332 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9157fbbada0c78689cbe87420f751e1e.pdf 985a5f38763abe0d7dab6eaefefd024b PDF Text Text Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Ömer Özkan Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Muharrem Aktaş Department of Civil Enginnering Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey muharrema@sakarya.edu.tr Mehmet Sarıbıyık Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Introduction Industrial wastes sustainability is generally considered as a major source of environmental problems in the world. Reuse of some industrial waste materials has become very important during the past decade. The environmental regulations, requiring waste disposal minimization, force the reuse of waste materials. Land disposal that is a partial solution for this problem causes secondary pollution problems and extra costs. Therefore, more efficient solutions such as alternative recovery options need to be investigated. Solid wastes of iron and steel factories can be used as raw material in cement and concrete sectors. European Community (EU) has declared targets to protect the environment and to guarantee a cautious and efficient use of natural resources. Solid wastes should be reused in order to use natural resources efficiently and for sustainable development. Portland cement clinker production is expensive and ecologically harmful. For this reason, various studies have investigated about usage of wastes in cement production (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). Fly ash, blast furnace slag, silica fume and steel slag are currently used in cement and concrete industry. The BOF slag is a by-product that produced during the alteration of iron and steel. The BOF slag is comprise of calcium silicates and ferrite with oxides of aluminum, manganese, calcium and magnesium (Sahay et al, 2000). The mineralogical composition of BOF slag changes with its chemical composition. Olivine, merwinite, calcium silicates (C2S, C3S), C4AF, C2F, CaO–FeO–MnO–MgO in solid solution and free CaO are common minerals in steel slag (Shih et al, 2004). The attendance of C3S, C2S, C4AF and C2F confirms BOF slag cementitious properties. The free CaO content increased the basicity of the BOF slag that increased the reactivity of the BOF slag (Shi and Qian, 2000). However, high free CaO content in BOF slag has been shown to produce volume expansion problems (Ozkan, 2006). Many investigations were performed for using BOF slag as industrial raw material (Maotz and Geiseler, 2001). BOF slag was mainly used as a bulk material, asphalt aggregate, filling material, cement raw feed, railroad ballast, and in agriculture in the world. Nearly 12 million tons of BOF slag is produced in Europe per year. Today about 65 % of the produced BOF slag is used on qualified fields of application. The remaining 35 % of this slag was still dumped. It will need further intensive research work to decrease this rate as far as possible. The BFS, a kind of industrial by-product, is also currently used in cement and concrete industry. The BFS is known to possess a latent hydraulic property. Ground BFS is used as an admixture in concrete or as an additive in the manufacture of Portland slag cements in countries where large amounts of BFS is available as by- 50 �product. When BFS is added to cement, it combines with the Portland (CH) released by cement hydration to give calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). Alkali silica activates this step, which increases the reaction rate. Some properties of the concrete containing BFS, such as creep, shrinkage, strength to freeze-thaw resistant are still under discussion, but the use of the BFS in cement and concrete has been proven to have many advantages (Sakai et al, 1993). Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete, resulting in major structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition. ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) in concrete; the other, much less common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR and ACR are therefore both subsets of AAR. ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (Ichikawa and Miura, 2007). This work investigated ASR of mortars made with cements incorporating BOF slag and BFS as partial replacement of Portland cement clinker in different ratios of replacement. Specific weight, initial and final setting times, and expansion values of composite cements were investigated. Materials and Procedure Materials Clinker and gypsum used in this study were provided from Lafarge-Ereğli (Karadeniz, Ereğli, Turkey) Cement Factory. BOF slag and BFS were provided from Ereğli Iron and Steel Works Company in Turkey. The chemical compositions of these materials are presented in [Table 1], which are acquired from the X-ray lab. The photographs of granule BOF Slag with a size of 90 µm both (a) under-griddle and (b) abovegriddle showed in [Figure 1]. CEN standard sand was used to manufacture mortar specimens. Chemical composition and particle size distribution of the sand were presented in [Table 2] (TS-EN 196-1, 2009). Table 1: Chemical compositions of BFS and BOF slag, clinker and gypsum (wt. %) Fe2O3 Al2O3 MgO SO3 MATERIALS CaO SiO2 BFS 37.80 35.10 0.70 17.54 5.50 0.70 BOF slag 58.53 10.72 15.30 1.71 4.27 0.04 Clinker 66.11 21.57 3.17 5.09 1.74 1.35 Gypsum 32.57 0.67 0.24 0.21 2.20 46.56 (a) (b) Figure 1: SEM photograps of BOF slags 51 �Table 2: Sand gradient Chemical compositions % SiO2 93.05 Al2O3 3.11 Fe2O3 0.37 CaO 0.17 MgO 0.03 SO3 0.07 K 2O 1.5 Na2O 1.1 LOI 0.57 Griddle pore size (mm) 0.08 0.16 0.5 1 1.6 2 Humidity Remaining % 99.12 86.21 65.74 33.02 5.23 0.11 Procedure BOF Slag and BFS are substituted together with the mixture of clinker-gypsum and then four main groups of cement are established on the base of these substitutions. The materials are supplied in granule size as are the outputs of factory. BFS, BOF Slag and Clikner-Gypsum were grounded in a ball mill to a specific surface area of about 2500 cm2/g. The materials are mixed with each other in the amounts specified previously, and then grinded again to achieve specific surface value of 3100–3300 cm2/gr, thus yielding the cements used in the tests. The first group is coded as the reference group and named as C, in the second group, coded as C1, Clinkergypsum mixture is substituted with BOF slag, on the other hand Clinker-gypsum mixture is replaced with BFS in the third group C2, and the last group (C3) Clinker-gypsum mixture is substituted with the BFS-BOF slag composition that is arranged at a rate of 50% of BFS and 50% of BOF slag. Composition ratios of the mixtures used in the study is shown in the [Table 3]. All the main groups, except for the reference group C, are further divided into sub-groups and symbolized by suffixes (a, b, c, d) with respect to their changing ratios in compositions; for instance code C3c symbolize a material that is composed of 40% clinker-Gypsum, 30% BFS and 30% BOF slag. Code C Table 3: Composition of cement mixtures Clinker Materials % 100% Clinker-Gypsum 95 Gyps. % 5 BFS % 0 BOF Slag % 0 C1a C1b C1c C1d 80% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BOF Slag 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BOF Slag 40% Clinker-Gypsum + 60% BOF Slag 20% Clinker-Gypsum + 80% BOF Slag 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 20 40 60 80 C2a C2b C2c C2d 80% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BFS 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BFS 40% Clinker-Gypsum + 60% BFS 20% Clinker-Gypsum + 80% BFS 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 20 40 60 80 0 0 0 0 C3a C3b C3c C3d 80% Clinker-Gypsum + 10% BFS + 10% BOF Slag 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 20% BFS + 20% BOF Slag 40% Clinker-Gypsum + 30% BFS + 30% BOF Slag 60% Clinker-Gypsum + 40% BFS + 40% BOF Slag 76 57 38 57 4 3 2 3 12 24 36 24 8 16 24 16 The physical properties of the produced cements are first examined after the tests conducted and then the weight percentages, specific surface values and specific gravities of cements remaining on the surface of sieves with 32 and 90µn pore sizes, according to the Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-6, 2000). Moreover, the beginning and ending times of cement setting and expansion values of cements are also determined according to Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). 52 �The ASTM C1260 test is based on the assumption that a very high pH value of the pore solution initiates the reaction with potentially reactive aggregate. The intention was to create the most severe alkaline conditions as could be expected in the pore solution of mortar bars after hydrolysis, which is the interaction of alkalis and water. Therefore, test specimens are submerged in a hot and highly alkaline sodium-hydroxide solution (1 N). Originally, the test was not designed to consider influences of other components of the mortar mix such as admixtures but solely to determine the reactivity of a given aggregate type (ASTM C-1260). Mortar bars used in this study are of 25x25x290 mm dimension. Cement, standard rilem combreau sand and tap water with the proportions of 1, 2.25 and 0.47 respectively. Specimens are first cured in a fog room in molds at 20° C for 24 hours, remove the specimens from the molds, make an initial comparator reading and then demoulded and one day cured in water at 80± 3 °C. After remove from in water, take the zero reading and then immersion into a 1 M NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 °C during 14 days. A subsequent comparator reading of the specimens reads periodically, with at least three readings. Result and Discussion Physical Properties of Cements The physical properties of produced cements are shown in [Table 4]. Fineness, specific surface and specific gravity are listed. Table 4: Physical properties of cements Cements C C1a C1b C1c C1d C2a C2b C2c C2d C3a C3b C3c C3c Fineness (wt.%) >32 µm 21.00 21.15 22.10 22.15 22.10 21.20 21.90 21.80 21.90 19.20 18.60 19.10 18.20 >90 µm 0.90 1.18 1.00 1.25 1.20 1.10 1.15 1.15 1.10 0.90 0.90 1.00 0.80 Specific surface Specific gravity cm2/g 3330 3214 3213 3152 3150 3115 3108 3090 3070 3450 3550 3650 3700 g/cm3 3.12 3.06 3.02 2.97 2.96 3.05 3.01 2.95 2.94 3.12 3.15 3.12 3.11 It is found that BFS has harder structure than BOF slag and hardly grinded slag. BFS of 2400-2500 cm2/g reaches the required fineness after 4 hours of grinding when BOF slag takes only 3 hours for this degree of fineness. The reference cement (C) produced as Portland cement has a softer structure than the rest of specimens. Thus, it can easily be said that BFS and BOF slag, ground separately, can attain the same granule size on the condition that they are grinded finely. When cement’s specific gravity results are examined, it is found that waste materials (BFS and BOF slag) substituted with clinker have lower specific gravity values. Volume expansion values of cements are found to be within the limits set by Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). In the light of examining results one can observe that expansion of cements with BOF slag additive is higher than that of other cements. In BOF slag, when the volume is stable, the rate of free CaO and MgO is of great importance since the reaction between both oxides and water has an effect on volume stability (Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). Alkali Silica Reaction Mortar specimens are exposed to 1 N NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 °C during 14 days. The expansions of the mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Table 5]. 53 �Table 5: Alkali Silica Reaction Expansions of Cements ASR Expansion (%) 2 6 10 14 C0 0,096 0,146 0,176 0,184 C1a 0,094 0,137 0,169 0,186 C1b 0,096 0,149 0,187 0,208 C1c 0,110 0,163 0,182 0,222 C1d 0,114 0,169 0,192 0,212 C2a 0,040 0,066 0,086 0,107 C2b 0,034 0,056 0,080 0,104 C2c 0,032 0,052 0,080 0,097 C2d 0,032 0,061 0,075 0,100 C3a 0,083 0,123 0,154 0,170 C3b 0,089 0,112 0,143 0,160 C3c 0,098 0,125 0,136 0,160 C3d 0,109 0,134 0,156 0,170 The outcomes showed tht the ASR expansion values are lower than 0.2%, which is defined as a limit value on ASTM C-1260. ASR expansion value is increased by the increase of BOF slag percentage in the cement as shown C1 series sample (Table 5). However, the increase of BFS percentage in the cement resulted a decrease in ASR expansion value. The expansions of the BOF slag mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 2]. 0,250 0,200 0,192 0,187 0,182 0,169 0,212 0,222 0,208 0,186 0,184 0,176 Expansion 0,163 0,137 0,150 0,146 0,149 0,169 0,114 0,110 0,100 0,096 0,096 0,094 0,050 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C1a C1b C1c C1d Figure 2: ASR Expansion of BOS slag When C1 series ASR expansion value is investigated, the ASR expansion values found to be over than reference series. The reason for the high ASR expansion value is thought to be the ratio of CaO an MgO in BOF. BOF slag volumetric stability and leaching behavior caused the most concerns. The most important criterion is 54 �the volume stability, in which free CaO and MgO contents of the slag play an important role. The expansions of the BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 3]. 0,200 0,180 0,184 0,176 0,160 0,146 Expansion 0,140 0,120 0,107 0,100 0,104 0,100 0,096 0,080 0,060 0,040 0,080 0,075 0,066 0,061 0,080 0,097 0,086 0,052 0,056 0,032 0,034 0,032 0,040 0,020 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C2a C2b C2c C2d Figure 3: ASR Expansion of BFS The value of ASR expansion is also below the limit value given by ASTM-C 1260. It is known that the existence of BFS reduced the ASR expansion value. Since puzzolans are less reactive and the reaction results include less amount of alkali than the Portland cement, they are addressed as solvent. Puzzolan cements have more effective W/C percentage than portland cement. Thus, the amount of alkali become more less, moreover puzzolans, decreases the amount of Ca(OH)2 which also decrease the PH value. The expansions of the BOF slag and BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 4]. 0,200 0,180 0,160 0,146 0,136 Expansion 0,156 0,170 0,160 0,143 0,160 0,123 0,125 0,100 0,170 0,134 0,140 0,120 0,184 0,176 0,154 0,109 0,096 0,089 0,112 0,098 0,080 0,083 0,060 0,040 0,020 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C3a C3b C3c C3d Figure 4: ASR Expansion of BOF slag and BFS 55 �C3 Series resulted that existence of BFS eliminates the result of harmful effects of BOF slag. Also the ASR expansion values of C3 series are below the limit value of ASTM C-1260. In the literature there are studies which points out the harmfull effects of free CaO and MgO on expansion. This result also observed in this study. On the contrary, the existence of BOF slag has positive effects on durability properties of cement. Researchers especially emphasize that BOF slag effect are resistant to sulfates (Özkan, 2006; Özkan, 2008; Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). When cement-based materials are exposed to sodium sulphate attack, gypsum and ettringite are produced which can cause expansion in concrete. Formation of gypsum plays an important role in the damage of the material. Gypsum results in softening of the material. There is a close relationship between the Ca(OH)2 content and gypsum formation (Torıı and Kawamura, 1994). Ettringite formation results in cracking and expansion of the material. Expansion is related to the water absorption of crystalline ettringite. The presence of a BOF slag results in an increase in the resistance to sodium sulphate attack (Özkan, 2008; Özkan and Yuksel, 2008). Conclusion BOF slag, which is environmentally dangerous material and has storage difficulties, has 65% usage in Europe, but in Turkey none. That it is really very important step to use environmental damaged BOF slag in other industries for sustainability point of view. Cement production can a new production line for BOF slag. This study shows that using BOF slag increase ASR expansion value of cement, which is harmful. But it has also has positive effects on the other durability properties of cement. In order to eliminate the harmful effects of BOF slag, other materials such as BFS can also be used in cement production. This study shows that durability properties of cement are at the required level when BOF slag and BFS are used together. Using environmentally damaged BOF slag along with the other waste material, BFS, in production of cement material is very important in sustainability of waste management. References Altun I.A. & Yılmaz I. (2002). Study on steel furnace slag with high MgO as additive in portland cement. Cement and Concrete Research. 32, 1247–1249. ASTM C-1260. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregate, mortar-bar method. Ichikawa T. and Miura M. (2007). Modified model of alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, 37, 1291–1297. Sakai, K. Watanabe, H. Suzuki, M. Hamazaki, K. (1993). Properties of granulated last-furnace slag cement concrete, ACI Spec Publ SP, 132, 1367-1383. Motz, H., Geiseler, J. (2001). Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural resources. Waste Management, 21 (3), pp. 285-293. Özkan, Ö. (2006). Heat effects on cements producing with GBFS and SS as additives. Journal of Materials Science, 41 (21), 7130-7140. Özkan, Ö. (2008). Sulfate resistance of mortars produced with granulated blast furnace and steel slag additive cements. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 23(1), 1-8. Özkan, Ö. & Yüksel, İ.(2008). Sulfate Resistance of Composite Potland Cements Containing Steel Slag and Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. 3rd International Symposium Sustainability in Cement and Concrete, 8-10 July, Dundee, Scotland. Sahay, J., Nagpal, O. P. & Prasad, S. (2000). Waste management of steel slag, Steel Times International, 24 (2), 38-40. Shi, C. & Qian, J. High (2000). Performance cementing materials from industrial slags- a review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 29 (3), 195-207. Shih, P.H., Wu, Z. Z. & Chiang, H.L. (2004). Characteristics of bricks made from waste steel slag. Waste Management. 24, 1043-1047. Torii, K. & Kawamura, M. (1994). Effects of fly ash and silica fume on the resistance of mortar to sulfuric acid and sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 24, 361-370. TS-EN 196-1. (2009). Methods of testing cement - Part 1: Determination of strength. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara TS-EN 196-3, (2002). Methods of testing cement-part 3: determination of setting time and soundness Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. TS-EN 196-6. (2000). Methods of testing cement;Part 6: determination of fineness. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. 56 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 649 Title A name given to the resource Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Author Author ÖZKAN, Ömer Aktas, Muharrem Sarıbıyık, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0825fac41b835207ab2ea27060a2ea26.pdf 90101cf1f1ed844b7da7a72b377cdf4f PDF Text Text Eğitime Sanatın Katkıları ve Yansımaları İlhan ÖZKEÇECI Fatih Üniversitesi Öğretim Üyesi Istanbul//Türkiye Abstract: Sanat, tabiat ve çevre karşısında insan duygu ve düşüncelerinin renk, çizgi, biçim, ses, söz ve ritm aracılığıyla şahsi bir biçimde yansıtılmasıdır. Sanat, duygu ve düşünce arasında iç içe geçmiş bir bağlantı olduğu gibi öğrenme ve gelişim sürecinin de etkin bir yardımcısıdır. Bilim ve sanatta amacın yaşama hizmet ve yeniyi keşif gibi önemli temellere dayandığı söylenebilir. Bilimle uğraşan, eğitim alan veya meslek sahibi olan herkesin aynı zamanda bir sanat dalıyla uğraşması kişinin aklen ve ruhen dengeli bir birey olmasına katkı sağlayacaktır. Bu ona bir rahatlık sağlamaktan öte ayrıca farklı kazanımları elde etmesine ve daha başarılı sonuçlara ulaşmasına vesile olacaktır. Her şeyde olduğu gibi sanat eğitiminde de denge önemlidir. İnsan; aklı ve duyguları ile öznelliği ve nesnelliği ile gerçekliği ve hayal dünyası ile bir bütündür. Sanat eğitiminde de bu bütünlüğün korunması ve geliştirilmesi gerekir. Bu sebeple sanat eğitimi diğer bilimsel disiplinlerle desteklenmeli, başka alanlardan beslenmelidir. Sanatçı bilime, siyasete, teknolojiye aşina olmalı ve işbirliği yapmalıdır. Bu sayede hayatla bütünleşen, onu kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlar yapabilir. Çoğu kimse o yönleriyle tanımasa da tarihte meşhur bilim adamları bir yönden önemli sanat insanları olmuşlardır. İbni Sina ve Farabi onlardan birkaçıdır. Batıda Leonardo da Vinci ise temelde sanatçı kişiliği ile öne çıkmasına mukabil aynı zamanda bilim alanında önemli çalışmalarda bulunmuştur. Sanat eseri aynı zamanda belgesel bir kimlik taşır, üretildiği çağın hayat tarzını yansıtır, hatta yönlendirir ve sonraki dönemler için kalıcı bir belge olur. Sanatın estetik olmanın ötesinde eğitici bir misyonu vardır. Bir şehrin peyzajı, bir mimari yapının planlanması, bir mekânın dizaynı estetik birer tasarım olmakla birlikte o toplum içine doğan bireyi şekillendiren bir eğitim unsurudur. Estetik kaygılardan uzak mekanlarda ve yapılarda yaşayan toplumlarda kaos ve bunalımlar kaçınılmazdır. Kişiler farkında olmasa da toplumlar eğitim seviyelerinin gelişmesine göre eserler verirler ve bu eserler toplumun yaşantısını biçimlendirir, bu kaçınılmaz bir döngüdür. İki kanatlı, dolayısıyla dengeli bir eğitim için gereken en önemli unsur madde ve mananın dengesi iyi kurabilmektir. Aynı değişme ve süreklilik arasındaki denge gibi, aynı ruh ve beden arasındaki denge gibi. İnsanlar ve toplumlar sürekli değişse de, temelde var olan en önemli yapı taşları hep aynı kalır. Seven değişir sevgi değişmez, düşman değişir savaş değişmez, inanılan değişir inanç değişmez, eser değişir sanat değişmez. Bu olgular birbiriyle mutlak bir etkileşim içinde her toplumda vardır. Günümüz dünyasında mananın dengesinin madde lehine bozulması insanlık için olumsuz bir hayat tarzını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Hâlbuki insanın bedeni gibi ruhunun da üç boyutu vardır. İnsanı insan yapan bu boyutlar ilim, ahlak, estetiktir. Maddeye verilen önem ve mananın neredeyse tamamen unutulması ile bozulan dengede her biri vazgeçilemez olan bu üç temel unsur ile beslenemeyen insan ruhunu örselemekte, bunaltmakta ve yanlış mecralara yönelmektedir. Teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı günümüz dünyasında sanat da bilim de teknolojiye, daha doğrusu tüketime hizmet etmektedir. Çağımızın olumsuzluklarını aşmak, yarınlara daha umutla bakabilmek için bilim bir değer sistemiyle kuşatılmalı ve bir estetik kaygıyla bütünleşmelidir. Eğitimde bu üç unsurun dengesinin en mükemmel kurulması sonucu parlak başarıları getirecektir. Sanat Hakkında Sanat, insanın tabiat ve çevre karşısında duygu ve düşüncelerini renk, çizgi, biçim, ses, söz ve ritm aracılığıyla şahsi bir biçimde yansıtılmasıdır. Sanat, duygu ve düşünce arasında iç içe geçmiş bir bağlantı olduğu gibi öğrenme ve gelişim sürecinin de etkin bir yardımcısıdır. Sanat, bireyin sosyal ilişkilerini ayarlamasını, işbirliği ve yardımlaşmayı, doğruyu seçme ve ifade edebilmeyi, bir işe başlayıp bitirme sevincini tatmayı, üretken olmayı sağladığı için gereklidir. Sanat bir milleti başka milletlerden ayıran, bir milletin güzeli bulma tarzını ortaya koyan kültür unsurudur. İnsanoğlu sosyal ve ruhi ihtiyaçlarını söz, ses, renk, ışık, şekil ve anlayış zevkinin toplamı olan sanatla karşılar. 393 �-Sanat; önemli bir iletişim kurma aracıdır. -Sanat faaliyetlerinde bulunmak hayatı güzelleştirir. -Bu suretle sanat insanda var olan yetenekleri gün ışığına çıkartır, bunları harekete geçirerek kendine güven duygusunu arttırır. -Sanat insanın geçmişi, bugünü ve yarını arasında bağlantı kurmasını sağlar. Ona kendi kültürel geçmişini tanıtarak, ondan önemli ölçüde yararlanmasına vesile olur. -Sanat uğraşları ruhen tedavi edici özelliklere sahiptir. İnsan hayatının bütün seyrinde, bir yaşam değeri olarak sanatın izleri görülür. Hayata gözlerini açtığı andan itibaren gördüğü renkler, kavradığı biçimler, idrak ettiği formlar ve hacimler hep bu çizginin yansımaları olmuştur. Giydiği kıyafetin, yaşadığı mekânın, dolaşıp gezdiği çevrenin ve daha birçok unsurun yansıttığı duygular içerisinde insan, toplumda şekil alacak ve bir biçime girecektir. Bu biçimlenme temel manada bir algı ve duygu içerisinde gerçekleşecektir. Tarih öncesi çağların mağara duvarındaki resimleriyle birlikte insan hayatına giren, insanın acılarını, umutlarını, korku ve daha pek çok duygularını ifade etmede yararlandığı bir ana tema olmuştur sanat. Bu yönüyle insanların sözlü anlatımlarından çok daha önceleri dünyada yerini almış bir gerçek haline gelmiştir. Güzel sanatlar kişisel gelişimde güçlü ve etkin bir eğitim aracıdır. İnsanlar arasında estetik duyarlılığın kazanılması, ortak davranışların geliştirilmesi, ortak beğeni kazanımı, güzeli arama gibi değerlerin elde edilmesi hep bu yolda gerçekleşebilecektir. Toplumda nitelikli insanların yetişmesi, çevreye ülkeye faydalı, verimli insan profilinin oluşması, yaşadığı hayattan haz alma, duygularının gelişmesi yine güzel sanatların getirdiği olumlu sonuçlardır. Sanat ve Eğitim Eğitim de sanat gibi insanla birlikte var olan ve toplumun kültür ve cemiyet hayatını şekillendiren, insan hayatı için temel teşkil eden unsurlardan biridir. Eğitim, insana hayattaki iletişim süresince karşılaştığı farklı ihtiyaçlara faydalı çözümler bulabilme yeteneğinin kazandırır, toplumun standartlarını, inançlarını ve hayatı tanımasını öğreterek onun sosyalleşmesine katkıda bulunur. Eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan kapsamlı ve işlevsel bir süreçtir. İnsanoğlu bu süreç içerisinde yaşamış olduğu toplumun kültürel değerlerini, dünyaya bakış açısını ve bu bakış açısı etrafında şekillenen sanat anlayışını kavramaya çalışan sosyal bir varlıktır. Kuşaklar arasında sosyal devamlılık eğitim vasıtasıyla sağlanır. Eğitim yalnızca okullarla sınırlı olan bir olgu değildir. Okullar, üniversiteler dışında, kişinin eğitiminde kurslar, kültür ve sanat dernekleri, gençlik kuruluşları, kütüphaneler, müzeler, spor klüpleri, günümüz iletişim araçları (kitap, gazete, dergi, sinema, radyo ve televizyon, bilgisayar ve internet) gibi bir dizi etkenin de katkısıyla oluşan önemli bir birikim olduğunu kabul etmek gerekiyor. Ayrıca eğitim kurumlarının yanı sıra gelişen iletişim araçları sayesinde daha çok çevresel faktörlerle biçimlenen eğitim sürecinde toplumlararası temas ve alışverişlerle toplumların birbirinden aldığı etkiler kültür hayatına yansımaktadır. Yaşamın her safhasında süren eğitim özellikle yeni nesillerin hayata hazırlanması, topluma kazandırılması, çevreye ve ülkeye yararlı bireyler olması bakımından dün olduğu gibi bugün de önemlidir ve bu ehemmiyet sebebiyle eğitimin başarısı konusu sürekli üzerinde durulan, devamlı tartışılan bir konu olmaktadır. İlim Ahlak Estetik Ülkemizde (Türkiye) eğitim sistemi uzun yıllardan beri daha verimli daha başarılı nesiller yetiştirebilmek adına sürekli değişir ama beklenen ve istenen sonuçlar tam anlamıyla elde edilemediği görülebiliyor. Materyalist bir temelle, ısrarla tek yönlü olarak sürdürülen bu eğitim sistemi maalesef çocuklarımızın acımasız bir yarışa sürüklenip en verimli yıllarını bir meslek sahibi olabilmek adına harcamasına yol açıyor. Bilimin gerçek temellere dayandırılması esas alındığında eğitimin daha başarılı olabilmesi için gerekli bazı noktalara dikkat çekilmelidir. Günümüzde eğitim neredeyse bilimle özdeşleştirilmekte bilimse tamemen teknolojiye bağımlı hale gelmiştir. Bireyi yalnızca bilim ve teknoloji açısından bilgilendiren eğitim eksiktir, ona toplumdaki yerini hatırlatmak, ruhu incelten estetik kaygıları, hayata anlam katan insani değerleri öğretmek de gereklidir. Mekânlar (eğitim mekânlarının tertibi ve düzeni), konsantrasyonu sağlayacak bir ortam varlığı, eğitim malzemeleri yeterliliği ve desteği, program uyum ve dengeleri eğitimde başarıya götüren unsurlar arasında sayılabilir. Ancak, eğitimdeki asıl başarı bilim ve sanatın işbirliğinde aranmalıdır. Bu işbirliği olabildiğince gelişmiş ve bireyi kuşatıcı bir konumda gerçekleştirilmelidir. 