333 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ed7937ca4bf9928300625d28d4c4222b.pdf 09752e15fd2013e76855353a828c2f27 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Symbolic Construction of Turkish National Identity as a Factor of International Management Hüsamettin ĐNAÇ Associate Professor, Dumlupinar University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Public Administration Department Kutahya, Turkey husamettininac@yahoo.com Abstract: This presentation aims to explore the symbolic construction of Turkish nationalism during the early Republican period in order to trace the origins of the anti-global nationalism in today’s Turkey. It discusses the symbolic bases of Turkish nationalism by going back to early years of modern Republic. We identified three main components of Turkish nationalism in this period: history, geography, and language. They are symbolically constructed within a nationalist perspective. The founders of the Republic and the ideologists of Turkish nationalism hoped this to serve two purposes. One was to establish the bases of realizing the unity of Turkish nations. The other, perhaps the most important, purpose was to prove that the Turks were an advanced and civil nation during the course of history, and to respond the western pressures of disruption, defeat, invasion and exclusion (e.g. the western labels of barbarian Turks, backward Muslims). The main argument in this study is that the Turkish national identity tried to co-exist with, and to join, the modern western civilization by placing geography, history and language in a symbolic context and in accordance with the idea that it determines national interests as a part of a Business of Corporations and key factor of Managers within the international competitive environment. In this context, Turkish history was interpreted as the source of human civilization and the geographies of the Central Asia and Anatolia were the home of human civilization while the Turkish language was viewed as the origin of human languages. By doing so, they aimed to repel the claims of backwardness and barbarity and tried to introduce the national identity as an integral part of national culture having great impact on a process of negotiations. Keyword: Symbolic Construction, Turkish National Identity Introduction In this historical era of globalized world nation-states experience a great transformation. Some social scientists interpreted this change as the end of nation-states. On the other hand, there are profound controversies and conflicts due to micronationalisms in regional context. Therefore, it is necessary to revisit the early construction of nationalism in Turkey. As a result of the social and political effects of globalization on nationstate and national identity, there emerge new ‘national front’ movements and new types of reactions to globalization. These developments can also be observed in Turkish society. Especially Turkey’s membership talks with the European Union caused a heated debates as to national identity and the transformation of nationstate leading to the emergence of “nationalist front” movements (Bozkurt 2004: 7; Perinçek 2005: 1-2). To understand this new political situation and nationalism in Turkey it is necessary to analyze how Turkish national identity was constructed during the early Republican period and what kind of symbolization is used in this construction process. The early construction of the Turkish national identity can shed a significant light on today’s rejuvenated debates as its role in relation to globalization in particular and Turkey’s accession talks with the European Union. While the globalization exposes the county’s culture, economy and social structure to global factors such as economy and culture, the EU accession talks cause heightened debates as to the nature and future of the Turkish national identity. In one extreme, there is a clear rejectionist trend toward both globalization and European Union from both secular and religious camps that emphasize the uniqueness of national culture. On the other end, there is a strong accommodationism. This accomodationism appears in the form of incorporation of western and universal values with little attention to traditional Turkish culture, or in a more cooperationist attitude with a strong confidence on traditional identity and culture. While the former represents the traditional secular elites in Turkey, the latter is represented by the Justice and Development Party in power. The fact that both globalization and EU talks began to highlight the need for recognizing the presence of more local elements of national identity that were ignored in the original construction of national identity. 131 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Therefore, Kemalism as an ideology of national ideology began to gradually go away from the strict imagination of national identity (Kramer 2000). It is surprising that the arguments of today’s new nationalist outlook that emerging due to globalization, micronationalism and EU integration is parallel to the nationalist arguments of the early years of the Turkish Republic (Perinçek 2004). This paper elaborates on how nationalist identity was constructed during these early years by arguing that this construction is made through us of geography, history and language. Our main assumption is that nationalist symbolic construction in Turkey aimed to develop alternatives to the western arguments that the Turks were backward and barbarians. This symbolization implies that the Turks are equal to their counterpart in the West and that the Turks lead many great events in history and founded the first civilization and, therefore, deserve to take its place in modern civilization. In this respect this article first elaborates on the symbolization and nationalism. Secondly, it analyzes how and why nationalism was symbolically constructed through the symbolization of homeland or geography, history and language. Nationalist Identity and Symbolism Nation-states that emerged as a result of modern political theorization focused on constructing national identity as a social collectivity. Individuals attempted to find meaning around this new identity. In this context national identity is constructed around a common land, myths, a historical memory, duties, rights and economy (Smith 1994: 31-32). The two main criteria in defining national identity: continuity over time and differentiation from others (Guibernau 1996: 73). The nation that is a basis formational identity refers to a group of people organized as a community. This community is based on the assumptions of a common culture, land, history, future and self-government. Nation gradually tends to define itself as a sentiment by differentiating from nationstate with its various forms of nationalisms. The members of the community define themselves as a whole of sentiment with various symbols (Guibernau 1996: 47). These symbols try to construct a common meaning to national identity. Symbols are the stocks of meaning for a society and provide “a capacity to create meaning”. Therefore, community members assign similar meanings to the world they live in by using the same symbols (Cohen 1999: 14). These meanings are a “social map” shared by society (Mardin 1982: 91). With this map individuals obtain a common consciousness, values, views, behaviors and beliefs. At the same time, there emerge a culture with consistent meanings around a system of symbols. This culture gain unity by means of meanings provided by these symbols. For example, in Turkey there is a culture unified as around such as a land, flag and bravery (Mardin 1982: 101). Symbolization can transform a community into a symbol by emerging in the minds of community members. Whey a community is transformed into a symbol, community members can easily perceive themselves a part of the same collectivity (Cohen 1999: 83). Therefore, symbols function as an important concept that constructs a sense of with in community. In this context the nation transforms itself to the status of the similarities from the differences of realities. Therefore, people invest in the ideological integration of the community. This explains the ability of nationalism to connect people from different cultural and social positions. Symbols point to a difference and similarity to create a group feeling. People construct the community and use it as an expression of their own identity (Guibernau 1996: 82). Yet through symbols people speak the same language, act similarly, participate in the same rituals, pray the same God and wear similar dresses (Cohen 1999: 20; Smith 1994: 123). The differences in society can also help to eliminate and reinforce unity (Cohen 1999: 82). Symbols have the capacity to transform opposing messages into a single slogan or image and to transform them into an action. Combined with conflict, symbols’ capacity to condense, unite and narrow messages can mobilize meanings and political symbols (Brown-Roger,2003). Also, symbols function to draw boundaries that are important in the construction of national identity. The exclusionary and unifying role of symbols in drawing the boundaries are also critical to maintain group identity and its solidarity. As Armstrong put it, like traffic lights, symbols can constitute the markers of boundaries for entrance and exit. Each group, community or state can develop colors, flags or historical references mobilized for certain goals as symbolic inventories (Brown-Roger, 2003: 83-108). As Cohen (1999: 19) mentioned, sharing the same symbols leads to distinguishing themselves from other communities by perceiving themselves as separate. Symbols define national boundaries. The nation attains a sense of unity through symbols by differentiating themselves from others. A symbol can be an object, a sign or a word, to make it easy to recognize each other. Therefore, members of the nation will have a sense of difference and the nation becomes instrumental in differentiating the nation from others (Guibernau 1996: 81). National flags, names of the states, geographies, and histories and languages contribute to the construction of national unity while they contribute to the sense of their being different from other nations. Symbols may change their content in time. They express a transfer to the future with continuity with the past. Symbols are not static; they passed from generation to generation or can emerge with a new generation. Nationalism use this dynamic feature of symbols to maintain the national unity and improve them the interpreting them in new ways (Guibernau 1996: 82). The rich 132 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo associations provided by symbols and potential to create new meanings facilitate the construction of national identity. Symbols' capacity to create meanings (Cohen 1999: 17), are instrumental in creating new meanings to legitimize national identity. For example, religious symbols are strategically employed to reinterpret the concept of modern national identity. When the symbols are located within a national context they greatly contribute to the perception of a nation by improving the meanings. In this context symbols try to create "single meanings" by constructing the same language, geography, and history. Through symbols national identity is constructed and reality is transferred to old ultra-reality. Nation states' land, languages, history, names, cities, etc. are carried to extrareality and gain new meanings through symbols. Turkish national identity and symbolic construction Turkish national identity is also constructed through various symbols and gained new meanings in the keep nation-state and its relations to the West. Above all, Turkish national identity emphasizes the “integrity” of the nation in contrast to local, regional, ethnic and religious differences in the Ottoman society (Mardin 1982: 135, 137). Singular meanings are constructed through symbols. Since Turkish nationalism perceived the pluralist nature of the Ottoman society as fragmented, the nation was envisioned as national unity that tried to avoid such fragmentation. The available symbols served as a stock of meanings in this envisioning as symbols of history, geography, and language were reformulated in order to attribute new meanings to the nation. While Turkish national identity seeks symbolization the meaning it involved against the West becomes important. This meaning of westernizing against the West played a primary role in the symbolization of national identity. As well-known, the fragmentation old empire and the invasion of Anatolia by the West always frightened the intellectuals. Even before the war, the intellectuals said in ‘we either westernize or collapse … if we don't westernize, the West will expel us not just from the West not from the whole world’ (Safa 1988: 20). Against the Western accusations of retardation and the shocks experience by the intellectuals, the nation state that was declared to be Republic simultaneously tried to response to West. The message here was simple: Turks are not backward and have the right to join the West as a developed modern nation. Symbolization of Geography/Space In the graveyard tablets that reflects the 17th century Istanbul’ classical culture, the homeland is defined as a place where someone was born and grew up (Yildirim 2005). Therefore, homeland carries a local emphasis. Along with modernity, the notion of homeland keep is totally transformed within a new cultural and political paradigm. In this paradigm homeland is placed in a national context and is identified with a national geography and it is perceived as a soil where the sovereignty of nation-state is realized. Homeland is certainly not solely territorial space where the national sovereignty is practiced. It rather carries a symbolic dimension in relation to a set of more pervasive and deeper meanings. As Smith (1994) pointed out, ‘homeland is a sacred place with historical memories, a sacred place with lakes, rivers, mountains, cities... With these features, homeland is a main source of identity’ (p.25). In Turkish nationalism related to modernity, homeland carries a significance as a symbolic geography that involves various emotions, values and beliefs as a part of national identity. The notion of homeland (vatan) was first used by Namik Kemal that deserved to the title of homeland’s poet due to his ability to artfully use literature and poetry. In his play called “Homeland or Silistre” that was screened in 1873, Namik Kemal, perhaps for the first time, draws a striking picture of homeland: Homeland! Homeland! I said homeland is in danger. Don’t you hear? Allah created me and homeland raised me. Allah is feeding me … Homeland filled my stomach. I was naked and was dressed by homeland … My body is from homeland soil … My breath is from homeland’s air. If I am not to die for the sake of homeland, why was I born? (Kemal 1996: 8). Believing that homeland’s under siege, Namik Kemal tried to establish a belief in saving the homeland by identifying it with human breath, a feeder and a value to die for. After Namik Kemal, homeland continued to be constructed by Turkish nationalists as under siege in order to promote a belief in saving and defending it. For example, Turk Yurdu, a journal first published in 1911 as a forerunner of Turkish nationalism, keep similar depictions. Many parallel stories, poems, and articles were published in this journal. A poem that describes homeland as a cluster of feelings: In the poem, homeland is described by referring to various feelings and actions such as seeing, sleeping, hearing and thinking. Individual is thought to be unified with its land both symbolically and materially. Somewhere else in the journal, land is conceptualized as a “symbolic land”, as a mother giving birth to humans and is perceived as an entity that teach the individual humanity. Homeland is thought to be a source of love, to involve belongingness to the birth place with an aspiration to maintain religion and race, to help to enter 133 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo human community with a Turkish Muslim identity, and to provide sovereignty and future. Homeland is where someone and his ancestors are buried. Homeland must be loved as a place where one obtains identity and where nations obtain happiness. Homeland is beautiful and symbolizes loyalty to ancestors and the past and, therefore, there is a sense of appreciation for the homeland (Tevfik 1912: 18-21). Ziya Golalp, a sociologist of nationalism, provides one of the most interesting symbolizations of homeland in the journal Turk Yurdu. For him homeland is a sacred country for which lives are sacrificed. While other countries are not considered sacred, homeland is thought so. Those who consider homeland sacred can sacrifice their families, lives and their most beloved ones. The value of homeland comes from its sacred qualities rather than its material features (Gökalp 1914). Homeland is the place in whose mosque ezan is called and in whose school the Qur’an is recited with one language and one religion, capital, science and knowledge, shipyards, factories and trains belong to the Turkish nation (Gökalp 1976:1). Mehmet Emin, one of the pioneers of Turkish nationalist activist-thinkers, was an important figure in the symbolization of the homeland (vatan) concept. For him, homeland was the future place where one would be free with his temple, school and everything, where no one would be persecuted, where there was no oppressor or oppressed, the poor and the rich would be equal before justice, where everyone would have a land and a farm living there happily and peacefully and where remote villages would come alive (Emin 1914). In this respect, Mehmet Emin attempted to create a hopeful utopia about future in the face of despair due to disruptions and fragmentations in the Ottoman society. Homeland is named after the ‘pure soil where the Turks shed with their own blood and live’ (Sabir 1913). Therefore, the conception of the ‘pure and sacred’ soil is emphasized by many nationalist elite. For example, Nihal Atsız found the prevalence of this approach in the journal Orhun, one of the most important representatives of civil nationalism. In its most extreme form, Atsız (1934) said in the homeland ‘everything is at war. Everyday is a holy war (gaza) against the nature, against the enemy, and even against God… This land is a place of martyrs throughout’ . He named the enemies as “subversive communists”, “disgraceful Jews”, “sneaky and hybrid traitors”. He even says that these enemies cannot dismantle the homeland, “let alone God that established the world’s system” (p.1). In the journal Ülkü, one of the most important source of official nationalist ideologies during the Republican period, one can find many articles that emphasized the homeland’s sacred, metaphysical, emotional features (Ülkü Mecmuası 1935). However, in real politics homeland is constructed in relation to Anatolia. In the 1930s the official textbooks of history and in the Turkish thesis of history, we notice a symbolic construction of geography in a new way. In this construction the Central Asia is constructed as the motherland, Anatolia represents the last phase of its continuum. In the case of Turkish humanity, the motherland first emerges in the Central Asia and matures in Anatolia seen as a place the Turks adopted a homeland in their most civilized and developed phase. Hittites and Sumerians were Turks as the most advanced structures of Anatolian geography. With Hittites and Sumerians, Anatolia reached the highest level of civilization as a Turkish homeland (Tarih I 1931). The conceptualization of Anatolia as a geography of a superior civilization aimed to disprove the Western claims that the Turks are backward and, therefore, must be expelled from Anatolia. In this perspective Anatolia becomes the Turkish homeland and represents an advanced civilization (Copeaux 1998: 15). Accordingly, we can interpret Ataturk’s thesis transcribed by Afet Đnan that the earlier races that lived in Anatolia were Turks in this line. In 1918 Ziya Gökalp, a sociologist that advanced Turan symbol, tried to answers the question ‘where is the homeland for the Turkish nation?’ as follows: ‘Homeland is neither Turkey nor Turkistan; Homeland is a great and eternal land: Turan… ‘ (Gökalp 1950: 48). For Gökalp, ‘Turan is an ideational land that includes its parts and excludes others. Turan is the sum of ‘the countries where the Turks inhabit’ (Gökalp 1950: 48). The Great Turan represents a single land in the Turkish spirit, a single ruler and a single language and reflects a general and comprehensive unity, excluding individuality, lineage and tribal components (Gökalp 1989: 101). Turan is where the Turks are buried and Turkish martyrs fell (Aktuğ 1913: 50-52). Turan is depicted as a broad and great world where the knowledge of the era prevails and happiness and life are created (Ziya 1913: 197). In the years of decline when the Ottoman empire was under siege by the West it was said ‘Turan is crying in the land of Islam’ (Gündüz 1913: 465). According to Turkish nationalists the Turanis are the most ancient communities of Asia and they come from the same race as the Turks. The picture of a double-headed eagle is a result of the experience of Turani civilization. Just as today’s Europe, Byzantium, Rome and Russia attempted to destroy the Turanism in history. Turks, Yakuts, Mongolians, Japanese and Korean people constitute the Turan that belong to the Ural-Altaic race. Japan was founded by the Turanis that established the most powerful state. Mongolians, Seljukis, Ottomans and the like are interpreted as the forces of Turanis that founded states. Asia, Far Asia, Central 134 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Anatolia and India are the geographies where several civilizations are founded by the Turanis (Marki Efendi 1912: 231-234). The homeland symbolized as Turan covers the eastern geography of the world. This perception of geography is a symbol of a ‘great east’ against the Western destruction and cultural pressure. Through this symbol they try to substitute the real homeland that faced the danger of falling apart, invasion, shrinking and extinction with a idea of imagined homeland. They try to provide the members of the nation with an idealist, great, respected, valuable geographical meanings. The Turan concept remained alive in the republican era’s nationalism and was advocated as a cultural geography and a political construction. For example, in the Turkistan night organized in April 20, 1940 the slogan was ‘The road from Anatolia to Caucasus goes to the Turan’. The representatives of Azerbaijan, Turkistan, Anatolia, Caucasia, Idyl-Ural regions participated in the night (Bozkurt 1940: 78-79). The new Turkish thesis of history and the Sun Language Theory also involved Turan in a cultural sense. We will focus more on it in terms of the symbolization of history. Symbolization of History: National Construction of Time The symbolization of history reflects the spirit of the day since it is constructed selectively. The past is symbolically remembered, creating simple historical labels to describe complex and ideological messages. These views can be found especially in political rhetorics (Cohen 1999: 112,115). The expression of temporal continuity through symbols means ‘the reconstruction of a cultural unity in the face of its disruption by the forces of change’ (Cohen 1999: 118). Therefore, following the Ottoman decline, Turkish society experienced a deep cultural and political crisis. In order to overcome the danger of “becoming meaningless”, Turkish nation used historical symbolization to define its place in history or world. In Turkey, the founders efficiently institutionalized a national history and their support for nationalist narratives were well popularized and canonized by the new state apparatus (Canefe 2002). The nationalist intellectuals advanced an image of a common nation with historical heroism and victories in community. For them the Turks won all the victories for a great and honorable nation (Gökalp 1941: 13) and become a nation through Mete, Bilge Han, Jangyz and Timurlenk’s raids that played a unifying role (Gökalp 1950: 44). As Turks, Timurlenk made other people obey, to himself Bayazed distracted the enemy, the Sultan Selim rushed in to Europe, Asia, Africa and found the world too small while making Istanbul a capital and bringing Caliphate to Istanbul and defeating the United Europe in Mohach. The word ‘Turk’ became as dreadful and fascinating as God. The Turk becomes the God’s elect in the world’ (Türkkan 1940: 1). The Turks are claimed to be the first people that established a civilization. Cities like Samarkand, Tashkent, Bukhara, Konya and Istanbul were the centers of this civilization. They thought that, as a result of excavation the Central Asia as the motherland of the Turks was a home for the most ancient civilization and that the first civilization started there as animals were domesticated and metals were shaped for the first time (Tarih I 1931: 35). Similarly, many mines in the Altai Mountains are claimed to prove that the Turks were the first to discover metals to extract copper, iron and gold from those mines (Tarih I 1931: 38). In the early historical era when, in various regions of the world, people used to live in the holes of tree and rocks, Poetry is a good example of the symbolization of Turkish history. The nationalist perspective of the Republican era portrays the Turks’ historical role as the initiators related to discovering, and creating, civilization and by using the symbolization potential of poetry. As can be seen in the poetry above, they, for example, make distinctions between the Turks and other human societies with the words ‘us’ and ‘others’ as well as between a ‘shepherd’ and a ‘herd’. The theme that, with migrations, the Turks spread around the world and pioneered in developing civilizations in other regions was an important example of historical symbolizations. This theme was first advanced in the journal Turk Yurdu a main intellectual representative of Turkish nationalism. Here, the ‘Turani race’ is said to have left their barren lands and steps, Atilla, Jangyz, Hulagu and Timurlank to spread from Spain to China and from Yemen to India. It was claimed that they mixed with people when they went to Arabia and Persia, they united with Germans and Russians when they arrived in Europe they became a shah in Iran, a sultan in Yemen, a khan in China a king in Hungary. Therefore, the Turks revitalized the hearts and minds by spreading around the world and this was due to a mission assigned by God (Hikmet 1912: 189-192). The same perspective can be found in the journal Ülkü Mecmuası that was the most important documents of official nationalism during the Republican era. In the journal the Turks are said to have gone to China, Japan, and the Okan islands and then to Mexico, Peru and America, from above the Black Sea to Ural, Volga regions, then to Thrace and Macedonia, to the Mansh Sea from there they went to France and named the Alps. Again, they claim that the Turks founded a culture and civilization called Etrusks in Italy and that they influenced the native peoples of America and Europe in growing animals (Muzaffer 1934: 249-254). The Turkish Thesis of History claims that a major climate change in the Central Asia forced the Turks to migrate from their homeland toward China, India, Africa, Levant and Europe. And, the Turks are said to ‘carry civil knowledge, high and noble morals, pure and simple faiths to these regions’ (Tarih I 1931: 28). 135 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to this thesis, the Turks established a civilization wherever they went, for example keep in Mesopotamia by drying out swamps and opening up water channels. When they reached Egypt, they settled in the Nile delta and established the Egyptian civilization. The westward migrations found the Aegean basin as suitable for settlement. Again, history shows that the brackicephal tribes founded Mediterranean civilizations in the regions known with the names of Troy, Crete, Lidia and Ionia. The origin of the brackicephal tribes is the Central Asia, the motherland of the Turks. This explains the similarities between the antique pieces in Crete and Troy (Tarih I 1931: 30-31). Again, the Turks are said to have brought civilization to Europe in the shores of the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea, reaching the Atlantic Ocean from Europe and invaded Britain and Ireland, carrying the arts of the iron, age polished rocks, copper, rice. The Turks freed the natives peoples of Europe from cave lifestyle by teaching them agriculture, farming, domesticating animals, pottery (Tarih I 1931: 33). Conclusion National identity plays an important role in the continuity of a state or a nation as it provides meaning for the current state of affairs. In Turkey history is interpreted within a cultural perspective consistent with the modern nationalist identity and it is ‘reinvented’ within a new set of meanings. These meanings aimed to refute the charges of backwardness and they served to associate Turkish society with universal, developed and modern Western civilization. The main theme in the attempts of symbolization of history, geography, culture and language were that the Turkish society as a whole were a part of modern western civilization and that, as a great nation, the Turks played an important role in history. It was claimed that the Turks founded the first civilization and that they served as the forerunner of the Anatolian civilizations and they inspired the Greek civilization. The main function of Turkish History Thesis was to create a meaning for that cause rather than being purely scientific. This thesis claimed that the Turks were leading figures in the history of civilizations and contributed to major civilizations of the world. Probably due to their desire to distance themselves from the Islamic past represented by the Ottoman Empire, the founders of the new-nation state focused on the pre-Islamic origins of Turkish culture and its relations with the western civilization. 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(Who are We?)’, Bozkurt, No. 1, Đstanbul, P.35. 