331 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3d4f68b1e54232298da36f22555de425.pdf 76e273b9623bae2620381d4a90d2b132 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Telecommunication Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina: An Overview Telecommunication, Regulation & Sustainable Development Oğuzhan ÖZALTIN Ph.D. Student, Süleyman Demirel University, Department of Public Administration, Isparta / TURKEY, oguzhan@oguzhanozaltin.com Aykut SEZGĐN Research Assistant, Süleyman Demirel University, Department of Economics, Isparta / TURKEY, asezgin@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Onur DEMĐREL Research Assistant, Süleyman Demirel University, Department of Economics, Isparta / TURKEY, onurdemirel@yahoo.com Abstract: The aim of the study is to investigate the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina with respect to the liberalisation process mentioned by the Public Governance Committee of the OECD and the sustainable development goals introduced by the World Bank. It is analyzed that how telecommunication sector has been regulated in the post-war period, the sectoral structure, legal infrastructure and regulatory agency characteristics are represented and finally a SWOT analysis is made for the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Communication Regulatory Agency. Keywords: Regulation, telecommunication sector, sustainable development, Bosnia and Herzegovina Introduction Current discourse is the importance of competition in any sector. It is expected from nation-states that they replace their competition policies with more liberal ones. In other words, the role of the states is expected to be ‘mediator state’. States will delegate their regulatory and supervisory authorities to autonomous administrative authorities. In this way, the wealth of the citizens will foster. In order to experience such a wealth increase monopolistic sectors should be transformed into oligopolistic markets. Then, these oligopolistic markets shall approach to perfect competition. It is the case also for the telecommunication sector. The sector is generally under governmental monopoly or has oligopolistic features. Therefore, the regulation and supervision shall be performed by autonomous administrative authorities. Telecommunication and Regulation in Bosnia and Herzegovina a. A Historical Overview During the first phase of postwar reconstruction in BiH, broadcasting regulation was split between two agencies: the Independent Media Commission (IMC), responsible for licensing radio and television stations, program monitoring and establishing codes of practice, and the Telecommunications Regulatory Agency (TRA), responsible for telecommunications and frequency management. The High Representative merged the two agencies in March 2001, creating the Communications Regulatory Agency (Regulatorna Agencija za Komunikacije-RAK), that has responsibility for both broadcasting and telecommunications areas (CARDS, 2006). Currently there are three telecom enterprises in Bosnia and Herzegovina. These are BH Telecom, Telekom Srpske and HT Mostar. BH telecom, headquartered in Sarajevo, is a “joint-stock” company, principally divided into four primary service units: (FIPA, 2005) • Fixed telephony BH Telecom; • Mobile telephony GSM BIH; 450 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • Internet service BIHNET; Data transmission BIHPAK. Figure 1: Historical Progress of Former PTT in Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: CARDS, 2006. The company employs about 3,000 personnel at the total and provides 22 direct connections with foreign operators, providing a total capacity of 3,471 channels and also direct connections with Bosnia’s other two incumbents, Telekom Srpske (494 voice channels) and HT Mostar (214 voice channels). BH Telecom has commercial roaming contracts with 127 world GSM operators, in 59 countries on all five continents. BH Telecom continues to expand its BIHNET Internet service with subscriber access to broadband capacity via leased lines and ADSL access (FIPA, 2005). Ownership Structure Pre-Privatization 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 10 20 25 90 80 75 Figure 2: Ownership Structure of Dominant Telecommunication Companies before Privatization BH-Telecom HT-Mostar Telekom Source: Cullen International, Country Comparative Report, 2005. Telekom Srpske, headquartered in Banja Luka, employs about 2,400 personnel, and provides its present subscriber base of 275,000 with direct switch links to Serbia-Montenegro, Germany, Slovenia, Croatia, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland. HT Mostar is the second of two telecoms operating in the Federation BiH. HT Mostar was legally established as a limited liability company, with the Federation government owning about 80% of the company capital, the remaining 20% is privately owned capital (currently 37% of the company is private). At present, HT Mostar provides only fixed line telephony and Internet connectivity services. The company possesses about 130,000 fixed line subscribers and Internet subscribers (dial-up and broadband). In 2002, HT Mostar’s GSM operations were spun-off into a separate operating entity, ERONET, but there are now attempts underway to remerge together the two corporate entities (FIPA, 2005). 451 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ownership Structure After Privatization 100% 10 80% 37 35 63 65 60% 90 40% 20% 0% Figure 3: Ownership Structure of Dominant Telecommunication Companies after Privatization Source: CARDS, 2006. Elektroprivreda is Bosnia-Herzegovina’s largest power utility incumbent, which possesses a substantial, and growing telecommunications infrastructure primarily to support the power utility’s generation, transmission, and distribution operations. About 2,000 kilometres of fibre optic cable capacity has been thus far installed by Elektroprivreda, and the company is now installing an additional 2,000 kilometres of fibre optic capacity. In late 2004, Elektroprivreda was awarded an independent telecommunications operator license, which allows the company to develop commercial applications of its excess capacity (FIPA, 2005). As the number of issued licences for fixed operators (13 licences) are much higher than the number of operators operating currently (3 operators), it may be claimed that the telecommunication market in BiH is going to liberalize in 2007, marking the entrance of new players, and therfore distrurbing the position of the dominat operators. The fixed operators also operate as mobile operators and they are the only companies. BH Telecom whose network covers 87,89% of the population and 96% of the roads specified in the licence annex has been operating since 1996. Telekom Srpske whose services reach 95,2% of the population and 95,6% of the roads has been operating since 1999. HT Mostar was launched in 2000 and covers 98,6% of the population and 96% of the overall networks of roads (CARDS, 2006). Infrastructure providers 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 143 64 3 3 40 40 39 Figure 4: Quantities of Infrastructure Providers in Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: Cullen International, Country Comparative Report, 2005. Although the licenses are nationwide licences, they operate mainly on geographic basis. Telekom Srpske serves Republic Srpska and BH Telecom serves the north-east part of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of the end of 2007, there were 60 licenced Internet providers in BiH (CARDS, 2006). 452 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo b. Statistics Fixed Telephone Penetration (number of connections per 100 inhabitans) 28 26 23,63 24 24,48 24,76 25,2 25,46 22,35 22 205: Fixed Telephone Penetration in Bosnia and Herzegovina Figure Source: CARDS, 2006. The population of BiH is 4,672,165 as of 2007 and the per capita national income adjusted by purchasing power is about USD 6,600. The number of Internet users is about 950,000 at the end of 2007, with a penetration rate of 27.25%. The rate for fixed telephone lines is 26.41%. The broadband penetration rate is only 1.02% as of 2006. The average rate for broadband penetration is 18% for Europe. The number of XDSL lines in 21,664. The dominant technology in the country is XDSL and cable networks follows. There are 52 ISSs in BiH. Mobile penetration rate is 63.29% in the year 2007 (SAS, 2008). Mobile Penetration (number of subscribers per 100 inhabitans) 80 63,29 60 36,62 41,48 48,77 40 20 0 6: Mobile Penetration in Bosnia and Herzegovina Figure Source: CARDS, 2006. 453 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Penetration of Internet Users 30 24,5 20,8 25 20 15,1 15 10 7 4 5 Figure0 7: Penetration of Internet Users in Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: CARDS, 2006. c. Legal Structure The frame of the legal structure in Bosnia and Herzegovina is constructed through the Law on Communications (Official Gazette, no. 31/2003). The law entered into force in 2002 and confirmed the authorization and responsibilities of the RAK. The Law adopts a convergent approach with a wide scope including telecommunications, radio, broadcasting (including cable television) and connected services and facilities. According to the Law the broadcasting segment of the communication sector is defined as “any pointto-multipoint emission of signs, signals, text, images, sounds or data by wire, optical fibre, radio, or any other electromagnetic means intended for general reception by the public by means of receivers adapted for the purpose” and “any legal or physical person providing broadcasting”. The Law also defines a number of fundamental regulatory principles that in turn assign the scope of the actions of the RAK, such as: • The protection of freedom of expression and diversity of opinion while respecting common standards of decency, non-discrimination, fairness, accuracy, and impartiality; • The development of professional and viable commercial and public broadcasters with the intention of striking an appropriate balance within the two; • The principle that broadcasters shall be separated from political control and manipulation; • Licenses shall be awarded on the basis of a process by which appropriate professional standards of program content, technical operation and financing are ensured; • Broadcast advertising shall be regulated so as to be consistent with the best European practice. In accordance with the Bosnia and Herzegovina Law on Communications, and related to the regulatory work in the field of creating bylaws, the RAK has created a number of various codes, rules and guidelines so far. The Broadcasting Code of Practice and the Advertising and Sponsorship Code are of most important. During 2006, the process of matching the Advertising and Sponsorship Code with European regulation has been completed, as well as the harmonization of the Broadcasting Code of Practice with the EU principles. The Law on Public Broadcasting System of Bosnia and Herzegovina was passed by the Bosnia and Herzegovina Parliamentary Assembly on October 5, 2005. It was adopted in January 2006. As a member of the Council of Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina ratified the European Convention on Trans-frontier Television in 2005, which establishes fundamental rules concerning the content of television transmission and specifically, among others, advertising and tele-shopping, protection of minors and right of reply (Marko, 2008). d. Regulatory Institution The institution in charge of regulating the communication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is the Communication Regulatory Agency (RAK). It was established in March 2001 by the decision of the High Representative that merges the competencies of two regulatory authorities, namely the Independent Media Commission and the Telecommunications Regulatory Agency. This was the first step for a unique regulator in the region that would regulate the whole communication sector, including the radio frequency spectrum (Marko, 2008). 454 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The main duties of the RAK: • to spread rules on broadcasting and telecommunications, and ensure obedience thereto; • to license broadcasters and telecommunications operators pursuant to the provisions of the Law, and monitor their compliance with license conditions; • to plan, manage, allocate and assign the frequency spectrum and monitor the use of it as well as to maintain and publish a frequency usage plan for the entire territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina; • to require the disclosure of such information as is necessary for the due performance of its regulatory obligations; • to apply technical and quality standards, for instance, to ensure interconnection and functionality of public telecommunications networks and services; • to establish and maintain a technical license-fee-system for both broadcasting and telecommunications; • such other duties that are assigned to it under the Law. In order to assure the efficiency of the actions of the RAK the Law attributes an enforcement power including the competence to impose sanctions in case of breaches of the Law or RAK decisions. Also, if a telecommunications or broadcasting network or service is being operated without a license, the Agency has the power to take all necessary steps to stop the activity of such operations. In case of different violations, oral and written warnings; inspection of licensed facilities; demands for action or cessation; financial penalty up to €75,000; order the interruption of broadcasting or the provision of telecommunications services for a period not exceeding three months; revocation of a license are the measures that the RAK may apply (Marko, 2008). Telecommunication-Regulation and Sustainable Development Providing access to the Internet may help to overcome at least some of the problems faced in the development of rural areas. ICT offer the possibility of a very inexpensive access to government information, a simple tool for marketing of agricultural produce, exchange of the market information, better financial support of the agricultural sector, distance education etc. In addition, a better quality of life and improved living standards for the poorest sections of the society would in part result from the expected lowering of the costs of administrative services (fees, access to information, the dissemination of and the increase in the number of services accessible to this social strata, through universally accessible service) (World Bank, 2004). Macroeconomic data is beginning to demonstrate that the expansion and increased sophistication of the ICT sector is vital for the self-sustainability and growth of the country’s overall economy. Government fiscal and FDI policies are beginning to address the issues of encouraging long-term investments in both technology and knowledge. In particular, the government has recently approved a wideranging Information Society Strategy and Action Plan, and established a state-level agency to coordinate the Information Society agenda. One of the most profound influences to the overall economic landscape and to the ICT sector in particular, is Bosnia’s commitment to obtain EU Integration status by 2014. Substantial policy reforms and essential market standards are expected to dramatically expand the economic opportunities for both domestic and foreign investors. A number of the country’s larger economic producers, including the telecommunications incumbents, are scheduled to undergo privatization within 2006-08. Further, Bosnia’s Communications Regulatory Agency (www.rak.ba) whose mission is to facilitate a proper and effective policy environment for the sector, has established a reputation for independence (FIPA, 2005). Recently, the telecoms and energy incumbents have undertaken the responsibility to join together with other leading companies, university programs, and the SME sector to stimulate economic growth, particularly in the fields of R&D and ICT. On a more commercial level, ICT is beginning to experience convergence throughout multiple economic and social sectors. Particularly in the e-banking, e-education, and e-government sectors, ICT goods and value-added services possess substantial growth potential. FDI specifically targeting the ICT sector is already developing, and the success stories clearly demonstrate that the ICT sector is shaping up to be a priority sector for FDI (FIPA, 2005). SWOT Analysis of Telecommunication and Regulation in Bosnia and Herzegovina Strengths: • The independent status of the RAK is well established, in particular the legal arrangements regarding their financial independence and the appointment of its Director General. 