus on the reaction of international economic institutions, the roles and capacities of MNCs and the global supply chains they’re involved in. Firstly, we will summarize the response of the World Bank Group, which represents a prime example of a global institution in charge of helping countries deal with economic shocks. It is directly involved with the most vulnerable countries in the world, and as such has the most important role in helping countries deal with this crisis of all international institutions. In that context it has already reached out to 100 developing countries with some sort of aid. For that purpose, the World Bank Group has delivered record amounts of aid and has pledged 160 billion USD in the next fifteen months, for developing countries – to help deal with health, social and economic issues which emerged as a consequence of the pandemic. Regarding this, the potential issue for the World Bank Group is the threat that this institution has reduced funding from member countries due to their reduced fiscal capacities and small budgets, which are direct consequences of diminished economic activity in the countries. Secondly, the World Trade Organization, is nowadays concerned about the impact of the pandemic on global trade. According to a statement given by Roberto Azevedo, in the recent meeting in Geneva, the pandemic will incur significant consequences on world trade. Regarding this, their efforts are directed towards reaching an agreement on subsidies in food production, online trade and fishing industry. (World Trade Organization, 2020) The full extent of repercussions on global trade by this crisis remains to be seen. Thirdly, like all other global economic institutions, the International Monetary Fund, is faced with the duration and uncertainty that the global crisis caused by the coronavirus brings. The emergence of coronavirus has changed the expectations of the IMF on the projected growth of per capita income in different countries. The managing director of the IMF, Kristalina Georgieva says that this institution projects that more than 170 countries will experience negative per capita income growth this year (International Monetary Fund, 2020). In order to face such a crisis, the IMF created a so - called 4-Point Plan (Georgieva, 2020), which summarizes the four main priorities of IMF action in the coming period. The activities of the IMF will be aimed at: first, prioritizing health spending for testing and medical equipment, in order to defeat the virus and defend people’s health; second, providing timely financial and fiscal support to households and businesses; third, reducing financial stress while monitoring global economic stability; and, fourth, planning recovery by minimizing the potential scarring effects of the crisis through policy. For these purposes, the IMF has a lending capacity of about 1 trillion USD, which is already placed at the service for the member countries. It is important to keep in mind that the activities of the IMF are short - term, and that this institution will adapt to the new situation(s). 96 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić The pandemic brings with itself a damage for multinational corporations as well, and that situation can be understood in two ways: first, halting production in the affected countries, mostly semi - periphery and periphery countries, where MNCs have their branches and with that, hitting supply chains around the world; and, second, steep drop in consumption together with collapse in confidence, which results in giving priority to domestic products and turn to smaller domestic producers. Not just with pandemic, many companies are now seeking alternative suppliers in countries that appear less vulnerable to disruption, but also, the confidence of producers and consumers is now oriented toward its own markets. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 42 of the 100 largest multinational companies in the world said they were facing the problem of profitable business (UNCTAD, 2020). his means that they have to reduce allocations for investments, which will have a negative impact on the operations of banks, and then on the rest of the economy. The situation is made worse by the dramatic increase of private sector debt which was ushered by FED’s expansive monetary policy in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis. According to the Washington Institute of International Finance, non – financial private sector debt was on level 56.25 percent higher in 2019, than it was in 2009. Now, the bill might come due by increasing economic damage and further shaking the financial markets. It is not clear yet what the final economic outcome of the coronavirus pandemic will be. Yet, we can say with certainty that the rigorous measures applied by international economic actors, albeit necessary to combat the virus, are putting most of economies “on life support — into some sort of deep freeze” (Oxenford, 2020), with the prediction that they will come out of in the period of the next six months. Although some economic analysts have gone so far as to state that the coronavirus has dealt a final blow to globalization and the global economy, the future is, in our opinion, much less certain. In political terms, coronavirus has, undoubtedly, led to a crisis of globalization. Such a crisis is anticipated through many major or minor events in the recent past, like Britain’s exit from the European Union (Brexit), closing the boundaries for migrants in western states, and awakening of nationalism in many countries worldwide. Still, no one could have predicted that the aforementioned crisis would rapidly escalate amid the intensifying health crisis, which prompted countries around the globe to effectively shut down and turn to themselves. Although globalization, with its features, has brought the possibility of local, regional and global spread of diseases, as a consequence of interregional movement of people, goods and ideas, where a health problem in any part of the world can rapidly become a health threat to many or all (Lee, 2004) there was no concerted, coordinated international effort at tackling it. In this context, we will discuss the role of the World Health Organization as a main global institution for health – related issues On international level, global health has become a concern since the early 1990s, (with emergence of HIV/AIDS), and interest for this issue has been 97 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 expressed significantly during the 2000s. This concern produced Resolution 1308, the first health - related UN Security Council resolution (Cf. Lee, 2004). Likewise, health has begun to play an increasingly prominent role in Group of Seven (G7) and Group of Eight (G8), during their summits in the early 2000s. These summits produced the Global Fund to Fight HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria at the G8 Summit in Genoa in June 2001 and was accompanied by commitments by the wealthiest countries to dimidiate the infectious disease burden by 50% by 2010. Similar discussions have been held at the World Economic Forum, attended by government leaders, corporate executives and other prominent individuals, held annually in Davos, Switzerland. All of these initiatives have been related to “health security” (Cf. Lee, 2004). With these developments, and together with the support of the health community, the WHO certainly began to play a prominent role. Yet, the WHO’s position, as the main global actor on health issues was conditioned with different epidemiological trends, the emergence of new actors, paradigmatic shifts in ideology and values, and pressures on resources (Godlee, 1994; Lucas et al., 1997; Vaughan et al., 1995). States, as financiers, still had the upper hand, and WHO over the past decades has “faced criticism for being overly bureaucratic, politicized, and dependent on a few major donors”. (King, 2020) These criticisms have become even more prominent in the case of the coronavirus pandemic. There is widespread belief among governments and public across the globe that the World Health Organization, as an umbrella institution in this area, failed to adequately respond to the crisis. Due to pressure from financier countries, especially after Trump's statement about reducing donations that the U.S., as a main donor (see the chart below), gives to WHO, this organization is now concerned, not just with the pandemic, but also, with the aspiration not to anger its main donors. Namely, Trump's concept envisions reducing US contributions to 10 percent of what they used to be. Measured by the U.S. contribution for 2018 and 2019, that would mean a reduction to approximately 44.7 million USD per year, from the previous number of 115.8 million. The crisis has thus fully illuminated that the influence of WHO in the area of health governance pales in comparison with that of nation-states in general, and with those of its powerful donors in particular. Indeed, the growth of global governance over the last several decades has not elevated the primary international health organization above its dependence on the will of national governments. 98 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Figure 4. The main financial contributors to the WHO (Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/chart/21372/assessed-contributions-tothe-world-health-organization) The chart above shows that the main donors of the WHO are U.S., China, and Germany, countries among those most affected by the pandemic. It is important to note that by April 30th, 2020, neither China nor the United States had paid their 2020 membership fees, although this was supposed to be done on January 1st (WHO, 2020). Germany, for example, has so far paid only half of its membership fee. WHO thus remains dependent on the help of its donors, unable to answer properly and autonomously to a genuinely global crisis. In addition to shaking the importance of the WHO, the pandemic has also shown that nations – states have become aware of their own power. While the coronavirus crisis will not put an end to globalization, it is this newfound confidence of national governments that will carry over into the post-pandemic age, slowing the speed, density and breath of future flows of people, goods and information across state borders. Most importantly, it will encourage states to resist delegating parts of their sovereignty to transnational actors. The world we live in is, as Thomas Friedman emphasized, “more easily prone to shocks and extreme behaviors”, and these are showing that such a world “is not flat, but fragile” (Friedman, 2020). When it comes to globalization, we have gone too far and from this point, our return to other, old systems is highly improbable. Yet, the shock of COVID-19 and its lessons will strengthen tendencies of states to resist the spill over of the ongoing sociological 99 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 transformations that globalization brings about into the realm of political governance. 4. CONCLUSION This paper has discussed several phenomena connected, with the concept of globalization in general, and the influence of the coronavirus pandemic on its main structures and processes in particular. For that purpose, we explored the extent to which globalization contributed to the erosion of a nation – state by examining the political and economic structures and processes that affect global governance. Globalization, as we could see, has transformed and firmly integrated the global community, creating rapid flows of goods, people, technology, information and ideas across national and transnational borders. Reflected in the expansion and the strengthening of social relations and activities, the phenomenon of globalization affected economic, security, and political structures of nation-states, thus leading to internationalization and erosion of state sovereignty. With its economic and political, and to a lesser extent cultural aspect, globalization has created a global governance system in which many decisions are made by international institutions and transnational corporations (TNCs). Parallel to this shift in political actors, we have seen the development and a growing importance of international law. As a result of an increasingly globalized world, states lost power and authority to control policy making in several areas, the most pronounced of which is in the economic realm. On the other hand, globalization has created new risks, which can cause unpredictable and very often long – term consequences. Indeed, the outbreak of coronavirus, primarily in China and then all over the world, has shown that the risks carry the seeds of globalization’s own reversal. While the pandemic will not bring global integration to a screeching halt in any permanent sense, the quarantine measures, the curfews, economic stimulus packages and other responses have largely followed nation-state lines, bringing to full visibility those same lines that many observers have speculated were on the path of disappearance. At the same time the WHO, as an umbrella international institution for these issues-pressured by the member countries with debts and conditionings – found itself unable to react properly on the lasting health crisis. In the end, we could say that coronavirus has slowed down and called into question globalization as we know it. States have found new confidence, and in the post-corona world will be more daring in resisting political transformations that come at the expense of their power. Yet, the coronavirus has also reminded us that people everywhere belong to one single humanity. Nations were united in their vulnerability, while the success of measures against the threat depended on responsibilities of people to one another. Moreover, as state responses varied, they produced divergent results. Many states depended on outside advice and assistance. The less developed ones emulated measures from those with greater expertise and a better health system. 100 �Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society Adis Maksić, Adem Olovčić & Selma Delalić Thus, COVID-19 has also confirmed that the world in which we live in is genuinely global. 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Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf?ua=1. Galtung, J. (1990, August). Cultural Violence. In Journal of Peace Research, vol. 27 issue: 3, pages: 291-305. 103 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Friedmann understands the globalization process as extremely dynamic. Globalization means the undeniable integration of markets, nation states and technologies to an unprecedented degree, so that it is now to individuals, companies and countries it is possible to reach around the world, farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before. According to him, globalization is determined by some of its own technologies, computerization, miniaturization, digitalization, satellite communications, fiber optics, and the Internet. ii In the European Union, states have transferred their competences to supranational organizations, so they even made a monetary union – the Eurozone. The visible consequence of these processes and decisions is erosion of nation – states. iii The formulation of sovereignty (the term coined by French philosopher Jean Bodin in the 16th century), as a core concept in contemporary international relations, was one of the most important intellectual developments leading to the Westphalian revolution. For Bodin, sovereignty is understood as a „absolute and perpetual power vested in a commonwealth“. (Bodin, 1967, p. 25) iv International law consists of a body of both rules and norms, regulating interactions among states, between states and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and in more limited cases, among IGOs, states and individuals. In the era of globalization, the third moment is particularly prominent. i 104 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Globalization in the Time of the Coronavirus Pandemic: From the Erosion of the Nation – State to the Crisis of the Global Society https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6b6018f23bd59470ae0755fc5fb60b05.pdf aba0c75909829c6fc655bcc1f78aaf47 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (1), pp. 105-119, Summer 2020 Professional paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University https://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEH2020318 Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč, PhD International Burch University esad.oruc@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Property relations of spouses in Bosnia and Herzegovina are subject to regulation by Family law, but since they contain a large number of reference provisions, they are subject to regulation and many other substantive and procedural laws. As a consequence of the above mentioned, in practice, but also in legal theory, many questions and dilemmas have arisen to which it is necessary to find adequate answers. In this regard, the paper presents the basic elements of marital property, with an emphasis on controversial issues regarding its content. The paper draw attention towards the inadequacies of the regulation related to marital property and make proposals for improvement of current legislation. Keywords: Marital property, co-ownership, marital community Sažetak: Imovinski odnosi bračnih partnera u Bosni i Hercegovini su predmetom regulacije porodičnog zakonodavstva, ali s obzirom da isti sadrže veliki broj upućujućih odredaba, isti su predmetom regulacije i mnogih drugih zakona materijalne i procesne prirode. Kao posljedica navedenog, u praksi, ali i pravnoj teoriji pojavila su se mnoga pitanja i dileme na koje je neophodno pronaći adekvatne odgovore. S tim u vezi, u radu su prezentirane osnovni elementi bračne stečevine, sa akcentom na sporna pitanja u pogledu sadržaja iste. Detaljnom analizom pravnih propisa i relevantne sudske prakse ukazano je na određene propuste u regulaciji ovog instituta, te su predložena i adekvatna zakonska rješenja. Submitted: 15 April 2020 Accepted: 10 July 2020 Ključne riječi: Bračna stečevina, suvlasništvo, bračna zajednica. Article History �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 1. UVOD Brak je zakonom uređena zajednica života žene i muškarca, u kojoj nastaju različiti lični, ali i imovinski odnosi bračnih partnera. Imovinski odnosi bračnih partnera su predmetom regulacije porodičnog zakonodavstva, ali s obzirom da isti sadrže veliki broj upućujućih odredaba, isti su predmetom regulacije i mnogih drugih zakona. U našem zakonodavstvu, propisano je da bračni partneri mogu imati bračnu stečevinu i posebnu imovinu. U kontekstu ovog rada posebno se zanimljivim i značajnim čini institut bračne stečevine, koji čini poseban modalitet prava suvlasništva, koje opet predstavlja modalitet prava vlasništva sa više subjekata. Upravo činjenica da u vršenju prava vlasništva na jednoj nepodijeljenoj stvari učestvuje više lica, u slučaju bračne stečevine dva, sa vlastitim, ponekad i suprostavljenim interesima, čini bračnu stečevinu zanimljivim, ali i veoma složenim i zahtjevnim pravnim institutom. Zaista je rijetka situacija u kojoj jedan pravni institut potvrđuje takvu povezanost i interdisciplinarnost u regulisanju i primjeni prava kao što je to slučaj sa bračnom stečevinom, odnosno suvlasništvom (Oruč, 2016, p. 16). Ovu tezu potvrđuje činjenica da je institut bračne stečevine, odnosno suvlasništva regulisan kroz nekoliko grana materijalnog i procesnog prava. U tom smislu materijalnim pravom definisana je bračna stečevina, te uređeni odnosi između suvlasnika u istoj. S tim u vezi, u stvarnom pravu se nalaze osnovne odredbe o regulaciji suvlasništva, porodičnom pravu odredbe koje regulišu bračnu stečevinu i imovinu bračnih drugova kao posebne oblike suvlasničke zajednice, obligacionom pravu u kojem se nalaze načelne odredbe o bračnom i predbračnom ugovoru, notarskom pravu u kojem se nalaze odredbe o formi bračnog i predbračnog ugovora. Procesnim pravom regulisan je postupak razvrgnuća suvlasničke zajednice i uređenja prava korištenja, kao i izvršenja na suvlasničkom dijelu, te zaštite prava suvlasništva. Sve pomenuto definiše bračnu stečevinu, kao poseban vid suvlasničke zajednice, kao jedan od najkompleksnijih pravnih instituta sa aspekta njegove regulacije i sudskog tumačenja u primjeni pobrojanih pravnih izvora. Nadalje, konstantne promjene društveno-pravnog karaktera, te provođenje reformskih procesa u kojoj se naša država nalazi ne samo od nezavisnosti, već i ranije, nalaže konstantno preispitivanje i usklađivanje sa navedenim promjenama i novonastalim odnosima. U posljednjoj deceniji, u sferi imovinskog prava, u Bosni i Hercegovini su izvršeni najznačajniji reformski procesi ikada. Usvojeni su novi zakoni o stvarnom pravu, zemljišnoknjižnom pravu, nasljednom pravu, izvršene reforme porodičnog zakonodavstva i procesnih zakona. 