138 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 145 Title A name given to the resource Symbolic Construction of Turkish National Identity as a Factor of International Management Author Author İNAÇ, Hüsamettin Abstract A summary of the resource. This presentation aims to explore the symbolic construction of Turkish nationalism during the early Republican period in order to trace the origins of the anti-global nationalism in today’s Turkey. It discusses the symbolic bases of Turkish nationalism by going back to early years of modern Republic. We identified three main components of Turkish nationalism in this period: history, geography, and language. They are symbolically constructed within a nationalist perspective. The founders of the Republic and the ideologists of Turkish nationalism hoped this to serve two purposes. One was to establish the bases of realizing the unity of Turkish nations. The other, perhaps the most important, purpose was to prove that the Turks were an advanced and civil nation during the course of history, and to respond the western pressures of disruption, defeat, invasion and exclusion (e.g. the western labels of barbarian Turks, backward Muslims). The main argument in this study is that the Turkish national identity tried to co-exist with, and to join, the modern western civilization by placing geography, history and language in a symbolic context and in accordance with the idea that it determines national interests as a part of a Business of Corporations and key factor of Managers within the international competitive environment. In this context, Turkish history was interpreted as the source of human civilization and the geographies of the Central Asia and Anatolia were the home of human civilization while the Turkish language was viewed as the origin of human languages. By doing so, they aimed to repel the claims of backwardness and barbarity and tried to introduce the national identity as an integral part of national culture having great impact on a process of negotiations Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d12c463f0b8c9d7fcb2492a883cdcdde.pdf cef55fafd04e948eb3a292620cb8ab65 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Small -and Medium- Sized Enterprises (SMEs) Entering International Market for Sustainable Growth Fatma Nur ĐPLĐK Cukurova University Karatas School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Turkey, nuriplik@cu.edu.tr Kemal Can KILIÇ Cukurova University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Turkey, kcan@cu.edu.tr Abstract: Increase in globalization and internationalization in markets has created a complex business environment for all size firms. This has led to the transformation of the relationships between firms and growing use of cooperation agreements by all firms especially small -and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) that are seeking opportunities in international markets. In this direction, as SMEs recognize the need to utilize their limited resources more effectively to compete with more powerful competitors in the global arena, owner/managers internationalize their operations by cooperating at the strategic level. The aims of these cooperations are to pursue growth opportunities, to access additional relationships, to reduce uncertainty and to overcome their size barrier and to expand businesses in the new geographic markets. In the literature, internationalization processes have mainly been studied for multinational corporations (MNCs) but less for SMEs, which tend to have been neglected in internationalization research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). But a better understanding of the process of entering international markets will help small firms avoid potential obstacles to success (Rowden 2001). In this context, the main purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of the cooperative internationalization strategy of SMEs. Our study focuses on providing information on the SMEs business characteristics, the concept of internationalization, motivations, processes, advantages and disadvantages of SMEs’ internationalization, cooperative internationalization of SMEs, network model such as Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC) used in Turkey, and making suggestions for owner/managers of SMEs to develop successful foreign market entry process by cooperating with other firms. Keywords: Globalization, Cooperation, Internationalization Strategy, International Arena, SMEs, Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies, Turkey. Introduction As the rate of economic globalization becomes faster and faster, small businesses can no longer afford to ignore the challenge of international commerce. Thus small businesses that are playing an increasingly vital role in today's business environment must develop a global culture, gain crucial international experience and overcome their size barrier (Rowden 2001; Steensma et al. 2000) by cooperating with other firms. This requires choosing the appropriate entry strategy and the right partner if they hope to have any chance of success in the international arena. In this context, this study focuses on the cooperation of SMEs that have been built for the purpose of international expansion. Most of the early studies related to internationalization strategies have dealt with large firms, whereas SMEs are only rarely investigated (Fink et al. 2008). So there is still insufficient knowledge about the internationalization of these types of firms (Westhead et al. 2001). However, the development of communication and transportation technologies has made international expansion possible for SMEs as well (Saarenketo et al. 2008). In this direction many approaches have been developed for the understanding of the internationalization process of SMEs. One of them is the cooperative international expansion is the main theme of this article. The facilitating role of globalization and outsourcing has expanded firms’ use of external resources to reduce innovation time spans, costs and risks, and acquire greater flexibility in their operations. Indeed, the very success of the SMEs vis-a`-vis their larger competitors may be due to their ability to utilize external relationships more efficiently. So the growing use of networks by a broader cross-section of firms reflects a catchup by larger firms: it has long been recognized that one of the major competitive advantages SMEs have over 105 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo large firms has been their flexibility (Narula 2004) that enables them to match quick changes in market demands (Colley 2006). To date, an entrepreneur’s human capital as well as business demographics promoting independent owner-managed firms to sell their goods or services into foreign markets is not well understood. Nevertheless, there is a growing awareness of a need for a greater understanding of this group of entrepreneurial ventures (Westhead et al. 2001). In this direction, this paper seeks to enhance understanding of the international expansion of SMEs. Notwithstanding, from a theoretical perspective, the primary focus of this paper is to provide suggestions for how SMEs will use cooperative business strategy to carry out successful entry into international markets. SMEs Business Characteristics SMEs are not simply smaller versions of traditional firms and have many differences in ownership, resources, organizational structures and management systems (Pangarkar 2008). Compared with larger firms, small (less than 50 employees) and medium (between 50 and 250 employees) sized firms (Gilmore et al. 2006) have limited financial and managerial resources, personnel and capabilities. Further, SMEs are usually owned and managed by founders, whereas large firms are managed by professionals. As a result of this, the decisionmaking in SMEs is highly centralized (Lu and Beamish 2006). Previous literature recognizes that SMEs are heavily reliant on the attitudes, skills and expertise of their personnel. Thus multiple roles being filled by staff and a lack of organizational slack make dealing with anyone outside of the company much harder (Major & Cordey-Hayes 2000). Due to staffing limitations, small firms often suffer from managerial inexperience with international markets and have limited global informationgathering capabilities (Rowden 2001) compared to large firms. Small entrepreneurial firms are responsible for much of the growth and innovation in global economy (Steensma et al. 2000). They promote private ownership and diversification of economic activities, stimulate innovations, generate the majority of jobs, support sustainable development, make a significant contribution to exports and trade and develop entrepreneurial skills (Colley 2006). Compared to MNCs, smaller firms are unfettered by bureaucracy, hierarchical thinking, and expensive existing information systems. But they are often more customer- oriented, and have quicker response times when it comes to implementing new technologies and meeting specialized needs and tastes. So they are usually more able to adapt their systems, routines, and the collective employee mindset to the imperatives of international competition (Liesch & Knight 1999). SMEs that are operating in demands a high level of customer-orientation as well as an emphasis on new (technological) knowledge development (Gills 2005) are generally regarded as more easily influenced by external forces than are larger firms (Cheng & Yu 2008). Further, SMEs are subject to the liability of smallness which is reflected in this type of firms’ difficulties in obtaining and securing critical resources and their vulnerability to environmental changes. Such disadvantages impose constraints on the expansion of SMEs either in the domestic or international markets. So that SMEs usually have less international experience and are subject to more severe local knowledge deficiencies when they expand their facilities across borders (Lu and Beamish 2006). In this context, SMEs can carry out expansion of their operations into foreign markets successfully by developing cooperative relationships with other firms. The Concept of Internationalization Internationalization is the process by which firms increase their awareness of the direct and indirect influence of international transactions on their future, and begin to engage in transactions with firms in other countries (Lu and Beamish 2001). In other words, it is the discovery, enactment, evaluation and exploitation of opportunities across national borders to create future goods and services (McDougall & Oviatt 2005). A number of explanations have been proposed to account for firms’ internationalization processes. For example, the resource-based view of the firm has been shown to be important since the managers leverage resource advantages and minimize transaction costs to obtain a competitive advantage overseas (Spence et al. 2008). In addition to this, several theories from the international business literature have been presented below to explain why firms engage in international operations (Westhead et al. 2001): • Transaction cost theory suggests that firms choose the least-cost international location for each activity they perform and grow by internationalizing markets, bringing interdependent activities under common ownership and control up to the point where the benefits of further internationalization are outweighed by the costs. • A network theory of internationalization suggests that firms achieve their competitive advantage by developing mutually supportive interactions with other firms. 106 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Monopolistic advantage theory suggests that firms will internationalize when they can use their established advantages in foreign countries at little or no additional cost. • Internationalization theory suggests that firms internationalize to reduce costs by internationalizing the transfer of goods and services across national borders where it is cheaper. • Product cycle theory suggests that firms internationalize in an attempt to protect their existing markets of mature products. • The stage theory of internationalization suggests that a firm’s international operations will gradually increase as it gains knowledge and experience in the international arena and as it develops relationships that cross international boundaries. • Oligopolistic reaction theory suggests that firms will try to reduce their risk by imitating competing firms’ entrance into foreign operations. • Strategic choice theory suggests that firms facing strategic complexities respond opportunistically to changing market opportunities through a careful evaluation of risks with managers actively determining many features of a firm’s internationalization. Although there have been a number of attempts to synthesize the internationalization literature, a single, commonly accepted interpretation of ‘‘internationalization’’ is yet to be found. According to this, the internationalization patterns of individual firms seem to be rather unique and situation specific (Saarenketo et al. 2004). International Expansion of SMEs Internationalization is an issue that –until recently– was in most cases only relevant for large companies. But increased pressure on the home market coming from international competitors is now, however, being felt by SMEs as well, moving them to seek opportunities in international markets (Fink et al. 2008) actively. Many SMEs, especially high technology firms, are forced to internationalize early in their development due to a focus on niche markets and the small size of their domestic markets relative to the potential that exists abroad (Bradley et al. 2006). But although SMEs have been increasingly active in international markets, existing theories of internationalization have tended to focus on large MNCs and argued that firms must have strength either in resources or knowledge if they are to fully overcome the transaction costs in integrating across borders (Cheng & Yu 2008). There is an array of modes for entering international markets, such as exporting, licensing, non-equity strategic alliances, joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages (Lu & Beamish 2006). But exporting is still the primary foreign market entry mode used by small firms in their internationalization efforts presumably because it offers an effective means of international expansion without over-extending the capabilities or resources of the firm (Bradley et al. 2006). For SMEs, internationalization is an entrepreneurial activity, and entering new geographic markets can be regarded as, on a large scale, the act of adopting new practices (Cheng & Yu 2008). But SMEs attempting to internationalize face a basic marketing dilemma—do they attempt to internationalize unaided or do they form a partnership with stronger firms in their business system that can help them. One such way is to internationalize as part of a supplier-customer network in partnership with established MNCs to respond to customer product and service preferences in myriad international markets (Bradley et al. 2006). Motivations for International Expansion of SMEs SMEs are increasingly internationalizing their business activities. The drivers for increasing involvement of them in the world markets, to name a few, have been the increasing competition in both domestic and foreign markets and the fast development of information and communication technologies. As a result of this rapid internationalization, managers of SMEs are facing challenges regarding how to enter countries which are, in many ways, different from the home country (Ojala 2008). But they can overcome the challenges and uncertainty of the complex internationalization process by cooperation. Although SMEs are generally considered to be more risk-averse than their larger counterparts to adopt the new practice, which makes them less willing to go abroad, they also tend to react to the quests from external parties easily, which induces in them the need to go abroad. The environmental context that is a critical factor for SMEs most likely pushes them to initiate internationalization. It may be said, then, that the way in which a SMEs internationalizes is the result of the combination of its actual internal abilities and its leader’s cognition of its external environment (Cheng & Yu 2008). A major reason why the managers of SMEs internationalize is to pursue growth opportunities and they often collaborate for that purpose. These collaborative ventures are creating a shift in business relationships 107 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo from a conflict mode based on competition to a collaborative mode. Presently, the trend is for management teams to concentrate on core competencies (Westhead et al. 2001) and potentially outsource those that do not provide a competitive advantage in order to increase agility and flexibility (Spence et al., 2008) and cover the uncertainty of the internationalization process (Fernández and Nieto 2005). The International Expansion Process of SMEs International expansion is an important growth strategy for SMEs when the scope of their business is geographically restricted. Some researchers have asserted that when SMEs initiate internationalization, they will tend, due to lack of resources and advantages, to export goods as their mode of foreign market entry. In addition, researchers have asserted that such firms will typically increase their international involvement through a series of carefully planned stages (Cheng & Yu 2008). The operations in a foreign country are supposed to start by indirect entry modes, which do not require extensive knowledge about the environment of the target country and more commitment to the market. According to this, indirect entry modes increase a firm’s knowledge about the target country and allow it to learn about how to deal with the customers in that country. Once the country has become more familiar for a firm, direct operations can start there (Ojala 2008). In this context, the typical stages of internationalization process for a small business include (Dollinger 1995): 1. Passive Exporting: The firm fills international orders but does not seek export business. At this stage, many small business owners do not realize that they have an international market. 2. Export Management: The owner or a specific manager specifically seeks export sales. Because of resource limitations, most small businesses at this stage rely on the indirect channel of exporting. 3. Export Department: The firm uses significant resources to seek increased sales from exporting. The key for most small firms is finding a good local partner for distribution. 4. Sales Branches: When demand for the product is high in a country, it justifies setting up local sales offices. Small firms must have the resources to transfer home managers to expatriate assignments or to hire and train local managers and workers to run these operations. 5. Production Abroad: Production moves a firm beyond downstream value-chain activities and allows them to gain local advantages. This is often a very difficult stage for small firms because the cost of a failed direct investment can put the whole firm at risk for survival. 6. The Transnational: Small size does not preclude a small business from developing a globally integrated network that characterizes the transnational corporation. The movement through the stages of the entry process is intimately connected to the development of institutional knowledge, making it easier to develop customer relationships. As a consequence, the more relationships in a foreign country that have reached later stages, the more established and internationally experienced the firm becomes and the higher the degree of internationalization of the SME. And also the more countries in which the SME has established relationships, the more internationally experienced is the firm (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). Advantages and Disadvantages of SMEs’ International Expansion Prior literature is in broad agreement that internationalization has a positive impact on firm performance. Drawing from the literature on international and global strategies, firms can have greater cost efficiencies primarily due to a greater volume of business and the ability to exploit economies of scale. An international firm also benefits from the diversity of environments it operates in. Thus it enjoys tremendous learning opportunities while satisfying the diverse customer needs and responding to different competitors in international markets (Pangarkar 2008). The literature on the international entrepreneurship emphasizes the use of formal and informal relationships to penetrate and expand into foreign markets. According to this, the need to collaborate and to achieve an international presence has become a necessity, especially for SMEs, but the challenges encountered with such strategies are high as it is not uncommon to see high failure rates (Spence et al. 2008). In addition to this, when SMEs make their initial entry into international markets, they are especially prone to problems associated with the liabilities of foreignness and smallness, which may lead to poor financial performance and a variety of other concerns for managers (Bell 1995; Lu & Beamish 2001). Although internationalization can be regarded as an opportunity-seeking choice on the part of firms, it may also represent a critical decision due to the costs and risks involved (Cheng & Yu 2008). Prior literature has identified the numerous constraints faced by SMEs in international expansion. Typically SMEs do not perform global scanning and hence might lack the information and managerial expertise necessary for exploiting the international opportunities. Buckley (1999) argues that, due to constraints of management time, smaller firms frequently take short-cuts in decision-making and information gathering, which can be disastrous. 108 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Further, internationalization increases the requirements for coordination and communication among different units within the SME as well as other parties located in different geographic areas (Pangarkar 2008). Many SMEs suffer scale and resource disadvantages compared to their global rivals, adversely impacting the likelihood of success of their internationalization initiatives (Pangarkar 2008). Compared to large firms, SMEs are less competitive; for instance, they may not be able to capture business opportunities due to inferior products, shortages of finance and limited administrative capacity (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In addition, any foreign market initiative will take a larger proportion of resources of a SME than a large firm. In the event of failure of the particular initiative, the impact on a SME may be greater, which increases the risk levels of them (Lu & Beamish 2001). Despite the constraints and challenges faced, SMEs are likely to enhance their performance through greater internationalization. And by becoming international, SMEs may be able to provide better service to their MNC clients and, in the case of foreign direct investment, avoid import tariffs (Pangarkar 2008). In this context, many approaches have been developed for examining the internationalization of SMEs (Saarenketo et al. 2004). One of them is the cooperative internationalization of small firms depends on an organization’s set of relationships with partner firms rather than a firm specific advantage. Cooperative International Expansion of SMEs Organizations that seek to reduce costs, to respond rapidly to market demands and to build competitive advantages around their core competencies can not execute strategies without drawing on the skills and resources of other organizations (Lin & Zhang 2005). Thus in an environment characterized by globalization, new expectations from customers and changing competitivity criteria, many dynamic SMEs have opted to (Raymond & Blili 1997) cooperate with other firms to overcome these challenges, to avoid significant barriers to long-term success, to enhance their competitivity in the market and to reduce their environmental uncertainty. The traditional internationalization theories suggest that the firm’s international involvement increases in stages as a result of incremental learning. However, due to the key characteristics of SMEs, cooperative internationalization is becoming an increasingly important option for them. Thus for the small firms showing very rapid and intensive international growth that they would otherwise not be able to take on by themselves enabled (Saarenketo et al. 2004; Fink et al. 2008) by cooperation with other firms. Because partner firms provide useful information about business opportunities, characteristics, obstacles or problems that they face in the foreign market, the perceived risk for SMEs is lowered as a result. In terms of research in this area, scholars have found that relationships are at the core of the internationalization process (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In light of the relatively lower transaction volume of SMEs when compared to large companies, effective and efficient coordination mechanisms in the cooperative internationalization of SMEs are accordingly of particular importance. Indeed, the characteristics of SMEs create particular challenges in the internationalization process. But recently, cooperative arrangements have received increased attention as a means to meet these challenges (Fink et al. 2008). Collaborative ventures can be formed for the purpose of gaining a significant presence in a new market, acquiring technology, enabling faster entry into the market and facilitating international expansion (Spence et al. 2008). Further, in the early phase of internationalization, SMEs gather more information about foreign markets through international strategic partners (Lee 2007). Thus in the environment that is characterized by speed, flexibility and innovation, cooperative internationalization plays an important role in the success of SMEs’ business strategy. Researches have shown that a significantly greater percentage of small firms are using cooperative strategies than are their larger counterparts (Steensma et al. 2000). Thus SMEs’ international expansion is often dependent upon a myriad of agreements with firms from the same or unrelated industry sectors, suppliers, customers, competitors and public organizations (Spence et al. 2008). SMEs can compensate for their liabilities of smallness through the establishment of inter-firm cooperations (Fink et al. 2008) that offer an effective means of internationalization for them in general (Fernández & Nieto 2005). Thus a promising way for SMEs that have a smaller pool of internal resources and knowledge to increase their global competitiveness is to form cooperative relationships with larger MNCs. Such arrangements allow them to reach global markets and to achieve economies of scale, by integrating into the value chains of the larger firms (Etemad et al. 2001). In addition to this, cooperative internationalization is a useful way for SMEs to access new opportunities, to reduce costs and allows them to compete more effectively with more powerful competitors in the foreign markets. By joining competencies, cooperative international expansion requires a lower amount of internationalization know-how on the part of the partners than would be needed (Fink et al. 2008). Moreover, partnerships formed in order to ease entry into foreign markets are likely to increase the degree of internationalization of the firm (Reuber & Fisher 1997). Thus due to the attractiveness and importance of 109 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo cooperative international expansion for SMEs, this special form of internationalization will be focused upon in this paper. In this part of study, we focus on why and how the firms -which are located in different countriesengage in international operations? A network theory of internationalization suggests that firms achieve their competitive advantage by developing mutually supportive interactions with other firms (Westhead et al. 2001). So we will explain network organization theory shortly from the perspective of SMEs and then give an example from Turkey. Strategic Cooperation of SMEs and Organizing Model for Entering Foreign Market: Network Organizations SMEs give importance developing strategic cooperation and organizing model such as networking as a result of the new competition thought. Most of small firms have not enough competence, knowledge and sources to be alive. So they transfer the competence from the other firms and make strategic cooperative agreements. After transferring some sources from other the firms specializing on their core area (Christensen 1994; Esener 1997; Hamel & Prahalad 1995; Sanchez & Heene 1997; Quinn 1994; Ozgen et al 2003). Large organizations use size advantages although the small size ones use flexibility, lean and innovativeness. By developing strategic cooperation SMEs use large size advantages as well as small size. Network structure emerged as a result of strategic cooperation among different sized firms. There are some benefits of network form for SMEs such as creating value, competitive advantage, improving exporting, finding and serving new markets (Miles & Snow 1992). The Structural Result of Being in Network Organization for SMEs: Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies Case for Turkey In Turkey, SMEs motivated to exporting by the model of Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC). SMEs take advantages of being in network type such as SFTC in Turkey after 1980s liberation period (Ozgen et al. 2003). In SFTC structure, there are many SMEs at the same production field being together and part of the same organizing model. The main aim of this model is to enter different world market. The most important advantages of this model are economies of scale and professional marketing activities in exporting for SMEs (Celik & Akgemici 1998). The role of SFTC is not only maintaining exporting activities but also developing new competences, socializing new business ideas to partners, creating trust, transferring knowledge between partners (Ozgen et al. 2003). Conclusion In today’s globalization era, complex business environment generates enormous challenges for all firms especially for SMEs that seek opportunities in foreign countries. But SMEs that face several constraints and risks in international expansion process can also benefit from internationalization in several different ways. Since international expansion is based on the capability of the firm to exploit its local advantages in foreign markets, the lack of strategic resources, the uncertainty and complexity of the process and smallness make international expansion a difficult goal to achieve for SMEs. In this direction many small firms choose to concentrate on their domestic market, neglecting opportunities of international markets. But in order to achieve successful international expansion, they may choose to cooperate with other firms to overcome certain traditional barriers, to facilitate demands of business environment of global markets and to gain and sustain the global competitive advantage. Small businesses often do not have the inhouse resources to identify or go directly to foreign markets. Thus collaborative ventures may be attractive to the managers of SMEs who are interested in lowering costs, expanding what they offer to the market, getting access to additional resources, managing uncertain international environment, overcoming operational weaknesses, learning from partners and improving effectiveness in the market. An organization’s growth largely depends upon its relationships with other organizations. In this context, to address competitive threats and concentrate on their core competences and strengths cooperative internationalization increases the success chance of SMEs. Thus cooperative internationalization that is the alternative choice for SMEs’ expansion in the new markets provides benefits for them to broad a product line or to develop new products, to acquire new capabilities and to reduce the threat of competition. 