455 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • Progress has been made regarding information society services. Bosnia and Herzegovina has ratified the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime. Legislation on electronic commerce has also been passed. The e-signature law was adopted in November 2006. Some progress has been made as regards audiovisual policy and media, in particular in approximating Bosnia and Herzegovina's legislation to the European Convention on Transfrontier Television. The Advertising and Sponsorship Code has been revised in accordance with the Convention. The RAK has also started the revision of the Broadcasting Code of Practice (Commission of the European Communities, 2007: 46). With regard to foreign direct investments, the legal framework gives guarantees to foreign investors willing to entry in the BiH markets (CARDS, 2006). Weaknesses: • • • • • • However, the three incumbent telecom operators (Telekom Srpske, BH Telecom and HT Mostar) still enjoy de facto monopolies of fixed network operations in their respective operating areas (CARDS, 2006). The outdated infrastructure, the monopolistic character of the market, the lack of a clear legislative framework, and the inexperience of the operations of a free market are all shared obstacles (Verikoukis et al., 2004). The RAK needs to be better equipped in terms of human resources to be able to promote competition in the market, in particular by improving the market conditions for alternative operators and by ensuring the introduction and implementation of the necessary competitive safeguards. The capacity of the relevant sections in the Ministry of Transport and Communications also need to be strengthened. No progress has been made to transform the Citizens Identity Protection System Directorate into a Statelevel Agency for Information Society in charge of implementing the Strategy for Information Society and its Action Plan, as well as of coordinating related activities throughout the country. The implementing of e-signature law through by-laws still needs to be adopted. Legislation for conditional access services has not yet been adopted. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina has been unable to adopt the necessary public broadcasting legislation and the implementation public broadcasting reform continues to be delayed. Bosnia and Herzegovina is not a party to the UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity. Ratifying this Convention is necessary for Bosnia and Herzegovina's participation in media related Community Programmes (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). Opportunities: • In the light of BH strategies, it’s also expected to have a crucial impact in providing to foreign investors the picture of open and attractive market (CARDS, 2006). • The high probability of becoming a member of EU. • Rich cultural diversity. Threats: • • • • Although the Feasibility Study has identified significant progress that was made by BiH in terms of the telecommunication sector reform, the EU still sees a need for a more intensive cooperation, primarily in the area of continued harmonization with the “Acquis Communitaire”. One area of special importance is the continued improvement of legislative, regulative and institutional solutions in the area of ICT and postal services, gradual liberalization, development of an investment friendly environment, and implementation of European standards. The cooperation in the domain of strengthening the ICT infrastructure would assist the development of informatic society in BiH. The Stability and Association Agreement (SAA) is only the starting point in resolving some specific problems and it may serve as a channel for expansion of cooperation in the ICT field (World Bank, 2004). The possible adoption of the draft Law on Wages and Allowances, which would bring the RAK within the civil service, could hinder RAK's independence (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). A major issue is the difficulty in finding a right balance between the levels of wholesale prices (which need to be cost oriented) with correspondent retail prices not yet fully rebalanced. Although a smooth path towards LLU regulation can be agreed, nevertheless, it’s important to provide a clear and reliable timescale of future development of the regulatory framework (CARDS, 2006). 456 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion and Policy Recommendations Only in late 2000 Bosnia and Herzegovina as a country had really started to consider aspects and ramifications of ICT, a field where it still lags behind, not only in comparison with the developed countries of Europe and the rest of the world, but also with most transition countries. There are neither strategic guidelines nor policies aimed at strengthening the awareness of the Bosnian society with regards to the necessity of the broadest application of ICT and their possibilities. The existing legislation is not up to date with the job market, nor does it address the new challenges created by it. The sector of telecommunication infrastructure has been reduced to the telecom operators and their technical and technological development. Liberalization of this market has become a much politicized issue, although liberalization is already present in many segments, for instance, in provision of mobile telephone services. On the other hand, due to significant omissions and lack of regulation in the communication sector, the behaviour of telecom operators in some segments of the business has been unprecedented (World Bank, 2004). Ensuring the independence of the Agency (including maintaining their financial independence and the respect of the procedures in the appointment of the Director General) is of crucial importance to the development of the broadcasting and (tele)communications market (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). As aforementioned, the penetration rates for fixed telephone lines, mobile telephones and Internet have been linearly increasing. However, the private sector ownership of the operators does not increase with the same pace. For instance, as can be seen from Figures 2 and 3, the private sector ownership of BH Telecom remains the same but in the cases of Telekom Srpske and HT Mostar private sector ownerships increase. Yet, the state of BiH still has an ownership of more than 50% at all three companies. This, in turn, reveals that telecommunication sector in BiH has an image of oligopolistic character but operates under the conditions of monopolistic market. As a result, despite the dominant discourse in favour of private sector ownership, the dominance of state ownership in BiH still lasts and therefore liberalisation process has a lot to do. On the other hand, only 2 decades after the fall of real socialism in the territory, the degree of liberalisation so far may be perceived as a success. References CARDS (European Community Assistance for Reconstruction, Development and Stabilisation Programme), (2006), Overview of the Communications Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina, The Harmonization with the EU Standards and the Role of the Communications Regulatory Agency. Commission of the European Communities, (2007), Bosnia and Herzegovina 2007 Progress Report, Enlargement Strategy and Main Challenges 2007-2008, Brussels, [http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2007/nov/bosnia_herzegovina_progress_reports_en.pdf], last access: May 19th, 2009. Cullen International, (2005), Supply of Services in Monitoring of South East Europe – Telecommunication Services Sector and Related Aspects. FIPA (Foreign Investment Promotion Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina), (2005), Bosnia and Herzegovina ICT Sector Profile, Sarajevo. Marko, D., (2008), The Impact of the EU Audiovisual Media Services (AVMS) Directive on Freedom of Speech in the PostCommunist Democracies of Central and South Eastern Europe, South East European Network for Professionalization of Media (SEENPM), Sarajevo. SAS (Sektörel Araştırma ve Stratejiler Dairesi Başkanlığı), (2008), Dünya Telekomünikasyon ve Bilgi Teknolojileri Pazarları, [http://www.tk.gov.tr/Yayin/Raporlar/2008/DunyaTelekomunikasyonPazari-25-03-08.pdf], last access: May 19th, 2009. Verikoukis, CH., Z. Mili, I. Konstas and P. Angelidis, (2004), “Overview on Telecommunications Regulation Framework in Southeastern Europe”, IEEE MELECON, Dubrovnik, Croatia, [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1347003&isnumber=29653], last access: May 19th, 2009. World Bank, (2004), Bosnia and Herzegovina Joint IDA-TMF Staff Assessment of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, Report No: 29034-BH, [http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/05/25/000090341_20040525102031/Rendered/IND EX/29034.txt], last access: May 19th, 2009. 457 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 292 Title A name given to the resource Telecommunication Sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina: An Overview Telecommunication, Regulation & Sustainable Development Author Author ÖZALTIN, Oğuzhan SEZGiN, Aykut DEMiREL, Onur Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the study is to investigate the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina with respect to the liberalisation process mentioned by the Public Governance Committee of the OECD and the sustainable development goals introduced by the World Bank. It is analyzed that how telecommunication sector has been regulated in the post-war period, the sectoral structure, legal infrastructure and regulatory agency characteristics are represented and finally a SWOT analysis is made for the telecommunication sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Communication Regulatory Agency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a2595210228c17f2a5288511d2abc62.pdf dd0def422181f630ea31380c8534847c PDF Text Text Klasik Türk Edebiyatında Eğitim Bağlamında Behiştî’nin “Heşt Behişt” Mesnevisi Nurgül ÖZCAN∗ Edebiyat toplumun aynasıdır. Şairler yaşadığı toplumun sözcüleri konumundadırlar. “Şairin işi içinde yaşadığı, kendisinin de bir parçası olduğu kültürü dile getirmek ve eleştirmektir.”22 Şairlerin bakışı ve tespiti kendi dönemleri ve sonrası için değer taşır. Edebi metinlerin, estetik ve sanatsal işlevi yanında bir görevi de halkı eğitmektir. Sonuçta edebiyat, şeklinde eğlendirirken düşündüren eğiten bir olgu olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Tanzimat’tan günümüze, klasik Türk edebiyatına, toplumdan kopuk bir hayal edebiyatı olduğu gerekçesiyle epey eleştiri yapılmıştır. Son dönemlerde araştırmacılar, bu görüşün aksine, divan şairinin malzemesini toplumdan, toplumun maddi ve manevi her türlü yaşamından aldığına dair çalışmalarda bulunmuştur. İlk anda bir hayal edebiyatı olarak öne çıkan Klasik Türk Edebiyatı dikkatle incelendiğinde bütün edebiyatlar gibi onun da toplum hayatının bir çok bölümüne ayna tuttuğu görülecektir. Yapılan bazı çalışmalar Klasik edebiyatın sosyal hayatla ilişkisi üzerinde ciddi tespit ve sonuçlar ortaya çıkarmıştır.23 Zaman içinde bu açıdan bakılan çalışmalar “Klasik edebiyatımızın tarih, felsefe, din, tasavvuf, sosyal antropoloji, bilim ve gündelik hayatın tezahürleri ile oluşturduğu ortak alanların tespitidir. Bu alanların klasik edebiyatımız ile kesişme noktalarının tespiti, kültür tarihimiz bakımından son derecede önemli gerçeklerin ortaya çıkışını sağlayacaktır."24 Altı asır devam eden ve toplumun bütün kesimleri tarafından kabul gören bu edebiyatta elbette insanı ilgilendiren, ona yön veren her şey mevcuttur. Klasik edebiyat deyince şüphesiz ilk akla gelen divanlardır. Divanlarda ise en hacimli bölüm gazellere ayrılmıştır. Gazeller bölümü, divanın asıl bölümü olarak değerlendirilir. Şair, kişisel şairlik gücünü ve hayat felsefesini ilk önce gazellerde sergiler. Şairlerin edebi kimliğinin değerlendirilmesinde ağırlıklı olarak gazellerden yola çıkılması, bu edebiyatın semboller ve mazmunlar içinde dönüp dolaşan bir hayal edebiyatı olduğu kanaatini doğurmuştur. Bunun başka bir sebebi de çalışmaların çoğunun klasik edebiyatın sanatsal yönünde yoğunlaşmasıdır. Toplumun nazarında, klasik edebiyatta, sanki Harnâme25, Şikâyetnâme26 vb. birkaç eser ile Nâbî’nin öncülüğünü yaptığı hikemî tarzın27 dışında sosyal içerikli fazla eser kaleme alınmamış izlenimi vardır. Söz konusu sebeplerden dolayı, asırlar boyu devam etmiş bu edebiyatta, divanların sosyal yönü ile divanlar dışında kalan diğer ürünler maalasef gölgede kalmıştır. Sözgelimi, divan şiirinde redifler incelendiğinde rediflerin de dönemleri ile ilgili bir belge niteliği taşıdığı görülür. “Redif olarak seçilen kelimeler, şairlerin ve aynı zamanda içinde yaşadıkları toplumun psikolojisini yansıtırlar.”28 “Şairler, içinde yaşadıkları muhit ile mensup oldukları milletle o kadar alakadardırlar ki, divanları dolduran ince ve musanna beyitler arasında uzun uzun araştırdıktan sonra belki mahalli bir renge , milli bir hususiyete tesadüf olunabilir.”29 Halbuki klasik edebiyatta manzum ya da mensur, kişisel ve toplumsal konuları içeren, nasihatname, pendname, surname, siyasetname, kıyafetname vb. sayısız eser kaleme alınmıştır. Bu tarz eserlerin çoğunda en fazla tercih edilen nazım şekli “mesnevi” nazım şeklidir. “Her beytin ayrı kafiyeli olması yüzünden mesnevide bir yazma kolaylığı vardır. Destanlar, uzun halk hikâyeleri, şehr-engizler, öğretici dinî ve ahlâkî konuların hep mesnevî şeklinde yazılmaları bu yüzdendir.”30 Divan şairi izah gereken geniş mevzularda dar bir çerçeveye hapsolmaktan kaçınmış, mesnevinin sunduğu özgürlükten istifade etme yoluna gitmiştir. İnancın önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğu Osmanlıda nasihat ve mesaj içerikli didaktik metinlerin çoğunda bu durum söz konusudur. ∗ Fatih Üniversitesi Fen Eebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü Öğretim Üyesi T.S ELİOT; Şiirin Toplumsal Görevi, Türk Dili, Eleştiri Özel Sayısı, Çev: Nur DERİŞ, Ank. 1971. 23 Ahmet Atilla Şentürk: Klasik Osmanlı Edebiyatı Işığında Eski Adetler ve Günlük hayattan Sahneler I-II Türk Dili Dergisi, 1993, Ayrıca Cem Dilçin “Türk Kültürünün Kaynağı Olarak Divan Şiiri”, Türk Dili S.571,1999, 24 Muhammed Nur DOĞAN: I. Uluslar arası Klasik Türk Edebiyatı Sempozyumu İstanbul 1999. 25 F. Kadri TİMURTAŞ; Harnâme, Makaleler (Dil ve Edebiyat Yazıları), AKMY, Ank. 1997, s. 174. 26 Abdülkadir KARAHAN; Fuzûli’nin Mektupları, TDED, C.2, İst. 1948, s. 3-4, 27 Ali Fuat BİLKAN; Nâbî Hikmet-Şair-Tarih, Akçağ Y, Ank.1998. 28 Cemal KURNAZ; Divan Şiirinde Belge Redifler, Yedi İklim X/67 (Ekim), S.65-68. 22 29 A. Sırrı LEVEND; Divan Edebiyatı, Kelimeler ve Remizler‐ Mazmunlar ve Mefhumlar, Enderun Kitabevi, İst. 1984, s.638. 30 Haluk İPEKTEN; Eski Türk Edebiyatı Nazım Şekilleri ve Aruz, İst. 2008, s.59. 328 �Özellikle Tasavvufi eserlerde şiir, amaç olmaktan ziyade insanı eğitme amacıyla kullanılan bir araç olarak karşımıza çıkar. Şair, okuyucuya, insan ruhunun safîleşmesi, tekâmülü için öneriler getirir. Bu eserler, dervişe, mensup olduğu yola göre kişisel ve toplumsal gelişim metotlarının izah edildiği metinlerdir. Klasik Türk edebiyatına bu gözle baktığımızda insan eğitiminde kullanılacak bir çok malzemenin var olduğu fark edilecektir. Gelişmiş ülkelerde son dönemlerde, eğitimde edebi metinlerin kullanılması ile ilgili çalışmalar hız kazanmıştır. “Özellikle 1990’lı yıllarda, sayıları gittikçe artan sosyal bilgiler eğitimcilerinin, edebi çalışmaların sosyal bilgiler öğretimine önemli katkılarının olduğunu kabul etmeye başladıkları görülmüştür. ABD’de bir çok eyaletin eğitim programlarında yer alan rehber ilkelerinde, özellikle ilköğretimde, edebiyat ve sosyal bilgiler arasındaki güçlü ilişki vurgulanmıştır.31 Farklı kesim ve kültürlere hitap edilen Osmanlı İmparatorluğundaki metinlerden faydalanılması elbette günümüz eğitimine katkı sağlayacaktır. Bu bağlamda çalışmamızda, Behiştî’nin tasavvufi bir metin olarak kaleme aldığı, okuyucuya baştan sona iyi insan olma konusunda öğütler verdiği “Heşt Behişt” adlı mesnevisine dikkat çekmek istiyoruz. Bu örnekten hareketle amacımız, başta mesnevi türü olmak üzere, Klasik Türk edebiyatın eğitimde kullanabilirliğine vurgu yapmaktır. 