394 �Her şeyde olduğu gibi eğitimde de denge önemlidir. İnsan; aklı ve duyguları ile öznelliği ve nesnelliği ile gerçekliği ve hayal dünyası ile bir bütündür. Dolayısıyla insanın eğitiminde de bu bütünlüğün korunması ve geliştirilmesi gerekir. Bu sebeple sanat eğitimi diğer bilimsel disiplinlerle desteklenmeli, başka alanlardan beslenmelidir. Sanatçı bilime, siyasete, teknolojiye aşina olmalı ve işbirliği yapmalıdır. Bu sayede hayatla bütünleşen, onu kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlar yapabilir. Sanatla meşgul olmak, bilimle uğraşan kişiler için soluklanma payları olarak düşünülebilir. Büyük insanların bir sanat faaliyeti ile meşgul olmaları veya ondan haz duymaları da bu hususu destekleyen önemli noktalardandır. Çoğu kimse o yönleriyle tanımasa da tarihte meşhur bilim adamları bir yönden önemli sanat insanları olmuşlardır. İbni Sina ve Farabi onlardan birkaçıdır. Batıda Leonardo da Vinci ise temelde sanatçı kişiliği ile öne çıkmasına mukabil aynı zamanda bilim alanında önemli çalışmalarda bulunmuştur. Bilimle uğraşan, eğitim alan veya meslek sahibi olan herkesin aynı zamanda bir sanat dalıyla uğraşması kişinin aklen ve ruhen dengeli bir birey olmasını sağlayacaktır. Kişiye bir rahatlık ve huzur sağlamaktan öte farklı kazanımlar elde etmesine yol açan sanat eğitimi, estetik kişiliğin gelişmesini sağlar. Bu sebeple her yaşta birey için sanat eğitimi almak gereklidir. Bu sayede bireyin kişisel yetenek ve yaratıcı potansiyellerini eğitmek ve aynı zamanda da estetik düşünme bilinicini de belli bir sisteme kavuşturmak mümkün olacaktır. İki kanatlı, dolayısıyla dengeli bir eğitim için gereken en önemli unsur madde ve mananın dengesi iyi kurabilmektir. Aynı değişme ve süreklilik arasındaki denge gibi, aynı ruh ve beden arasındaki denge gibi. İnsanlar ve toplumlar sürekli değişse de, temelde var olan en önemli yapı taşları hep aynı kalır. Seven değişir sevgi değişmez, düşman değişir savaş değişmez, inanılan değişir inanç değişmez, eser değişir sanat değişmez. Bu olgular birbiriyle mutlak bir etkileşim içinde her toplumda vardır. Yaşadığımız çağda, hem Türkiye’ye, hem de tüm dünyaya genelleyebileceğimiz bir biçimde sanatsal üretimin etkinliğinden söz etmek zordur. Tüm dünyada teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı görülürken, estetik boyutun aynı oranda geliştiği söylenemez. Rönesans’taki gibi veya İslam aydınlanmasındaki güçlü sanatsal yükseliş, insanları sürükleyen sanat akımları yok bugün. Günümüz dünyasında mananın dengesinin madde lehine bozulması insanlık için olumsuz bir hayat tarzını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Hâlbuki insanın bedeni gibi ruhunun da üç boyutu vardır. İnsanı insan yapan bu boyutlar ilim, ahlak, estetiktir. Maddeye verilen önem ve mananın neredeyse tamamen unutulması ile bozulan dengede her biri vazgeçilemez olan bu üç temel unsur ile beslenemeyen insan ruhunu örselemekte, bunaltmakta ve yanlış mecralara yönelmektedir. Bilim ve sanatta amacın yaşama hizmet ve yeniyi keşif gibi önemli temellere dayandığı söylenebilir. Ancak, teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı günümüz dünyasında sanat da bilim de teknolojiye hizmet ediyor. Teknoloji üretmeye, özellikle de savaş ve silah teknolojisi üretmeye hizmet eden bir araç haline gelen bilim ile metal grileri parlatarak, beton grileri yumuşatarak modern dünyaya estetik kılıflar uydurmaya hizmet eden sanatın amacını da yeniden sorgulayabiliriz. Teknolojinin ise, kime veya neye hizmet ettiğini tekrar düşünebiliriz. Hayatla, doğayla bütünleşmiş bir teknoloji her toplumda vardır ve ona sahip olan toplumu, diğer toplumların yanında güçlü kılar. Fakat hayatı bir savaş, tabiatı da hakim olunacak bir düşman olarak algılayan bir zihniyetle üretilen ve bir araç olması gereken teknoloji, hayat için kullanılır olmaktan çıktı; neredeyse hayat teknoloji için yaşanır oldu. Teknolojinin hızı, rahatlığı, hayatı kolaylaştırması, problemlerin çözümüne katkısı ile teknoloji ile bilim bir anlamda giderek birleşti. Kendi başına buyruk teknoloji, görünürde kazandığı başarı ivmesiyle, sonucunu baştan kestiremeyecek projeleri gerçekleştirerek sorumsuzca ve tüm hızıyla yoluna devam etmektedir. Teknolojiyi üreten, yönlendiren, denetleyen ise sadece insan aklı. Tek bir mantık olduğunu sanma gafletindeki, erdemi olmayan, hayatı olmayan, canı olmayan, ham bilgiyi bilim kabul eden buyurgan, kıskanç, yeri geldiğinde zalim bir akıl. Teknoloji-yoğun yaşamımızda ahlâki sorumluluğun ve manevi değerlerin yeri, estetik ve sanatsal üretimin kıymeti bu noktada önem kazanıyor. Egemenliği ele geçirmiş olan bu akıl, insanın ve toplumun selameti için ahlaki manevi ve estetik değerlerle ile bütünleşmek zorundadır. Teknoloji, kontrol altına alınıp haddini bilecek insan hayatında kendine biçilen rolü oynayacaktır. Değerlerle beslenip estetik düzenlemelerle insan ruhuyla insicamlı bir ahlâk ve sanatla birlikte tabiata, insani ve kültürel değerlere saygılı onları destekler mahiyette bir araç olarak konumlanacaktır. Çağımızın olumsuzluklarını aşmak, yarınlara daha umutla bakabilmek için bilim bir değer sistemiyle kuşatılmalı ve bir estetik kaygıyla bütünleşmelidir. Eğitimde bu üç unsurun dengesinin en mükemmel kurulması sonucu parlak başarıları getirecektir. Sanat eseri aynı zamanda belgesel bir kimlik taşır, üretildiği çağın hayat tarzını yansıtır, hatta yönlendirir ve sonraki dönemler için kalıcı bir belge olur. Sanatın estetik olmanın ötesinde eğitici bir misyonu vardır. Bir şehrin peyzajı, bir mimari yapının planlanması, bir mekânın dizaynı estetik birer tasarım olmakla birlikte o toplum içine doğan bireyi şekillendiren bir eğitim unsurudur. Estetik kaygılardan uzak mekanlarda ve yapılarda yaşayan toplumlarda kaos ve bunalımlar kaçınılmazdır. Kişiler farkında olmasa da toplumlar eğitim seviyelerinin 395 �gelişmesine göre eserler verirler ve bu eserler toplumun yaşantısını yönlendirir, bu kaçınılmaz bir döngüdür. Yani sanatçı toplum öğrettiği değerlerle, kültürle eser verir sonra onun tasarladığı eserler, yazdığı kitaplar, şiirler, mimari yapılar, bestelediği şarkılar toplumun hafızasını, dünya görüşünü, geleceğini şekillendirir, kısaca onu eğitir. Sanat, insanlar tarafından yüzyıllarca önemli bir hayat unsuru olarak yaşatılmıştır. Bu çerçevede, iletişim, tedavi ve rehabilitasyon maksatlarıyla yararlanılmış olup yalnızca bir eğlence vasıtası olarak düşünülmemiştir. Günümüzde sanatın iyileştirici gücü yeniden keşfedilerek insan hayatına olumlu katkıları yolunda bilimsel olarak sanattan yararlanma faaliyetleri de sürdürülmektedir. Profesyonel ya da amatör olarak sanatla ve müzikle uğraşmanın insanların zihinsel gelişmelerini olumlu etkilediği ve çocukların matematik ve bilim derslerindeki başarısını artırdığını, muhakeme gücünü geliştirdiğini belirlenmiştir. Çocuk genç ve yetişkinlerde bireysel olarak veya aile ve grup olarak uygulanan psikolojik tedavilerde sanat terapisi bir tedavi yöntemi olarak görülmektedir. Günlük stresten uzaklaşma, iç dünyamızı keşfetme, motivasyonunu arttırma, iletişimi güçlendirme, ergenlik dönemindeki gençlerin sorunlarına çözüm bulma, aile içi ilişkilerindeki sorunlara çözüm, öğrencinin derslere karşı ilgi ve başarısı vb. gibi çeşitli konularda sanat terapisinden faydalanılmaktadır. Sonuç Sanatın yapısındaki gelişme önce bilgilenme ile başlar. Sanat eğitiminin meydana getirdiği süreçte belli merhaleler söz konusudur. Algılama ile işe başlayan insan bilgilenerek etraftaki gerçeklerden haberdar olmaya baºlar. Bunu düºünme ile destekleyerek tasarlamaya yönelir. Bunun sonucu ortaya yorumlanan projeler çıkar. Bu tasarımların belli şekil ve tekniklerle ifade edilmesi bir iletişim aktivitesini doğurur. Aynı zamanda meydana getirilen proje ifadenin yanında eleştirmeye de tabi tutulacaktır. Bu merhalelerden geçerek özümsenen sanat eserleri ifadesi güçlü, etkileyici, duyguları harekete geçiren özelliklere de sahip olacaktır. Sanat eğitimi; gözlem yapma, özgün buluş ve kişisel yaklaşımları destekler, pratik düşünceyi geliştirir. Olayları, olmadan da beyinde gerçekleştirebilme gücünü arttırır. Bireyin becerilerini geliştirir ve sentez yapmasına yardımcı olur. Bu yönleriyle eğitim sistemine önemli katkılar sunar, çocukların eğitim almak adına hayatlarında hiç lazım olmayacak sadece sınavlar için kuru bilgiyle yüklenip, ayaklı birer ansiklopediye dönüşmesini engeller. Dolayısıyla çok değerli olan hayal gücünü geliştirmesini sağlar. Kültürlerin ön plana çıktığı, küreselleşme süreci olarak adlandırılan yeni dönemde yerel kimliklerin önem kazandığı, medeniyetler çatışması, uzlaşması vs. gibi kavramların tartışıldığı günümüz dünyasında, çok zengin sanat, kültür ve medeniyet mirası olan Türkiye’nin eğitim alanında çalışmalara çok daha fazla ihtiyacı vardır. Sanatla bilim işbirliği yapmalı, sanat eserine hem somut biçimler verip onu biçimlendirirken soyut manalar da katmalı, bir değer sistemiyle beslemeli bir olgunluk, bir bilgelik süzülmeli her sanat eserinden aynı zamanda da zekâ pırıltıları süzülmeli. Her dem taze kalan, her zaman yerini koruyan hiç modası geçmeyen her beğeniye insan olanın herkesin kendine bir pay çıkardığı eserler gerçek sanat eseri böyle eserlerdir. Sanatçı gezmeli, görmeli okumalı bilgisini görgüsünü artırmalı, insan çok yönlü eğitilmeli, bilmi, siyaseti teknolojiyi aşina olmalı içinde yaşadığı toplumu ve dünyayı iyi tanımalı, hissetmeli hayatla bütünleşen, hayatı kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlarıyla ona güzellikler katmalı. Sanatçının en farklı yönü güçlü hisleri ve onları farklı biçimlerde sunabilme becerisidir. Sanatçı topluma ne kadar değer verirse eseri de o kadar değerli olur. Bu birbirini doğuran, geliştiren bir dinamizmdir. Yapılmamış şey var mı dünyada, düşünülmemiş fikir, söylenmemiş söz, bestelenmemiş şarkı? Eğitim dünyamızın üç boyutlu donanımını dengeleyerek bizler de yeni ve güzel şeyler söyleriz ümit ediyorum. Yunus’un temennisi gibi: “Bir toy toylamak gerek Bir soy soylamak gerek Bir söz söylemek gerek Melekler de bilmez ola.” 396 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 428 Title A name given to the resource Eğitime Sanatın Katkıları ve Yansımaları Author Author ÖZKEÇECI, İlhan Abstract A summary of the resource. Sanat, tabiat ve çevre karşısında insan duygu ve düşüncelerinin renk, çizgi, biçim, ses, söz ve ritm aracılığıyla şahsi bir biçimde yansıtılmasıdır. Sanat, duygu ve düşünce arasında iç içe geçmiş bir bağlantı olduğu gibi öğrenme ve gelişim sürecinin de etkin bir yardımcısıdır. Bilim ve sanatta amacın yaşama hizmet ve yeniyi keşif gibi önemli temellere dayandığı söylenebilir. Bilimle uğraşan, eğitim alan veya meslek sahibi olan herkesin aynı zamanda bir sanat dalıyla uğraşması kişinin aklen ve ruhen dengeli bir birey olmasına katkı sağlayacaktır. Bu ona bir rahatlık sağlamaktan öte ayrıca farklı kazanımları elde etmesine ve daha başarılı sonuçlara ulaşmasına vesile olacaktır. Her şeyde olduğu gibi sanat eğitiminde de denge önemlidir. İnsan; aklı ve duyguları ile öznelliği ve nesnelliği ile gerçekliği ve hayal dünyası ile bir bütündür. Sanat eğitiminde de bu bütünlüğün korunması ve geliştirilmesi gerekir. Bu sebeple sanat eğitimi diğer bilimsel disiplinlerle desteklenmeli, başka alanlardan beslenmelidir. Sanatçı bilime, siyasete, teknolojiye aşina olmalı ve işbirliği yapmalıdır. Bu sayede hayatla bütünleşen, onu kolaylaştıran sadeleştiren tasarımlar yapabilir. Çoğu kimse o yönleriyle tanımasa da tarihte meşhur bilim adamları bir yönden önemli sanat insanları olmuşlardır. İbni Sina ve Farabi onlardan birkaçıdır. Batıda Leonardo da Vinci ise temelde sanatçı kişiliği ile öne çıkmasına mukabil aynı zamanda bilim alanında önemli çalışmalarda bulunmuştur. Sanat eseri aynı zamanda belgesel bir kimlik taşır, üretildiği çağın hayat tarzını yansıtır, hatta yönlendirir ve sonraki dönemler için kalıcı bir belge olur. Sanatın estetik olmanın ötesinde eğitici bir misyonu vardır. Bir şehrin peyzajı, bir mimari yapının planlanması, bir mekânın dizaynı estetik birer tasarım olmakla birlikte o toplum içine doğan bireyi şekillendiren bir eğitim unsurudur. Estetik kaygılardan uzak mekanlarda ve yapılarda yaşayan toplumlarda kaos ve bunalımlar kaçınılmazdır. Kişiler farkında olmasa da toplumlar eğitim seviyelerinin gelişmesine göre eserler verirler ve bu eserler toplumun yaşantısını biçimlendirir, bu kaçınılmaz bir döngüdür. İki kanatlı, dolayısıyla dengeli bir eğitim için gereken en önemli unsur madde ve mananın dengesi iyi kurabilmektir. Aynı değişme ve süreklilik arasındaki denge gibi, aynı ruh ve beden arasındaki denge gibi. İnsanlar ve toplumlar sürekli değişse de, temelde var olan en önemli yapı taşları hep aynı kalır. Seven değişir sevgi değişmez, düşman değişir savaş değişmez, inanılan değişir inanç değişmez, eser değişir sanat değişmez. Bu olgular birbiriyle mutlak bir etkileşim içinde her toplumda vardır. Günümüz dünyasında mananın dengesinin madde lehine bozulması insanlık için olumsuz bir hayat tarzını da beraberinde getirmiştir. Hâlbuki insanın bedeni gibi ruhunun da üç boyutu vardır. İnsanı insan yapan bu boyutlar ilim, ahlak, estetiktir. Maddeye verilen önem ve mananın neredeyse tamamen unutulması ile bozulan dengede her biri vazgeçilemez olan bu üç temel unsur ile beslenemeyen insan ruhunu örselemekte, bunaltmakta ve yanlış mecralara yönelmektedir. Teknolojik gelişmelerin öne çıktığı günümüz dünyasında sanat da bilim de teknolojiye, daha doğrusu tüketime hizmet etmektedir. Çağımızın olumsuzluklarını aşmak, yarınlara daha umutla bakabilmek için bilim bir değer sistemiyle kuşatılmalı ve bir estetik kaygıyla bütünleşmelidir. Eğitimde bu üç unsurun dengesinin en mükemmel kurulması sonucu parlak başarıları getirecektir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/36101d43ca55a718f60838f433ccd467.pdf b8bf9bd4b476aaf61f0c49dc75e4b384 PDF Text Text Sürekli ve Verimli Eğitimin Bireysel ve Toplumsal Gelişmeye Katkısı Şule Bilge ÖZKEÇECİ Sanatçı-Sosyolog/Türkiye Özet : Bu tebliğde bireylerin ve toplumun dünyaya bakış açısını kültürünü inançlarını ve yaşam tarzını belirleyen ve sosyalleşmesini sağlayan eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemi vurgulanacaktır. İnsanın karakterini, davranışlarını, başarılarını, kısaca tüm hayatını etkileyen en temel iki unsurdan biri doğuştan gelen kabiliyet ve özellikleri, diğeri eğitimle kazandıklarıdır. Öğretimden farklı, daha kapsamlı, değer yüklü bir terbiye yöntemi olan eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan, insan hayatında kalıcı davranış değişikliklerine neden olan işlevsel bir süreçtir ve anne karnındayken başlar, ölüme kadar devam eder. İnsandaki enerjiyi, keşfetme, üretme isteğini bir yere kanalize etme eğitimle olur. Burada önemli olan bu enerjinin doğru alana yönlendirilmesidir. ayatı anlamlandıran, mana katan eğitimin amacını belirlemek asıldır. Bilmek; neyi bilmek, niye bilmek? Bu sorulara verilen cevaplar eğitimin muhtevasını belirleyecektir. Günümüz dünyasında her düzen eğitim sistemlerini yenileme ve gözden geçirme ihtiyacı duyan devletler en iyi okulları ve eğitim sistemlerini araştırıyor, kendi çıkarlarına uygun bir “eğitilmiş insan modeli” tasarlamaya çalışıyor. Hayatı sürekli ve kıyasıya mücadele gerektiren acımasız bir yarış olarak gören bir zihniyetle, maddi kazanç elde etme hedefiyle sadece mesleki eğitim görmek maalesef yaşadığımız toplum için genel bir anlayışa dönüşmüştür. Hırsların, menfaatlerin temini için veya en zararsız şekliyle zaman geçirmeye yarayan hobiler için yapılan eğitim bizi birey olarak da toplum olarak da doğru ufuklara taşımaz. Eğitimin amacı “daha başarılı, mutlu, özgüven sahibi, kendisiyle barışık, çevresine faydalı, verimli, huzurlu, üretken bireyler yetiştirmek” olmalıdır. Ancak ilkeli eğitim amacına ulaşmak için mutlaka bir değer sisteminden güç almalı ve kültürel temellere dayanmalıdır. Bu hedeflerle ömür boyu sürecek bir eğitim anlayışı bireysel gelişme sürecinde; insanın hayatın anlamını kavramasını, gerekli ve gerçek bilgiye ulaşmasını, birikimlerini hayata aktarmasını sağlar. Bireye yaşama sevinci verir, hayatına bir amaç, heyecan verir. Farklı yaşlarda ve dönemsel değişimlerle kişi olgunlaştıkça ihtiyaç duyduğu değişik bilgiler edinir, bu sayede hayatın rutinleşmesini engeller. Toplumsal gelişme sürecinde; bilginin, kültürün, değerlerin nesilden nesile aktarımla kuşaklar arası bağları ve model olma yoluyla toplumsal bağları güçlendirir. Medeniyet seviyesini yükseltir. Toplumsal yozlaşmayı önler. İyi insan olmayı hedefleyen kişinin talebeden birey, aktif öğrenici olması, alıcı, seçici ve istekli olması eğitimcileri de değiştirir, yönlendirir, daha verimli, gayretli, donanımlı olmaya teşvik eder. Yaşadığımız çağda modern çevreleme ve iletişim araçları o kadar yoğun, güçlü ve kuşatıcı ki insanlar farkına bile varmadan bu etkin difüzyonun baskısı altında kalıyor. Hatta bilinçsizce aktif taşımacısı oluyor. Bu kuşatmanın olumsuz yönlerinden kaçınıp özgün bir medeniyet ve mutlu bir birey için sürekli, mana ile dengelenmiş eğitime ihtiyacımız var. Toplum olarak en büyük şansımız ise bu tarz eğitim anlayışının kültür kodlarımızda ve inanç sistemimizde çok derin olarak kayıtlı olmasıdır. Bu tebliğde genel olarak verimli ve başarılı sonuçlar için eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemine dikkat çekmek istiyorum. Eğitim Nedir, Önemi İnsanın karakterini, davranışlarını, başarılarını, kısaca tüm hayatını etkileyen en temel iki unsurdan biri doğuştan gelen kabiliyetleri ve özellikleri, diğeri eğitimle kazandıklarıdır. Bilgi ve yetenek bir güçtür ve eğitimle doğruya iyiye güzele yönlendirilmelidir. Eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan, hayat boyu kalıcı davranış değişikliklerine neden olan işlevsel bir süreçtir. Eğitim, bireylerin dünyaya bakış açısını, kültürünü, inançlarını, yaşam tarzını belirlemesini ve sosyalleşmesini amaçlar. 408 �Öğretimden farklı ve daha kapsamlı olan eğitim anne karnındayken başlar, ölüme kadar devam eder. Eğitim giderek unutulan ama insan için hayati önem taşıyan, çok boyutlu ve değer yüklü bir kavram olan terbiye ile bağlantılıdır, değilse olmalıdır. Üzerine kurulmazsa hiçbir binanın başarılı olamayacağı bir temel teşkil eden terbiye, sadece çocukluk dönemi için değil tüm hayat boyunca süren bir eğitim yöntemidir. Büyüklerin; “Ehl-i irfan arasında aradım kıldım talep Her hüner makbul imiş, illâ edeb illâ edeb" dediği gibi “Adam gibi adam olabilmek” için, olmazsa olmaz yöntem iyi bir terbiye almaktır. Eğitimin Amacı Hayatın anlamını kavrama ve yaşadığının farkına varma, eğitilmiş insana ait bir özelliktir. Eğitilmemiş birey, toplum hayatındaki yerini, konumunu ve görevini kavrayamaz. Eğitimsiz bir toplumda düzen, uyum, huzur, birlik ve hedef olmaz. Sosyal refahın ve adaletin gerçekleşmesi, sorumluluk duygusu taşıyan fertlerin varlığına bağlıdır. Bu da ancak eğitilmiş insanla mümkün olduğundan, bireyin ve dolayısıyla toplumun eğitimine olan ihtiyacımız herşeyin önündedir. Günümüz dünyasında her düzen, eğitim sistemlerini yenileme ve gözden geçirme ihtiyacı duyuyor, devletler en iyi okulları ve eğitim sistemlerini araştırıyor, kendi çıkarlarına uygun bir “eğitilmiş insan modeli” tasarlamaya çalışıyor. Özellikle demokratik sistemlerde, insan eğitimi ya da eğitilmiş insan modeli ayrı bir önem taşır. Zira sorumluluk duygusu demokrasinin ön şartıdır. Özgürlük dahil, diğer bütün şartlar bundan sonra gelir. Sorumluluk duygusu taşımayan bireyler, demokrasinin değerini ve önemini anlayamayacağından okullar, demokrasinin kalesi olarak görülür. Ama toplumsal eylemlerde aktif olan insanların çoğunun ya üniversite öğrencisi, ya da üniversite mezunu olması eğitimde yönlendirmenin ne kadar önemli olduğunu gösterir. Bireyi özgür bırakan demokratik sistem, aynı bireyi istediği yönde eğitemezse kendi sonunu hazırlamış demektir. Dolayısıyla eğitimin biçimlendirme, yönlendirme boyutunun önemi ortaya çıkar ki, her toplum mutlaka bunun bilincinde olmalıdır. İnsandaki enerjiyi keşfetme, üretme isteğini bir yere kanalize etme eğitimle olur. Burada asıl olan bu enerjinin doğru alana yönlendirilmesi, yani hayatı şekillendiren eğitimin amacının belirlenmesidir: Bilmek; ama neyi bilmek, niye bilmek? Bu sorulara verilen cevaplar eğitimin muhtevasını belirleyecektir. Bizim eğitim sistemimiz modernleşme projesi çerçevesinde ve tek tip insan yetiştirmek için oluşturulan kalıplarla biçimlenmiştir. Bilindiği gibi dünyamız uzunca bir süredir Batılı düşünürler tarafından geliştirilen ve “modernleşme, batılılaşma, çağdaşlaşma” gibi çeşitli adlarla nitelenen teorilerin yönlendirdiği bir dönüşüm yaşamaktadır. Dünyayı Doğu ve Batı olarak ikiye bölen, kadim uygarlıkları, köklü kültürleri, ekolojik sistemi bir kasırga gibi savurup altüst eden bu değişimin materyalist düşünsel temelleri evrim teorisine ve ilerleme fikrine dayalıdır. Postmodern yaklaşımlar içinde insana, ahlaki değerlere, tabiata verdiği zarar ve yıkımlarla ele alınıp kıyasıya eleştirilen modernleşme hareketleri Türkiye’de -ilk uygulamalardan günümüze kadar- Batıdan farklı olarak halkın talebi ve mücadelesi ile değil genelde Batılı toplumların zorlamasıyla yöneticiler eliyle gerçekleşmiştir. Modernleşme düşüncesi sürekli olarak değişime vurgu yapar, sanki eskiden her şey hiç değişmeden duruyormuş gibi. Değişim veya yenilik arzusu yeni icat edilmiş bir şey değil, her zaman var olan ve devamlı yinelenen bir gerçeklik, ama hayatımızda abartısız ilk insandan bu yana değişmeden gelen süreklilikler de vardır ve zannedildiğinin aksine bunlar değişimden çok daha temel unsurlardır. Bu açıdan baktığımızda insanlık tarihi boyunca kadın, erkek, anne baba rolleri, aile kurumu, mesleki konumlar, aşk, ölüm, kin, şefkat gibi yerleşik duygular her zaman vardır. Bu sahnede oyuncular sürekli değişir ama roller hep aynıdır. İnsan hayatındaki tüm bu süreklilikler modernleşme düşüncesinde gelenek olarak adlandırılıp daha çok tutucu, gelişmeleri engelleyen kalıplara hapseden ve değişime karşı bir kavram olarak sunulur. Değişmeler kaçınılmaz, hep vardır, olmalıdır ama değişme nötr bir kavramdır gelişmeyle, ilerlemeyle eşdeğer değildir. O halde geldiğimiz noktada değişimimizi ve gittiği yönü sorgulamalıyız. Değişim toplumun yararına ve doğru yönde bir değişim mi? Modernleşme teorilerinin dayattığı gibi alternatifsiz mi? “Daha iyi nasıl olabilir?” “İyi olan, doğru olan nedir?” diye düşünmediğimiz, sorgulamadığımız sürece hazır verilen modellerin milim dışına çıkmayı aklımızdan bile geçirmediğimiz sürece bunu göremeyiz. Hayatı sürekli ve kıyasıya mücadele gerektiren acımasız bir yarış olarak gören bir zihniyetle, maddi kazanç elde etme hedefiyle, sadece mesleki eğitim görmek maalesef yaşadığımız toplum için genel bir anlayışa dönüşmüştür. Hırsların, menfaatlerin temini için veya en zararsız şekliyle zaman geçirmeye yarayan hobiler için yapılan eğitim bizi birey olarak da toplum olarak da doğru ufuklara taşımaz. Yaşadığımız çağda modern çevreleme ve iletişim araçları o kadar yoğun, güçlü ve kuşatıcı ki insanlar farkına bile varmadan bu etkin difüzyonun baskısı altında kalıyor. Hatta bilinçsizce aktif taşımacısı oluyor. Bu kuşatmanın olumsuz yönlerinden kaçınıp özgün bir medeniyet ve mutlu bir birey için sürekli ve mana ile dengelenmiş eğitime ihtiyacımız var. 409 �Eğitimin amacı “daha başarılı, mutlu, özgüven sahibi, kendisiyle barışık, çevresine faydalı, verimli, huzurlu, üretken, inançlı, ahlaklı bireyler yetiştirmek” olmalıdır. Ancak ilkeli eğitim amacına ulaşmak için insanın hem aklını, hem gönlü doyurmalı bunun için de mutlaka bir değer sisteminden güç almalı ve kültürel temellere dayanmalıdır. Eğitimde Başarı İnsanı iyi eğitebilmek veya eğitememek bir toplumun kaderini ve geleceğini bilirler. Bu sebeple eğitim çok önemli, bir o kadar da zor bir ilimdir, hele bizim gibi nüfusunun yüzde 26,4'ü 0-14 yaş grubunda olan genç nüfusa sahip bir ülkede. Eğitimde başarıyı etkileyen aile, okul, yetenek, zekâ, çevre gibi temel unsurlar vardır. Kişinin başarısında öncelikle ailelerin yaklaşımı önemlidir. Bazı ebeveynler çocuklarının kendileri gibi başarılı olabilmeleri için veya kendi yapamadıklarını başarmaları için çırpınıp dururlar, büyük fedakârlıklar yaparak ne olursa olsun okusun isterler. Ancak çocukları beklentilerini karşılayamadığında onun yeteneksiz olduğunu düşünürler. Özellikle “Çocuğumuz mutlaka bir üniversite okusun, diploması olsun” veya “üniversite eğitimi hayata dair her şeyi kazandırır” gibi düşünceler çocukların hayatları boyunca yapamayacakları işlerin peşinden koşup başarısız ve mutsuz olmalarına neden olmaktadır. Bu sebeple çocukları yeteneği olmayan alanlara zorlamak veya yetenekli oldukları alanlarda engellemek başarısızlıklar doğurur. Unutmamak gerek ki, insanların bir kısmının elbette çok daha kalifiye ve yetenek gerektiren işleri olacaktır ve bazı kişiler mutlaka diğerlerine göre daha iyi şartlarda yaşayacaklardır ancak bunu kabullenmeyen insanlar hiçbir zaman ulaşamayacakları bu yerlere göz dikerek sadece zaman ve enerji kaybedeceklerdir. Altın pencereli ev masalındaki gibi insanlar elindekinin kıymetini bilip değerlendirmek yerine hep kendilerinde olmayana özenir, imrenir. Bu noktada ailenin çocuğu tanıması ve onunla sağlıklı diyalogu önemlidir. Hepimiz çocuklarımızı tanıdığımızı sanırız, ama nelerini tanırız, nelerini biliriz? Bir anne baba, çocuğunun hangi yemekleri sevdiğini, okuldaki dersler durumunu bilir de çocuğunun hayal kırıklıklarını bilir mi, gelecekten neler beklediğini, tutkularını, özlemlerini, korkularını, kaygılarını, kendisi hakkında neler hissettiğini bilir mi? Çağımızda yeni teknolojiler ve eğlence endüstrisi aile yapısını etkiliyor, değiştiriyor, ergen çağındaki gençler daha çok yalnızlık içinde kalıyor. Evlerimizdeki televizyonlar, bilgisayarlar, internet, giderek herkesin kendi beğenilerine, kendi değerlendirmesine dayalı "tekil uğraşlara" dönüşerek aile ilişkilerini zayıflatıyor. Bu durum giderek artan oranda bireyin yalnızlaşmasına ve aile üyelerinin birbirine yabancılaşmasına yol açıyor. Teknoloji ve iletişim araçları ile karakteri oluşmadan, hayatı tanımadan, bir değer sistemiyle güçlenmeden, tavrının, duruşunun, tutumunun, beklentilerinin ne olduğunu bilmeden karşısına çıkan erişimi kolay malumata boğulmuş bir bilgi ile karşılaşan gençler maalesef gafil avlanıyor. Denetimsiz, sorumsuz, değer ve kural bilmeyen bu körleştiren bilgi gençlerin coşkusuna, heyecana hitap ederek onun içindeki ateşi körüklüyor, kahramanlarını büyük ölçüde değiştiriyor ve ona "çıkar dünyasının", "şiddet ortamlarının", "hızlı zenginlerin" içinden yeni örnekler sunuyor. Buralardan gelen yoğun etkiler gençlerin inançlarını, çevrelerini ve -ailelerin geçmişten gelen değerleriyle çok farklı- yeni sosyal değerlerini oluşturmaktadır. Bu yolla aktarılan günümüzün yeni dünya düzeni değerleri rekabetçi yarışma ortamında "ne yolla olursa olsun, kimin olursa olsun sahip çıkma", "üstün olma" vb. fırsatçı, bencil yaklaşımlarla ortaya çıkmaktadır. Görüldüğü gibi ailenin birey üstündeki rolünü sınırlayan teknolojinin çocuk ve gençlere etkisi büyük ölçüde olumsuz olmaktadır. Okulun eğitim sistemdeki yeri ve önemi büyüktür. Sadece mesleki eğitim almak için gereken öğretim süreci hayatın ortalama yirmi yılını, yani en güzel, en verimli gençlik çağlarını kapsar. Ama eğitim için okul yeterli bir şart değildir, çünkü okulu başarılı yapan şeyler yalnız para ve onunla satın alınan veya yaptırılan güzel binalar, kaliteli eğitim teknolojileri değildir. Eğitim binalar kadar binaların dışında da verilir çünkü. Aslında toplumun kendisi bizzat eğitici bir faktördür. İnsanlar, eğitimlerinin çoğunu burada alır. Ancak eğitilmiş olan bir toplum, bireylerini eğitebilir. O halde "Eğitim, okulun eseri değildir. Okuldan ziyade toplumun içinde elde edilmesi gereken ve insanın kendinde mevcut faziletlerin eseridir" denilebilir. Eğitimde yaklaşımlar ve yöntemler önemlidir. Nitekim hiçbir zaman tek bir öğretim yöntemi yoktur. Geleceği yaşayacak yarının büyüklerini yetiştirmeyi hedef alan ülkelerin dünya çapında başarılı olmalarını sağlayacak ve onları geleceğe taşıyacak eğitim sistemi nasıl olmalıdır? Bu konuda yapılan araştırmalarda tarihi planda başarılı olmuş kurumlar da incelenir ve örnek alınır. Osmanlıyı yüzyıllarca ayakta tutan dinamiklerden olan, dünyada eşine rastlanmayan ve ilk defa Osmanlıların uyguladıkları Enderun Mektebi kısmen Amerika, İngiltere, Almanya ve Japonya gibi ileri ülkeler tarafından uygulanmaktadır. Varlıklarını 21. asra taşıyabilme gayretindeki devletlerin ilham kaynağı olan bu görkemli mirasımıza sahip çıkıp onu yeniden yorumlayarak çok daha verimli bir eğitim sistemi geliştirebiliriz. İnsan çok kompleks aynı zamanda çok değişken bir varlıktır, bu yüzden onu bir eşya veya makine gibi kategorize etmek doğru değildir. Allahın insana vermiş olduğu zekâ ve kabiliyetlerde insanların yüzleri gibi 410 �farklı farklıdır. Yeteneksiz insan yoktur, farklı yeteneklerde insan vardır. Herkes her şeyi yapamaz. İnsanın bu özelliği çoklu zekâ kuramlarıyla açıklanıyor şimdilerde. Bu konuda bireysel ayrıcalıkları gözeten en önemli yöntemlerden biri bireylerin birer birer eğitimidir. Çağları aşıp gelmiş olan bu yöntem yozlaşan toplumda kaybolan bireylerin yeniden tek tek kazanılmasını sağlayabilir. İnsanın en değerli varlık olduğunu düşünürsek ve her insanın başlı başına bir âlem olduğunu kabul edersek, böyle bir gayretin ne kadar gerekli ve önemli olduğu ortaya çıkar. Geniş kitleleri hedef alma, bireyin eğitiminde sanıldığı kadar faydalı ve kalıcı değildir. Bu bağlamda toplu mekânlar ve kalabalık ortamlar, eğitim adına verimin ve kalitenin göstergesi olamaz. İnsanın yetişmesinde kilit nokta saygıdır; farklılığına saygı, fikirlerine saygı, hayallerine saygı göstermek gerekir. Eğitimde başarı için kişinin yeteneğine, cinsiyetine, yaşına, ilgilerine, kapasitesine göre yönlendirilmesi ve sevdiği alanda uğraşması gerekir. Eğitimin her kademesinde kesintiye uğramadan yürütülecek çalışmalar, öğrencilerin özgün düşünce güçlerini ortaya çıkaracak, onları kalıplara sokmayacak, özgürce kendilerini ifade edebilecekleri şekilde olmalıdır. Öğrencilere beyinlerini bir sürü bilgi ile doldurmak yerine çocuğu görmeye, aramaya, sormaya, denemeye, sonuçlandırmaya alıştırmalı ve toplumda, hayatlarında kullanabilecekleri bilgileri vermelidir. Burada temel soru şu olmalı; başarı nedir? Para kazanmak mı, şöhret olmak mı, kariyer mi? Beklenen nedir, eğitim mi etiket mi? Temele hırslar, menfaatler, sadece maddi kazanç elde etme hedefi konursa sonuç ne olur? Topluma ve ülkeye hizmet etmek veya iyi insan olma hedefi ile inanarak, severek, kafa yorarak, çilesini çekerek, azimle çalışmak kişiyi başarıya taşır. Zira dehanın % 90’ı çalışmaktır. Bu hedeflerle ömür boyu sürecek bir eğitim anlayışı bireysel gelişme sürecinde; insanın hayatın anlamını kavramasını, gerekli ve gerçek bilgiye ulaşmasını, birikimlerini hayata aktarmasını sağlar. Bireye yaşama sevinci verir, hayatına bir amaç, heyecan verir. Farklı yaşlarda ve dönemsel değişimlerle kişi olgunlaştıkça ihtiyaç duyduğu değişik bilgiler edinir, bu sayede hayatın rutinleşmesini, kişinin rehavete düşmesini engeller. Toplumsal gelişme sürecinde; bilginin, kültürün, değerlerin nesilden nesile aktarımla kuşaklar arası bağları ve model olma yoluyla toplumsal bağları güçlendirir. Toplumsal yozlaşmayı önler, medeniyet seviyesini yükseltir. Ömür Boyu Eğitim Verim ve başarı için sadece hayatın bir döneminde ve sadece okullarda veya kurumlarda alınan bilgi eğitim olarak yeterli olmaz, bu eğitimin sürekliliği, değişen şart ve ihtiyaçlara göre yenilenmesi de elzemdir. İnsanın kendini geliştirmesi çok önemlidir ve öğrenmenin sınırı yoktur ve bence en kalıcı ve etkili eğitim görkemli binalarda, en süslü sözlerle, en meşhur hocalarla verilenler değil, verenin bildiğini hissettiğini gönülden inanarak aktardığı eğitimdir. Bilmek aklın ihtiyacıdır ruhun ihtiyacı değil. Ruhun ihtiyacı hissetmektir, inanmaktır, sevmektir. Bu sebeple eğitimin muhakkak manalandırılması ve ahlaki bilgelikle beslenmesi gerekir. Dengeli, yeterli, sürekli beslenme diyebiliriz buna ve ancak bu dengeyle hakikate ulaşabiliriz. Toplum olarak en büyük şansımız ise bu tarz eğitim anlayışının kültür kodlarımızda ve inanç sistemimizde çok derin olarak kayıtlı olmasıdır. Başta ilk kelimesi “oku” olan kutsal kitabımız olmak üzere bizim inanç sistemimiz insanı sürekli ilme, eğitime ve kendini geliştirmeye teşvik eder. Peygamberimiz beşikten mezara ilim öğrenmeyi öğütler, çünkü insanın kendini keşfi ömür boyu sürer. Yunus Emre’nin dizeleriyle: İlim ilim bilmektir, ilim kendin bilmektir Sen kendini bilmezsin, ya nice okumaktır Aslında okumak, ilim değil en zoru bu kendin bilmek. Bir öğreti, bir öğüt, bir vecize, bir hikmet olarak neredeyse varoluş kadar eski "Kendini bil!" düsturu çok uzun dönemlerden beri farklı dillerde ve medeniyetlerde söylenegelmiştir. Kendini bilmek kendini tanımak demektir. İnsanın kendisini bilmesi için sadece anatomisini, duygularını, ihtiyaçlarını, zaaflarını önyargılarını ve tutumlarını bilmesi yetmez. Şuurunu, hissini, iradesini bilmesi de yetmez. İnsanın kendini bilmesi bunlarla birlikte hergün kendini farklı bir nazarla yeniden okuması, sürekli kendisini yeniden tanıması demektir. Çünkü insan bir fotoğraf gibi tek bir karede tespit edilebilen bir varlık değildir. Dolayısıyla kendini bilmek durağan bir olgu değil, her an yeni bir bilmeyi gerektiren dinamik bir süreçtir. “Okunacak en büyük kitap insandır” der Hacı Bayram Veli. Gerçekten de daima değişen, tekrar tekrar okunması gereken, her seferinde başka şeyler söyleyen, çok karmaşık bir kitaptır insan. Hz. Muhammed bu nasihati bir aşama daha ilerletip şöyle der: “Kendini bilen Rabbi'ni bilir". Yunus Emre’de bu minvalde dizelerine şöyle devam eder; Okumaktan mana ne, kişi Hakkı bilmektir Çün okudun bilemedin, ha bir kuru emektir Baştan Hakk’ı bilmek bir mucize gibi kişiyi çok boyutlu bir bilme ve görme potansiyeline ulaştırıyor. Çünkü Hakkı bilmek kişiye bir yol haritası çiziyor. Hem öznel hem nesnel bilgiye sahip olmasını sağlıyor. Kendini bilme yolculuğunda insanın nereden gelip ne yaptığı ve tekrar nereye gideceği öğretiyor. 411 �Kendini bilmek; hakikati arama yolunda kişinin ibret nazarıyla bakmayı, kendini kontrol etmeyi, düşünce ve hareketlerinin sorumluluğunu üstlenmeyi bilmesi, kısaca kendini terbiye etmesidir. Kendini bilmeyen, hatta aramayan kişi hayatını boşa geçirmiş, bir eser verememiş ve kendini gerçekleştirememiştir. Kendini bilmek, haddini de bilmektir, aynı zamanda kıymetini de bilmektir. “Sen, kendini ufak bir nesne sanırsın, hâlbuki sende koca bir âlem dürülmüştür.” der Hz. Ali. Hayat okulunda başlıca görevimiz olan kendini bilme çabası süreklilik, cesaret, mücadele gerektiren, eline, beline, diline sahip olmayı da içeren çok çetin bir yoldur. Zorlu, zengin, sabır ve sebat gerektiren ama sonuçları mükemmel, sırlarla ve sürprizlerle dolu, maceralı bir seyahat gibi. Biz adına hayat diyoruz ve çok azımız bu boyutuyla farkına varıp yaşıyoruz. Kolay olmadığı kesin bu yolculukta günümüz insanı refaha ve rehavete düşmüş, bu amaçlardan uzaklaşmış görünüyor. Bu sebeple kendini bilme gayretinden gafil olduğundan beri toplum birçok şeyi kaybetti, bu şeyler adlarını manalarını ve hayata kattıklarını da alıp gidiyorlar. Haslet, hikmet, edep, meziyet, nezaket, zerafet, vekar, iz’an, dirayet, fazilet, asalet, metanet, vefakârlık gibi. Bunlar olumsuz gelişmeler gibi görünse de gençlerin, çocukların olduğu her yerde ümitte vardır, bu yüzden ben geleceğe ümitle ve çocukların gözlerindeki sevgiyle bakıyorum. Kendimizi bilmek dileğiyle. 