110 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo SME owner/managers cooperate with other firms for international expansion if they understand how to use this strategy in a practical way by avoiding potential obstacles to success. In this study, an extensive review of literature is made to identify the cooperative internationalization of SMEs. In this context, owner/managers of SMEs should give much more attention to the following issues for cooperating with other firms to internationalize their facilities and to compete successfully in the global arena: • As they must be aware of the challenges of entering the international marketplace, SME owner/managers should analyze some important issues such as cultural characteristics, business environment and practices, politics and laws in the foreign country. And they should focus on a country where they believe the benefits of international expansion to be the strongest. • SMEs that expanding their facilities abroad should gather and interpret information from its external environments and have strong ownership advantages if they are to successfully overcome the disadvantages of operating in host countries. In this context, managers should pay more attention to how and with whom cooperative relationships should be established and what management skills are required over time. • Without appropriate capabilities and knowledge international expansion may not lead to better performance. Thus an important role of SME owner/managers is to build up their capabilities useful for internationalization process. • SME owner/managers should pay more attention to the integration of systems, cultures, and individuals of the partner firms in the early phases of cooperative internationalization. In addition, they should have multicultural competence, use specific coordination tools to link together activities processed by different firms and to federate independent goals. • SME owner/managers should be aware of mutual benefit is critical to maintaining the relationship at an appropriate level, focus on creating synergy and achieve win-win situation for both sides and an ongoing long-term relationship with partner firm. • In order to cope with the complexity of internationalization process, partner firms should arrange detailed negotiations for determining the level of strategic and operational fit, managerial rules, the responsibilities of the partners and the management and term of the relationship. • SME owner/managers should participate in goal setting and planning activities altogether for achieving the aims of better performance outcomes for international expansion and review the performance of relationship periodically. • International expansion of SMEs by cooperating experienced partner reduces risk and uncertainty in the market. But SMEs should be more careful about choosing the right and non-opportunistic partner that has relevant resources and capabilities, because they have limited opportunities to fail. • Cooperative international expansion requires building interpersonal relationships between the partner firms. Because good relations between partners build trust, facilitate harmonious relationships and lead to achieve strategic goals. • SME owner/managers should be sensitive about the communication strategies employed in their relationships and give attention to the accuracy, timeliness, adequacy and credibility of information exchanged between firms. This behavior helps them to realize mutual benefits by reducing misunderstandings. • The business environment in which SMEs have to operate has become increasingly complex, unpredictable and unstable. Thus they should be flexible enough to satisfy environmental needs and fit the dynamic requirements of the economic, social, cultural and industrial conditions of the international market. • SFTC structure is an important advantage for SMEs for entering foreign markets (Ozgen et al. 2003). Because strategic cooperations provide SMEs to develop projects that are not done alone and solve the scale problems of small firms, owner/managers of these firms should choose the right expansion strategy with the right partner in the right time. Cooperative internationalization that is the way of rapid internationalization for SMEs improves the competitiveness of firms by speeding up organizational learning, by providing access to external resources, by reducing risk and production cost, and by fostering rapid learning and change. In this context, SMEs that are characterized by limited resources may overcome their resource shortages, reduce strategic and environmental uncertainty and increase their viability in the foreign markets by cooperating with other firms. So this study suggests that despite the several constraints faced by them, for SMEs in a fiercely competitive environment, the best way to enter international market is to build cooperative relationship with the right partner at the strategic level. The new developments in the world create an excellent opportunity to study the internationalization of SMEs, which is an underdeveloped area in international business research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). In this 111 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo context, this study provides a greater contribution to the understanding of the phenomenon of SMEs’ international expansion by cooperating with other firms. References Bell, J. (1995). 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International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Pangarkar, N. (2008). Internationalization and performance of small- and medium-sized enterprises. Journal of World Business, 43, 475–485. Quinn, J.B., & Hilmer, F.G. (1994). Strategic outsourcing. Sloan Management Review, Summer, 9–21. Raymond, L., & Blili, S. (1997). Adopting EDI in a network enterprise: The case of subcontracting SMEs. European Journal of Purchasing & Supply Management, 3 (3), 165–175. Reuber A.R., & Fischer, E. (1997). The influence of the management team's international experience on the internationalization behaviors of SMEs. Journal of International Business Studies, 28 (4), 807–825. Rowden, R.W. (2001). Research note: How a small business enters the international market. Thunderbird International Business Review, 43 (2), 257–268. Saarenketo, S., Puumalainen, K., Kylaheiko, K., & Kuivalainen, O. (2008). Linking knowledge and internationalization in small- and medium-sized enterprises in the ICT sector. Technovation, 28, 91–601. Saarenketo, S., Puumalainen, K., Kuivalainen, O., & Kylaheiko, K. (2004). Dynamic knowledge-related learning processes in internationalizing high-tech SMEs. International Journal of Production Economics, 89, 363–378. Sanchez, R., & Heene, A. (1997). Reinventing strategic management. European Management Journal, 15 (3), 303–317. Steensma H.K., Marino, L., & Weaver, K.M. (2000). Attitudes toward cooperative strategies: A cross-cultural analysis of entrepreneurs. Journal of International Business Studies, 31 (4), 591–609. Spence, M.M., Manning, L.M., & Crick, D. (2008). An investigation into the use of collaborative ventures in the internationalization of high performing Canadian SMEs. European Management Journal, Article in Press. Westhead, P., Wright, M., & Ucbasaran, D. (2001). The internationalization of new and small firms: A resource-based view. Journal of Business Venturing, 16, 333–358. 113 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 133 Title A name given to the resource Small -and Medium- Sized Enterprises (SMEs) Entering International Market for Sustainable Growth Author Author İPLİK, Fatma Nur KILIÇ, Kemal Can Abstract A summary of the resource. Increase in globalization and internationalization in markets has created a complex business environment for all size firms. This has led to the transformation of the relationships between firms and growing use of cooperation agreements by all firms especially small -and medium- sized enterprises (SMEs) that are seeking opportunities in international markets. In this direction, as SMEs recognize the need to utilize their limited resources more effectively to compete with more powerful competitors in the global arena, owner/managers internationalize their operations by cooperating at the strategic level. The aims of these cooperations are to pursue growth opportunities, to access additional relationships, to reduce uncertainty and to overcome their size barrier and to expand businesses in the new geographic markets. In the literature, internationalization processes have mainly been studied for multinational corporations (MNCs) but less for SMEs, which tend to have been neglected in internationalization research (Jansson & Sandberg 2008). But a better understanding of the process of entering international markets will help small firms avoid potential obstacles to success (Rowden 2001). In this context, the main purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of the cooperative internationalization strategy of SMEs. Our study focuses on providing information on the SMEs business characteristics, the concept of internationalization, motivations, processes, advantages and disadvantages of SMEs’ internationalization, cooperative internationalization of SMEs, network model such as Sectoral Foreign Trade Companies (SFTC) used in Turkey, and making suggestions for owner/managers of SMEs to develop successful foreign market entry process by cooperating with other firms. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a13f9d3e0cacf3630a4578f317d81914.pdf dfef6e20e7f90cf387e1e80fbe70e321 PDF Text Text Türkiye - Bosna Hersek İlişkilerinin Gelişmesinde Halk Kültürünün Rolü Fatih İYİYOL International Burch Univesity Saraybosna, Bosna-Hersek fatihiyiyol@ibu.edu.ba Özet: Bu çalışmada, Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasındaki ilişkilerin gelişmesinde halk kültürünün yapabileceği katkılar ele alınmaktadır. Çalışmada, saha araştırması(derleme) ve anket tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. Bildiride, Bosna-Hersek’teki etnik unsurlara genel olarak değinilmekle birlikte; nüfus yoğunluğu açısından Bosna-Hersek’te ana kitleye sahip Boşnaklar ve Boşnak kültürü ile Türk kültürü açısından kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesi değerlerdirilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda, Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel unsurlardan daha kapsamlı bir şekilde yararlanılması gerektiği kanaatine varılmış ve bununla ilgili çeşitli tekliflerde bulunulmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türkiye, Bosna- Hersek, halk kültürü 1. Giriş Türkler ile Balkan coğrafyasını oluşturan topluluklar arasında tarihi, kültürel ve sosyal ilişkiler kadim dönemlere dayanmaktadır. Balkan kelimesi sıra- dağ veya dağlık anlamında Türkçe bir kelimedir. Balkan yarımadası, VI. yüzyıldan itibaren Türk kavimlerinin gelip yerleştiği bir yurt olmuştur (İnalcık, 2005: 20). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun bölgeyi fethinden önce Avarlar, Kumanlar Peçenekler, Kırpçaklar; Balkan coğrafyasına yerleşmiş olan Türk kavimleridir. Türk boyları, Balkanlara hızla yerleşmiş ve arkalarında birçok kültürel unsur bırakmışlardır (Artun, 2000; Öztuna, 1990: 15). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun bölgeyi fethinden önce binlerce Türk dervişi Balkan coğrafyasına yayılmıştır. Bu dervişler, Balkanlara Türk- İslam kültürünü taşıyarak yerli Balkan topluluklarının Türk ve İslam kültürü tanımalarını sağlamıştır. “Kolonizatör Türk Dervişleri”1 olarak tamınlanan bu gönüllü tasavvuf erbabları gittikleri yerlerde, tekkelerini kurarak Osmanlı İmparatorlu’ğunun Balkanlardaki fetihlerine zemin hazırlamışlardır (Barkan, 1942: 282). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Bosna- Hersek’i fethinden önce bölgeye yerleşen Türk dervişleri fetih öncesi tekkelerini kurmuş ve müesseseleşme yoluna gitmeşlerdir. 1462 yılında Saraybosna’da İsa Bey Mevlevi tekkesi açılmıştır (Ćehajić, 1986: 61). 1463 yılında Bosna, Fatih Sultan Mehmet tarafından fethedilmiş ve bu tarihten sonra Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’na bağlanmıştır (Imamović, 1998: 82-83). Fetihten sonra Bogomil Boşnaklar, uzun zamana yayılan bir süreç içerisinde gönüllü olarak Müslüman olmuşlardır2 (Malcolm, 1996: 52-55). Fetih ve İslamlaşma ile birlikte Boşnaklar ile Türkler arasında doğrudan kültürel iletişim başlamıştır. Bu kültürel iletişimi yeniçeriler, Osmanlı’nın İstanbul, Bursa ve Konya gibi kültür merkezlerinden yetişen Boşnaklar, bölgede aktif rol oynayandervişler- tekkelerin etkisi gibi birçok unsuru saymak mümkündür. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminde özellikle Türk kültürünün Boşnak, Hırvat ve Sırp kültürü üzerinde etkili olduğunu Batılı seyyahlar ve sözkonusu toplulukların kendi araştırmacıları ifade etmektedir.1829’da Vuk Karadzic, Ortodoks Sırpların Müslüman gibi giyindikleri, özellikle şehirde yaşayanların Türk adetlerine göre yaşadıkları, Sırp kadınların çarşaf giydikleri, erkeklerin sarık takıp nargile içtikerini ifade eder (Artun, 2002: 99105). 1878 yılında fiilen, 1908 yılında ise resmen Avusturya- Macaristan İmparatorluğu Bosna- Hersek’i ilhak etmiştir. Bosna- Hersek’in Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’ndan ayrılmasıyla ilişkilerin kısmen koptuğu görülse de 1 Prof. Dr. Ömer Lütfi Barkan, İstila Devri’nin Kolonizatör Türk Dervişleri ve Zaviyeler isimli makelesinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Balkanları fethetmeden önce bölgeye Selçuklu, Karahanlı, Türkistan coğrafyasından binlerce gönüllü Alperenin yerleştiği ve bunların Osmanlı fetihleri öncesi bölgede zemin hazırladıklarını ifade etmektedir. 2 Bosna’daki İslamlaşma süreci ve Müslüman nufus hakkındaki en sağlıklı bilgiler, Osmanlı vergi sicillerinden alınabilir. 1468-69 yılına ait defterlerde, Bosna’da Hıristiyan hane sayısı 37.125, Müslüman hane sayısı ise 332 idi. 1485 yılına ait defterlerde, Hristiyan hane sayısı 30.552 ve 2491 bekar ya da dul Hristiyan mevcuttu. 4134 Müslaman hane ve 1064 kişi de dul ve bekar Müslaman mevcuttu. 1520’ye ait defterde ise 98.095 Hristiyan hane, 84.675 Müslüman hane mevcuttu. Daha sonraki vergi sicil defterlerinde sürekli olarak Müslüman hane sayısında artış gözlenlenmektedir. 380 �450 yıllık birlikte yaşamanın getirdiği etkileşimi silmek mümkün değildir. Nitekim, 1965 yılında Abdullah Škaljić, Turcizmi u Srpskohrvatskom Jeziku, çalışmasıyla; Sırp, Hırvat ve Boşnak dillerinde halkın kullandığı 8742 Türkçe kelime tespit etmiştir. Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasında Yugoslavya dönemindeki ilişkilerin Osmanlı dönemi kadar güçlü olmadığı aşikardır. Yugoslovya döneminde, özellikle Türk-İslam kültür mirasının Bosna- Hersek topraklarında silinmesi adına çalışmalar yapılmıştır. 1952 yılında tekke, vakıf ve dernekler kapatılmış, Bazı raporlara göre ordudaki Müslüman subayların çocuklarını sünnet ettirmeleri yasaklanmış, Müslüman asker ve subaylar domuz eti yemeye zorlanmışlardır (Malcolm, 1996: 195) Yugoslavya’nın dağılması, Bosna’daki iç savaş ve sonrasında Bosna- Hersek Cumhuriyetinin kurulması ve küreselleşme ile birlikte Türkiye Bosna-Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde yeni bir dönem başlamıştır. Bu çalışma yeni dönem ilişkelerin gelişmesinde halk kültürünün katkısı ele almaktadır.3 2. Halk Kültürünün Bosna- Hersek Türkiye İlişkilerinin Gelişmesine Katkısı 2.1. Turizm ve folklor Türkiye ile Bosna Hersek arasındaki tarihi- kültürel bağların köklü olması ve küreselleşmenin etkisi iki ülke arasında turizmin gelişmesini sağlamıştır. Özellikle, Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’e her geçen yıl artan bir ilgi görülmektedir. Aşağıdaki tabloda, bir turizm firması vasıtasıyla Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısı verilmiştir. Tablo-1’deki verilerden hareketle Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden Türk turistlerin oranında beş yıl içerisinde yaklaşık olarak bir buçuk kat arttığı gözlenmektedir. 4 Turist Sayısı 9000 8500 8000 7000 7000 6300 6000 5000 5000 4000 3000 3600 Turist Sayısı 4200 2000 1000 0 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Yıllar Tablo-1. Türkiye'den Bosna- Hersek'i ziyaret eden turist sayısı 1-15 Mayıs 2009 tarihleri arasında Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden 500 turist üzerinde düzenlediğimiz ankette, Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret etmelerini sağlayan en etkili sebep ne olduğunu soruldu. Anket 3 Bosna-Hersek Devleti, Boşnak ve Hırvat Fedarasyonu ve Sırp Cumhuriyeti olarak iki yapıdan oluşmaktadır. Boşnak ve Hırvat Fedarasyonu devletin % 51’lik bölümüne; Sırp Cumhuriyeti ise % 49’luk kısmına sahiptir. Her iki yapı etnik ve kültürel açıdan birbirinden farklıdır. Dolayısıyla Türkiye ile Bosna – Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde Halk Kültürü’nün Rolü başlıklı çalışmamızda Boşnak- Hırvat Federasyonu ele alınmıştır. Kanaatimizce, Türkler ile Bosna’daki ve Balkanlardaki Sırplar arasındaki kültürel ilişkiler ayrıca ele alınması gerekmektedir. 4 Türkiye’den Bosna- Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısıyla ilgili bilgiler (tablo-1 sayılar ve yıllara göre dağılımı) BosnaHersek’teki Fidan Turizm yetkilerinden alınmıştır. Bu sayı Türkiye’den Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısı değildir; söz konusu turizm firması vasıtasıyla Türkiye’den, Bosna-Hersek’i ziyaret eden turist sayısıdır. 381 �verileri, Türk turistlerin Bosna-Hersek’i, Türk kültür ve tarihinin birçok unsurunu barındırması nedeniyle ziyaret ettiklerini göstermiştir.5 Bu durum, iki ülke ilişkilerinin gelişmesi açısından önemli bir rol üstlenebilir. Türkiye ve Bosna-Hersek, tarihi ve kültürel bağların sağladığı yakın ilgiyi turizmin gelişmesi için önemli bir fırsat olarak görmeli ve kültür turizmini teşvik edecek ekonomik ve hukuki kolaylıklar tanımalıdır. Bosna-Hersek’te her yıl haziran ayının son hafta sonunda Akhisar(Prusac)’da Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri düzenlenmektedir. Boşnak halk kültürünün önemli bir unsuru olan Ayvaz Dedo( Ayvaz Dede)’nun Türk olduğu ve Boşnakların Müslüman olmasında büyük payı olduğuna inanılmaktadır. Halkın Ayvaz Dede’yi büyük bir velî olarak görmesi, onu itibar ve saygınlık yönüyle bir halk kahramanı yapmıştır (K1), (K2), (K3), (K4), (K5). Boşnak halk kültüründe, Ayvaz Dedo(Dede) olarak ifade edilen şahıs, XVI. asırın ikinci yarısında yaşayan Akhisarlı Hasan Kâfî’dir, Halveti şeyhi olan Hasan Kâfî, Osmanlı İmparatoluğu döneminde BosnaHersek’te yetişen önemli ilim adamlarından biridir (İzeti; 2004: 170). Halkın Ayvaz Dede’ye duyduğu büyük sevgi Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri çerçevesinde geniş çaplı kültürel organizasyonların yapılmasını sağlamıştır. Bosna- Hersek’te geniş bir katılımla düzenlenen Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri’ne Türkiye’den katılımlar olsa da, bu oran çok sınırlı sayıdadır. Türkiye’de geleneksel olarak düzenlenen Şeb-i Arus Etkinlikleri, Bosna-Hersek’te bilinmektedir. Müslüman Boşnaklar Mevlana ile ilgili bu etkinleri takip etmektedirler, özellikle tasavvufa ilgi duyan Boşnaklar arasından Şeb-i Arus etkinlerine katılanlar olmaktadır. Boşnaklar, Mevlana’yı kendi kültür unsurlarının bir parçası olarak gördüklerinden özellikle Saraybosna’da 1957 yılından itibaren Şeb-i Arus Etkinlikleri yapılmaktadır (Halilagić, 2008: 1-2). Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasında gerek kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesinde gerek turizmin ilerlemesine katkı sağlamak için bu iki kültürel etkinlikten yararlanmalıdır. Ayvaz Dede ve Mevlana her iki devletin halkları açısından öneme sahip kişilerdir. Bu tarihi şahsiyetlerin iki ülke ilişkilerin gelişmesine katkı yapması adına Türkiye, Bosna-Hersek’ten her yıl Şeb-i Arus etkinliklerine, Mevlana ve Konya ziyaretlerine katılımı artırmak için tanıtım yapmalı ve turizm firmalarını bu yönde teşvik etmelidir. Bosna- Hersek ise Türkiye’de bilinmeyen Ayvaz Dede’yi tanıtmalı ve Ayvaz Dede’yi Anma Etkinlikleri’ne katılımı arttırmak için gerek Türk turizm firmalarını gerek Boşnak turizm firmalarını teşvik etmelidir. Bosna-Hersek’te Türk tarih ve kültür mirası adına birçok mekanı saymak mümkündür. Fatih Sultan Mehmet’in Hıristiyan tebaaya Ahitname verdiği yer, Foynitsa’da bulunan Boşnak halk kültüründe Fatih Sultan Mehmet’in ordusuyla geldiği ifade edilen ve Derviş-i Horasani olarak bilinen şahsın türbesi, Osmanlı döneminde kalan Gazi Hüsrev Bey Külliyesi, Mostar köprüsü gibi onlarca yapı ve onun etrafında gelişen halk anlatıları Türkiye- Bosna Hersek arasındaki turizminin gelişmesine katkıda bulunabilir. Halk kültürü açısından Türkiye -Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde maddi kültür unsurlarından yararlanılabilir. Türk ve Boşnak mutfak kültürü büyük benzerlikler göstermekle birlikte her iki coğrafyaya has yemekler de bulunmaktadır. Her iki ülkenin mutfak kültürünün ortak ve farklılıklara tanıtılmalı bu maddi kültür unsurlarından turizmde istifade edilmelidir. Boşnak halk kültüründe tekke tasavvuf geleneği canlılığını korumaktadır. Türk tekkelerinin Balkanlardaki yansıması olan bu ekoller, Türk kültüründen tema, motif ve içerik olarak güçlü izler taşımaktadır. Özellikle, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu döneminden kalan Sinanova Kadiri Tekkesi; Blagay Halveti Tekkesi’nde Türkçe ilahiler eşliğinde dini- mistik ritüeller icra edilmektedir. Günümüzde Türk nufusunun hemen hiç olmadığı Bosna-Hersek’te Türkçe unsurların olması turizm açısından dikkat çekicidir. Gerek sosyal ve kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesinde gerek turizmin güçlenmesinde dini- mistik folklorun sözkonusu unsurlarından yararlanılmalıdır. 2.2 Halk Oyunları Halk oyunları ülke tanıtımlarında ön planda olan önemli bir folklor ürünüdür. Halk oyunları sadece bazı hareketlerin oyun içerisinde düzenli bir şekilde tekrarlanması değil aynı zaman o kültürün giyim, müzik, gelenek, inanış vb. birçok unsurunu içinde barındırmaktadır (Değerli, 2000). Bu yönüyle, ülkeler kendi kültürel yapılarını tanıtmak için halk oyunlarına tanıtım ve organizasyonlarda sık sık yer vermektedirler. Türkiye’de birçok üniversitenin bünyesinde halk oyunları festivalleri düzenlenmektedir. Birçok belediye ve sivil toplum örgütü etkinlik, festival ve şenliklerde halk oyunlarına yer vermektedir. BosnaHersek’te de Başçarşı Geceleri Kültür Etkinlikleri çerçevesinde halk oyunları festivalleri de yapılmaktadır. Gerek Türkiye’deki kültürel etkinliklerde gerek Bosna- Hersek’teki kültürel organizasyonlarda her iki ülkenin halk oyunları ekipleri sahne almaktadır. Kültürel etkinliklere katılımlar belirli bir kültür politikası içerisinde 5 Anket soruları ve sonuçları ekler bölümünde verilmiştir. 382 �yapılanlan etkinlikler değildir.6 Bazı dernek ve şahısların özel gayretlerinden ibaret kalan bu çalışmalar amatör ve sürekliliği olmayan iştirakler olarak kalmaktadır.7 Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde, kapsamlı ve geleneksel hale gelecek halk oyunları festivallerinin düzenlenmesi iki ülke insanının birbirlerini tanımasına kültürel etkileşim imkanın doğmasını sağlayacaktır. Türkiye’nin ya da Bosna- Hersek’in ev sahipliği yapacağı ve diğer Balkan ülkelerini de dahil edecek “Balkan Ülkeleri Halk Oyunları Festivali” ülkeler arasında ilişkilerin gelişmesine katkıda bulunacaktır. 2.3 Türk- Boşnak Halk Kültürleri’nin Ortak Şahsiyetleri Yunus Emre, Mevlana, Nasreddin Hoca, Fatih Sultan Mehmet gibi Türk kültüründeki önemli şahsiyetler Boşnak kültürünün önemli şahsiyetleridir. Yunus Emre’nin birçok Türkçe ilahisi Boşnaklar tarafından bilinip okunmaktadır. Yunus Emre’nin bazı ilahileri Boşnakça’ya çevrilmiş ve Boşnak Halk Edebiyatı’nın önemli metinleri olmuşlardır. Asıl metnine göre biraz değişmiş olan Yunus Emre’nin aşağıdaki ilahisi Boşnak halk kültüründe okunan bir ilahidir. Seni ben severim džandan ićeru Jolum vardir bu erkandan ićeru Šeriat tarikat joldur varana Hakikat marifet andan ićeru Kesildi takatim dizde derman jok Bun ne mezhep imiş dinden ićeru Sülejman kuş dili bilir didiler Sulejman var sulejmandan ićeru Teđželliden nasib erdi kimine Kimin maksudu andan ićeru Beni bende demen bende degilim Bir ben vardir bende benden ićeru Senin aşkın beni benden aliptir Ne şirin derd bu dermandan ićeru Junus’un gjozleri hundur aćilmaz Kapida kul var sultandan ićeru(K1), (K2), (K3), (K4), (K5). Mevlana, Boşnak tekke-tasavvuf geleneğinin çok önemli bir temsilcisidir. Günümüzde Boşnak tekkelerinin genelinde aşağıdaki ilahi okunur. Boşnakça Metin: Dođi Svijetla Konyo, slavna li si Zbog imena Mevlanina, Riječ njegova poziv srca Na svim tvojim je vratima. Türkçe Tercümesi: Gel Ey şerefli Konya namın yücedir. Mevlana’dan dolayı, Sözü(Mevlananın) kalbinin çağrısı Tüm kapılarındadır senin Dođi, dođi! Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel! Gel, gel. Ma ko da si, ma gdje da si, Makar da si i sto puta Obećanje prekršio, Opet dođi, Samo dođi. Prekrio te nur Mavlane, I bejtovi Mesnevije, Ko god dođe, jecaj naja Kim olursan ol, nerede olursan ol Tövbeni yüz defa Bozmuş olsan da yine gel Sadece gel Sarmış seni Mevlana’nın nuru Ve Mesnevinin beyitleri, Kim gelirse oraya ney inlemeleri 6 Türk İşbirliği Kalkınma İdaresi’nin 2008 yılı (TİKA) faaliyet raporlarını incelediğimizde kültürel çalışmaların yapıldığı ancak bu çalışmaların daha planlı ve sistematik yapılması gerektiği kanaatine vardık. 7 Küçükçekmece Belediyesi’nin düzenlediği Kültür Festivali’nde Bosna-Hersek’ten her yıl Lola adlı halk oyunları ekibi katılmaktadır. 383 �Srce će mu da otkrije. Kalbini açacak. Tvoje kuće ko bejtovi Svaka tajnu svoju ima, Postala si sama srce Uplakano rastancima. Evlerin beyitler gibi Her biri kendi sırrını saklar. sen bir gönül oldun Ayrılıklara ağlayan Dođi, dođi! Sarajevo dušu dade, Kad je čulo poziv sveti, Na Benbašu bijelih golubova, Cijelo jato uz zvuk naja sleti. Gel, gel! Saraybosna sana ruhunu vermiş Aziz çağrını duyduğunda Beyaz güvercinler Bentbaşı’na indi Ney sesini duyduklarında. Sjaj dersova srce pamti, I čežnjivo traži pića Što u šeher točilo ga Čisto srce Merhemića. Derslerin parıltısını kalp sezer Ve özlemle şarap ister. Ki şehri (nurla) doldurdu, Merhemiçin8 temiz kalbi. Dođi, dođi! Gel, ge!l Kud odeše dobri ljudi, Gdje li sa sakriše? Ko ih traži, zna kakav je, Plač rastanka , naja – duše. Nereye gitmişler iyi insanlar? Nerede saklanmışlar? Onları bulmaya çalışan biliyor, Ayrılığın, neyin ve ruhunun inlemesinin nasıl olduğunu Od njih nama ostala je Mudra riječ k'o utjeha. Ne tražite nas po grebljima, Već kod ljudi u srcima. Onlardan bize kalmıştır Hikmetli sözler, teselli olarak Bizleri mezarlıklarda değil de İnsanların kalplerinde bulmaya çalışın. Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel Mesneviju ko da shvati, Koje srce tu moć ima? Svaki bejt je jecaj naja, Svi džiltovi jedan sema'. Mesneviyi kim anlayabilir ki! Hangi kalbin böyle bir gücü var. Her beyit neyin inlemesidir. Tüm ciltleri semadır. Gdje je srce što će čuti, Ispod bejta što se zbori? Gdje je srce što na pragu, Mevlaninu aškom gori. Sezecek olan kalp nerede Beyitlerdeki hikmetleri Aşkla yanan kalp nerde Mevlananın kapısında Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel Hej, ašici, sretni li ste, Gaflet perdu kad skinuste. Dunjaluče, čekr ti si, Što okreće želje puste. Ey aşıklar ne mutlu size Gaflet perdesini üstünüzden attınız Ey günyaya gönül bağlayan! (Nefsin)arzulari çeviren değirmenin dişlileri gibisin Hajde srce, baci brige, Za dunjaluk kojeg nije, Stavi uho na bejt naja, Da čujemo tajnu koju krije. Haydi kalbim sıkıntıları at Bu sahte dünyanın Ney beyitine kulak ver, Hangi sırrı sakladığını duymak için. Dođi, dođi! Gel, gel! (İyiyol, 2009,1–15). 8 İlahide bahsedilen Hacı Mugaya Merhemiç Bosna’daki Mevlevi ekolünün önde gelen temsilcilerindendir. O, BosnaHersek’te mesnevi dersleri vermiş, onun ölümü üzerine ise Şeyh Fejzulah Efendi Hadžibayrić, Mesnevi derslerini devam ettirmiştir. 384 �Dođi, ilahisinde görüldüğü gibi Bosna-Hersek'teki Tasavvuf geleneği içerik, motif ve kahramanlar açısından Türk tasavvuf geleneğinin Balkan coğrafyasındaki devamı niteliğini taşımaktadır. Fatih Sultan Mehmet, Boşnak halk kültüründe bir kahraman ve vel olarak görülür. Bosna- Hersek'te “Sultan Fatih'' hakkında birçok halk anlıtısı ve inanış söylenegelir. Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in bir derviş olduğu ve Halveti ekolüne bağlı olduğu ifade edilir. Boşnak halk kültüründe Fatih Sultan Mehmet'in Halveti ekolüne bağlı olduğu kanaati Osmanlı'nın Bosna-Hersek'i fethinin sonraki asırlarda sözkonusu tasavvuf akımının güçlü olmasından kaynaklanmaktadır. Türk topluluklarının hemen hepsinde görülen Nasreddin Hoca fıkraları Boşnaklar arasında da yaygındır.“Nasrudin Hođža'' olarak bilinen Nasreddin Hoca, Boşnak halk kültürün önemli sembollerindendir(Frndić, 1972: 6-22). Türk ve Boşnak Halk kültürlerinin ortak şahsiyetleri onlar etrafında gelişen şiir ve anlatılar her iki kültürün kadim ilişkisini gösterme açısından önem arz etmektedir. Osmanlı mirasına sahip bu iki toplumun aynı kültür unsurlarına sahip olması doğaldır. Boşnak ve Türk halk kültürünün bu önemli şahsiyetlerini, onların fikirlerini ve eserlerini yapılacak büyük ve ortak organizasyonlarla geniş kitlelere duyurmak iki ülkenin ilişkilerinin gelişmesine katkı sağlayacaktır. Sözkonusu şahsiyetlerle ilgili teknolojik araçlarda kullanılarak film, çizgi film, belgesel hazırlamada ortak hareket edillmeli ve hazırlanacak ürünlerin Türkçe ve Boşnakça olması sağlanmalıdır. 3.Sonuç ve Öneriler Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel çalışmalardan- özellikle halk kültürü- yararlanmak . Her iki ülkenin ilişkilerinin gelişmesi adına tekliflerimiz şunlardır: 1. Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasındaki turizminin gelişmesinde halk kültüründen yararlanılmalıdır. 2. Her iki ülkenin Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlıkları her iki toplum açısından öneme sahip tarihi ve kültürel mekanların ziyaret edilmesini teşvik etmelidir. 3. Ayvaz Dede, Şeb-i Arus etkinlikleri gibi kültürel etkinliklere her iki ülkeden katılımın artırılması sağlanmalıdır. 4. Türkiye ve Bosna-Hersek’in birlikte düzenleyecekleri ve diğer Balkan ülkelerini de kapsayacak şekilde geleneksel hale getirilecek Balkan Halk Oyunları Festivali düzenlenmelidir. 5. Türk ve Boşnak halk kültürlerinin ortak şahsiyetleri olan Mevlana, Yunus Emre, Nasrettin Hoca, Fatih Sultan Mehmet ile ilgili ortak çalışmalar yapılmalı bu tarihi- kültürel şahsiyetlerin geniş kitlelerce daha iyi tanınması sağlanmalıdır. 6. Türk ve Boşnak halk kültürlerinin ortak şahsiyetlerini tanıtmak amacıyla ortak film, çizgi film ve belgeseller yapılmalı ve bu çalışmalar Türkçe ve Boşnakça olarak iki dilde izlenip anlaşılacak şekilde tasarlanmalıdır. 7. Bosna’daki Türkiye ve Türk kültürüyle ilgili halk anlatıları Türkçe’ye çevrilmeli bu meteryaller kültür ve sanat açısından işlenmelidir. 8. Türkiye Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel çalışmaların katkıların ele alındığı akademik çalışmalar yapılmalıdır. Kaynakça Artun, Erman( 2003). Osmanlının İlk Dönemlerinde Türk ve Balkan Kültürlerinde Etkileşim, II. Uluslararası Balkan Türkoloji Sempozyumu, İstanbul, Folklor-Edebiyat Dergisi, s.33. Sayfa, 99-105. Artun, Erman (2000). Balkan Türk Edebiyatlarına Genel Bir Bakış, IV. Uluslararası Kıbrıs-Balkanlar-AvrasyaTürk Edebiyatları Sempozyumu ,Mostar, www.turkoloji.cu.edu.tr. Barkan, Ömer Lütfi(1942). İstila Devirlerinin Kolonizatör Türk Dervişleri Ve Zaviyeler, Vakıflar Dergisi, Ankara, s.II, s. 279- 309. Ćehajić, Džemal(1986). Derviški Redovi u Jugoslovenskim Zemljama, Sarajevo, Grafo-art Atelje. Değerli, Fikret (2000). Halk Oyunlarının Uluslararası uygulamalarında Turizme Katkısı, Türk Folklorunun Turizm açısından Değerlendirilmesi sempozyumu, www.kultur.gov.tr. Frndić, Nasko (1972). Narodni Humor i Mudrost Muslimana, Zagreb, Stvarnost. Halilagić, Sead (2008). Obiljevanje Arusa u BIH, Sarajevo,The Place And Dervish Orders İn Bosnia Herzegovina On The Year Of Jalaladdin Rumu 800 Years Since His Birth Symposium, Orıjentalni Institut u Sarajevu Unpublished Symposium Proceedings, s. 1-2 385 �Inalcik, Halil(2005). Balkanlar ve Türkler, Bal-Tam Türklük Bilgisi Dergisi, Prizren, s.III, s-20-45. Iyiyol, Fatih (2009). Boşnak Halk Kültüründe Mevlana ve Mevlevilik, 1. Uluslararası Balkanlarda Tarih ve Kültür Kongresi, Basılmamış Sempozyum bildirileri, s-1-15 Malcolm, Noel (2002). Bosnia A Short History, London, Pan Boooks Öztuna, Yılmaz (1990). Rumelini Kaybımız, İstanbul, Ötüken Yayınları Imamović, Mustafa (1998). Historija Bošnjaka, Sarajevo, Nacionalna i Univerzitetska Biblioteka Bosne i Herzegovina. Izeti, Metin (2004), Balkanlarda Tasavvuf, İstanbul, Gelenek Yayınları Sözlü Kaynaklar(Kaynak Kişiler) (K1) Mensur Hacımeyliç, 50, Visoko, esnaf, lise mezunu (K2) Mükrem Kamber, 40, Olovo, evli, imam, medrese mezunu (K3)Nejat Biço, 49, Saraybosna, Sinanova tekkesi kütüphane görevlisi, lise mezunu (K4) Şeyh Birzina, 60 yaşında, Saraybosna, evli, Mejtaš Nakşi tekkesinin şeyhi (K5) Şeyh Niyaz, 41, Olovo, evli, Olovo Nakşi tekkesi şeyhi, Lise mezunu Ekler Türkiye- Bosna Hersek Arasındaki Kültürel İlişkileri Değerlendirme Anketi Tarih: 1-15 Mayıs 2009 Anketi cevaplayan kitle: Bosna-Hersek’i sözkonusu tarihlerde ziyaret eden Türkiye Vatandaşları. Anket Soruları: S.1 Bosna-Hersek gezinizde en çok hangi mekandan etkilendiniz? a)Mostar Köprüsü b) Latin Köprüsü c) Gazi Hüsrev Bey Külliyesi d) Blagay Tekkesi e) Bosna’nın doğal güzellikleri S.2 Bosna- Hersek’i ziyaret etmenizi sağlayan en etkili neden aşağıdakilerden hangisidir? a) Bosna- Hersek Türk kültürün birçok unsurunu barındıran bir ülke olması b) Bosna- Hersek doğal güzelliklere sahip bir ülke olması c) Bosna-Hersek teknolojik imkanlara sahip bir ülke olması d) Bosna- Hersek’te geniş eğlence imkaları olması e) Bosna- Hersek’te arkadaşlarım ve akrabalarım olması. S.3 Türkiye- Bosna Hersek arasında ilişkilerin gelişmesini en çok hangi etken sağlar? a) Ekonomik ilişkiler b) Kültürel ve Sosyal ilişkiler c) Siyasi ilişkiler d) Tarihi ilişkiler e) Turizm S.4 Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek’in kültürel yapısının benzerlikleri için en doğru seçenek hangisidir? a) Türkiye ile Boşnak kültürü arasında pek benzerlik yok b) Türk Kültürü Boşnak etkilemiş olmakla birlikte ortak unsurlar çok zayıf c) Türk kültürü ile Boşnak kültürü birçok ortak unsura sahipler ve bunlar canlılığı koruyor d) Türk kültürü ile Boşnak kültüründen hemen her şey aynı. Anket Sonuçaları: 1. 