16. asırda yaşayan Behiştî, tezkirelerde yer alan devrinin önemli şairlerindendir. “Eski Türk edebiyatında Behiştî mahlasını kullanan altı şairden birisi olan Vize’li Ramazan Behiştî’nin asıl adı Ramazan, babasının adı da Abdü’l-muhsin’dir. Doğum tarihi hakkında bilgimiz yoktur, ancak bütün kaynaklar şairin Vize’li olduğunu belirtirler. Halvetîliğe intisap etmiş, Merkez Efendi’nin yanında seyr ü sülûkunu tamamladıktan sonra hilafet göreviyle Çorlu’ya yerleşmiştir.32 Behiştî, öncelikle alim bir şairdir. Kuvvetli bir İslam kültürüne sahiptir. Arapçası, bu dildeki kaynaklara vâkıf olacak ve eser yazacak seviyededir. Şairin en önemli meziyetlerinden biri de dile olan hâkimiyetidir.33 Heşt Behişt’te nasihat-name türünden tebliğ amacına yönelik didaktik eserlerde çoğu kez rastladığımız kuru ifade değil; akıcı, canlı, tasvirlerle ve söz sanatlarıyla zenginleştirilmiş bir anlatım hâkimdir. Özellikle hikâyeler anlatılırken, gereksiz uzatmalara yer vermeden ve monotonluğa düşmeden; adeta olayı görmüş birinin gözlemlerini aktarırcasına gerçekçi, aynı zamanda şairane tasvirler ve olay kahramanlarının duygularını anlatmadaki tabiîlik Behiştî’nin güçlü bir şair olduğunu göstermektedir.34 Behiştî, eserini bölümlere ayırırken insan eğitimde önemli gördüğü davranışlara göre bir tasnif yapmıştır. Bölümlerde verilmek istenen mesajlar İslâm tarihinden bazı hadiselerin tahkiye edilmesiyle aktarılmış; bu vesileyle anlam daha da güçlendirilmiştir. Şair, bölümlerin başında, anlatacağı hikayeye girmeden önce, insan eğitiminde önemli gördüğü kavramları vurgulamak için kısa bir giriş yapmayı uygun görmüştür. Beyitlerde kavramların anlamı açıklanmış, faziletleri hakkında genel bir bilgi verilmiştir. Eserin bölümlerinde, eğitim açısından önem arz eden beyitlerden bazılarının değerlendirilmesi şöyledir: Heşt Behişt’te şair, bölümlere geçmeden evvel “Matla’” başlığı altındaki bölümde zamanın (dünyanın) geçiciliği ve insanın varlığının mahiyeti ile ilgili değerlendirmeler yaparak okuyucunun zihnini psikolojik açıdan nasihat almaya hazırlar: Geçer âhir zamân-ı nâ-müsâ‘id Türâba halt olur her sâk u sâ‘id (137)35 Zaman kavramının insan hayatındaki yeri ortadadır. Burada şair “ahir zaman” kavramıyla zamanın geçiciliğine ve varlığın sona yaklaşmış olmasına dikkat çekmektedir. İnsan ve kainat arasında bir bağlantı kurarak insana hem kendi sonunu hem de kıyameti hatırlatmıştır. Günümüzde insan psikolojisi ile ilgilenen bazı bilim adamları da; ruh sağlığı açısından, insanın ölüm gerçeğini yok saymasını değil, onunla yüzleşmesini önermektedirler. Mesela; psikiyatrist Dr. Irvin Yalom, hem kendisinin hem de hastalarının deneyimlerinden ve edebiyat, felsefe gibi çok çeşitli alanlardan yakaladığı ipuçlarının izini sürerek, ölümle doğru bir biçimde yüzleşilir ise, insanın yaşam kalitesini artırabileceği ve güçlü bir ‘uyanış’ yaşanacağı konusunda kendisinden çok emindir. Hatta bu uyanışa dair çeşitli klinik vakalardan ve edebiyattan verdiği örnekler, oldukça ilgi çekicidir. Örneğin Dostoyevski’nin idama mahkûm edilip tam kurşuna dizilecekken affedilmesinin, yani ölümle yüzleşip kendi uyanışını sağlayacak bir deneyim yaşamasının, dünya edebiyatını etkileyecek o romanları yazabilmesinde ne kadar etkili olduğuna dikkat çekiyor.36 31 MC GOVAN, T. GUZZETTİ, B; “ Edebiyat Temelli Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi”, Çev: Ahmet DOĞANAY, Çukurova Ünv. Türkoloji Araştırmaları Merkezi, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr. 32 Emine YENİTERZİ; Yeniterzi: Behiştî’nin Heşt Behişt Mesnevisi, Kitabevi yayınları,İstanbul 2001.s. 29. 33 Emine YENİTERZİ; a.g.e, s. 53. 34 Emine YENİTERZİ; a.g.e, s. 91. 35 Örnek olarak alınan beyitlerin sonundaki numaralar Emine Yeniterzi’nin “Behiştî’nin Heşt Behişt Mesnevisi” adlı çalışmasındaki beyit numaralarıdır. 36 Irvin D. YALOM; Güneşe Bakmak Ölümle Yüzleşmek. (çev: Zeliha İyidoğan Babayiğit) Kabalcı Yay. 329 �Zaman, metinde “dünya” yerine de kullanılmıştır Yukarıdaki beyitlerde zaman hızlı geçmesi münasebetiyle, akarsuya benzetilmiştir. Behiştî, muhataplarını yapılması gerekenlerin vaktinde yapılması konusunda uyarmaktadır. Önce dünyanın geçiciliğine işaret ederek bu kavramın olumsuz yönünü öne çıkarmasının hemen ardından dünyanın bir ganimet yeri ve fırsat mekânı olmasına dikkat etmesi eğitim açısından manidardır. “Psikolojide yer alan Zaman Yönetimi kavramından amaç da bireylerin zamanlarını etkin biçimde kullanmalarını sağlayarak verimliliklerini arttırmaktır.”37 Akar su gibidür hâli zamânun Geçürme çagın ol âb-ı revânun (143) Bilenler didi ahvâl-i cihânı Ganîmet mâlıdur fursat zamânı (144) Birinci Behişt: İlk bölüm ağırlıklı olarak ihlâs konusuna ayrılmıştır. İhlas kelimesi lügatte; “Halis, temiz doğru sevgi, gönülden gelen dostluk samimiyet doğruluk, bağlılık.”38 anlamlarıyla açıklanmıştır. İhlasın bir başka anlamı da; kulun Allah dışında hiç kimsenin rızasını gözetmeden riyasız, sadakat ile kulluğunu yerine getirmesidir: Eger ihlâs ile olursa tâ‘at Senündür iki ‘âlemde sa‘âdet (173) Şaire göre, iki cihanın saadetini kazanmak, ibadeti ihlas ile yapmaya bağlıdır. Virüp tohm anlara hüsn-i ‘amelden Didi koman bunı ölince elden (159) Burada “hüsn-i ‘amelden” maksat kulun ameline kötü olan hiçbir şey karıştırmaması ve davranışlarında daima iyi olana yönelmesidir. Başka bir deyişle insan hem kendisi hem de başkası için daima iyi olanı istemelidir. “İyi isteme, etkilerinden ve başardıklarından değil, yalnızca isteme olarak, yani kendi başına iyidir.39 “Bir kimsenin kendisi ile ilgili algılamaları ve kanaatleri onun benlik bilincini oluşturur. Olumlu benlik bilinci için koşulsuz sevgi (unconditioned love) gereklidir. Koşulsuz sevgi birey ne yaparsa yapsın onun sevgi ve saygıya layık olduğunun kabulüdür. Bu tür sevgi içinde büyüyenlerin benlik anlayışları, güçlü ve olumludur.”40 Beyite göre, Allah insanın mahiyetine güzel amelin tohumunu yerleştirmiştir. Kullarına ölünceye kadar bundan ayrılmamalarını tavsiye eder. Şair, yaratıcının kulundan beklentisini hatırlatmış, insanın kendinde gizli olan güzelliklerin farkına varmasını amaçlamıştır. Metnin devamında: Bunun cennetdedür hüsn-i simârı Tehî görme sakın bu kesb ü kârı (161) Beyiti ile “hüsn-i amel” in sonunda elde edilecek ödül açıklanır. Ödül cennet ve cennetteki “hüsn-i simârı” dır. yani engüzel cennet meyveleridir. Dünya gelip geçici bir mekan olduğundan insanın burayı vatan tutması doğru değildir. Ona bağlanmamak, nimetleri karşısında sarhoş olmamak, dünyayı mağlup etmek Hakk’ın buyruğudur : Ne lâzım biz vatan tutmak bu yurdı Anı ütmek gerek kim Hak buyurdı (162) Metnin devamında “amel” kavramı üzerinde durulur. Amel, kelime anlamık olarak; iş, amacı olan eylem anlamına gelir. Dini terminolojide ise amel, kişinin inancı doğrultusunda hareket etmesi, ibadetlerini İst. 2008. s. Atilla TEZEREN; “Zamanı Etken Kullanma”, Verimlilik(Aylık Bülten). Ank. 1988 C. 7, S.5, s. 8-12. 38 Ferit DEVELİOĞLU; Osmanlıca-Türkçe Ansiklopedik Lugat, Ank. 1986, s. 498. 39 Immanuel KANT; Ahlak Metafiziğinin Temellendirilmesi, Çev: İonna Kacuradi, Ank. 1982, s.8. 40 C.R.ROGERS; “A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the clientcentered framework.” In S. Koch (ed.). Psychology: A study of science. Mc Graw Hill. New York, 1961, pp. 184-256. 37 330 �yerine getirmesidir. Heşt Behişt’te “amel” konusunda zayıf olan kişi “müflis” yani her şeyini yitirmiş, olarak nitelendirilir. Böyleleri, ecel vakti geldiğinde zorluk çekecektir: Eger müflis be-kâr isen ‘amelde Göresin hâlüni rûz-ı ecelde (165) Eserde, İslâm’ın beş şartını yerine getirmenin önemi ve şartları yerine getirirken neye dikkat edilmesi gerektiği açıklanır. Kişi namaza girmeden önce dualarla abdest almalı, zihnini arındırmalı, namazı kuru bir şekil olarak değil samimi bir şekilde eda etmelidir: Du‘âlarla vuzûnı eyle tâze Hulûs ile şürû‘ eyle namâza (166) Zekat verilirken dikkat edilmesi gereken en önemli husus ise zekatın fakire “hüsn-i iltifat” edilmesidir. Zekat veren kişi muhatabını incitmeden zekatını vermeli, fakire iyi muamelede bulunmalıdır: Çıkarup virdügün vaktin zekâtı Fakîre eyle hüsn-i iltifâtı (166) Aşağıdaki beyitte, yapılacak yardımın riyasız yapılması gerektiği vurgulanarak yardımlaşmanın başka bir yönü üzerinde durulmuştur. Şair; “riyasız verilen yarım dilim ekmek, yardım edenin, devasız derde müptela olmuş hastasına deva vesilesi olur”,diyor. Meseleye hassas bir açıdan yaklaşarak sosyal yardımlaşmayı teşvik ediyor: Fakîre nîm nân virsen riyâsuz İrişür hastene sıhhat devâsuz (180) “Psikolojide Altruizm; kişiye maddi ya da manevi bir yük getirmesine rağmen diğerleri için gönüllü yardımlarda bulunması anlamına geliyor. Kendinden bir şeyler feda ederek diğerlerine yardımlarda bulunma davranışı içeriğinde genellikle empati barındırıyor. Empati, diğerlerinin duygularını anlayabilme ve olaylara onların penceresinden bakabilme anlamı taşıyor. Daha açık ifade edecek olursak, yardıma ihtiyacı bulunan kişilerin hissettiklerini anlayabilen ve kendisini onların yerine koyabilen birey, büyük yüklerin altına girme pahasına bile olsa onlara yardım etmeye devam ediyor.”41 Oruç tutan kişiye edilen tavsiye ise, dilini dedikodudan, gözünü de namahremden uzak tutması yönündedir: Oruc tutsan sakın gıybet sözinden Gözün hem sakla nâ-mahrem yüzinden (166) Hac ile ilgili tavsiyeler ise şöyledir. Ka’be ancak “safâ-yı hâtır” ile gidilecek bir mekandır. Lugatte safâ; gönül şenliği, ferahlık, hatır da; zihin, gönül, değer anlamına gelir. “safâ-yı hâtır” zihnin ve fikrin huzurlu olması, kaygı ve endişeden azade bulunması anlamında kullanılmıştır. Eğer bir kişi Kâbe’ye gitmeye niyet ederse önce zihnini temizlemeli, duru bir gönülle oraya gitmelidir. Gönlünde dünya endişesi taşımamalıdır: Tavâf-ı Ka‘beye niyyet idersen Safâ-yı hâtır ile git gidersen (169) “Birey, inandığı ve güvendiği aşkın varlığa karşı yaklaşma ve O’nunla bir iletişim kurma isteği içerisindedir. Bunu da ancak dinî davranış olarak dua, ibadet ve bir takım ayin ve törenlerle gerçekleştirebilir. Ünlü psikolog W. James’e göre; ihtiyaç anlamında duanın ortaya çıkması, bireyin psikolojik yapısındaki sosyal benliğiyle de ilgilidir. Bu bağlamda duada; kullanılan sözlerin o andaki ruh haline karşılık gelmesi ile kendini ilahi huzurda hissetme halinin elde edilmiş olması gibi iki önemli nokta vardır. Şayet bunlardan, sadece sözlerle ilgili olan kısım yerine getirilirse, bu büyü ve sihirle eş değer bir kategoride değerlendirilir. Oysaki duada asıl olan, bireyin aşkın varlıkla özel bir iletişim kurmasıdır.”42 Behiştî de eserinde muhataplarına bu doğrultuda öğütler verir. Onları, “salihat” a yani ibadet etmeye davet eder. “sâlihât” kavramı yapılan güzel işler, dine uygun ameller karşılığında kullanılmıştır. Şair “sâlihât” ı, sırasıyla; ilim, oruç ve namaz olarak açıklanmıştır. İlmin oruç ve namazdan önce kullanılmış olması ilme verilen değeri gösterir. Mesaj ibadetin ilmim ışığında yani bilerek 41 42 Tübitak Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi-Psikoloji Köşesi http://www.biltek.tubitak.gov.tr/gelisim/psikoloji/insan.htm Mustafa KOÇ; Ergenlik Döneminde Dua ve İbadet Psikolojisi Üzerine Teorik Bir Yaklaşım, Cumhuriyet Ünv. İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Sivas,200. 3C.VII / 1, s. 373-397 331 �yapılması konusunda yoğunlaşmıştır. İbadet konusunda önerilen başka bir husus da kendini zora sokmadan, özenle –ciddiyetle- , geçiştirmeden ibadet edilmesidir: Gücünce ihtimâm it sâlihâta Eger ‘ilme eger savm u salâta (171) Buraya kadar amelin önemi üzerinde duran Behiştî, okuyucunun dikkatini ameli tamamlayacak başka bir yöne çeker. Şaire göre, İnsan için sadece amel etmek yeterli değildir. Amel önemlidir ama onun yanında kişinin verdiği sözde durması, sözü yerinde, değerinde kullanması ve az konuşması da önemlidir: ‘Amel eyle ‘amel sözün söz olsun Çog olmaz ise az olsun öz olsun (172) İkinci Behişt: Bu bölümde edep konusu ele alınmıştır. Metinde edebin izahına girilmeden önce tekrar “iyilik” kavramının önemi hatırlatılır. İyilik eden iyilik bulur, güzel davranan güzel davranışla karşılanır, diyerek “edeb”in sadece kişinin kendine değil, topluma da faydalı olduğuna değinilir: İdenler eylük eylük bulı gelmiş Cezâ ihsâna ihsân olı gelmiş (294) Allah’a gerçek anlamda şükredenler ancak edep sahibi olanlardır. Edepsiz olan kişiler Allah indinde kovulmuş, dönek durumundadır. Dünyada edep ile hareket edenler hem dünyada hem de dünyada başarılı olacaktır: Edeb terk itmeyendür ana şâkir Olur merdûd edebsüz olsa zâkir (306) Edeb üzre olan fânî cihânda Muzaffer oldı hem bunda hem anda (307) Üçüncü Behişt: Cömertlik konusunun işlendiği bu behiştte vermenin önemine işaret edilmektedir. Bölüm Allah’ın “Cevâd” isminin vurgulandığı bir beyit ile başlar. Behiştî, sehâ yani cömertliği açıklarken “insan tabiatının yaratılışının zineti süsü” tabirini kullanır: Sehâ kim zînet-i tab‘-ı beşerdür Anun cûdı ziyâsından eserdür (414) Tüm kutsal dinlerde emredilen sabır, fedakarlık, cömertlik gibi duygular hayatın acı ve ızdıraplarını hafifleten, yaşam gücünü besleyen motive edici güçler olarak kişiyi psikolojik olarak koruyabilmekte43 ve bireyde mesuliyet duygusunu geliştirerek şahsiyet bütünlüğü sağlanmasına yol açmaktadır.44 Bu dünya üzerinde övgüye layık pek çok vasıf olabilir ama bu vasıfların en güzidesi en seçkini cömertliktir. Cömertlik kişiye dünyada toplum içinde itibar kazandıran bir özelliktir. Ahirete bakan yönüyle ise cömertlik, cennet bağlarında biten bir ağaç gibidir: Egerçi çokdur evsâf-ı hamîde Kamusından sehâvetdür güzîde (416) Sehâ kim halk içinde mu‘teberdür Cinân bâgında bitmiş bir şecerdür (418) Eserde insana cömertliğin önemi anlatılırken onu vermekten alı koyan makam-mansıp sevgisi ve gurur gibi olumsuz duygulara dikkat çekilir. Ölümün varlığı hatırlatılarak bunların değersizliği pekiştirilir: 43 Veysel UYSAL; Din Psikolojisi Açısından Dini Tutum, Davranış ve Şahsiyet Özellikleri, Marmara Ünv. Yayınları, İst. 1996, s. 123. 44 Amiran KURTKAN; Bilgiseven, Din Sosyolojisi, Filiz Kitabevi, İstanbul 1985, s. 18. 332 �Heves itme gurûr-ı tâc u tahta Gerekmez sana illâ iki tahta (424) İnsanoğlunu en fazla endişelendiren duygulardan birisi şüphesiz ayrılıktır. “Her insan sevdiği kişi ve mekanlardan ayrılmaktan korkar. Şair bu duygunun gücünü kullanarak cömertliğin önemini öne çıkarır: Kimün tab‘ında kim râsih ola cûd Firâk odına yakmaz anı Ma‘bûd (434) Aşağıdaki beyitte ayrılık-cömertlik münasebetinin başka bir yönü işlenmiştir. Behiştî, Allah ecel vakti geldiğinde, hayatını cömertlik ile geçiren kişinin kalbinde -dünyadan ayrılma ile ilgili- bir hasret bir acı bırakmaz, diyerek etkili bir anlatım ile muhataplarını cömertliğe yönlendirir: İrüp rûz-ı ecel itdükde rıhlet Sehâ anun komaz kalbinde hasret (437) Eserde, cömertlik vasfına sahip olanlara “bey gibi dirlik” verileceğini söylenerek, kişiye, verdiklerinden dolayı malının eksilmeyeceği bilakis daha da artacağı müjdesini verilir. Burada eğitim açısından “dirlik” kelimesinin özenle seçildiği aşikardır. Dirlik kelimesi, varlıklı olmak yanında sağlıklı ve huzurlu olma gibi pek çok pozitif anlamı da içerir: Şu kim ana sehâ vasfı virildi Cihânda beg gibi dirlik dirildi (438) Dördüncü Behişt: Melik oldur ki mülkidür bu ‘âlem ‘İbâdıdur anun evlâd-ı Âdem (521) Beyiti bu bölümün ilk beyitidir. Beyit Alah’ın “Melik” Malın gerçek sahibi, padişah sultan anlamına gelen ismiyle başlar. Behiştî, devamında dünyanın geçiciliğine işaret eder. Uyanık olan kişi bu alçak dünyanın sundukları karşısında sarhoş olmaz, onun büyü ve hilesine kanmaz, der: Cihâna geldi niçe merd-i huşyâr Yolında itmedi mestâne reftâr (524) Fenâsın anladı dünyâ-yı dûnun Zebûnı olmadı mekr ü füsûnun (525) Daha sonra kişiye tevekkülde sebat edip iradesini kullanması tavsiye edilir. Böylece insanın özü imanın nuru ile aydınlanır: Tevekkülde sebât üstine oldı Derûnı nûr-ı îmân ile toldı (529) Beşinci Behişt: Beşinci bölümde; sıkıntılar karşısında insanın nasıl bir tavır takınacağı ve bunların nasıl aşılacağı izah edilir. Metne göre Allah’ın celali içinde cemali gizlidir. Kış mevsiminden sonra muhakkak bahar gelecektir. Hakikat yoluna girenler hadiselerin arkasındaki hikmete nazar eder : Celâlinde cemâlin gizlemişdür Sülûk erbâbı anı izlemişdür (646) Şitâsınun sonında var bahârı Güle râgıb olan anar mı hârı (648) Dünya musibetleri aslında bir imtihandan ibarettir. Allah lütfuna mazhar etmek için imtihanı bahane eder: Çeker bir bendesini imtihâna İder eltâfına anı bahâne (649) 333 �Altıncı Behişt: Bu bölümde; ölümsüzlüğün sadece Allah’a mahsus olduğundan, onun dışında var olan her şeyin gelip geçici olduğundan bahsedilir. İnsan ne kadar yaşasa da eninde sonunda yaşlanacak ve hayata veda edecektir: Beşer etfâl iken âhir olur pîr Nazar kıl var ise idrâk ü tedbîr (762) Gülün evrâkı olmaz mı perîşân Anunçün eylemez mi bülbül efgân (763) Yedinci Behişt: Bu dünyada gerçek mutluluğa ulaşmak Allah’ın emrine itaat edip, emrine hizmet etmekten geçer: Sa‘âdet ana hıdmet eylemekdür Her emrine itâ‘at eylemekdür (861) Erenler masivadan uzaklaşıp, gönüllerinden hırsı uzaklaştırır ve nefsin arzularını terk ederler: Gönül geçmek gerek hırs u hevâdan Erenler el