412 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 431 Title A name given to the resource Sürekli ve Verimli Eğitimin Bireysel ve Toplumsal Gelişmeye Katkısı Author Author ÖZKEÇECİ, Şule Bilge Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu tebliğde bireylerin ve toplumun dünyaya bakış açısını kültürünü inançlarını ve yaşam tarzını belirleyen ve sosyalleşmesini sağlayan eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemi vurgulanacaktır. İnsanın karakterini, davranışlarını, başarılarını, kısaca tüm hayatını etkileyen en temel iki unsurdan biri doğuştan gelen kabiliyet ve özellikleri, diğeri eğitimle kazandıklarıdır. Öğretimden farklı, daha kapsamlı, değer yüklü bir terbiye yöntemi olan eğitim genel anlamıyla insan hayatındaki farklı disiplinleri düzene sokan, insan hayatında kalıcı davranış değişikliklerine neden olan işlevsel bir süreçtir ve anne karnındayken başlar, ölüme kadar devam eder. İnsandaki enerjiyi, keşfetme, üretme isteğini bir yere kanalize etme eğitimle olur. Burada önemli olan bu enerjinin doğru alana yönlendirilmesidir. ayatı anlamlandıran, mana katan eğitimin amacını belirlemek asıldır. Bilmek; neyi bilmek, niye bilmek? Bu sorulara verilen cevaplar eğitimin muhtevasını belirleyecektir. Günümüz dünyasında her düzen eğitim sistemlerini yenileme ve gözden geçirme ihtiyacı duyan devletler en iyi okulları ve eğitim sistemlerini araştırıyor, kendi çıkarlarına uygun bir “eğitilmiş insan modeli” tasarlamaya çalışıyor. Hayatı sürekli ve kıyasıya mücadele gerektiren acımasız bir yarış olarak gören bir zihniyetle, maddi kazanç elde etme hedefiyle sadece mesleki eğitim görmek maalesef yaşadığımız toplum için genel bir anlayışa dönüşmüştür. Hırsların, menfaatlerin temini için veya en zararsız şekliyle zaman geçirmeye yarayan hobiler için yapılan eğitim bizi birey olarak da toplum olarak da doğru ufuklara taşımaz. Eğitimin amacı “daha başarılı, mutlu, özgüven sahibi, kendisiyle barışık, çevresine faydalı, verimli, huzurlu, üretken bireyler yetiştirmek” olmalıdır. Ancak ilkeli eğitim amacına ulaşmak için mutlaka bir değer sisteminden güç almalı ve kültürel temellere dayanmalıdır. Bu hedeflerle ömür boyu sürecek bir eğitim anlayışı bireysel gelişme sürecinde; insanın hayatın anlamını kavramasını, gerekli ve gerçek bilgiye ulaşmasını, birikimlerini hayata aktarmasını sağlar. Bireye yaşama sevinci verir, hayatına bir amaç, heyecan verir. Farklı yaşlarda ve dönemsel değişimlerle kişi olgunlaştıkça ihtiyaç duyduğu değişik bilgiler edinir, bu sayede hayatın rutinleşmesini engeller. Toplumsal gelişme sürecinde; bilginin, kültürün, değerlerin nesilden nesile aktarımla kuşaklar arası bağları ve model olma yoluyla toplumsal bağları güçlendirir. Medeniyet seviyesini yükseltir. Toplumsal yozlaşmayı önler. İyi insan olmayı hedefleyen kişinin talebeden birey, aktif öğrenici olması, alıcı, seçici ve istekli olması eğitimcileri de değiştirir, yönlendirir, daha verimli, gayretli, donanımlı olmaya teşvik eder. Yaşadığımız çağda modern çevreleme ve iletişim araçları o kadar yoğun, güçlü ve kuşatıcı ki insanlar farkına bile varmadan bu etkin difüzyonun baskısı altında kalıyor. Hatta bilinçsizce aktif taşımacısı oluyor. Bu kuşatmanın olumsuz yönlerinden kaçınıp özgün bir medeniyet ve mutlu bir birey için sürekli, mana ile dengelenmiş eğitime ihtiyacımız var. Toplum olarak en büyük şansımız ise bu tarz eğitim anlayışının kültür kodlarımızda ve inanç sistemimizde çok derin olarak kayıtlı olmasıdır. Bu tebliğde genel olarak verimli ve başarılı sonuçlar için eğitimin amacının ve sürekliliğinin önemine dikkat çekmek istiyorum. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a7c0f941174ac3516a6bd63513705177.pdf 8d9519afa034977c417019bf7b10cf50 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo An Empirical Analysis of Turkish Financial Crises in the Early 2000’s. Đsmail ÖZSOY Prof. Dr., Fatih University, Dept.of Economics, Turkey iozsoy@fatih.edu.tr, ismailozsoy@yahoo.com Birol GÖRMEZ Research Asst., Fatih University, Dept.of Economics, Turkey bgormez@fatih.edu.tr, bgormez@hotmail.com Abstract: The financing scheme has a crucial function in an economy since it enables fundowners to transfer their funds to those in need. Unless the financing scheme operates effectively, economic growth is hampered severely due to the inadequacy or immobility of capital. The world finance history has experienced many financial crises, the case of malfunction of the financing scheme, repeatedly so far. Many theories and models have been developed to give an insight into the reasons and dissemination mechanisms of, and precautions against the financial crises. This paper is intended to find out the explanatory variables of the Turkish financial crises that took place in November 2000 and February 2001 with the help of the method of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and within the framework of the models of financial crises. To this effect, the models of financial crises are briefly dealt with; the Turkish financial crises in the early 2000’s are analyzed subsequently by making use of ANN. Key Words: Turkish Financial Crisis, Financial Crisis Models, Artificial Neural Network Introduction Nearly all people would like to have an uninterrupted prosperous life. This demand can only be met as long as some specific conditions are established. For instance, the efficient utilization of the existing scarce resources in the production of goods and services and the fair and uninterrupted distribution of the produced goods and services are two of the specific conditions that have to be established so as to ensure high and sustainable personal welfare. However, it is impossible to state that these conditions can be met any time since sometimes there may be such ups and downs in the economic activities as crisis, which may have drastic economic, social and political effects. Due to its devastating effects, foreseeing financial crises, a type of economic crisis, and taking measures to minimize the length and impacts of them are of crucial importance. Many financial crises models have been developed to guide the institutions that try to achieve these goals. Theoreticians have made different comments on the reasons and eruption processes of the crises, thus, they have suggested different solutions to this problem. The aim of the this paper is to find out the explanatory variables of the financial crises that took place in the early 2000’s in Turkey. To this end; after a short explanation about financial crisis, financial crisis models are explained very briefly, then the financial crises in question are examined empirically by making use of the method of Artificial Neural Network. Financial Crisis Theoreticians define financial crisis from their own perspective in different ways. To one of the definitions, financial crisis is the nonlinear disruption in which asymmetric information problems of adverse selection and moral hazard become much worse, so that financial markets are unable to channel funds to those with the most productive investment opportunities. (Mishkin 2003) However, in its broadest meaning, financial crises are the big problems suddenly arising in money, foreign debt and banking areas of the financial sector. In the light of this definition, it is possible to classify financial crises into groups of “banking crisis”, “monetary crisis” and “foreign debt crisis.” (Bastı 2006) The definitions of the concerned types of financial crises are as follows: “A banking crisis refers to a situation in which actual or potential bank runs or failures induce banks to suspend the internal convertibility of their liabilities or which compels the government to intervene to prevent this by extending assistance on a large scale.” (IMF 1998) 16 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A monetary crisis or a currency crisis erupts if the attacks on the national currency of a country end up with devaluation or a sharp depreciation or if the Central Bank is forced to protect the value of the currency by selling huge amount of reserves or increasing interest rates sharply. (Delice 2003) Foreign debt crisis is the declaration by a country of the fact that it can not pay “capital+interest” of the public or private foreign debt (that it can not pay debt service) due to the foreign payment problems it encounters. (Seyidoğlu 2001) Financial Crisis Models Some models and theories have been developed to explain the nature of financial crises. The classification of financial crisis models as First Generation Financial Crisis Models and Second Generation Financial Crisis Models has been widely accepted. Some models have also been introduced into the literature, which aim at explaining the financial crisis named as “Asian Financial Crisis”, which erupted on 2 July 1997 with the devaluation of Thailand’s national currency. These last group models are called Third Generation Financial Crisis Models or the Models Explaining Asian Crisis. First Generation Financial Crisis Models are named as Traditional Crisis Models, Canonical Crisis Models or Speculative Attack Models as well. Main starting point of these models is the fact that foreign currency can exhaust and its supply can not be increased easily. The first financial crisis modeling developed by Paul Krugman in 1979 has been considerably improved, and today it is named as “First Generation Financial Crisis Models”. According to the first generation models, main reasons behind monetary crises are macroeconomic structural imbalances and unsustainable policies. High and increasing budget deficits, high inflation, high domestic interest rates, high rates of money supply increase, huge current deficits, extremely valuable exchange rate and decreases in international reserves can be given as examples of macroeconomic structural imbalances. (Kuran 2006) Issuing money to finance budget deficits in a country where fixed exchange rate system is implemented can be given as an example for unsustainable and unstable policy. According to these models; covering of financial deficits while implementing a fixed exchange rate policy or increasing money supply drastically to balance a weak banking system causes financial crises. In other words, incompliance of economy policies -which are divided into two groups of monetary and fiscal policy- with foreign currency target results in financial crises.1 According to first generation models, financial crises erupt as follows: Assume that fixed exchange rate policy is implemented in an economy; that the budget of the economy has a deficit and; that the units implementing macroeconomic policies prefer issuing money to finance the budget deficit and the only tool they have to fix the deficit is to intervene in the foreign exchange market. In such case, interest rates fall on one hand and inflation rises on the other hand due to increase in money supply. The fall in interest rates and the rise in inflation cause reduction of economic reserves and, thus, result in crisis. First of all, foreign investors demand foreign currency (as the interest rates fall) and then export foreign currency. In addition, shadow price2 of the foreign currency exceeds the official foreign exchange rate due to increasing foreign currency demand. Secondly, national currency is valued due to fixed exchange rate policy. This has a decreasing effect on export and increasing effect on import. The rise of inflation has negative impacts on export as well. As a result, foreign trade deficit gradually increases. The increase in the foreign trade deficit means a reduction in economic reserves. Moreover, these two developments bring along another development that reduces reserves more: In an economy where foreign trade deficit increases (i.e., where balance of payment is deteriorating), speculators foresee that fixed exchange rate policy will be abandoned and, thus, foreign currency rate will increase. Therefore, speculators who want to maximize their profits sell their reserves in national currency and buy foreign currency. Together with the above-mentioned factors, this situation plays a role in the depletion of the reserves as well. Speculative Attack plays an important role in the first generation models. The most important characteristic of Speculative Attack is that investors decrease the relative share of the national currency and increase the share of the foreign currencies and foreign assets in their portfolios. Central Bank, which tries to maintain fixed exchange rate, puts its foreign currency reserves on the foreign currency market. Central Bank, the reserves of which decreases to a critical level, has to abandon fixed exchange rate regime. As a consequence of this process, a financial crisis (monetary crisis) erupts. To summarize according to Krugman’s approach; variables such as financial and monetary expansion result in reserve losses when there is no parity to prevent loss of foreign currency reserves. This situation creates an increasing pressure on the foreign exchange rate. (Kaminsky, et al 1998) 1 For more detailed information: See; Krugman, Paul (1979), “A Model of Balance of Payment Crises”, Journal of Money, Credit, Banking” pp: 311-325 2 Shadow price is the price determined by the supply-demand status of any good when the price is not fixed by the authorized institutions. Shadow price of any foreign currency is the price that is determined when the exchange rate is not fixed. 17 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Second Generation Financial Crisis Models suggest financial crises can erupt even when there is no deterioration in the economic indicators. These models explain how speculative attacks targeting national currency can result in crises even when the monetary and fiscal policies are consistent. (Özer 1999) Second generation models emphasize that when there are inconsistencies between fixed exchange rate and some important economic figures, politicians may prefer to float the exchange rate and not respond to the speculative attacks even when there is sufficient amount of foreign currency reserve. (Bilgin, et al 2002) To the second generation models pioneered by Maurice Obtsfel, governments have grounds both to continue and to abandon the fixed exchange rate policy. Governments make benefit-costs analysis when deciding on whether to continue or abandon the fixed exchange rate policy. The benefit of the fixed exchange rate system is that it decreases the inflation pressure and creates an economic environment that promotes trade and investment. On the other hand, the cost of the fixed exchange rate system is that it causes an increase in the real interest rates. In case downward inertia is observed together with the high interest rates, unemployment rate increases and growth rate decreases. As can be understood from the context, increasing real interest rates may lead to failure to sustain the fixed exchange rate system and, in turn, to eruption of crisis. Since it will not be rational to keep the exchange rate at its current level in case costs exceed benefits, the exchange rate is floated. To reduce unemployment and current transaction deficits and to promote growth; governments prefer to switch to the floating exchange rate system although foreign currency reserves are sufficient to protect the exchange rate. Third Generation Financial Crisis Models are also called “The Models Explaining Asian Crisis”. Two main suggestions have been made to explain the reasons of Asian Crisis. The first suggestion is that Asian Crisis can be explained on the basis of the second generation models. To this suggestion, the countries that faced crisis were exposed to a self-fulfilling pessimism by the international investors. That is, the pessimism of the creditors and investors created a pessimist atmosphere for the other investors as well. The resulting cycle caused the Asian Crisis. To the second suggestion, the weak economic structure produced by the wrong policies and structural problems resulted in the Asian Crisis. These structural problems can be summarized as follows: The first problem was the presence of the microeconomic problematic implementations such as implicit deposit insurances and confidential public guarantees. These implementations have been suggested to pave the way for the crisis due to moral hazard and excessive borrowing. The second problem was the insufficient auditing of the financial sector and particularly the banks. When the system is not properly audited, banks can enable use of funds by their affiliated companies at such huge amounts to increase financial fragility. In addition, in weak systems, huge amount of funds inflowing to the country result in not only high amount of domestic fund transfers via poorly-managed banks but also domestic demand boom. The loans granted without any risk analysis can not be paid back in economic shrinkage times and result in crises. The third problem was the unreliable balance sheets of the banks and non-bank financial institutions. The problems in the balance sheets of the banks mainly result from mismatch. When the banks borrow money in foreign currency and lend in national currency and when they make short-term borrowing and make lending for long-term investments; it means that they encounter both monetary and term mismatch problems. (Yay, et al 2001) Wrongly-valued foreign currencies and unpaid debts are the other balance sheet problems. Such situations create the appropriate environment for the financial crisis to occur. Empirical Analysis with Artificial Neural Network (ANN) “An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain, process information.” (Stegiou, et al 2009) In the information processing system of ANN, there may be huge number of highly interconnected processing elements, neurons, just like in a brain. The neurons in question are organized into the layers of input, output and hidden. The input layer is connected to the output layer through junctions with a hidden layer. (Cravener, et al 2001) Input, hidden, output layers and the neurons constitute the network of ANN. The brief explanation of the learning process of ANN is as follows: Firstly, the network tries to find linear relationships between the inputs and the output. The links between the neurons in input and output layers are assigned weight values. At this phase, there is no hidden layer. After the linear relationships are found, non-linear relationships are found by adding neurons to the hidden layer. The values in the input layer, namely the inputs, are multiplied by the weights assigned by the system automatically and then sent to the hidden layer. The hidden layer produces some outputs, inputs of the output layer, and sends them to the output layer. Lastly, the output layer produces the predictions. The network of ANN is adaptive. Because the predicted values are compared with the actual values, and if there is any error, then the connecting weights are adjusted and/or new hidden neurons are added to capture all features of the data set and to make accurate predictions, namely to minimize the error. 18 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Inputs, Output (Variables) and the Dataset The studies analyzing the Turkish financial crisis of 1994, 2000 and 2001 empirically were examined to determine the inputs and output. The leading indicators that were found significant in the analysis were used as the inputs in our study besides the inputs emphasized by the financial crisis models. 96 pieces of monthly data of each input, between the dates of Janury, 1996 and December, 2003 were used in the analysis. The monthly percentage changes of each input were used. The data were collected from the Electronic Data Delivery System of Central Bank of Turkey and the website of Turkish Statistical Institute. About the Inputs The inputs used in the analysis are as follows: � M2 (Money Supply)/Gross Currency Reserves of Central Bank (M2/CBER): The rise of this rate means that the financial system is vulnerable to shocks. To the third generation financial crisis models, an increase in this rate increases the probability of financial crisis to occur. � Total Deposit of Commercial Banks (TDCP): It was observed that bank deposits had declined before the crisis. The fall in commercial bank deposits mean that bank balance sheets contract and the trust in banks decline. It is the crisis indicator of the third generation financial crisis models. � Domestic Credit Amount (DCA): Empirical findings obtained heretofore have proved that domestic credit amount increases before crisis. Before the financial crisis in November 2000, domestic credit amount, particularly the amount of consumer credits, increased substantially. � Consolidated Budget Income/ Consolidated Budget Expenditure (CBI/CBE): To the first generation financial crisis models, an increase in budget deficit raises the financial crisis risk. In other words, there is a positive relation between budget deficit and financial crisis risk. Therefore the probability of financial crisis risk is expected to increase as the value of this input declines. � Real Exchange Rate (RER): Overappreciation of local currency, that is, the change of exchange rate in favour of local currency is interpreted as a leading indicator of financial crisis. � Deposit Rate (DR): There is a positive relation between deposit rate and the probability of financial crisis. � Consumer Price Index (CPI): It was observed that inflation rates raised before financial crisis to have occured. � Current Account Balance/ Gross Domestic Product (CAB/GDP): An increase in this ratio is accepted as an indicator of financial crisis. To the former president of IMF, Stanley Fischer, high current deficient and banking sector caused the November 2000 crisis. (Fischer 2001) To some international finance institutions, CAB/GDP ratio of Turkey was unsustainable as of fall of 2000. � Export Coverage Import Ratio (EX/IMP): In an economy implementing fixed exchange rate system, the fall of export and the rise of import effect the foreign trade balance, thus the current account balance negatively. Current account deficit increases the pressure on exchange rate and causes speculative attacks. About the Output To design the output, a pressure index and a threshold were calculated. The formulas used to find out the pressure index and the threshold are as follows:1 The pressure index used is Foreign Exchange Market Pressure Index (EMP). “EMP is calculated as the weighted average of the monthly percentage changes in the gross currency reserves of the central bank and of the monthly percentage changes in the devaluation rate of TL against US dollar.” (Şen 2005) EMP is formulated as follows: EMPT = %∆et − α 1 %∆rt Where e t denotes the nominal buying rate of TL/$ at time t rt % denotes the amount of gross foreign currencies of Central Bank at time t ∆ e t denotes the monthly percentage change in the nominal buying rate. 1 The formulas used to design the output were taken from the following dissertation: Şen, Ali (2005), Finansal Krizlerin Tahmin Edilebilirliği: Türkiye Uygulaması, Đstanbul University. 19 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ∆ r t denotes the monthly percentage change in the amount of the gross foreign currencies of Central Bank % α1 is the proportion of the standard deviation of the series of the monthly percentage changes in the nominal exchange rate to the standard deviation of the series of the monthly percentage changes in the amount of the gross foreign currencies of Central Bank. Namely, ( σ e /σ r ) The value of the threshold is calculated by making use of the following formula βσ emp + µ emp Where β denotes the coefficient of EMP σ denotes the standard deviation of EMP series µ denotes the mean of EMP series If If EMPit > βσ EMPit + µ EMPit , It is deemed that financial crisis occured in the corresponding month EMPit ≤ βσ EMPĐT + µ EMPĐT , It is deemed that no financial crisis occured in the corresponding month. In the light of these information, the values of the pressure index in November 2000 and February, March, April and June 2001 were found greater than the value of the threshold. That is to say, it is inferred from the data that financial crisis occured in the mentioned months. This inference highly overlaps with the conclusions of some other empirical studies and the crisis experience of Turkish economy. June 2001 crisis could be accepted as the aftershock of February 2001 crisis. In analysis, the values of the pressure index, changing from month to month naturally, were used as output. The values of threshold, standard deviation, mean of the pressure index, and the ratio of ( σ e / σ r ) were found equal to 2.514596, 1.6010, 0.4491, and 0.1172 respectively. The coefficient of “β” is 1.29. It is important to determine the value of the coefficient of the standard deviation of the pressure index series, namely “β” while calculating the value of the threshold. Because deciding whether the financial crisis occured is effected by this value. To determine the value of the threshold, the values of “σ” ve “µ” were calculated by making use of the data whereas we assigned the value of “β”. We calculated the value of “β” as 1.29. Because the financial crises dates found out in case of determining the value of “β” as 1.29 overlapped with the actual financial crisis mentioned above. It is possible to give various values to the coefficient of “β”. For instance, in some studies1, it was given the values of 1.5, 2.5, and 2.54 respectively. Model Building (Learning/Training Phase) In this subsection, an ANN model is built for November 2000 and February 2001 financial crises. All data were used for learning and validation purposes. The data were not separated as learning or validation data. That is, the data used to validate the built model was chosen within the sample. Testing phase was skipped. What desired to achieve with this model is only to find out the effects of inputs on the output, namely the pressure indice, which are used to specify whether financial crises occurred between 1996 and 2003. The number of the hidden neurons is 70. Because the model yielded lower R-squared values in case of the utilization of less number of hidden neuron. The model with the highest value of R-squared was chosen as the best model. NeuroShell ® Predictor software was used for the analysis. The summaries of the statistical outcomes of the built model and importance of the inputs are as follows: R-Squared: R-squared takes a value between 0 and 1. The closer the value is to 1, the better the net is able to make predictions. The closer the value is to 0, the net is not able to make good predictions. The Rsquared value of the neural network model is 0.966431, which confirms the closeness of fit between the actual and trained pressure index. Figure 1 in Appendix shows the plot between the actual and trained pressure indice. 1 Please refer to the following articles: Aziz, Jahangir, Caramazza, Francesco, Salgado, Ranil (2000), “Currency Crises: In Search of Common Elements”, IMF Working Paper, No.67; Edison, Hali J. (2000), “Do Indicators of Financial Crises Work? An Evaluation of an Early Warning System”, Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, International Finance Discussion Paper No. 675; Esquivel, G., Larrin F. (1998), “Explaining Currency Crisis”, HIID, No.666 20 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The blue points represent the actual, the red points represent the predicted indice. From the figure, we infer that the model is very good at learning the indice, namely the existence or non-existence of the crises. Minimum Square Error (MSE): MSE is the statistical measure of the differences between the actual and predicted values of the output. MSE has the value of 0.002832 in our analysis, which is also a good indicator of the closeness of fit between the actual and trained pressure index. Relative Importance of Inputs: In Table 1 is given the relative importance of each input. Besides, Figure 2 in Appendix illustrates the importance of each input in predicting the value of output. The corresponding number of each input indicates the importance of the input in predicting the output. The relative importance numbers take a value between 0 and 1, The higher the number, the more important that input is in predicting the output. “The relative importance numbers are “normalized” so that for all inputs they add up to approximately 1. Therefore, we may think of these numbers as a percent contribution to the model of the respective inputs.” (Ward 1997) In view of the results, it is inferred that the input of domestic credit amount has the highest importance in predicting the output, whereas the input of CAB/GDP has the lowest. Table 1: Relative Importance of Inputs INPUT Domestic Credit Amount Export Coverage Import Ratio Real Exchange Rate Consumer Price Index Total Deposit of Commercial Banks Deposit Rate Consolidated Budget Income/Consolidated Budget Expenditure M2 (Money Supply)/Gross Currency Reserves of Central Bank Current Account Balance/ Gross Domestic Product IMPORTANCE 0.242 0.240 0.208 0.153 0.092 0.047 0.008 0.005 0.004 Model Validation (Validation Phase) In this subsection, the built model is validated with the same data in order to check whether the built model is capable enough to predict the actual values of the outcome, pressure indice. R-Squared value and MSE were found as 0.917785 and 0.006935 respectively. These results prove that the model is strong enough to predict the values of outome. Figure 3 in Appendix shows the plot between the actual and trained pressure indice at validation phase. The blue points represent the actual, and the red points represent the predicted indice. The performance of the model at validation phase proves that the model can predict the pressure indice, namely the existence or non-existence of the crises almost accurately. Concluding Remarks Financial crises, whatever their types are, have been on the agenda of many economists for nearly three decades. Because they leave destructive affects on the social and economic structures of the countries. As a result of the studies, empirical and theoretical, to gain an insight into the nature of financial crises, many theories and models have been suggested. Artificial Neural Network is one of those empirical analysis tools that could be used. In this study, ANN was used to analyze the economic reasons of November 2000 and February 2001 Turkish financial crises. The inputs and output were determined by making use of the leading indicators of financial crisis models, and some empirical analyses related to the Turkish financial crises of interest. The variables found significant in the empirical analyses were added to our study. The time interval, January of 1996 and December of 2003, was selected on purpose to analyze the Turkish crisis in the early 2000’s particularly. If the time interval had been determined longer, it would have been improper to mention about the economic causes of the crisis in question due to the inclusion of causes of the Turkish financial crisis in 1994. To the results at learning and validation phases, a strong model is built to find out the explanatory variables of November 2000 and February 2001 financial crises. Because the R-squared values of the model at training/learning and validation phases are 0.966431 and 0.917785 respectively. Besides, MSE values are 0.002832 and 0.006935. Moreover, the plots in figure 1 and 3 also prove the power of the model. It is concluded that the trained network model is a good fit to explain the reasons of the financial crises in question. In addition, it is inferred that the input of domestic credit amount played the greatest role in the crises in question whereas the input of Current Account Balance/ Gross Domestic Product played the smallest. 