2. 3. 4. Soru: 213 kişi Blagay Tekkesi, 195 kişi Mostar Köprüsü, 57 kişi Doğal Güzellikler, 35 kişi Gazi Hüsrev Bey Külliyesi, Soru: 396 kişi A, 81 kişi B, 23 kişi E Soru: 184B, 167 kişi D, 103 kişi A, 14 kişi C, 10E Soru: 317 C, 114 kişi B, 48 kişi E, 21 kişi A 386 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 422 Title A name given to the resource Türkiye - Bosna Hersek İlişkilerinin Gelişmesinde Halk Kültürünün Rolü Author Author İYİYOL, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye ile Bosna-Hersek arasındaki ilişkilerin gelişmesinde halk kültürünün yapabileceği katkılar ele alınmaktadır. Çalışmada, saha araştırması(derleme) ve anket tekniğinden yararlanılmıştır. Bildiride, Bosna-Hersek’teki etnik unsurlara genel olarak değinilmekle birlikte; nüfus yoğunluğu açısından Bosna-Hersek’te ana kitleye sahip Boşnaklar ve Boşnak kültürü ile Türk kültürü açısından kültürel ilişkilerin gelişmesi değerlerdirilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonucunda, Türkiye- Bosna Hersek ilişkilerinin gelişmesinde kültürel unsurlardan daha kapsamlı bir şekilde yararlanılması gerektiği kanaatine varılmış ve bununla ilgili çeşitli tekliflerde bulunulmuştur. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f9af7c2b99f96b2db79ef812231ec2dd.pdf f5afc7dd2718650464eedcdd90f90139 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkey Forest with Respect to Sustainability Đbrahim Fevzi ŞAHĐN Atatürk University, Turkey ifevzi@atauni.edu.tr Ramazan SEVER Atatürk University, Turkey rsever@atauni.edu.tr Halil KOCA Atatürk University, Turkey hkoca@atauni.edu.tr Alperen KAYSERĐLĐ Atatürk University, Turkey alperenkayserili@atauni.edu.tr Namık Tanfer ALTAŞ Atatürk University, Turkey ntanfer@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: As a natural part of global ecosystem, forests have been destroyed continuously despite sustainable principles. In Turkey, forestation has started as utility forestation and production forestation just as everywhere in the world and later on the type of forestation suiting nature as well as multifunctional forestation has been prefered. At present, according to the decision taken at United Nations Environment and Development Conference (1992) the principles of sustainability have come to the fore. The main objective here is to provide means for those settling in rural areas to make their living without destroying forest and within the limits of protecting nature and maintaining development. In the light of this, forest in Turkey are to be sustained in spite of lack of application, destroying forest to make fields, irregular grazing, unlawful cutting, improper use of land and biological threats. It is inevitable to put in practice regular production techniques and to organize peasant-forest relation in order to determine the reproductivity capacity and limitations of Turkey forest, which have rare natural, old forests environment of our country. Key Words: Turkey, Forest, Sustainability, Environment Introduction The total amount of forested areas in the world is approximately 4.3 billion hectares according to the information about the forests of the world, published by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The ratio of the forested areas to other areas is 32.3%. The distribution of the forests over the world is unbalanced and only 20% of the forests are fertile. The forested areas, which shrank because of a variety of reasons, are facing similar problems. According to the FAO and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 17.5 million hectares of land is deforested every year beginning from 1990’s. However, only 1 hectare of land is forested for each 10 hectares of land deforested. This situation seen all over the world is also the case for Turkey. According to historical data, in the last 4000 years Anatolia has been largely deforested because of excess and improper utilization of forests, land clearing, wars, forest fires and improper grazing, and the quality of the forests has been partially impaired. What causes people to behave so irresponsibly while it is known that lack of forest leads to economic constriction and ecological imbalance? It is not difficult to answer this question. Forests are natural and they mostly grow on their own without requiring any human labour. It is easy to access forests and trees are used in many fields. Therefore, they are sometimes used as a source of revenue and demolished by illegal and excess cuts. At the same time, grazing animals in forests and turning these areas into agricultural lands inconveniently also destroy forests. 191 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Geographical Position and Forests of Turkey Turkey is located in the Northern Hemisphere at the junction of Europe and Asia. The Europen side is called Thrace and the Asian part is known as Anatolia. It shares boundaries with Greece, Bulgaria, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq and Syria with a total lentgh of 2753 km. It holds a coastal lentgh of 8333 km. This coastal zone includes the shores of Black Sea, The Sea of Marmara, Agean Sea, Mediterranean Sea and the passages of Bosphorus and Dardanelles (Figure 1). It has a total area of 78 million hectares of which 20,8 million hectares are designated as forest land. The topography is very rough and steep. Figure 1. Location map of Turkey Turkey is a country which cannot be deemed as poor in plant diversity and forested lands. Total forested area of our country covers 20.7 million hectares. 10 million hectares of these forests are highly fertile (Table 1). In other words, 48% of our forests are fertile. Our fertile forests cover 12.7% of the area of our country. This means 0.14 hectares of fertile forest per capita. Especially the Black Sea Region is in good condition with regards to forests. However, the Central Anatolia and the South-eastern Anatolia Regions are poor in forests. The forested areas in these two regions are equal to only 10% of all the other forests in the country. Table 1: Forest resources of Turkey ( Turkey General Directorate of Forest). Forest Area High Forest (ha) Coppice (ha) Total (ha) % Productive 8 237 753 1 789 815 10 027 568 48,3 Degraded 6 180 587 4 555 093 10 735 680 51,7 TOTAL 14 418 340 6 344 908 20 763 248 100,0 In 1950’s, 25% of the world was covered with fertile forests. This ratio fell to 20% in 1970’s. Unless effective measures are taken, the ratio of the fertile forests in the world will be only 14% towards 2020’s. Forest with Respect to Sustainability Forests, which are the capital of the global ecosystem, are rapidly destroyed despite the sustainable forestry principles. As it is the case all over the world, forest management began in our country began as exploitation forestry and production forestry; and then multifunction forestry and natural forestry began to be applied. Today, they are trying to be applied according to the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference 192 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo on Environment and Development (1992) adhering to sustainability. However, there is not much success in practice because of different reasons. Preserving, maintaining and improving the forest, making them fertile and cultivating, and using them without preventing the future generations’ development created the concept of sustainable forestry. However, this concept could not go beyond being a concept. In addition, this concept of sustainable forestry is the reason for all of the forestry sciences, especially the Forest Management Sciences to emerge (Asan 1995:17). ASAN also asserts that, this concept has been applied in all planning operations since 1700’s. In the forest management, what the concept is or when it is used is not important. What is important is its purpose. The common purpose should be developing the villagers [1] living in or next to forests with rational plans and projects which are based on appropriate examinations, without exhausting the natural supplies in question and getting into the dilemma of preserving the environment or developing. In other words, the evolution of economical system and environmental system should be maintained together (Tekeli 2000:10). Turkey’s situation is relatively good in the quantity of forests it has. However, we do not have enough fertile forests. Although certain efforts are made to preserve and improve forests, forest management cannot be efficient because of socio-economic problems. This reduces the quality and the quantity of our forests. For example, usage of the forests in our country as pastures for animals, illegal cuts and land clearing are the major reasons for hazards (Figure 1). Figure 1: Turkey forests to be destroyed for various reasons. The regulations that govern forestry should also be examined in order to correctly understand the importance of sustainability in the sector of forestry in Turkey. Turkish Constitution is different from the constitutions of many other countries in that, it includes provisions about forestry. In the process from 1937, when regular forestry studies began, until 1960, when the provisions about forestry were first included in the constitution, many political activities were held, which caused hazards to forests. That is why, Turkish Constitution of 1961 included forestry. Turkish Constitution of 1982 also included provisions about forestry. However, there are remarkable expressions about the subject. One of the provisions of the article is a commentary about sustainability peculiar to Turkey. Whereas this provision indicates that the borders of forests cannot be shrunk, it makes it possible to exclude some forested lands from forest regime. This provision, which is included in the Article 2 of the Constitution, is the base for the applications called 2-B and enforced according to the Provision B of Article 2 of the Law of the Jungle no: 6831. The sustainability of the parts of forests that are exposed to the 2-B application becomes eternally impossible. This situation seems to be a ground for many problems in the future. Hazards to forests by the enlargement of cities and tourism investments result from the 2-B application. Firstly, a regional planning based on sustainability should be designed. It should be considered in every stage of forestry that there is an organic link between forests and the villagers living in forested lands. That is why, a public strategy should be followed which will enable social plan integration necessary for improving the level of education and awareness of the villagers who live in the countryside and have the economic structure principally based on natural sources. At the beginning, forests in the whole country should be divided into parts of a certain size and they should be given to those villagers. Thus, passage to forest management should be achieved and legal regulations should be issued for this purpose. Activities like maintenance, tree planting, preserving and management should be carried out by the villagers under the supervision and control of experts from Forest Managements. When such a legal regulation is applied, hazards to forests will decrease and the [1] According to the results of the census in 2000, about 7.544.000 people live in 20.314 forest villages (7.302 in forests, 13.012 next to forests), and they form the 11% of the total population and nearly half of the rural population. 193 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo villagers’ level of welfare will improve undoubtedly. However, this precaution should not be enough, and solutions for different conditions of different regions should be provided. The basic factor that draws the villagers living in forested areas to forests is their low standard of life in socio-economic terms. That is why, the level of life standard of the villagers, whose economic problems gradually increase, should be improved and it should be aimed that they will have high level of education, natural and environmental consciousness. Social forestry should increase countrywide in order to decrease the villagers’ pressure on the forests. The participation of the public should absolutely be ensured in this process. While announcing the aims and studies of Forest Area Managements, General Directorate of A forestation, OrKöy (General Directorate of Forest-Village Relations), and Directorate of National Parks, Game and Wildlife with various activities, participatory plans and projects that consider socio-cultural and economic standards of villagers should be applied. Otherwise, the inclination towards forests will continue. On the one hand, minimum benefits will be obtained like cutting trees in the forests and selling them, land clearing and illegal provision of trees as fuel and raw material. On the other hand, this inclination will create problems which will obstruct sustainability of forests and spoil ecological systems. Moreover, as a result of spoiling ecological systems, irreparable problems will arise such as the extinction of endemic plants in the forest (Sever 2002:95-97). In order to manage the forests of Turkey within the framework of sustainability, completing the management studies is one of the works to be primarily done. Awareness of the socio-economic conditions of the villagers in forested areas is possible by implementing improvements. The organic link between forests and the villagers living in forested lands is the most important think that should be considered in every stage of forestry. However, it is quite difficult to say that it is followed. Turkey has acceded to some international conventions like Convention on Biological Diversity, Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, United Nations Forum on Forests. However, it cannot always manage to meet the requirements of those conventions. This usually results from conflicts between the authorities of local governments and national government, and inadequate representation of communities of interest and decision-makers. This complexity of authority should absolutely be removed and the exact limits of authorities should be determined. Conclusion Forests should be preserved according to the principle of sustainable forestry and should be improved. Their fertility should be increased and be cultivated constantly. They should be used without preventing the future generations’ development. Accordingly, the forests in our country should be managed including the above suggestions, according to the principles of sustainable forestry. References Asan, Ü. (1995). Orman Kaynaklarının Rasyonel Kullanımı ve Ülkemizdeki Durumu. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 45 (2), 68-92. Çağlar, Y. (1990). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Đçin Ormanlar ve Ormancılığımız. Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Konferansı, 1989, VA:135-159. Çağlar, Y. (1998). Sürdürülebilirlik ve Türkiye Ormancılığı. Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmanın Uygulanması-Tartışma Toplantısı,1997, VA:61-75. Erdem, R. (1982). Türkiye’de Orman Korumasının Ana Sorunları ve Çareleri. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 32 (1),716. Gülen, Đ. Özdönmez, M. (1981). Türkiye’de Orman ve Ormancılık. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fakültesi. Dergisi,31 (2), 1-13. Odabaşı, T. Özalp, G. (1994). Ormanların Đşletilmesi Yöntemleri ve Doğaya Uygun Ormancılık Anlayışı. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 44 (1-2), 35-47. Pamay, B. (1980). Türkiye Ormancılığının Ana Sorunları. Đstanbul Üniv. Orman Fak. Dergisi, 30 (2), 68-92. Sever, R. (2002). Sürdürülebilirlik Bakımından Şavşat Ormanları. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8, 75- 99. Tekeli, Đ. (2000). Türkiye Çevre Tarihçiliğine Açılırken. Türkiye’de Çevrenin ve Çevre Korumanın Tarihi Sempozyumu, 2000, VA:1-14. 194 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 174 Title A name given to the resource Turkey Forest with Respect to Sustainability Author Author ŞAHİN, İbrahim Fevzi SEVER, Ramazan KOCA, Halil KAYSERİLİ, Alperen ALTAŞ, Namık Tanfer Abstract A summary of the resource. As a natural part of global ecosystem, forests have been destroyed continuously despite sustainable principles. In Turkey, forestation has started as utility forestation and production forestation just as everywhere in the world and later on the type of forestation suiting nature as well as multifunctional forestation has been prefered. At present, according to the decision taken at United Nations Environment and Development Conference (1992) the principles of sustainability have come to the fore. The main objective here is to provide means for those settling in rural areas to make their living without destroying forest and within the limits of protecting nature and maintaining development. In the light of this, forest in Turkey are to be sustained in spite of lack of application, destroying forest to make fields, irregular grazing, unlawful cutting, improper use of land and biological threats. It is inevitable to put in practice regular production techniques and to organize peasant-forest relation in order to determine the reproductivity capacity and limitations of Turkey forest, which have rare natural, old forests environment of our country Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/99e291888fd3fea30a1fd52a2a0895ed.pdf cb1d00e3ec4a22619028199c2b9ea55f PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Importance of Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Development Hasan ŞENOL Lecturer, Isparta, Turkiye hassenol@sdu.edu.tr Ahmet AKTÜRK Lecturer, Isparta, Turkiye akturk@sdu.edu.tr Abstract: It is not possible to say that, while meeting its endless demands and needs, humankind has made use of the ecological environment economically which is one of the sources of the community. The signs that have seen over the last ten years shows that, due to this consumption desire, humankind will lead the world up to calamity faster than it is estimated. This course of events has to be stopped urgently for the sake future generations. At this point, the concept of sustainable development plan becomes important. For sustainable development all sections of society has great roles. Enterprises are one of these sections. The design of accounting information system concerning about environmental costs emerged during the production period of the enterprises is a necessity of this exquisite approach. Introduction It is known that environmental problems have shown an increasing tendency by means of technological developments and application of them. The fact of globalization being developed rapidly since 1990s not only has led for environmental awareness to become widespread but also has been enabled for nations to act together for matter of environmental protection. Accounting having universal general rules and double entry bookkeeping used together by all nations and ensuring today universality of the accounting have constantly been interested in environmental issues within its own logic. (Güvemli & Gökdeniz, 1996, p.23) Fundamentally uniform chart of accounts and financial statements are always discussed in finance and own interest of the corporation, interest of partners, third party interest because of liabilities and state interest as natural stakeholder have been put forward. Actual “natural stakeholder” environmental issues within these interest groups have not taken the place as necessary yet. Despite all, the concept of “environmental accounting” has been widespread gradually due to effect of being emergent much more in very developed countries. (Güvemli & Gökdeniz, 1996, p.23) To ensure sustainable development, it is seen that environmental accounting is a promising approach in terms of providing information to assist in ensuring the equilibrium between economy and environment. (Mutlu, 2007, p.169) 1. The Concept of Environmental Accounting In consideration of rapid deterioration in environmental conditions and concern of closing to limits of the world, it is required that business managers shall change their point of view to ecological environment as soon as possible and shall evaluate the ecological environment as an crucial factor in the taking of decision related to operating activities. (Nemli, 2009) Nowadays environmental managers and business managers in the industry encounter ever increasing demands of shareholders, consumers and law maker related to environmental performance. Moreover, environmental performance of product and corporation during competition at the market is frequently stated. (Anex & Englehardt, 2001, p.99 It is possible to describe the concept of “environmental accounting” having increasing importance with such commercial reasons. (Güvemli & Gökdeniz, 1996, p.23-24) “Environmental accounting: description of the environment by measuring its negative effects and prediction of them in the accounting system applications.” Corporation managers also have to pay attention to such demands into strategic decisions and develop more sensitive management approach to environment in order to catch up aforesaid change. Environmental management is an understanding adapting by enterprises that take into consideration ecological environment as 159 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo an important matter in the decision procedures, aim to minimize or abolish entirely the damage to the environment because of its activities, and change design and packaging of its products as well as its manufacturing process in this perspective, make a endeavor for replacing of the philosophy of protection of ecological environment into culture of the enterprise and fulfill its duties for society within the scope of social responsibility. (Nemli, 2009) In the Table 1, it is listed about comparison between traditional management and environmental management. Table 1. Traditional Management-environmental Management Comparison In objectives In products In organization In environment In functions of business Traditional Management Economic growth and profit Return for partners Products designed for function, style and price Packaging causing unnecessary waste Hierarchical structure Decision-making from top to bottom Centralization in decision-making Having a good command of environment Managing of the environment as a source Evaluation of pollution and wastes as externalities The marketing aims to increase the consumption. Financing asks for maximizing the profit in the short term. The accounting concentrates on traditional costs Management of human resources targets to increase efficiency of labor Environmental Management Sustainability and standard of living Welfare of partners Environment friendly products designed for environment Non- hierarchical structure Participatory decision-making Decentralization in decision-making Being harmony with nature Becoming aware of natural resources not being unlimited. Managing and minimizing pollution and wastes. The marketing is for consumer training. Financing aims the long term sustainable growth The accounting concentrates on environmental costs. Management of human resources ensure health and security at work. Source: Nemli, 2009, www.sbf.istanbul.edu.tr Everyone is responsible for protecting and developing the environment being subject to different evaluations from different perspective and becoming one of today crucial problems. Because the common interest in the protection of environment is available, everyone is affected from environmental problems, environmental assets belong to all society, the precautions to be taken concern the common interest and the effective implementation of these precautions depends on participation of everyone, the accounting also has duties in this matter. (Erençin, 2001, p.69) 2. Environmental Accounting in the Context of Sustainable Development The concept of sustainable development was stated at first in the report of Our Common Future prepared by Commission on Environment And Development of United Nations in the year of 1987 and has become prevalent. In this report, the sustainable development is described as satisfaction of today needs without making concessions from satisfaction of needs of future generations. (Haftacı &Soylu, 2007, p.111) In this report, it is stated that environmental problems has threatened the earth and all people of both developed and developing countries, crisis over the world are interrelating and environmental problems could not be differentiated from other problems and it is also declared that development in the current evaluation level of the humanity would be ended after a while and this would be prevented by understanding of “sustainable development” and development of countries would be ensured via common quest of people. (Haftacı &Soylu, 2007, p.112) From the perspective of these developments, enterprises have taken important steps in the subject of environment since beginning of 1990s. However, progresses related to this matter in the field of accounting and finance was reluctant and superficial at the beginning. It is known that unless a realistic movement and change in the economic structure is supported by accounting and finance practices, it would not be successful. For this reason, contributions and achievements of corporations in this subject have been late. (Akün, 1999, p.152) However, by the understanding of “better lose the saddle than horse”, enterprises designing their accounting system organizations without taking environmental costs into consideration should fulfill this requirement as soon as possible. 2. Categories of Environmental Costs As a result of interaction between management strategies and environment responsibility of enterprises in recent years, environmental accounting information system is required in order to evaluate the environmental 160 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo impacts and obtain information being necessary in the various decisions of the enterprise. Considering environmental convenience, business managers need the data of environmental costs while deciding some matters like product diversity and pricing in the management strategies to be determined, choosing of production input, evaluations of options of waste management and projects of pollution prevention. Environmental costs are emerged in conjunction with many different activities and complex fields and within a large time interval. (Akün, 1999, p.152-153) It is possible for environmental costs to classify as direct costs, administrative costs, product design costs, research-development costs, costs for supporting social projects out of enterprise and other costs. Certain examples related to these costs are available in the Table 2. This table includes most of important environmental cost categories. (Li, 2001, p.59) Table 2. Environmental Cost Classification Cost classes Direct Costs Example *costs of reduction of damages to environment and air because of production process. Including Costs for air, water and soil pollution prevention,/ costs of prevention of noise, vibration, smell and land subsidence. *Costs of prevention of climate change, global environment protection activities resulted from protection of energy and water sources as well as protection of ozone layer and costs of protection of sources. *Costs of reduction, recycling, incineration and recovery of industrial hazardous wastes and solid nonhazardous wastes Administrative *Costs of environmental training of employees. *costs of establishment and implementation of environmental management process for instance costs of costs external certification related to management system *Costs of monitoring and measuring of environmental burdens and recovery works *Additional costs for purchasing of products not damaging the environment *additional costs for purchasing fuel and other raw materials, such as activities for making harmful fuels and raw materials as environment friendly. *Costs of labor for integration above five points. Product design *costs of recycling/re-composition and collection of the product. * Costs of recycling/re-composition and collection of the package and cases. costs *Additional costs for more environment friendly product design changes * Additional costs for production of more environment friendly package and packets * Association of above four points with other costs, and payments to trade cooperation. *Labor costs for integration of above five points Research and *costs of research and development for design of more environment friendly products. developments *costs of research/development/, design/planning during process changes for development of environmental performance costs * costs of research and development for making distribution and sale system of corporation as environment friendly * Labor costs for above mentioned activities *costs of forestation, beautification, landscape and other development works inside and outside of Costs for enterprise assets. supporting social projects *supporting of local committee and environmental activities. Such as financial support, seminar and informing. out of *Participating and supporting environmental groups enterprise *costs of preparation of reports to be represented to public *costs for advertisements related to environment * Labor costs for integration of above five points *costs for soil improvement works and environmental compensations Other costs *costs for value and compensation related to settlement *costs for environmental lawsuits *Charity or new burden/taxes related to environment *other environmental costs not mentioned above. Source : Li, 2001, p.60 3. Application Terms and Process of Environmental Accounting The most general condition for application of environmental accounting into an enterprise is to harmonize enterprise and environment. Minimum conditions that an enterprise must have for application of environmental accounting are mentioned below; (Uğur, 2006, p.58) • Ensuring of support of upper level management 161 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • Placing of environmental culture Acceptance of the fact that corporation activities damage the environment, Making evaluation of environmental impact at all projects, Providing environmental training to all personnel, Ensuring of integration in the meaning of description about what is measured and why it is required to be measured for. • Technology for being able to measure and keep necessary information, • Reporting system to explain the performance measurement information required to interest groups., • Supervising system to ensure reliability of reported information., • In the cases of impossibility of all cost-sharing, demand of acceptance of estimations., • Comprehensive description of concepts like environmental assets, debt, contingent liability etc , • Other (demand, information and opportunity) After fulfillment of application conditions of environmental accounting, application process is realized. Application process consists of nine stages. These are; (Uğur, 2006, p.60) • Development of modeling of input-output analysis for usage of material and energy, • Description and understanding of environmental costs, • Monitoring and reporting of non-financial data belonging to primary material and energy flow at the enterprise., • Monitoring and reporting of environmental costs, • Adoption of decision making models and approaches being predicated on environmental costs and sensitivity, • Usage of advanced technologies for distribution of environmental costs to organization units, process and product costs, • Extending of scope of environmental accounting and analysis via lifelong valuation and value chain analysis, • Reaching to environmental perfection via external reporting and reporting the evaluation in the given undertaking to interest groups, • Undertaking for reaching the target of sustainable development. Understanding of “sustainability” should be together “environmental perfection” mentioned in 8th stage. Because environmental perfection are focusing on reduction of wastes and pollution in addition to effective usage of sources, while sustainable development predict on fair distribution of environmental costs and benefits among people and especially surveillance of rights of both today and future generations in addition to this understanding. As a consequence, because nine steps predicted for environmental accounting are not certain, they would be increased or decreased according to situation of the enterprise. However, steps mentioned here are highly necessary and helpful for almost every enterprise. On the other hand, enterprise mush accept following understanding for taking said steps: it should also participate to operation decisions like natural environment, strategic planning, product development, budgeting of capital, in other words this should not be allocated to only single and separate department and should be taken into consideration in all department of enterprise. (Uğur, 2006, p.75) 4. Conclusion Tangible applications and politics are required for going beyond saying of dependency to sustainable development principles and significance of natural environment as empty words. These politics should be determined as soon as possible and legal proceedings shall be realized for fulfillment of accepted politics. In this context, using of tangible application tools is for implementation of sustainable development. Environmental accounting is a tangible tool in the application of sustainable development. Remember that applications of environmental accounting should be carried out in the base of volunteering by demonstrating the emergency of environmental problems as justification and in the scope of situation and interest special to individuals-societies-nations instead of methods based on discipline. Environmental accounting to be called as “green accounting” is also requirement of social responsibility of the enterprises. Considering in long term, it is anticipated that enterprises having the sense of social responsibility would be accepted by society being more conscious rather than the past and this would increase its market value. References Akün, L. (1999) Çevre Muhasebesi: Genel Bir Bakış, Muhasebe Bilim Dünyası Dergisi, Cilt:1 Sayı:1, 145-155 162 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Anex, R.P.  