çeküpdür mâ-sivâdan (866) Aşağıdaki beyitte insan, için dünya lezzetlerinden dolayı gurura kapılmaması, konusunda ikaz edilir: Gurûra virmesün lezzât-ı dünyâ Sakın bu çâhdan oldunsa bînâ (866) Dünya gibi kısa ve geçici bir mekan için zahmet çekmek, üzülmek gereksiz bir uğraştan ibarettir: Biş on yıl ‘ömre aldanmak gereksüz Anunçün odlara yanmak gereksüz (875) Sekizin Behişt: Şair, eserin son bölümü olan bu bölüme çalışmanın önemi vurgulayarak başlar: Kişi dünyâda sa‘y itmek gerekdür Yolun togrısına gitmek gerekdür (988) Bölümde ağırlıklı olarak işlenen konu ise peygamber sevgisi ve ona tabi olmanın önemidir : Mahabbet itdi her kim enbiyâya Mukayyed olmadı sûrî gınâya (994) Kişi, peygamberi sahabe gibi aşk ile sevmelidir. Çünkü onu seven hiç kimse bu dünyada rahmetten mahrum olmamıştır: Olup dîdâra ‘âşık âb gibi Resûlu’llâhı sev ashâb gibi (994) Behiştî; “Hâtimetü’l Kitâb” bölümünde şiirinde sanata ve süse önem vermediğini, eseri yazmadaki asıl amacının şöhret değil nasihat etmek olduğunu, söyler. Yazdıklarında suretten yani sanat yapmaktan daha çok anlama önem verdiğini vurgular: Hudânun fazlıdur bu nazm u tertîb Buna lâzım degüldür nakş u tezhîb (1097) Nasîhatdür garaz şöhret degüldür Gereklü ma‘nîdür sûret degüldür (1098) 334 �Sonuç olarak; “Gerek Türk edebiyatı tarihi, gerekse divan edebiyatı hakkında yapılacak ilmî araştırmaların sıhhati öncelikle bu edebiyatı meydana getiren edebî eserlerin sağlam metinlerinin kurulmasına bağlıdır. Titizlik ve sabır gerektiren bu çalışmaların bir hayli zaman süreceği ve hala bilinmeyen birtakım eski eser ve nüshaların ortaya çıkmakta olduğu düşünülürse, divan edebiyatı hakkında son sözü söylemenin, isabetli hükmü vermenin henüz erken olduğu daha da açıklık kazanır.45 Altı asır hüküm süren klasik edebiyatın divanları yanında farklı eserler de incelenmeli, bu edebiyat her yönüyle ele alınmalı ve bir bütün olarak değerlendirilmelidir. Sadece Arap ve Acem taklidi olarak zihinlerde yer eden eski edebiyatımız yeni nesillerin zihninde ancak o zaman hak ettiği değeri bulacaktır. Klasik edebiyat metinleri hakkında, disiplinler arası çalışmalar hız kazanmalı, metinler mutlaka ilgili disiplinlerin dikkatine arz edilmelidir. Böylece bilim dalları, tarihte kendilerini ilgilendiren meselelerden ve gelişmelerden haberdar olacaktır. Geçmişin zenginliklerini yansıtan bu çalışmalar, aynı zamanda yeni nesle mensup oldukları kültür adına özgüven kazandıracaktır. Çalışmamıza konu olan Behiştî’nin “Heşt Behişt” mesnevisi de birçok açıdan günümüzde kullanılabilecek geçerliliği olan nasihatlere sahip önemli bir edebi eserdir. “Heşt Behişt” Klasik Türk edebiyatının eğitimle, dolayısıyla hayatla içiçeliğine güzel bir örnek teşkil etmektedir. Bu eser, eğitimde rahatlıkla kullanılabilecek niteliktedir. Eserde, psikoloji, sosyoloji, felsefe vb. bir çok bilimin konusuna giren meselelere çözüm önerileri getirilmiştir. Eserden edebiyatçılar dışında, başta eğitimciler olmak üzere, psikolog ve sosyologların da yararlanabileceği söylenebilir. Kaynakça BİLKAN, Ali Fuat; Nâbî Hikmet-Şair-Tarih, Akçağ Y, Ank.1998. BORA, Aykut; Tübitak Bilim biltek.tubitak.gov.tr/gelisim/psikoloji/insan.htm ve Teknik Dergisi-Psikoloji Köşesi http:// www. DEVELİOĞLU, Ferit; Osmanlıca- Türkçe Ansiklopedik Lugat, Aydın Kitabevi, Ank. 1986. DOĞAN, M. Nur; I.Uluslar arası Klasik Türk Edebiyatı Sempozyumu İst. 1999. ELİOT, Thomas Stearns; Şiirin Toplumsal Görevi, Türk Dili, Eleştiri Özel Sayısı, Çev: Nur DERİŞ,Ank. 1971. GOVAN, MC, T. GUZZETTİ, B; “ Edebiyat Temelli Sosyal Bilgiler Öğretimi”, Çev: Ahmet DOĞANAY, Çukurova Ünv. Türkoloji Araştırmaları Merkezi http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr. İPEKTEN, Haluk; Eski Türk Edebiyatı Nazım Şekilleri ve Aruz, İst. 2008. KANT, İmmanuel; Ahlak Metafiziğinin Temellendirilmesi, Çev: İonna Kacuradi, Ank. 1982. KOÇ, Mustafa; “Ergenlik Döneminde Dua ve İbadet Psikolojisi Üzerine Teorik Bir Yaklaşım”, Cumhuriyet Ünv. İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, Sivas,2003. KURNAZ, Cemal; Divan Şiirinde Belge Redifler, Yedi İklim X/67 (Ekim), Ank.1995. KURTKAN, Amiran; Bilgiseven, Din Sosyolojisi, Filiz Kitabevi, İst. 1985. LEVEND, A. Sırrı; Divan Edebiyatı Kelimeler ve Remizler Mazmunlar ve Mefhumlar, Enderun Kitabevi, İst. 1984. ROGERS, Carl Ransom; “A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the clientcentered framework.” In S. Koch (ed.).Psychology: A study of science. Mc Graw Hill., New York, 1961. ŞENTÜRK, Ahmet Atilla; Klasik Osmanlı Edebiyatı Işığında Eski Adetler ve Günlük Hayattan Sahneler I-II Türk Dili Dergisi, 1993, Ayrıca Cem Dilçin “Türk Kültürünün Kaynağı Olarak Divan Şiiri”, Türk Dili S.571,1999,; Asra Kadar Anadolu Sahası Mesnevilerinde Edebî Tasvirler, Kitabevi Y., İst. 2002. TEZEREN, Atilla; “Zamanı Etken Kullanma”, Verimlilik(Aylık Bülten). Ank. 1988. TİMURTAŞ, F.Kadri; Harnâme, Makaleler (Dil ve Edebiyat Yazıları), AKMY, Ank. 1997. 45 A.Atilla ŞENTÜRK; XVI. Asra Kadar Anadolu Sahası Mesnevilerinde Edebî Tasvirler, Kitabevi Y., İst. 2002, s. XV. 335 �UYSAL,Veysel; Din Psikolojisi Açısından Dini Tutum, Davranış ve Şahsiyet Özellikleri, Marmara Ünv.Yayınları, İst. 1996. YALOM, Irvin. D.; Güneşe Bakmak Ölümle Yüzleşmek. (çev: Zeliha İyidoğan Babayiğit) Kabalcı Y. İst. 2008. YENİTERZİ, Emine; Behiştî’nin Heşt Behişt Mesnevisi, Kitabevi Yayınları, İst. 2001. 336 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 386 Title A name given to the resource Klasik Türk Edebiyatında Eğitim Bağlamında Behiştî’nin “Heşt Behişt” Mesnevisi Author Author ÖZCAN, Nurgül Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7d80881826bd1213de4116a40611dbb0.pdf e2edd0e8159fc769c1a9205c8d2fd968 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo An Analysis of the Impact of Motivating Factors on Tourism Agencies in Turkey Şuayip ÖZDEMĐR Assoc. Prof. Dr. Department of Business Administration, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey Tel: +90 (272) 228 1292, Fax: +90 (272) 228 1145, sozdemir@aku.edu.tr Yusuf KARACA Assist. Prof. Dr. Department of Business Administration, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey Abstract: This study investigates the relations between agencies and hotels in Turkey, from the perspective of business to business marketing. Drawing on the data obtained from 189 agencies by a survey. The results of the research show that six variables are important. Their order of importance as followings: Communication with the agencies, supports for agencies, the relationship between agencies and hotel companies, promotion activities for clients and agencies, promotion activities encouraging and out of business relations between agencies and hotel company. Keywords: agency, tourism, distribution channel. Introduction This study investigates the motives influencing the perception of tourism agencies towards to hotel companies. This research will try to illustrate why tourism agencies prefer one hotel brand to others. There is a little study in the literature on the subject how agencies could be motivated by hotel companies. Generally, authors refer to other aspects of relationship between agencies and hotels. Karamustafa (2000:24) emphasized price-related problems which are tour operators frequently encountered. Jorgensen and Zaccour (2003:801) discuss the effects of marketing strategies on the other member’s actions. Tourism agencies are the most common intermediaries between the guest and a hotel company. They play four important roles at the market. Firstly, they act as information brokers between guests and managers. Secondly they process transactions by booking rooms and transferring money. Thirdly, they provide advice to their customers. Finally, they provide better services by considering their customers’ needs and feedback. Tourism agencies help with the customers’ safety, good value, and high quality for the guests. These intermediaries do business with the hotels much more regularly than the guests do. Most travel agencies receive little feedback on their clients’ satisfaction with their hotels client. The majority of travel agencies think that no complaints as indicator of clients’ satisfaction. From hoteliers’ point of view travel agencies want to improve their relationship with hotel companies carry out joint-marketing activities and include more detailed information in the sales brochures (Medina-Munoz et al. 2002). Buhalis and Licata (2001) underline electronic communication devices affecting the intermediaries in the tourism industry. They explain that using the internet, the interactive digital television and the mobile devices bring new intermediaries called e-mediaries. From the point of experts, they suggest to reengineering business process concerning the relationship between hotels and agencies. Ozturan and Roney (2004) find out that travel agencies cannot use the internet effectively in Turkey. Travel agencies still use traditional marketing communication channels such as printed media and telephone. Knowing of the expectations of agencies and distributor firms is important for keeping successful relationship. The industrial resellers expect financial and competitive differentiation benefits from main company. A finding of a study on the USA shows that greater benefit differentiation leads to fewer financial benefits (Ghosh et al., 2004) Supplier firms try to attract agencies using different applications and methods. For example economic and non-economic tools are preferred to encourage agencies by the hotels. The following two parts will explain economic and non-economic tools respectively. 283 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1. Economic Tools For Motivation Economic tools that aim to motivate agencies are the pecuniary ones. The agencies are encouraged by these tools. As a consequence of using economic tools, agencies could increase their profits and so intermediaries willing to make further cooperation with the hotel companies. There are many economic tools in the practice that being used to affect intermediaries directly. Some selected important economic tools are explained below. Firstly, quotas are used as an economic tool. Supplier firms aim to make the members of distribution channel join actively in marketing their own products using quotas. In order to make their distribution system that they used active and effective, both sides want to use law sanctions based on agreements or other powers (Aksoy, 1990:14-19). Secondly, discounts, financial aids, compensation are used as economic tools. Such tools could be used to decrease the conflicts and improve the cooperations. For realization of it, suppliers apply discounts, financial aids, compensations, and setting protective rules by an agreement (Islamoglu, 1999:440-442). Intermediaries expect from the suppliers financial aids and competitive differentiation (Gosh et al., 2004). Tsay (2001) points out those intermediaries could be motivated by cash discounts and give back policy. It is also suggested that supplier firms could encourage the intermediaries using the difference price for in favor of intermediaries (Li and Dant, 1999). Thirdly, promotion, advertising and co-marketing are also used for motivation economically. (i) Promotion activities of supplier firms support the intermediaries’ activities such as giving gifts (e.g. pens, calendars, etc.) in special day and religious festivals. At the same time, intermediaries’ promotion activities also support the suppliers. This creates a mutual support between agencies and hotels. (ii) Advertising, public relations, personal selling and the other marketing activities of hotels motivate agencies. (iii) Co-marketing activities would be providing the reduction of cost and increase of effectiveness for both agents and the hotel companies. To sum up, this section explained main economic tools that motivate intermediaries such as quotas, discounts, financial aids, compensations, agreements, difference price, cash discounts, co-marketing and promotion activities. Non-economic tools are explained in the following section. 2. Non-Economic Motivation Tools Non-economic tools to motivate agencies are not pecuniary ones such as communication, personal relationships, participating to decisions, cooperation, problem solving. In practice, the number of non-economic tools is more than economic tools. The most important feature of non-economic tools is that these tools provide some advantages that make intermediaries the same profit with lesser working. Moreover, non-economic tools encourage voluntary efforts in the mid or long term. There are three factors influencing the recommendation of agencies’ a hotel to a client: The quality of communications with intermediaries, the hotel brand name, and the incentives for intermediaries. These communication tools provide hotel companies some advantages. Another three tools that contribute to the hotel companies as the followings: Efficiency of computer systems for reservations, the sales representatives, and the information received in following intermediaries’ requests (Dube and Renaghan, 2000:73-74). Medina-Munoz and Falcon (2000) report that the intermediaries’ successes depend on five factors: interorganizational trust, commitment towards the relationship, interorganizational communication (coordination, communication quality, information exchange and participation), conflict resolution and interorganizational dependence. But at the same time they had said there is no model established as an entirely satisfactorily alliance. As a result of their study, in order to improve the impresenting of interorganizational relationships in the tourism industry should be examined from the perspective of tourism agencies, recreational companies, airlines and rental companies. According to Gilliland (2003:60; 2004:88) there are five factors for the intermediaries of electronic equipment such as credible channel policies, market development support, supplemental contact, high-powered incentives, end-user encouragements. Later, he mentions about 16 subgroups differentiating these factors into subgroups again which contains both economic and morale variables. Shipley and Egan (1992) report that the countrywide marketing activities of the supplier firms, supported marketing activities of intermediaries, the opportunity of product wideness and open relations and personal relationships between supplier and intermediaries are thought important by intermediaries. They were also underlining that, if there are being low motivated or demoralized intermediaries in the distribution channel, conflicts will be inevitable in this channel and the conflicts prevent the effectiveness of channel. Because intermediaries expect the reward for taking capital risk and labor force. Furthermore intermediaries compare the 284 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo rewards of other similar intermediaries, the will cause conflict if there are any disadvantageous difference against them. The first way of cooperation in a distribution channel and preventing conflict is better communication. Yukselen, (2003:262-263) evaluate the motivation of distribution channel members and conflict among them simultaneously and he shows collaboration, partnership and the activities of programming the distribution as incentives Motivations of intermediaries are generally related to their expectations. The transformation of four P’s (product, price, place and promotion) in the marketing mix into four C’s (customer value, convenience, cost, communication) is the most important clue to understand the expectations of intermediaries as industrial customers. Using the elements of marketing mix (4P) as (4C) makes intermediaries’ self-confidence. Trust is the first expectation of international intermediaries from the supplier, especially in industrial marketing (Marshall, 2003). As long as intermediaries feel in confidence it is easier to motivate them Yaprakli (1997) classifies motivation tools as rewarder power, punisher power, or charismatic power for newcomers in the channel. Akin (1997) also adds to these tools three new powers: legal, expertise and leadership. It is known that supplier firms' participating intermediaries making plans and solving problems has positive effects on the interorganizational relationships. (Claro et al. 2003). Since active participation willingly have positive effect for both sides, motivation is an important tool, and lack of motivation is one of the reasons that cause lack of cooperation and conflicts and increase these conflicts (Tek, 1997:563). This reason, when motivation is accepted as the basic factor in cooperation and conflicts, it will be easy to solve the