21 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Aziz, J., Caramazza, F.& Salgado, R. (2000). Currency Crises: In Search of Common elements. IMF Working Paper, No.67. Bastı, E. (2006). Kriz Teorileri Çerçevesinde 2001 Türkiye Finansal Krizi. Ankara: Sermaye Piyasası Kurulu Publications. Bilgin, M.H., Karabulut, G. & Ongan, H. (2002). Finansal Krizlerin Đşletmelerin Finansal Yapıları Üzerindeki Etkileri. Đstanbul: Đstanbul Ticaret Odası Publications, Publication No:2002-41. Cravener, T.L., Roush, W.B. (2001). Prediction of amino acid profiles in feed ingredients: Genetic algorithm calibration of artificial neural networks. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 90 (2001) 131-141. Delice, G. (2003). Finansal Krizler: Teorik ve Tarihsel Bir Perspektif. Erciyes University ĐĐBF Journal, No:20. Edison, H. J. (2000). Do Indicators of Financial Crises Work? An Evaluation of an Early Warning System. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, International Finance Discussion Paper, No. 675:1-74 Esquivel, G.& Larrin F. (1998). Explaining Currency Crisis. HIID, No.666 Fischer, S. (2001), Exchange Rate Regimes: Is the Bipolar View Correct. Symposium conducted at the meeting of American Economic Association Meeting. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weo0598/pdf/0598ch4.pdf (15 March 2009) Kaminsky, G.L., Saul L. & Carmen M.R. (1998). Leading Indicators of Currency Crises. International Monetary Fund Staff Papers, Vol.5, No.1. Kuran, Đ. (2006). Türkiye’de Ekonomik Krizler ve Đstikrar Programları (1980-2005). Unpublished MA Thesis. Harran University. Mishkin, F. (2003). Banking and Financial Crises. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/83724/mishkin.pdf (17 May 2009) Özer, M. (1999). Finansal Krizler, Piyasa Başarısızlıkları ve Finansal Đstikrarı Sağlamaya Yönelik Politikalar. Anadolu University Publications, No:1096. Stergiou C., Siganos, D. (2009). Neural Networks. http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~nd/surprise_96/journal/vol4/cs11/report.html#Introduction%20to%20neural%20networks (12 May 2009) Şen, A.(2005). Finansal Krizlerin Tahmin Edilebilirliği: Türkiye Uygulaması. Đstanbul University. Ward Systems Group Inc. (1997). NeuroShell ® Predictor Instruction. USA: Ward Systems Group Inc. Yay,T., Yay,G.G. & Yılmaz,E. (2001). Küreselleşme Sürecinde Finansal Krizler ve Finansal Düzenlemeler. Đstanbul: Đstanbul Ticaret Odası Publications, Publication No:2001-47. Appendix Figure 1: Actual and Predicted Values at Training/Learning Phase 22 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: Importance of Inputs at Training/Learning Phase Figure 3: Actual and Predicted Values at Validation Phase 23 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 130 Title A name given to the resource An Empirical Analysis of Turkish Financial Crises in the Early 2000’s. Author Author ÖZSOY, İsmail GÖRMEZ, Birol Abstract A summary of the resource. The financing scheme has a crucial function in an economy since it enables fundowners to transfer their funds to those in need. Unless the financing scheme operates effectively, economic growth is hampered severely due to the inadequacy or immobility of capital. The world finance history has experienced many financial crises, the case of malfunction of the financing scheme, repeatedly so far. Many theories and models have been developed to give an insight into the reasons and dissemination mechanisms of, and precautions against the financial crises. This paper is intended to find out the explanatory variables of the Turkish financial crises that took place in November 2000 and February 2001 with the help of the method of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and within the framework of the models of financial crises. To this effect, the models of financial crises are briefly dealt with; the Turkish financial crises in the early 2000’s are analyzed subsequently by making use of ANN. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/527212c1cf261602672c6be89d312dcd.pdf a2018946cbeb00a6c9a46b8b3054587c PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Investigating the Real but the Least Talked Reasons for the Global Financial Crisis Đsmail ÖZSOY Prof. Dr., Fatih University, Department of Economics E-mail: iozsoy@fatih.edu.tr Birol GÖRMEZ Research Asst., Fatih University, Department of Economics E-mail: bgormez@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The Global Financial Crisis of September 2008 is triggered by a dramatic rise in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures in the United States. With its destructive consequences for financial markets and institutions around the globe, it has exposed pervasive weaknesses in the current global financial system. The US housing collapse is often cited as having caused the crisis and the loose U.S. monetary policy is criticized for making the cost of credit negligible, thus encouraging high levels of leverage and causing a hypertrophy and bubbles in the financial sector. What is clear from the crisis is that the current global financial system is vulnerable because of intricate and highly-leveraged financial contracts and operations mainly based on derivatives and interest rates. Rating the reasons for the crisis and dealing with the financialization process of the economy, this paper argues that the main reason for the crisis is interest based transactions of derivatives; mostly being a zero-sum game, thus not producing any economic value, rather than being a result of win-win action. It then suggests that financial operations be based on real assets, producing real values, not on illusory ones. Key Words: Global Financial Crisis, US Mortgage Crisis, Mortgage Backed Securities (MBS), interest rate, real assets, derivatives, financial bubble, financialization. 1. Introduction The term financial crisis broadly refers to a variety of situations in which some financial institutions or assets suddenly lose a large part of their value. Many financial crises were associated with banking panics, recessions, stock market crashes, the bursting of other financial bubbles, currency crises, and sovereign defaults. The current global financial crisis that began in July 2007 when a loss of confidence by investors in the value of securitized mortgages in the United States resulted in a liquidity crisis that prompted a substantial injection of capital into financial markets by the US Fed, Bank of England and the European Central Bank. In September 2008, the crisis deepened, as stock markets worldwide crashed and entered a period of high volatility, and a considerable number of banks, mortgage lenders and insurance companies failed in the following weeks. The crisis of real estate, banking and credit in the United States had a global reach and affected a wide range of financial and economic activities and institutions including the stock exchanges and derivative markets that experienced steep declines. Liquidity problems, harder credit facilities, devaluated assets, increased public debt due to the provision of public funds to the financial services industry and other affected industries, and the devaluated currencies have been the outstanding symptoms of the crisis.1 Almost everybody agree on that the current crisis is the biggest in scale that the world has experienced since then. Unlike at the time of the Great Depression, when governments were slow to take countermeasures, the financial authorities of Japan, the United States, and Europe have been coordinating their response to provide financial institutions with infusions of public funds. This seems to have worked for now, causing the situation to become somewhat calmer. It is generally admitted that capitalism as a whole is speculative and inherently unstable. John Maynard Keynes believed that the market economy was unstable and that it was necessary to use monetary and fiscal policy to tame its instability (Katsuhito 2008). The current financial system seems to be inherently plagued by persistent crises. According to one estimate, there have been more than 100 crises over the last four decades (Stiglitz 2003). Not a single geographical area or major country has been spared the effect of these crises. Even some of the countries that have generally followed sound fiscal and monetary policies have become engulfed in these crises (Chapra 2008). 1 Wikipedia contributors, "Financial crisis of 2007–2009," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932009&oldid=289330105 (accessed May 12, 2009). 42 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Although US mortgage crisis is often cited as having caused the crisis, the financial system was vulnerable because of intricate and highly-leveraged financial contracts and operations, a U.S. monetary policy making the cost of credit negligible therefore encouraging such high levels of leverage, and generally a hypertrophy of the financial sector. This paper first deals with the most touched reasons for the current crisis, taking the financialism, a new phase of the capitalism, then discussing the role of interest rate policies in the inherently crisisful nature of capitalism. Finally, it lists some suggestions with concluding remarks. 2. The Most Talked Causes of the Current Global Financial Crisis As a matter of fact the present global financial did not take anybody by surprise. Few now doubt that the housing bubble in US was bound to burst or that a general financial crisis and a global economic slowdown were to be the unavoidable results. Warning signs were evident for years to all of those not taken in by the new financial alchemy of high-risk debt management, and not blinded, as was much of the corporate world, by huge speculative profits (Foster). Years ago, in August 2002, the analyst Dean Baker identified a housing bubble and wrote that from 1953 to 1995 house prices had simply tracked inflation, but that when house prices from 1995 onwards were adjusted for inflation they showed a marked increase over and above inflation-based increases. Baker drew the conclusion that a bubble in the US housing market existed and predicted an ensuing crisis (Baker). Baker's argument was confirmed with the construction of a data series from 1895 to 1995 by the influential the economist Robert Shiller, which showed that real house prices had been essentially unchanged over that 100 years (Shiller 2006). It later proved impossible to convince responsible parties such as the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve of the need for action. A common claim during the first weeks of the financial crisis was that the problem was simply caused by reckless, sub-prime lending. However, the sub-prime mortgages were only part of a far more extensive problem affecting the entire $20 trillion US housing market: the sub-prime sector was simply the first place that the collapse of the bubble affecting the housing market showed up. The ultimate point of origin of the great financial crisis of 2007-2009 can be traced back to an extremely indebted US economy. The collapse of the real estate market in 2006 was the close point of origin of the crisis. The failure rates of subprime mortgages were the first symptom of a credit boom tuned to bust and of a real estate shock. But large default rates on subprime mortgages cannot account for the severity of the crisis. Rather, low-quality mortgages acted as an accelerant to the fire that spread through the entire financial system. The latter had become fragile as a result of several factors that are unique to this crisis: the transfer of assets from the balance sheets of banks to the markets, the creation of complex and opaque (unclear) assets, the failure of ratings agencies to properly assess the risk of such assets, and the application of fair value accounting. To these novel factors, one must add the now standard failure of regulators and supervisors in spotting and correcting the emerging weaknesses (Fratianni and Marchionne 2009). Subprime lending is listed among the outstanding reasons. Subprime lending refers to financial institutions lending in ways which do not meet prime standards to an extent which puts the loans into the riskiest category of consumer loans typically sold in the secondary market. Proponents of subprime lending maintain that the practice extends credit to people who would otherwise not have access to the credit market. Some, like American Enterprise Institute fellow Peter J. Wallison, believe the roots of the crisis can be traced directly to sub-prime lending by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, which are government sponsored entities. On 30 September 1999, The New York Times reported that the Clinton Administration expanded mortgage loans among low and moderate income people. Deregulation is cited as another reason for the crisis. In 1992, the US Congress weakened regulation of government sponsored enterprises Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac with the goal of making available more money for the issuance of home loans. More importantly, in 1999, the Congress passed the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, paving way to the increase in the complex and opaque financial instruments which are at the heart of the crisis. The housing bubble grew up alongside the stock bubble of the mid-1990s (Foster). People who had increased their wealth substantially with the extraordinary run-up of stock prices were spending based on this increased wealth. This led to the consumption boom of the late 1990s, with the savings rate out of disposable income falling from five percent in the mid-90s to two percent by 2000. The stock-wealth induced consumption boom led people to buy bigger and/or better homes, since they sought to spend some of their new stock wealth on housing. The next phase of the housing bubble was the supply-side effect of the dramatic increase in house prices, as housing starts rose substantially from the mid-1990s onwards. The collapse of the stock bubble helped to feed the US housing bubble. After collectively losing faith in the stock market, millions of people turned to investments in housing as a safe alternative. In addition, the 2001 recession led the Federal Reserve to continue to cut interest rates. Fixed-rate mortgages and other interest rates hit 50-year lows. To further fuel the housing market, Federal Reserve Board Chairman Alan Greenspan suggested that homebuyers were wasting money by buying fixed rate mortgages instead of adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs). This was peculiar advice at a time when fixed rate mortgages were near 50-year lows, but even at the low rates of 2003 homebuyers could still afford larger mortgages with the adjustable rates available at the time. 43 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The bubble began to burst in 2007, as the building boom led to so much over-supply that prices could no longer be supported. Prices nationwide began to head downward, with this process accelerating through the fall of 2007 and into 2008. As prices decline, more homeowners face foreclosure. In cases where a home is valued far lower than the amount of the outstanding mortgage, homeowners may be able to simply walk away from their mortgage. Another cause of the crisis was miscalculation of the level of risk inherent in the unregulated collateralized debt obligation and Credit Default Swap markets. Under this theory, banks and investors systematized the risk by taking advantage of low interest rates to borrow tremendous sums of money that they could only pay back if the housing market continued to increase in value. The risk was further systematized by the use of false pricing model, Gaussian copula model, which will go down in history as instrumental in causing the unfathomable losses that brought the world financial system to its knees. Different from the mainstream explanation, another analysis is that the financial crisis is merely a symptom of another, deeper crisis, which is a systemic crisis of capitalism itself. According to Samir Amin, an Egyptian economist, the constant decrease in GDP growth rates in Western countries since the early 1970s created a growing surplus of capital which did not have sufficient profitable investment outlets in the real economy. The alternative was to place this surplus into the financial market, which became more profitable than productive capital investment, especially with subsequent deregulation (Samir 1996). According to Samir Amin, this phenomenon has lead to recurrent financial bubbles. 3. A Less Talked Cause: Financialization of the Economy Foster argues that this crisis is not just another massive credit crunch but signals a new phase in the development of the capitalistic system, which is labeled ‘monopoly-finance capital’. The bursting of two major financial bubbles in seven years points to a crisis of financialization, a progressive shift from production to finance that has characterized the economy over the last four decades (Foster). Paul Sweezy called it “the financialization of the capital accumulation process” just over a decade ago. It has been the main force lifting economic growth since the 1970s (Sweezy 1997). The financial system is supposed to serve a range of functions in the broader economy. Banks and other financial institutions mop up savings, and then allocate that capital, according to mainstream theory, to where it can most productively be used. For households and corporations, the credit markets facilitate greatly increased borrowing, which should foster investment in capital goods like buildings and machinery, in turn leading to expanded production. Finance, in other words, is supposed to facilitate the growth of the “real” economy—the part that produces useful goods (like bicycles) and services (like medical care). In recent decades, finance has undergone massive changes in both size and shape (Vasudevan 2008). Financialization is a process whereby financial markets, financial institutions and financial elites gain greater influence over economic policy and economic outcomes. Financialization transforms the functioning of economic system at both the macro and micro levels. Its principal impacts are to (1) elevate the significance of the financial sector relative to the real sector; (2) transfer income from the real sector to the financial sector; and (3) increase income inequality and contribute to wage stagnation. Additionally, there are reasons to believe that financialization may render the economy prone to risk of debt-deflation and prolonged recession (Palley 2007). The transformation in the system is reflected in the rapid growth since the 1970s of financial profits as a percent of total profits (see chart 1). The fact that such financialization of capital appears to be taking the form of bigger and bigger bubbles that burst more frequently and with more devastating effect, threatening each time a deepening of stagnation -i.e., the condition, endemic to mature capitalism, of slow growth, and rising excess capacity and unemployment/underemployment, is thus a development of major significance. 44 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Chart 1. Financial profits as a percent of total profits (five-year moving average) Source: Table B-91. Corporate Profits by Industry, 1959–2007, Economic Report of the President, 2008. The term financialization is sometimes used in discussions of financial capitalism1 which developed over several decades leading up to the 2007-2009 financial crisis, and in which financial leverage tended to override capital (equity) and financial markets tended to dominate over the traditional industrial economy. Greta Krippner defines financialization as a “pattern of accumulation in which profit making occurs increasingly through financial channels rather than through trade and commodity production.” Another definition by Dore is: “the increasing dominance of the finance industry in the sum total of economic activity, of financial controllers in the management of corporations, of financial assets among total assets, of marketised securities and particularly equities among financial assets, of the stock market as a market for corporate control in determining corporate strategies, and of fluctuations in the stock market as a determinant of business cycles” (Dore 2000)). The basic mechanism of financialization is the transformation of future streams of income (from profits, dividends, or interest payments) into a tradable asset like a stock or a bond. For example, the future earnings of corporations are transmuted into equity stocks that are bought and sold in the capital market. Likewise, a loan, which involves certain fixed interest payments over its duration, gets a new life when it is converted into marketable bonds. And multiple loans, bundled together then “sliced and diced” into novel kinds of bonds (“collateralized debt obligations”), take on a new existence as investment vehicles that bear an extremely complex and opaque relationship to the original loans (Vasudevan 2008). In his 2006 book, American Theocracy: The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil, and Borrowed Money in the 21st Century, An American writer Kevin Phillips presents financialization as a process whereby financial services take over the dominant economic, cultural, and political role in a national economy.” (p. 268). Philips considers that the financialization of the U.S. economy follows the same pattern that marked the beginning of the decline of the American economy as Habsburg Spain in the 16th century, the Dutch trading empire in the 18th century, and the British Empire in the 19th century. Graph 1: Share in GDP of US financial sector since 1860. Source: "Financialization." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 2 May 2009, 00:32 UTC. 21 May 2009 <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financialization&oldid=287358015>. The roots of financialization is traced to the rise of Neoliberalism and the free-market doctrines of Milton Friedman and the Chicago School of Economics, of which the politico-economic philosophy has been summarized as one in which “markets, private property and minimal government will achieve maximum welfare.” One of the most important impetuses to the rise of financialization was the end of the post-World War Two Bretton Woods system of fixed international exchange rates and the dollar peg to gold in August 1971. The demise of fixed exchange rates initiated a rapid rise in the level of foreign exchange trading (forex), leaping in the United States from $110.8 billion in 1970, 10.7 percent of U.S. GDP, to $5.449 trillion in 1980, 195.3 percent of U.S. GDP, meaning a 5 times increase. An April 1977 study found there was $4.8 billion in daily forex trading, or around $1.2 trillion a year. However, this study did not include all the trading in futures trading for various currencies. Currency futures were first created at the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME) in 1972, the year after fixed exchange rates were abandoned. 1 Financial capital refers to the funds provided by lenders (and investors) to businesses to purchase real capital equipment for producing goods/services. Real capital comprises physical goods that assist in the production of other goods and services, eg. shovels for gravediggers, sewing machines for tailors, or machinery and tooling for factories. (Financial capital. (2009, May 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:28, May 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_capital&oldid=290884469) 45 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Other financial markets exhibited similarly explosive growth. While the volume of trade in US equity (stock) markets was 13.1 percent of US GDP in 1970, it rose to 28.8 percent of U.S. GDP in 1990, and 144.9 percent of GDP. Thus, derivatives trading -mostly futures contracts on interest rates, foreign currencies, Treasury bonds, etc had reached a level of $1,200 trillion, $1.2 quadrillion, a year. By comparison, U.S. GDP in 2006 was $12.456 trillion. Table 1 provides data for the annual amount of financial trading in U.S. financial markets, compared to GDP. Table 1: Dollar value of trading in U.S. financial markets compared to GDP (Annual, in billions of dollars. Italics indicate estimates) 1956 1960 1963 1966 1970 1980 1990 2000 2001 Equity Markets Trading 36 47 61 128 135 522 1,671 14,22 U.S. government securities trading 276 473 722 1,091 1,391 4,840 26,688 67,05 Futures Trading 150 165 203 250 330 5,584 152,717 343,13 Foreign Exchange Trading 41 47 55 74 111 5,449 36,000 60,960 Corporate Debt Trading 19 35 56 90 na 821 3,972 3,96 State and Municipal Bonds 12 23 37 60 112 542 2,622 2,11 Options trading, on exchange na na na na na 46 81 330 Mortgage Derivatives na na na na na na 3,697 16,68 OTC swaps, forwards, options na na na na na TOTAL FINANCIAL TURNOVER 534 795 1,134 1,692 2,749 17,804 227,448 508,45 U.S. Gross Domestic Product 425 526 603 770 1,039 2,790 5,803 9,817 Turnover divided by GDP 1.256 1.511 1.331 2.198 2.647 6.383 39.194 51.79 GDP as % of financial turnover 79.6 66.2 53.2 45.5 37.8 15.7 2.6 1.9 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financialization, May 19 2009 A dramatic shift is observed in types of futures contracts traded from 1970 to 2004. For a century after organized futures exchanges were founded in the mid-1800s, all futures trading was solely based on agricultural commodities. But after the end of dollar gold-backed fixed-exchange rate system in 1971, contracts based on foreign currencies began to be traded. After the deregulation of interest rates by the Bank of England, then the U.S. Federal Reserve, in the late 1970s, futures contracts based on various bonds / interest rates began to be traded. The result was that financial futures contracts - based on such things as interest rates, currencies, or equity indices - came to dominate the futures markets. The average value for interest rate contracts is around ten times that of agricultural and other commodities, while the average value of currency contracts is twice that of agricultural and other commodities. As a result of the process of financialization, Financial services have become a key industry in developed economies in which it represents a sizeable share of the GDP and an important source of employment. Those activities also played a key facilitator role to foster economic globalization. ... “The Reagan-Thatcher model, which favored finance over domestic manufacturing, has collapsed” (Meyerson 2009). Emerging countries try also to develop their financial sector, as an engine of economic development. A typical aspect is the growth of microfinance / microcredit. Microfinance refers to the provision of financial services to lowincome clients, including consumers and the self-employed (Joanna 2000). Microcredit is a part of microfinance, which is the provision of a wider range of financial services to the very poor. Microcredit is a financial innovation that is generally considered to have originated with the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh (Cons and Paprocki 2008). In that country, it has successfully enabled extremely impoverished people to engage in self-employment projects that allow them to generate an income and, in many cases, begin to build wealth and exit poverty. Due to the success of microcredit, it is increasingly gaining credibility in the mainstream finance industry, and many traditional large finance organizations are contemplating microcredit projects as a source of future growth, even though almost everyone in larger development organizations discounted the likelihood of success of microcredit when it was begun. The United Nations declared 2005 the International Year of Microcredit.1 This recognized success brought also some negative reactions. In the Introduction to the 2006 book Financialization and the World Economy, editor Gerald A. Epstein writes: “… in the mid- to late 1970s or early 1980s, structural shifts of dramatic proportions took place in a number of countries that led to significant increases in financial transactions, real interest rates, the profitability of financial firms, and the shares of national income accruing to the holders of financial assets. This set of phenomena reflects the 1 Microcredit. (2009, May 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:14, May 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microcredit&oldid=288530976 46 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo processes of financialization in the world economy… Finance benefits handsomely from the same processes that create economic crises and injure so many others. Hence the costs of financial crises are paid by the bulk of the population, while large benefits accrue to finance. …Using the case of the US economy, Crotty argues that financialization has had a profound and largely negative impact on the operations of US nonfinancial corporations. This is partly reflected in the increasing incomes extracted by financial markets from these corporations; trends identified also by Duménil and Lévy and Epstein and Jayadev. For example, Crotty shows that the payments US NFCs paid out to financial markets more than doubled as a share of their cash flow between the 1960s and the 1970s, on one hand, and the 1980s and 1990s on the other... Financial markets’ demands for more income and more rapidly growing stock prices occurred at the same time as stagnant economic growth and increased product market competition made it increasingly difficult to earn profits. Crotty calls this the ‘neoliberal’ paradox. Non-financial corporations responded to this pressure in three ways, none of them healthy for the average citizen: 1) they cut wages and benefits to workers; 2) they engaged in fraud and deception to increase apparent profits and 3) they moved into financial operations to increase profits. Hence, Crotty argues that financialization in conjunction with neoliberalism and globalization has had a significantly negative impact on the prospects for economic prosperity (Epstein). One of the most notable features of financialization has been the development of over-leverage (more borrowed capital and less own capital) and, as a related tool, financial derivatives. Financial derivatives are the financial instruments, the price or value of which is derived from the price or value of another, underlying financial instrument. Those instruments, which initial purpose was hedging and risk management, have become widely traded financial assets in their own. The most common types of derivatives are futures contracts, swaps, and options. In the past few years, the number and types of financial derivatives have grown enormously.1 A major unknown regarding derivatives is the actual amount of cash behind a transaction. A derivatives contract with a notional value of millions of dollars may actually only cost a few thousand dollars. For example, an interest rate swap might be based on exchanging the interest payments on $100 million in U.S. Treasury bonds at a fixed interest of 4.5 percent, for the floating interest rate of $100 million in credit card receivables. This contract would involve at least $4.5 million in interest payments, though the notional value may be reported as $100 million. However, the actual “cost” of the swap contract would be some small fraction of the minimal $4.5 million in interest payments. The difficulty of determining exactly how much this swap contract is worth when accounted for on a financial institution’s books, is typical of the worries many experts and regulators have over the explosive growth of these types of instruments. The root causes of the US financial crisis are now well known, but excessive leverage and derivative trade featured prominently as one of the explanations. As the Figure 1 shows, global per capita derivative in 2008 outstripped global per capita GDP by a factor of 10, as opposed to a factor of less than 2 a decade ago. This trend highlights not only the rapidity with which derivative trade grew over the years but also the dangers of undertaking such colossal transactions without adequate underlying assets to back them.2 1998 2000 2001 2004 2007 2008 ■ Global Per Capita GDP ■ Global Per Capita 'Derivative' Figure 1: World Per Capita Derivative and Per Capita GDP 1000 Source: BIS, IMF, World Bank 1 In November 2007, commenting on the financial crisis sparked by the sub-prime mortgage collapse in the United States, writes that according to the Bank of International Settlements, the OTC market for Credit default swaps (CDS) jumped from $4.7 trillion (TN) at the end of 2004 to $22.6 TN to end 2006. From the International Swaps and Derivatives Association we know that the total notional volume of credit derivatives jumped about 30% during the first half to $45.5 TN. And from the Comptroller of the Currency, total U.S. commercial bank Credit derivative positions ballooned from $492bn to begin 2003 to $11.8 TN as of this past June. (Doug Noland “Credit Bubble Bulletin: Road to Ruin”, Asia Times Online, Nov. 6, 2007, available at http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/IK06Dj01.html) 2 Gulf One Investment Bank Research Bulletin, Vol.. 2, No.1, January 2009. 