Englehardt, J.D. (2001) Application of a Predictive Bayesian Model to Environmental Accounting, Journal of Hazardous Materials A82, 99-112 Erençin, A. (2001) Çevresel Yönetim Sürecine Katılım, Abant Đzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt:1, Sayı:2, 69-77 Güvemli, O.  Gökdeniz, Ü. (1996) Çevre Muhasebesindeki Gelişmeler, Muhasebe Öğretim Üyeleri Bilim ve Dayanışma Vakfı Bülteni, Sayı:4, 23-27 Haftacı, V.  Soylu, K. (2007) Çevre Kirlenmesi ve Çevre Koruma Bağlamında Çevre Muhasebesinin Önemi, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi, Sayı:33, 102-120 Li, L. (2001) Encouraging Environmental Accounting Worldwide: A Survey of Government Policies and Instrument, Corporate Environmental Strategy, Vol. 8, Iss. 1, 47-57 Mutlu, A. (2007) Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma ve Çevre Muhasebesi II, Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi, Sayı:34, 162-173 Nemli, E. (2009) Çevreye Duyarlı Yönetim Anlayışı, http://www.sbf.istanbul.edu.tr/dergi/sayi23-24/17.htm Uğur, K. (2006) Đşletme-Doğal Çevre Đlişkilerinin Mali Tablolar Aracılığıyla Raporlanması ve Denetimi, Sermaye Piyasası Kurulu Yayın No:201, Ankara 163 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 162 Title A name given to the resource The Importance of Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Development Author Author ŞENOL, Hasan AKTÜRK, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. It is not possible to say that, while meeting its endless demands and needs, humankind has made use of the ecological environment economically which is one of the sources of the community. The signs that have seen over the last ten years shows that, due to this consumption desire, humankind will lead the world up to calamity faster than it is estimated. This course of events has to be stopped urgently for the sake future generations. At this point, the concept of sustainable development plan becomes important. For sustainable development all sections of society has great roles. Enterprises are one of these sections. The design of accounting information system concerning about environmental costs emerged during the production period of the enterprises is a necessity of this exquisite approach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e728817cd66badc6f2ff95e0bd68eda.pdf 34f6334327bb8ef08b9a965f85dee50b PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Balanced Scorecard in the Healthcare Industry: A Case Study Yigit Bora ŞENYĐĞĐT Istanbul University, School of Business Administration, Turkey senyigit@istanbul.edu.tr Abstract: The performance measurement and management is an important process for decision-makers in any type of organization. One of the performance measurement tools available is the balanced scorecard, which provides a comprehensive set of financial and nonfinancial performance measures for the organizations to be strategy focused. This study discusses the balanced scorecard generally from theoretical views, and why it should be used by healthcare organizations. Moreover, the study is enhanced by performing a case study to examine the implementation process of the balanced scorecard by healthcare (orthopedics) company in the United States. This study suggests that though the balanced scorecard would be the right choice for many, including companies in the healthcare industry, it may not be the right choice for all. With the balanced scorecard being fairly young, it is the common perception that this approach will continue to be explored and efficiency will be improved on it in the future. Keywords: Balanced scorecard, performance measurement, healthcare industry 1. Introduction Without measuring results, there is no way of knowing whether the business is being managed satisfactorily, nor is it possible to hold managers accountable for the business. Moreover, it is difficult to reward success or avoid unintentionally rewarding failure. To date, there have been numerous tools developed for the purpose of performance measurement. The balanced scorecard (BSC) puts the organization’s vision and strategy into a framework that effectively and efficiently communicates strategic intent and monitors performance. Traditionally, management control stresses decentralized profit goals, which mean that it is mostly focused on outcomes. In a BSC, outcome measures are combined with measures that describe resources spent or activities performed. Good scorecards combine outcome measures, of which profit is only one, with performance drivers. The BSC assists companies in overcoming two important issues: effective organizational performance measurement and implementing strategy (Niven, 2002). The first issue is an effective performance measurement: “If you cannot measure it, you cannot manage it”. Historically, the measurement system for business has been financial. A key problem with looking at financial measures alone is that it gives only one particular perspective (Coskun, 2006). In fact, it may even lead to poor decision-making. For example, if one of the main performance measures is cost per customer, managers may try to cut costs to such an extent that the customers become unhappy with the products they are buying and will take their business to a competing supplier. Moreover, financial measures are not consistent with today’s business environment, and are not relevant to many levels of organization. Successfully implementing strategy is another important issue facing organizations. A strategy is a set of hypotheses about cause and effect. The measurement system makes the relationships (hypotheses) among objectives in the various perspectives explicit so that they can be managed and validated (Niven, 2002). The BSC is not merely a collection of financial and non-financial measurements. The BSC should be the translation of the business unit’s strategy into a linked set of measures that define both the long-term strategic purposes, as well as the mechanisms for achieving those purposes (Kaplan, 2000). In the nature of implementing strategies, the organization may have some barriers. There are four barriers to strategy implementation that exist for most companies: a vision barrier, a people barrier, a resource barrier, and a management barrier (Niven, 2002). The purpose of this study is the increase understanding of how the BSC is used in the healthcare industry, specifically in the orthopedics company operating in the United States. This paper is organized in the following manner. Section 2 reviews the literature on performance measurement and management highlighting the need for the healthcare industry to use both financial and non-financial performance indicators. In section 3, a short background of the case company is presented followed by a case description. The implementation of the 139 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo BSC is described with respect to how it designed and implemented. Finally, in section 4 the findings from the study are synthesized and the implementation process of the BSC discussed. 2. Literature Review The BSC is a management tool that was developed by Dr. Robert Kaplan and Dr. David Norton in the 1990s (Kaplan & Norton, 1992). Drs. Kaplan and Norton recognized the need for businesses to have a more “balanced” approach of assessing company performance than the traditional method of looking strictly at financial data (Davis, 2005). While financial data is important, in large part it only gives an indication of historical company performance. The BSC combines financial data along with non-financial performance criteria, such as product quality and customer service, in a way that allows businesses to not only track their performance, but also to align business activities in such a way that they support the organization’s stated missions and goals (Davis, 2005). The BSC provides superior financial performance when compared to a traditional performance measurement system (Albright & Davis, 2004). In contrast to the financial based measurement systems, the BSC reinforces the organization’s focus on future success by setting objectives and measuring performance from different perspectives. These balanced perspectives are as follows: customer, internal business processes, learning and growth, and financial (Kaplan & Norton, 1992). The BSC retains financial measurement, but it focuses on a more general and integrated set of measurements that link customer, internal business processes, employee learning and growth, and financial performance to long-term financial success. These four perspectives are defined as (Hoque & James, 2000): The financial perspective includes profitability measures such as operating income, return-on-capital employed, sales growth, and generation of cash flow or economic value added. The customer perspective encompasses such measures as customer satisfaction, customer retention, new customer acquisition, customer response time, marked share, and customer profitability. The internal process perspective includes product design, product development, post-sales service, manufacturing efficiency, quality etc. The learning and growth perspective measures the ability of employees, information system and organizational procedures to manage the business and adapt to change. The reasons for adopting the BSC in the healthcare industry are due to financial pressure, competition, consumerism, industry consolidation, regulatory reporting, information management, and new technology (Inamdar & Kaplan, 2002). Considering the healthcare industry, one can argue that a number of problems face the healthcare industry, including cost structure, payor limitations and constraints, and performance and quality issues that require changes in how healthcare organizations, both profit and nonprofit, manage operations (Kocakulah & Austill, 2007). As these healthcare systems become more complex, so does the task of developing a methodology and formula that can align the organizational strategies and main principles with performance measurement and management indicators. The BSC is especially appropriate for organizations in turbulent industries such as healthcare (Voelker et al., 2001). A BSC is not only better in monitoring and evaluating performance of a healthcare organization but also in improving that performance to its maximum best. For instance, by tracking value delivery and paying incentives to staff based on how much value an organization delivers to customers, rather than the amount or value received from customers, hospitals can motivate and redirect staff to look for better ways to improve value of service. This can serve as counter to the possibility of staff motivation to promote short-term importance on the revenue received from clients. Also by effectively tracking improvement made by patients, clients and community, BSC can give internal stakeholders such as medical staff and employees a renewed pride in what they do (MacStravic, 1999). The BSC is one of the tools for better control and management of organizations in the healthcare industry. However, the healthcare industry was a little slower to adopt the BSC approach than was manufacturing and profit-oriented service industries. Although Kaplan and Norton’s first book in 1996 outlining the BSC included examples, none were healthcare related (Kaplan & Norton, 1996). They simply had not found any services (Kocakulah & Austill, 2007). In the next section, we perform a case study in an orthopedics company in the healthcare industry. 3. The Implementation Process of the Balanced Scorecard in the Healthcare Industry We have chosen to evaluate the unique aspects of a medical device manufacturer when considering the implementation of a BSC system. As we discussed before, one of the most critical aspects of creating a BSC system is making sure that it is tailored to the specific needs of the company and the industry in which it competes. There are several distinctive aspects of the medical device market that will ultimately determine the metrics used for our BSC implementation. The name of entity used herein is fictional to protect proprietary 140 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo interests and privacy. “Morgan” is the fictional name that represents the company. For this evaluation, we choose Morgan Inc., a large-cap manufacturer of orthopedic implants used for joint reconstruction. In applying the four main perspectives of the BSC to Morgan’s business it is also important to look at the medical device market in general. Morgan is one of the world’s largest pure-play orthopedics’ manufacturers with annual revenues in 2008 of $1.8 billion. The orthopedic market is mainly made up of total joint replacements (hips, knees, shoulders, ankles, elbows, etc.) as well as trauma and spinal implants. This market is dominated by five key players that together account for over 90% of the joint reconstruction market. Having an oligopoly market like this creates stability, but also makes moving market share incredibly difficult. This market is set for increased growth over the next few decades, since the average age that a patient will receive a total hip or total knee replacement is 67, and the average baby boomer is currently 62 years old. Because Morgan manufacturers implants for human use, quality is incredibly important. This is also why the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) plays such a large role in the company’s financial performance. The FDA must approve all new implants that Morgan makes. It is subject to continued oversight of the FDA in the form of product surveillance, inspection checks, and even implant recalls. All of this points to the need for a high level of quality in the products that Morgan makes. In addition to a need for high quality, the medical device market in which Morgan does business is incredibly lucrative. Morgan’s annual gross margin is consistently in the mid to upper 70 percent, and its main customers are orthopedic surgeons, hospitals, and ultimately patients. Also, a total hip or total knee replacement is an extremely technical operation. For this reason, Morgan has an array of sales associates around the world that not only deliver the necessary implants and instruments to the hospital but also provide critically important information about the product and surgical technique during a case. Therefore, the sales associate-surgeon relationship is important for maintenance and growth of sales. In applying the BSC approach to Morgan, it is important to walk through the four different perspectives and discuss how they affect each other and also how each measure improves company. The first is learning and growth. Learning and growth is important because it is Morgan employees that drive innovation and creativity throughout the organization. Hiring, training, and retaining key employee talent is necessary for improving the next stage: business processes. By improving the way that Morgan operates internally, it has increase focus and can better serve the 3rd perspective: customers. Customers that purchase products consistently and/or those that purchase premium technology products lead to increased revenues and improvement in the 4th perspective: Financial performance. The tracking of key financial metrics helps Morgan measure those areas that tie directly with corporate strategies. In exploring the first perspective, learning and growth, it is important to remember that key employee talent is critical to the success of the organization. Some of the unique attributes of this perspective within Morgan are a highly technical and creative workforce, employee interest in continued education, and high attraction to the medical field. In order to be a highly motivated and capable organization, Morgan would implement the following employee goals: 1) provide continued opportunities for employee learning and training, 2) increase employee empowerment to make key decisions, 3) encourage innovation and creative thinking and 4) have a highly satisfied and motivated workforce. Some of the metrics that would be measured in order to judge performance would be the percentage of internal promotions, continued education tuition reimbursement, retention rates, employee satisfaction surveys, and benchmarking evaluations. In exploring the next perspective, internal business practices, it is important to remember that Morgan produces high quality, high technology products. Also important is the fact that new propriety, premium-priced implants are the main drivers of growth. Therefore some of the goals that Morgan would implement would be to 1) minimize the potential for product recalls, 2) increase sales force focus on premium products, 3) become the technology leader in new product development, and 4) minimize time from idea creation to launch. In order to achieve these goals Morgan would measure 1) the percentage of “first run” products that are manufactured without defect and incidence reports as measured by the FDA, 2) the percentage of new product sales from total sales as determined by those systems launched in the past 18 months, 3) new, propriety technology product launches and 4) product launch timelines. In thinking about the next perspective, customers, it is important to remember that the Morgan’s main customers are orthopedic surgeons. They are a highly educated and technical professional group. Second, market share is extremely sticky, causing the relationship between sales associate and surgeon to be critical in the selling process. Therefore the goals for the customer perspective are to 1) increase customer loyalty and satisfaction, 2) better target the most profitable customers, and 3) increase new customer usage. Some of the measures that Morgan would look at are 1) share of profitable customer’s business, 2) measurement of average profit per account and 3) percentage of the business that is coming from new customers. The final BSC perspective that Morgan would measure would be financial performance. Important criteria to Morgan in this category are the need for profitable R&D and product development cycles, ready 141 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo access to cash, and efficient return on investment throughout its various divisions. The measures that would be considered for financial performance are IRR and NPV minimums, consistent growth in free cash flow, and ROI and ROA assessments. As we step back to assess the value of a BSC system for Morgan, it is important to remember that the measures will only work if employees believe in their value. The biggest motivation for employee input and support of a BSC system is to directly tie the performance evaluations to the BSC measures. It is also important to make sure that these targets are aligned with the broader corporate strategy. By determining strategy first, and then building your BSC measures on those tactics that directly support the plan for the organization, the BSC approach is much more effective. Another important part of implementing the BSC at Morgan is to incorporate lessons that other organizations have learned when they developed their own BSC system. As more organizations implement BSC, there are more opportunities to avoid the potential land mines and hit the ground running with an effective measurement system. Some of these lessons are the need for flexibility, openness, efficiency, and inclusiveness. The need for flexibility stems from the fact that it takes time to develop the tools and measures that will ultimately benefit Morgan the most. All of the correct measures will not be in place the first year, therefore Morgan should be willing to change or drop those measures that are not working or are not aligned with the broader corporate vision. The need for openness is also critically important because it keeps individuals at all levels engaged and focused on the right measures. By having an open communication channel from the CEO to the down, individual employees are empowered to make decisions that improve important measures. It is also important to be efficient in the measures that the company decides are critical to its success. Efficient focus on the key metrics for success is vitally important. Finally, including all departments in the planning and development of the BSC approach helps to achieve employee buy-in and support the measurement system. This is important not only at BSC creation, but also through continual feedback and refinement of the system moving forward. 4. Conclusion Many aspects were explored about the BSC and it can be claimed that there is much to be discovered about it. First to be explored were the main concepts and ideas about the BSC. This helped to get a general idea of what the BSC is all about. After understanding this, the reasons that industries need the BSC were discussed. The industry focused on was the healthcare industry and the many reasons why this approach could be used. More specifically we chose to go into more detail and chose a company in the healthcare industry that actually uses the BSC in their operations. The findings of the study imply that the implementation cost of the BSC is high. Therefore, it is important to make cost-benefit analysis rigorously. So it can be concluded on this note that though the BSC would be the right choice for many, including firms in the healthcare industry, it may not be the right choice for all. With the BSC being fairly young, it is the common perception that this approach will continue to be explored and efficiency will be improved on it in the future. It is very well likely that more and more companies, including the healthcare industry, will use the BSC in the future. References Albright, Tom & Davis, Stan (2004). An investigation of the effect of balanced scorecard implementation on financial performance. Management Accounting Research, 135-153. Coskun, Ali (2006). Stratejik performans yonetimi ve performans karnesi. Istanbul: Literatur. Davis, Fred R. (2005). Strategic management: Concepts and cases. NJ: Prentice Hall. Hoque, Z. & James, W. (2000). Linking balanced scorecard measures to size and market factors: Impact on organizational performance. Journal of Management Accounting Research, 12, 1-17. Inamdar, N. & Kaplan, R. (2002). Applying the balanced scorecard in healthcare provider organizations. Journal of Healthcare Management, 47(3), 179-95. Niven, P.R. (2002). Balanced scorecard step-by-step : maximizing performance and maintaining results. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Kaplan, R. & Norton, D.P. (2000). The strategy-focused organization : how balanced scorecard companies thrive in the new business environment. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Kaplan, R. & Norton, D.P. (1996). The balanced scorecard : translating strategy into action. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Kaplan, R. & Norton, D.P. (1992). The balanced scorecard – Measures that drive performance. Harvard Business Review, January-February, 71-79. 142 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Kocakulah, M.C. & Austill, D.A. (2007). Balanced scorecard application in the healthcare industry: a case study. Journal of Health Care Finance, 34(1), 72–99. MacStravic, S. (1999). A really balanced scorecard. Health Forum Journal, 42(3), 64-67. Voelker, K. E., Rakich, J. S., and French, G. R. (2001).The balanced scorecard in healthcare organizations: A performance measurement and strategic planning methodology. Hospital Topics, 79(3), 13-24. 143 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 147 Title A name given to the resource The Balanced Scorecard in the Healthcare Industry: A Case Study Author Author ŞENYİĞİT, Yigit Bora Abstract A summary of the resource. The performance measurement and management is an important process for decision-makers in any type of organization. One of the performance measurement tools available is the balanced scorecard, which provides a comprehensive set of financial and nonfinancial performance measures for the organizations to be strategy focused. This study discusses the balanced scorecard generally from theoretical views, and why it should be used by healthcare organizations. Moreover, the study is enhanced by performing a case study to examine the implementation process of the balanced scorecard by healthcare (orthopedics) company in the United States. This study suggests that though the balanced scorecard would be the right choice for many, including companies in the healthcare industry, it may not be the right choice for all. With the balanced scorecard being fairly young, it is the common perception that this approach will continue to be explored and efficiency will be improved on it in the future. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ef75c98b8d8bb5795ff7176a4469657a.pdf 04e1034a9e33fe135cdd793bcbff1050 PDF Text Text The Place and Importance of Cooperative Learning in the Globalizing World. Ufuk Şimşek Atatürk Üniversitesi Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education Social Sciences Education Ümit Şimşek Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University Faculty of Education Science Education M.Fatih Esen International Burch University, Faculty of Education , English Language and Literature Abstract:The aim of education in the globalising world is to cultivate individuals who believe in the supremacy of the law and democracy and can think freely, who possesses a sense of personal responsibility and who has developed his skills of utilizing the attained knowledge and competences all through his life. In order to equip the students with the implied knowledge and skills, educators are using various methods. Among these methods, the latest and the most perennial one is the cooperative learning method. In this article, ample information will be given on the method itself and its critical characteristics, and its role on ensuring social competence and democratic attitude will be discussed. Key Words: cooperative learning, globalization,social competence, democratic attitude Introduction Like many others, the term globalization doesn’t have a clear cut definition . Having said that, it is also a fact that the term globalization represents something. This term, which has become well known after M. McLuhan’s work called Understanding the media, can be understood from economical, social, psychological, political even philosophical and further different points of view. Ulrich Beck, in the analysis of the term Globalization, distinguished three different terms which are globalisation, globalism and globality. According to this, globalisation is a multidimensional and international process. This process includes the formations in areas of ecology, culture, economy, politics and civil society side to side, but in an irreducable way to eachother and it indicates that no longer the nation-states but international actors are in the foreground. Whereas the term globality describes that the countries are connected to eachother through a network of multidimensional relationship within the framework of “world community”concept. And what is implied by “Globalism” is that it is an imposition to provide the content of the phenomenon of globalisation to be perceived within the framework of the world market economy (Sarıbay,2004:38). Therefore, when globalization is discussed, not only a process led by international actors and the role of nation-states are undermined but also a political-ideological trend and a social formation, mentioned as “ world community”,which networks of mutual commitment of societies bring into existence, are described(Sarıbay,2004:38). Thus, it is obvious that globalisation can not be evaluated as impartially evolving and as a fact always yielding positive outcomes. Many globalisationists and neoliberal theoreticians claim that globalisation is a positive progress since it provides capital, business oppotunities, political freedom and freedom of choice to the consumer. To the opposing opinion, on the other hand, it is a negative process breeding inequality and indigence(Sasaki,2004:72). Schaeffer argues that globalisation does not create a one-dimensional process or a more homgeneous world an thus different results drawn may be positive for some and negative for the others(Schaeffer,2003:11akt Sasaki,2004:72). The vast majority is in agreement with the inevitability of globalisation eventhough it is disputable whether it creates a homogeneity or not. One of these inevitable areas is education. 