problems since the reason of the problem is determined truly. Actually, relationship between supplier and intermediaries is a kind of human behavior in a group from social-psychological perspective. The trust between intermediaries and supplier firms, relative profit gained from the sold products, cooperation and supplier firms’ satisfaction from the intermediaries affect the relationships (Anderson and Narus, 1984). Namely, the trust and satisfaction of the representatives are accepted as trust and satisfaction of intermediaries. Weber (2001) put forward that the communication tools and using frequency of these tools determine the relationship between supplier and intermediaries. Especially, internet increases the communication and sharing the information, thus increase effectiveness of relationship between suppliers and intermediaries. Intermediaries positively affect the use high technology communication. As a result of this thought, intermediaries’ opinion affects long term relation expectations with the supplier positively (MacDonald and Smith, 2003; Hunter et al., 2003). Customer services of the supplier firms are important for relationships between supplier and intermediaries (Parasuraman, 1998); because each of the intermediaries is an industrial customer. Being focused on the targets, power equity and cooperation helps firms have contracted to each other reciprocally (Dabholkar and Neeley, 1998). Dickson and Zhang (2004) determined that the referent power influenced positively on retailer’s attitudes toward and non-economic satisfaction with their suppliers in apparel industry in China. They reported that the greater referent power also reduced channel conflict and enhanced economic satisfaction with business performance. They also reported that greater channel conflict was associated with increasing economic satisfaction with business performance. Anderson and Narus (1990) state the relationship between distributors and supplier firms can be considered in one perspective. Considering the subject both from supplier and distributors’ perspective, they had seen distributors as a customer who must be satisfied. Their satisfaction is determined by the outcomes of distributor communication, relative dependence, cooperation, trust and conflict. Whose power will be stronger in this relationship? Anderson and Narus, (1984) reported that distributors’ comparison levels of outcomes and comparison levels of alternatives determine the powerful side of this relationship. Briefly, main non-economic tools that impact motivation of intermediaries are following: Communication, Personal relationships, expectations of intermediaries, participating to decisions, cooperation, problem solving, trust, communication tools, power and customer services, 3. Research Method The survey was conducted on a sample of privately held Turkish companies in November December 2004 / February 2005. The research was employed on a sample of 240 tourism and traveling agencies. All the sample companies are the members of TURSAB (Association of Turkish Travel Agencies). TURSAB has 4585 member tourism and traveling agencies in countrywide. The names and addresses of these agencies are available from the website of TURSAB. Three copies of the questionnaire were distributed to each of 58 fourth-year undergraduate students of the Department of Management at Afyon Kocatepe University, with the instruction to visit two tourism and traveling agents they chose from the TURSAB database list. The researcher was the convener of the course “Research Methods” for this fourth-year undergraduate programme class. A decision was made by the researcher to assign the students to conduct the survey as a part in fulfilling the course. The participation- 285 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo invoking nature of personal communications and the cost constraints led the researcher to prefer this method to mailing the questionnaire. No restriction was applied in choosing the companies. But once a student chose a company, the name of the company was noted down and subsequent students were not allowed to choose it in order to eliminate the possibilities of duplicate questionnaires. The aim and nature of the research were addressed to the students beforehand. They were asked to bring back the questionnaires in stamped and signed form by participants, and were told that further confirmation with the participants may be made later via telephone. The students presented agent each business with a letter of invitation to participate in the survey. Once the invitation was accepted, the students directed the questions to the participants. A few directors (28) rejected the invitation letter to participate in the study by indicating some personal reasons (not having enough time, going for a trip, etc.). In the case of rejection, students have chosen new companies. All the representative directors who accepted the invitation letter completed the questionnaire. The questionnaires were stamped and signed by the participating board member and the students noted the date of the interview. During November 2004 and February 2005, the students returned the questionnaires and for confirmation purposes telephone calls were made to 12 (more than 6% of sample) companies. Telephone interviews with the participants indicated that they were enthusiastic on the subject and answered the questions seriously. Verification of their answers in these phone calls also showed that there were no differences in terms of their answers on the phone and those that they gave in the questionnaires. Therefore, it was not deemed necessary to make further phone calls for confirmation purposes. Of the 212 questionnaires distributed and then collected in that way, 23 were eliminated due mainly to missing information. This resulted in 189 usable questionnaires, corresponding to 79 percent of the questionnaires answered. The reliability of questionnaires is measured by Cronbach Alpha coefficient (Cronbach alpha=0,91) which shows that dataset is reliable to analyze. A questionnaire that consists of three parts is used in the research. Characteristics of the participants have been investigated in the first part. The attitudes of the intermediaries to hotel companies are measured in the second part. Likert scale is used in this part (1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 no idea, 4 disagree, 5 strongly disagree). The importance of practices of hotel companies and the success of these practices are measured in the third part. Likert scale is used in this part, too (1 very important, 2 important, 3 no idea, 4 not important, 5 not very important). Variables used in this part are based on Gillilands’ (2003; 2004) studies. Gilliland (2003; 2004) points out five factors that motivate intermediaries. Credible channel policies, market development support, supplemental contact, high-powered incentives, end-user encouragements. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics Establishment date Before 1990 Between 1990-1999 Between 2000-2003 Frequency 48 90 51 Percent 25,4 47,6 27,0 Number of hotels (or brand name) that intermediaries represent. Only one brand Two or more brands 66 123 35 64,8 Intermediaries that have another job different from tourism. Yes No 51 138 27,0 73,0 Table-1 shows descriptive statistics of sample companies. A perusal of Table-1 indicates that almost 73% participants have experience in the tourism sector more than five years. It is expected that data based on these experienced companies may yield robust findings. Majority of participants (64,8%) represent two or more hotels or brand names. Majority of agencies (73%), work only as tourism agency, and the rest of the agencies (27%) do additional business such as logistics, public relations, hotel management and real estate agency. 4. Findings Evaluation of agencies towards hotel, analyzed by using eight expressions which are shown in the following table. The responses to these expressions indicate that tourism agencies intend to maintain relationship with the hotel companies. As shown in Table-2, the weighted mean (1,74) of this expressions indicates that agencies are satisfied by hotel companies. In addition, tourism agencies believe that clients are satisfied with the hotels that are booked (mean=1,39). They also happy for being agencies of hotels and they plan to do business with these hotels. Table 2 also illustrates that agencies believe that hotel companies make enough effort to increase the profit of agencies (mean=2,03), and give reward to agencies’ performance (mean=2,21). It should be noted that this finding is relatively stronger than other findings in Table 2. 286 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2. Evaluation of Agencies regarding Hotel Companies Mean 1,18 1,20 1,39 1,48 1,51 1,59 2,03 2,21 1,74 We are planning to do business with these hotels for a long time. We are pleased with hotels that we represent them. Our clients are pleased with hotels that we represent them. We are happy for being agencies of hotels. We believe that the products of these hotels are well. Hotel company has a good relationship with us. Hotel company makes efforts to increase our profits. Hotel company rewards our performance. Weighted mean Std. Deviation 0,50 0,40 0,64 0,77 0,75 0,82 1,21 1,19 Means= 1 strongly agree, 2 agree, 3 no idea, 4 disagree, 5 strongly disagree Table 3. Associate Relationship between Agencies and Hotel Companies Evaluation of current situation (services oh hotels) % Perceived importance Mean Solving the conflict between agencies and hotel company 1,32 Including encouraging factors in the agreement increase to 1,50 sell hotel products. When rival companies want to steal agencies, whether the hotels maintain the relationship with the agencies to continue 1,80 with them. Establishing partner advisory council 1,59 Compensating the loss of reps due to direct sales. 1,67 Giving client list to agency in a market division 1,86 Agreeing a market division belong to an agency 2,33 Weighted mean 1,72 Std. Deviation Enough No idea Not Enough ,50 66,1 6,4 27,5 ,72 69,8 14,3 15,9 ,90 52,9 36,5 10,6 ,78 ,88 ,93 1,22 43,9 49,2 47,1 32,8 23,8 27,5 34,4 38,6 32,3 23,3 18,5 28,6 Means= 1 very important, 2 important, 3 no idea, 4not important , 5 not very important Table 3 shows the associate relationship between agencies and hotel companies. The finding indicates that from the agencies’ perspective, the most important subject at relationship between agencies and hotel companies is “solving the conflict between agencies and hotel company”. The other variables that affect the relationships between agencies and hotel companies are as follows in turn according to their importance: (1) Including encouraging factors in the agreement increase to sale hotel products, (2) when rival companies want to steal agencies, (3) whether the hotels maintain the relationship with the agencies to continue with them, (4) establishing partner advisory council, (5) compensating the loss of reps due to direct sales,(6) agreeing a market division belong to an agency (7) giving client list to agency in a market division (8) solving the conflict between agencies and hotel company. Majority of agencies (66,1%) perceive that “solving the conflict between agencies and hotel company” and “encouraging agreements to sale hotel company. Table 4. Supports for Agencies Perceived importance Representative’s ability in communication Hotels catalogs and brochures Providing information for agencies about products and sales methods Special communication opportunities between agencies and hotels Training meeting Rewarding successful agencies Participating to fairs Advertorials Appropriating financial funds for agencies’ marketing activities Certification programs for agencies Allocating more financial funds for market development Number of hotel staff for selling hotel products Weighted mean Mean Std. Deviation 1,11 1,27 1,47 1,47 1,52 1,53 1,55 1,58 1,76 1,74 1,89 2,08 ,32 ,55 ,57 ,74 ,72 ,79 ,69 ,76 ,82 ,73 ,80 ,94 Evaluation of current situation (services of hotels) % Not Enough No idea Enough 77,8 87,8 70,6 76,2 68,8 50,8 58,2 64,0 37,0 54,0 42,8 74,6 20,1 4,2 17,6 15,9 11,6 21,7 21,7 13,8 27,5 20,1 28,6 17,5 2,1 7,94 11,8 7,9 19,6 27,5 20,1 22,2 35,5 25,9 28,6 7,9 1,58 Means= 1 very important, 2 important, 3 no idea, 4not important , 5 not very important 287 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Support methods for agencies are evaluated in Table 4. Based on the findings in the table, it could be suggested that representative’s ability in communication is very important who represent the hotel against agencies and it is found that majority of hotels are successful in this subject (77,8%). The findings also indicate that brochures and catalogs are important to support agencies to find new clients. Hotels’ brochures and catalogs are perceived successfully by agencies. Information about sales methods is perceived satisfactory (87,8%). Providing information for agencies about products, sales methods, and number of hotel staff for selling hotel products, special communication opportunities between agencies and hotels are found adequate. Hotel companies’ financial funds which are kept for market development and agencies’ marketing activities are perceived inadequate. While half of the hotel companies are found successful at rewarding agencies’ performance, 27,5% of agencies believe that hotels do not reward their performance. Table 5. Communication with the Agencies Perceived importance One to one relationship between representative of hotels and agencies’. Information on the internet (online support, training) Using internet to communicate the agencies Communication programs for better work relationships Giving information about new products Meeting for agencies Defining price and quota automatically Weighted mean Mean Std. Deviation 1,32 ,47 1,44 1,44 1,48 1,48 1,65 1,89 ,59 ,59 ,50 ,70 ,98 ,82 Evaluation of current situation (services oh hotels) % Enough No idea Not Enough 84,1 5,8 10,1 79,8 82,0 69,8 85,7 65,6 49,2 10,1 7,9 14,3 12,2 10,1 34,9 10,1 10,1 15,9 2,1 24,3 15,9 1,52 Means= 1 very important, 2 important, 3 no idea, 4 not important , 5 not very important As long as hotels have enough information about agencies, they encounter fewer problems in dealing with customers. Therefore, communication with agencies has special importance. The communication between hotels and agencies is analyzed in Table 5. It is found that the most important variable concerning with the communication is the person who represents the hotel against agencies; especially the skills of representative have a decisive role. Majority of agencies (84,1%) perceive that one to one relationship between representative of hotels and agencies’ is pleasing. Majority of the agencies think that using internet, giving information about products, and communication programs are important. Table 6. Out of Business Relations between Agencies and Hotel Company Perceived importance Entertainment together Club activities for agencies Join in adventure together Weighted mean Mean Std. Deviation 2,26 2,38 2,87 ,96 ,92 1,19 Evaluation of current situation (services oh hotels) % Enough No idea Not Enough 39,6 28,6 21,7 30,2 32,8 42,9 30,2 38,6 35,4 2,50 Means= 1 very important, 2 important, 3 no idea, 4not important , 5 not very important The findings of an analysis of out of business relations between agencies and hotel companies are shown in Table 6. It is found that one third of hotel companies have out of business relations with agencies. However, these kinds of activities such as entertainment, adventure and club activities are not important events for agencies. Table 7. Promotion Activities for Encouraging Agencies Perceived importance N Mean Std. Deviation Collectively advertising 62 1,66 ,74 Providing payment options 62 1,85 ,94 Bonus, reward, premium 63 1,87 ,94 Gifts, promotional materials 63 1,90 ,96 Financial programs (discounts even in small quantity) 63 1,94 ,98 Giving agency firm identity card 61 1,98 ,94 Rewarding new client by money (discount, cash) 62 2,53 1,05 Weighted mean 1,96 Means= 1 very important, 2 important, 3 no idea, 4not important , 5 not very important 288 Evaluation of current situation (services oh hotels) % Not Enough No idea Enough 52,9 21,7 25,4 46,0 30,7 23,3 50,2 24,9 24,9 58,7 18,0 23,3 49,7 30,2 20,1 49,2 25,4 25,4 24,9 30,7 44,4 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 7 shows the findings of promotion activities for encouraging agencies. According to table agencies perceive that collectively advertising is important though it