47 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. The Least Talked Cause: Interest Rate Policies Economists of the Austrian School have proposed that the crisis is an excellent example of the Austrian Business Cycle Theory, in which credit created through the policies of central banking gives rise to an artificial boom, which is inevitably followed by a bust. Proponents of this theory have predicted the current financial crises, and argue that central banks should not be involved in debt markets. The history of the yield curve from 2000 through 2007 illustrates the role that credit creation through interest rate policies by the Federal Reserve may have played in the on-set of the financial crisis in 2007 and 2008. Treasury yield is one tool of monetary policy. The yield curve (also known as the term structure of interest rates) is the shape formed by a graph showing US Treasury Bill or Bond interest rates on the vertical axis and time to maturity on the horizontal axis (Figure 2). When short-term interest rates are lower than long-term interest rates the yield curve is said to be “positively sloped”. This in turn encourages an expansion in money supply and in turn favours debt induced bubbles. When long-term interest rates are lower than short-term interest rates the yield curve is said to be “inverted”. This favours a contraction in money supply. When long term and short term interest rates are equal the yield curve is said to be “flat”. The yield curve is believed by some to be a strong predictor of recession (when inverted) and inflation (when positively sloped). Figure 2: Yield Curve Source: Wikipedia contributors, "Yield curve," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yield_curve&oldid=289286091 (accessed May 14, 2009). A positively sloped yield curve allows primary dealers (such as large investment banks) in the Federal Reserve System to fund themselves with cheap short term money while lending out at higher long-term interest rates. This strategy is profitable so long as the yield curve remains positively sloped. However, it creates a liquidity risk if the yield curve were to become inverted and banks would have to refund themselves at expensive short term interest rates while losing money on longer term loans. Following the bursting of the Dot-com bubble in 2000 and the Stock market downturn of 2002 the US Federal Reserve reacted by sharply lowering short-term interest rates. The Fed lowered the Fed Funds target rate beginning in January 2001 at 6.5% to a nadir of 1% in June 2003. The Fed also held rates at this low level for an unusually long period of time (1yr) until June 2004. This prolonged period of stimulative Fed monetary policy created a very positively sloped yield curve. The yield on the 3-month T-bill reached its lowest point (0.88%) for the cycle in the late fall of 2003 while at the same time 30-year T-bond rates were in excess of 5%. In June 2004 the Fed began to slowly increase Fed Funds rates and the yield curve slowly narrowed. Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan notably described this narrowing of spreads between short term and long term rates as a “conundrum” during testimony in February 2005. The chairman expected long term rates to rise in line with short term rates. However, the tightening of monetary policy caused by rising short term rates was slowing the economy and reducing demand for long-term borrowing. 48 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Fed raised Fed Funds target rates to a peak of 5.25% in June 2006. By October 2006 the yield curve on 90-day T-bills vs 30-year T-bonds was essentially flat indicating neutral monetary policy (neither stimulative nor contractionary). While the Fed maintained Fed Funds rates at this high level, long term rates began to fall causing the yield curve to become more and more inverted. The yield curve was most strongly inverted in March 2007 when concern about current inflation was reaching its peak. The narrowing of the yield curve from 2004 and the inversion of the yield curve during 2007 indicated a bursting of the housing bubble and a wild gyration of commodities prices as moneys flowed out of assets like housing or stocks. A commodity bubble was created following the collapse in the housing bubble. The price of oil rose to over $140 dollars per barrel in 2008 before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008. A similar bubble in oil prices has preceded other historical economic contractions. 5. Vatican Offering Islamic Finance System to Western Banks It should not take anybody by surprise that the Vatican offered Islamic finance principles to Western banks as alternative to capitalism to solve the worldwide economic crisis, with Daily Vatican newspaper, 'L'Osservatore Romano, reporting that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. Having resisted the interest for 1500 years in its 2000 years’ history, the Vatican suggested that the banks look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. The newspaper drew attention of the banks to the ethical principles on which Islamic finance is based in order to bring them closer to their clients and to the true spirit which should mark every financial service. Author Loretta Napoleoni and Abaxbank Spa fixed income strategist, Claudia Segre, said in the article that Western banks could use tools such as the Islamic bonds, known as sukuk, as collateral. To them, sukuk may be used to fund the car industry or the next Olympic Games in London. They also said that profit share, gained from sukuk, may be an alternative to the interest. They underlined that sukuk system could help automotive sector and support investments in infrastructure area. Islamic sukuk system is similar to bonds of capitalist system. But in sukuk, money is invested in concrete projects and profit share is distributed to clients instead of interest earned. Pope Benedict XVI in an Oct 7 speech reflected on crashing financial markets saying that “Money vanishes, it is nothing” and concluded that “the only solid reality is the word of God.” The Vatican has been paying attention to the global financial meltdown and ran articles in its official newspaper that criticize the free-market model for having “grown too much and badly in the past two decades.” The Osservatore's editor, Giovanni Maria Vian, said that “the great religions have always had a common attention to the human dimension of the economy,” Corriere della Sera reported today.1 Although the term ‘interest’ is the most condemned notion throughout history, it has been the factor that most affected the individual and social life of the humankind. Yet, it has been the foundation stone of capitalist liberal economy. The current financial crisis is the result of the bursting of financial bubbles that grew in the recent decades, and the most effective factor that has generated the bubbles is the interest, which is the backbone of modern finance. Interest bearing negotiable instruments and securities change hands without any limit. Trillion dollars’ bonds’ markets fluctuate upon any interest rate change and some earn billions of dollars in a few hours while others lose. One point hike in the interest rates pulls upward the debt stocks of a state, while an opposite move causes losses to the creditor. Interest has become the indispensable element of the modern economies, penetrating into their cells. Even the financial transactions seemingly irrelevant to interest are somehow hand in hand with it. For example, in futures contracts, what determines the spread, the difference, between spot and future prices is nothing other the interest. In short, interest makes the financial world for some a door to happiness and for some a door to misfortune. Why to be astonished by such a system producing crises? (Uslu 2008). 6. Conclusion Though it is inherently the primary reason for business cycles, interest rates have not been criticized by the mainstream economics since it is taken for granted in spite of the fact that it is a problematic policy tool. But the truth is clear that the global financial system is quite volatile due to its being dependent on the mostly questionable interest rates. Since it is impossible for mankind to foresee the future, any interest rate which is determined according to the current supply and demand conditions should not be expected to be valid on the coming days ahead since these days will have their own supply and demand conditions that determine another interest rate, which may be highly different than the already fixed one, thus arising a deviation between the two. This deviation is one of the reasons for financial 1 “Vatican offers Islamic finance system to Western Banks”, March 6, 2009, available at http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php?id=37814, May 20, 2009; “Vatican Paper Supports Islamic Finance. France Wants Its Share of Sharia Banking”, available at http://www.brusselsjournal.com/node/3819, May 20, 2009; “Vatican backs Islamic finance”, available at http://www.newhorizonislamicbanking.com/index.cfm?section=news&action=view&id=10751, May 20, 2009. 49 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo bubbles and imbalances. We should remember that the equivalent of the term interest in Islamic literature is ‘riba’ which means ‘growth’ and ‘bubble’. Since all the financial transactions as well as futures trading and currency futures are carried out on the basis of interest rates, all these transactions cause some deviation thus a bubble growing by the time. Giving an ear to the voice of the Vatican calling to the Islamic finance and ethics, we had better have a look at this option in order to have a solid and sound financial system. By the way, Islamic finance helps raise substantially the share of equity in businesses and of profit-and-loss sharing in projects and ventures through the mudarabah and musharakah modes of financing. Greater reliance on equity does not necessarily mean that debt financing is ruled out. Yet Islamic finance rather requires the creation of debt through the sale or lease of real assets through its sales- and lease-based modes of financing (murabahah, ijarah, salam, istisna and sukuk). The purpose is to enable an individual or firm to buy now the urgently needed real goods and services in conformity with his ability to make the payment later. Islam has, however, laid down certain conditions that would help prevent excessive expansion of debt. Some of these are: 1) The asset which is being sold or leased must be real, and not imaginary or notional; 2) The seller must own and possess the goods being sold or leased; 3) The transaction must be a genuine trade transaction with full intention of giving and taking delivery; and 4) The debt cannot be sold and thus the risk associate with it cannot be transferred to someone else. It must be borne by the creditor himself (Chapra 2008). These basic principles no doubt need detailed explanation, not possible for the time being due to lack of space, since it has already exceeded its limits. References Amin, Samir. (1996). “Economic, Social and Political http://www.ismea.org/INESDEV/AMIN.eng.html, May 20, 2009. Distortions in Baker, Dean. “The Run-up in Home Prices: Is It Real or http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/housing_2002_08.pdf, 12 May 2009 Is the It Modern Another World”, available at Bubble?”, available at Chapra, M. Umer.(2008). The Global Financial Crisis: Can Islamic Finance Help Minimize the Severity and Frequency Of Such A Crisis in the Future? A paper prepared for presentation at the Forum on the Global Financial Crisis to be held at the Islamic Development Bank on 25 October 2008, avalable at http://www.isdbforum.org/presentationPapers/5-M_Umer_Chapra.pdf, 20 May, 2009. Cons, Jason and Paprocki, Kasia. (2008). "The Limits of Microcredit—A Bangladeshi Case", Food First Backgrounder (Institute for Food and Development Policy), Winter 2008, volume 14, number 4. Dore, R. (2000). Stock Market Capitalism: Welfare Capitalism: Japan and Germany vs. the Anglo-Saxons. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924061-2. Epstein, Gerald A. “1. Introduction: Financialization and the World Economy”, available at http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/ pdf/programs/globalization/financialization/chapter1.pdf, May 19, 2009. Financial capital. (2009, May 19). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 09:28, May 19, 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_capital&oldid=290884469) Foster, John Bellamy.(April 2008). “The Financialization of http://www.monthlyreview.org/080401foster.php, accessed on 16 May 2009. Capital and the Crisis”, available at Fratianni, M. and Marchionne, F. 2009. The Role of Banks in the Subprime Financial Crisis available on SSRN: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1383473 Gulf One Investment Bank Research Bulletin, Vol.2, No.1, January 2009. Iwai, Katsuhito. (December 08, 2008). “Global Financial Crisis Shows Inherent Instability of Capitalism”, available at http://www.tokyofoundation.org/en/articles/2008/global-financial-crisis-shows-inherent-instability-of-capitalism, May 20, 2009. Ledgerwood, Joanna. (2000). Microfinance Handbook: an Institutional and Financial Perspective. Washington DC: The World Bank, 2000. Meyerson,Harold. (2009). "Building a Better Capitalism", The Washington Post, March 12, 2009, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/11/AR2009031103218.html?wpisrc=newsletter, May 19, 2009. Microcredit. (2009, May 7). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Microcredit&oldid=288530976 Retrieved 12:14, May 19, 2009, from Noland, Doug Noland. (2007). “Credit Bubble Bulletin: Road to Ruin”, Asia Times Online, Nov. 6, 2007, available at http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/IK06Dj01.html) Palley, Thomas I. (2007). “Financialization: What it is and Why it Matters”, TUAC Labour/Management Seminar on “Financialisation of the Economy: Regulating Private Equity”, OECD, 12 November 2007. Shiller, R. 2006. Irrational Exhuberance Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Stiglitz, Joseph. (2003). “Dealing with Debt: How to Reform the Global Financial System”, Harvard International Review, Spring, pp. 5459. 50 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sweezy, Paul M. (1997). “More (or Less) on Globalization,” Monthly Review 49, no. 4 (September 1997): 3. Uslu, Sami. (2008). “Küresel Krizin Derin Sebepleri”, available at http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno=762286, May 10, 2009. Vasudevan,Ramaa. Financialization: A Primer, available at http://www.dollarsandsense.org/archives/2008/1108vasudevan.html 16 May 2009. “Vatican backs Islamic finance”, =view&id=10751, May 20, 2009. available at http://www.newhorizon-islamicbanking.com/index.cfm?section=news&action “Vatican offers Islamic finance system to Western Banks”, March 6, 2009, available at http://www.worldbulletin.net/news_detail.php ?id=37814, May 20, 2009. “Vatican Paper Supports Islamic Finance. France Wants Its Share of Sharia Banking”, available at http://www.brusselsjournal.com /node/3819, May 20, 2009. Wikipedia contributors, "Financial crisis of 2007–2009," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932009&oldid=289330105 (accessed May 12, 2009). 51 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 137 Title A name given to the resource Investigating the Real but the Least Talked Reasons for the Global Financial Crisis Author Author ÖZSOY, İsmail GÖRMEZ, Birol Abstract A summary of the resource. The Global Financial Crisis of September 2008 is triggered by a dramatic rise in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures in the United States. With its destructive consequences for financial markets and institutions around the globe, it has exposed pervasive weaknesses in the current global financial system. The US housing collapse is often cited as having caused the crisis and the loose U.S. monetary policy is criticized for making the cost of credit negligible, thus encouraging high levels of leverage and causing a hypertrophy and bubbles in the financial sector. What is clear from the crisis is that the current global financial system is vulnerable because of intricate and highly-leveraged financial contracts and operations mainly based on derivatives and interest rates. Rating the reasons for the crisis and dealing with the financialization process of the economy, this paper argues that the main reason for the crisis is interest based transactions of derivatives; mostly being a zero-sum game, thus not producing any economic value, rather than being a result of win-win action. It then suggests that financial operations be based on real assets, producing real values, not on illusory ones. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c61b92ac1b06ed99124ae34008878d4.pdf 35ac215cd0f38442a04d448ec2e15604 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Comparing Functional Programming and Object Oriented Programming Languages on the Server Side Programming Özgür Örnek International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina oornek@ibu.edu.ba Abstract : The use of web applications has been rapidly expanded into all sectors of society such as government, business, education, and industry. Web applications have to be thorough tested to ensure their correctness and meet the software requirements. Today, there are many different methods available to develop dynamic web applications but all these methods have some advantages and some disadvantages. It is very difficult to decide which solution should be chosen for a particular problem in a specific environment. Some dynamic script languages based on object oriented programming have been introduced such as JSP servlets and ASP.NET. Some of them based on functional programming languages such as ASP and PHP. In this paper, we adapt to specify advantages and disadvantages of developing web application with object oriented programming and functional programming languages . To achieve this aim, we picked up JSP and servlet as object oriented programming language and PHP as a functional programming language. We implemented different stock programs in JSP and PHP programming languages in order to compare their performances. Keywords: JSP, Servlet, PHP, Server Side Programming 1. Introduction In the early years of the Internet, the web application was static. The web content that sent to the browser was entirely same. It was not possible to implement web-based business applications that require database connection, user authentication, session management, and dynamic Html generation. To eliminate web-based business applications demand, server side programming languages were developed as a dynamic web application. Over the years, numerous alternatives and enhancements, such as FastCGI, mod_perl from Apache, NSAPI from Netscape, ISAPI, ASP, ASP.NET from Microsoft, PHP, Coldfusion, and Java servlets,JSP from Sun Microsystems,have been created. Today, there are many different methods available to develop dynamic web applications but allthese methods have some advantages and disadvantages.Itis very difficultto decide which solution should be chosen for a particular problem in a specific environment. Some dynamic script languages based on object oriented programming have been introduced such as JSP servlets and ASP.NET. Some of them based on functional programming languages such as ASP and PHP. However, as much attention has been paid to the development of Web applications, there exist very few reports on Web application testing. In this paper, we endeavor to specify advantages and disadvantages of developing web application with object oriented programming and functional programming languages. Forthis purpose, we picked up JSP as object oriented programming language and PHP as a functional program ming language. We implemented same stock implementation in JSP and PHP programming languages in order to compare their performances. Similar studies have been handled by particularresearchers. Hendeson-Sellers(Henderson-Seller. 2000) concluded that in object oriented programming languages are more successful in complex application development. Roberts (Roberts, Gary. 2005) analyzed server side programming languages such as PHP, ASP, ASP.NET, and ColdFusion with advantages and disadvantages. Based on his study, preferring suitable server sidetechnology depends on operating system, economy, ease of using, and sustainability.Yang et al.(Yang et al. 2002) expanded traditional software testing architecture to support Web Application setting. A set of tool was developed to help analyze documents, develop test cases, execute tests, monitor failures, and support test measurement. Ricca and Tonella (Ricca and Tonella. 2002) described an analysis model that captures web pages, forms, frames, and theirrelationship of Web applications. Masaud et al.(Masaud et al.2006) compared JSP and ASP.NET framework in MVC implementation. Their findings showed thatimplementing the ASP.Netframework was easierthan JSP framework to achieve the 353 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo M V C major concept. Suzumura et al.(Suzumura et al. 2008) conducted performance comparison of web service engines in PHP, Java, and C. 2. Web Application Architecture A typical web application consists of a web server, an application server and a database server. Figure 2.1 illustrates web application architecture. Figure 2.1: Web application architecture The typical flow of handling a request starts with the browser issuing are quest for a specific resource. The web server picks up this request off of port 80 and determines thatthe application server should handle the request. The application server receives the request and executes some code to handle the request. Within the code, the database may be called by making a connection to whatever port to which the database server is listening. Once a response has been assembled, it's sent back to the browser from where it originated. (Patzer. 2002) 3. Developig Java Web Applications Server-side Java programming model is based on two recent Java server-side technologies: Servlets, Java Server Pages (JSPs). Servlets (and JSP) offers the following benefits that are not necessarily available in othertechnologies: Performance: The performance of servletsissuperiorto CGI becausethereis no process creation for each client request.Instead, each request is handled by the servlet container process. After a servletis finished processing a request,itstays residentin memory, waiting for another request. Portability: Similar to other Java technologies, servlet applications are portable. You can move them to other operating systems without serious hassles. Rapid development cycle: As a Java technology, servlets have accesstothe rich Java library, which helps speed up the development process. Robustness: Servlets are managed by the Java Virtual Machine. As such, you don’t need to worry about memory leak or garbage collection, which helps you write robust applications. Widespread acceptance: Java is a widely accepted technology. This means that numerous vendors work on 354 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Java-based technologies. One of the advantages of this widespread acceptance is that you can easily find and purchase componentsthat suit your needs, which saves precious development time. 3.1. Java Servlets Servlets are nothing more than Java classesthat provide specialserver side service. This service defines a set oflifecycle methods thatcan be overridden to provide dynamic responses to HTTP requests. The web container can load and manage multiple servlets withinthe same Java Virtual Machine (JV M). Once a servletisloaded,it handles each incoming request by spawning a new lightweight thread to perform its task. This enables the application serverto service a great number of requests without significant degradation of performance.Itisillustrated at Figure 3.1.(Chunlin. ?) Figure 3.1: Servlet working architecture 3.2. Java Server Pages (JSP) Java Server Pages (JSP) technology enables to mix regular, static HT ML with dynamically generated content from servlets. With JSP, web designers and developers can quickly incorporate dynamic elements into web pages using embedded Java and a few simple markup tags. These tags provide the HT ML designer with a way to access data and business logic stored inside Java objects without having to master the complexities of Java application development. JSP files contain traditional HT ML along with embedded code that allows the page designer to access datafrom Java code running on the server. When the page isrequested by a user and processed by the HyperText Transport Protocol (HTTP) server,the HT ML portion of the page is passed straightthrough. The code portions of the page, however, are executed atthe time the requestis received, and the dynamic content generated by this code isspliced intothe page beforeitissenttothe user. This provides for a separation ofthe HT ML presentation aspects of the page from the programming logic contained in the code. It is illustrated at Figure 3.2 (Visualbuilder.com Team 2001) 355 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 3.2: JSP Architecture 4. Developing PHP Web Applications The PHP language is widely used Open Source general-purpose scripting language that is especially suited for Web development and can be embedded into HT ML. A great number of open source software and company’s web sites use PHP sinceitcan enable high software productivity. PHP usage statisticsisillustrated in Figure 4.1 (http://www.php.net/usage.php) Figure 4.1: PHP usage for Jul 2007 356 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo PHP can be used on all major operating systems, including Linux, many Unix variants, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, RISC OS, and probably others. PHP has also support for most ofthe web servers today. This includes Apache, Microsoft Internet Information Server, Personal Web Server, Netscape and iPlanet servers,and many others. Forthe majority ofthe servers PHP has a module,forthe others supporting the CGI standard, PHP can work as a CGI processor. PHP has many strengths,including the following: Stability, and compatibility : It works well with other software and can be quite fast. PHP uses the machine resources very efficiently. Currently, PHP runs stable on a range of operating systems including most flavors of UNIX, Windows and Macs and integrates wellwith most popular serversincluding IIS and apache. One of the strongest and most significant features in PHP is its support for a wide range of databases. Writing a database-enabled web page is incredibly simple. Cost : PHP is free. PHP is a popular choice for companies hoping to avoid licensing costs. It’s also the most popular choice for small business web hosting providers who almost always provide PHP and MySQL support. MySQL isfrequently used by those small businesses,for example,to maintain a database containing a catalog of their merchandise. PHP allowsthose vendorsto calculate prices based on complex selection criteria(like product color,size,and style). PHP (free)isfrequently used in conjunction with Linux (a free operating system), MySQL (a free database), and Apache (a free web server) - allfree and collectively referred to as “LA MP”. Availability of Support : PHP is Open Source. Because PHP's source code is freely available, a community of developers is always working to improve, add to, and find bugs in the language. Open Source means you never need to rely on the manufacturer to release the next version if something doesn't work or pay for expensive upgrades. Simplicity with Built in Libraries : The syntax of PHP based on other programming languages, primarily C and Perl.It has many built-in functions for performing many useful web tasks. PHP can generate GIF images on the fly, connect to web services and other network services, parse X ML, send email, and generate PDF documents, all with just a few lines of code.