106 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč 2. IMOVINSKI ODNOSI BRAČNIH PARTNERA Svakako da u jedno od najznačajnijih pitanja porodičnog, odnosno bračnog prava spadaju imovinskopravni odnosi bračnih partnera. Njima se uređuju odnosi između bračnih partnera, ali i odnosi između bračnih partnera i trećih osoba, i to ne samo u pogledu pitanja bračne stečevine i njene diobe, već i drugih pitanja, poput korištenja porodičnog doma, kao i instituta porodičnopravnog uzdržavanja (Rešetar B & Kiraly , 2012, p. 399). U svijetu danas postoji nekoliko sistema uređenja imovinskih odnosa bračnih partnera. Svi oni bi se mogli svrstati u grupu zakonskog i ugovornog režima bračne imovine. Kada je u pitanju zakonski režim uređenja pomenutih odnosa, u uporednom pravu su zastupljeni slijedeći sistemi (Draškić, 2009, p. 393.): a) zakonski režim zajednice imovina; b) zakonski režim odložene zajednice imovina i c) zakonski režim odvojenih imovina. Pored zakonskog režima, većina uporednih zakonodavstava dopušta istovremeno ugovorno uređenje odnosa bračnih partnera. Takva je situacija i u našem pravnom sistemu. Na prvi pogled, zakonski i ugovorni režim u našem porodičnom zakonodavstvu načelno je veoma jasan i jednostavan. Međutim, s obzirom na moguće načine, odnosno izvore stjecanja imovine bračnih partnera, sadržaj i implikacije u pravnom prometu, ipak moramo reći da postoje određene teorijske i praktične dileme o prirodi i sadržaju ove imovine. Također, pored preciznosti u definisanju određenih pitanja (o kojima će biti riječi), izvan zakonske regulacije su ostala određena pitanja od velikog praktičnog značaja, a na koja ćemo nastojati dati što potpunije i preciznije odgovore. Zakonski imovinski režim, prema pozitivnim propisima našeg prava, obuhvata dvije kategorije: zajedničku (bračnu stečevinu) i posebnu imovinu bračnih partnera. Na žalost, kao posljedica podjele ustavnih nadležnosti - iako sa dosta sličnim zakonskim rješenjima, u Bosni i Hercegovini ipak postoje tri odvojena pravna režima imovine bračnih drugova uspostavljena porodičnim zakonima,i te će isti biti analizirani kroz prizmu istih. 2.1. POJAM BRAČNE STEČEVINE Najznačajnija reforma imovine bračnih partnera izvršena je Porodičnim zakonom FBiH iz 2005. godine, kada se iz režima zajedničke imovine bračnih partnera prešlo u suvlasničku zajednicu uz zakonsku pretpostavku utvrđenih suvlasničkih dijelova u omjeru ½. Ipak, kao posljedica ustavnog uređenja naše zemlje, ali i sveukupne političke situacije, danas u BiH ne postoji jedinstven imovinski režim bračnih partnera. Tako, kao što je već pomenuto, u FBiH i DB BiH (Čl. 229. PZBDBiH) imovina bračnih partnera ima karakter suvlasničke zajednice, dok u RS-u (Čl. 269-289 PZRS) je zadržan stari model prema kojem imovina bračnih drugova ima karakter zajedničke imovine, gdje se udjeli i dalje 107 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 utvrđuju u sudskim postupcima pokrenutim radi diobe zajedničke imovine. Smatramo neophodnim naglasiti da u skladu s osnovnim načelom pravnog poretka o zaštiti stečenih prava, u slučaju kada novi zakon ta prava različito propisuje u odnosu na raniji zakon, na odnose nastale prije novog zakona da će se primjenjivati novi PZ iz 2005. godine, dok je npr. u R Hrvatskoj navedeno pitanje riješeno na drugačiji način, te se uvijek primjenjuje važeći zakon u vrijeme nastanka konkretnog odnosa (Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 724/08-2 od 10.03.2008. godine). U tom smislu, rješenje našeg zakona smatramo kvalitetnijim, jer isto u konačnici preciznije reguliše navedeno pitanje i ostavlja manje mogućnosti za nove sudske sporove. Navedene izmjene u porodičnom zakonodavstvu BiH zasnovane su primarno na načelu ravnopravnosti, međusobnom pomaganju i poštovanju članova porodice (Čl. 2. PZ FBiH), uz dodatnu namjeru zakonodavca da rastereti sudove dugih postupaka utvrđivanja visine suvlasničkih udjela bračnih partnera. Prema našem porodičnom zakonodavstvu, kao što je već pomenuto, bračni partneri mogu imati bračnu stečevinu i posebnu imovinu (Čl. 250. PZ FBiH). Bračnu stečevinu čini imovina koju su bračni partneri stekli radom za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice, kao i prihodi iz te imovine (Čl. 251. PZ FBiH). Dakle, zakon traži kumulativno postojanje dva uslova: da se radi o imovini koju su bračni partneri stekli radom; i da je imovina stečena tokom trajanja bračne zajednice. Vanbračna zajednica koja traje najmanje tri godine ili kraće ako je u njoj rođeno zajedničko dijete stvara imovinskopravne učinke na koje se na odgovarajući način primjenjuju odredbe o imovinskim odnosima bračnih drugova (Čl. 263. PZFBiH). S tim u vezi, naša sudska praksa zauzela je jedinstven stav da vanbračni drugovi stiču pravo suvlasništva na stvarima, ukoliko se na osnovu izričite ili prećutne volje vanbračnih drugova može zaključiti da su htjeli da pribavljene stvari budu zajedničke, odnosno u suvlasništvu (Medić & Tajić, 2008, p. 74-75). Sporazum vanbračnih drugova ne mora biti ni pismen ni izričit, već se o njegovom postojanju može suditi prema ponašanju stranaka (Vrhovni sud Vojvodine, br. Gž-113/77 od 17.06.1977. godine). Ovdje je bitno naglasiti da ne mogu nastati imovinski odnosi na principima stjecanja bračne imovine na temelju vanbračne veze koja je trajala za vrijeme trajanja braka jednog od vanbračnih parntera (Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 1168/08-2 od 21.10.2008. godine). 2.2. RAD KAO KONSTITUTIVNI ELEMENT BRAČNE STEČEVINE Zakon nije definisao šta se podrazumijeva pod radom, tako da se radi o faktičkom pitanju o kojem će sud donijeti stav u svakom konkretnom slučaju. Međutim, pravna praksa i teorija su izgradili određene standarde u pogledu ovog pitanja te bi se moglo bi se reći da se pod radom podrazumijeva svaki oblik rada: pojedinačni, zajednički, direktni i indirektni (Alinčić & Bakarić, 1989, p. 310). Posebno je bilo zanimljivo pitanje indirektnog-posrednog rada, odnosno 108 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč doprinosa u stjecanju zajedničke imovine bračnih partnera. Radi se o vrsti rada u kojem „bračni partner ne stječe imovinu neposredno svojim radom, već svojim radom omogućava drugom bračnom partneru da nesmetano i čak povećano zarađuje“ (Alinčić & Bakarić, 1989, p. 310). Ovo pitanje je definisano u našoj pravnoj teoriji odmah nakon II svjetskog rata, te je rečeno „da se indirektan, odnosno neizravan doprinos u stjecanju imovine sastoji u potpori koju jedan bračni drug pruža drugome kroz kućanske poslove, brigu o djeci, brigu o prehrani, kućanstvu i dr. Na taj način žene svojim radom u porodici omogućavaju muževima rad izvan kuće, oslobađajući ih pri tom brige o osnovnim obiteljskim životnim potrebama. Jasno je kako je položaj žena koje su ujedno zaposlene jedinstven, s obzirom da nose dvostruki teret u stjecanju zajedničke imovine“ (Prokop, 1959, p. 36/ Rešetar B & Kiraly , 2012, p. 403). Ovakav stav zauzela je i sudska praksa, te je zauzet stav da: „pojam "rada" kao pretpostavke za sticanje imovine ne treba shvatiti u užem smislu samo kao ekonomsku kategoriju koja bi prolazila od neposrednog rezultata rada, nego i tzv. posredni rad kojim jedan bračni drug pomažući drugome u obavljanju raznih poslova u domaćinstvu ovome omogućava da realno stiče prihode kojima se u pravilu najčešće dolazi do stjecanja imovine“ (Vrhovni sud RS, Rev 98/87, od 25. 12. 1997. godine i Rev. 33/98, od 02.04.1998. godine). S obzirom na navedeno, mogli bi smo reći da se pod radom treba podrazumijevati svaka djelatnost, odnosno aktivnost bračnih partnera kojom se na bilo koji način pridonosi povećanju imovine, uključujući i aktivnosti kojima se podmiruju potrebe bračnih partnera i članova njihove porodice, kao što su npr. briga i odgoj djece (Hrabar, 202, p. 47-48). Ono što je također bitno naglasiti da prema našem porodičnom zakonodavstvu obim, količina ili pak vrijednost rada izražena u novcu ne utječe na propisanu visinu suvlasničkih dijelova u bračnoj stečevini. 2.3. BRAČNA ZAJEDNICA KAO KONSTITUTIVNI ELEMENT BRAČNE STEČEVINE Drugi uslov, imovina stečena tokom trajanja bračne zajednice, također nije u potpunosti jasno definisan. U određivanju suštine ovog pojma neophodno je krenuti od postavke da brak i bračna zajednica nisu sinonimi, te da sklapanjem braka ne mora nužno doći i do nastanka bračne zajednice. S druge strane, bračna zajednica je sastavni dio braka i može trajati samo za trajanja braka. S obzirom da zakonom nije definisana, u određivanju sadržaja iste neophodno je uzeti u obzir motive, odnosno namjeru bračnih partnera, ali i dogovoreni način organizacije zajedničkog života, kao i datih okolnosti i prilika u kojima bračni partneri ostvaruju zajednicu života. U tom kontekstu dolazimo do zaključka, koji je usvojen i u sudskoj praksi (VSRH Rev 361/92 od 12. 3. 1992. godine) i pravnoj teoriji, da postojanje bračne zajednice nije nužno vezano za činjenicu faktičke zajednice života, već ista postoji i u slučaju da bračni partneri ne žive zajedno, ukoliko to stanje predstavlja izraz njihovog sporazuma (Vrhovni sud RS, Rev 4/94, od 28.01.1994. godine). Tako npr. bračna zajednica postoji i u slučaju da je „jedan bračni drug na radu u inostranstvu, a drugi u našoj zemlji u zajedničkom 109 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 stanu i poduzima sve poslove radi održavanja održavanja domaćinstva i eventualno poslove na poljoprivrednom imanju, stara se o zajedničkoj djeci i dr.“ (Zečević, 2005, p. 127.). U suprotnom, bez obzira na postojanje braka, ukoliko dođe do prekida bračne zajednice usljed poremećenosti odnosa, imovina stečena u tom periodu predstavljat će posebnu imovinu bračnih partnera, a ne bračnu stečevinu (Nakić-Momirović, 2006, p. 435). Postojanje bračne zajednice u toku braka se pretpostavlja, te sud treba utvrditi ako postane sporno smatra li se određena imovina bračnom stečevinom ili se radi o vlastitoj imovini, te je sljedom navedenog teret dokazivanja prestanka bračne zajednice je na onom bračnom drugu koji to tvrdi. Ne treba ipak potpasti pod uticaj, kako se to na prvi mah čini, da je sva imovina stečena za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice ujedno i bračna stečevina (VSRH Rev 1719/97 od 17. 5. 2001.), već je za njeno postojanje neophodno kumulativno postojanje prethodno analizirana dva konstitutivna elementa. 2.4. PRAVNA PRIRODA BRAČNE STEČEVINE Kako smo već rekli, novo porodično zakonodavstvo usvojilo je novi princip prema kojem bračna stečevina dobiva status suvlasništva. Tako su bračni partneri u jednakim dijelovima suvlasnici u bračnoj stečevini, ukoliko nisu drugačije ugovorili (Čl. 252. st. 1 PZFBiH). Ovaj novi režim bračne stečevine naišao je na dobro prihvatanje u pravnoj teoriji i praksi (Presuda Vrhovnog suda FBiH br. 58 0 P 000479 12 Rev od 13.03.2013. godine), ali je s druge strane u susjednoj Hrvatskoj dovedeno u pitanje njegovo ustavno utemeljenje. Tako je prema Ustavnom sudu R Hrvatske upućen prijedlog za pokretanje postupka za ocjenu usaglašenosti sa Ustavom članova 248. i 249. stavka 1. Obiteljskog zakona R Hrvatske. Ustavni sud je ocjenio neosnovanim podnešeni prijedlog, te iznio mišljenje da je zakonodavac priznavanjem prava suvlasništva na bračnoj stečevini u jednakim dijelovima (praesumptio iuris et de iure), a bez obzira na mogući različit doprinos bračnih partnera u stjecanju te imovine, izjednačio imovinskopravni položaj bračnih partnera, štiteći na taj način brak kao instituciju i odnose u braku, koji moraju počivati na načelima ravnopravnosti žene i muškarca, uzajamnog poštovanja i pomaganja (Odluka Ustavnog suda R Hrvatske Broj: U-I-1890/2007, od 25.11.2010. godine). Dodatni argument stajalištu Ustavnog suda R Hrvatske je i činjenica da, kako je to zakonom predviđeno, budući bračni partneri, odnosno bračni partneri mogu bračnim ugovorom drukčije urediti svoje odnose vezane za bračnu stečevinu (Čl. 252. st. 2. PZFBiH), pa samim tim i visinu suvlasničkih dijelova. Dakle, naš pravni sistem daje prednost ugovornom nad zakonskim režimom bračne stečevine (Bubić, 2008, p. 92). Nadalje, ukoliko je u zemljišne knjige kao vlasnik stečevine upisan jedan bračni partner, drugi bračni partner može zahtijevati ispravku upisa, u skladu sa odgovarajućim zemljišnoknjižnim propisima (Čl. 252. st. 2. PZFBiH). Ova mogućnost bračnih partnera je donošenjem novog zakona o stvarnim pravima prerasla u obavezu, ukoliko bračni partneri žele da imaju adekvatnu stvarnopravnu zaštitu. Naime kako je to 110 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč već rečeno, novim stvarnim pravom propisana je obaveza svim izvanknjižni nosiocima stvarnih prava da u roku od tri godine od dana stupanja na snagu Zakona o stvarnim pravima pokrenu postupak za upis stvarnih prava glede nekretnina i svih promjena na njima u zemljišnu knjigu (Čl. 361. ZSP FBiH, Čl. 346. ZSP RS). Pored bračnog partnera, pravo na podnošenja zahtjeva za ispravku upisa ili podnošenje tužbe za utvrđenje da su tuženi kao bračni partneri suvlasanici sa po ½ dijela nekretnine pripada i tužitelju kao povjerilocu jednog bračnog partnera (Presuda Vrhovnog suda FBiH broj: 43 0 P 025561 12 Rev od 17.09.2013. godine). S druge strane, u RS-u postoji oboriva pravna pretpostavka da svakom bračnom partneru pripada po jedna polovina zajedničke imovine, uz mogućnost da svaki od njih može zahtijevati od suda da odredi veći dio od pripadajuće mu polovine, ukoliko dokaže da je njegov doprinos u sticanju zajedničke imovine očigledno veći od doprinosa od drugog bračnog supružnika (Čl. 273. st. 1. PZRS). Sud određuje veličinu udjela bračnog supružnika prema njegovom doprinosu u sticanju zajedničke imovine, pri čemu vodi računa ne samo o ličnom dohotku i zaradi svakog bračnog supružnika, već i o pomoći jednog bračnog supružnika drugome, o radu u domaćinstvu i porodici, o brizi oko vaspitanja i podizanju djece, kao i o svakom drugom vidu rada i saradnje u upravljanju, održavanju i povećanju zajedničke imovine (Čl. 273. st. 1. PZRS). 2.5. SADRŽAJ I NEKA SPORNA PITANJA BRAČNE STEČEVINE S obzirom na to da bračna stečevina predstavlja složeniji oblik suvlasničke zajednice, iz njenog sadržaja, prirode, te nedovoljne definisanosti (misleći prevashodno na korištenje pravnih standarda u zakonskoj definiciji iste), razvio se čitav niz „spornih“ pitanja u praksi, primarno u pogledu njenog sadržaja. Pored navedenog, opće poznato je da nekretnine imaju veliki značaj za pravni promet, ali i privredu svake zemlje. Istovremeno, nekretnine, sa aspekta vrijednosti, u pravilu čine pretežiti sadržaj bračne stečevine. Ipak, nisu nisu rijetki slučajevi da je u zemljišnim knjigama kao vlasnik te bračne stečevine upisan samo jedan bračni partner, iako se radi o suvlasništvu bračnih partnera. Navedena situacija generiše brojna pitanja i dileme, kao što su: pitanje upravljanja i raspolaganja, kao i pitanje prava i obveza trećeg savjesnog lica koje je steklo pravo vlasništva na toj nekretnini ili je zasnovalo određeno pravo radi osiguranja svoga potraživanja, a na osnovu pravnog posla samo s jednim bračnim partnerom, ili prava drugog, neupisanog bračnog partnera u konkretnim primjerima. Postavlja se pitanje prioriteta u primjeni pojedinih načela građanskog i stvarnog prava: načela savjesnosti i poštenja, zloupotrebe prava, zaštite povjerenja u zemljišne knjige, načela nemo plus iuris ad alium potest quam ipse habet, načela sigurnosti pravnog prometa i sl. (Mutapčić & Oruč, 2017, p.9). S obzirom na novo stvarno i zemljišnoknjižno pravo, za očekivati je da će sudska praksa, koja je to već djelimično i uradila, dati konačne odgovore na ova pitanja. Svakako, s obzirom na raniju reformu stvarnog prava i ne postojanje naše 111 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 nove sudske prakse, interesantno je konsultovati i određenu sudsku praksu zemalja iz okruženja, prioritetno R Hrvatske, mada je primjetna nekonzistentnost i različiti stavovi Vrhovnog i Ustavnog suda ove zemlje po navedenim pitanjima. Nadalje, značajni problemi nastaju i u slučaju prestanka bračne zajednice. Neka od tih pitanja je svakako i pitanje ulaganja jednog bračnog partnera u vlastitu imovinu drugog, mogućnosti oštećenja vjerovnika, pitanje tzv. bankovnih ugovora bračnih partnera, kao i pitanje značenja otplaćivanja kredita uzetog radi stjecanja bračne stečevine. U nastavku rada ćemo pokušati da izložimo najaktuelnija teorijska, ali i stručna pitanja predmetne materije. Kao što je već pomenuto, bračnu stečevinu čini imovina koju su bračni partneri stekli radom za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice, kao i prihodi iz te imovine. Iako prema definiciji imovine (koja je širi pojam od prava vlasništva) proizilazi kako bračnu stečevinu, pored stvarnih prava, čine prava na potraživanja iz raznih obligacionih odnosa u koje stupaju bračni partneri, u praksi to ipak nije tako (Klarić & Vedrić, 2006, p. 94-97). U pravnim odnosima bračni partneri se ipak ne pojavljuju kao jedinstven pravni subjekt, što u konačnici spriječava bračne partnere da po sili zakona (na što bi ih legitimisala bračna stečevina kao imovina) imao pravo na suvlasnički dio potraživanja koja pripadaju drugom bračnom partneru, a u koje je on stupio tokom trajanja bračne zajednice. Navedeno je u suprotnosti sa osnovnom karakteristikom obligacionopravnog odnosa, tj. njegovom relatinvosti, odnosno djelovanjem inter partes. Tako, „u pravnoj teoriji postoji mišljenje da bračnu stečevinu ne čini sva imovina, nego samo ona koja se odnosi na subjektivna stvarna prava, za razliku od subjektivnih obveznih prava na potraživanja, koja pripadaju isključivo onom bračnom partneru koji je učesnik konkretnog obligacionog odnosa“ (Rešetar B & Kiraly , 2012, p. 117). S druge strane, postoje i autori koji smatraju da od obligacionih prava u bračnu stečevinu ulaze i sva potraživanja, ali i dugovi koje su bračni partneri stvorili za potrebe zajedničkog domaćinstva, te da o navedenim pravima kao predmetima bračne stečevine u sudskoj praksi nema sporova (Traljić & Bubić, 2007, p. 77). Drugo značajno pitanje je da li, pored osnovnih konstitutivnih elemenata: rada i bračne zajednice, porijeklo imovine ima odlučujući karakter, odnosno uticaj pri odluci da li nešto ulazi u bračnu stečevinu ili ne? Drugim riječima, da li imovina koja je stečena tokom bračne zajednice, ali sredstvima koja čine posebnu imovinu bračnih partnera ulazi u režim bračne stečevine: npr. imovinom od prodaje nasljedstva, posuđenim novcem, imovinom od poklona i sl.? Pitanje je izazvalo različite reakcije u sudskoj praski domaćih, ali i sudova regiona. U Hrvatskoj se povodom ovog pitanja razvila različita sudksa praksa, ali i stanovište pravne teorije. Tako je u ranijim odlukama Vrhovnog suda R Hrvatske zauzet stav da je za primjenu materijalnog prava relevantan trenutak stjecanja sredstava, a ne stvari plaćene tim sredstvima (Kačer, Momčinović & Žuvela, 2009, p. 5569). Navedeni stav Vrhovnog suda R Hrvatske dosljedno je primjenjivan i u drugim slučajevima (Ernst, 2012, p. 1327). Naknadno su Vrhovni (Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske, Rev 369/06 od 26. 3. 2008. godine), ali i Ustavni sud R Hrvatske (Odluka Ustavnog suda Republike Hrvatske, U-III/2103/2008) 112 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč odstupili od pomenutog stava dajući prednost porijeklu imovine, što je izazvalo i određene kritike pravne nauke. Naša sudska praksa u ovakvim slučajevima uzima u obzir još jednu činjenicu koja svakako ima težinu prilikom odlučivanja karaktera stečene imovine. Radi se o „volji bračnih partnera da se posebnom imovinom jednog bračnog partnera kupe zajedničku imovinu kao bračnu stečevinu“ (Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj: 33 0 P 015117 12 Rev od 11.06.2013. godine). U tom slučaju, prema stavu suda imovina ima karakter bračne stečevine, te nastaje suvlasništvo u zakonom utvrđenim dijelovima. U suprotnom, s obzirom na nedostatak konstitutivnog elementa - da je imovina stečena radom, radilo bi se o posebnoj imovini bračnog druga (Zečević, 2002, p. 329). U ovom slučaju smatramo da bi bilo ispravnije da se imovinsko-pravni odnos između bračnih partnera primarno prosuđuje prema odredbama ZSP o stjecanju vlasništva, odnosno suvlasništva, a ne po pravilima o sticanju bračne imovine stečene radom bračnih partnera za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice (VSRH Rev. 966/06 31. 01. 2007. godine). Ovo iz razloga što su odredbe ZSP fleksibilnije u odnosu na dosta restriktivan pristup porodičnih zakona, jer je prema ZSP bitna sama volja sticaoca prava vlasništva pri tom ne ulazeći u njihove međusobne odnose. Pored imovine stečene radom za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice, u bračnu stečevinu ulaze i: prihodi od bračne stečevine (zakupnina, dividenda, kamata i sl.); prihodi od posebne imovine koji su ostvareni radom bračnih partnera (Vrhovni sud RS, broj 118-0-Rev-07-000 871 od 29.05.2009. godine); naknade za oštećenje stvari iz režima bračne stečevine, kao i druge naknade; naknade koje su po raznim osnovama dobijene za rad bračnih partnera, a ne predstavljaju zaradu (otpremnina, stipendije, odlikovanja i sl) (Draškić, 2009, p. 396); imovina stečena na osnovu ugovora o doživotnom izdržavanju (Odluka Županijskog suda u Varaždinu, br. Gž.910/12-2, od 4. 02. 