is found that half of hotel companies’ co-advertising effort is enough(52,9%). Comparing with the other promoting activities, rewarding the clients by money, giving firm identity card, discounts (even in small quantity), and promotion materials are relatively unimportant for agencies. Table 8. Promotion Activities Intended for Clients Perceived importance Sales campaigns Informing the client concerning agencies (links on the web etc.) Advertising Training the agencies at finding new clients Demonstrations Sales on internet Co-marketing activities Giving trials Establishing quota for agencies Weighted mean Evaluation of current situation (services oh hotels) % Enough No idea Not Enough Mean Std. Deviation 1,50 ,67 76,7 13,8 9,5 1,59 ,78 58,2 18,0 23,8 1,55 1,71 1,76 1,94 2,03 2,16 2,26 ,72 ,84 ,84 1,19 ,94 1,14 1,01 62,9 37,6 61,4 57,1 38,6 31,2 44,4 17,5 37,0 22,2 24,4 36,5 43,4 42,3 19,6 25,4 16,4 18,5 24,9 25,4 13,3 1,83 Means= 1 very important, 2 important, 3 no idea, 4not important , 5 not very important Promoting activities intended for clients are examined in Table 8. The findings indicate that sales campaigns are the most important promotion method. According to agencies’ viewpoint, majority of hotels are successful at sales campaigns (76,7%). Informing client about the agencies and activities of advertising intended for the clients are important promoting activities. Moreover hotels are successful at these activities. Hotel companies are found relatively unsuccessful in training the agencies at finding new clients, giving trials and comarketing activities. Conclusion Tourism agencies are intermediaries between hotels and their customers. Therefore agencies have enormous importance in finding customers for hotels. Despite the fact that hotels want to have a priority in the list of tourism agencies, tourism agencies do not give equal opportunity for finding customers to all listed hotels for some reasons such as lack of knowledge, weak communication, etc. Tourism agencies expect some incentives. The channel relations between hotels and tourism agencies exemplify a business to business marketing. This study investigates the relations between agencies and hotels in Turkey, from the perspective of business to business marketing. In this study, six main variables and their sub variables are investigated for examining agencies attitudes to hotels. The findings indicate that, generally speaking, tourism agencies have positive attitudes to hotel companies. Based on the findings, it could be suggested that the following factors are the most important ones which determine agencies’ attitudes: communication with the agencies, supports for agencies, relationship between agencies and hotel companies, promotion activities intended for clients and agencies, promotion activities encouraging, and agencies out of business relations between agencies and hotel company. The findings of the research indicate that the intermediaries are found the hotels successful. Factors which are important for agencies also found adequate or vice versa. It could be investigated whether agencies’ demand or hotels’ success dominate in this relation. This offers a direction for future research. References Akin M. (1997). Dagitim Kanallarinda Dikey Rekabet Iliskisi ve Dondurulmus Gida Sektorunde Bir Uygulama. Pazarlama Dunyasi, 11(62), 39-45. Aksoy, H. (1990). Dagitim Kanallari ve Fiziksel Dagitim. Istanbul:Yeni Asya. Anderson, C. J. & Narus, J. (1984). 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Medina-Munoz, D. & Falcon, J. M. G.. (2000). Successful Relationships between Hotels and Agencies. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(3), 737-762. Medina-Munoz, D. R., Garcia-Falcon, J. M. & Medina-Munoz R. D. (2002). Building the Valuable Connection Hotels and Travel Agents. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 43(3), 46-52. Ozturan, M. & Roney, S. A.. (2003). Internet Use Among Travel Agencies in Turkey: An Exploratory Study. Tourism Management, 25, 259-266. Parasuraman, A. (1998). “Customer service in business-to-business markets: an agenda for research. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing. 13(4/5), 309-321. Shipley, D. & Egan, C. (1992). Power, Conflict and Co-operation in Brewer-Tenant Distribution Channels. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 3(4), 44-62. Tek, O. B. (1997). Pazarlama Ilkeleri, Global Yonetimsel Yaklasim. Izmir. Tsay, A. A. (2001). Managing Retail Channel Overstock: Markdown Money and Return Policies. Journal of Retailing, 77, 457-492. Weber, J. A. ( 2001). Partnering with Resellers in Business Markets. Industrial Marketing Management 30, 87-99. Yaprakli S. (1998). Dagitim Kanallarinda Guc ve Catisma (Erzurum’daki Mesrubat Bayii ve Perakendecileri Uzerinde Bir Saha Arastirmasi)” Pazarlama Dunyasi, 12(72), 14-22. Yukselen, C. (2003) Pazarlama, Ilkeler-Yonetim (Marketing, Principles and Management) (Turkish), Ankara:Detay. 290 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 224 Title A name given to the resource An Analysis of the Impact of Motivating Factors on Tourism Agencies in Turkey Author Author ÖZDEMiR, Suayip KARACA, Yusuf Abstract A summary of the resource. This study investigates the relations between agencies and hotels in Turkey, from the perspective of business to business marketing. Drawing on the data obtained from 189 agencies by a survey. The results of the research show that six variables are important. Their order of importance as followings: Communication with the agencies, supports for agencies, the relationship between agencies and hotel companies, promotion activities for clients and agencies, promotion activities encouraging and out of business relations between agencies and hotel company. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f963ba49a501789165ae14da66a72bdb.pdf 3a069c939f75e5cd7dfd5b8bd00e845f PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Increasing Importance of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Süleyman ÖZDEMĐR Associate Professor Istanbul University, Faculty of Economics Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Turkey sozdemir@istanbul.edu.tr Zeki PARLAK Associate Professor, Marmara University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, Turkey zekiparlak@hotmail.com Abstract: “Civil Society Organizations” (CSOs), especially by developed societies, are "started to be re–explored" since 1970s in consequences of social welfare states' crisis, domination of neo–liberal philosophy and policies in the world, spreading of democracy, end of the cold war, improvements on information and communication systems etc… The most prominent difference between the last decades of the previous century and the first decade of the current century lies in the role that CSOs undertake in the society. As CSOs have suitable properties which are brought about the economic and political philosophy of globalization, they have got considerable attention of the states and have had a proper environment to develop in the countries where neo– liberal philosophy is being implemented. However, CSOs are not an alternative to the state, instead, they are supplementary institutions. Since CSOs are very appropriate to the rationale of economical and political philosophy of the last quarter of the twentieth century, which requires minimalization of the state, they are being supported by the state which was directed by liberal philosophy. Hence, they are increasingly developing in terms of quantity and quality. Keywords: Civil Society Organizations (CSOs), Non–Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Non–Profit Organizations (NPOs), Third Sector, Social Policy, State–CSOs Relationship, Turkey. Introduction The post–1980 era has witnessed the widespread transformations in the economic and political realms of the social life at the global level. The expansion of globalization, neo–liberalism and participative democracy has resulted in the increasing importance of the civil society organizations (CSOs) in the last three decades. The state has withdrawn from the economic and social areas. While the economy has been left to the market forces, new actors entered the scene to provide social welfare services. Consequently, the CSOs were re–discovered as the abiding provider of the social aids. Thus, it may not be incorrect to name this century as the century of the civil society. The CSOs are now considered as extremely significant institutions of the modern society as the new provider of social services. A new division of labour has been advanced among the state, municipals, market and the CSOs. The state has formed partnership with the CSOs and prefers purchasing services from the CSOs rather than producing them. The process has been expanding since the late 1970s and has come to constitute a significant part of welfare mixes in many countries. In many developed nations, particularly the USA and UK, the legal system and the administrative reforms enabled the state to maintain responsible for financing and auditing the social welfare services while transferring the responsibility for the provisions of these services to the CSOs and private sectors. In contrast to the developed nations, the CSOs are extremely weak in Turkey. Despite the promotion and expansion of their role in the social policy area at the global level, the Turkish CSOs do not seem to have gained any impetus. Neither the state nor the CSOs have any intention to alter their entrenched attitudes. The state has distrusted them and had hostile attitudes towards that civil society organization which are not under its control. The CSOs, on the other hand, have no desire to change and undertake any major responsibilities for social services. However, Turkey’s accession to the EU will eventually transform the hostile attitude of the state towards the civil society and give rise to the growth of the civil society in Turkey. 306 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1. The Concept and Description of Civil Society Organizations A. The Confusion over the Concept of Civil Society Organizations Civil society organizations (CSOs) are composed of a wide range of different organizations such as small local associations, large professional organizations and foundations. A number of different terms are currently used to indicate the civil society in the literature. Some widely used terms including civil society organizations, non–profit organizations, non–profit sector, non–governmental organizations, non–governmental sectors, philanthropic organizations, charitable organizations, third sector, voluntary organizations, private voluntary organizations, not–for–profit organizations, independent sector, tax–exempt organizations and social movements (Uslu 1999). It should be pointed out that there is no widely accepted discretion for none of these terms. In the Turkish literature on this sort of civil organizations, although there is a disagreement whether some of these organizations could be considered as civil society or not, the term civil society organizations is used to point out followings: foundations, associations, chambers, cooperatives, clubs, and platforms, and non– governmental organizations and third sector. On the other hand, some different terms such as community, society, order, guild and foundations were employed in the past to express the CSOs (ACOC, 2004). The term “non–profit organizations” is preferred in the developed world. This term is extensively used in English literature. Nevertheless, the term civil society organizations will be used in this article. This is because this term has wider in scope, and is also well known and commonly used in the academic circles, the political discussions and in the daily life in Turkey. B. The Concept of Civil Society Organizations The concept of CSOs has a wider framework and usually tends to include most of the other terms given above. The CSOs is based on the voluntariness principles and is wrought by philanthropy and social aims. It is independent of the state and constitutes a third sector along with the public and private ones. Although located in the private sector, in terms of its structure it is quite distinct from it. Lester Salamon (1999), who has written widely on the CSOs, describes the CSOs as non–profit organizations and non–profit sector in his book and indicated that they have six basic features in common. • First all these organizations have managed to become institutionalized one way or another. Informal and temporary gathering of people cannot be regarded within the scope of non–profit establishments. • Second, these organizations must operate in the “private sector”. Thus, they must be independent of the state. Nevertheless, this point does not mean that these organizations may not receive support from the state. • Third, they must distribute profits in accordance with the social objectives. That is, these organizations, do not share dividends with their shareholders. • Fourth, they must have an independent management structure. They plan and implement their own activities. No person or an establishment should interfere in the running of these organizations. • Fifth, the development of non–profit organizations should be voluntary. In general, the members of the board of trustees are volunteers, yet those who work for the organization do not have to be volunteers. • Sixth, the non–profit organizations have to operate with purposes declared in their charter. According to a categorisation, developed by National Centre for Charitable Statistics, massive number activities of non–profit organizations can be discerned. The centre, divides this activities 26 main areas and functions. Then, it is divided into sub–categories. For example, in the field of education there are 41, on the other hand in the field of arts and culture and humanities 56 activities exist (Salamon 2003 & Fremont–Smith 2004). According to another study, the CSOs are described as “organizations, which are independent from the state, based on voluntary gathering and working for the interests of the society rather than their members, non– profit and operating within the legal system” (Şahin 2007). 2. New Categorisation: Civil Society Regimes In line with Esping–Andersen’s widely known classification, “welfare regimes” (Esping–Andersen 1999 & Özdemir 2007), Salamon and Anheier classify the CSOs as “civil society regimes”. For them, the CSOs are developed in different ways under different regimes, and they prose four different types of civil society regimes (Anheier and List 2005). The first is the “liberal model. This model, represented by the USA, is characterized by the low level of public spendings on social welfare and the existence of a large civic sector. 307 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The second regime is “social democratic model”. The model is implemented in the small Scandinavian states, mainly in Sweden. This model is geared to a strong welfare state and relatively weaker in voluntary sector. The higher social spending, by the state, leaves no necessity for the civil society. The third model is called “corporatist model”. The model is mainly represented by Germany and is based on the partnership between the state and civil society. The central feature of this model is the high public and civil society spendings. That is both the state and civil society are generous. The final model is the “statist regime”. This model is represented by the countries such as Turkey and Japan. The level of social spendings on social welfare is extremely low and the civil society is not well– developed. While the statist regime restrains from the public welfare spendings, they pressurize the CSOs to trim down their welfare spendings (Moore 2001 & Anheier and List 2005). Nonetheless, this does not mean that the balance between the state and the CSOs will never change. The CSOs are occasionally promoted as in the case of France and Japan (Moore 2001). 