(Welling, L. & Thomson L. 2005) 5. Experimental Results The goal ofthis benchmark isto demonstrate performance analyze of JSP and PHP technologies. Thus, we developed onlinetwo stock programs withtwo technologies separately. We used MySQL as database server, and Apache as web server. In orderto analyze web applications, virtualtesttools are used. To measure Web page performance and toteststability, we used Webserver Stress Tool. Withthistesttool, we can test with specifying number of virtual users and each user’s page requestinlimited duration. Testtool was configured to use 100 and 500 concurrent connectionsin particular duration.Forthe tests, we used PHP system, with a single 1.4 MHz Pentium M CPU and 256MB of RA M. 357 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Request Time (ms) JSP-PHP Comparison(100 User) 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 php jsp 0 20 40 60 80 Number of Users 100 Figure 5.1: 100 users comparison in specified time First, we tested 100 users with increasing load for a specified time. From Figure 5.1, reasonably high performing compared to PHP. In the beginning, since the page loading such as compiling and interpreting takes much time, requesttime values are higher. After 50 user, PHP graph change big variation than JSP. As number of usersincrease, PHP requesttime increases, whereas JSP has less requesttime than PHP. We can say that JSP is more stable and fasterthan PHP. Request Time (ms) JSP-PHP Comparison (500 User) 300 250 200 php jsp 150 100 50 0 0 200 400 600 Number of Users Figure 5.2: 500 users comparison in specified time Second, we attempted to measure 500 usersloading for a specified time. From the results,itisseen that JSP request time smaller than PHP overall users. But, the request time results have little differences bettween JSP and PHP. JSP is more stable and fasterthan PHP. 6. Conclusion According to results of test; 358 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo a. In terms of performance, JSP technology isfaster and more stablethan PHP. b. In terms of simplicity, since PHP syntax is based on C and has builtin functions to generate complex issues,itcan be saidthat PHP is more easierthan JSP. However,JSP uses Java classes and X M L tags to generate codes. c. From the results, we conclude thatthe security approach gives better performance in JSP. d. Considering development time of a project, PHP technology is better solution for small and mid projects.In the complex projects JSP technology will perform betterthan PHP. 7. References Chunlin, L. (1999). A Java-based Method For Developing Web Application System. IEEE International Conferenece Henderson-Seller, B. & Unhelka. (2000). Open modeling UML. Boston: Addison Wesley. Masoud, F. A., Halabi, D. H. and Halabi D. H. (2006). ASP.NET and JSP Frameworks in Model View Controller Implementation, IEEE, Patzer, A. (2002). JSP Examples and Best Practices. NY:Apress. Roberts, G. (2005). Learning Server-Side Scripting, ProQuest Computing, pp. 37 Suzumura, T., Trent, S., Tatsubori, M., Tozawa, A. and Onodera, T. (2008). Performance Comparison of Web Service Engines in PHP, Java, and C, IEEE International Conference on Web Services, Tonella, P. and Ricca, F. (2002). Dynamic Model Extraction and Statiscal Analysis of Web Applications, in Proc of the 4th International Workshop on Web Site Evolution, pp. 43-52. Visualbuilder.com Team (2001), JSP Tutorial, http://www.visualbuilder.com Welling, L., Thomson, L. (2005), PHP and MySQL Development (pp.4-6). Indiana:Sams Yang, J.-T, Huang, J.-L, Wang, F.-J, and Chu, W.C. (2002). Constructing an Object- Oriented Architecture for Web Application Testing, Journal of Science and Engineering 18(1):59-84 359 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 504 Title A name given to the resource Comparing Functional Programming and Object Oriented Programming Languages on the Server Side Programming Author Author Örnek, Özgür Abstract A summary of the resource. The use of web applications has been rapidly expanded into all sectors of society such as government, business, education, and industry. Web applications have to be thorough tested to ensure their correctness and meet the software requirements. Today, there are many different methods available to develop dynamic web applications but all these methods have some advantages and some disadvantages. It is very difficult to decide which solution should be chosen for a particular problem in a specific environment. Some dynamic script languages based on object oriented programming have been introduced such as JSP servlets and ASP.NET. Some of them based on functional programming languages such as ASP and PHP. In this paper, we adapt to specify advantages and disadvantages of developing web application with object oriented programming and functional programming languages . To achieve this aim, we picked up JSP and servlet as object oriented programming language and PHP as a functional programming language. We implemented different stock programs in JSP and PHP programming languages in order to compare their performances. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/21b66c61ddc6a1697b3b08090748fbb7.pdf d101f791dc97b748ced9ea704ead820c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Ö mer Özkan Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Muharrem Aktaş Department of Civil Enginnering Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey muharrema @sakarya.edu.tr Meh met Sarıbıyık Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Introduction Industrial wastes sustainability is generally considered as a major source of environmental problems in the world. Reuse of some industrial waste materials has become very important during the past decade. The environmental regulations, requiring waste disposal minimization, force the reuse of waste materials. Land disposal that is a partial solution for this problem causes secondary pollution problems and extra costs. Therefore, more efficient solutions such as alternative recovery options need to be investigated. Solid wastes of iron and steelfactories can be used as raw materialin cement and concrete sectors. European Com munity (EU) has declared targetsto protectthe environment and to guarantee a cautious and efficient use of naturalresources. Solid wastes should be reused in order to use natural resources efficiently and for sustainable development. Portland cement clinker production is expensive and ecologically harmful. For this reason, various studies have investigated about usage of wastes in cement production (Özkan and Yüksel, 2008). Fly ash, blastfurnace slag, silica fume and steel slag are currently used in cement and concreteindustry. The BOF slag is a by-productthat produced during the alteration of iron and steel. The BOF slag is comprise of calcium silicates and ferrite with oxides of aluminum, manganese, calcium and magnesium (Sahay et. all, 2000). The mineralogical composition of BOF slag changes with its chemical composition. Olivine, merwinite, calcium silicates (C2 S, C3 S), C4 AF, C2 F, CaO–FeO– MnO– MgO in solid solution and free CaO are common minerals in steel slag (Shih et. all, 2004). The attendance of C3 S, C2 S, C4 AF and C2 F confirms BOF slag cementitious properties. The free CaO content increased the basicity of the BOF slag that increased the reactivity ofthe BOF slag (Shiand Qian, 2000). However, high free CaO contentin BOF slag has been shown to produce volume expansion problems (Ozkan, 2006). Many investigations were performed for using BOF slag as industrial raw material (Maotz and Geiseler, 2001). BOF slag was mainly used as a bulk material, asphalt aggregate, filling material, cement raw feed, railroad ballast, and in agriculture in the world. Nearly 12 million tons of BOF slag is produced in Europe per year. Today about 65 % of the produced BOF slag is used on qualified fields of application. The remaining 35 % of this slag was still dumped. It willneed further intensive research work to decrease this rate as far as possible. 164 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The BFS, a kind of industrialby-product,is also currently used in cement and concreteindustry. The BFS is known to possess a latent hydraulic property. Ground BFS is used as an admixture in concrete or as an additiveinthe manufacture of Portland slag cementsin countries wherelarge amounts of BFS is available as byproduct. When BFS is added to cement,itcombines withthe Portland (CH) released by cement hydration to give calcium silicate hydrate (CSH). Alkali silica activates this step, which increases the reaction rate. Some properties of the concrete containing BFS, such as creep, shrinkage, strength to freeze-thaw resistant are still under discussion, but the use of the BFS in cement and concrete has been proven to have many advantages (Sakai et. all, 1993). Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) can cause serious expansion and cracking in concrete,resulting in major structural problems and sometimes necessitating demolition. ASR is the most common form of alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR) in concrete; the other, much less common, form is alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). ASR and ACR are therefore both subsets of AAR. ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxylions in the alkaline cement pore solution in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (Ichikawa and Miura, 2007). This work investigated ASR of mortars made with cements incorporating BOF slag and BFS as partialreplacement of Portland cement clinkerin differentratios ofreplacement. Specificweight,initialand final setting times, and expansion values of composite cements were investigated. Materials and Procedure M aterials Clinker and gypsum used in this study were provided from Lafarge-Ereğli (Karadeniz, Ereğli, Turkey) Cement Factory. BOF slag and BFS were provided from Ereğli Iron and Steel Works Company in Turkey. The chemical compositions of these materials are presented in [Table 1], which are acquired from the X-ray lab. The photographs of granule BOF Slag with a size of 90 µm both (a) under-griddle and (b) abovegriddle showed in [Figure 1]. CEN standard sand was used to manufacture mortar specimens. Chemical composition and particle size distribution ofthe sand were presented in [Table 2] (TS-EN 196-1, 2009). M A TERIALS CaO SiO2 Fe2 O3 Al2 O3 Mg O SO3 BFS 37.80 35.10 0.70 17.54 5.50 0.70 BOF slag 58.53 10.72 15.30 1.71 4.27 0.04 Clinker 66.11 21.57 3.17 5.09 1.74 1.35 Gypsum 32.57 0.67 0.24 0.21 2.20 46.56 Table 1: Chemical compositions of BFS and BOF slag, clinker and gypsum (wt. %) (a) (b) Figure 1: SE M photograps ofBOF slags 165 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Chemical Griddle pore compositions size % (mm) SiO2 93.05 0.08 Al2 O3 3.11 0.16 Fe2 O3 0.37 0.5 CaO 0.17 1 Mg O 0.03 1.6 SO3 0.07 2 K2 O 1.5 Humidity Na2 O 1.1 LOI 0.57 Table 2: Sand gradient Remaining % 99.12 86.21 65.74 33.02 5.23 0.11 Procedure BOF Slag and BFS are substituted together with the mixture of clinker-gypsum and then four main groups of cement are established on the base ofthese substitutions. The materials are supplied in granule size as arethe outputs offactory. BFS, BOF Slag and Clikner-Gypsum were grounded in a ballmillto a specific surface area of about 2500 cm2/g. The materials are mixed with each otherinthe amounts specified previously, and then grinded again to achieve specific surface value of 3100–3300 cm2/gr,thus yielding the cements used in the tests. The first group is coded as the reference group and named as C, in the second group, coded as C1, Clinkergypsum mixtureissubstituted with BOF slag, on the other hand Clinker-gypsum mixtureisreplaced with BFS in the third group C2, and the last group (C3) Clinker-gypsum mixture is substituted with the BFS-BOF slag composition thatis arranged at a rate of 50% of BFS and 50% of BOF slag. Composition ratios of the mixtures used in the study is shown in the [Table 3]. All the main groups, except for the reference group C, are further divided into sub-groups and symbolized by suffixes (a, b, c, d) with respect to their changing ratios in compositions; for instance code C3c symbolize a materialthat is composed of 40% clinker-Gypsum, 30% BFS and 30% BOF slag. Code C Materials 100% Clinker-Gypsum Slag Slag Slag Slag Clinker % 95 Gyps. % 5 BFS % 0 BOF Slag % 0 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 20 40 60 80 C1a C1b C1c C1d 80% 60% 40% 20% Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum + 20% + 40% + 60% + 80% BOF BOF BOF BOF C2a C2b C2c C2d 80% 60% 40% 20% Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum + 20% + 40% + 60% + 80% BFS BFS BFS BFS 76 57 38 19 4 3 2 1 20 40 60 80 0 0 0 0 C3a C3b C3c C3d 80% 60% 40% 60% Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum Clinker-Gypsum + 10% BFS + 10% BOF Slag 76 + 20% BFS + 20% BOF Slag 57 + 30% BFS + 30% BOF Slag 38 + 40% BFS + 40% BOF Slag 57 Table 3: Composition of cement mixtures 4 3 2 3 12 24 36 24 8 16 24 16 The physical properties ofthe produced cements are first examined afterthe tests conducted and then the weight percentages, specific surface values and specific gravities of cements remaining on the surface of sieves with 32 and 90µn pore sizes, according to the Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-6, 2000). Moreover, the 166 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo beginning and ending times of cement setting and expansion values of cements are also determined according to Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). The AST M C1260 test is based on the assumption that a very high pH value of the pore solution initiates the reaction with potentially reactive aggregate. The intention was to create the most severe alkaline conditions as could be expected in the pore solution of mortar bars after hydrolysis, which is the interaction of alkalis and water. Therefore, test specimens are submerged in a hot and highly alkaline sodium-hydroxide solution (1 N). Originally, the test was not designed to consider influences of other components of the mortar mix such as admixtures but solelyto determine the reactivity of a given aggregatetype (AST M C-1260). Mortar bars used in this study are of 25x25x290 mm dimension. Cement, standard rilem combreau sand and tap water with the proportions of 1, 2.25 and 0.47 respectively. Specimens are first cured in a fog room in molds at 20° C for 24 hours,remove the specimens from the molds, make an initialcomparatorreading and then demoulded and one day cured in water at 80± 3 °C. After remove from in water,takethe zero reading and then immersion into a 1 M NaOH solution with atemperature of 80 ° C during 14 days. A subsequent comparator reading of the specimens reads periodically, with atleastthree readings. Result and Discussion Physical Properties of Cements The physical properties of produced cements are shown in [Table 4]. Fineness, specific surface and specific gravity are listed. Cements Fineness (wt.%) Specific surface Specific gravity >32 µm >90 µm cm2/g g/cm3 C 21.00 0.90 3330 3.12 C1a 21.15 1.18 3214 3.06 C1b 22.10 1.00 3213 3.02 C1c 22.15 1.25 3152 2.97 C1d 22.10 1.20 3150 2.96 C2a 21.20 1.10 3115 3.05 C2b 21.90 1.15 3108 3.01 C2c 21.80 1.15 3090 2.95 C2d 21.90 1.10 3070 2.94 C3a 19.20 0.90 3450 3.12 C3b 18.60 0.90 3550 3.15 C3c 19.10 1.00 3650 3.12 C3c 18.20 0.80 3700 3.11 Table 4: Physical properties of cements Itis found that BFS has harder structure than BOF slag and hardly grinded slag. BFS of 2400-2500 cm2/g reachesthe required fineness after 4 hours of grinding when BOF slag takes only 3 hoursforthis degree of fineness. The reference cement(C) produced as Portland cement has a softerstructurethan the rest of specimens. Thus, it can easily be said that BFS and BOF slag, ground separately, can attain the same granule size on the condition thatthey are grinded finely. When cement’sspecific gravity results are examined,itisfound that waste materials(BFS and BOF slag) substituted with clinker have lower specific gravity values. Volume expansion values of cements are found to be within the limits set by Turkish Standards (TS-EN 196-3, 2002). In the light of examining results one can observe that expansion of cements with BOF slag additive is higher than that of other cements.In BOF slag, when the volume is stable,the rate of free CaO and MgO is of greatimportance since the reaction between both oxides and water has an effect on volume stability (Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). 167 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Alkali Silica Reaction Mortar specimens are exposed to 1 N NaOH solution with a temperature of 80 ° C during 14 days. The expansions ofthe mortarspecimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Table 5]. ASR Expansion (%) 2 6 10 14 C0 0,096 0,146 0,176 0,184 C1a 0,094 0,137 0,169 0,186 C1b 0,096 0,149 0,187 0,208 C1c 0,110 0,163 0,182 0,222 C1d 0,114 0,169 0,192 0,212 C2a 0,040 0,066 0,086 0,107 C2b 0,034 0,056 0,080 0,104 C2c 0,032 0,052 0,080 0,097 C2d 0,032 0,061 0,075 0,100 C3a 0,083 0,123 0,154 0,170 C3b 0,089 0,112 0,143 0,160 C3c 0,098 0,125 0,136 0,160 C3d 0,109 0,134 0,156 0,170 Table 5: Alkali Silica Reaction Expansions of Cements The outcomes showed thtthe ASR expansion values are lower than 0.2%, which is defined as a limit value on AST M C-1260. ASR expansion value is increased by the increase of BOF slag percentage in the cement as shown C1 series sample (Table 5). However,the increase of BFS percentage in the cement resulted a decrease in ASR expansion value. The expansions ofthe BOF slag mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 2]. 0,250 0,192 0,200 0,187 0,182 0,176 Epansion 0,169 0,163 0,149 0,146 0,150 0,114 0,222 0,212 0,208 0,186 0,184 0,169 0,137 0,110 0,100 0,096 0,096 0,094 0,050 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C1a C1b C1c C1d Figure 2: ASR Expansion of BOS slag 168 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo W hen C1 series ASR expansion value is investigated, the ASR expansion values found to be over than reference series. The reason forthe high ASR expansion value isthoughtto be the ratio of CaO an MgO in BOF. BOF slag volumetric stability and leaching behavior caused the most concerns. The most important criterion is the volume stability,in which free CaO and MgO contents of the slag play an important role. The expansions ofthe BFS mortarspecimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 3]. 0,200 0,180 0,176 0,184 0,160 0,146 Epansion 0,140 0,107 0,120 0,104 0,100 0,080 0,040 0,020 0,100 0,097 0,066 0,056 0,086 0,061 0,060 0,080 0,080 0,096 0,075 0,040 0,052 0,034 0,032 0,032 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C2a C2b C2c C2d Figure 3: ASR Expansion of BFS The value of ASR expansion is also below the limit value given by AST M-C 1260. Itis known that the existence of BFS reduced the ASR expansion value. Since puzzolans arelessreactive and the reaction results include less amount of alkali than the Portland cement, they are addressed as solvent. Puzzolan cements have more effective W/C percentage than portland cement. Thus,the amount of alkali become more less, moreover puzzolans, decreasesthe amount of Ca(OH)2 which also decrease the PH value. The expansions ofthe BOF slag and BFS mortar specimens exposed to NaOH solution are given in [Figure 4]. 0,200 0,180 0,160 0,146 0,136 Epansion 0,156 0,170 0,160 0,143 0,160 0,123 0,125 0,100 0,170 0,134 0,140 0,120 0,184 0,176 0,154 0,109 0,096 0,089 0,112 0,098 0,080 0,083 0,060 0,040 0,020 0,000 3 6 9 14 Days C0 C3a C3b C3c C3d Figure 4: ASR Expansion of BOF slag and BFS 169 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo C3 Seriesresultedthat existence of BFS eliminatesthe resultof harmful effects of BOF slag. Also the ASR expansion values of C3 series are below the limit value of AST M C-1260.Inthe literaturethere are studies which points outthe harmfulleffects offree CaO and MgO on expansion. Thisresultalso observed inthis study. On the contrary,the existence of BOF slag has positive effects on durability properties of cement. Researchers especially emphasize that BOF slag effect are resistant to sulfates (Özkan, 2006; Özkan, 2008; Altun and Yılmaz, 2002). When cement-based materials are exposed to sodium sulphate attack, gypsum and ettringite are produced which can cause expansion in concrete. Formation of gypsum plays an important roleinthe damage of the material. Gypsum results in softening of the material. There is a close relationship between the Ca(OH)2 content and gypsum formation (Torıı and Kawamura, 1994). Ettringite formation results in cracking and expansion ofthe material. Expansion isrelated tothe water absorption of crystalline ettringite. The presence of a BOF slag results in an increase in the resistance to sodium sulphate attack (Özkan, 2008; Özkan and Yuksel, 2008). Conclusion BOF slag, which is environmentally dangerous materialand has storage difficulties, has 65% usage in Europe, but in Turkey none. That it is really very important step to use environmental damaged BOF slag in otherindustriesfor sustainability point of view. Cement production can a new production line for BOF slag. This study shows that using BOF slag increase ASR expansion value of cement, which is harmful. Butit has also has positive effects on the other durability properties of cement. In order to eliminate the harmful effects of BOF slag, other materials such as BFS can also be used in cement production. This study shows that durability properties of cement are atthe required level when BOF slag and BFS are used together. Using environmentally damaged BOF slag along with the other waste material, BFS, in production of cement materialis very importantin sustainability of waste management. References Altun I.A. & Yılmaz I. (2002). Study on steel furnace slag with high MgO as additive in portland cement. Cement and Concrete Research. 32, 1247–1249. ASTM C-1260. Standard test method for potential alkali reactivity of aggregate, mortar-bar method. Ichikawa T. and Miura M. (2007). Modified model of alkali-silica reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, 37, 1291–1297. Sakai, K. Watanabe, H. Suzuki, M. Hamazaki, K. (1993). Properties of granulated last-furnace slag cement concrete, ACI Spec Publ SP, 132, 1367-1383. Motz, H., Geiseler, J. (2001). Products of steel slags an opportunity to save natural resources. Waste Management, 21 (3), pp. 285-293. Özkan, Ö. (2006). Heat effects on cements producing with GBFS and SS as additives. Journal of Materials Science, 41 (21), 7130-7140. Özkan, Ö. (2008). Sulfate resistance of mortars produced with granulated blast furnace and steel slag additive cements. Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, 23(1), 1-8. Özkan, Ö. & Yüksel, Đ.(2008). Sulfate Resistance of Composite Potland Cements Containing Steel Slag and Granulated Blast Furnace Slag. 3rd International Symposium Sustainability in Cement and Concrete, 8-10 July, Dundee, Scotland. Sahay, J., Nagpal, O. P. & Prasad, S. (2000). Waste management of steel slag, Steel Times International, 24 (2), 38-40. Shi, C. & Qian, J. High (2000). Performance cementing materials from industrial slags- a review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 29 (3), 195-207. Shih, P.H., Wu, Z. Z. & Chiang, H.L. (2004). Characteristics of bricks made from waste steel slag. Waste Management. 24, 1043-1047. Torii, K. & Kawamura, M. (1994). Effects of fly ash and silica fume on the resistance of mortar to sulfuric acid and sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 24, 361-370. 170 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo TS-EN 196-1. (2009). Methods of testing cement - Part 1: Determination of strength. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara TS-EN 196-3, (2002). Methods of testing cement-part 3: determination of setting time and soundness Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. TS-EN 196-6. (2000). Methods of testing cement;Part 6: determination of fineness. Turkish Standards Institute, Ankara. 171 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 501 Title A name given to the resource Sustainability of Iron and Steel Factory Wastes in Cement Author Author Özkan, Ömer Aktas, Muharrem Sarıbıyık, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. This study reports the results of an experimental study conducted to determine sustainability development of composite cements manufactured with Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Slag and Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) combination. The overall objective of this work is to determine whether a combination of BOF slag and BFS might be processed into a sufficiently cementitious material to produce Composite Portland Cement (CPC). Three group of cement are produced. First group is BOF slag, second group is BFS and the last group is the mixture of BOF slag and BFS. Physical properties and Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) of those groups are evaluated. Result of BOF slag CPC showed the maximum ASR expansion. However; results of BFS composite portland cements showed minimum ASR expansion value. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/20640e7de9e9e61b5820b899ae6decee.pdf 0f5d8a04e9b5922db1cfcd1b8f3cb349 PDF Text Text Effects Of Boron Toxicity On The Yield Of Spring Canola Cultıvars Ö.Öztürk Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey ozdenoz@selcuk.edu.tr S. Soylu Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey R.Ada Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey S. Gezgin Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey M.Babaoglu Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk Konya, Turkey Abstract: Eight spring canola cultivars (Brassica napus L. cvs. Marinka, Briol, Pactol, Helios, Star, Prota, Spok and Semu 209/82) were studied in field experiments for their responses to toxic B application at Central Anatolia, Turkey during the 2002 and 2003 growing seasons. The canola cultivars were grown under B moderate deficiency (extractable B 0.56 mg kg-1) and toxic B applied (15 kg B ha-1) conditions. In this study, oil yield and protein yield were investigated. According to the results, oil yield and protein yield varied significantly among the cultivars and B application decreased the oil yield and protein yield by 37.5 % and 38.6 % on average, respectively. Among canola cultivars, Briol, Marinka, and Spok were the most sensitive to B toxicity applications that had the highest oil yield and protein yield decrease when treated with B. On the other hand, Star and Pactol cultivars showed tolerance to B toxicity applications. Keywords: Boron toxicity, spring canola, oil yield, protein yield Introduction The element boron is unique among the essential elements in that a narrow range in concentration can mean the difference between plant deficiency and plant toxicity. Boron toxicity has long been recognised as a common mineral nutritional problem particularlyin arid and semiarid regions where B levels are frequently high inthe soil orirrigation waters around the world,causing significant decreasesin growth and yield as reported for many countries (Nable et al.,1997). Boron toxicity is a factor in reducing crop yield in Turkey (particularly in Central Anatolia), Syria, India, South Australia, and Iran. Widespread B toxicity is also suspected in 450 �Afghanistan (Yau & Erskine, 2000). Nearly 10 % of the soils sampled in Central Anatolia contained more than 5 mg extractable B per kg soil which is a widely accepted critical concentration for occurrence of B toxicity in crop plants (Nable et al., 1997). Boron toxicity symptoms in leaves are not distinctive (Cartwright & Hirsch, 1986) and easily confused with symptoms from other nutritional and pathogenic disorders in field-grown areas. Toxic effects are more marked in dry seasons when roots penetrate deeper into the soil. Excess B cannot be removed from soil or treated in any way under dry-land conditions. Therefore, use of tolerant crop varieties is the best option to overcome this problem (Rehman et al., 2006). Canola is one of the main oil crops world-wide and it usually requires B concentrations greater than 0.5 mg kg-1 of hot water-extracted B (H W B) in the soil to complete its growth and development (Liu, 1995). Existence of larger variations in tolerance of canola to B toxicity than barley and wheat has been reported by several researchers (Hughes-Games, 1991; Hocking et al., 2003). Tolerance was reported to be releated to the origin of a cultivar (Du et al.,2002). The present study was carried out to investigate the differential response of different spring canola cultivars (8 cultivars of each) to B toxicity in field under irrigated conditions in a typical Central Anatolian soil low in extractable B and with relatively high lime content. Materials And Methods The field experiments were carried out the Research Institute of Rural Affairs, Konya, Turkey during the 2002 and 2003 growing seasons. Soil containing 0.56 mg of B kg-1 extracted using 0.01 M Mannitol + 0.01 M CaCl2 solution before reading in ICP-AES (Varian-Vista Model), other soil characteristicsare given in Table 1. Normally receiving about 112 mm of total precipitation annually based on a 30 –yr average from 1974 to 2003,the area received 33 mm higher and 28 mm lower precipitation than the long- term average for 2002 and 2003, respectively. Temperatures during the study period were similar to the 30-yr average for the area. The mean growing season temperatures from April to August were 18.2 0 C and 19.0 0C for 2002 and 2003, respectively. The experiments were performed in a split plot design in randomized complete blocks with 3 replications. Eight spring canola (Brassica napus L.cvs. Marinka, Briol,Pactol, Helios, Star, Prota, Spok and Semu 209/82) cultivars were studied. Plants were grown with (+ B= 15 kg B ha -1) and without (-B) B applications. B treatments were administered to main plots where the sub-plots contained plant cultivars. Before sowing in both years, B at a rate of 15 kg ha-1 was broadcasted onto the soilsurface using borax (Na2 B4 O7 .10 H2 O), followed by incorporation to a 0-20 cm depth of soil priorto sowing. Plots were basically fertilised with 120 kg ha-1 N, 60 kg ha-1 P2 O5. Entire quantitiesof phosphorous fertilizers and 60 kg ha-1 ofthe nitrogenous fertilizers were applied on bands in the form of ammonium phosphate (18% N, 46% P2 O5), by a driller during the sowing. Fifty percent of the remaining quantities of nitrogen were dispersed onto the soil surface before flowering in the form of ammonium sulphate (21% N). Plots were sown in 5 rows (30 cm apart and 1-2 cm deep) with 2.5 m long (1.5 x 2.5 =3.75 m2 ) on April each year. Seeds were sown by hand. Plants within rows were spaced 15 cm apart by thinning at 2to 4 leafstage. Routine management practices were followed. Plots were irrigated after sowing, during flowering, and pod filling with sprinklers. Crops were harvested at maturity for seed yield by hand yield and seed yield was adjusted to 9 % moisture level (Yusuf & Bullock, 1993). Harvested area (HA) of a plot was 1.35 m2 of the internal part afterremoving the 2 outerrows. Oil yield and protein yield were obtained each year. Oilyield was calculated on the basis of oil percentage and seed yield. Protein yield was calculated on the basis of protein percentage and seed yield. All data were analyzed as a split plot design using a computerized statistical software package (MSTATC). Differences among treatments were tested by analysis of variance and were compared using LSD Tests atthe 0.01 or 0.05 levelof significance. Results And Discussion Oil yield Effect of year, cultivar, B x cultivar interaction has been significant for oil yield. Cultivars showed significantly varying responses to toxic B treatment. All cultivars showed significant oil yield decreases when treated with +B (Table 2). Highest oil yield decrease was recorded at Briol and Spok (56.6 % and 56.3 %, respectively) while lowest yield decreases were determined at Star and Pactol (8.3 % and 12.1 %) over the control when applied with +B (Table 2). Thus, sensitivity to B toxicity in respect of oil yield depended on the 451 �genotypes. The oil yield of canola is the combined expression of seed oil content and seed yield. Canola cultivars showed significantly varying responsestotoxic B treatment for seed yield. All cultivars showed significant yield decreases when treated with high B whereas control plant yielded the highest. Cultivar means revealed that B treatment resulted in -31.23 % seed yield decrease, whereas highest and lowest seed yield decreases were recorded at Spok and Star cultivars as -52.66 % and -3.75 % respectively overthe control(data was not shown). Pactol cultivar was the most yielding genotype at +B (2095.8 kg ha-1) whereas Pactol(2183.5 kg ha-1) and Prota (2469.2 kg ha-1) cultivars yielded best at -B. According to mean of treatment, Briol (682.5 kg ha-1) and Spok (738.8 kg ha-1) cultivars were the lowest yielding among the genotypes (data was not shown). Very few studies have been conducted on canola regarding borax toxicity. Wang et al.