2013. godine); pokloni trećih osoba učinjeni za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice (u novcu, stvarima, pružanju pomoći radom i sl.), bez obzira na to koji ih je bračni partner primio, ukoliko drukčije ne proizlazi iz namjene poklona ili se iz okolnosti u momentu davanja poklona može zaključiti da je poklonodavalac želio učiniti poklon samo jednom od bračnih partnera (Čl. 251. st. 2. PZFBiH). Tako npr. davanje stana na besplatno korištenje bračnim partnerima predstavlja poklon učinjen za oba bračna partnera (Vrhovni sud BiH, br. Rev 663/86, od 09.07.1987. godine). Također u bračnu stečevinu ulazi i dobitak od igara na sreću, kao i prihodi od intelektualnog vlasništva ostvareni za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice (Čl. 251. PZFBiH), nekretnine stečene za vrijeme bračne zajednice, strana sredstva plaćanja bez obzira što ih je kao ličnu zaradu stekao jedan od bračnih partnera (Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev. 664/86, od 20.11.1987. godine), prihodi stečeni „nedozvoljenom trgovinom“ jednog bračnog partnera u bračnoj zajednici (Vrhovni sud BiH, Rev. 627/85, od 20.03.1986. godine), pravo na otkup stana (Vrhovni sud FBiH broj 65 0 P 199331 11 Rev od 19.01.2012. godine), ostvarena novčana protivrijednost prodate stvari koja je bila u režimu bračne stečevine (Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 70 0 P 000143 09 113 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 Rev od 25.01.2011. godine), imovina stečena tokom vanbračne zajednice (Presuda Vrhovnog suda Federacije Bosne i Hercegovine broj 70 0 P 000720 10 Rev od 08.09.2011. godine), i dr. Neka od spornih pitanja oko sadržaja bračne stečevine jesu predmeti ugovora zaključenih prije braka sa trećim licima, a njihovo izvršenje nastaje nakon zasnivanja bračne zajednice (npr. stan kupljen kreditom ugovorenim prije stupanja u brak, ali otplaćivan tokom braka) ili s druge strane vlasništvo na određenoj stvari stečeno u toku trajanja bračne zajednice pretežitim sredstvima jednog bračnog paartnera, a samo djelimično sredstvima iz bračne stečevine. U prvom slučaju, sudska praksa stoji na stanovištu da „drugi bračni partner (koji je učestvovao u otplati kredita) ne stiče stvarno pravo na dijelu tog stana, već obveznopravni zahtjev razmjerno uloženim sredstvima u otplati kredita“ (Odluka Vrhovnog suda RH, br. Rev 3024/90-2, od 30.12.1991. godine). Analogno navedenom novčana sredstva koje jedan bračni partner stekne tokom trajanja bračne zajednice po osnovu ugovora o kreditu, koji je utrošen za povećanje zajedničke imovine ili za druge zajedničke potrebe, ne predstavlja njegovu posebnu imovinu, te će u slučaju razvoda braka dug tog bračnog partnera po osnovu navedenog kredita predstavljati dug koji tereti oba bivša bračna partnera (Odluka Županijskog suda u Varaždinu, br. Gž.3608/13-3, od 17. 07. 2013. godine). Također, okolnost što nakon eventualnog razvoda, odnosno prekida bračne zajednice, jedan bračni partner vraća kredit namijenjen za izgradnju porodične kuće, ne utiče na povećanje njegovog suvlasničkog dijela već predstavlja pravni osnov za postavljanje obligacionog zahtjeva prema drugom bračnom partneru za novčanu naknadu u vrijednosti njegovog suvlasničkog dijela (Vrhovni sud BiH, broj Rev. 683/88, od 04.08.1989. godine). U drugom slučaju, kada je vlasništvo na određenoj stvari stečeno u toku trajanja bračne zajednice pretežitim sredstvima jednog bračnog partnera, a samo djelimično sredstvima iz bračne stečevine, se ne primjenjuju gore utvrđena pravila. Ovdje se ne radi o čistom obligacionopravnom već o stvarnopravnom odnosu, te je u svakom pojedinom slučaju, ukoliko nije postojala izričito izjavljena volja bračnih partnera, neophodno utvrditi koliki je suvlasnički dio drugog bračnog partnera u zajedničkoj imovini za koju nije sporno da je kupljena za vrijeme trajanja bračne zajednice i dijelom sredstvima stečenim radom bračnih partnera. Suvlasnički udio prvog bračnog partnera bi bio ono što je od vlastite imovine uložio u kupovinu nekretnine (Vrhovni sud Republike Hrvatske Rev 468/06 od 28. 8. 2007. godine). Isti je slučaj i kada je jedan bračni partner ulagao svoja sredstva u zajedničku nekretninu bračnih partnera nakon prekida bračne zajednice, odnosno razvoda braka. Tada će se eventualno povećanje njegovog suvlasničkog dijela prosuđivati prema odredbama stvarnog prava, a ne po pravilima o stjecanju bračne stečevine tokom braka (Županijski sud u Koprivnici Gž 1186/00 od 01. 03. 2001. godine). Drugo važno pitanje u pogledu sadržaja bračne stečevine je i status imovine, odnosno pravne posljedice radnji usmjerenih na uvečanje imovine koja je u vlasništvu jednog bračnog partnera, odnosno njegova posebna imovina? Ovdje se prije svega misli na investiciona ulaganja, kojima se u većoj ili manjoj 114 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč mjeri povećava vrijednost stvari, kao što je to slučaj sa izgradnjom, adaptacijom, nadziđivanjem i sličnim radnjama na nekretninama. Pitanje je da li novostvorena vrijednost ima karakter bračne stečevine ili i dalje ostaje u statusu posebne imovine bračnih partnera, te da li, i koji sve faktori utiču na određivanje karaktera ove imovine. S obzirom na nepostojanje eksplicitnih zakonskih odredbi kojima se regulišu pomenuti odnosi, potrebno je kao i u prethodnim slučajevima posegnuti za stavovima i rješenjima sudske prakse. U tom kontekstu, naša prijeratna sudska praksa koja je i danas relevantna izgradila je određene stavove po ovom pitanju. Tako je Vrhovni sud BiH zauzeo stav da „ukoliko je stambena zgrada izgrađena tokom trajanja bračne zajednice na zemljištu u vlasništvu jednog bračnog partnera, oba bračna partnera postaju suvlasnici zgrade, ali i zemljišta u sastavu građevinske parcele (ovo posljednje je direktna posljedica obnutog dejstva načela jedinstva nekretnine koji je važio u starom stvarnopravnom režimu)“ (Rješenje Vrhovnog suda BiH, broj Rev. 179/85, od 16.05.1985. godine). Iz prezentiranog stava proističe da nova stvar, odnosno nekretnina potpada pod režim bračne stečevine, što će uvijek biti slučaj kod potpune izrgadnje, odnosno nastanka nove stvari. Drugo pitanje koje se ovdje nameće je visina suvlasničkih dijelova, da li će u ovom slučaju vrijediti prezumpcija jednakih suvlasničkih dijelova ili je ipak neophodno u obzir uzeti i vrijednost zemljišta (posebne imovine) na kojoj je izgrađena građevina? Prethodno citirana sudska presuda je iz vremena kada je načelo jedinstva nekretnine bilo derogirano, tako da je potrebno postaviti novi standard koji će biti uzet u obzir prilikom odgovora na prethodno iznesenu dilemu. U tom smislu smatramo da bi bilo neophodno prethodno utvrditi kolika vrijednost zemljišta (posebne imovine) sudjeluje u vrijednosti nekretnine u cjelini objekta sa zemljištem (bračne stečevine), a potom i ovisno o odnosu tih vrijednosti, uz uvažavanje zakonske presumpcije o jednakom doprinosu bračnih drugova u stjecanju bračne stečevine, utvrditi suvlasnički omjer na tako stečenoj imovini (Županijski sud u Zagrebu Gž 3215/02 od 1. 4. 2003. godine). Drugačiji je pristup u slučajevima koji su nastali kao rezultat neznatnih ulaganja, kao što je već pomenuti primjer adaptacije. Tako se u jednoj drugoj presudi Vrhovnog suda ističe da „bračni drug koji je svojim radom u toku bračne zajednice učestvovao u adaptaciji građevinskog objekta koji čini posebnu imovinu drugog supružnika ne može steći pravo na suvlasnički dio u tim objektima ako izvedeni adaptacioni radovi nisu bili takvog značaja, obima i vrijednosti da su u potpunosti izmijenili karakteristike ranijih objekata, tako da se adaptirani objekti mogu smatrati novoizgrađenim“ (Presuda Vrhovnog suda BiH, broj Rev. 85/85, od 21.03.1985. godine). U navedenom slučaju, smatramo da se radi o obligacionopravnom, a ne stvarnopravnom odnosu, te da drugom bračnom partneru pripada pravo na novčanu naknadu u vrijednosti uloženih sredstava (Zečević, 2002, p. 328). Svi pobrojani slučajevi impliciraju složenost bračne stečevine kao suvlasničke zajednice, koji svakako u praksi izazivaju čitav niz nedoumica, ali i otežavaju pravni promet i pravnu sigurnost. 115 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 1, Summer 2020 3. ZAKLJUČAK Reformski procesi privatnog prava u BiH zahvatili su i sferu imovinskopravnih odnosa bračnih partnera. Tako je najznačajnija reforma imovine bračnih partnera izvršena Porodičnim zakonom FBiH iz 2005. godine, kada se iz režima zajedničke imovine bračnih partnera prešlo u suvlasničku zajednicu uz neoborivu zakonsku pretpostavku utvrđenih suvlasničkih dijelova u omjeru ½. Ipak, kao posljedica ustavnog uređenja naše zemlje, ali i sveukupne političke situacije, danas u BiH ne postoji jedinstven imovinski režim bračnih partnera. Tako, kao što je već pomenuto, u FBiH i DB BiH imovina bračnih partnera ima karakter suvlasničke zajednice, dok u RS-u je zadržan stari model prema kojem imovina bračnih partnera ima karakter zajedničke imovine, gdje se udjeli i dalje utvđuju u sudskim postupcima pokrenutim radi diobe zajedničke imovine. Iako, prema našim procjenama, najveći broj suvlasničkih zajednica u našoj državi je u statusu bračne stečevine, analizom zakonskih tekstova utvrdili smo da ni porodični zakon, niti ZSP FBiH/RS ne sadrže detaljnu regulaciju ovog instituta, već upućuju na primjenu općih pravila imovinskog prava. Pored navedenog, u samom definisanju i određivanju sadržaja bračne stečevine korišten je veliki broj pravnih standarda koji su naknadno definisani kroz sudsku praksu i njeno ujednačavanje. Treba istači da se suvlasništvo na bračnoj stečevini stječe se na osnovu zakona, a da pri tom upis u zemljišnu knjigu nema konstitutivno, već deklarativno pravno dejstvo. Stoga se veoma često događa da je kao vlasnik nekretnine u zemljišnu knjigu upisan jedan bračni partner, iz čega proizilazi da zemljišna knjiga ne odražava istinito stanje. Sve navedeno rezultira problemima u pravnom prometu prilikom prenosa vlasništva ili prilikom osnivanju prava osiguranja potraživanja na cijeloj nekretnini od strane upisanog vlasnika, kao i stjecanja prava vlasništva treće osobe povjerenjem u zemljišnu knjigu. Kako bi se u potpunosti uklonile mogući problemi potrebno je de lege ferenda izvršiti izmjene našeg porodičnog zakonodavstva i shodno specifičnostima bračne zajednice predvidjeti veći broj odredbi kojima bi, između ostalih, bila riješena i pitanja koja se odnose na sadržaj bračne stečevine, kao i pitanja raspolaganja imovinom u režimu bračne stečevine. 116 �Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine Esad Oruč LITERATURA KNJIGE I ČLANCI Alinčić, M. & Bakarić, A. (1989). Porodično pravo, Narodne novine Zagreb, Draškić, M. (2009). 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Presuda Županijskog suda u Zagrebu Gž 3215/02 od 1. 4. 2003. godine 46. Presuda Vrhovnog suda BiH, broj Rev. 85/85, od 21.03.1985. godine 47. Općinski sud u Zenici, broj 43 0 P 001107 08 P od 12.03.2010. godine 48. Županijski sud u Varaždinu, Gž. 173/07-2 od 19.02.2007 49. VSRH, Rev. 745/07-2 od 09.04.2008. godine 50. Vrhovni sud BiH, broj Rev. 415/87, od 19.05.1988. godine Porodični zakon RS, Službeni glasnik br. 54/02 (u daljem tekstu: PZRS), Porodični zakon FBiH, Službene novine br. 35/05 i 31/14 (u daljem tekstu: PZFBiH), Porodični zakon Brčko Distrikta BiH, Službeni glasnik br. 23/07 (u daljem tekstu: PZBDBiH) i 119 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Bračna stečevina u zakonodavstvu i sudskoj praksi Bosne i Hercegovine https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6e51695a244d6e444275de0abb1daba0.pdf 047401ca20f00a9f8f24fea2eb6cc2e4 PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Sentiment Analysis on Twitter Data using Big Data Obada Almonajed, Samed Jukić 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina almonajed.obada@ibu.edu.ba samed.jukic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract –With the increasing number of users and data on the Internet, especially social media sites, sentiment analysis topic became one of the important and essential fields for most. Collection of people's feelings and sentiment and classifying the data attracted most businesses and companies. Recently, twitter sentiment analysis has attracted much attention, because of Twitter's growth and popularity. The solution for handling enormous amounts of data from social media is a new term called Big data. Big data is not just for having a large amount of data, but also the importance of processing and the usage of the data. In this paper, we collect live data from Twitter using Apache Spark; and apply machine learning algorithms provided by Apache Spark machine learning library for classification of each Twitter message. Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression are used for testing the model. Naive Bayes algorithm gave better results, where it has an average accuracy around 75%, while the Logistic Regression algorithm was around 69%. Keywords–big data, sentiment analysis, twitter, apache spark, social media, machine learning. 1. Introduction Social media, one of the best things about it is in its name; social. It connects various people across the world by sharing information to them and receiving information from them. The main purpose of social media is to connect people and allow them to share thoughts and opinions. It allows also to read the news, watch videos, read stories, view and share photos. Social media is becoming an integral part of our lives. It is a way of connecting and building a relationship with others. It allows you to hear what people say and to respond. The most popular platforms are Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, Snapchat. Since social media allows people to connect those days social media are very important for businesses. It takes advantage of social media to increase brand exposure and customer reach. Publishing to social media is very simple. For example, a company can create a page on Facebook, and post new products, sales announcements, market brands, and products as images or text or video. No matter the size of the business, it is important to recognize the value and trend for better understanding and utilizing the platform. People can talk about your business without your knowledge. So, as a company, it is important to know and monitor social media conversations about the brand. Based on reviews, the company can always adjust the present market situation and satisfy customers in a better way. In order to identify the text written by �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 your customers, a sentiment analysis tool is used. Sentiment analysis or opinion mining is used to determine the emotional tone of message or text. The main usage of this tool is to understand how people feel and think about something. The tool is very useful for companies and can affect decision making.Using machine learning, companies can analyze the content on social media to see the meaning behind the messages. An Enormous number of people across the world use social media. In order to gain such data, store, and process, we will use Big data. Big data is not only for storing a large amount of data but the ability to analyze. Big data allows us to get and analyze real-time data from social media. For this paper, one of the fastest big data platforms Apache Spark will be used. Compared with Hadoop, it can be faster up to one hundred times[1]. Apache Spark framework provides native bindings for Java, Python, Scala, Machine Learning, and support SQL. The purpose of the paper is to collect data from Twitter and determine and classify the feeling of the user into positive or negative using machine learning and Apache Spark. 2. Literature Review Pang et al. [2], in the paper, they came out that unigram is a better model over others. Regardless of whether there is no large difference between unigram precision and mix of unigrams and bigrams precision, where the precision using unigrams has 82.9% and precision using the mix of unigrams and biagrams is 82.7%; both predicted with SVM algorithm. However, Dave et al. [3] have inverse results, where bigrams gave preferable precision over unigrams utilizing SVM and Baseline algorithms. SVM brings about 87.2% precision for the first test and 85.8% precision for the second test for bigrams. Pak et al. [4] gathered around 300.000 various tweets for Twitter. The tweet can be classified into three classes, positive, negative, or neutral. They thought about that, the emoji in the message represents the actual sentiment of the text. Thus, if ':(' emoji is included in the message, regardless of what is the content: the message has negative sentiment. Likewise, if a tweet has ':)', the message is considered as negative sentiment. For learning algorithms, they utilized multinomial Naïve Bayes, SVM and Conditional random fields, yet Naïve Bayes indicated the best outcomes. To make the precision of the classifier better, they removed some n-grams, since it isn't showing any sentiment. Authors of the paper [5], have researched the usage of Apache Flume and Apache Hive which is built on top Hadoop for analyzing Twitter data. In the research[6], the authors wrote and discussed a recommendation system that provides a summary of users’ feedback, comments, and reviews about different subjects using the Hadoop framework. Similarly, the authors of the researches [7], built a recommendation system that recommends services. The researchers of the paper[8], build a Hadoop framework for determining and analyzing the customers’ feedback toward a product from social networks, that framework extracts and analyzes the feedback of social user relationship management. Go et al. [9] broke down Twitter suppositions utilizing various machine learning algorithms. The algorithms are Naïve Bayes, Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), and Support Vector Machine (SVM). They remembered �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 emojis for the training data and utilized two classes for tweets' classification, positive and negative classes. In the wake of training data, they infer that emojis have a negative effect on data while applying MaxEnt and SVM algorithms on the data, however don't influence Naive Bayes. What is specific in their study is that, they explore the usage of unigrams, bigrams, combination of unigram and bigram and parts of speech. They conclude with the result the mix of unigrams and bigrams beats every other model, and parts of speech tags were not valuable at all. 3. Methodology A. Sentiment analysis With the usage of sentimental analysis, it can be learned whether the customers are satisfied with some new service or not. Twitter is mainly used for firms to get customer feedback. Simple articles are being written to identify whether people like or dislike something new. Firms are using that information to make a decision so that they can make some service better and improve the firm’s sales. When sentiment analysis is applied on content, it means users are looking for the opinion in the text. Is the product review positive or negative? Are customers satisfied with the product or not? Are positive opinions greater than negative or not? All kinds of questions can be answered with Sentiment Analysis. By sentiment analysis, users can learn how customers' view the company's product or service. Shortly we can say sentiment analysis is being used for agree/disagree, like/dislike, for/against [10]. For example, the sentence ‘I recommend this product to everyone.’, the word ‘recommend’ indicates that the writer is happy, and the sentiment is positive. In this paper, positive and negative words will be collected and used to train the machine to be able to classify the messages. For getting, storing, and classifying such data users will use Big data tools. Big data is data that exceeds the processing capacity of conventional database systems [11]. Big data means that there is a large number of data to collect. If users want to always get data from social sites faster, they should use big data. As data is more and more increased, it is becoming harder to control them, so Big data is the solution. Hadoop for years was the leading open source framework for Big data; recently Apache Spark is the leading and most popular framework. Hadoop and Spark almost perform the same tasks, but Spark is more preferable, especially when it comes to speed; because the way it processes data is faster. B. Data and Findings For the work and experiment, we used one document. The document contains different examples of messages with their outputs (classes) either positive or negative. The document is used to train and test the system because this computer program is going to be supervised learning, which is learning from example. They are using the known dataset for the training system called Stanford Twitter Sentiment Corpus (STS) [12]. Each tweet in this dataset has the following data: ID of the user, timestamp of the tweet, the username �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 of the user who posted the tweet, and the tweet itself. Next to each tweet, there is a class, either positive or negative. The document contains about 1 million samples of positive and negative tweets. In the following Figure, we show example of the dataset: Figure 1. Samples of the Dataset C. Process First of all, we need to install Spark and include it in the Scala project. After that, we need to initialize a Spark Context, which is going to tell Spark how to access a cluster. The Spark Context takes a parameter, which is known as SparkConf or Spark Configuration. SparkConf allows the user to configure some common properties which will be passed to Spark Context, like application name, master URL. memory size, key value-pairs, and other properties. Figure 2. Configuration After configuration of the application, we started with the online collection of tweets. For online and realtime data, Spark streaming is required. Spark streaming receives live data from Twitter and divides them into batches, where the user can later apply actions and process the data. In the next figure, we show implementation of Spark Streaming. Figure 3. Spark Streaming User can get tweets from a specific secondary user, or all tweets that start with special word, or all tweets that contains special hashtag ’#’. In our system, we collect all tweets containing special hashtag, and include that hashtag into the arguments of the system. Now, after all configurations we are able to collect data from Twitter. and save them to a file. In our system, we are saving the data to the text file. In the next figures, we show how to fetch data and how to save data into text files. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Figure 4. Fetching Tweets Figure 5. Save data in text format D. Spark Machine Learning Library The next and most important step is to classify each tweet to positive or negative class. Use Spark machine learning library, which contains different algorithms. Data, in order to be analyzed, it has to be converted to vectors. For that, use a well known and very useful tool called Hashing. Hashing is translating text data to numeric data. In Spark, most common and used hashing is HashingTF.it is important to say that, before analyzing the caught data from Twitter, it is a prerequisite to hash each data, as it is shown in the figure below. Figure 6. Hashing data We used two algorithms for comparing the better one, Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression. Logistic Regression is a binary classification, which means it can classify data into one of two groups. While Naive Bayes can be used for multiple groups.First, we have used a 10 cross-validation. Cross-validation is splitting a dataset into more than one pan. It is used to ensure that every data has been used for training and testing data. Training data is always larger in size than testing data. If a user has 1000 samples of data, the user can take 800 for training and 200 for testing. Since he has used 10 cross-validation, it means 9 folds for training and 1 fold for testing. Table 1. Cross validation example 1-fold Training �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 2-fold Training 3-fold Training 4-fold Training 5-fold Ttraining 6-fold Training 7-fold Training 8-fold Training 9-fold Training 10-fold Testing Next, just move the testing data to another place in dataset, and another place in the table, like in table 2 where testing data is now 1-fold and it is at the top and beginning of the dataset. As we can understand testing data has to be moved each fold cross validation to one place and each data will be in testing and training part. Table 2. Cross validation example 2 1-fold Testing 2-fold Training 3-fold Training 4-fold Training 5-fold Ttraining 6-fold Training 7-fold Training 8-fold Training 9-fold Training 10-fold Training For each fold, it is important to calculate the accuracy; so, at the end you will determine its performance and if the classifier and data are good or not.Cross-validation and the accuracy are very important, they indicate to how well the learner will be able to make right and correct prediction for new data. For algorithms of learning, we used two machine learning algorithms as we mentioned before, Naïve Bayes and Logistic Regression. Results showed that Naive Bayes is better at prediction of the text. More details about the results will be described in the next section. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 4. Results To train and test the system use Stanford Twitter Sentiment Corpus (STS) dataset which is available online. It contains more than one million samples. After the completion of testing on our data the results as well as accuracy of each k-fold is shown in the table below: Table 3. 10-fold cross validation k-fold Naive Bayes Logistic Regression 1-fold 77.3 68.8 2-fold 70.4 73.4 3-fold 75.7 74.3 4-fold 77.2 67.7 5-fold 76.4 64.6 6-fold 73.6 66.5 7-fold 69.8 75.3 8-fold 79.1 65.8 9-fold 77.3 67.2 10-fold 74.5 71.05 To calculate the accuracy of the classifier, true positive plus true negative over total number of testing data: Figure 7. Formula to Calculate the Accuracy Code regarding our program: Figure 8. Code to Calculate the Accuracy ‘predictionAndLabel’- this is displaying the actual prediction result and the prediction of the system. Real example from our system is shown in the following figure, where it is shown the prediction of the system and real prediction of the data. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Figure 9. Prediction and Actual Example: One sentence: ‘Good project, I liked it.’, result of classification using Naïve Bayes algorithm was: 1.0 means positive. while the result of LogisticRegression algorithm was: 0.0 which means negative sentiment. Another example: ‘I love it :)’, prediction of Naïve Bayes is 1.0 and the Logistic Regression is also 1.0 which is positive and correct. The total accuracy of both algorithms, Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression, after cross-validation is shown in the following table. Table 4. Accuracy Average Accuracy Naive Bayes Logistic Regression 75.13% 69.465% From this table we can see that Naive Bayes average accuracy is somewhere around 75 percent. Logistic Regression accuracy is a bit lower than Naive Bayes and its accuracy is around 69 percent. There is some difference, not so big. That difference is around 6 percent. As a conclusion for those results we take the right to say that Naive Bayes algorithm provides great results. Logistic Regression with a this, bit lower percentage, can be considered as a great algorithm as well. After the users have finished the training of the system, use it for catching the data from Twitter and predict the data using both algorithms,Naïve Bayes or Logistic Regression. To get better results, we should use Naive Bayes rather than Logistic Regression. Finally, the best way is to save data in a text file, so the companies can easily keep track of the users' opinion about the company's products and about the company in general. 5. Discussion In our paper, as you could see, we proved how text classification can be done in a fast and easy way by using Spark. Use Spark as Big data and for applying machine learning algorithms. Use two well-known machine learning algorithms, Naive Bayes and Logistic Regression. Using these algorithms we achieved a very high model's accuracy by applying to data sets that contained different types of sentences and emoticons. Also, we have shown how emoticons can help in improving the model's accuracy, if used correctly. Using more data in training and testing sets in our cross-validation method, we would achieve better results. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 In this section of paper, an endeavor was made to compare the various methods and results of algorithms performance.Considering the research papers related to our research, which are already mentioned in Section 2, notice that in any case, the text should always be predicted using different methods and then decide which method is the best for achieving our goal. In the following table notice that, summarize different Supervised Machine Learning approaches for Twitter sentiment analysis. Table 5. Summary of previous work Paper Pak and Methods Supervised Algorithms Multinomial Datasets Tweets Results Multinomial Naive Bayes with Paroubek [4] Machine Naive collected using bigrams Learning Support Vector Twitter API superior Bayes, Machine (SVM), accomplished a performance contrasted with unigrams and and trigrams. Conditional Random Field (CRF) Go et al [9] Supervised Naive Machine Learning Bayes, Tweets The Maximum Entropy Maximum collected using (MaxEnt) with both unigrams Entropy Twitter API and bigrams accomplished a (MaxEnt), and precision of 83% contrasted Suppor Vector with the Naive Bayes with a Machine precision of 82.7%. (SVM) Pang et al [2] Supervised Support IMDb The Machine Vector unigrams Learning Machine accuracy utilizing the mix of (SVM), Naive unigrams and bigrams is 82.7% Bayes, and with Support Vector Machine MaxEnt (SVM). Support accuracy has They utilizing 82.9% proved Vector and that Machine (SVM) is superior to Naive Bayes and Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), where the accuracy utilizing unigrams has 81.0% with Naive Bayes and 80.4% with Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt), and the accuracy utilizing both unigrams and bigrams has 80.6% with Naive �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 Bayes and 80.8% with Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt). Some earlier research and studies utilized various groups of sentiment, similar to satisfaction, sadness, frustration, dread and shock. While, in our research, we classified the tweets into two groups, positive or negative, no third group. Most researches were about applying ML algorithms on tweets for sentiment analysis, without the use of Big data. While, we used Big data with the machine learning algorithms in our research. From Table 5., see that Go et al got better accuracy using Naive Bayes algorithms. They did an additional procedure, which we neglected, and that is related to emoticons, they deleted any tweet that contains both positive and negative emoticons. This may happen if a tweet contains two subjects. Although we don't know the accuracy of the model in the research of Pak and Paroubel, we can surely say that they did a good research, because they followed the steps necessary to determine if the text is positive or negative. The steps followed included the removal of any URLs and usernames (user-names follow the "@" symbol) and removal of any characters that repeat more than twice turning a phrase such as OOMMMGGG to OOMMGG, which is applied by a regular expression. 6. Conclusion In this paper it was shown how usage of Spark as Big data can help us classify text from tweets to positive and negative in a very simple yet very fast way.By using common algorithms Naïve Bayes and Logistic Regression we have achieved a very high by applying to large data sets that contained a various number of different emoticons and sentences. We determined that Naïve Bayes is much better than Logistic Regression by training and applying cross validation to our dataset, where its highest accuracy was around 79%. That is the most relevant result regarding the usage of Big Data. Also, in our paper we have demonstrated and shown how it is fast and easy to use and understand it, and how it is powerful with large data sets. For that reason, we can conclude that it is the best tool regarding Twitter sentiment analysis. But not only can sentimental analysis be used for Twitter, it can be used for any type of documentation or data. In the near future our plan is to have and use richer data sets for training, Spark Graphs for better data visualization and usage of real-time data rather than offline data. It can be achieved easy; just classification methods have to be applied and used right after getting each tweet from Twitter. We can see from the previous related works that are mentioned in the Chapter 2, sentiment analysis on Twitter data can be used in many different areas. From those papers, we can conclude that the main goal was to determine the products' quality, so we can say that the main goal is to make it easier for companies to check whether the item is good or not for the customers. Also, politicians and companies want to know what people write in real time about them, so they request monitoring tools to know the opinions, feelings and sentiments that their potential customers are publishing. This method can also be used in film production, since we can see that many Twitter users write their opinion about watched films, about the actors, and so on. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2020114 REFERENCES [1] P. P. Chitturi, Apache Spark for Data Science Cookbook, Packt Publishing Ltd, 2016. [2] B. Pang, L. Lee i S. Vaithyanathan, »Thumbs up? Sentiment Classification using Machine Learning,« 2002. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.cs.cornell.edu/home/llee/papers/sentiment.pdf. [3] D. Kushal, S. Lawrence i D. M. Pennock, »Mining the Peanut Gallery: Opinion Extraction and,« 2003. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.kushaldave.com/p451-dave.pdf. [4] A. Pak i P. Paroubek, »Twitter as a Corpus for Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining,« 2010. [Mrežno]. Available: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6b7f/c158541d5a7be2b2465f7d8a42afa97d7ae9.pdf?_ga=2.1218413 55.1543760336.1572899814-899645452.1571167125. [5] Sanggeta, »Twitter Data Analysis Using FLUME & HIVE on Hadoop,« February 2016. [Mrežno]. Available: http://www.irdindia.in/journal_ijraet/pdf/vol4_iss2/27.pdf. [6] J. P. Verma, B. Patel i A. Patel, »Big Data Analysis: Recommendation System with,« 2015. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jaiprakash_Verma/publication/282686173_Big_Data_Analysis _Recommendation_System_with_Hadoop_Framework/links/57f4afb708ae280dd0b77681.pdf. [7] K. R. Shrote i A. V. Deorankar, »Review based service recommendation for big data,« February 2016. [Mrežno]. Available: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7538334. [8] F. Z. Ennaji, A. E. Fazziki, M. Sadgal i D. Benslimane, »Social intelligence framework: Extracting and analyzing opinions for social CRM,« November 2015. [Mrežno]. Available: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/7507229. [9] A. Go, R. Bhayani i L. Huang, »Twitter Sentiment Classification using Distant Supervision,« 2009. [Mrežno]. Available: https://cs.stanford.edu/people/alecmgo/papers/TwitterDistantSupervision09.pdf. [10] l. Bing, Opinions, Sentiment, and Emotion in Text, Cambridge University Press, 2015. [11] E. Dumbil, Big Data Now, O'Reilly, 2012. [12] Kazanova, »Sentiment140 dataset with 1.6million twwets,« 2017. [Mrežno]. Available: https://www.kaggle.com/kazanova/sentiment140. [13] C. t. W. projects, »Twitter,« 2007. [Mrežno]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter. [14] A. Pak i P. Paroubek, »Twitter as a Corpus for Sentiment Analysis and Opinion Mining,« 2010. [Mrežno]. Available: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6b7f/c158541d5a7be2b2465f7d8a42afa97d7ae9.pdf?_ga=2.1218413 55.1543760336.1572899814-899645452.1571167125. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Sentiment Analysis on Twitter Data using Big Data Author Author Obada Almonajed, Samed Jukić Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract –With the increasing number of users and data on the Internet, especially social media sites, sentiment analysis topic became one of the important and essential fields for most. Collection of people's feelings and sentiment and classifying the data attracted most businesses and companies. Recently, twitter sentiment analysis has attracted much attention, because of Twitter's growth and popularity. The solution for handling enormous amounts of data from social media is a new term called Big data. Big data is not just for having a large amount of data, but also the importance of processing and the usage of the data. Keywords Keywords. Keywords–big data, sentiment analysis, twitter, apache spark, social media, machine learning Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021311 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, IBU https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2ce3ee80befbef6a1b69b1e7067b0262.pdf 371f86fa32eeedceeb3439bff85b522d PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Overview of Human Lineage Genetic Marker Studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Y chromosome story Aldin Pirić1, Sabahudin Ćordić1, Lejla Smajlović-Skenderagić1, Serkan Dogan1, Damir Marjanović1,2 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2 Institute for Anthropological Research, Zagreb, Croatia aldin.piric@stu.ibu.edu.ba sabahudin.cordic@stu.ibu.edu.ba l.smajlovic.skenderagic@ibu.edu.ba serkan.dogan@ibu.edu.ba damir.marjanovic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state consisting of multiple ethnicities and regions located in the Western Balkan, with a very complex history. The earliest historical findings show that its area was inhabited since the Paleolithic. From that time, this part of Europe, especially the region of the Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, could be recognized as the crossroad for the different human migration and the meeting point for different cultures, religions and gene pools. Mitochondrial DNA is being used for maternal lineage testing, while the Y chromosome is being used for paternal lineage testing. Therefore, these markers are being referred to as lineage markers. Lineage markers are often used for parental lineage monitoring in population genetics, human genetics, as well as in forensic genetics. The main intention of this paper is to construct a short overview of the Y chromosome studies performed in Bosnia and Herzegovina within the last two decades. Keywords - Bosnia and Herzegovina, lineage markers, molecular markers, population genetic studies, Y chromosome 1. Introduction Existent archeological artifacts are proving that territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been populated since Neolithic [1]. However, some of the archeological findings imply that the first inhabitants settled here in the Paleolithic era [2]. In the early Bronze Age, Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians settled in the various region of the modern territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. [3] the tribes were governed by the Romans for more than five centuries [4]. During that time, a lot of the residents of the Roman empire, including Roman soldiers settled down in the region [1]. After the fall of the Roman empire, this area remained a borderline between the Eastern and Western empires which encouraged. various tribes, such the Avars, the Slavs, and others, that massively invade this region. Additionally, two important events, along with several other historical episodes, significantly impacted the structure of B&H human population. The first of those are large migration waves from the North-East (which were extremely intensive during the 6th and 7th centuries) which moved different Gothic, Avar and Slavic clans into the area. The second one was the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into this part of the Balkans in the fifteenth century [5]. All these historical episodes left their imprint on the �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 population structure of modern B&H inhabitants and created fascinating genetic diversity within. Therefore, it is not surprising that modern B&H population is one of the most genetically studied regional populations, especially by the use of so-called lineage genetic markers. Unlike autosomal markers, Y-linked and mitochondrial markers do not undergo each generation shuffling, but instead get passed down from one generation to the next, with the only differences being induced by mutations. For these reasons, these markers are often used for parental lineage monitoring in population genetics, human genetics, as well as in forensic genetics. Mitochondrial DNA is being used for maternal lineage testing, while the Y chromosome is being used for paternal lineage testing. Therefore, these markers are being referred to as lineage markers [6]. Previously published papers presented a short historical overview of earlier published human population studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina, conducted within the last three centuries [7,8]. However, usage of the lineage markers within those papers was just briefly noted. Expansion of human population studies based on these genetic markers, as well as the significance of the obtained results, initiated us to put more attention on this part of BH population genetics. Therefore, this paper will extensively elaborate usage of the Y chromosome DNA markers within analysis of the BH human genetic pool, including the most recent data published after previously mentioned papers. 