107 �What is understood from globalisation of education is the education method, process and integration with the countries which are advanced in their government systems. However, this integration process in education is not competent to overcome the problems brought by globalisation. Education is a means to deal with not only the matters of adaptation or integration to globalisation but also the problems resulting from globalisation itself. Education will raise the type of individual who will overcome the globalisation issues. Societies and individuals are required to have the ability to take preventive measures against the possible consequences brought forth by globalisation and to benefit from the changes it brings (http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/159/akcay.htm, 2006). The type of person that globalisation requires has changed. Not the person who stores information but who uses it has come forward now. Getting hold of information has become easier and cheaper in the globalising world, therefore, interpreting it has gained actual importance rather than just having it.(http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/159/akcay.htm, 2006). It is essential for the teacher of this globalisation process to be qualified to educate the individual of this quality and to be well equipped with the parallel characteristics. It is important for the teachers to make learning available to students with various cultural backgrounds and weak social abilities, to help them to resolve existing conflicts through peaceful means, to respect eachother’s personalities and cultural backgrounds and to become citizens bearing social responsibility. It is possible to say that classical approaches on education are gradually losing their influence. There is a necessity of model implementations which will ensure the training of individuals who are sensitive about the lives of students which come from different social and cultural backgrounds, who believe in the continuity of learning, meaning that it is life long , who have tendency towards cooperation and groupwork ,and who view learning as a deep personal activity(Yurdabakan,2002:62). Knowing how to learn, learning how to learn, learning individually, learning as a team and as an organization are considered as the dominant elements of education. UNESCO Education Commission has added another element which is “ learning together”. Four principles are discussed in educational globalisation. These are;knowing to learn, learning to learn, individual learning,and learning how to live together(Doğan,2002:91;Unesco,1996’dan naklen). Groupwork is a method which improves individual’s ability to discuss, to agree, to convince and to communicate with the group and in relation to these it also supports and encourages individual’s managemnet skills. 1. Cooperative Learning In order an effective teaching process to take place, today’s concept of education brings against the educators the responsibility of determining the teaching method that will maximize learning and of implementing it. In addition to this, it is also known that most teachers, within the framework of textbooks in primary education institutions, are using the traditional teaching method which is based on the participation of the students as passive listeners. Some teachers, on the other hand, are using the printing method with which they suppose that they are activating the students(Şimşek, Doymuş, Kızıloğlu 2005). However, the students tend to adopt the “ cooperative learning method” which provides the teaching-learning environments to be more effective, efficient and fast, in which the students can express personal opinions freely,discuss matters and listen to eachother with mutual respect(Doolittle 1997). 1.1. Definition of the Cooperative Learning Method: The cooperative learning method has been defined in various ways by different scholars of education. Cooperative learning method is student-centered rather than teacher-centered and defined as a method where the stundent undertakes the active role (Cooper and Mueck 1990), ..... as a class learning method used to increase motivation and participation, to help students to develop a positive image related with themselves and their friends, to improve the power of problem solving and critical thinking and to encourage them in cooperation and social skills(Gömleksiz 1993)...as a class learning environment where students work in mixed small groups(Watson 1992)... as a learning approach according to which students, in a class environment, form mixed small groups having a shared purpose,to help eachother learn on an academic subject and group success is awarded in different ways (Delen 1998)... as a method considered as the realization process of learning in which students work in small groups helping eachother learn(Açıkgöz 2003)....as a learning method basing on cooperative work of students in mixed small groups helping eachother learn (Johnson and Johnson 1992). 108 �Cooperative learning as a concept includes teaching methods where students work in small groups,usually groups of 4-6, and the efficiency is awarded in different ways(Slavin 1988). Taking into consideration the definitions above, cooperative learning can be defined as a learning approach according to which the satudents both in class and in other environments form mixed small groups, help eachother learn on an academic subject through a common purpose, and by which self-confidence of individuals improves, their communicative skills develop, the competence of problem solving and critical thinking accelerates and the student takes part in learning-teaching process in the most active way. (Doymuş, Şimşek, Bayrakçeken 2004) 1.2Critical Features of Cooperative Learning Methods Here are the principles that distinguish the cooperative learning from the rest and its essential components: a. positive commitment b.face to face interaction c.individual responsibility d.social skills e.the evaluation of the group process These principles of the cooperative learning method are considered to be the five basic elements which enable the understanding of cooperative learning and the formation of cooperation among the members (Sharan 1990; Johnson et al. 1998; Sharan 1999; Schultz 1999; Barken 2001) These five elements should be taken into consideration and rearranged while implementing the cooperative learning method. 1.3. Benefits of Cooperative Learning Method Benefits of cooperative learning method are categorized as academic benefits and social benefits. 1.3.1. Academic Benefits In the process of application of cooperative learning method, as a result of numerous activities which are held either in the classroom or out of the classroom, various academic developments and changes take place. Researches carried out on cooperative learning method have put forward that; it cultivates student’s thinking skills (Webb 1980; Smith et al. 1981; Slavin 1992), it encourages critical thinking and helps the students to express their opinions throughout the discussion sessions(Peterson and Swing 1985; Nelson-Legall 1992), it increases student’s abilities and practical skills both in and out of the classroom and it improves theirs skills of processing information(Johnson et al. 1986; Webb et al. 1986; Male 1990; Brufee 1993; Tannenberg 1995), it improves students’oral communication skills(Yager et al. 1985-b; Bershon 1992), discussions being held throughout learning activities help students remember the content of the context(Johnson and Johnson 1979; Ames and Murray 1982; Dansereau 1985), it increases the responsibility of learning and creates an efficient and exploratory environment (Slavin 1980; Baird and White 1984; Leikin and Zaslavsky 1997) it provides the teacher candidates with the training of effective teaching strategies (Johnson and Johnson 1990; Artut and Tarim 2007) it prevents the teachers from being seen as the only source of information(Felder 1997), it encourages the learning-based rather than race-based approach and it also improves the rate of attendace and the rate of researches carried out by the students (Janke 1980; Cooper 1984; Davis et al. 1990) 1.3.2 Social Benefits The cooperative learning method provides a basis for the formation of social experiences of the individual and the increase of their courage for these experineces. Teacher, in order to form and improve social skills, plays an active role in students’ interaction with eachother and in fecilitation of the process. Administrators, school personnel and families form the complementary components of the cooperative learning process. Through this formation, students who have economic and emotional problems and problems concerning the family are provided support(Kessler et al. 1985; Carpenter 2003). Cooperative learning, by means of social support systems and social interaction methods(Cooper 1984; Johnson et al. 1998; Doymuş vd 2004, 2005; Şimşek 2005)builds and environment that assures positive attitudes towards the solution of problems and resolution of controversies(Messick and Mackie 1989; Sherman 1991).This method,in the context of 109 �interpersonal relations, improves students’ responsibilities towards eachother and helps to clear away misinterpretations(Bonoma et al. 1974; Webb 1980; Jonhnson and Johnson 1985; Stahle 1986; Johnson et al. 1998) strengthens empathising and enables viewing events from different perspectives(Swing and Peterson 1982; Slavin et al. 1984; Deutsch 1985; Yager et al. 1985-a; Hooper and Hannafin 1988; Felder 1997) while maintaining personal responsibility,it helps forming a team by actualising certain approaches to solve problems. In this process, students put into practice work and community models regarding the roles in their groups(Slavin 1983; Sandberg 1995; Johnson et al. 1998). Implementations of cooperative learning enhances the leadership skills for both male and female students (Bean 1996) This method makes it possible for the students both individually and in classroom environments to develop better communication skills and establish academic relations. (Tinto, 1997). Cooperative learning method, in connection with its above mentions features, helps to attain a democratic attitude(Şimşek vd 2006;) References Açıkgöz, K.Ü., 2003. Aktif öğrenme, Eğitim Dünyası Yayınları, Kanyılmaz Matbaası, 172 s,İzmir. Ames, G.J. and Murray, F.B., 1982. When two wrongs make a right: promoting cognitive change by social conflict. Developmental Psychology, 18(6), 894-897 Artut, P.D. and Tarim, K., 2007. The Effectiveness of Jigsaw II on prospective elementary school teachers. AsiaPacific Journal of Teacher Education, 35(2), 129-141 Aydın Mehmet S., “Küreselleşmeye Genel Bir Bakış”, Siyasi, Ekonomik ve Kültürel Boyutlarıyla Küreselleşme, Ufuk Kitapları, İstanbul, 2002, s.11. Baird, J. and White, R., 1984. Improving learning through enhanced metacognition: a classroom study. Paper Presented at The Annual Meeting of The American Educational Research Association, New Orleans. Barken, J.E., 2001.The Use Cooperative Learning Techniques in a Community College Course. Master Thesis. Saint Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia. Bean, J., 1996. Engaging ideas, The Professor's Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Bershon, B.L., 1992. Cooperative Problem Solving: a Link to Inner Speech, in Hertz-Lazarowitz (eds.) Interaction in Cooperative Learning. 36-48, Ny: Cambridge Press. Bonoma, J., Tedeschi, J. and Helm,B., 1974. Some effects of target cooperation and reciprocated promises on conflict resolution. Sociometry, 37(2), 251-261. Brufee, K., 1993. Collaborative Learning: Higher Education, Interdependence and the Authority of Knowledge. Baltimore. Md: Johns Hopkins University Press. U.S.A. Carpenter, S.R., 2003. Incorporation of a cooperative learning technique in organic chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education, 80(3), 330-332. Cooper, J. and Mueck, R., 1990. Student involvement in learning: Cooperative learning and college instruction. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 1(1), 68-76. Cooper, J., Prescott, S., Cook, L., Smith, L., Mueck, R. and Cuseo, J., 1984. Cooperative Learning and College Instruction- Effective Use of Student Learning Teams. California State University Foundation Publication, 41-65. Dansereau, D.F., 1985. Learning Strategy Research, in Chipman and Glaser (Eds). Thinking and Learning Skills: Relating Instruction to Basic Research. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Davis, R. B., Maher, C.A. and Noddings, N. (Eds)., 1990. Constructivist Views on the Teaching and Learning of Mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education by National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Delen, H., 1998. Temel eğitim beşinci sınıf sosyal bilgiler dersinde kubaşık öğrenme yönteminin akademik başarıya etkisi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi ,Adana Doğan Elife, “Eğitimde Küreselleşme”, Eğitim Araştırmaları, Sayı:6, Ocak 2002 Doolittle P., 1997. “Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development as a Theoretical Foundation for Cooperative Learning”, Journal on Excellence in College Teaching; 8(1), 83-103. Doymuş, K., Şimşek, Ü., ve Bayrakçeken, S., 2004. İşbirlikçi öğrenme yönteminin fen bilgisi dersinde akademik başarı ve tutuma etkisi, Türk Fen Eğitimi Dergisi, 1(2), 103-115. Felder, R.M., 1997. e-mail Communication from Felder@eos.ncsu.edu www page http://www.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/users/felder/public/rmf.html Gömleksiz, M., 1993. Kubaşık öğrenme yöntemi ile geleneksel yöntemin demokratik tutumlar ve erişiye etkisi, Doktora Tezi, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Adana. Hooper, S. and Hannafin, M.J., 1988. Cooperative CBI: The effects of heterogeneous homogeneous grouping on the learning of progressively complex concepts. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 4(5) ,413424. 110 �http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/159/akcay.htm, 2006 Janke, R., 1980. Computational errors of mentally-retarded students. Psychology in the Schools, 17(1), 30-32. Johnson, D.W., and Johnson, R.T., 1992. Approaches to implementing cooperative learning in the social studies classroom, cooperative learning in the social studies classroom: An Invitation Social study ,R.J., Stahl and R.L., Vansicle Editor : Washington National Council for the social studies. Bulletin No: 87, 44-51. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. and Holubec, E., 1998. Cooperation in the Classroom. Interaction Book Company.100, Edina, Minnesota, USA. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T. and Stanne, M., 1986. Comparison of computer assisted cooperative, competitive and individualistic learning. American Educational Research Journal, 23(3), 382-92. Johnson, R.T. and Johnson, D, W., 1985. Relationships between black and white students in intergroup cooperation and competition. The Journal of Social Psychology, 125(4), 421-428. Johnson, R.T. and Johnson, D,W., 1990. Using Cooperative Learning in Math. Chapter in Cooperative Learning in Math, Ed Neil Davidson Johnson, R.T. and Johnson, D. W., 1979. Conflict in the classroom: Controversy and learning. Review of Educational Research, 49(1), 51-70. Kessler, R., Price, R. and Wortman, C., 1985. Social factors in psychopathology stress, social support and coping processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 351-372. Leikin, R. and Zaslavsky, O., 1997. Facilitating student interactions in mathematics in a cooperative learning setting, 350. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 28(3), 331-359. Masamıchı Sasaki, “Globalization and National Identity in Japan”, International journal of Japanese Sociology, 2004, Number:13, (69–87),p.70 Messick, D.M. and Mackie, D.M., 1989. Intergroup relations. Annual Review of Psychology, 40(1), 45-81. Nelson-Legall, S., 1992. Children's Instrumental Help-Seeking. It's Role in the Social Acquisition and Construction of Knowledge. In Lazarowitz Ed. Interaction In Cooperative Groups: Theoretical Anatomy of Group Learning,120-141, NY,NY: Cambridge University Press Peterson, P. and Swing, S., 1985. Students cognitions as mediators of the effectiveness of small-group learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 299-312 Robert K. Schaeffer, Understanding Globalization: The Social Consequences of Political, Economic And Environmental Change. Lanham, 2003,p.11 Sandberg, K.E., 1995. Affective and Cognitive Features of Collaborative Learning in Review of Research and Developmental Education. Gene Kierstons (Ed.) 6,4, Appalachian State Univ, Boone, NC. Sarıbay Ali Yaşar, Global Toplumda Din ve Türkiye, Everest Yayınları, İstanbul, 2004, s.38 Schultz, S.E., 1999. To Group or Not to Group: Effects of Group Work on Students’ Declarative and Procedural Knowledge in Science. Doctoral Dissertation, the Scholl of Education, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. Sharan, Y., 1990. Cooperative Learning Theory and Research. Praeger Publishers, Westport, 20,USA. Sharan, Y., 1999. Handbook of Cooperative Learning Methods. Praeger Publishers, Westport, 20,USA. Sherman, L.W., 1991.Cooperative learning in post secondary education: implications from social psychology for active learning experiences. Presented At The Annual Meeting of The American Educational Research Association, Chicago, II, April 1991. Slavin, R. E., 1980. Cooperative learning. Review of Education Research, 50(2), 315-342. Slavin, R. E., 1983. When does cooperative learning increase student achievement? Psychological Bulletin, 94, 429-445 Slavin, R. E., Leavey, M.B. and Madden, N.A., 1984. Combining cooperative learning and individualized instructions: Effects of student mathematics achievement, attitudes and behaviors, Elementary School Journal, 84(4), 409-422 . Slavin, R.E., 1988. Small group methods, The International Encyclopedia of Teaching and Teacher Education, Oxford: Pergamon pres. Smith, K., Johnson, D.W. and Johnson, R.T., 1981. Can conflict be constructive: Controversy versus concurrence seeking in learning groups. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 651-663 . Şimşek U., Doymuş K., Şimşek Ü., Özdemir Y., "Lise Düzeyinde Eğitim Gören Öğrencilerin Demokratik Tutumlarına İşbirlikçi Öğrenme Yönteminin Etkisinin İncelenmesi", Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Yıl:2006,Cilt.7, Sayı:1,s.165-173 Şimşek, Ü., 2005. İşbirlikli Öğrenme Yönteminin Fen Bilgisi Dersinin Akademik Başarı ve Tutumuna Etkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi , Erzurum. Şimşek, Ü., Doymuş ,K. ve Kızıloğlu N., 2005. Lise düzeyinde öğrenim gören öğrencilere grupla öğrenme yönteminin kazandırdığı bilgi ve beceriler. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 13(1), 67-80. 111 �Tannenberg, J., 1995. Using cooperative learning in the undergraduate computer science classroom. Proceedings of The Midwest Small College Computing Conference, Available http://Phoenix.Isub.Edu/Josh/Coop/Papers/Mwscc95.Html Tinto, V., 1997. Enhancing learning via community, thought and action. The NEA Higher Education Journal, 6(1), 53-54. Watson, S. B., 1992. The essential elements of cooperative learning, The American Biology Teacher, 54(2), 84-86. Webb, N. M., 1980. An analysis of group interaction and mathematical errors in heterogeneous ability groups. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 50(3), 266-276. Webb, N., Ender, P. and Lewis, S., 1986. Problem solving strategies and group process in small groups learning computer programming. American Education Research Journal, 23(3), 243-262. Yager, S., Johnson, R., Johnson, D.W. and Snider, B., 1985-b. The effect of cooperative and individualistic learning experiences on positive and negative cross-handicap relations contemporary. Educational Psychology, 10(2),127-138 . Yurdabakan İrfan, “Küreselleşme Konusundaki Yaklaşımlar ve Eğitimi”, Eğitim Araştırmaları, Sayı:6, Ocak 2002 112 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 659 Title A name given to the resource The Place and Importance of Cooperative Learning in the Globalizing World. Author Author Şimşek, Ufuk Şimşek, Ümit Esen, M.Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of education in the globalising world is to cultivate individuals who believe in the supremacy of the law and democracy and can think freely, who possesses a sense of personal responsibility and who has developed his skills of utilizing the attained knowledge and competences all through his life. In order to equip the students with the implied knowledge and skills, educators are using various methods. Among these methods, the latest and the most perennial one is the cooperative learning method. In this article, ample information will be given on the method itself and its critical characteristics, and its role on ensuring social competence and democratic attitude will be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/040844b6690044e0c92783ab83bbbe56.pdf 32259e39096d3050477aa67d378f449a PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Financial Development and Economic Growth: Time Series Evidence from Turkey Burcu KIRAN Faculty of Economics, Istanbul University, 34452, Beyazit, Istanbul, Turkey kburcu@istanbul.edu.tr Nilgün Çil YAVUZ Faculty of Economics, Istanbul University, 34452, Beyazit, Istanbul, Turkey yavuznc@istanbul.edu.tr Burak GÜRĐŞ Faculty of Economics, Istanbul University, 34452, Beyazit, Istanbul, Turkey bguris@istanbul.edu.tr Abstract: This paper attempts to explore the relationship between financial development and economic growth for Turkey over the period 1968-2007. For this purpose, we used an endogenous break unit root test as suggested by Zivot and Andrews (1992) and the GregoryHansen (1996) cointegration technique. The empirical results showed that there is a long-run relationship between financial development and economic growth. 1. Introduction The relationship between financial development and economic growth has been debated quite extensively by economists and policymakers since the studies of Bagehot (1873), Schumpeter (1911) and, more recently, Mckinnon (1973) and Shaw (1973). The debate has focused on whether financial development causes economic growth or vice versa or whether a two-way relationship exists. Four different views on the theoretical link between financial development and economic growth exist (see Apergis et al. 2007): (i) supply-leading view (ii) demand-following view (iii) mutual impact of finance and growth (iv) no relationship between finance and growth The supply-leading view supports the belief that financial development has a positive impact on economic growth (Schumpeter 1911, Gurley & Shaw 1955). Patrick (1966) explains this view as follows: “to transfer resources from the traditional, low-growth sectors to the modern, high-growth sectors and stimulate an entrepreneurial response in these modern sectors.” The demand-following view states that finance actually responds to changes that happen in the real sector (see Friedman & Schwartz 1963, Jung 1986, Ireland 1994). Economic growth creates a demand for developed financial institutions and services. The third view supports a bidirectional relationship between financial development and economic growth (see Demetriades & Hussein 1996, Greenwood & Smith 1997). Finally, the last view rejects the existence of a finance-growth relationship (see Lucas 1988). The purpose of this paper is to investigate empirically the existence of a long-run relationship between financial development and economic growth in Turkey by including savings as a third important variable that affects both financial development and economic growth. For this analysis, we took into account structural breaks because Turkey started to liberalize its financial system in 1980, opening a new path in terms of financial liberalization applications and structural adjustment programs. Therefore, on the econometrics front, we applied the Zivot and Andrews (1992) unit root test and the Gregory and Hansen (1996) cointegration test in the presence of potential structural breaks. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section II describes the data and model specification. Section III outlines the methodology used in this paper and reports on the empirical results. Finally, Section IV gives the conclusion. 81 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Data and Model Specification To investigate the relationship between economic growth, savings, and financial development in Turkey, we used the following model specification: Yit = β 0i + β1i Fit + β 2i Sit + uit (1) Yit is GDP per capita, Fit is the measure of financial development, Sit is the share of savings in GDP (a third important variable affecting finance-growth relationship), and uit is the error term. We used the liquid liabilities of the financial system ( LL ) , which is the broadest measure of financial development defined as where currency plus demand and interest-bearing liabilities of bank and non-bank financial intermediaries divided by GDP (M3/GDP) as a measure of financial development. The present study was based on annual data covering the period from 1968 through 2007. All the variables used were in natural logarithms. The data on savings were obtained from Undersecretariat of State Planning Organization and the data on other variables have been taken from the World Bank World Development Indicators database. 3. Methodology and Empirical Results The main objective of this paper is to investigate the long-run relationship between financial development, savings, and economic growth in Turkey. First, we analyzed the time-series properties of the data using Augmented Dickey Fuller ([ADF] 1981) and Philips Perron (1988) procedures. We also implemented the endogenous break unit root test suggested by Zivot and Andrews (1992). Second, the Gregory-Hansen (1996) cointegration technique, allowing for the presence of potential structural breaks in the data, was applied. 3.1. Unit Root Tests with and without Structural Break The ADF test suggested by Dickey and Fuller (1981) is the most widely used unit root test. Perron’s (1989) criticism of the ADF unit root test is related to a concern that the presence of structural change can reduce the power of these tests. Assuming that the time of the breaks is an exogenous phenomenon, Perron (1989) extended the ADF test to allow for a structural break in the time trend, showing that the ADF test is not able to reject a null hypothesis of the presence of a unit root when the true model is trend-stationary and there is structural change. A better test was proposed by Zivot and Andrews (ZA) (1992). This test allows for one structural break and suggests determining the break point “endogenously.” To test for a unit root against the alternative of a trend-stationary process with a structural break, we employed three versions of the ZA unit root test. Model A allows for a structural break in the intercept, model B allows for a structural break in the slope of the trend, and model C combines both structural breaks in the intercept and the slope of the trend. These models are expressed as follows: k Model A: yt = µˆ A + αˆ A yt −1 + βˆ At + θˆ A DU t (λ ) + ∑ dˆ jA ∆yt − j + eˆt (2) j =1 k B B B B B Model B: yt = µˆ + αˆ yt −1 + βˆ t + γˆ DTt (λ ) + ∑ d j ∆yt − j + eˆt (3) j =1 k Model C: yt = µˆ C + αˆ C yt −1 + βˆ C t + θˆC DU t (λ ) + γˆ C DTt (λ ) + ∑ d Cj ∆yt − j + eˆt (4) j =1 where λ operator, is the break fraction calculated as TB T , TB denotes the break date, ∆ is the first difference et is a white noise disturbance term with variance σ 2 , k is the number of augmented lags, and t = 1,....T is an index of time. The incorporated ∆yt − j terms on the right hand side of equations (2), (3) and (4) aim to remove the serial correlation if any. intercept and in the trend, respectively, where 82 DU t and DTt are dummy variables for structural breaks in the �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1 if t > T λ DU t (λ ) =  0 otherwise t − T λ if t > T λ DTt (λ ) =  otherwise. 0 and The break point in the ZA test was selected where the test statistic of the null of a unit root is the most negative for the t-statistic of the coefficient of the autoregressive variable. We first tested for the presence of unit roots in our variables by using ADF and PP unit root tests. The test results are shown in Table 1. Table 1: The results of ADF and PP unit root tests ADF-test Variable Level Y -2.244 (0) PP-test First Difference -6.128 (0) a -2.392 (1) First Difference -6.129 (0) a a -1.831 (3) -7.061 (2) a -2.188 (6) -7.536 (3) a LL -1.729 (0) -7.099 (0) S -2.788 (1) -5.249 (0) a Level The numbers in parentheses indicate the number of lags in the augmented term of the ADF regression and are determined by using AIC information criteria. The number of truncation lags for PP test is chosen based on the Newey-West method. The unit root tests include a constant and time trend. a, represents the significance at 1% level. The results suggest that the time series, including Y , LL and S were not stationary in their levels. They were stationary at the 1% level of significance after first differencing. However, since the conventional unit root tests favor the null of unit root when a structural break exists, this study implemented the ZA (1992) unit root test to determine whether any possible break point in the series changes the stationarity results. The results of the ZA unit root test are reported in Table 2. Table 2: The results of ZA unit root test Variable TB tαˆ γ θ k c -0.044 1981 -4.475 (A) 3 Y (-1.886) b b 0.259 0.038 1997 -4.382 (C) 3 LL (2.470) (2.284) 0.289 a S 1985 -4.236 (A) 1 (4.398) b b -0.066 0.013 1998 -6.936 (C) a 0 ∆Y (-2.046) (2.497) b b -7.693 (C) -0.326 0.087 2002 0 ∆LL a (-2.248) (2.157) b -6.084 (A) 0.118 ∆S 1980 1 a (2.202) a, b c and represent the significance at 1%, 5% and 10% levels respectively. The critical values for (1% , 5% and 10%) levels are (-5.34, -4.80 and -4.58) for Model A, (-5.57, -5.08 and -4.82) for Model C from Zivot and Andrews (1992). The numbers in parentheses are t-statistics and the letters in parentheses indicate the appropriate model based on the results. The results show that all the variables examined in this study were not stationary in their levels. Nevertheless, they were stationary at the 1% level of significance after first differencing. The test identified the break points as 1981 for Y , 1985 for S in years also marked by financial liberalization in Turkey, and 1997 for LL in the year when a great financial crisis occurred. In all, the unit root tests indicated one order of integration for the Y , LL and S variables. 83 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Since the series has one order of integration and contains structural breaks, we also used the Gregory and Hansen (1996) test to accommodate a single unknown structural break in the cointegration analysis. 