(1999) reportedthat application of borax, at 3.3 kg B ha -1 , significantly reduced canola yield in only one out of 11 experiments. In the single experiment where B toxicity depressed growth, the effect was relatively small, equivalent to only 5 % of maximum seed yield. Moreover, application rates of up to 6.6 kg B ha -1 did not cause any depression in oilseed rape yield in a single experiment. In addition, there was no indication that a total of 9.9 kg B ha-1 depressed seed yield of canola.The risk of B toxicity from the soil application of borax at 4-8 times the minimu m rates required to correct deficiency was not as high as previously assumed. Therefore, while soil application of B fertilizer at 1.11.65 kg ha-1 can be recommended to correct B deficiency of oilseed rape, even at rates substantially higher, oilseed crops are unlikely to exhibit B toxicity symptoms or decrease yield (Wang et al.,1999). Application of a dose of 15 kg ha-1 B in our study was far above this amount and caused significant decreases in yield. In the present experiment, oilcontents varied widely among cultivars, and relatively slightly with high B treatments. High boron fertilizer decreased the oil content of all canola cultivars. The lowest decrease in oil content was observed in Prota by 5.11 % while the highest decrease was in Briol variety by 21.24 % as a result of a high boron treatment. The highest oilrate was found in the Star variety (44.23 %) with a decrease of 5.35 % (data was not shown). Mandal & Sinha (2004) reported that essential elements like sulphur, boron and zinc probably promote the synthesis of oils.In our study, the extraction of boron from soil at toxic level probably caused a decrease in oil synthesis and a decrease in oil contents of canola varieties. As oil yield is calculated from seed yield and oilrate values,the factthat oil yield (Table 2) at-B were higher from that of + B led to the difference was an expected result. The results here clearly show that Pactol and Star canola cultivars can be successfully grown under high natural orfertilizer B conditions because oftheirtolerance to B oversupply. From this point of view, both cultivars can be considered B-inefficient. Properties Mean Properties Mean pH 7.6 Mg (me 100 g-1) 5.3 CaCO3 (%) 20.7 K (me 100 g-1) 0.6 E.C (µS cm-1) 94 Na (me 100 g-1) 0.13 Organic matter (%) 1.4 P (mg kg-1) 8.5 Sand (%) 26.7 B (mg kg-1) 0.56 Silt(%) 68.1 Mn (mg kg-1) 2.3 Clay (%) 5.2 Zn (mg kg-1) 0.3 Ca (me 100 g-1) 20.2 Fe (mg kg-1) 0.4 Table 1. Selected physical and chemical properties oftopsoilsamples (0-30 cm depth) collected from the experimental area (mean of soilsamples collected before sowing each year) Protein Yield Canola is not only an oilseed crop, but also contains a relatively high protein concentration in the seed (>400 g kg-1 of the oil-free meal) and its meal is used as a protein supplement for animals and possibly will be food for humans in the near future. Cultivars Marinka Briol Pactol Helios Star Prota Spok Semu 452 +B Oil yield (kg ha-1) -B 280.8 198.7 628.6 423.7 663.1 486.1 268.3 323.9 608.1 458.2 714.9 564.4 723.1 958.8 614.4 594.0 Significance of differences between +B & -B ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** Protein yield (kg ha-1) Significance of differences +B -B between +B & -B 181.2 366.5 * 155.3 314.6 * 401.3 473.6 * 301.8 429.8 * 302.4 374.9 * 299.5 584.9 * 160.2 350.9 * 197.3 361.6 * �Mean 409.1 654.5 249.9 407.1 -B = Control (0.19 mg kg-1 B content soil), +B= Boron application (0.19 mg kg-1B content soil + 15 kg ha-1 B application) LSD = Least significant difference for comparisons between individual means; C; B x C; indicates cultivar (C) main effect, interaction of B application (B) with cultivars, ** significant at P < 0.01, * significant at P < 0.05. Table 2. Oil yield (kg ha-1 ) and Protein yield (kg ha-1) of8 canola cultivars when grown intwo consecutive years with two levels of B supply (kg B ha-1). Values are means of two years The protein yield of canola cultivars was influenced significantly by B treatment. Boron application significantly (P < 0.01) decreased protein yield in cultivars (Table 2). The highest decrease in protein yield as a result of B treatment was found inthe Spok variety of 54.3 % whilethelowest decrease was inthe Pactol variety by 15.3 %. In this research, the protein contents of the varieties used in the study varied between 20.48 % (Pactol) and 24.73 % (Helios). The highest decrease in protein content as a result of B treatment was found in the Star variety of 15.12 % while the lowest decrease was in the Spok variety by 5.71 %. The highest value in the study in terms of protein content was determined in the Helios variety by 24.73 % and the reaction of this variety to high B treatment emerged in the form of a 12.44 % decrease in protein content (data was not shown). Ilisulu (1970) stated thatthe commonest substance in canola seeds after oil was protein and that it generally constituted one-fifth ofthe seed. Weiss (1983) reported that protein contentin canola seeds was 25 % on average. As some researches (Schuster, 1970; Atakişi, 1977) stated, although protein content may be affected by environmental conditions,they vary to a greatextent depending on the genetic properties of variety. The protein yield of canola is the combined expression of seed protein content and seed yield. Protein yield of canola cultivars was decreased with boron application because of decreased seed yield and protein content of canola cultivars with boron. As a result of this research, Pactol and Star canola cultivars can be successfully grown under high B conditions without important oil and protein yield losses. Both cultivars can be considered B-inefficient. In addition, both cultivars may serve as suitable parental materials for the development of B-inefficient genotypes for B toxicity. Other cultivars showing sensitivity to B toxicity (e.g. Marinka, Briol, Spok and Semu) can be grown under normal B conditions for adequate crop yield. Acknowledgment The financial support from the Turkish State Planning Organization (DPT) (Project No: 1999 K120560) is gratefully acknowledged. References Atakişi, Đ.K. (1977). Çukurova’da yetiştirilebilecek kolza çeşitlerinin önemli tarımsal ve kalite özellikleri araştırmalar. Çukurova Üniv.Zir. Fak. Yıllığı 1, 27-55. üzerine Cartwright, B., & Hirsch, M. (1986). Boron toxicity in barley and wheat - a disorder resembling foliar disease. Dept.Agric., South Aust. Fact Sheet No. FS 8/86. Du, C.W., Wang,Y.H., Xu, F.S., Yang,Y.H., & Wang, H.Y. (2002). Study on the physiological mechanism of boron utilization efficiency in rape cultivars. Journal of Plant Nutrition 25, 231-244. Hocking, P., Norton, R., & Good, A. (2003). Canola nutrition. Canola Australia.www.canolaaustralia.com. Hughes-Games, G. (1991). Boron for field crops. Soil Factsheet. Order No. 631.012-1, Agdex 540. Đlisulu, K. (1970). Fransa ve Almanya’dan getirilen kolza çeşitlerinin Ankara iklim ve toprak şartları altında adaptasyon durumları,tohum verimleri ve diğer bazı özelliklerinin tespiti. Ankara Üniv.Ziraat Fak.Yıllığı 20, 132-157. Liu, W.D. (1995). Microelement nutrition and fertilization in China. China Agric. Press, Beijing, China, pp. 8-36. Mandal, K.G., & Sinha, A.C. (2004). Nutrient management effects on light interception, photosynthesis, growth, dry-matter production and yield of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea). J. Agronomy and Crop Science 190, 119-129. Nable, R.O., Banuelos,G.S. & Paul, J.G. (1997). Boron Toxicity. Plant and Soil 198, 181-189. Rehman, S., Park, T., Kim,Y.J,. Seo, Y.W., & Um, S.J. ( 2006). Inverse relationship between boron toxicity tolerance and boron contents of barley seed and root. Journal of Plant Nutrition 29, 1779-1789. 453 �Schuster, W.(1970). Deviation in fat content of different oil plants. I.Winter rape and sunflower. Field Crops Abst 23, 85. Yau, S.K., & Erskine,W.(2000). Diversity of boron-toxicity tolerance in lentil growth and yield. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 47, 55-62. Wang, K., Yang, Y., Bell, R.W., Xue, J.M., Ye, Z.Q., & Wei, Y.Z. (1999). Low risks of toxicity from boron fertilizer in oilseed rape-rice rotations in southeast China. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems. 54, 189-197. Weiss, E.A. (1983). Rapeseed. In Oilseed Crops. Tropical Agricultural Series. Longman Group Limited.UK, pp. 161-216. Yusuf, R.I., & Bullock, D.G. (1993). Effect of several production factors on two varieties of rapeseed in the Central United States. Journal of Plant Nutrition 16 , 1279-1288. 454 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 528 Title A name given to the resource Effects Of Boron Toxicity On The Yield Of Spring Canola Cultıvars Author Author Öztürk, Ö. Soylu, S. Ada, R. Gezgin, S. Babaoglu, M. Abstract A summary of the resource. Eight spring canola cultivars (Brassica napus L. cvs. Marinka, Briol, Pactol, Helios, Star, Prota, Spok and Semu 209/82) were studied in field experiments for their responses to toxic B application at Central Anatolia, Turkey during the 2002 and 2003 growing seasons. The canola cultivars were grown under B moderate deficiency (extractable B 0.56 mg kg-1) and toxic B applied (15 kg B ha-1) conditions. In this study, oil yield and protein yield were investigated. According to the results, oil yield and protein yield varied significantly among the cultivars and B application decreased the oil yield and protein yield by 37.5 % and 38.6 % on average, respectively. Among canola cultivars, Briol, Marinka, and Spok were the most sensitive to B toxicity applications that had the highest oil yield and protein yield decrease when treated with B. On the other hand, Star and Pactol cultivars showed tolerance to B toxicity applications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dfab893bf48dd5ccaf8b8a2b56571fdd.pdf f99e51ded30f232896b6d68ef36e5041 PDF Text Text EFFECT OF SALICYLIC ACID ON SALINITY STRESS IN COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) Hüsnü ÜNLÜ Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Isparta,TURKEY Nüket ALTINDAL Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops, Isparta, TURKEY Halime ÖZDAMAR ÜNLÜ Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Isparta,TURKEY hozdamar79@yahoo.com Demet ALTINDAL Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops, Isparta, TURKEY Hüseyin PADEM International Burch University, Sarajevo, BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA hpadem@ibu.edu.ba Abstract:This study was conducted to determine the effects of seed soaking in salicylic acid (0.25 mM, 0.50 mM, 0.75 mM, 1.0 mM and control) on the growth and some seedling properties in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) under different NaCl doses (2.5 ds m-1, 5.0 ds m-1, 7.5 ds m-1, 10.0 ds m-1 and control). In this work; seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh-dry weight, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were investigated. In result, according to NaCl x SA interaction, seedling length, dry weight, total chlorophyll values changed between 5.05-13.58 cm, 0.055-0.138 g, 1.705-3.690 mg/g fresh weight, respectively. Keywords: Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), salinity, salicylic acid, seedling properties Introduction Cowpea, Vigna unguiculata belongs to the group of crops known as legumes. It is a important source of human food. Its vegetative part can be buried into the soil to improve its fertility, and also, cowpea is a well known leguminous cover crop (Onyesom et al. 2005). Cowpea has a good tolerance to salinity, heat, drought, and it has a high yield potential under irrigation (Murillo-Amador & Troyo-Diéguez 2000). Soil salinity has become an environmental problem and it adversely affects the growth and productivity of many crops. Salinity affects the crop physiology, and causes changes within cellular processes and plant levels (Yusuf et al. 2008). High salt concentrations have toxic effects on plant growth. Soil salinity level decreases availability of nutrients to plants and create high osmotic pressure which leads to physiological drought (Endris & Mohammed 2007). Soil salinity also affects seed germination and limit the agricultural production (Dantas et al. 2005). Salinity creates abiotic stress conditions for plants such as ionic and osmotic stress and these stress conditions cause production of reactive oxygen species and oxidative damage, metabolic toxicity and membrane deterioration. As a result plants developed complex responses to overcome harmful effects of salinity (Szalai & Janda 2009). Salicylic acid (SA) is a plant phenolic compound and now considered as a hormone-like endogenous regulator. It play important roles to defend plants against both biotic and abiotic stress conditions. Earlier reports show that SA plays important regulatory roles in plants against to a wide range of oxidative stresses (Choudhury & Panda 2004; Deef 2007). 61 �The aim of present work was to reveal whether cowpea plants pre-treated with different concentrations of SA could tolerant salt stress. Materials and Methods Cowpea seeds (Vigna unguiculata L. Karnıkara cv.) were used in this study. The experimental design consisted of 25 treatments replicated 3 times in a split plot design. Seeds of cowpea were surface-sterilized for 5 minute in sodium hypochlorite solution. They were then washed 3 times with sterilized distilled water. After sterilization, seeds were soaked in 0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1 mM SA for 12 h in dark. The seeds were sown in plastic pots containing vermiculite and torf (1:2), maintained the same environmental condition and watered with different NaCl doses (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 ds/mol) in total 50 ml during 10 days. After 10 days, the following were recorded: seedling length (cm), cotyledon width and length (cm), fresh and dry weight (g), chlorophyll a (mg/g fresh weight), chlorophyll b (mg/g fresh weight) and total chlorophyll (mg/g fresh weight). Chlorophyll concentration was determined from cotyledons. A leaf sample of 0.2 g was ground and extracted with 15 ml of 80% (v/v) acetone in the dark (Haklı 2008). The mixture was filtered and absorbancies (T80 UV/VIS, Spectrophotometer) were determined at 645 and 663 nm. Concentration of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were estimated by the equations of (Witham et al. 1971). All of the data were analyzed statistically using CoStat computer program. Duncan’s test was used to compare averages at the 0.05 significance level. Results NaCl (P<0.01) and SA (P<0.05) applications were found statistically important on seedling length. According to the salt concentration, seedling length was changed between 6.21-10.75 cm. The highest seedling length was obtained from 0 ds/mol (untreated control) of salt concentration and the lowest was obtained from 10.0 ds/mol NaCl dose. Under SA applications, seedling length was changed between 6.88-9.43 cm and the highest seedling length was determined in 0.50 mM SA application. NaCl and SA interaction showed that seedling length changed between 5.05-13.58 cm (Table 1). When Table 2 was investigated, NaCl and SA applications on cotyledon width were statistically important at the level 1%. According to NaCl and SA applications, cotyledon width varied between 2.34-3.82 cm and 2.513.49 cm, respectively. While cotyledon length values which were found statistically significant (P<0.01) changed between 3.205.77 cm in NaCl treatments, these values changed between 3.79-5.18 cm in SA treatments (Table 3). When the values of fresh and dry weight of seedlings were investigated, NaCl, SA applications and their interactions were found statistically significant. The 10 ds/mol dose of NaCl gave the lowest value of dry and fresh weight of seedlings. The highest values of fresh and dry weight were determined in 0.50 mM SA treatment (Table 4, 5). The effects of SA, NaCl x SA applications interactions on chlorophyll a were statistically significant at level 1%. Chlorophyll b values were statistically significant at level 5% under NaCl x SA applications interactions. According to NaCl, SA applications and their interactions, chlorophyll a values were changed between 2.075-2.297 mg/g fresh weight, 1.930-2.271 mg/g fresh weight and 1.006-2.500 mg/g fresh weight, respectively. Chlorophyll b values changed; between 0.836-0.995 mg/g fresh weight under NaCl treatment, between 0.817-0.981 mg/g fresh weight in SA treatments and between 0.641-1.903 mg/g fresh weight in NaCl x SA treatments interactions (Table 6,7). SA applications (P<0.05) and NaCl x SA applications interactions (P<0.01) were found statistically significant on total chlorophyll. It was determined that total chlorophyll values changed between 2.990-3.213 mg/g fresh weight in NaCl treatments and between 2.747-3.240 in SA treatments. According to NaCl x SA interactions total chlorophyll values varied between 1.705-3.690 mg/g fresh weight (Table 8). 62 �Discussion As NaCl concentrations were increased, a decrease in cowpea seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh weight and dry weight (except for 2.5 ds/mol) was obtained. This situation can be explained by that salt stress unfavorably affected plant growth and productivity during all developmental stages (Tavili & Biniaz 2009). For example Hussein et al. (2007) reported that in general salinity decreases plant development. The same results were obtained by Okçu et al. (2005) who used pea, Kaya & Day (2008) who used sunflower. The highest seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh weight and dry weight were obtained from 0.5 mM SA concentration. A correlation was observed between increases in the concentration of these SA (0.75 and 1.0 mM) and inhibition of these parameters. Salicylic acid may influence a range of different processes in plants, including seed germination, ion uptake and transport, and membrane permeability (Dolatabadian et al. 2009). These results are consistent with those of Çanakçı & Munzuroğlu (2007) who showed that SA application induced fresh weight and chlorophyll content. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll contents increased in SA treatments according to untreated control. The greatest chlorophyll (a, b, a+b) values were found from 7.5 ds/mol dose of NaCl x 1 mM dose of SA interaction. This case shows that SA treatments decreases the negative effects of salt. Chlorophyll content of cotyledons increased slightly in general under higher NaCl concentration (7.5-10.0 ds/mol) although their increases were not statistically significant. According to Tohma (2007), Çanakçı & Munzuroğlu (2007), Kuşvuran et al. (2008) the effect of NaCl concentrations on chlorophyll content was found statistically significant. This situation can be explained by differences in species, varieties, medium and concentration of NaCl. NaCl treatments have a negative effect on seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh weight and dry weight and data were found statistically significant (P<0.01). In terms of all parameters were examined, 0.5 mM SA treatment reduce saline medium negative effects. This case show the necessity of studies about the application of SA in saline soil. Table 1. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea seedling length (cm) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 13.58 9.02 8.82 9.02 5.97 9.28 a* Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.25 0.50 0.75 9.97 11.03 10.93 9.95 10.32 9.93 8.49 10.68 8.80 9.05 8.82 7.37 6.75 6.32 6.83 8.84 a 9.43 a 8.77 a 1.0 8.25 9.70 6.25 5.05 5.17 6.88 b NaCl Means 10.75 a** 9.78 ab 8.61 bc 7.86 c 6.21 d Significance Levels : *P<0.05, **P<0.01 Table 2. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea cotyledon width (cm) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0 3.73 4.00 3.22 3.18 2.25 3.28 a** 0.25 3.70 4.02 2.65 3.37 2.62 3.27 a 0.50 3.83 4.00 3.93 3.20 2.47 3.49 a 0.75 4.00 3.62 3.47 2.75 2.20 3.21 a 1.0 3.33 3.48 1.90 1.63 2.18 2.51 b NaCl Means 3.72 a** 3.82 a 3.03 b 2.83 b 2.34 c Significance Levels : **P<0.01 Table 3. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea cotyledon length (cm) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means Significance Levels : **P<0.01 63 0 5.37 5.85 4.83 4.95 3.08 4.82 a** Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.25 0.50 0.75 5.63 5.73 6.25 6.12 5.98 5.57 4.47 5.98 5.23 4.93 4.82 4.23 3.47 3.37 3.08 4.92 a 5.18 a 4.87 a 1.0 5.05 5.32 3.05 2.55 3.00 3.79 b NaCl Means 5.61 a** 5.77 a 4.71 b 4.30 b 3.20 c �Table 4. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea fresh weight (g) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 1.614 abc 1.563 abc 1.390 bcd 1.437 bcd 0.800 fg 1.361 a** Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.555 abc 1.789 ab 1.972 a 1.747 abc 1.781 ab 1.626 abc 1.384 bcd 1.841 ab 1.471 bcd 1.472 bcd 1.306 cde 1.102 def 0.906 efg 0.804 fg 0.770 fg 1.413 a 1.504 a 1.388 a 1.0 1.614 abc 1.821 ab 0.849 fg 0.613 g 0.619 g 1.103 b NaCl Means 1.709 a** 1.708 a 1.387 b 1.186 c 0.780 d Significance Levels : **P<0.01 Table 5. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea dry weight (g) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 0.109 a-d* 0.117 abc 0.107 a-e 0.112 abc 0.074 d-g 0.104 a** 0.25 0.109 a-d 0.122 abc 0.105 a-e 0.121 abc 0.088 c-g 0.109 a Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.50 0.75 0.122 abc 0.137 a 0.129 ab 0.123 abc 0.138 a 0.113 abc 0.109 a-d 0.092 b-f 0.072 efg 0.067 fg 0.114 a 0.106 a 1.0 0.115 abc 0.133 a 0.065 fg 0.055 g 0.059 fg 0.085 b NaCl Means 0.118 ab** 0.125 a 0.106 bc 0.098 c 0.072 d Significance Levels : *P<0.05, **P<0.01 Table 6. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea chlorophyll a (mg/g fresh weight) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 0.25 Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.50 0.75 1.0 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 2.063 a-d** 2.122 a-d 2.229 abc 1.006 e 2.232 abc 1.930 b** 2.289 abc 1.996 a-d 2.102 a-d 2.100 a-d 2.382 ab 2.174 a 2.449 a 2.395 ab 1.634 d 2.479 a 2.334 abc 2.258 a 2.345 abc 2.122 a-d 2.244 abc 2.291 abc 2.353 abc 2.271 a 1.854 cd 1.881 bcd 2.440 a 2.500 a 2.193 abc 2.173 a NaCl Means 2.200 2.103 2.130 2.075 2.297 Significance Levels : **P<0.01 Table 7. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea chlorophyll b (mg/g fresh weight) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means 0 0.789 b-f* 0.893 b-f 0.922 b-f 0.699 def 0.783 b-f 0.817 0.25 0.898 b-f 0.729 def 0.769 c-f 0.907 b-f 0.997 b-f 0.860 Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0.50 0.75 1.035 b-e 0.963 b-f 1.101 bc 0.732 c-f 0.670 ef 0.895 b-f 1.152 b 1.028 b-e 0.948 b-f 0.991 b-f 0.981 0.922 1.0 0.641 f 0.724 def 1.045 bcd 1.903 a 0.851 b-f 0.890 NaCl Means 0.865 0.836 0.860 0.995 0.914 Significance Levels : *P<0.05 Table 8. Effect of SA on NaCl stress in cowpea total chlorophyll (mg/g fresh weight) NaCl Doses (ds/mol) 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 SA Means Salicylic Acid Doses (mM) 0 2.852 a-e** 3.014 a-e 3.150 a-d 1.705 f 3.016 a-e 2.747 b* 0.25 3.187 a-d 2.725 b-e 2.872 a-e 3.007 a-e 3.378 abc 3.034 ab 0.50 3.485 ab 3.495 ab 2.304 ef 3.632 a 3.283 a-d 3.240 a 0.75 3.308 a-d 2.854 a-e 3.138 a-d 3.319 a-d 3.343 abc 3.193 a 1.0 2.495 de 2.605 cde 3.485 ab 3.690 a 3.043 a-e 3.064 ab NaCl Means 3.065 2.939 2.990 3.070 3.213 Significance Levels : *P<0.05, **P<0.01 64 �References Choudhury, S., & Panda, S. K. (2004). Role of salicylic acid in regulating cadmium induced oxidative stress in Oryza sativa L. roots. Bulg. J. Plant Physiol., 30 (3-4), 95-110. Çanakçı, S., & Munzuroğlu, Ö. (2007). Asetilsalisilik asit ’in mısır (Zea mays L.) fidelerinin taze ağırlık değişimi, pigment ve protein miktarları üzerine etkileri. Fırat Üniv. Fen ve Müh. Bil. Dergisi, 19 (3), 259-264. Dantas, B. F., Sá Ribeiro, L., & Aragão, C. A. (2005). Physiological Response of Cowpea Seeds To Salinity Stress. Revista Brasileira de Sementes, 27 (1): 144-148. Deef, H. E. (2007). Influence of salicylic acid on stress tolerance during seed germination of Triticum aestivum and Hordeum vulgare. Advances in Biological Research, 1 (1-2): 40-48. Dolatabadian, A., Modarres Sanavy S. A. M., & Sharifi, M. (2009). Effect of salicylic acid and salt on wheat seed germination. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B- Soil and Plant Science, 1-9. Endris, S., & Mohammed, M. J. (2007). Nutrient acquisition and yield response of Barley exposed to salt stress under different levels of potassium nutrition. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech., 4 (3): 323-330. Haklı, E. (2008). Alternatif sıcaklığın su stresi altındaki mercimek (Lens Culinaris Medik.) çeşitlerinin çimlenme ve bazı fizyolojik parametreleri üzerine etkisi. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Biyoloji Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, 1-75, Adana. Hussein, M.M., Balbaa, L. K., & Gaballah, M. S. (2007). Developing a salt tolerant cowpea using alpha tocopherol. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 3(10): 1234-1239. Kaya, M. D., & Day, S. (2008). Relationship between seed size and NaCl on germination, seed vigor and early seedling growth of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). African Journal of Agricultural Research, 3 (11), 787-791. Kuşvuran, Ş., Yaşar, F., Abak, K., & Ellialtıoğlu, Ş. (2008). Tuz stresi altında yetiştirilen tuza tolerant ve duyarlı Cucumis sp.’nin bazı genotiplerinde lipid peroksidasyonu, klorofil ve iyon miktarlarında meydana gelen değişimler. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi (J. Agric. Sci.), 18(1): 13-20. Murillo-Amador, A, B., & Troyo-Diéguez, E. (2000). Effects of salinity on the germination and seedling characteristics of cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.]. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 40, 433–438. Okçu, G., Kaya, M. D., & Atak, M. (2005). Effects of salt and drought stresses on germination and seedling growth of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Turk J Agric For., 29, 237-242. Onyesom, I., Enaholo, A. T., & Mordi, J. (2005). Effect of processing techniques on the contents of flatulence factors and emulsion properties of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Mgt., 9 (2) 65– 72. Szalai, G., & Janda, T. (2009). Effect of salt stress on the salicylic acid synthesis in young maize (Zea mays L.) plants. J. Agronomy & Crop Science ISSN 0931-2250. Tavili, A., & Biniaz, M. (2009). Different Salts effects on the germination of Hordeum vulgare and Hordeum bulbosum. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 8 (1): 63-68. Tohma, Ö. (2007). Çilekte salisilik asit uygulamasının tuz stresine dayanıklılık üzerine etkisi. Atatürk Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Bahçe Bitkileri Anabilim Dalı, Y. Lisans Tezi, 1-73, Erzurum. Witham, F. H., Blaydes, D. F., & Deulin, R. M. (1971). Experiments in Plant Physiology. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Newyork, 245. Yusuf, M., Hasan, S. A., Ali, B., Hayat, S., Fariduddin, Q., & Ahmad, A. (2008). Effect of salicylic acid on salinity-induced changes in Brassica juncea. Journal of Integrative Plant Biology, 50 (9): 1096– 1102. 65 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 651 Title A name given to the resource EFFECT OF SALICYLIC ACID ON SALINITY STRESS IN COWPEA Author Author ÜNLÜ, Hüsnü ALTINDAL, Nüket ÖZDAMAR ÜNLÜ, Halime ALTINDAL, Demet PADEM, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was conducted to determine the effects of seed soaking in salicylic acid (0.25 mM, 0.50 mM, 0.75 mM, 1.0 mM and control) on the growth and some seedling properties in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) under different NaCl doses (2.5 ds m-1, 5.0 ds m-1, 7.5 ds m-1, 10.0 ds m-1 and control). In this work; seedling length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, fresh-dry weight, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll were investigated. In result, according to NaCl x SA interaction, seedling length, dry weight, total chlorophyll values changed between 5.05-13.58 cm, 0.055-0.138 g, 1.705-3.690 mg/g fresh weight, respectively. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/766faf60834127df957d56605f1be0c5.pdf 4a76826541879df5ee4985fdabe184bc PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Relationship Of Environment-Industry In Sustainable Development Çiğdem Ünal Atatürk Üniversity KKEF Erzurum, Turkey Buket Karatop Atatürk Üniversity Faculty of Engineering Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: Thought of analysis necessity of environmental problems arising from production have become prevalent as a principal concern with onset of utilization concept of sustainable development in industry. Sustainable development has comprehensive dimensions as economical, environmental and cultural aspects. However, only dimension of environmentindustry of sustainable development has been handled in this study. Problems put forward within this relationship framework are industrial solid wastes, waste water, energy consumption and hazards which release sources give to environment. Amount of industrial solid waste of Turkey in 2004 is 17.4 million ton and out of this, only 7.7 % proportion part has been recycled, 46.9 % has been disposed of. These disposed solid wastes have been removed by pouring 47.2 % rate to seas, lakes and rivers. Rate of solid water released without treated in the same dates is 64.1 %. Industry has 30.7 % share in CO2 emission. In addition to this, amount of greenhouse gas emission shows increase in each year. Turkey requires more clean and renewable energy sources in terms of sustainable development. Keywords: Sustainability, sustainable development, industry, environment, solid waste, waste water, energy Introduction Respectto nature. Management of allspecies and natural resources should be taken care ofinline with sustainable development principles. However, endless abundance which nature has presented us can be preserved and can be transferred to future generations through these means. Current unsustainable production and consumption moulds are to be changed for the sake of our and our children’s welfare. (6th Article of UN Millennium Sum mit Decisions) One of the most fundamental values discusses in UN Millennium Sum mit held in New York on September 6-8, 2000 has been the issue of respect to nature. Supplying environmental sustainability, development principles and programmes of countriesfrom Millennium Development objectives handled in eight separate areas have been discussed and it has borne necessity of formation of new strategies. Sustainable Development has been defined as development meeting current requirements without making concessions from requirements offuture generationsin Rio Sum mit which World Com mission on Environment and Development. Ultimate decisions documents of Rio Sum mit have affected agenda of UN meetings to be held soon after. Sustainable development and environmental relationships constantly have formed agenda topics in World Population Development Conference (1994), World Social Development Sum mit (1995), Habitat II(Đstanbul1996) and Millennium Sum mit(2000). Significant steps have been taken in recognition and acceptance of this concept by business world and industry and enabling it measurable within ten years following this Rio Conference. Business Council for Sustainable Development Turkey (TBCSD) has been running mutual studies and program mes made with World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), State Planning Organization (DTP) and the Ministry of Environment. WBCSD which has its head office in Switzerland has 55 regional representatives and world company member more than one thousand. Sustainable developmentis not discussed through sole environmental dimensions withinthe framework of macro economical policies targeted for 21st century. Itis constantly emphasized that equilibrium between these aspects should be observed for obtaining sustainable results in long-term period without disregarding the fact that social, economical and environmentalfactors are unceasingly interacted with one another. It is essential not to disregard relationships of all these dimensions in all studies to be conducted in regard with sustainable development which possess social, economical, environmental and cultural aspects. 