3. The Historical Development of the Civil Society Organizations A. Pre- Industrial Revolution Era: The Increasing Social Responsibility of the Civil Society Organizations Voluntary organizations that are providing social aids with philanthropic sentiments to those who are in need have always existed throughout the history. In fact, practices which are similar to those social welfare services provided by the welfare state as old as human history, the societies always looked for ways to provide aids and services (accommodation, food, cloths etc...) to those who are disables, ills, poors. It should be indicated that before the establishment of the modern welfare state, society, religious and voluntary organizations provided these services in one way or another (Ersöz 2000). In the period before the centralized state authority took over the responsibility for social services, CSOs had provided welfare for individuals and families in the face of economic and natural disasters. Social aids were provided by personal relations such as families, relatives, communities,and by economic organizations such as guilds and also by religious organizations such as order, small dervish. In addition to these, it was also observed that the administrative classes of south aimed to develop a protective system for the poor with various concerns. In short, before the Industrial Revolution, it can be argued that the practice of social policy was provided by philanthropic organizations operating on the basis of voluntariness and mutual aid principles. Following the transformation of the economic and social structures by Industrial Revolution, the social welfare providing organizations started to be transformed also (Ersöz 2000). B. The Period of Industrialisation: The Decreasing Importance of Civil Society Organizations In consequence of rapid industrialization, the social policy organizations of the previous era such as family, philanthropic organizations and others quickly became insufficient and the new organizations to meet the growing demand were established. This is because, the traditional social aid organizations failed to provide help for rapidly growing working classes in terms of work accident and social care (Koray 2003). The process of urbanization, caused by the Industrial Revolution, resulted in the elimination of the some of the social protection organizations or reduced their effectiveness; along with the declining of the size of families, the family ties and protection of the family weakened, thus the state in the industrial societies had to take over those responsibilities (Güloğlu 1998). After the great depression of the 1929, to overcome the crisis, the Keynesian economic model was adopted. This model was called for the extensive involvement of the state in economic and social realms in order to sustain a high level of domestic demand. The state intervention in the economic and social services, virtually eradicated the need for the CSOs. As a result, a new period, in which the state took over the main responsibility for the provision of the social welfare, was launched. The period between the World War II and 1980, state intervention in social policy reached its apex and welfare states were born and matured. C. Post–1975 Era: Globalization and Neo–Liberalism and the Re–Discovery of Civil Society Organization In this century, there is no doubt that the increasing importance of the CSOs is very much associated with the rise of globalization and neo–liberalism and participative democracy. In the post–1980 period, the transformations, taking place in the economic, politic, social and legal areas, resulted in the gradual withdrawal of the state from the social welfare services. As a result, the CSOs started to take over the responsibility from the state for the provision of the social welfare services, and a third sector, in which the CSOs operate, developed after a long period of stagnation (Şahin ve Öztürk 2008). These organizations, providing social welfares for 308 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo humanity since the early ages, have performed a very significant role. It seems that they will continue to erg this role in the near future (Kuhnle ve Alestalo 2000). The CSOs, particularly in the western world, have been increasingly seen as an actor of social policy. The central government, local government, and the CSOs have set up partnership for the provision of social services and the state increased its collaboration with the CSOs. The state, rather than producing the same services prefers buying from these organizations. Particularly after 1970s, the process revived and come to constitute a significant part of the welfare mixes (Uslu 1999). The ascendancy of globalization and neo–liberal policies seems to be the main factor behind the current expansion of the CSOs both in qualitative and quantitative terms in the developed countries. While calling for the state to wane and return to the main functions, the CSOs are expected to undertake the responsibilities and duties for the provision of the social welfare along with the private sector (Pierson 2001). Hence, the legal and administrative restructuring in the developed countries particularly in the USA and England has intended to enable the state to maintain the responsibility for fining and auditing while transferring the responsibility for the provision and distribution of the social welfare to the CSOs. Along with the process and policies a discourse and need for supporting the CSOs have come to dominate the political agenda (Özbek 2002). The role of the state in the social area should be that the state should provide services to civil society or the private sector which are reluctant to produce, should provide aid for those priors who cannot afford to buy the services produced by the private sector (Çalışkan 2001) or should support, subside the private sector social services that are useful for its citizens, and should promote them (Çevik 1998). The state seeking to cut down the social spendings with the aim of restructuring themselves, particularly stared felling that is insufficient in the area of social aid and social services. The realisation of the shortage by the state, in these issues, resulted in the re–establishment of the ties between the state and civil society. 4. The State–Civil Society Organizations–Market Relations A. The Relations between State and Civil Society Organizations Some researches demonstrate that in the development and the qualitative expansion of the CSOs, the attitude of the state towards these organizations is of central importance. If the legal, institutional and financial supports (purchasing social service, aids and tax exemptions, etc.) are provided by the state to these organizations, not on their quantity and scale but also their share in the provision of the social services, will certainly augment (Luksetich 2008). The CSOs have become one of the basic social actors in the local, national and international levels. The CSOs are parts of the private sector, while they are operating on a voluntary basis, and provide services for the public. Thus, CSOs can be regarded as the organizations where the private and public cut across. More than a quarter century, many researchers, mainly economist, have argued that the CSOs provide social services much more effective and cheaper than the state and suggested that the state should set up partnership with the CSOs. In some developed countries such as the USA, France, England and Germany, these suggestions have been implied for a long time. In countries where the State–CSOs relations are developed and strengthened, the number of the CSOs and the coverage of their activities (such as in the USA, Holland and Austria) are much more extensive than in countries (particularly developing countries) where these relations are underdeveloped (Anheier ve List 2005). It is possible to argue that the State–CSOs relations are formed on three bases such as supplementary, complementary and adversarial. The first form of relation is the supplementary relations where the CSOs produce services that are not produced by the state. The failure of these states to meet the demand for services, result in the entrance of the CSOs into the service production. In this case it can be argued that there is reverse relations between the public spendings and CSOs’ spendings. That is, if the state produces more services, its spendings will increase, the CSOs’ spendings will decrease. The second form of the State and CSOs relations is the complementary. This means that the state and CSOs are partners in the provision of the social services and the role or the CSOs are to carry out the distribution of the services that are financed by the state. At this stage, there is a direct link between the CSOs’ spendings and the state spendings. That is, with an increase in the state spendings, its support to the activities of the CSOs will augment. In the third form of the relationship, CSOs, instead of producing services or helping governments to produce it, are constantly encouraging the government in order to produce services and in this sense to perform the public responsibility. Yet the relation and interaction is very low if compared two others. It must be pointed out that in hybrid organizations, where the State–CSOs relations merge one with another, the border have become more vague as in the USA, Japan and Israel (Young 2000). 309 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The CSOs can be seen in all civilized societies. Yet each society has specific structure and scale of voluntary sector distincts very much from the others. Currently the high growth in the voluntary sector has occurred in the USA. In the last 30 years, the voluntary sector has become a third sector along with the public and private sectors (Payton ve Moody 2008). B. The Relations between Market and Civil Society Organizations The CSOs do not always obtain financial resources from the charity, donation and state aids. Some of the CSOs may participate in the economic activities by means of economic enterprises with an intention to make profit. Thus, they can produce and sell goods and services like any other private sector companies. Nevertheless, the profits coming from these economic activities are not shared by the shareholders, but are used in accordance with the social purpose of the organization (Easterly ve Miesing 2008). In the last two decades, it is extensively observed that not only the CSOs have expended rapidly, but also their incomes have risen sharply, particularly in the USA. The central reason for the expansion of the CSOs is the markets. During this period, an ample demand developed for their services and for their increased incomes from charging for these services; they set up trading companies or partnerships with private sector firms and they commenced to use the techniques that are used by the firms, learned to obtain more financial resource from the state and sophisticated marketing strategies and monetary management techniques. They also re–designed their own structures and implemented all these techniques for collecting charities and providing social services. All these denote that the CSOs of the century are very much different than those at time of our fathers due to still continuing process of a massive restructuring (Salamon 2003). 5. Civil Society Organizations in the USA and Turkey A. Civil Society Organizations in the USA The USA has gone in the way of philanthropy and CSOs more than any other nation did in the history. That is no nation has been based on voluntary activities more than the USA has been. Along with the state and market, as a third sector the CSOs has become very important. The voluntary sector has gone beyond the imagination of people in this country. That is, there exist more that 2 million voluntary organizations, millions of donors and volunteers, millions of employment, billions of dollar income, billions of dollar spending and trillions of dollar assets (Payton ve Moody 2008). One of the important characters of the American society is that, in sharp contrast to many welfare states, the constantly growing state has developed the CSOs rather than emasculating and restricting them in the last fifty years. Because in the USA, societal hostility towards centralized bureaucracy and the presence of large number of voluntary organization in various fields, have increased the supports for the CSOs in the fields such as health, education, social services, art and culture. In the American social welfare system, in many of the basic social welfare areas financing is proved by the state while private organizations and establishment provided most of the services (Salamon 1999). The CSOs and philanthropy has become very important element of the social life in that the number of the registered CSOs reached to 1.4 million according to the Internal Revenue Service in 2004. The figure does not include small religious groups, local communities, and clubs, civil partnerships, and the other voluntary organizations. If these unregistered organizations are included the number of the CSOs, total number reaches to 2 million in the USA. Of these 500,000 are very large and have immense revenues and investments. According to the IRS, the group had 1,36 trillions revenues and 2,97 trillions worth assets in 2004. It means that the economical size of the CSOs in the USA is larger from the whole countries' economies. Incomes and possessions belonging to the CSO’s in this country are mostly consumed for education and health services (Payton ve Moody 2008). B. Civil Society Organizatons in Turkey Looking at the development of the CSOs in Turkey, it is possible to say that the CSOs, which are the important elements of the democratic system, have played a profound role in the development of the society since the early days of the history. Most of these CSOs are organised as foundations (vakıf) and associations (dernek). They have done pioneering and useful works for the society. It is determined that most of them were established with philanthropic and social aims (DPT 2001). CSOs, organized the form of foundations, have performed countless duties and have undertaken large number of responsibilities within the economic and social lives since the Seljukis time. They thrived greatly 310 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo during the Ottoman era. The Ottoman epoch can be considered as the golden age of these organizations in terms of quantity and functions (Zaim 1997). However, it is well–known that the foundations were in decline in the last years of the Ottomans and this process continued well into the republican era. It was not untill the amendment made in the Common Law as to foundations in 1967 that the fate of CSOs changed in Turkey (See Ertem 1998). Following these amendment, the number of foundation have amplified. These foundations have carried out extremely important responsibilities in the economic and social lives throughout the centuries in Turkey. This type of organizations contributed to the education, culture, and economy, social and politic lives. It can be said that the Foundation allocated most of their services to social services. Some of the foundations established as educational (for example Dar’üş–Şafaka, which is a secondary school in Istanbul for poor or poor and fatherless children) and health (for example a lot of dar’üş–şifa, which is health care centres) establishments in order to enhance national culture and protection of public and individual health. Some them prefer caring the poor, provide pension for those who work in heavy and weary industries, elderly who cannot work, parentless kids, orphans and widows etc. (Özdemir 1997). Another organising form of the CSOs during the last period of the Ottomans and Republican eras was the associations. Nevertheless neither the foundations nor the associations have managed to serve as CSOs because of the legal restriction on their activities. Thus, the legal amendments have been taken place in Turkey to eliminate these restrictions and give more freedom to the CSOs. For today, looking at the number of the association and foundations and other CSOs, and their members, are very low when compared to those in the developed countries. As of February 2009, there are 4.966 foundations. The number of total associations operating in Turkey is about 80,706. The figure is very low compared to the number of civil associations in the USA, Germany and France, which are approximately 7 millions, 2.1 and 1.4 millions respectively. According to the calculations; Turkey has to have at least 300 thousand associations in proportion to their size. In line with Solomon’s description of CSOs, one of the elements of the concept is that considering the private and public division, the CSOs are private sector establishments. Looking at the Turkish CSOs, apart from the foundations, associations and trade unions, some chambers and occupational association (chambers of commerce, engineers association, artichoke association, laws etc.), for which membership is compulsory, are considered as CSOs. These aspects of the civil organizations are not compatible Salmon’s CSOs description. And they have hybrid