2. Human Y Chromosome as Genetic Marker Y chromosome has been given many different definitions, some of them being “nonrecombining desert” and “gene-poor chromosome”. Compared to other chromosomes, the Y chromosome has low number of genes with half of its sequence consisting of repeated elements. Moreover, it lacks the recombination ability and is in continuous decay. The Y chromosome is inherited through the patrilineal inheritance pattern, i.e., from father to son, meaning that each male person from the same patrilineal lineage would have an identical profile. The relatively small degree of molecular diversity between markers located on this chromosome comes from the absence of gene recombination in 95% of its length and the mechanism of random mutations as the only possible source of polymorphisms [6]. Denver convention criteria classifies the human Y chromosome as G chromosome, that is, the category of the shortest chromosomes in the human set, consisting also of chromosomes 21 and 22. It contains about 50 million base pairs, which makes out around 1.8% of the total human genome. The Y chromosome contains important information used in determining the parental lineage of a specific male. This is possible because the Y chromosome contains highly polymorphic regions. The human Y chromosome is present in a sole copy in normal males, inherited from the father, and, as already mentioned, 95% of its complex does not undergo recombination. Only 5% of this chromosome has the potential ability to interact with the X chromosome, and the interacting region is called the pseudoautosomal region of the Y chromosome [6]. The Y chromosome has an important role in forensic analyses in cases of rape of women, in particular, those involving more than one man, especially in cases of mixed samples when there is an overwhelming amount of female DNA. Y-STR (Short Tandem Repeat) and Y-SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism) markers are useful in cases of parenthood testing or further kinship through the male line, when the children �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 are male, and in the process of identification when only kin from the father’s line is known. In addition, the Y chromosome is more and more being used in human migration studies due to its property of not undergoing recombination throughout the transfer of genetic material between generations [9]. Actually, since the first Y chromosome polymorphism was published [10], an entire decade has passed before the binary, and later STR markers, located on the NRY region found their wider application in phylogenetic studies monitoring human migration patterns, through the construction of phylogenetic trees [11]. The SNP patterns can be used to determine lineages which are referred to as haplogroups. Haplogroups can also be inferred from readily available Y-STR genotyping data. Vast amount of forensic Y-STR data is available for the use in population genetic studies [12]. 3. Overview of the Y Chromosome Population Genetic Studies in Recent B&H Inhabitants The analysis of STR and SNP variation, autosomal, and Y-chromosome markers were studied so that molecular genetic diversity of B&H could get incorporated into regional and European frames, but also to provide necessary reference for statistical calculations used in forensic genetics. In order to ensure the most relevant calculation, the data are still periodically updated. Initial results were obtained by observing 28 Y-chromosome biallelic markers in the B&H population [13]. This study was constructed on the ground of regional data and designed to include 256 male individuals. The results showed extremely close genetic relationship between three populations (three main Bosnian and Herzegovinian ethnic groups) and their close relationship to other populations in the Balkans. Of course, further elaboration of this issue required additional studies with a multidisciplinary approach, application of additional molecular markers, expansion of the sample and structural investigation of each ethnic group, as well as the analysis of ancient genetic material from the archeological skeletal samples. In the same year (2005) very first Y STR population data set for the BH human population was published [14]. Hundred tested males have been voluntary donors. The PowerPlex®Y System has been used in order to amplify 12 Y-STR loci by via PCR. These STR loci are: DYS19, DYS385a, DYS385b, DYS389I, DYS389II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS437, DYS438 and DYS439. From eighty-one detected Y-STR haplotypes (from a total number of 100 obtained samples) 69 were unique, 7 appeared two times, 4 appeared three and only 1 five times. Statistical analysis incorporated: gene diversity, major allele frequency, the most frequent haplotypes, allele frequency distribution and observed haplotype diversity [3] for 12 PowerPlex®Y loci. Four years later, with the intent to improve existing database and to obtain more specific results for local populations for a variety of DNA markers, group of authors decided to analyze additional individuals from Canton Sarajevo area. Estimation of genetic diversity at 12 Y-chromosomal STR loci included in the PowerPlex® Y System was used to extend the existing database, and create a more realistic view of the state of the genetic structure within regional Bosnian and Herzegovinian human population, in particular regarding the diversity among the isolated and non-isolated local populations. In addition, the intent of that study was to estimate genetic distinctiveness of the Canton Sarajevo population within the general B&H population as well as with populations of geographically neighboring countries. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Y-STR haplotypes were generated for a sample of 100 unrelated, healthy male individuals living in Canton Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) using PowerPlex®Y System kit [15]. Within this pool, the totals of 81 different haplotypes were detected with 71 of them unique. Absolute frequencies of the remaining 10 haplotypes were two for six haplotypes, three for two haplotypes, five for one haplotype and six for one haplotype. Obtained results suggested that the local population of Canton Sarajevo, with respect to the detected haplotype and gene diversity, may be considered a projection of general B&H population. Since this population represents the largest regional population in Bosnia and Herzegovina with emphasized migration influx this is quite a logical outcome. Four years later, in 2013, Y chromosome diversity of the B&H population was examined again, but with the increased number of STR loci. The sampling was performed using buccal swabs from unrelated, healthy men originating from all regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Total number of samples obtained was 100. DNA samples were typed for 23 Y STR loci, with 6 new loci: DYS481, DYS533, DYS576, DYS549, DYS643, and DYS570, which are included in the new PowerPlex® Y 23 amplification kit. The absolute frequency of generated haplotypes was calculated, and results showed that only two samples shared the identical Y 23 haplotype. DYS418 was identified as the most polymorphic locus, with 14 detected alleles and the minimum polymorphic loci were DYS437, DYS389I, DYS393, and DYS391. Decreasing the number of repeating haplotypes is very important in forensic DNA analysis, and this study showed that it can be achieved by increasing the number of highly polymorphic Y STR markers [16]. Whit Athey’s Haplogroup Predictor was used to determine Y chromosome haplogroup frequencies via Y chromosome marker frequencies from the same 100 individuals [17]. According to those results, the most frequent haplogroup seems to be I2a, with a commonness of 49%, followed by R1a and E1b1b, each accounting for 17% of all haplogroups within the population. Remaining haplogroups encountered in this study are J2a (5%), I1 (4%), R1b (4%), J2b (2%), G2a (1%) and N (1%). Preliminary B&H population data published before 10 years was confirmed by these results. The prediction about B&H population as a part of the Western Balkan area, which served as the Last Maximum refuge for the Paleolithic human European population was also confirmed in this paper. Furthermore, these results corroborated the hypothesis that this region was an important stopping point on the “Middle East-Europe highway” during the Neolithic farmer migrations. Finally, since these results were almost completely in accordance with previously published data on B&H and neighboring populations that were generated by Y chromosome single nucleotide polymorphism (Y-SNP) analysis, it was concluded that in silico analysis of YSTRs is a reliable method for approximation of the Y chromosome haplogroup diversity of an examined population. In the meantime, the same STR set of loci was employed to explore the distribution and polymorphisms of 23 short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the Y chromosome in the Turkish population recently settled in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and to investigate its genetic relationships with the homeland Turkish population and neighboring populations [18]. This study included 100 healthy unrelated male individuals from the Turkish population living in Sarajevo. Amplification was performed using PowerPlex Y 23 amplification kit. The studied population was compared to other populations using pairwise genetic distances, which were represented with a multi-dimensional scaling plot. Haplotype and allele frequencies of the sample population were calculated and the results showed that all 100 samples had unique haplotypes. The most polymorphic locus was DYS458, and the least polymorphic DYS391. The observed haplotype �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 diversity was 1.0000 ± 0.0014, with a discrimination capacity of 1.00 and the match probability of 0.01. Rst values showed that the observed population was closely related in both dimensions to the Lebanese and Iraqi populations, while it was more distant from Bosnian, Croatian, and Macedonian populations. At the end, the conclusion is that Turkish population living in Sarajevo can be observed as a representative Turkish population because results were the same as those published for the population from Turkey. This study showed that populations which are geographically close, were related genetically to each other. The methods for haplogroup prediction were encountered in this study [19]. 23 loci from previously obtained Y-STR haplotypes from 100 unrelated healthy Turkish males, who had recently settled in Sarajevo, were utilized for the purpose of determining the haplogroups via Whit Athey’s Haplogroup Predictor software. In total 90 studied haplotypes had the Bayesian probability greater than 92.2 % and had the range between 51.4% and 84.3% for the 10 haplotypes left. 17 differently distributed haplogroups were found, with Y-haplogroup J2a being the most prevalent one, with abundance percentage of 26% of all samples, while haplogroups R1b, G2a, and R1a were less prevalent, with the range from 10% to 15% of all the samples. These 4 haplogroups together contribute to 63% of all Y-chromosomes. in total 11 haplogroups (E1b1b, G1, I1, I2a, I2b, J1, J2b, L, Q, R2, and T) had a range from 2% to 5%, whereas other haplogroups, namely E1b1a and N were found in only 1% of all samples. Results have shown that a large percentage of the Turkish paternal line is linked with West Asia, Europe Caucasus, Western Europe, Northeast Europe, Middle East, Russia, Anatolia, and Black Sea Y chromosome lineages. Conclusion is that the analyzed Turkish population can serve as a representative sample for the Turkish population residing in Turkey, because results were consistent with those data published earlier in the literature for Turkish population in Turkey. In years 2016 and 2017, similar studies were performed on the human population residing in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Namely, Tuzla Canton is one of the most populated regions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, thus its genetic analysis could serve as proof of past demographic events. The first study, which included in total 100 unrelated healthy adult males genotyped using 23-Y STR loci included within PowerPlex Y23 kit [20], employed statistical tests such as haplotype diversity, allele frequencies and Rst-based genetic distances calculated between new dataset and the one from Bosnia and Herzegovina and other places. The distances were afterwards visualized through multidimensional scaling plot and neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree analyses. Discrimination capacity of the PowerPlex Y23 kit appeared to be high, because all 100 individuals had the unique haplotypes, and newly incorporated loci seem very informative. However, no significant difference between the study population and the general population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as between the population of Tuzla and neighboring populations. [20] In the Second study, for the same 100 unrelated male individuals from Tuzla Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) in silico haplogroup assignments were made and it was based on 23-loci Y-STR data using the following four different algorithms [21]. Dominant haplogroups were I, R and E with their sublineages I2a, R1a, and E1b1b. It is in connection with the published Y-SNP data for the B&H population. In general, results which are represented in this study did not only constitute a concordance study on the four haplogroup assignment algorithms which are also most popular, but they also give a deep knowledge about differentiation that can be find within population of B&H based on Y haplogroups for the first time. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Those studies-initiated publication of the few more papers which were including Y STR data from B&H human population. The first one was published in 2015 and it was focused on the clustering of the European human population based on the Y-STR data [22]. Three overall clusters were formed as a result of autosomal STR loci analyses, namely the European, Asian and African. However, Y-STR analyses highlighted formations of new sub-clusters. This is confirmed since the European cluster was easily divided into four distinct groups represented as four branches of the phylogenetic tree, while the Asian population cluster consists of two sub-clusters. Given the aforementioned clustering trends evident in both phylogenetic trees, it was concluded that clusters were indeed formed as a consequence of geographical proximity that triggered a mixing of gene pools, which in turn resulted in the formation of neighboring populations that exhibit strong genetic similarities. Overall, this study effectively highlights that Y-STRs could be a more informative tool in structural population studies as they are more informative than autosomal STRs because they not only enable continental clustering but are also a great tool for additional regional studies as well. Formation of four sub-clusters of European populations is once again proving the great potential of Y-chromosomal markers in the wide spectrum of genetic analyses. The second one was published in 2018 and it was focused on the analysis of the Balkan human population based on the Y-STR data [12]. This study aimed to provide insight into genetics relations in Balkan population using silico analysis of Y-STR haplotypes and predicting haplogroups as well as doing network analysis of the same haplotypes. The population dataset was obtained using 23, 17, 12, 9 and 7 Y-STR loci for 13 populations, including Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H), Croatia, Slovenia, Greece, Macedonia, Romany (Hungary), Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, Romania and Bulgaria. The overall dataset consists of 2179 samples with 1878 different haplotypes. Between thirteen analyzed Balkan populations, in four of them 12a was recognized as the major haplogroup. Each population with 12a as the major haplogroup (B&H, Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia) was from the former Yugoslavia republic. The last two major populations from Yugoslavia, Macedonia and Slovenia, had E1b1b and R1a haplogroups as the most prevalent. E1b1b haplogroup was the most prevalent in the population of Macedonia, Romania, as well as Albania and Kosovo. Comparing I2a haplogroup clusters to E1b1b and R1b haplogroup clusters, the former one is more compact, which indicates a larger degree of homogeneity within the haplotypes that belong to that haplogroup. This study indicates that an effective approach for utilization of publicly available Y-STR datasets may lie in combination of haplogroup prediction and network analysis. 4. Conclusion Describing something that lasts for two decades as "a beginning" is quite unusual. However, that is the truth in the case of Y chromosome human population-genetic studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are still many interesting features hidden within the existent diversity of local human populations in this small, but intriguing, country that are still waiting to be discovered and described. Several preliminary hypotheses were completely changed, such us origin of R1b haplogroup within this region, or significantly questioned, such us origin of notably high frequency of I2a haplogroup in Bosnia (as Balkan LGM refugium marker or �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 “Slavic migration marker” increased by founder effect) [23]. Those, and many other Y chromosome stories are just waiting to be told. REFERENCES [1] Malcolm, N. (1996). Bosnia: A short history. NYU Press. [2] Hadžibegović, I., & Imamović, M. (1994). Bosna i Hercegovina od najstarijih vremena do kraja Drugog svjetskog rata. [3] Wilkes, J. (1995). The Illyrians. Wiley-Blackwell. [4] Klaić, V. (1990). Povijest Bosne do propasti kraljevstva. Svjetlost Sarajevo. [5] Marjanovic D., et al. Doc Praehistorica, 23 (2006) 21.-6. [6] Marjanović, D., et al. (2018). Forensic genetics: Theory and application. 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Population data for the twelve Y-chromosome short tandem repeat loci from the sample of multinational population in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Journal of Forensic Science, 50(1), JFS2004289-2. [15] Ćenanović, M., Pojskić, N., Kovačević, L., Džehverović, M., Čakar, J., Musemić, D., & Marjanović, D. (2010). Diversity of Y-short tandem repeats in the representative sample of the population of Canton Sarajevo antropologicum, 34(2), 545-550. residents, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Collegium �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 3, (2020) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 [16] Kovačević, L., Fatur-Cerić, V., Hadžić, N., Čakar, J., Primorac, D., & Marjanović, D. (2013). Haplotype data for 23 Y-chromosome markers in a reference sample from Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatian medical journal, 54(3), 286-290. [17] Doğan, S., Ašić, A., Doğan, G., Besic, L., & Marjanovic, D. (2016). Y-Chromosome Haplogroups in the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Population Based on 23 Y-STR Loci. Human biology, 88(3), 201210. [18] Dogan, S., Primorac, D., & Marjanović, D. (2014). Genetic analysis of haplotype data for 23 Ychromosome short tandem repeat loci in the Turkish population recently settled in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatian medical journal, 55(5), 530. [19] Doğan, S., Doğan, G., Ašić, A., Bešić, L., Klimenta, B., Hukić, M., ... & Marjanović, D. (2016). Prediction of the Y-Chromosome Haplogroups within a recently settled Turkish Population in Sarajevo, Bosnia & Herzegovina. Collegium antropologicum, 40(1), 1-7. [20] Babić, N., Dogan, S., Čakar, J., Pilav, A., Marjanović, D., & Hadžiavdić, V. (2017). Molecular diversity of 23 Y-chromosome short tandem repeat loci in the population of Tuzla Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Annals of human biology, 44(5), 419-426. [21] Dogan, S., Babic, N., Gurkan, C., Goksu, A., Marjanovic, D., & Hadziavdic, V. (2016). Ychromosomal haplogroup distribution in the Tuzla Canton of Bosnia and Herzegovina: A concordance study using four different in silico assignment algorithms based on Y-STR data. Homo, 67(6), 471-483. [22] Dogan, S., Ašić, A., Buljubašić, S., Bešić, L., Avdić, M., Ferić, E., ... & Marjanović, D. (2015). Overview of European population clustering based on 23 Y-STR loci. Genetika, 47, 901-908. [23] Primorac, D., Marjanović, D., Rudan, P., Villems, R., & Underhill, P. A. (2011). Croatian genetic heritage: Y-chromosome story. Croatian medical journal, 52(3), 225-234. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Overview of Human Lineage Genetic Marker Studies in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Y chromosome story Author Author Aldin Pirić1, Sabahudin Ćordić1, Lejla Smajlović-Skenderagić1, Serkan Dogan1, Damir Marjanović1,2 Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract – Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state consisting of multiple ethnicities and regions located in the Western Balkan, with a very complex history. The earliest historical findings show that its area was inhabited since the Paleolithic. From that time, this part of Europe, especially the region of the Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina, could be recognized as the crossroad for the different human migration and the meeting point for different cultures, religions and gene pools. Mitochondrial DNA is being used for maternal lineage testing, while the Y chromosome is being used for paternal lineage testing. Therefore, these markers are being referred to as lineage markers. Lineage markers are often used for parental lineage monitoring in population genetics, human genetics, as well as in forensic genetics. The main intention of this paper is to construct a short overview of the Y chromosome studies performed in Bosnia and Herzegovina within the last two decades. Keywords Keywords. Keywords - Bosnia and Herzegovina, lineage markers, molecular markers, population genetic studies, Y chromosome Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021312 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/277ccb2bcc1a93885c5603d23beeeaa1.pdf 713fcc8ab28178f5189f971fd2845cb6 PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4 1 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ibrahim.muzaferija@stu.ibu.edu.ba zerina.masetic@ibu.edu.ba samed.jukic@ibu.edu.ba dino.keco@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with 0.81 AUC performance measure. Keywords - Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning 1. Introduction Data mining (DM) is an approach to discover useful information in data. It uses statistical and machine learning (ML) techniques to operate on large volumes of data to discover hidden patterns and relationships that describe the behaviors of systems that produced the data. Relationships and patterns discovered provide helpful insight into decision making, as well as making predictions, thus solving numerous problems. In recent years, there has been an increase in the use of ML techniques in many fields, such as education, economics, business, statistics, medicine, and sport. The main objective of this paper is to apply ML techniques in the educational field to analyze student behaviors and to predict whether the student will attend the class. Traditionally, educational institutions are collecting large volumes of data related to students, classes, faculty members, and educational processes. However, collected data is often not analyzed enough to provide significant results. In general, collected data is used for producing simple reports that are not highly significant in contributing to the decision making process in the institutions. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Currently, educational systems aim to enhance the teaching and learning process by carefully analyzing collected data, and discovering patterns related to student behavior and their final outcome. Reasons are to identify which students will perform well, so that they can be awarded scholarships and more importantly, to identify the students who may fail so that some form of help and assistance may be offered to them. Besides identifying students by their performance, it's also important to discover which aspects of teaching and learning systems facilitate student learning and success. One of the aspects that are closely related to student performance is student attendance, meaning that students who have a higher attendance rate also have a higher success rate in the end [1]. The paper is structured in seven sections: 1. Introduction section; 2. The previous work section describes the previous efforts for the topic; 3. The methods and materials section describes data cleaning and processing steps; 4. The model creation section describes model selection and creation methodology; 5. The results section provides model results and evaluation; 6. In the discussion section, a comparison between this study and previous studies is made; 7. The conclusion section provides recommendations for future work in the area of educational data mining. 2. Previous Work Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] applied machine learning methods from the WEKA tool in order to predict students' performance from the College of Science and Technology – Khan Younis. Thir work was concluded with two classification algorithms, Naive Bayes and J48, which provided an accuracy of 63.59% and 63,53% respectively. C. Anuradha and T. Velmurugan [3] conducted a comparative analysis of the evaluation of classification algorithms in the prediction of students' performance. The dataset was obtained from the college database, containing 19 attributes that describe the student, his family, and the living environment, as well as previous performances. Their goal was to compare algorithms in predicting students’ performance in end semester examinations. The results show that Bayesian classifiers, as well as JRip and J48, had the highest accuracy which is very close to 70%. Abeer Badr El-Din Ahmed and Ibrahim Sayed Elaraby [4] describe the importance of Educational Data Mining (EDM) and Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) in achieving the main goal of higher education institutions, that is, providing quality education to students. They used classification algorithms to identify those students who needed special attention in order to reduce the failing ratio and taking appropriate action at the right time, resulting in a decrease of the falling ratio by more than 15%. Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] used a dataset that contains a huge number of features that describe a student, by applying feature selection algorithms like Correlation-Based Feature Selection (CBFS) and Information Gain Attribute Evaluation (IGATE), they reduced the number of features and performed cross �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 modeling with five machine learning algorithms: Decision Trees (DT), Bayesian Networks (BN), Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), Support Vector Machines (SVM) and Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP). Features related to gender, university, time, and family are the ones having the highest information gain, as well as the models created using decision tree algorithms, provide 10-15% more reliable performance in comparison to other classification algorithms. The study conducted by Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] confirms that past performances have indeed got a significant influence over current performances. Further, they used neural network algorithms and confirmed that the accuracy of the algorithms is proportional to dataset size, meaning that with the increase of dataset size, the algorithms generalize the problem better. In this paper, we’ll address the problem with a selection of best-performing machine learning algorithms for EDA, as proposed by Anal Acharya and Devadatta Sinha [5] and Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2], such as Logistic Regression, Decision Tree, Rule-based, k-NN, etc. Moreover, an increased number of data samples is obtained in order to improve the algorithms generalizing ability, in contrast to the number of data samples used in the previous study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2]. 3. Methods and Materials The research is based on CRISP-DM [7] methodology as it describes common approaches used by data mining experts, while the paper contains a simplified version of the processing model shown below. Figure 1. Data processing workflow A. Data selection Initial data was obtained from International Burch University’s Student Academic System [8] and contains 2nd-year student attendance data from the years 2016/2017 and 2017/2018. Although the dataset doesn't contain all the details about the students and their classes (such as day of the week in which the class was held, exact start and end time of classes, professor ID, etc.), it’s enough to extract the patterns of student attendance behavior and create a model that predicts it. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 The data was obtained as an SQL file, and after importing the file to the local database, RapidMiner [9] was used to fetch the tables and store them in CSV format. Every further operation is done using the RapidMiner, as it has the Weka [10] extension. The following table displays whether or not an attribute of the original dataset was copied over to the data mining dataset. All the selected attributes were considered relevant to the task of predicting student attendance to classes. Table 1. Initial dataset attribute selection Table Attribute Accepted Notes student_id x No need for additional IDs student_number x No need for additional IDs student_id ✓ Student ID course_code ✓ Course ID branch x Same values in other tables year x Same values in other tables semester x Same values in other tables student_id ✓ Student ID attendance_id ✓ Class attendance ID attendance_id ✓ Class attendance ID course_code ✓ Course ID branch ✓ Branch year ✓ Year semester ✓ Semester number course_date ✓ Starting date of the week in which class was held type ✓ Type of the class students student_courses student_attendance course_attendance �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 topic x Not relevant / High cardinality duration ✓ Duration of the class B. Data Cleansing In order to get an insight into data quality, graphical and statistical methods were used to detect anomalies, faults, outliers, missing values, etc. First, the dataset was divided into four parts: 1st semester of 2016, 2nd semester of 2016, 1st semester of 2017, and 2nd semester of 2017. After examination, data related to both semesters of the year 2016 contained no anomalies and were consistent, thus were labeled as clean data. Furthermore, 2nd semester of the year 2017 contained incomplete data due to university system failure (class attendance from the last 2 weeks is missing), and 1st-semester data were not consistent (having a huge number of recorded attendances in the 14th week and almost none in 15th week). The dataset contained automatic attendance values that were irrelevant for creating a model and those samples were removed. Some attendance samples recorded before and after the semester were marked as outliers. Samples related to midterm and final exams showed the decrease of recorded attendances due to the nature of exam weeks, as instead of multiple lectures in those weeks, only one was held - the exam. Those samples were not relevant in predicting the lecture attendance and were discarded. C. Deriving Data From the course_date attribute, containing the date of the week in which the class was held, week attribute was derived, containing week number in the semester. The attribute attended is added to the table student_attendances and contains the value 1, which reflects that the student attended the class. Later when joining tables, this attribute will have missing values which indicate that students didn't attend the class. The dataset contains only the records of students that attended the class and no records of students that didn't attend. In order to populate the attribute attended with reflection did the student attend the class, joining the tables is necessary. First, by performing an inner join of student_courses and course_attendance tables, matching course_code from one table with course_code from another, a new table is created containing a matched list of students per course attendance IDs. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Next, by performing a left join of the previously created table and student_attendance table, matching both attendance_id and student_id from one table with attendance_id and student_id from another table, a new table is created containing attendance values where the student attended the class and missing values where the student was absent. Finally, missing values were replaced with 0, indicating that the student was absent. D. Dataset Creation During the data preparation phase, attributes considered most relevant were selected to shape the model's prediction capabilities. Then, using the RapidMiner tool, all data was cleaned and exported as a CSV dataset that will be used in training and testing the model. The final dataset contains about 58,000 attendance samples from the 2nd semester of the year 2016, and the following table displays qualitative and quantitative aspects of all the attributes present on the final dataset. The goal attribute (or prediction class) is “attended” which indicates did the student attend the class (marked as 1) or not (marked as 0). Table 2 - Final dataset attribute description Attribute Data type Range Missing values Distinct values Unique values Statistics id integer [1,58019] 0 58019 58019 — attended integer 0,1 0 2 0 Least: 1 (21327) Most: 0 (36692) course_code nominal MAN 201, (...) 0 85 0 Least: IRES 305 (5) Most: MAN 201 (6784) branch nominal A,B,C,D,E, F 0 6 0 Least: D (1628) Most: A (37368) type nominal Recitation, lecture, lab 0 3 0 Least: recitation (1954) Most: lecture (46511) duration integer [1,4] 0 4 0 Min: 1 Max: 4 Average: 1.684 week integer [1,15] 0 15 0 Min: 1 Max: 15 Average: 7.861 4. Model Creation This machine learning problem belongs to the classification types [11]. In order to reach the business goal, the complete understanding of data is required to generate the model. Currently, there are several modeling algorithms for classification types of problems, and they are shown in the table below. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 In order to correctly create, evaluate and validate the model, one of the key steps is the separation of the data into training, testing, and validation. Table 3. Machine Learning algorithms Type Name Functions Logistic Regression ID3 (Decision Tree) C4.5 (J48) Trees Random Forest One-Rule Rules PRISM Memory-Based k-NN The most convenient method for training and testing separation is called Cross-Validation [12], as it splits the data into folds, and crosses the results of training and testing with different folds. The cross-validation is conducted using five folds of training data. Validation data will not be used in cross-validation in order to provide reliable testing results at the end. 5. Results All the decision tree algorithms had the minimal gain set to “0.01” in order to prevent premature pruning of the tree branches, and pruning confidence threshold to “0.25”. Other model settings have been kept on the default values because they are preselected for optimal model performance. After applying manifold training and testing methods known as cross-validation [13], building the models with different algorithms yielded promising results, as shown using the metrics such as accuracy, the area under the curve (AUC), precision, recall, fallout, and f-measure [14]. Moreover, models have been evaluated with validation data holdout and the results match with the cross-validation testing results presented below. Table 4. Evaluations of created models Algorithm Accuracy AUC Precision Recall Fallout F-Measure �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Logistic Regression 75.37% 0.803 71.09% 55.63% 13.16% 62.41% ID3 68.38% 0.697 56.20% 63.31% 28.68% 59.54% C4.5 77.41% 0.812 73.04% 61.12% 13.12% 66.55% Random Forest 66.48% 0.700 56.41% 38.73% 17.39% 45.92% One-Rule 74.60% 0.500 69.25% 55.65% 14.39% 61.69% PRISM 64.15% 0.500 71.90% 4.07% 0.93% 7.70% K-NN 70.42% 0.672 58.13% 69.86% 29.25% 63.45% The machine learning algorithm that creates the most accurate model is a decision tree algorithm known as C4.5. The reason is the enhanced method of tree pruning that reduces misclassification errors due to noise and too many details in the training data set, as described in the study conducted by Anuja Priyam et al [15]. The accuracy of the model is fairly satisfying, taking into consideration that previous works provided an accuracy of less than 70%. As opposed to previously mentioned studies, our data set contains more examples thus produces a more accurate prediction model. This process allows the extraction of relevant information from the model and helps draw the lines of action for this business problem. Table 5. Confusion matrix for C4.5 model true 0 true 1 class precision predicted 0 31878 8291 79.36% predicted 1 4814 13036 73.03% class recall 86.88% 61.12% In regards to interpretability, the decision tree generated by the C4.5 algorithm is easy to interpret as the size of the tree generated is 357 and the number of leaves is 230. The most important attribute on the dataset, as taken from the model, is the course code. Furthermore, it's wrong to assume that one student attending classes has the same cost, from a business perspective, as one that never goes to class. That means that students that attend classes are beneficial and students that miss classes have a cost. With that in mind, the model needs to help in finding the solutions that decrease the overall cost. There are four possibilities: 1. We predicted the student would attend class and he did; 2. We predicted the student would not attend class and he did not; 3. We predicted the student would attend class, but he did not; 4. We predicted the student would not attend class, but he did. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 Point 1 is the best scenario, so it needs to have a negative cost (to be a benefit). Point 2 is the worst case, so it needs to have the highest cost. Point 3 is also negative, but not as negative as the previous one. Point 4 is positive, but not as good as the first point. With that information, it is possible to build a cost matrix for the class “Attended”: Table 6. Cost matrix for the model Actual T F T -15 15 F -5 5 Prediction Building the cost-matrix doesn’t affect the model’s performance but aids in the final outcome of prediction by introducing the business bias and targeting to increase the business value. 6. Discussion The possible issue with the study conducted by Gurmeet Kaur and Williamjit Singh [2] is the small number of instances (as low as 52) contained in the dataset and used to build the model. In order to make a model more accurate and more prone to generalization, Havan Agrawal and Harshil Mavani [6] propose using a higher number of instances, which made the model described in this paper more accurate. Moreover, crossvalidation, as one of the extra steps that are taken in model construction, increased the model’s overall ability to generalize and provide higher accuracy than models in previous studies. While conducting the research, it was noticed that the quantity and quality of data plays a crucial role in the final outcome and performance. We highly devise to use a high number of instances in future studies, and continuum stream of attendance data in deployed models to continuously train the model as the trends responsible for student attendance dynamic behavior progresses over time. The feature engineering task in the data preparation step has yielded significant model improvement as compared to the models from previous studies that are built without deriving new attributes. Moreover, the induction of external data has also improved the performance of the model as outliers were removed. 7. Conclusion This study has shown that patterns for student attendance exist and can predict whether the student will attend the class. The importance of student data quantity and quality is presented, as well as the methods for cleaning and transforming the data. The creation of a machine learning model should include cross- �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 validation as one of the key steps, and we devise using multiple algorithms for achieving the best results. When there is a business value to achieve, it’s recommended to use a cost-matrix to further adjust the model and increase the business value. The model for predicting student attendance can be used to improve in the area of causing factors and increase the attendance ratio, which will subsequently increase the passing ratio, i.e., the number of students that graduate. Future works can include an increase in data set examples, as well as dimensionality increase by adding attributes for external factors of students’ attendance, such as a professor who held the lecture and weather information of the day. REFERENCES [1] A. S. N. Kim, S. Shakory, A. Arman, C. Popovic, and L. 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Available: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/6447/4a9172a97cdf5d39c6fdcc21fc0c61fc7df3.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018]. [6] “Student Performance Prediction using Machine Learning.” [Online]. Available: http://www.ece.uvic.ca/~rexlei86/SPP/otherswork/V4I3-IJERTV4IS030127.pdf. [Accessed: 26-Nov2018]. [7] “IBM Knowledge Center.” [Online]. Available: https://www.ibm.com/support/knowledgecenter/en/SS3RA7_15.0.0/com.ibm.spss.crispdm.help/crisp_ove rview.htm. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [8] International Burch University, “Home,” International Burch University. [Online]. Available: https://www.ibu.edu.ba/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [9] “Lightning Fast Data Science Platform for Teams | RapidMiner©,” RapidMiner, 19-Jan-2016. [Online]. Available: https://rapidminer.com/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [10] “Weka 3 - Data Mining with Open Source Machine Learning Software in Java.” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/. [Accessed: 19-Dec-2018]. [11] “[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso- minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019]. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2020) DOI number: 12.34567/JONSAE2020123 [12] “[No title].” [Online]. Available: https://www.cs.princeton.edu/~schapire/talks/picasso- minicourse.pdf. [Accessed: 10-Nov-2019]. [13] “3.1. Cross-validation: evaluating estimator performance — scikit-learn 0.21.3 documentation.” [Online]. Available: https://scikit-learn.org/stable/modules/cross_validation.html. [Accessed: 10-Nov2019]. [14] L. Egghe, “The measures precision, recall, fallout and miss as a function of the number of retrieved documents and their mutual interrelations,” Inf. Process. Manag., vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 856–876, Mar. 2008. [15] “Comparative Analysis of Decision Tree Classification Algorithms” [Online]. Available: https://inpressco.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Paper17334-3371.pdf. [Accessed: 05-July-2020]. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Student Attendance Pattern Detection and Prediction Author Author Ibrahim Muzaferija1, Zerina Mašetić2, Samed Jukić3, Dino Kečo4 Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the early beginnings of education systems, attendance has always played a crucial role in student success, as well as in the overall interest of the matter. The most productive way of increasing the student attendance rate is to understand why it decreases, try to predict when it is going to happen, and act on causing factors in order to prevent it. Many benefits of predicted and increased attendance rate can be achieved, including better lecture organization (i.e. lecture time and duration, lecture class choice, etc). This paper describes the steps in the extraction of knowledge from the university's student database and making a model that predicts whether the student will attend the class or not. Results show that the attendance patterns are best reflected when employing a decision tree algorithm, a C4.5 model that is interpretable and able to predict the attendance with 0.81 AUC performance measure Keywords Keywords. Data Mining, Educational Data Mining, Machine Learning Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021313 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27eac86735340248e4eda9d6b63e242a.pdf dfc7fdc2237adebaad2030ec2e8f4107 PDF Text Text Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol within IoT systems based on YANG Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura2 1 2 International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina dalibor.dumic@stu.ibu.edu.ba slobodan.lubura@ets.ues.rs.ba Abstract – Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper. Keywords – Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web services, YANG 1. Introduction In each home network there are always heterogeneous devices that are expected to be connected. All of these devices are different if compared because they can be based on different hardware platforms, the controller services can be of a different nature, and also the software components for enabling the network access can vary [1]. For example, when we compare wearable technology based on the IoT like a smartwatch or wristband with smart home devices such as a washing machine or air conditioner, we will notice different capabilities in terms of memory usage, processing speed, and power consumption [2]. Because of that, the IoT devices can be generally classified based on their key characteristics: ● communication flows in the system, ● memory management, ● data manipulation and processing, ● power control and consumption. For example, a smart coffee machine is not always powered on because it performs certain tasks when required, but only when a user turns on it via a user interface such as a mobile application whenever the user wants to drink a coffee or when the user is on the way to home and wants to have already prepared coffee. These kinds of devices consume less power for communication. There are many actuators in home automation systems that must be managed by systems connected to the Internet via network protocols [3]. �The focus of this paper is on the practical implementation of the methodology proposed in [4] and this methodology was carried out by the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol that will be used as a network protocol for enabling the connection of the gateway with the Internet. The gateway will perform effective management of sensors and devices in a home network and it will be based on the RESTful technologies. The paper is organized into five sections. Section 1 introduces us to the IoT systems and the purpose of this paper. In Section 2, the NETCONF protocol and its features are introduced. The proposed integration of the NETCONF protocol in the IoT is detailed in Section 3. The results of the proposed integration of the NETCONF protocol are noted in Section 4. The benefits of the proposed integration and the main conclusions are discussed in Section 5. 2. The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) and its features A. NETCONF The Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF) is a network management protocol with great features such as installing, manipulating, and deleting the configuration of the devices in the network. Its purpose is managing network devices, retrieving its configuration data, and uploading or manipulating new configuration data of the network devices [5]. That means devices on the network can take different states according to their configuration. To switch between the device’s states, the configuration datastores are used. By definition, a configuration datastore contains a set of information that is needed for the configuration, and thereby that configuration is required to change the state of a device to chosen operational state from its initial default state. NETCONF currently supports event notification features and the following multiple configuration datastores [6]: ● "running" – this configuration is always present and it is used as the currently active configuration ● "startup" – this configuration is used in the next startup ● "candidate” - this configuration that can be used instead of currently running configuration through an explicit commit. By using NETCONF operations, it is possible to manipulate device configuration. The NETCONF operations are invoked as Remote Procedure Calls (RPCs) from the client to the server. Some minor operations are [6]: ● “commit” - commits the "candidate" configuration to "running", ● “copy-config” - copy one configuration datastore to another, ● “edit-config” - changes the contents of a configuration database, ● “get-config” - retrieves configuration datastore, ● “lock” - prevent changes to a datastore from another party, and ● “unlock” - releases lock on a datastore. �Configuration data stored on devices and the protocol messages between devices are encoded in Extensible Markup Language (XML) on both client and server side. Any script or application can be the client in order to be runned as part of a network manager. The server is typically a network device. There is a rule that a device on the network must support at least one NETCONF session. The main NETCONF message exchange between client and server in a single NETCONF session [7] is illustrated in Figure 1. At the start, the device and controller create a NETCONF session and share their list of their own capabilities by sending <hello> messages. A capability describes a supported data model. After the session has started,, the NETCONF executes exchanges <rpc> and <rpc-reply> messages. The <rpc> message consists of an enclosed NETCONF command which is sent from the controller to the device. The <get> command in the <rpc> message is used to get the running configuration and state information of the device (3). The <editconfig> request is used to write a specific configuration on the device (5). The <rpc-reply> message is sent from the device to the controller in response to a <rpc> message. The response data for the given method invoked is encoded as one or more child elements enclosed in the <rpc-reply> message. Figure 1. NETCONF messages The information that a client retrieves from the server consists of two parts: configuration data and state data [6]. The purpose of the configuration data is to give a description of actions that will change a system from its previous state into the state described in the configuration data, while the purpose of the state data is to provide information such as read-only status data and collected statistics. For specifying NETCONF data models and operations, the YANG data modeling language is used. A. YANG To perform the NETCONF operations, a YANG module has to be defined as a hierarchy of data such as configuration data, state data, RPCs, and notifications. By defining the YANG module, a description of all data sent between both NETCONF client-side and server-side becomes completed. Each YANG module is consisting of statements and some of the statements are previewed in Table 1 [8]. Table 1. YANG statements Statements augment choice Description Extends existing data hierarchies Defines mutually �container extension feature grouping key exclusive alternatives Defines mutually exclusive alternatives Allows new statements to be added to YANG Indicates parts of the model are optional Groups data definitions into reusable sets Defines the key leafs for lists Defines a leaf node in the data hierarchy A leaf node that can appear multiple times leaf leaf-list list notification rpc typedef uses A hierarchy that can appear multiple times Defines notification Defines input and output parameters for an RPC Defines a new type Incorporates the contents of a "grouping" With the help of XML parsers and XSLT scripts, a translation of the YANG module into an equivalent XML syntact becomes possible. Every YANG module consists of a set of built-in types and has a type mechanism through which additional types may be defined. The modeler of the YANG module can add constraints to the model to prevent impossible or illogical data. The purpose of these constraints is to provide information about the data being sent from the server and help a client to understand the data that the server will accept in order to avoid sending incorrect data from the client to the server. Table 2 briefly describes some other common YANG constraints [9] Table 2. YANG constraints Statements length Description Limits the length of string �mandatory max-elements min-elements Requires the node appear Limits the number of instances in list Limits the number of instances in list must XPath expression must be true pattern range reference unique when Regular expression must be satisfied Value must appear in range Value must appear elsewhere in the data Value must be unique within the data Node is only present when XPath expression is true Generally said, the YANG module is a single data model that contains three types of statements: ● module-header statements – they describe the module and provide the information about the module ● revision statements – they provide information about the history of the module ● definition statements – they are the body of the module where the YANG module is defined. In order to use the YANG module, it firstly has to be defined or modeled to the specific problem domain. After that, the YANG module can be loaded, compiled, or coded into the server. In the end, the NETCONF server may implement any number of the YANG modules [10]. 3. Proposed Methodology After the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol and retrieving its features, an implementation of the proposed integration was divided into two parts: server-side and client-side, as it is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Both client and server sides are communicating over the Internet [4] A. Server-side To implement the proposed integration, the following requirements are defined: �● small physical dimensions, because it has to be hidden in home installation and not visible; ● able to boot Linux Operating System, since the Linux OS is open-source; ● has General Purpose Input Output (GPIO) pins for interfacing with the sensors and devices, ● has Ethernet port and/or WiFi module, and ● CPU based on ARM for fast computing. A great match for the single board with the following characteristics is Raspberry Pi 3 B+, which is based on a 1.4GHz 64-bit quad-core ARM Cortex-A53 processor. The good thing about Raspberry Pi is that it has the GPIO module which can be used through several programming languages such as C, C#, Python, Java, etc. The fact is that the integration will be implemented by using Python programming language and it makes Raspberry Pi a perfect match [11]. A server would be connected via appropriate connection lines to these rooms as it is shown in the Figure 3. Figure 3. Raspberry Pi as server connected to sensors and devices in each room via GPIO line [4] In order to build a server, the Netopeer2, a set of tools implementing network configuration based on the NETCONF protocol, is installed [12][13]. Each room in a home has sensors and relays for controlling devices. For each room, a custom YANG module is created, and each custom YANG module manipulates with data such as temperature, humidity, open or closed status, turned off or turned on status, etc. Thanks to custom YANG modules, the server can easily manage the information related to the sensors and relays in the home. The structure of the simplest custom YANG module for a room is shown in the section “Appendix”. �B. Client-side On the client-side, any device which supports the NETCONF protocol can communicate with the server. However, the challenge is to develop an application by means of RESTful services. It should send the RPC commands such as “edit-config” or “get-config” directly to the NETCONF server in order to retrieve information about rooms in the user’s home. Finally, its interface must be user-friendly and rich with data charts, data graphs, toggle buttons, etc. The very first step is to develop a script that shall “talk” with the NETCONF server. Thanks to the enormous possibilities of the Python programming language, it is possible to communicate with the server via the NETCONF protocol by using ncclient library. The ncclient library enables an easy way of the client-side scripting around the NETCONF protocol, and as well as the possibility of the application development [14]. The next step was to develop a web application and merge it with the script based on ncclient library. There are many high-level Python web frameworks and one of them is Django. Django is specific because it encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design [15]. By combining Django and ncclient, a powerful user-friendly web application is created, and it will fulfill its main purpose – to collect all information about the conditions such as temperature and humidity in the rooms of the user’s home and to control devices in the rooms of the user’s home, all of it over the NETCONF protocol. 4. Results On the client-side we have an application based on both front-end and back-end development in the Django framework and merging its back-end with the ncclient module for interfacing with the server as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Developed client application �On the server-side we have Raspberry Pi computer booting Linux OS which runs Netopeer2 and sysrepo modules for enabling the NETCONF protocol and interfacing the data through YANG modules. The Raspberry Pi is connected to several sensors and actuators, as shown in the Figure 5: Figure 5. Raspberry Pi running as the NETCONF server The URL of the recorded video of the methodology proposed in this paper can be found below in the reference section [16]. A clip from the recorded video is shown in Figure 6 and it can be seen that two processes are running parallely: sysrepo and netopeer2. Figure 6. Testing the proposed methodology An overview of both client and server sides is shown in Figure 7. �Figure 7. Used technologies on both client and server sides The complete overview of the proposed integration is shown in Figure 8. Figure 8. Overview of the complete integrated system 4. Conclusion Through the empirical study of the NETCONF protocol, great capabilities of the NETCONF protocol are discovered. The NETCONF protocol allows us to have an unlimited number of YANG modules with different structures of the data. This characteristic of the NETCONF protocol is of crucial importance for using it in the home automation system and similar systems. The proposed integration is not a challenge anymore. Thanks to the powerful Python Web framework and ncclient Python library, it is possible to develop a rich web application that can be outperformed on many devices such as single board computers, desktop computers, notebooks, and even tablets. APPENDIX Implemented module for a room in the YANG language: module room1 { namespace "urn:sysrepo:room1"; prefix r1; description "The room yang module."; revision 2019-09-14 { description "Initial revision."; } container room-data { description "Room 1 info."; leaf temperature { �description "Actual temperature inside the room."; type uint8 { range "0..125"; } } leaf humidity { description "Actual humidity inside the room."; type uint8 { range "0..100"; } } leaf ac-status { description "Informs whether the AC is switched on or off."; type boolean; } } } ACKNOWLEDGMENT Many thanks to the experts from the RT-RK Institute for Computer Based Systems in Banja Luka who contributed and influenced so much to the development of this research from the early stages of the project. REFERENCES [1] M. Tooba, A. Muhammad and A. M. Martinez-Enriquez, "Smart Solution for Heterogeneous Device Interoperability in IoT," 2018 Seventeenth Mexican International Conference on Artificial Intelligence (MICAI), Guadalajara, Mexico, 2018, pp. 70-75, [2] Van den Abeele, F., Hoebeke, J., Moerman, I., & Demeester, P. (2015). Integration of Heterogeneous Devices and Communication Models via the Cloud in the Constrained Internet of Things. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks. [3] Vijay S., Banga M.K. (2018) Management of IoT Devices in Home Network via Intelligent Home Gateway Using NETCONF. In: Kumar N., Thakre A. (eds) Ubiquitous Communications and Network Computing. UBICNET 2017. Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, vol 218. Springer, Cham [4] D. Đumić, S. Došlić, M. Antić, B. Milić, “Integration of the NETCONF Protocol in the Internet of Things by means of RESTful Web Services”, 6th International Conference on Electrical, Electronic and Computing Engineering IcETRAN, pp. 983 - 987, ETRAN Society, June 2019 [5] R. Enns, M. Brojklund, J. Schoenwaelder and A. Bierman, “Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, June 2011. [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6241 [6] H. Ji, B. Zhang, G. Li, X. Gao and Y. Li, "Challenges to the New Network Management Protocol: NETCONF," 2009 First International Workshop on Education Technology and Computer Science, Wuhan, Hubei, 2009, pp. 832-836, doi: 10.1109/ETCS.2009.189. �[7] M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini and P. Castoldi, "Management of sliceable transponder with NETCONF and YANG," 2016 International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling (ONDM), Cartagena, 2016, pp. 1-6 [8] M. Dallaglio, N. Sambo, F. Cugini, P. Castoldi, “Management of sliceable transponder with NETCONF and YANG”, International Conference on Optical Network Design and Modeling, pp. 1 – 6, IEEE, May 2016 [9] P. Shafer, “An Architecture for Network Management using NETCONF and YANG”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, June 2011, [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/id/draft-ietf-netmod-arch-07.html [10] M. Brojklund, “YANG – A Data Modeling Language for the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF)”, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), ISSN: 2070-1721, October 2010. [Online]. Available: https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6020 [11] The Raspberry Pi Foundation. “Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+”, [Online], Available: https://www.raspberrypi.org/products/raspberry-pi-3-model-b-plus/ [12] Czech Educational and Research Network (CESNET), “Netopeer2 – The NETCONF Toolset”, [Online], Available: https://github.com/CESNET/Netopeer2 [13] sysrepo - YANG-based datastore for Unix/Linux application, [Online], Available: http://www.sysrepo.org/static/doc/html/start_page.html [14] S. Bhushan, L. Poulopouls, Python library for NETCONF clients, [Online], Available: http://ncclient.readthedocs.org/ [15] Django Software Foundation, [Online], Available: https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/3.0/ [16] NETCONF Protocol + Raspberry Pi + Django = Home Automation || Yugoscientiz © 2019, [Online], Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZoiYGt2NbCA � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of the NETCONF protocol within IoT systems based on YANG Author Author Dalibor Đumić1, Slobodan Lubura Abstract A summary of the resource. Herein the idea of leveraging Raspberry Pi as a server for the integration of an incipient network management protocol, the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), within IoT systems based on YANG is presented. The practical realization of this idea requires the implementation of the NETCONF protocol together with REpresentational State Transfer web services (RESTful). Such an interesting and innovative practical realization like this opens new additional possibilities in domotics systems and these possibilities will be discussed in this paper. Keywords Keywords. Django, domotics, Internet of Things, NETCONF, Raspberry Pi, RESTful web services, YANG Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021314 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c91f0c7eb4c25c44efb93b1215302dc1.pdf 11fd7f01ac78fa3f60095d139353018c PDF Text Text Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using machine learning Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina nedret.becirovic@stu.ibu.edu.ba ismailbejtovic@hotmail.com jasmin.kevric@ibu.edu.ba Abstract – Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data in question. Keywords – cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network. 