316 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Industrialisation which constitutes first and fundamental approach of sustainable development in this study conducted has only handled environmental dimension in relationships of sustainable development.Issues such as environmental pollution arising from industrial wastes and wastesin Turkey, preservation of natural sources and recycling methods related with its management, energy sources used in industry and conformity with release standards have been discussed in detail. While conducting these researches, relationships of industryenvironment of sustainable development in Turkey have been elucidated with the help of tables and graphics by providing the most recent data which Turkish StatisticalInstitution (TUĐK) has published hereof. Relationships of Industry-Environment in Sustainable Development W hen environmental dimension of sustainable developmentin Turkey has been evaluated in terms of industry,itis seen that emergent problems are generally related with infrastructure. Wastes emerged along with industrialization lead to air, water and soil pollution. It is encountered with bureaucracy and infrastructure problems in implementation of respective legislations and other legal regulations concerning control of these wastes. Yet,suitable elimination plants ortechnological choices which shall provide meeting limit values which these regulations stipulate should be in improved level. If industrialized countries lack suitable systems and plants for specifically industrial wastes and their disposal,itmight be impossibleto sustain development. Nowadays, energy and energy costs continue to be significant problem in industrial sector. Energy sources used either comply withrelease standards or constrain competition conditions due to high cost. This case herewith increases uncontrolled and unconscious applications. 1. Industrial Wastes and Environmental Pollution Environmentallegislation in Turkey constituted atthe beginnings of 2000 in a great extent. Seven main legislation carrying importance in regard with industrial world are in question within this scope. These are legislations of environmental effect evaluation, control of solid wastes, control of hazardous wastes, control of air quality, water pollution and control of pharmaceutical wastes. Scientific and periodic data assertedin allthese areas are vitalin regard with adaptation of concept of sustainability accurately and measurability. A general evaluation can be handled underthe headlines given below interms of sustainabilityin regard with effects ofindustry on environment. 1.1. Solid Wastes Waste method in industry is one ofthe mostimportant componentsinimplementation ofsustainability principle. Wastes arising from industrial production and services involve proper managementin compliance with environmental and human health by diminishing loss of raw material. Reducing waste amount,recycling, disposal of wastesin compliance with environmental and human health are among principal objectives of sustainable development. W hen we examine industrialsolid waste amountsin 2000-2004 in Turkey (Table 1), we can see that there is an increase in totalsolid waste amounts along with increased industrialization. The amount being 17.059 thousand ton/yearin 2000 has increased to 17.498 thousand ton/yearin 2004. No significant development has been made in solid waste recycle issue with the increase in these amounts. While 8.5 % of waste amounts were recycled or re-used,thisrate decreased to 7.7 % with even falling drastically in 2004. Total amount of waste Thousand tonnes/year 2000 17 059 2004 17 498 Source; Tüik, 2006; 23 Recycled and reused Thousand % tonnes/year 1 460 8.5 1 346 7.7 Sold or donated Thousand tonnes/year 5 916 7 943 Disposed of Thousand tonnes/year 34.6 9 683 45.4 8 209 % % 56.8 46.9 Table 1. Total amount ofindustrial waste W hen sources of wastes are examined, four main sectors come to the fore as construction, mining, industry and domestic garbage. Such wastes are recycled in 90 % rate in some countries such as Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands. While rate ofindustrial wastes is 17 % in these countries(Ayvaz, 2004),thisrate is 30 % in Turkey (DĐE,200;164);rate of recycled industrial solid wasteis only 8 %. (Figure 1). 317 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 8% 47% Recyled and reused Sold or donated 45% Disposed of Figure 1. Distribution range of amount ofindustrial solid waste Recycled and reused Sold or donated Disposed of Total Thousand % Thousand % Thousand % Thousand tonnes/year tonnes/year tonnes/year tonnes/year 2000 142 10.8 343 26.2 823 62.9 1308 2004 71 5.9 248 20.7 877 73.3 1196 Source; Tüik, 2006;23 Table 2. Amount of hazardousindustrial waste There occurred 1.2 million tonnes hazardous industrial solid waste in 2004 in Turkey. (Table 2). When we compare this amount with the year of 2000, we can see a decrease accordingly. Additionally, there is a decrease in the rate of recycled hazardous solid waste. While 10.8 of hazardous waste were recycled, 5.9 ofthis were recovered in 2004. However, rate of disposed hazardous waste increased from 62.9 % to 7.3 %. Whereas disposal and recycling plant capacities of existing industrial waste are not adequate for waste amount arising from sources from country industry, adequate wasteis not dispatched to even existing plants. Primary reason for this can be specified such that control inadequacy and industrial institutions’ not being ready for high waste disposal costs.(The Ministry of Environment, 2002;116). Industry group Recycled and reused Disposed of Sold or donated % % % Manufacture of food and beverages 2.4 31.3 66.3 Manufacture oftobacco products 27.3 37.5 35.2 Manufacture oftextiles 1.4 22.3 76.3 Manufacture of paper and paper products 8.5 49.8 41.7 Manufacture of basic metals 9.9 63.5 26.6 Source;tüik.gov.tr Table 3. Table 3. Methods ofelimination of solid wastes in industrialsectors, 2004 W hen we examine industrialsolid waste elimination methods ofimportantindustry branches located in our country (Table 3),itis seen that Food sector disposed of 31.3 % of waste by selling or donating 66.3 % and re-evaluated 2.4 % by recycling. 37.5 % of wastes come out in tobacco industry was disposed and 35.2 % was sold. Whilethe highestrate within disposed tobacco industry belongsto base metalindustry,the highestfigure in rate of sold or donated waste is seen in textile industry. Recycled highest waste rate is in tobacco industry. Recycled waste rates ofindustrialsectors have not reached desired level yet. 318 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Industry group Municip al dumping site Controlle Incineratio Ope d landfill n n area Stored within the establishme nt Dumpin g into sea,lake or river Using as filling materi al 11.6 Buria Other l s Manufactur 49.0 2.5 0.1 0.02 29.8 0.4 0.2 e of food and beverages Manufactur 7.4 73.2 0.2 2.6 e of tobacco products Manufactur 72.2 24.3 1.0 1.8 0.02 0.2 0.04 e of textiles Manufactur 94.5 1.7 0.2 3.5 e of paper and paper products Manufactur 1.5 8.5 0.2 7.1 78.5 4.1 e of basic metals Manufactur 5.6 8.9 80.6 0.00 4.6 0.005 0.3 e of motor 1 vehicles and trailers Turkey 20.0 10.9 2.4 0.1 9.3 47.2 7.7 1.0 Source:tüik.gov.tr Table 4. Amount ofindustrial waste by disposal methods and industry group, 2004 (%) 6.3 16.5 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.001 1.2 In Table 4, amounts and disposal methods of Turkey’s disposed solid waste industry amount have been shown according to importantindustry groups. W hen we primarily examine disposal methods of total of Turkey, we can see that wastes in the highest rate are dumped into seas,lakes and rivers with 47.2 % rate. Yet, pollution of water sources with industrial wastesisthe most crucial point which we should attach importance in these days of mentioning effects of global warming. It has been determined thatrate ofindustrial waste dumped into municipality dumping site is 20 %. Disposal of with control landfill is 10.9 %, storing within the establishment is 9.3 % rate of using as filling material is 7.7 %. Only 2.4 % of industrial solid wastes are disposed of by incineration and 1 % of it by burying. Dum ping into sea, lake or river 16% Municipal 12% Controlled landfill 58% 14% 0% Stored w ithinthe establism ent Others Source; Table 4. Figure 2. Disposal methods ofindustrial solid wastes W hen we examine distribution of disposal rates by means of municipal dumping site among sectors,it can be stated thatthe highestrate belongs toindustry of paper and paper products with 94.5 % rate.(Table 4).In 319 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo second sequence,textile products with 72.2 % and food products and beverage industry with 49 % can be seen. The sector which uses disposal methods maximally by storing solid wastes regularly is the industry of tobacco products. (%73.2). Base metal industry which has the highest rate of disposal by dumping into seas,lakes and riversisthe industry sector which pollutes environment maximally.(78.5). However, when we examine average annual disposal amounts of manufacturing industry and rates of annual waste disposal,it can be seen that the highestfigure and rate belong to base metalindustry. Amount ofindustrialsolid wastein 2004 was 17.4 million tonnes and 8.2 million tonnes of this was disposed of. (Table 1). Amount of disposed industrial solid waste in 2004 is over 4.9 million tonnes and itsratein Turkey totalis approximately 63 %. 1.2. Waste Water Importance of water is increasing each passing day as a result of increase of rapid industrialisation, population growth and domestic water usage. Though only 11 % of water obtained from naturein our country is used in industry, problem of waste water arising from industry is becoming more important. (Ç.B. 2002;112). Waste water standards are applied withinthis scope with Water Pollution Control Legislation published in 1988. Waste water discharge in industry has been tied up to discharge permit certificate renewed once in a three years. Environmental Effect Evaluation (ÇED) Legislation published in 1992 is notimplemented in a desired level.In addition to this, it is being compulsory somehow in the issue of taking required precautions in regard with preservation of water sources. A mount of water consumed Thousand m3 / year 2000 1 454 061 2004 1 215 090 Source; Tüik, 2006; 23 A mount of water recycled Thousand m3 / year 516 589 410 300 % A mount of waste water discharged Thousand m3 / year 35.5 746 877 33.7 637 756 % 51.3 52.4 Treated Thousand m3 / year 235 530 228 440 Untreated % Thousand m3 / year 31.5 511 527 35.8 409 316 % 68.5 64.1 Table 5.Water usage and waste waterin manufacturing industry W hile water amount consumed in manufacturing industry in 2000 in Turkey was 1.4 billion m3, it was approximately 1.2 m3 in 2004. Therefore, whereas there is decrease in re-used water rates in same periods,itis recorded that there is increase in discharged and treated water rates. While 51.3 % of water used in industry in 2004 was discharged, this rate increased to 52.4 % in 2004. Water rated treated in the same manner increased from 31 % to 35 %. (Table 5). Agreements signed between some industrial sectors (Paper,fermentation, sugar, leather etc.) and the Ministry of Environment for encouraging construction of waste watertreatment plants and industrial investments made with this purpose led an increase in the number of mutual treatment plants in specifically organized industrial zones. Increase in number of industrial institutions having certificate of environmental management system such as ISO 140002 made positive contributions to preservation of water sources. Number ofindustrialworkplaces with ISO 14000 certificatein 2008 is 1174. Number of workplace with ISO 14001 certificateis 259. (TÜĐK, 2006;23). Crises lived from time to time in economy of Turkey and high energy costs affect proper operation of watertreatment plants and investments of waste watertreatment plants negatively. Desire ofimplementing Aqua cultural Legislation which has brought too low discharge limits in the regions where specifically industry is denseis notregarded as realistic by industrialinstitutions. Since itis almostimpossibleto stepping down to these discharge limits,there occur problems in implementation and controls.(ÇB, 2002;113). 2 ISO 14001Environmental Management Standard covers environmental dimensions which institutions can hold in control and/or can affect herein. 320 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo City Sea Lake River Land Septic Others sewerage. tank Industrial wastewater discharged without 6.8 82.0 0.8 8.7 0.4 0.1 1.1 treatment Industrial wastewater discharged after 10.9 23.1 0.2 54.2 6.9 0.07 4.6 treatment Domestic wastewater discharged without 65.3 0.7 0.9 19.8 0.5 11.7 1.1 treatment Domestic wastewater discharged after 11.8 44.6 0.4 36.3 1.7 0.5 4.6 treatment Source;tüik.gov.tr Table 6. Amount of wastewater discharged to the receiving bodies by the status oftreatment and industry group 2004, (%) Waste water rates discharged according to industry group and treatment status can be gathered under four headlines.(Table 6). Out of these, first group consist ofindustrial waste water discharged treatment. Vast majority of waste water discharged from industry without treatment, namely 82 % of this, is generally discharged to seas. 8.7 % of remaining untreated waste wateris discharged rivers and 6.8 % ofitto city sewage. W hen we examine rates of industrial waste water discharged after treatment, itis seen thatthe highest rate is waste water discharged to rivers with 54.2 % rate. Rates oftreated waste water discharged respectivelyto sea (23 %) and city sewage (10.9 %) are in second and third sequence. In third and fourth group, we see Domestic wastewater discharged withouttreatment and Domestic wastewater discharged aftertreatment. Out ofthese,the highest rate in waste water discharged without treatment is discharged to city sewage with 65.8 % and to rivers with 19.8 %. The highestrate in domestic waste water dumped aftertreatmentis discharged to seas with 44.6 % and to rivers 36.8 %. Justlike inindustrialsolid wastes, maximal degree is dumped into surface water sources in waste water. Şehir kanalizasyonu Deniz Akarsu Diğer Figure 3.Industrial wastewater discharged withouttreatment Environmental pollution hasirrecoverable costs. Out ofthe factors causing this pollution,share of waste water discharged from industry withouttreatment undoubtedly substantial. As itis seen from Figure 3, dumping the said waste water mostly to seas is an indication of not reaching desired effective level of environmental management systems. Used in agricult ure 234 322 Used in productio n 245 131 Municipal dumping site 431 482 Open area Controlled Incinerati landfill on Dumpin g into rivers 4603 Other s (ton/ 347 705 087 101287 23738 year) 236 7 % 10.2 10.6 18.7 15.0 30.1 4.4 0.2 10.2 Source;tüik.gov.tr Table 7. Amount oftreatment sludge by disposal methods and industry group , 2004 Total 230653 5 Treatment sludge emerged as a result of waste water treatment apart from solid waste and waste water in industrial sectors can lead environmental pollution. As a matter of fact, amount of treatment sludge arising from treatment of industrial waste water in Turkey in 2004 is 2.3 million tonnes. Out of treatment sludge emerged inthe same dates, 30.1 % is disposed of by controllandfill,18.7 % by municipaldumping site, 15 % by open area, 10.2 % by agricultural usage (Table 7). 321 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1.3.Energy Consumption and Release Sources 14.2 % of electric energy consumed in Turkey is used in com mercial establishments, 23.7 % in residential houses, 3.6 % in government offices, 3.2 % in illumination of streets, more than 55 % in industrialsector (Table 8). Government Com mercial Residential Streetillumination Ind. Cons. Total offices And others. 4 662 719 18 543 784 30 934 976 4 142 988 71 978 292 130 262 759 % 3.6 % 14.2 % 23.7 % 3.2 % 55.3 Source; Tüik, 2006; 227 Table 8. Consumption of electricity-M Wh (2005) The highest value within energy rates which manufacturing industry consumes according to usage areas in 2005 has been reserved to production of goods and service with 69.1 %. (Table 9). When we examine other rates, 14.5 % of energy consumed isin coke oven, 11 % isin electricity generation. Production of goods and services Space heating Transportation Electricity generation Heat Coke oven/ production Blastfurnace Nonenergy use (TOE) 69.1 2.9 1.5 11.0 0.6 0.4 14.5 Source; Tüik, 2006; 227 Table 9. Total energy consumption by sectors and usage areas, 2005 (%) Turkey is a country which is under world average interms ofenergy consumption and meets substantial part of energy requirement via import. While per person consumed 1 808 k Wh in our country in 2004 (TÜĐK,2006;231), this amount was 2 292 k Wh in Belgium in 1998 and 3 520 k Wh in Finland (DĐE,2000;94). W hen we evaluate total energy sources, it is apparent that our primary energy sources are abundant and it is necessary to evaluate widespread lignite. However, evaluation of the said energy sources should be handled meticulously in terms of sustainable environment. Coal Lignite Fuel-oil Natural Gas Hydraulic Other (Motor Oil) 8.1 18.5 3.2 45.3 24.4 0.5 Source: TÜĐK,2006;227 Table 10.Thermal electricity generation by energy resources (106 k Wh), 2005, % W hen energy sources are taken into consideration, natural gas is in first row (45.3 %), hydraulic is in second row (24.4 %), and ligniteisinthird row (18.5 %).(Table 10). Rates of coal and fuel-oilare fairlylow. 90 % of demand of crude oil nowadays and 98 % demand of natural gas are met with import.Itis estimated that demand of crude oil of Turkey by 2020 shall be doubled and demand of natural gas shall be five folded. (Ç.B. 2002;107). When energy subjectis evaluated within approach ofindustry and sustainable development, domestic sources are notin alevel responding total energy demand of the country. Turkey needs a reliable energy regime. In parallel with increase of rate of natural gas in energy generation as to years, its share in energy generation increased and reached 9.2 % in 2000. However,when itis considered that Turkey supplies substantial part ofits energy from consumable sources,itis noticed that Turkey should orientto clean or renewable sources. It should not be disregarded that we should evaluate our existing energy sources in the best way in terms of sustainability and we should increase usage of renewable energy sources in an economical way. 322 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Electricity Industry Transport Other production 2000 37.0 28.9 16.9 17.2 2004 34.3 30.7 18.2 16.8 Source; Tüik, 2006; 20 Table 11. CO2 emissions by sectors In industry, energy and energy costs affect the environment negatively by not obeying emission standards of energy sources besides being a very important problem. In Turkey, it is observed that CO2 emission, which used to be 223 806 thousand/ton in 2000, has risen up to 241 884 in 2004. In the same years, emission rates per person has increased from 3.32 to 3.40 (TUIK, 2006; 20). When the emission distribution rates of CO2 isrevised interms of sectors(Table 11),the emission which is distributed in 2004 has resulted from electricity production in 34.3%, industryin 30.7% and transportation in 16.8. The emission ratefrom other group including housing and agriculture, etc.is 18.2%. After beginning natural gas for heating purposes in large cities and in electricity production,there has been a decreasein emission ratesin both areas when compared with years 2000 and 2004. However,the emission ratesinindustry have risen up from 28.9% to 30.7%. After the publication of Air Pollution Regulation in 1986, positive developments have been attained in application. The emission rates resulting from industry are prevented to a large extent by natural gas transformation in industrial zones, widespread conscious of energy savings and heat conservation and heat recycle inindustrial chambers. 1991 1995 2000 2006 Energy 137.96 160.79 212.55 258.21 Industrial Processes 15.22 21.64 22.23 27.12 Agriculture 19.04 17.97 16.13 16.36 Waste 9.74 20.31 29.04 30.06 Total 181.96 220.72 279.96 331.7 Increase rates in 1990 7.0 29.8 64.6 95 Source:tüik.gov.tr Table 12. GHG emissions by sectors (million tonnes CO2 eq.) In spite of all measures taken, rapid urbanization and industrialization have led the waste amounts and other environmental problems to increase. As seen in Table 12, greenhouse gas ratesin Turkey have risen up so fast. In a research published by TUIK, year 1990 has been taken as a basis and increase percentages of greenhouse gas are calculated through this year. Thus,the increase rates have risen up to 7% in 1991, 29.8% in 1995, 64,6% in 2000 and 95% in 2006. 181 million tons of greenhouse gas emissions in 1991 have increased to 331 million tons in 2006. When the related table is revised, itis seen that the largest increase rate is made in wastes. For wastes, 9.7 million tons of greenhouse gas emission in 1991 has reached 30 million with a three times larger multiplication in 2006. In spite of measurementstaken in industry, greenhouse gas emission in this sector has risen up from 15 million tons to 27 million tons. W hen 1990-2005 Annual European Com munity Greenhouse Gas Inventory and 2007 Inventory Report are examined, AB-15: SG emissions have decreased to 1.5% between 1990 and 2005. Especially in 2004-2005, emission rates have decreased in such countries as Germany, Finland, Holland, Belgium, Denmark, France and England. Turkey is the 13th country by having the largest greenhouse gas emission in the world. Total greenhouse gas emission rateis approximately 1.3% in 2004. Kyoto Protocol has been valid in 174 countries since 2000 and approximately 60% of greenhouse gas emissions of these countries are involved. Therefore,the countries signing Kyoto Protocol will decrease 5% of greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 by putting several limitations for industrial organizations between 2008 and 2012. When this protocol is applied, 13 million tons of total greenhouse gas amounts in 1990 will be 12.7 million tons in 2012. 2. Industrial Wastes and Environmental Management W hen the purposes of 9th Development Plan (DPT, 2006) which will be applied in Turkey between 2007-2013, the focus is mainly on such decisions as taking responsibility of environmental protection and 323 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo environmental management by industrial organizations, using sources more efficiently and environmental management (article 518-519). Besides, when public policies of ninth development plan are examined,itis seen that maintaining sustainability in growth by revising industry-environment connections, making productions in accordance with human health and coherence and following social responsibility standards have been highly important. Since 1980,significant achievements are obtained interms ofair pollution and environmentalsources in our country. Although various problems are experienced in constructing sectoral policies and environmental management planning, 648 million TRY have been spent in total for environmental expenditures of production industry in 2007. When the distribution of expenditure is examined (Table 13),the largest rate is seen in waste water management (48%). 23.1% of thisrateis used in waste management and 12.7% for climate protection. Protectio n of ambient air and climate 12.7 Wastewater managemen t 48.0 Solid waste managemen t 23.1 Protection of soil and groundwate r 0.4 Noise and vibration abatemen t 0.3 Protection of biodiversit y and landscape 0.5 Research and developmen t 2.1 Other s 12.9 % Source:tüik.gov.tr Table 13. Environmental expenditure of manufacturing industry sector,(2007) The waste types and rates resulting from industrialization in Turkey are not quite different from other developing countries. Within certain intervals, TUIK publishes some data in order to determine amounts and distributions ofindustrial wastes and to take measurements accordingly. Moreover,the Ministry of Environment prepares industrial inventories for certain regions in determined periods. For instance, the detailed industrial inventory including Marmara,Mediterranean and Western Anatoliais one ofthose issued in 2002. Dangerous waste burn plant and regular storing plant of dangerous solid waste built within Đzmit Integrated Environmental Project operated by ĐZAYD AŞ as the most important infrastructure plant in order to diminish wastes resulting from industry. Apart from ĐZAY D AŞ having a 35 thousand tons dangerous solid burning capacity annually and operating aslicensed in our country does not have a licensed industrial waste burn and regular storing plant (Ç.B. 2002; 114-116). In recent years, temporary license certifications are given to some small-scaled plantations. However,legalinspection mechanisms are not effectively valid in these plantsin terms of quality of recycle materials and disposal of wastes. 3. Results and Suggestions Turkey’s involvement within customs union and EU membership process has been an impulsive force in terms of putting sustainability principles into action. Nonetheless, all measurements taken have not been enough. The amount of industrial solid waste in Turkey is 17.4 million tons, but only 46.9% of this rate is disposed of. The amount of dangerous solid wasteis yearly 70 thousand tons on average.Besides,the amount of waste water has reached 1.2 billion m3 in 2004 and only 33.7% ofit has been re-used and 64% has been leftinto nature without purification. The largestrates of waste water and solid wastes are determined to be disposed into seas or rivers. Turkey meets most of his energy need from importation. We are unable to use our present energy sources in full capacityin terms of sustainability. Most of CO2 emissions released results from industry in 30%. We are the 13th country in greenhouse gas emission in the world. In recent twenty years, there has been an increase of more than 90% in greenhouse gas emission. Turkey should primarily secure its sustainable use of naturalsources such as air,soil and water. It should also take measurements to decrease the effects of wastes and emissions on natural environment and re-arrange its regulations accordingly. States should be sensitive and supportive enough in terms of waste disposal costs of industrial organizations. In industrial organizations of Turkey, SMEs (small and medium sized entrepreneurs) play an important role. Especially in most of these,there are many infrastructure insufficiencies.In order to meet this need, states should construct stable policies and make substantialinvestments. Itis conditionalto have a proper system for disposal ofindustrial wastes and to increase the number of these plants. 324 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Itis important to make investments and to take necessary precautions in order to use the cleanest and sustainable energy together with energy and energy costs used in industry. The uncertainty in economy should be dissolved in order to enable a sustainable development in terms of industry in our country. The determined policies will reach its aim thanks to absence of economical doubts and calculations in industrial environments. Unfair competition of business and industry environments working together peacefully with environment protection and sustainable development efforts and required enforcement should be applied. In this research, sustainable development is only tried to be described in terms of environment and Turkey’s present structure is explained. Yet, it should not be forgotten to take economical, social and environmental dimensions into consideration for sustainable developments of countries. Not only businessmen are responsible forthis, but also are productive sectors and citizens. Reference Ayvaz, R., 2004. Bozulan Doğal Denge Sonucunda Avrupa’daki Katı Atık Sorunlarına Çözüm Projeleri. Ekoloji (doğa-çevre ve kültür dergisi), Çevre Koruma ve Araştırma Vakfı, Sayı 4, Đzmir. Çevre Bakanlığı, 2002. Türkiye Ulusal Raporu (taslak). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Dünya Zirvesi Johannesburg 2002. DĐE, 2000. Sayılarla Türkiye ve Avrupa Birliği 1994-2000. Yayın No: 2516, Ankara. DPT, 2006 Dokuzuncu Beş yıllık Kalkınma Planı (2007-2013), Ankara. TÜĐK, 2006. Türkiye Đstatistik Yıllığı. Yayın No: 3063, Ankara. http://www.belgenet.com/arsiv/binyilzirve_02.html http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/technical_report_2007_ http://www.ekolojimagazin.com/?s=magazin&id=126 325 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 494 Title A name given to the resource Relationship Of Environment-Industry In Sustainable Development Author Author Ünal, Çiğdem Karatop, Buket Abstract A summary of the resource. Thought of analysis necessity of environmental problems arising from production have become prevalent as a principal concern with onset of utilization concept of sustainable development in industry. Sustainable development has comprehensive dimensions as economical, environmental and cultural aspects. However, only dimension of environmentindustry of sustainable development has been handled in this study. Problems put forward within this relationship framework are industrial solid wastes, waste water, energy consumption and hazards which release sources give to environment. Amount of industrial solid waste of Turkey in 2004 is 17.4 million ton and out of this, only 7.7 % proportion part has been recycled, 46.9 % has been disposed of. These disposed solid wastes have been removed by pouring 47.2 % rate to seas, lakes and rivers. Rate of solid water released without treated in the same dates is 64.1 %. Industry has 30.7 % share in CO2 emission. In addition to this, amount of greenhouse gas emission shows increase in each year. Turkey requires more clean and renewable energy sources in terms of sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)