3.2. Cointegration Analysis with a Structural Break Gregory and Hansen (1996) proposed a cointegration procedure that allows for an endogenously determined break in the cointegrating relationship. They provided three alternative forms of structural break: level shift (model C), level shift with trend (model C/T), and regime shift (model C/S). Their specifications for our application are as follows: Model C: level shift Yt = α 0 + α1 Dt + β1 Ft + λ1St + et (5) Model C/T: level shift with trend Yt = α 0 + α1 Dt + γ t + β1 Ft + λ1St + et (6) Model C/S: regime shift Yt = α 0 + α1 Dt + γ t + β1 Ft + β 2 ( Dt * Ft ) + λ1St + λ2 ( Dt * St ) + et where (7) Dt is a dummy variable equal to 0 if t ≤ θ and 1 if t > θ . The unknown parameter θ denotes the timing of the change, α1 denotes the change in the intercept coefficient at the time of the shift, and t is the time trend. β 2 and λ2 represent the change in slope of the cointegrating equation. Given that the timing of structural break is unknown a priori, Gregory and Hansen (1996) computed the cointegration test statistic, ADF*, for each possible break and took the minimum test statistic across all possible break points. We selected a break date where the test statistic is the minimum�in other words, the absolute ADF test statistic is at its maximum. The null hypothesis of no cointegration with structural breaks is tested against the alternative of cointegration. Table 3 reports the results of the Gregory-Hansen cointegration procedure for a level shift, a level shift with trend, and a regime shift. Table 3: Tests for Gregory Hansen cointegration procedure LL Models Break Date ADF * Model C 1986 -4.942 (0)b Model C/T 1984 -4.432 (3) Model C/S 1986 -4.947 (0)c The numbers in parentheses show the number of lags in the augmented term. ADF * = inf ADFt (τ ) . τ ∈T b and c represent the significance at 5% and 10% levels respectively. Gregory-Hansen (1996) ADF* critical values are as follows: Level shift; a (1%) -5.13, b (5%) -4.61, and c (10%) -4.34, Level shift with trend; a (1%) -5.45, b (5%) -4.99, and c (10%) -4.72, and Regime shift; a (1%) -5.47, b (5%) -4.95, and c (10%) -4.68. The results of the Gregory-Hansen cointegration procedure show that the ADF* statistics for LL was statistically significant in models C and C/S, thereby rejecting the null hypothesis of no cointegration with an endogenous break date of 1986. The Gregory-Hansen cointegration tests point to the existence of a long-run relationship between economic growth, savings, and financial development. Conclusions In this paper, we examine the long-run relationship between financial development and economic growth in Turkey by including savings as a third important variable affecting both financial development and economic growth. On the econometrics front, the endogenous break unit root test suggested by Zivot and Andrews (1992) and the Gregory-Hansen (1996) cointegration technique, which allows for the presence of 84 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo potential structural breaks, are employed. The empirical results show a long-run relationship between financial development, savings, and economic growth. References Apergis, N., Filippidis, I., & Economidou, C. (2007). Financial Deeping and Economic Growth Linkages: A Panel Data Analysis. Review of World Economics, 143, 179-198. Bagehot, W. (1873). Lombard Street, Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin. Demetriades, P.O., & Hussein, K. (1996). Does Financial Development Cause Economic Growth? Time Series Evidence from Sixteen Countries. Journal of Development Economics , 51, 387-411. Dickey, D., & Fuller, W. (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Econometrica, 49, 1057-1072. Friedman, M., & Schwartz, A.J. (1963). A Monetary History of the United States, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Greenwood, J., & Smith, B. (1997). Financial Markets in Development and the Development of Financial Market. Journal of Economic Dynamic and Control, 21, 145-181. Gregory, A., & Hansen, B. (1996). Residual Based Tests for Cointegration in Models with Regime Shifts. Journal of Econometrics , 70, 99-126. Gurley, J.G., & Shaw, E.S. (1955). Financial Aspects of Economic Development. American Economic Review , 45, 515-538. Ireland, P.N. (1994). Money and Growth: An Alternative Approach. American Economic Review , 84, 47-65. Jung, W.S. (1986). Financial Development and Economic Growth: International Evidence. Economic Development and Cultural Change , 34, 333-346. Lucas, R.E. (1988). On the Mechanics of Economic Development. Journal of Monetary Economics , 22, 3-42. McKinnon, R.I. (1973). Money and Capital in Economic Development. Brooking Institution, Washington, D.C. Patrick, H.T. (1966). Financial Development and Economic Growth in Underdeveloped Countries. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 14, 174-189. Perron, P. (1989). The Great Crash, The Oil Price Shock, and The Unit Root Hypothesis. Econometrica, 57, 1361-1401. Philips, P.C.B., & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a Unit Root in Time Series Regressions. Biometrica , 75, 335-346. Schumpeter, J.A. (1911). The Theory of Economic Development. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Shaw, E.S. (1973). Financial Deeping in Economic Development. Oxford University Press, Newyork. Zivot, E., & Andrews, D. (1992). Further Evidence on the Great Crash, the Oil Price Shock and the Unit Root Hypothesis. Journal of Business Economic Statististics, 10, 251-270. 85 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 146 Title A name given to the resource Financial Development and Economic Growth: Time Series Evidence from Turkey Author Author KIRAN, Burcu YAVUZ, Nilgün Çil GÜRİS, Burak Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper attempts to explore the relationship between financial development and economic growth for Turkey over the period 1968-2007. For this purpose, we used an endogenous break unit root test as suggested by Zivot and Andrews (1992) and the Gregory- Hansen (1996) cointegration technique. The empirical results showed that there is a long-run relationship between financial development and economic growth. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4ce28b0fff49ebb7a29c02148a526424.pdf 4add604498f6a7f271a27a642976b7f1 PDF Text Text Assessment of the Teachers of Social Sciences Education at Grade Four and Five by the Pre-Service Teachers as for Teachers’ Use of Teaching Strategies, Methods-Techniques and Equipment Ahmet NALÇACI Muhammet Hanifi ERCOŞKUN Fatih BEKTAŞ Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey ercoskun@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: This study explores to what extent primary school teachers use teaching strategies, methods-techniques and equipment in primary school grade four and five in Social Sciences Education course. To collect data, an in-class observation form was used. It consists of personal information, the teaching strategies, methods-techniques and equipment. The participants of the study are the pre-service teachers at the department of Primary Education at Atatürk University. They have taken the “Social Sciences Education” and “School Experience” courses. The pre-service teachers have filled in the observation forms by observing the primary school teachers in the classroom. The data were analyzed by means of SPSS statistical program and some suggestions were made. Key words: Social Sciences, Teaching Strategies, Teaching Methods and Techniques. Introduction Teachers use different teaching strategies, method-technique and equipment so that students reach the objectives set. Selection and efficient application of the teaching strategies, method-technique and equipment affect success of students directly. There is no common and single teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment in teaching various subjects. The objectives affect content, number of the students, student-teacher qualities and other similar variables, selection of teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment. What important is that teacher is to be capable of choosing and applying the most suitable ones for learning-teaching process (Tok, 2006: 132; İşman ve Eskicumalı, 2006: 74; Erden, 97; Tan, 2005: 76; Doğanay, 2007: 162; Yaşar ve Gültekin, 2009: 78-89; Yel, Taşdemir ve Yıldırım, 2008: 38; Saban, 2002: 247; Demirel ve Yağcı, 2005: 79). Teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment were analyzed in different studies. Gömleksiz (2006: 118-120) put forward that while determining education strategies teachers should choose approaches through which students can develop a positive attitude towards the lesson and use technological equipment applicable for the lesson. Tay (2004: 11) concluded that event, phenomenon, concept and dates in the curriculum of social studies are easier to learn when explanation strategies are used. Kan (2006: 543) stated that learning based on cooperation is important in that students adapt social studies, questioning understanding is gained via problems solving and material usage provides students’ concentration. Doğan (2004) concluded that the most applied and chosen teaching methods are question-answer, explaining, discussion and problem solving. Emir (2005: 243) pointed out that application of different methods, techniques and equipment contributes to learning. Yaşar (2004: 118) stated that if one wants to make use of visual, visual-audial materials at most in subjects of geography in social studies, these materials should be suitable for the objectives of the lesson and student development characteristics. Öztürk and Baysal (2008) found out that except for monotone explaining, book study and excursion-observation activities made rarely, there is a difference between the frequency of teaching activities applied by teachers in the lesson and students’ level of 107 �attitude towards social studies. Yeşil (2005: 963) stated that teachers are unable to choose convenient equipment and methods for the lesson objectives and quality of the subject. Most of the studies on teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment applied in social sciences focus on the opinions of teachers and students. But not so many studies made via observation of teaching strategy, methodtechnique and equipment applied by teachers in social sciences were carried out. In this study, observations of class teacher candidates were asked to specify teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment in teaching social studies lesson by the teachers teaching for the 4th and 5th grade students. Method Study population consists of candidate teachers studying in the department of Classroom Teaching of Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty in Atatürk University in the academic year 2008-2009. In the sampling formed of 210 candidate teachers picked up randomly –namely, with a chance method- and studying in formal and evening education of the 3th and 4th grades observation form was used. Researchers made a likert-type classroom observation form. Pre-application of this form was made in 40 individuals picked up from the study population. For validity, opinions of experts concerned were asked. Cronbach Alfa parameter was counted as 0.89 in credibility analysis. Findings According to findings, class teachers apply school book and work books among teaching strategy, methodtechnique and equipment in social studies. Various findings about teachers according to the opinions of candidate teachers follow as in tables below. Gender Teaching Strategies Teaching Method-Technique Equipment Male Female Male Female Male Female n X sd 95 115 95 115 95 115 8.46 8.69 22.57 22.42 42.76 43.83 1.443 1.471 4.010 4.251 7.027 6.844 t p -1.107 0.270 0.263 0.793 -1.112 0.267 Table 1: According to the opinions of teacher candidates, arithmetic average, standard deviation and t-score of teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment applied by 4th and 5th grade teachers in terms of their gender. In table 1, there is not a remarkable difference – just at an importance level of 0.05- about opinions of the teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment applied by class teachers in social studies according to their gender. It can be concluded from this finding that class teachers do not think differently in terms of teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment they used. Class Level Teaching Strategies Teaching Method-Technique Equipment 108 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 4 Grade 5 n X sd 124 86 124 86 124 86 8.29 9.01 21.64 23.71 43.15 43.63 1.436 1.393 3.968 4.084 6.927 6.969 t p -3.624 0.000 -3.677 0.000 -0.495 0.621 �Table 2: According to the opinions of teacher candidates, arithmetic average, standard deviation and t-score of teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment applied by 4th and 5th grade teachers in terms of the class level. When the table was analyzed, it was found out that a remarkable difference –at for the benefit of 5th grade teachers between their average of teaching strategy and method-technique and class levels. But teachers’ opinions about the same equipment issue do not vary much -at an importance level of 0.05. According to this finding, it can be said that teachers do not think differently in terms of the equipment they applied. Variance Analysis Sum of Squares df Mean Square F p Between Groups 57.833 2 28.917 Teaching 15.462 0.000 Within Groups 387.124 207 Strategies 1.870 Total 444.957 209 Between Groups 642.879 2 321.439 Teaching Method22.712 0.000 Within Groups 2929.578 207 14.153 Technique Total 3572.457 209 Between Groups 1506.632 2 753.311 Equipment 18.271 0.000 Within Groups 8534.692 207 41.230 Total 10014.314 209 Table 3: According to the opinions of candidate teachers, variance analysis about teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment applied in teaching social studies in terms of proficiency of teachers. When the table is analyzed, there is a remarkable difference of an importance level of 0.05 between opinions of candidate teachers in teaching strategy applied in teaching social studies in terms of proficiency of teachers. Tukey test was made to find out between which groups this difference was. The ratio of individuals saying ‘yes’ was higher than that of individuals saying ‘partly’ or ‘no’. The ratio of individuals saying ‘no’ is was lower than that of individuals saying ‘partly’ or ‘yes’. Increase of proficiency of teachers in teaching social studies can be interpreted in a way that it affects their attitudes towards teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment positively. Conclusions 1. According to findings class teachers apply school book and work books among teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment in social studies. Social Studies program was prepared in accordance with the constructive approach and it requires that students should be active during learning process. But from these findings, it can be concluded that teacher-based education is more common in schools. 2. There is not a remarkable difference – just at an importance level of 0.05- about opinions the teaching strategy, method-technique and equipment applied by class teachers in social studies according to their gender. 3. It was found out that a remarkable difference –at for the benefit of 5th grade teachers between their average of teaching strategy and method-technique and class levels. But teachers’ opinions about the same equipment issue do not vary much -at an importance level of 0.05. 4. There is a remarkable difference of an importance level of 0.05 between opinions of candidate teachers in teaching strategy applied in teaching social studies in terms of proficiency of teachers. Suggestions 1. Some qualitative studies can be carried out to find out the reasons why teachers use teaching strategy, explaining and question-answer method and school book and work books among equipments in the most presenting way. 2. Some studies can be carried out to find out the reasons why there is a remarkable difference about the teaching strategy and method-techniques used by teachers for the benefit of 5th grade teachers 3. In-service training can be organized for class teachers on teaching social studies. 109 �References Demirel, Ö. Seferoğlu, S. S. & Yağcı, E. (2005). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal Geliştirme, Ankara: Pegem A Yayınları, 5.Baskı. Doğan, C. (2004). Sınıf Öğretmenlerinin Derslere İlişkin http://www.tebd.gazi.edu.tr/arsiv/2004_cilt2/sayi_2/193-203.pdf Görüşleri ve Tercih Ettikleri Öğretim Yöntemleri, Doğanay, A. (2007). Öğretim İlke ve Yöntemleri, Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık, 1.Baskı. Emir, S. (2005). Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretiminde Görsel Materyallerin Erişeye, Tutuma ve Yaratıcı Düşünmeye Etkisi, XIV: Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Cilt: 2 (238-244). Erden, M. [t.y]. Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi, İstanbul: Alkım Yayınevi. Gömleksiz, M. N. (2006). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersine İlişkin Öğrenci Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı:2, Cilt:6 (106-122). İşman, A. & Eskicumalı, A. (2006). Eğitimde Planlama ve Değerlendirme, Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık, 5.Baskı. Kan, Ç. (2006). Etkili Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Arayışı. Gazi Üniversitesi, Kastamonu Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı:2, Cilt:14 (537-544). Öztürk, C. & Baysal, N. (2008). İlköğretim 4-5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Sosyal Bilgiler Dersine Yönelik Tutumu, http://egitimdergi.pamukkale.edu.tr/makale/say%C4%B16/2 %C4%B0LK%C3%96%C4%9ERET%C4%B0M%204.pdf Saban, A. (2002). Öğrenme Öğretme Süreci Yeni Teori ve Yaklaşımlar, Ankara: Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, 2.Baskı. Tan, Ş. (2005). Öğretimde Planlama ve Değerlendirme, Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık, 9.Baskı. Tay, B. (2004). Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde Anlamlandırma Stratejilerinin Yeri ve Önemi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı:2, Cilt:5 (1-12). Tok, T. (2006). Etkili Öğretim İçin Yöntem ve Teknikler (Editör: Ahmet DOĞANAY ve Emin KARİP) Öğretimde Planlama ve Değerlendirme, Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık, 1.Baskı. Yaşar, O. (2004). İlköğretim Sosyal Bilgiler Derslerinde Görsel Materyal Kullanımı İle Coğrafya Konularının Eğitim ve Öğretimi, Milli Eğitim Dergisi, Sayı: 163, Ankara (104-120). Yaşar, Ş., & Gültekin, M. (2009). Anlamlı Öğrenme İçin Etkili Öğretim Stratejileri. (ed. C. Öztürk) Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi Demokratik Vatandaşlık Eğitimi (1.Baskı). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık. Yel, S., Taşdemir, A. & Yıldırım, K. (2008). Sosyal Bilgilerde Öğretim Strateji, Yöntem ve Teknikleri. (ed. B. Tay ve A. Öcal) Özel Öğretim Yöntemleriyle Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi (1.Baskı). Ankara: Pegem A Akademi. Yeşil, R. (2005). Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretmenlerinin Öğrenme-Öğretme İlkelerinden Yararlanma Yeterlikleri, XIV: Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi, Cilt: 2 (958-966). 110 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 349 Title A name given to the resource Assessment of the Teachers of Social Sciences Education at Grade Four and Five by the Pre-Service Teachers as for Teachers’ Use of Teaching Strategies, Methods-Techniques and Equipment Author Author NALÇACI, Ahmet ERCOŞKUN, Muhammet Hanifi BEKTAŞ, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. This study explores to what extent primary school teachers use teaching strategies, methods-techniques and equipment in primary school grade four and five in Social Sciences Education course. To collect data, an in-class observation form was used. It consists of personal information, the teaching strategies, methods-techniques and equipment. The participants of the study are the pre-service teachers at the department of Primary Education at Atatürk University. They have taken the “Social Sciences Education” and “School Experience” courses. The pre-service teachers have filled in the observation forms by observing the primary school teachers in the classroom. The data were analyzed by means of SPSS statistical program and some suggestions were made. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/84432e46baa15f7477548acb0ff56f8e.pdf 42c9fd93f5727dceb19f1e715d10081e PDF Text Text     Journal of Economic and Social Studies The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria Monika Moraliyska University of National and World Economy Bulgaria mmoraliyska@unwe.bg Abstract:   The EU cohesion policy has been a major driver of change in the Member States, leading to positive effects as growth in employment, economic development and modern infrastructure. Since its EU accession in 2007, Bulgaria has been benefiting from the Union’s investment and structural funds at an increasing speed. Research shows that not only these funds contribute significantly to the Bulgarian economy, but they seem to be its major driver. Without them, the country would have recorded a zero growth in the EU’s financial framework 2007-2013, and could be dumped in an economic and social crisis. This paper explores the informational sources that assess the influence of the EU cohesion policy and its effects on Bulgaria. The goal of the paper is to make objective conclusions about the impact of the EU cohesion policy on the Bulgarian economy and how it has affected the level of economic and social cohesion between the country’s regions and the most advanced EU regions. For that purpose, the method of comparative analysis is applied, as well as a historical analysis..   Volume 7 | Issue 1 | Keywords:  EU Cohesion policy, Bulgaria, regional economic development JEL Classification: 05, F36, H77 Article History Submitted: 16 February, 2017 Resubmitted: 15 June 2017 Accepted: 11 September 2017 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECO SS17713 5 �Monika Moraliyska   Introduction Overview of the EU’s Cohesion Policy The cohesion policy of the European Union aims to support the job creation, business competitiveness, economic growth, sustainable development, and overall quality of life in the European regions and cities. It is implemented through three main funds: the European Regional Development Fund, the Cohesion Fund and the European Social Fund. Together with the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development and the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund, they make up the European Structural and investment funds. These funds invest in different areas with the common objective to reduce the economic and social disparities among the EU Member States. The cohesion policy complements the other EU policies dealing with education, employment, energy, research and innovation, the environment, the single market and the like. The budget of the Cohesion Policy for 2014-2020 is 351.8 billion euros - one third of the EU’s total budget, which puts it on the second place after the Union’s Common Agricultural Policy. The EU’s regions (on NUTS2 leveli) are classified as “less developed” (in which the GDP per capita is less than 75 percent of the EU average), “in transition” (in which the GDP per capita is 75-90 percent of the EU average) and “more developed” (in which the GDP per capita exceeds 90 percent of the EU average). The European Union can provide 50-85 percent of the total financing of a project, with the poorest regions getting the highest co-financing rates. The potential beneficiaries of the funds include public institutions, companies, universities and nongovernmental organizations. For 2014-2020 the largest portion of the funds - 182 billion euros - will be used for the “less developed” regions, which represent 27% of the population in the EU. These include the bigger part of Poland, the Baltic States, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Croatia, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Portugal, as well as southern Italy and northern Greece. For many of these countries, the cohesion instruments are a key part of their economies (especially Poland, Romania, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary). The EU’s cohesion policy is very important because it is the investment framework needed to meet the goals of the Europe 2020. 6 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     Strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth in the Union. It is the EU's major investment tool for creating growth and jobs, tackling climate change and energy dependence, and for reducing poverty and social exclusion. This policy underpins the European solidarity, because the bigger part of its funding is concentrated on less developed countries and regions to help them catch up and its goal is to reduce the economic, social and territorial disparities in the Union. In addition to that, the EU’s cohesion policy cushioned Member States from the worst effects of the economic and financial crisis. It also was of critical importance at a time of sustained fiscal consolidation and according to estimates, without it the much-needed public investment in the less developed Member States would have collapsed by an additional 45% during the crisis (European Commission, 2014a). The EU’s cohesion policy is also considered as a catalyst for further public and private funding, because it obliges Member States to co-finance the projects with funds from their national budgets, and also provokes investors’ confidence. The EU’s cohesion policy is also criticized. The main argument for its existence is that the funding it provides would eventually raise the different regions in the EU to the same level of economic development. But it seems like after decades of integration and billions of euros' worth of EU investment, a very modest level of economic cohesion in Europe is achieved. The reasons for the limited positive impact of the EU’s cohesion funds on the economic and social coherence of the Union are different. A major problem in numerous of the Member States is the high level of corruption, which prevent cohesion funds from being exploited exactly where they would be most useful. Besides that, Member States in many countries, particularly those in Southern and Eastern Europe, still experience difficulties in absorbing these funds. In some cases, the national and local authorities lack the know-how and institutional framework to successfully apply for these funds, while in others the countries lack the capacity to co-finance the projects supported by the European Union. Some experts think that the EU’s cohesion policy is too complex and lacks clear goals, and that the monitoring of the absorption of these funds has been controversial, because a full control of the use of the money is impossible (Stratfor, 2015). There are often cases of corruption, where state officials in Member States are bribed to award EU-financed contracts. In other cases, firms report inflated costs. There are also cases when infrastructure projects are undertaken just because money is available, and they are consequently abandoned for lack of use. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 7 �Monika Moraliyska   The future development of the EU’s cohesion is unknown, as due to the expected Brexit, the estimated budget of the Union is going to be decreased significantly, and the discussions between the Member States are likely to lead to a decision towards cutting particularly the cohesion policy’s budget. Taking other conditions as equal, the biggest challenge would be to ensure that its resources are used in the most efficient way, helping the Member States to emerge from the continuing crisis and the least developed countries to catch up faster with the others. With a budget of over €450 billion (including national co-financing) for 2014 - 2020, the European cohesion policy is expected to continue to be the main investment tool of the Union and to make the largest contribution for supporting the SMEs, R&D and innovation, education, low carbon economy, the environment, the fight against unemployment and social exclusion, the infrastructure and Europe 2020 Strategy’s objectives for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. Several sources provide information on the European cohesion policy’s effects and the extent to which it is successful in achieving these objectives. Firstly, there is quantitative information on the direct outcomes of the projects and measures monitored by the Managing Authorities responsible for the programs. These indicators are in the form either of the output produced (f.e. number of new businesses supported to start up) or the results which they brought to (f.e. the time/travel costs saved as a result of a new road opened). Secondly, there are evaluations of particular programs, which assess the effectiveness of the funding provided in achieving both the immediate objective of the measure and the wider aim of strengthening the development potential of the places concerned. Thirdly, there is an empirical evidence from the macroeconomic models that simulate how the economies function to estimate the effect of the Cohesion Policy, mainly in terms of main economic indicators, f.e. GDP, employment and trade. This they do by simulating the way the economy would have developed in the absence of the Cohesion Policy. There is also research (mainly econometric models) of independent organizations. Key Effects of the EU Cohesion Policy in the Period 2007 - 2013 The European Commission has analyzed the effects of the EU cohesion policy for the programming period 2007 - 2013 and concluded that it has substantially contributed to the investments in growth and employment in the Member States, especially when they cut spending in order to balance their budgets in times of crisis. The Commission’s estimates show that without the EU Cohesion policy the investments in the most-affected by the economic crisis Member States would have 8 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     fallen by additional 50%, particularly in the Member States, which count significantly on the EU financing. In some of them the cohesion funding represents more than 60% of their public investment budget – Slovakia (over 90%), Hungary (less than 90%), Bulgaria (over 80%), followed by Lithuania, Estonia, Malta, Latvia, Poland and Portugal (European Commission, 2014b). Therefore in 2013, the Commission acted on the crisis by redirecting some of the cohesion funds - more than EUR 45 billion, to support measures against unemployment and social exclusion and in favor of research, business support, sustainable energy, social and education infrastructure. The empiric evidence suggests that the Cohesion policy funds have had a significant positive impact on the economic and social development of the EU Member States and brought to numerous positive effects in the programming period 2007-2013. In the first place, the cohesion policy of the EU has led to the creation of jobs and economic growth. The income has increased in the poorest EU regions with GDP per capita growing in these areas from 60.5 % in 2007 to 62.7 % of the EU average in 2010 (European Commission, 2016a). As a direct result of the cohesion policy, 769,900 new jobs were created in 20072013 (Figure 1), and 2.4 million participants in ESF actions supporting access to employment found a job within 6 months in 2007-2010 (European Commission, 2014b). In addition to that 225,560 small and medium-sized enterprises received direct investment aid and more than 274,000 jobs were created in SMEs. 97,640 start-ups were supported (Figure 2). Figure 1: Number of EU Aggregate Jobs Created by the Cohesion policy   Volume 7 | Issue 1 | Figure 2: Number of Start-Ups Supported by the Cohesion policy   9 �Monika Moraliyska   Positive effects were also created by the 72,920 research projects that were supported, and the 35,125 new long-term research jobs that were created. 