1. Introduction Considering growing electrical energy consumption in the residential sector [1] and Global Warming it is noticeable that energy consumption for cooling will surpass energy consumption for heating in the foreseeable future. Heating and cooling load are two very important parameters in the efficient building design. These two parameters are closely related to the materials that the building is made of, so construction decisions made early on have a great impact on the final result. There has been a considerable body of research [2] on this field and on this dataset but with no focus on the cooling load itself. Various software for simulation of energy consumption has been used over the years often in conjunction with architectural design. Accuracy of the simulation varies often across from one software package to another [3]. Therefore this work is envisaged as an addition to the existing software solutions. It is often the case that building parameters are compared separately with cooling and heating load, and simple correlation has been sought [4]. Multiple regression analysis was very popular for prediction of energy consumption until it was proven that a simple Neural Network is much better than Multiple Linear Regression Analysis with a large database [5]. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 For architects it is very important to single out and rank parameters that have the strongest impact since normality assumptions do not hold for very complicated problems. For example, glazing areas will have minimal impact on the cooling load. Surface area and overall height are parameters with strongest impact. This work is done in hope it will help future architects, energy advisors for building smart buildings and generally in the field of energy efficiency. Further studies could help with choosing suitable materials for the construction. 2. Data This study is based on UCI database made, non-gaussian dataset made by a CAD software Ecotect. Dataset represents 12 different building forms, where each form is composed of 18 building blocks of the same volume (3.5 x 3.5 x 3.5), and houses have also the same volume, which is 771.75 m3, but different height and surface area. Materials used in these 18 blocks are all contemporary and with best U-values which are well defined for walls, floors etc with variations in glazing area and orientation [2]. With twelve building forms and three glazing area variations with five glazing area distributions each, and for four orientations, (12x3x5x4) 720 building samples. 12 building types are considered without glazing but with four sides of orientation (4x12). In all it gives 768 different building types. [2] Since parameters are identified which have the strongest impact a new dataset can be constructed where some parameters can be locked in value and others can be varied. Data-mining is the identification of the parameter which has the greatest influence of the result. Statistical tools will be used tools but also inputs from builders, architects, masons etc. will give great value to the study. They can also provide knowledge of feasibility of building parameters. How much a particular building feature costs in the real world. This is a well understood, relatively large dataset with 786 buildings each having 8 parameters. This is not a skewed dataset, so this dataset is not treated as such, meaning that data were not sifted through. Some light pruning, or trimming of data is an essential part of the random and best first search methods. Data are though skewed in another way. Dataset is non-gaussian, and it is of great importance to find any bias that may have influenced the dataset using classical statistical analysis which visually gives an outlying parameter. There were not any parameters which should be given more or less weight in the neural network model. Finding a dataset of real buildings or extracting data from buildings with a great cooling load was �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 also a goal for this work. Glazing area did not have much importance in this data set for finding cooling load. New modern types of materials are changing the paradigm of the builders' philosophy and focus of this work changed back on the study of the virtual buildings i.e. our dataset. It would be best to actively follow the research on the field, particularly if there has been a report on a construction of the buildings based on research using this or a similar dataset. Dataset has been normed, quantified and classified in a very understandable and logical way by Xifara-Tsanas, (see Table 1). Table 1. Mathematical representation of the input and output variables to facilitate the presentation of the subsequent analysis and results. Mathematical Name Number of possible values x1 Relative compactnes 12 x2 Surface area 12 x3 Wall area 7 x4 Roof area 4 x5 Overall height 2 x6 Orientation 4 x7 Glazing area 4 x8 Glazing area distribution 6 y2 Cooling load 636 representation 3. Methods Classical statistical tools like histograms and scatter plots are firstly applied to dataset. Seeing the data on the graph is a great help in understanding the data. It gives the idea in which direction study has to go. Improving a model can take two different directions: make the model simpler or add complexity. Making a simpler model involves feature reduction, pruning branches and removing learners from an ensemble. Adding complexity means fine-tuning involving model-combination or adding more data sources [6]. Out of many software tools, WEKA is chosen because it is easy to use and it is easily accessible. Searching for the best computer intelligence method that is suitable for artificial dataset was the first step. Which algorithm to use is to be based on dataset form and trial and error method. Getting a good result from the start with a random forest method gave indication in which direction to go. For the analysis of the available data set, five different regression algorithms were used: �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 • Linear Regression • Random Forest • REPTree • SMOreg • Multilayer Perceptron These algorithms are recommended for these types of datasets [7]. Regression analysis was helpful to model the relationship between dependent variables (cooling load) and independent variables (8 attributes in our dataset), and because a class from a data set (cooling load) has a large number of different instances. Cross validation was used with ten folds, to get insight of how the model will behave to an unknown dataset. All of the above algorithms are regression algorithms, with the same goal, but working in different ways. Linear regression models are linear predictor functions whose model parameters are estimated from the data. Linear regression models are often fitted using the least square approach, but they may be fitted in many other ways [8]. Random forest is an ensemble method, which creates multitude of decision trees, and gives as output mean prediction of individual trees. This algorithm applies bootstrap aggregating, or bagging, to its tree learners. Compared to decision tree random forest tends to provide more accurate classification of a feature, because of the decreased bias and variance. The more decision trees are chosen the more computational power is required [9]. Reduced Error Pruning Tree (REPTree) is a fast decision tree learner, which creates multiple trees in different iterations and selects the best one from all created trees. REPTree builds regression tree information gain and prunes it using reduced-error pruning. For numeric attributes it sorts values only once [10]. SMOreg uses a support vector machine for regression. RegSMOImproved for SMOreg are used to learn parameters, but many other algorithms can be used, like Platt’s SMO [11]. Multilayer perceptron is a class of feedforward artificial neural networks. It consists of at least three layers of nodes: an input layer, a hidden layer and an output layer. It is by far the most popular architecture because of its structural flexibility, good representational capabilities, and the availability of a large number of training algorithms [12]. Feature selection is a key part of the applied machine learning process, just as model selection is. Feature selection should be considered as a part of the model selection process. If not, bias can inadvertently be introduced into models and it results in overfitting. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Feature selection must be included within the inner-loop when using accuracy estimation methods such as cross-validation. This means that feature selection is performed on the prepared fold right before the model is trained [7]. Dataset used in this work is small both in number of features and samples and it does not suffer from the “curse of dimensionality” [13] p.4. Feature selection and feature extraction methods are not recommended for this type of datasets with a small number of features [13] but extracting the information about which variables are most important, is important in this type of study. Choosing this particular approach is a type of rudimentary data mining. Four attribute evaluators and two search methods combinations are used: • CfsSubsetEval and BestFirst • ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker • ClassifierSubsetEval and BestFirst • CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker CfsSubsetEval creates subsets of attributes, where predictive ability of each feature and level of redundancy is considered. Features need to be highly correlated with class and low intercorrelation. Best first search method is used with CfsSubsetEval. ClassifierAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by using a user-specified classifier. For example if we use linear regression on our dataset, linear regression needs to be chosen for the classifier attribute evaluator. Ranker search method is used with classifier attribute evaluators. Classifiersubseteval evaluates attribute subsets on training data or a separate hold out testing set. Same as classifier attribute evaluator it uses classifier to estimate how good are subsets. Bestfirst search method is used with ClassifierSubsetEval. CorrelationAttributeEval evaluates the worth of an attribute by measuring the correlation between it and the class. Each value of an attribute is treated as an indicator. Ranker method is used with CorrelationAttributeEval. Best-first search method searches the space of attribute subsets by greedy hill-climbing augmented with a backtracking facility. Bestfirst may start with the empty set of attributes and search forward, or start with the full set of attributes and search backward, or start at any point and search in both directions. Ranker search method ranks attributes by their individual evaluations, where it is used with attribute evaluators. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 4. Results and Discussion Classical statistical tools like probability distribution were used firstly in order to get the sense of the data. Table 2 represents the attribute subset evaluator used on random forests. Random forests with Classifier Subset Evaluator and Best First search method gave the best results for all the combinations. Best First search method is a heuristic or informed search; it evaluates the second step before taking the first. Then it chooses which way to go. For this combination of methods only attribute nr.2 (Surface Area), is not considered. Since the volume of the buildings is fixed it is logical that surface area has a little variation and therefore a little impact on the result. Table 2. Results for combination of random forest and search methods Random Forest Attribute Correlation Mean Root Relative Root Relative Selected Evaluator and Coefficient Absolute Mean Absolute Squared Error Attribute Error Squared Error 1.4319 2.2692 16.6687 Search Method CfsSubSetEval 0.9711 and BestFirst Classifier s 23.8241% 3, 5, 6, 7 17.1345% 1, 2, 3, 4, % 0.9582 1.0079 1.6320 AttributeEval and 11.7324 % 5, 6, 7, 8 Ranker Classifier 0.959 2.0323 2.6933 AttributeEval and 23.3581 28.2775% 1, 2, 4, 5 17.0046% 1, 3, 4, 5, % Ranker ClassifierSubsetE 0.9854 0.9967 1.6196 val and BestFirst CorrelationAttrib 11.6030 % 0.9852 1.0079 1.6320 uteEval and 11.7324 6, 7, 8 17.1345% % 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Ranker CorrelationAttrib 0.9841 uteEval and 1.0859 1.6904 12.6408 17.7479% 5, 1, 3, 7 % Ranker Relationship between the volume of a built form and the surface area of its enclosure is called compactness. Roundness is a similar feature. R. Buckminster Fuller, engineer and an architect claimed that round houses have best energy efficiency, and an attempt to extract this feature has been made, but with no results. �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 Surface area, attribute nr.2, directly shows compactness of the building and by similarity, roundness. Classifier attribute evaluators removed this feature and gave the best correlation coefficient meaning that compactness has no impact on cooling load. Usage of geometric compactness for such evaluative purposes is criticized on multiple grounds. It does not capture the specific morphology of the building shape, disregards transparent blocks of the structure and does not correlate with orientation att. nr. 6 [14]. High correlation coefficient with all attributes included, except for surface area finally pointed that compactness does not affect thermal load. Our model gave similar results using the same dataset as Tsanas and Xifara [2] with slightly better correlation coefficient which is shown in Table 3 for classifier attribute evaluator and ranker, in Table 4 for correlation attribute evaluator and ranker. Table 3. Ranking of attributes according to attribute evaluator and ranker ClassifierAttributeEval and Ranker Mathematical representation Name Ranked x1 Relative compactnes 6.8134 x2 Surface area 6.8134 x4 Roof area 5.5105 x5 Overall height 5.2827 x3 Wall area 2.3935 x7 Glazing area 0.1718 x8 Glazing area distribution 0.0306 Table 4. Ranking attributes according to correlation attribute evaluator and ranker CorrelationAttributeEval and Ranker Mathematical representation Name Ranked x5 Overall height 0.8958 x1 Relative compactnes 0.6343 x3 Wall area 0.4271 x7 Glazing area 0.2075 �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 x8 Glazing area distribution 0.0505 x6 Orientation 0.0143 x2 Surface area -0.673 x4 Roof area -0.8625 Further study is to be done with different variations of cross folds with above-mentioned algorithms. Results would be standing stronger if another dataset to test our algorithm was available. “K-nearest neighbor” algorithm gave poor results. It is a “data sensitive” algorithm, vulnerable when faced with large amounts of data. Different datasets would be a great boost to this work to test methods against them. Parameter tuning is an iterative process, and Weka makes it easy to use it, without need to understand how parameters work. Especially, when dealing with feature selection, bias can be inadvertently introduced into models as it can give unforeseen consequences, mostly overfitting [7] [15]. Numerical values calculated by software simulations, lies very closely to previous results. Close values as compared to similar studies on the same dataset is a characteristic of the machine learning scientific field and using different methods and coming to the same results is an achievement [16]. 6. Conclusion Results of the previous study were repeated [17], and further work was done with examining cooling load resulting in slightly better correlation coefficient than in article with high scientific impact [2]. Trial and error are at the core of machine learning. Choosing right algorithms is a trade-off between speed, accuracy, and complexity. Starting with simple combinations and then adding complexity is the core of dealing with machine learning while constantly having in mind what type of data is dealt with. Empirical study gives answers to what algorithm to use or what parameters to choose. Knowing beforehand what method will work best is almost impossible. Constantly iterating different combinations of similar methods with systematic workflow and using Weka is a way forward. New and easy accessible software packages makes it easier to spot and exploit new research areas, which previously were inaccessible due to low computing capability. REFERENCES �Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Vol. 1, (2019) DOI number: 10.14706/JONSAE2019114 [1] Y-T. Chen, “The Factors Affecting Electricity Consumption and Sector – A Case of Taiwan”, 2017. [2] A. Tsanas, A. Xifara, “Accurate quantitative estimation of energy performance of residential building using statistical machine learning tools”, Science Direct, 2012, p 9. [3] A. Yezioro, “An applied artificial intelligence approach towards assessing building performance simulation tools”, Energy and Buildings, 2007, p 40. [4] T. Catalina, J. Virgone, “Cooling energy demand evaluation by means of regression models”. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference Enhanced Building Operations, New York City 2011, pp 6. [5] D. Datta, S. A. Tassou, D. Marriot, “Application of Neural Networks for the Prediction of the Energy Consumption”, 1997. [6] Mathworks, “Mastering Machine Learning: A Steb-by-Step Guide with MATLAB.” Available at: https://www.mathworks.com/campaigns/offers/mastering-machine-learning-withmatlab.confirmation.html?ab_test=b_version. [7] J. Brownlee, “Machine Learning Mastery With Weka”, Wellington: Jason Brownlee 2019. [8] X. Yan, X. Su, “Linear Regression Analysis: Theory and Computing”, World Scientific, 2009. [9] D. Natingga, “Data Science Algorithms in a Week”, 2017. [10] S. Kalmegh, “Analysis of WEKA Data Mining Algorithm REPTree, Simple Cart and RandomTree for Classification of Indian News.”, IJISET- International Journal of Innovative Science, Engineering and Technology, 2015, Vol. 2 Issue 2. [11] S. K. Shevade, “Improvements to the SMO Algorithm for SVM Regression”, IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, 2000, vol. 11, no. 5-6. [12] P. Thomas, M. C. Suhner, “A new Multilayer Perceptron Pruning Algorithm for Classification and Regression Applications”, Neural Processing Letters, Springer Verlag, 2015, p 31. [13] M. S. Raza, U. Qamar, “Understanding and Using Rough Set Based Feature Selection – Concepts, Techniques and Applications”, Springer, 2017. [14] W. Pessenlehner, A. Mahdavi, “Building Morphology, Transparence and Energy Performance”, Eight International IBPSA Conference, Netherlands, Eindhoven, 2003. [15] M. Kosinski, Y. Wang, “Deep neural networks are more accurate than humans at detecting sexual orientation from facial images”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2018. [16] J. Christian, “Statistician: Machine Learning Is Causing A Crisis in Science”, Available: https://futurism.com/machine-learning-crisis-science. [17] A. Bajek, A. Hasandić, “Energy Efficiency of the buildings.” Sarajevo: International Burch University 2017. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Quantitative estimation of cooling load capabilities of residential buildings using machine learning Author Author Nedret Bećirović, Ismail Bejtović, Jasmin Kevrić Abstract A summary of the resource. Based on previous research on energy efficiency of the buildings, particularly their cooling load capabilities we will develop a collection of machine learning methods for detecting buildings with best cooling load capabilities. This collection will study the influence of 8 input variables (relative compactness, surface area, wall area, roof area, overall height, orientation, glazing area, glazing area distribution) on one output parameter, that is cooling load of buildings. The results of this study support the practicability of using machine-learning software to estimate building parameters as a convenient and accurate approach, as long as the methods chosen are well suited for the type of data in question. Keywords Keywords. cooling load, energy efficiency, machine learning, neural network. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JONSAE2021315