27,800 co-operation projects were financed, and 5 million more EU citizens were covered by broadband connectivity. Concerning the environment, 11,050 projects connected with the cities’ sustainability were financed. Water supply systems were modernised, benefiting 4.2 million citizens (Figure 3). In terms of transport infrastructure, 3,752 km new roads were built (Figure 4) and 20,104 km were reconstructed. Also 335 km of railways were built and 3,128 km were reconstructed. In addition to that, more than 5.5 million citizens were served by waste water projects. Figure 3: Number of People Served by Water Projects Financed by the Cohesion Policy Source: European Commission, Regional Policy, https://cohesiondata.ec.europa.eu/en/dataset/CoreIndicators-2007-2013-EU-Water-projects-Chart/vziv5wz2 Figure 4: Km of New Roads Built by the Cohesion Policy Source: European Commission, Regional Policy, https://cohesiondata.ec.europa.eu/en/dataset/CoreIndicators-2007-2013-EU-new-roads-Chart/kb97-pmsd Monfort, Piculescu, Rillaers, Stryczynski, and Varga (2017), cited by the latest European Commission’s paper assessing the EU cohesion and rural development policies during the period 2007 - 2013 and their impact on the European economyii, provide further evidence that the cohesion and structural funds brought significant gains and contributed to the achievement of a more balanced structure of the Member States’ economies. The effects have resulted in increased GDP, which was on average 4.1% higher in the countries that joined the EU after 2004. The highest impact was found in Hungary (+ 5.3%), Latvia (+ 5.1%) and Poland (+4.3%)iii. Other positive effects in the long-term are associated with a significant positive impact on the factors’ productivity, as a result of the direct investments in technology but also because of the improved business conditions encouraging investment in tangible and intangible assets. 10 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     Economic and Social Cohesion of the Bulgarian Regions Even though the EU’s cohesion policy is contributing to the growth goals of the Europe 2020 Strategy by creating jobs and reducing disparities across Europe, it is far from reaching its goals and the case of Bulgaria is an example that illustrates this policy’s low efficiency. Even though the legislative framework of Bulgaria’s regional policy is harmonized with the Europe’s ten years after the country became an EU member, it hasn’t shown a big progress in reaching even the EU average levels. The comparison covers both – the economic development in terms of GDP and the social development measured by the Social Progress Index (SPI). The comparison of the Bulgaria’s six NUTS 2 regions to the EU28 average in terms of generated GDP as purchasing power per inhabitant shows that the poorest region in Bulgaria (and in the whole EU), Severozapaden region (Northwest region), is under one third of the EU average, and almost 7 times less than the richest one – the region of Hamburg, Germany (Table 1). Table 1: GDP by Selected NUTS 2 Regions in the EU in 2014 Country Severozapaden Yuzhen tsentralen Severen tsentralen Severoiztochen Yugoiztochen Yugozapaden European Union (28 countries) Wien Noord-Holland Praha Île de France Hamburg Code Gross domestic product at current market prices (Purchasing Power Standard per inhabitant, Euro) BG31 BG42 BG32 BG33 BG34 BG41 EU28 8,200 8,700 9,300 10,800 10,800 20,600 27,500 Gross domestic product at current market prices (Purchasing Power Standards per inhabitant in percentage of the EU average) 30 32 34 39 39 75 100 AT13 NL32 CZ01 FR10 DE60 43,500 44,300 47,500 49,000 56,600 158 161 173 178 206 Source: Eurostat, 2016 At the same time, the draft version of the regional Social Progress Indexiv shows significant variations within and between EU Member States in terms of access to Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 11 �Monika Moraliyska   health care, quality and affordability of housing, personal safety, access to higher education, environmental pollution, etc. The SPI is an aggregate index of 50 social and environmental indicators that capture three dimensions of social progress: Basic Human Needs, Foundations of Wellbeing, and Opportunity. The index framework is identical to the one of the global SPI. It includes all 272 European regions and scores absolute performance on a 0-100 scale for each of the indicators included to measure the twelve social and environmental (not economic) indicatorsv. The Southeasteuropean states, among which the Bulgarian ones are, are among the most undeveloped in social terms (Figure 5). Figure 5: Map of the SPIin the EU in 2016 Gross domestic product (GDP) per inhabitant, in purchasing power standard (PPS) Gross domestic product (GDP) per inhabitant, in purchasing power standard (PPS), by NUTS level 2 region, 2013 (% of the EU-28 average, EU-28 = 100) (¹) Source: European Commission, 2016b. The SPI is the lowest in Bulgaria and Romania. The Bulgarian Southeast region has the lowest SPI value (38,7), less than half of the highest value of 81,3 in Övre Norrland, Sweden (Table 2). 12 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     Table 2: Social Progress Index in selected EU regions (NUTS2) in 2016 Region’s Region’s name Basic Foundation Opportunity ID BG34 Yugoiztochen 42.5 45.8 28.8 EU SPI 38.7 BG31 Severozapaden 44.7 47.0 28.0 39.4 RO31 Sud - Muntenia 43.9 43.3 35.8 40.9 RO22 Sud-Est 43.3 45.5 37.2 41.9 RO21 Nord-Est 43.4 42.3 41.8 42.5 BG42 Yuzhen tsentralen 47.9 49.7 32.7 43.1 BG33 Severoiztochen 46.3 46.7 40.4 44.4 BG32 Severen tsentralen 47.3 49.3 38.7 45.0 RO41 Sud-Vest Oltenia 47.9 45.9 42.2 45.3 RO11 Nord-Vest 49.1 47.9 45.6 47.5 RO12 Centru 51.2 50.1 44.0 48.4 ITF3 Campania 62.0 48.1 37.3 48.6 RO42 Vest 51.9 49.4 45.5 48.9 ITG1 Sicilia 62.0 49.6 37.1 49.1 BG41 Yugozapaden 52.7 54.8 41.3 49.4 FI20 Åland …………. 88.6 72.8 79.8 80.3 DK04 Midtjylland 87.6 73.2 80.3 80.3 FI1B Helsinki-Uusimaa 84.6 74.0 82.6 80.4 DK01 Hovedstaden 86.6 71.9 84.6 80.9 SE33 Övre Norrland 89.4 73.9 81.0 81.3 Source: European Commission, 2016b It is also evident that all six Bulgarian regions are among the 15 least developed regions in the EU in terms of social progress. This is an indisputable empirical proof that the EU’s cohesion policy goals are far from achieved. On the other hand, its role as a major factor for regional development should not be exaggerated. The initial low level of economic and social progress and still ongoing transition to modern economy in Bulgaria is another reason why the positive progress of the country towards EU average levels remains almost invisible. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 13 �Monika Moraliyska   Estimated Effects of EU’s Cohesion Policy in Bulgaria There are several different sources providing information about the effects of the European cohesion policy on Bulgaria. Even though the analyses made by different official instuitutions and organizations show overall dominating positive impact of the EU funds on the Bulgarian economy, it cannot be claimed with certainly that the EU’s cohesion policy has achieved its main goal aim in Bulgaria – to support the country in overcoming the enormous economic and social underdevelopment that differentiates the Bulgarian regions from the other European regions. The allocation from the Cohesion Policy funding for Bulgaria in the 2007 - 2013 period was €6.9 billion. According to the European Commission, it has helped the country to: create more than 1,300 jobs; serve over 280,000 more people by waste water projects; enable more than 137,000 persons to acquire or upgrade their vocational qualification and over 178,000 persons to acquire key competencies; implement many transport infrastructure projects (incl. Sofia metro extension, Sofia Airport); improve urban transport for 1,289,744 citizens, mainly in the 6 biggest cities (Sofia, Plovdiv, Varna, Burgas, Pleven, Stara Zagora); improve educational infrastructure for over 30,000 students; enable more than 398,000 m² of renovated parks, pedestrian areas, bicycle lanes, playgrounds; provide scholarships to 172,000 students; provide social services in a family environment for more than 51,000 persons; modernise 20 cultural facilities; invest in energy saving measures in public buildings and schools (European Commission, 2015). A trustworthy model to estimate the effects of EU’s cohesion policy in Bulgaria is the macroeconomic model SIBILA - a SImulation model of the Bulgaria’s Investment in Long-term Advancevi (“long-term" because it evaluates the effects of the investment in human capital, ICT, R&D, infrastructure and physical capital, which are factors for long-term economic growth). It is based on the EU approaches to modeling of the impact of structural instruments, as well as on modern macroeconomic theory and it is adapted to the Bulgarian specifics. It consists of 170 equations, including econometric estimates, macroeconomic identities and calibrated dependencies (based on historical links and applying existing knowledge (ECORYS – CPM – NEW i”, 2011). The main objective of the model is to assess the net effects of the Structural and Cohesion Funds (SCF) on the Bulgarian economy (key macroeconomic indicators), as well as to support the decision-making process concerning the allocation of funds in the next programming period. It examines the economic development in two scenarios: baseline scenario in which there is no SCF, and an alternative scenario that 14 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     considers the SCF funding. The difference between the results of these two scenarios in terms of economic indicators’ performance measures the net impact of SCF. In 2017, the Ministry of Finance of Bulgaria presented a report with detailed calculations of the SIBILA model, encompassing the period of Bulgarian membership in the EU from 1 January 2007 till the end of 2016. It showed that the overall effect of the EU investments on the added value of the Bulgarian economy is highly positive: - A cumulative increase of 11.5% of GDP by the end of 2016 in comparison to the baseline scenario with no EU funds (mainly through the positive effects of government spending on the production, and hence on the induced changes in private consumption and investments); - A cumulative increase in the volume of private investment by 22.3% by the end of 2016 compared to a scenario without EU funds (a large part of the measures under the operational programs are intended for investment; they also lead to additional investments by the business); - Reducing unemployment and boosting employment (as a result of the absorption of the EU funds by the end of 2016 the unemployment rate in the country was 6.5 percentage points lower than it would have been without the inflow of these funds.) At the same time, the number of employees in the economy increased by 15.2% towards the end of 2016 compared to the scenario in the absence of EU funds (almost 390 thousand employed people more); - Higher wage levels in the country - by the end of 2016 the cumulative increase in average wages compared to the scenario without EU funds was expected to reach 14.9%; - Increased export potential of the Bulgarian enterprises (By the end of 2016, Bulgaria's exports would be by 1.7% higher compared to the scenario without EU funds. The growth of the export potential is a long-term effect and is related to the improvement of the quantity and quality of the production factors, which in turn leads to an increase of the economic growth of the country); - A positive impact on the state of public finances (increased tax revenues outweigh the spending related to the absorption of EU funds, such as providing co-financing for some of the projects). By the end of 2016, the cumulative positive effect on the budget balance was 2.1 percentage points of GDP. The positive impact is expected to be sustained in the longer term as the increased production potential, higher employment and higher income imply higher values of the tax base, and hence higher tax revenues). Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 15 �Monika Moraliyska   The positive impact of the EU funds on the the country's economic development has been highlighted by eminent NGOs working in the economic field in Bulgaria. They stress on the fact that in the period between the start of the EU’s membership talks in 1999 and the country's accession to the EU in 2007, the GDP per capita in terms of purchasing power has increased from 27% to 40.8% of the EU average, and in 2016 it reached 48.1%. The EU’s cohesion policy has also helped to minimize the weight of the global crisis and has kept the unemployment rate in Bulgaria low, while labor productivity continued to increase. Positive effects are also identified in terms of improvements in various aspects of the business and civil infrastructure in the country constructed with the support of EU funding. In general, for the 10-year period of membership, the average annual net transfer from the EU to Bulgaria is about 4% of the country's GDP and this influx of funds is assessed to be of great macroeconomic importance given the unfavorable conditions of the global environment (Center for Liberal Stragtegies, 2017). However, the effects from the EU Cohesion policy on the Bulgarian economy and budget are also criticized by economists, arguing that the European funds in the country are widely considered as a gift or free money, which is not the case (Ganev, 2016). The data from recent years show that the European projects swallow an increasing share of the national resource and actually worsen the fiscal position of the country. The costs of the European programs in the country have been increasing steadily - in 2008 they were less than 1 billion BGN, in 2010 - 2 billion BGN, in 2014 they reached 4.5 billion BGN and in 2015 they boomed to 6.3 billion BGN. These costs are not funded only by the EU, as annually the state makes transfers from the national budget to the European programs. This is in practice the participation of the taxpayers in the European funding. In 2011 and 2015 the national transfers to the EU funds increased markedly and reached about 40% of the costs of the European programs. From almost 6.3bn BGN spent on EU programs in 2015, 2.5 billion BGN were paid by the Bulgarian taxpayer. And the share of national financing in the EU aid has been increasing at a high speed. This is a real cost, and when, in some cases, useless projects are implemented, or projects’ costs are inflated only to increase the absorption rate, this inevitably leads to a wastage of national resources (Ganev, 2016). Other deficiencies stemming from the EU funds’ absorption process also led to the lower efficiency of the EU’s cohesion policy in Bulgaria. The absorption of financial resources of the SCF in Bulgaria in the first for the country programming period 2007-2013 was accompanied by numerous problems. The absorption rate of Bulgaria in comparison to the other Member States was low and a major reason for 16 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     that was the lack of administrative capacity and experience in the procedures of the operational programs’ project management. Even though the pre-accession programs included education and training of the employees in national administration, the administrative capacity was not satisfactory. One of the causes for the initial strong ineffiency of the Bulgarian administration, responsible for the EU funds absorption, is associated with its structure that is ineffectively organized into numerous operational programmes, which leads to the management of the same types of programmes in a different way and with varying effectiveness. The result is that many functions are duplicated and there is an increase in the budget costs (Nozharov, 2016). Another important factor was the comparatively small competence of the staff in the Bulgarian body managing the EU funds’ absorption. At least one third of the staff in the public administration responsible for this activity is appointed without a competition, and a big part of them is not highly-qualified, which leads to additional government costs for employees’ re-qualification and support of their work through outsourcing. In addition to that, there are considerable variations in the wages of staff responsible for the management of EU funds and the other staff with the same qualifications and fulfilling the same tasks (the former receiving five times more than the latter), which leads to a lack of motivaton and ineffectiveness of the financial processes at the public administration (Nozharov, 2014). The unpreparedness of the Bulgarian state administration in the EU funds’ absorption process is acknowledged in the latest report of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS), which blames the Bulgarian institutions for the lower-than-expected results achieved by the country’s membership in the EU. The public administration was not ready and was unable to learn for a long time to apply the modern management style of the European Commission. It turned to be inadequately trained professionally, unsufficiently expeditious and unable to defend its independence from other state institutions and corporate interests, a part of which was due to the low remuneration of its employees that made them susceptible to corruption (Economic Research Institute of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 2017). BAS has also criticized the European institutions for their policies and requirements to the Bulgarian authorities that have not always been tailored to the specific characteristics and traditions of the country, as well as to its citizens’ preferences. Namely the Institute has criticized the international institutions and European Commission for the full opening the single European market to Bulgaria, which at that moment has been an unsustainable and low-competitive economy. The result of that is a total decline in a number of economic sectors, including a collapse of production, exports, employment, income, consumption, as well as other Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 17 �Monika Moraliyska   negative trends as emigration, social polarization, decline in budget revenues and others. However, this part of the analysis has not been supported by any econometric model or other mathematical or statistical tool that correlate the above-mentioned negative trends in the Bulgarian economy after 2007 with the country’s EU membership, which makes the report’s conclusions unreliable. After all, even the author of this part confesses that it is difficult to define exactly which of the Bulgarian economy’s weaknesses are a result of the EU membership or represent the deteorating consequences from the country’s unsuccessful transition to market economy after 1989vii. Kaneva (2015) identifies four different groups of problems that hinder the EU funds’ absorption process on the Bulgarian side – problems of the beneficiaries, a human capital problem, organizational problems, and specific for the respective Operational program problems. Her analysis proves that there are unsolved issues for both - the beneficiaries and the state administration. Many of the problems discussed are not reserved to Bulgaria only and could be addressed successfully by researching and applying other Member States’ best practices. Another serious problem was that the absorption process in Bulgaria was implemented in contrary to the main principle of the European cohesion policy, because instead of supporting the country’s underdeveloped regions, it concentrated on the richest Bulgarian region. During 2007-2013, the EU allocated more than 81.56% of the its budget to the less favored regions, while in Bulgaria 40% of the available resources were invested in the most developed one – the Southwest region (incl. the capital Sofia), and only 7.5% in the least developed (Galabinova, 2015). The Bulgarian Operational Programs in the 2014 - 2020 period follow the same logic – the country did not choose to create regional Operational Programs, which could support the underdeveloped regions, but seven national programsviii. There is a risk that the investment funds continue to be concentrated primarily in the Southwest region, which, instead of convergence of the level of development of the six NUTS 2 regions, will lead to even bigger regional disparities. The city of Sofia could be differentiated as a separate planning region, while the remaining of the current Southwest region could merge with the South-Central region. In order for greater socio-economic effect to be achieved, an analytical unit to assess the socioeconomic impact in terms of defined goals, not in terms of the funds utilized and activities implemented, could be established (Hadjinikolov, 2015). Besides that, some sectors of the Bulgarian economy still have not been restructured and even when the absorption of the EU funding followed the common policies, it 18 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     was not efficient. The SMEs’ low awareness of the operational programs in the country was also a hinder and made it necessary to promote further the European funds’ opportunities (Nikolova, 2014). Conclusion Econometric research has showed that the EU Cohesion Policy funding has been an important driver for the reforms and economic development of Bulgaria since its accession to the EU. It will continue to play this role, and for the programming period 2014 - 2020 Bulgaria has been allocated around €7.6 billion in Cohesion policy funding. The investment priorities have been set out in a Partnership Agreement with the European Commission and include the raising of the competitiveness of the economy, research and innovation, transport infrastructure, urban development, improved water and waste management, employment, raising the share of persons with higher education, strengthening the capacity of public administration and the judiciary and promoting good governance (European Commission, 2015). However, in general the EU Cohesion policy has failed to achieve or still has not achieved its main goal: creating a more homogeneous Europe in economic and social terms. A proof of that are the vast economic gaps between Southern and Northern, and between Eastern and Western Europe. The record high unemployment levels, especially among the youth, the vast emigration from Eastern to Western Europe and the rise of political parties that criticize the European Union and propose to reverse the process of European integration, is another symptom of the lack of cohesion (Stratfor, 2015). However, analyses show that this unsuccessful story is tightly connected with the poorest Member States’ initial economic situation, which is the case with Bulgaria, and their inability to make most of these development funds on a later stage. The result of the analysis shows that the scientifically-proved (through econometric model) positive effects of the EU cohesion policy on the Bulgarian economy prevail over the negative, which remain quite hypothethic. The EU cohesion funds are a very important source of financing for the Bulgarian economy, the possibilities of which should be used to the fullest to support the economic growth and employment in the country. For their absorption rate and efficiency to be enhanced, however, further steps are necessary towards state admnistration’s strengthening, project management’s improvement, fight against corruption and others. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 19 �Monika Moraliyska   References Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Economic Research Institute. (2017). Annual Report 2017. Economic Development and Policies in Bulgaria: Assessments and Expectations. Focus topic: “The road to the European Union and the first 10 years”, Gorex Press, Sofia. Retrieved from: https://www.iki.bas.bg/godishen-doklad-2017%E2%80%9Eikonomichesko-razvitie-i-politika-v-balgariia-ocenki-iochakvaniia%E2%80%9D-fokus-%E2%80%9Cpat Center for Liberal Strategies. (2017). Ten Years in the EU. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/bulgaria/sites/bulgaria/files/ec_doklad.pdf Consortium „ECORYS – CPM – NEW i”. (2011). Model for Impact Assessment of the Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund of the European Union in Bulgaria SIBILA: Simulation model of Bulgaria's Investment in Long-term Advance, Technical Documentation (data used, theoretical framework and model specification, data used, estimation and validation, technical appendices) European Commission. (2014a). Cohesion policy 2014-2020. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/what/future/index_en.cfm European Commission. (2014b). Investment for jobs and growth, Promoting development and good governance in EU regions and cities. Sixth report on economic, social and territorial cohesion, Brussels. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docoffic/official/reports/cohesion6/6cr_e n.pdf European Commission. (2015). Cohesion policy and Bulgaria. European Commission Regional policy. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/information/cohesion-policyachievement-and-future-investment/factsheet/bulgaria_en.pdf European Commission. (2016a). Info Regio, Key achievements of Regional Policy. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/policy/what/key- 20 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria     achievements/#1 European Commission. (2016b). European Social Progress Index. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/information/maps/social_progress Eurostat. (2016). Eurostat statistics. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/regions/statistics-illustrated Galabinova, Y. (2015). Implementation of the EU cohesion policy: the case of Bulgaria. Department of Public Administration, New Bulgarian University, ISSN 1313-4760, Retrieved from: http://eprints.nbu.bg/2877/ Ganev, P. (2016). “Безплатните” европейски средства (“The Free European Funds”). The Market Economy Institute. Retrieved from: http://ime.bg/bg/articles/bezplatnite-evropeiski-sredstva/ Hadjinikolov, D. (2015). EU Cohesion Policy and Regional Differences in Bulgaria. Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”, “Hanns Seidel” Foundation, Sofia, May 2014. Retrieved from: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/61319/, MPRA Paper No. 61319, posted 21 January 2015. Kaneva, A. (2015). Problems with the absorption of the Structural funds of the EU by Bulgaria. Economic and Social Alternatives Journal of the University of National and World Economy, 1. Retrieved from: http://www.unwe.bg/uploads/Alternatives/3Kaneva.pdf Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Bulgaria. (2016). EU funds in Bulgaria. Assessment of the macroeconomic effects of the implementation of the programs cofinanced by EU funds. Monfort P., Piculescu V., Rillaers A., Stryczynski K., & Varga J. (2017). The impact of cohesion and rural development policies 2007-2013: model simulations with quest III. Working Papers. A series of short papers on regional research and indicators produced by the Directorate-General for Regional Policy, European Commission, WP 05/2017. Retrieved from: Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 21 �Monika Moraliyska   http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/newsroom/news/2017/06/06-01-2017working-paper-the-impact-of-cohesion-and-rural-development-policies-2007-2013model-simulations-with-quest-iii Nikolova, I. (2014). Instruments of EU Cohesion Policy for Bulgaria. Economy & Business Journal of International Scientific Publications www.scientific-publications.net Department of Economics, New Bulgarian University, ISSN 1314-7242, Volume 8, 2014. Nozharov, S. (2014). Model of Effective Management of Bulgarian Public Administration Managing EU Funds. Journal of Economic Alternatives, 4, 64-77, ISSN: 1312-7462 Nozharov, S. (2016). Social Costs of the Inefficient Management of the EU Funds for Bulgaria. ECONSTOR, A Service of zbwLeibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft Leibniz Information Centre for Economics. Retrieved from: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/148052 Stratfor. (2015). The Controversial EU Cohesion Policy Falls Short. Retrieved from: https://www.stratfor.com/analysis/controversial-eu-cohesion-policy-falls-short                                                                                                                         i See Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics (NUTS). Based on a set of simulations conducted with QUEST, a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model with endogenous growth and human capital accumulation. iii In the EU-15, the impact is more modest but it remains substantial for some Member States like Greece (+2.2%), Portugal (+1.8%) and Spain (+0.7%) which benefited from support of the Cohesion Fund. iv The index is the result of cooperation among the Directorate-General for Regional and Urban Policy of the European Commission, the Social Progress Imperative and OrkestraBasque Institute of Competitiveness. It follows the overall framework of the global Social Progress Index, customised for the EU using indicators primarily drawn from Eurostat data. It isn’t created for the purpose of funding allocation and doesn’t bind the European Commission. v There are three dimensions of the SPI: 1) Basic Human needs incl: nutrition and basic medical care; water and sanitation; shelter; personal safety; 2) Foundations of Wellbeing, incl: access to basic knowledge; access to Information and Communications; Health and Wellness; Ecosystem Sustainability; 3) Opportunity, incl: Personal rights; Personal Freedom and Choice; Tolerance and Inclusion; Access to Advanced Education. ii 22 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             vi The development of the econometric model for impact assessment of the Structural and Cohesion Funds of the EU called SIBILA is implemented under project № 0018-ЦИО-3.2 „Development of a model for impact assessment of SCF”, financed by Operational Programme Technical Assistance. vii The authors of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences’ report have also reached the conclusion that “Bulgaria’s membership in the EU has no other alternative”. viii “Good Governance”, “Transport and Transport Infrastructure”, “Regions in Growth”, “Human Resources Development”, “Innovation and Competitiveness”, “Environment”, “Science and Education for Intelligent Growth”. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 23 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3671 Title A name given to the resource The EU Cohesion Policy’s Impact on Regional Economic Development: The Case of Bulgaria Author Author Moraliyska, Monika Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The EU cohesion policy has been a major driver of change in the Member States, leading to positive effects as growth in employment, economic development and modern infrastructure. Since its EU accession in 2007, Bulgaria has been benefiting from the Union’s investment and structural funds at an increasing speed. Research shows that not only these funds contribute significantly to the Bulgarian economy, but they seem to be its major driver. Without them, the country would have recorded a zero growth in the EU’s financial framework 2007-2013, and could be dumped in an economic and social crisis. This paper explores the informational sources that assess the influence of the EU cohesion policy and its effects on Bulgaria. The goal of the paper is to make objective conclusions about the impact of the EU cohesion policy on the Bulgarian economy and how it has affected the level of economic and social cohesion between the country’s regions and the most advanced EU regions. For that purpose, the method of comparative analysis is applied, as well as a historical analysis.. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed DOI Digital object identifier doi: 10.14706/JECOSS17713 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 1986 – 8502, HC Economic History and Conditions