characters. At the same time, in these and other EU countries, the sector employs a sizeable part of their population. In the USA, approximately 9 million, in Germany 1 million, in France 0.8 million, and in Japan 1.4 million people are working for CSOs. However, albeit there is no research conducted in the respects in Turkey, it is estimated that the employment in this sector is negligible. On the other hand, as noted earlier, the importance of the CSOs are expanding in the world. In many countries, the share of these organizations in the GDP is very large and continues to grow (for example, in the USA is about 6.3 percent, in England and France 4.8 percent, and in Japan 3.5 percent). Unfortunately there is no research which has been carried out in this respect in Turkey (ACOC 2004). In Turkey, the inexistence of sufficiently developed welfare state constitutes the basis of the insufficient development of State–CSOs relations. Thus, this insufficiency dominates the CSOs and there is no sign that there will be significant development in this area. Turkey has not undergone the process of transformation of the western welfare state since the 1970s. The formation of the relation between the state and CSOs depends of the existence of some conditions. First of all, it is necessary that the state should promote the CSOs, by providing the legal framework enabling the effective operations of the organizations. In order to develop the CSOs–State relations, those CSOs which have better organizations, performed effective and useful services should be selected and supported and promoted. The Social Services and Child Protection Agency (SHÇEK) leading role and advises will help these organizations to improve the quality of their services (DPT 2001). In Turkey, the profound presence of state dominates the educational, health and social services. The social services provided by the public organizations are controlled by central authority in Ankara. Extreme centralizations tendency prevents planning, producing and distributing the services to those in need. In addition, shortage of financial resources results in the shortage of these services. Therefore, looking from these angles, regarding the fulfilment of social welfare services, both public management and the CSOs are far from the expected levels (Çevik 1998). The results of a survey (See Özdemir & Başel & Şenocak 2009), performed by us in Üsküdar District of Istanbul, after exposing the conditions and reasons of CSOs, point out that unfortunately there is not any evidence that this structure will change or transform, like in developed countries, in near future. In the developed countries, the process of the transformations which give rise to transferring, to a large extent the state responsibility concerning social policy to the CSOs. Not only have not been experienced in 311 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkey yet, but also the CSOs are neither aware nor enthusiastic towards such a change that will alter their destiny. Unfortunately some questions in the research demonstrate that the CSOs have accepted their destiny, are extremely reactant to do something to alter their future. This is very much noticeable from the questionnaire. As can be seen from the (Tab. n. 35) that 33.3 percent of the participant CSOs are against the transfer of social responsibility from the state to any other organizations including the CSOs. Only the 11 percent of the CSOs support such initiatives and express willingness to take some responsibility. The rest, (55,6 percent) avoid to reply these questions and do not believe that such transfer can be possible. In some developed countries such as the USA, the majority of the CSOs supports the transfer of the social aids and social services to voluntary organizations. In the countries, where this transfer has taken place, the growth of the CSOs has been observed. It is, therefore, a must for the Turkish CSOs to welcome this development and undertake increasingly responsibility for the provision of the social policy. If the CSOs have still state–centered views and are unaware what is going on in the World, nothing can be done to change their destiny. It is probably that the CSOs are in the opinion that they may not be able to overcome the provision of social policy and thus lack self confidence (Özdemir & Başel & Şenocak 2009). The view that the state provides social aids and social services better than anyone, dominate not only the CSOs but also the entire society in Turkey. The survey carried out by Çarkoğlu (2006) also confirms this view. According to his results, 38.2 percent of participants believe that social aid is primarily the responsibility of the state in Turkey. 30.9 percent believe that it is also the individual responsibility of wealthy people. Only 5,4 percent indicate that the CSOs should have some responsibility in this respect. Hence, it is possible to argue that in the mind of individuals, there is very small role for the CSOs for providing social services. This means that when people give charity, only few of them take the CSOs into consideration (Özdemir & Başel & Şenocak 2009). Conclusion The 1980s have witnessed major transformations in the economic, political and social realms. With the collapse of the Post–War order, the Western capitalism moved to a new stage. With the ascendency of the new– liberal economic policies, while the state involvement in the economy was undermined, the expansion of the welfare state came to the end. For the neo–liberals, the state involvement in the economy created market inefficiencies and prevented optimum allocation of resources. Hence, it is more rational for the state to withdraw from the economy and stop providing social welfare services. The social welfare services must be provided by civil society organizations (CSOs) or the private sector (1) (Pierson 2001). This is resulted in the re–discovery of the role of the CSOs as the actors in providing social services in the developed economies. A spectacular expansion of their role and activities of the CSOs in the provision of social services have been observed. The number of the CSOs has also mushroomed. The post 1929 crisis witnessed a period in which the role of the state in the economy and in the provision of social services was rapidly expanded. Nevertheless, with the crisis of the 1970s the state involvement in those areas came to be questioned. A new area was launched by the adaption of neo–liberal economic policies, demanding minimum state interference in the economic and social realms in the late 1970s (Özdemir 2007). Consequently, the discourse that the CSOs and waning the state have dominated the economic, political and social agendas in the world (Özbek 2002). The concept and issue of the CSOs, philanthropy, non–profit organizations, and social capital have been disregarded by social scientist and the public officials for a long–time. As social policy and welfare state developed, discussion on markets, state and social policy dominated the agenda in the post war epoch. The CSOs was considered as an insignificant issue. Nevertheless, following the ascendancy of the neo–liberal economic policies, this approach changed in the late 1970s. As the state has withdrawn from the economic and social realms, the CSOs were re–discovered as alternative to the public provision of social services in many developed countries. Thus, the CSOs have, recently, become one of the most important economic and social actors in the developed countries. They are seen as a “middle way” between the state and market and are called as “third sector”. In these countries, the state seeks to generate an environment conductive for the growth of the CSOs. The high quality relations between states and the CSOs constitute the basis for the phenomenal revival of the CSOs Unfortunately this is not the case in Turkey for the time being. The CSOs have neither mentally nor economically developed to undertake the responsibility for the provision of the social welfare state. There are number of reasons for this insufficient development of the CSOs. One of them is the existence of poor relations between the state and CSOs. In contrast to the developed countries, the state is reluctant to promote the civil society. This may be related to the authoritarian character of the state. The state has always distrusted the civil society and sought to keep any civil organizing attempt, which would challenge the state authority, under stick control. Thus, the growth and expansion of the civil society may be deliberately prevented. The state is reluctant to hand over some of its authority and responsibility to the civil society. This means that CSOs have not obtained 312 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo sufficient support from the state to flourish. This also means that the state have no intention to purchase services from the CSOs and does not involve or consult the CSOs in the formulation of social policies. Thus, it can be legitimately concluded that the state may partially hold responsiblity for this apparent insufficient development of the CSOs in Turkey. Our findings provide ample support to this argument. Nevertheless, the process of Turley’s integration to the EU and economic and social development, it may argued that the CSOs will discover their potential as well as get better recognition from the state and society. One another reason for the dismay of the Turkish CSOs may be themselves. Reviewing the literature and the fieldwork results demonstrate that most of the CSOs are even unable to perform their own duties determined by their charters. Nevertheless, those, with sufficient financial resources, have not changed their mentality at all. They are still disinclined to have any major role in the society. In many developed countries, the responsibility of the state for the provision of social and welfare services is shifting to the CSOs. 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Alternative Models of Government–Nonprofit Sector Relations: Theoretical and International Perspectives. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. Vol.: 29, No: 1, pp. 149–172. Zaim, S. (1997). Civil Society Organizations. (Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları). Journal of Yeni Türkiye. Special Issue on Civil Society. Issue: 18. 315 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 232 Title A name given to the resource The Increasing Importance of the Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) Author Author ÖZDEMiR, Süleyman PARLAK, Zeki Abstract A summary of the resource. “Civil Society Organizations” (CSOs), especially by developed societies, are "started to be re–explored" since 1970s in consequences of social welfare states' crisis, domination of neo–liberal philosophy and policies in the world, spreading of democracy, end of the cold war, improvements on information and communication systems etc… The most prominent difference between the last decades of the previous century and the first decade of the current century lies in the role that CSOs undertake in the society. As CSOs have suitable properties which are brought about the economic and political philosophy of globalization, they have got considerable attention of the states and have had a proper environment to develop in the countries where neo– liberal philosophy is being implemented. However, CSOs are not an alternative to the state, instead, they are supplementary institutions. Since CSOs are very appropriate to the rationale of economical and political philosophy of the last quarter of the twentieth century, which requires minimalization of the state, they are being supported by the state which was directed by liberal philosophy. Hence, they are increasingly developing in terms of quantity and quality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8283c8b9be9391cee083570d6f5940c4.pdf 25b0cb13f6d2191f553373ef0bef2890 PDF Text Text Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Edebi Materyallerin Kullanımı Emre ÖZDEMİR Rusya Devlet Sosyal Bilimler Üniversitesi emrggu@gmail.com Özet:Bu çalışmada Rusya’da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde kullanılan edebi materyaller üzerinde durulmaktadır. Bu süreçte Rus Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınmış Türkçe Gramer ve Pratik Kitapları’nda edebi materyallerin kullanım biçimleri ve kullanım gerekçeleri incelenmektedir. Kullanılan edebi materyaller hakkında değerlendirme ve öneriler sunulmaktadır. Özellikle Rusya’da Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınan eserlere baktığımızda Türkçe edebi materyallerin hangi sebeplerle kullanıldığı ve ne gibi tasniflerden geçirilerek sunulduğu net bir biçimde ortaya konulmamıştır. Bu çalışmanın cevap aradığı temel soru da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde edebi materyallerin tasnif problemine çözüm önerisi sunmak olacaktır. Çalışma kapsamında incelenen Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un eserleri dikkate alınarak Rusya’da Türkçe Öğretimi’nde edebi materyallerin kullanımı hakkında bir fikir oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonucunda, yukarıda belirtilen eserlerin incelenmesinin ardından Yabancı Dil Türkçe’yi öğrenenlerin sınıf ve seviyeleri göz önünde bulundurularak Türkçe edebi materyallerin sunumunda uygulanabilir yöntemler üzerinde durulmuştur. Çalışmamızın konusunu teşkil eden, Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un Rusya’da Türkçe öğretiminde kullanılmak üzere yazdıkları eserler üzerine Rusya’da şu ana kadar herhangi bir inceleme ve çalışma yapılmamıştır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi, edebi materyaller . Giriş Dil, insanlar arasında anlaşmayı sağlayan tabiî bir vasıta, kendisine mahsus kanunları olan ve ancak bu kanunlar çerçevesinde gelişen canlı bir varlık, temeli bilinmeyen zamanlarda atılmış gizli antlaşmalar sistemi, seslerden örülmüş içtimaî bir müessesedir (Ergin, 1985:3). Dil, toplumsal kültürün öğelerinden biridir. İnsanların gözlemlerini, duygularını kısacası yaşamından çıkardığı tüm sonuçların yansımasını dilde görürüz. Ulusun bütün kültürü dile, dilden de edebiyatına yansır. Edebiyat, aracı ve ortamı dil olan güzel sanat dalıdır İnsanın kendisini, çevresini, doğayı ve dünyayı tanıması, kenisini ve çevresini sağlıklı bir biçimde değerlendirmesi ve duyarlık kazanması adına edebiyatın önemi büyüktür. Edebi eserler, bireye öğrendiği dilin geniş olanaklarının farkına vardırır, dil duyarlılığı, sevgisi ve bilinci kazandırır, bireyin düşüncelerinin sözlü ve yazılı olarak etkin bir biçimde anlatabilmesinin sağlayıcısı olur. Dil ve edebiyat eğitiminde temel hedef, bir şey belletmek ve öğrenciye bilgi yüklemek değil, dili sevdirmek, dilin düzgün kullanılmasını öğretmektir (Kavcar, 1994: 853). Dil ve edebiyat eğitiminde bireyin başka kültürlerle iletişim kurabilmesi, kendini ifade etme becerisini kazanması, kelime hazinesini genişletmesi dil eğitimindeki amaçlardandır. Bugün Türk dili, yaklasık 12 milyon kilometre karelik bir alanda 220 milyon nüfusun konuştuğu, yüze yakın ülkede öğretiminin yapıldığı, kökleri tarihin en eski dönemlerine kadar uzanan, 600 bini aşkın söz varlığına sahip bir dünya dilidir. Genel Türk dili olarak diğer dillere verdiğimiz sözcük sayısı ise 20 binin üzerindedir. Özellikle giyim, yiyecek, askerlik başta olmak üzere hemen her alanda çok sayıda Türk dili kökenli sözcük ile tarihte ve bugün Türk soylu halkların yaşadığı coğrafyalardaki Türk dili kökenli çok sayıda yer adı dünya dillerinde varlığını bugün de sürdürmektedir (Akalın, 2009:204). Rusya’da ilk Türkoloji faaliyetleri Pyotr I. Velikiy (1672-1725)’in 1716’da verdiği emir ile başlamıştır (Kononov, 1972:25). Rus Türkologlarının ilk merkezi XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında 1855 yılında Petersburg Üniversitesi’nde açılan Doğu Dilleri Fakültesi olmuştur. Rusya’da gerçek anlamda ilmî Türkolojinin kuruluşu ise XIX. yüzyılın sonu, XX. yüzyılın başına denk gelir (Kononov, 1972:25). XVIII. yüzyılda temeli atılan bu çalışmaların XIX. yüzyıldaki ilk ürünlerini V.V. Radlov, A.K. Kazembek, P.S. Savelyev, V.V. Grigoryev, Ö.N. 341 �Böhtlingsk, V.V. Veliaminov-Zernov, P. Desmuisons, N.I. Ilminski, I.N. Berezin, L.Z. Budagov, P.M. Melioranski, V.D. Smirnov ve V.V. Barthold vermiştir (Ataöv, 1972:90). Rusya’da Türkoloji çalışmaları önce dil incelemeleriyle başlamıştır. Bundan dolayıdır ki en geniş yayın da dil alanındadır. Örneğin Rus Türkologlar 1915 yılında Kaşgarlı Mahmud’un sözlüğünün metninin yayınlanmasının ardından 1920’li yılların ortalarında Rus diline tercümesine başlamış, Özbek bilim adamı Alibek Rustamov da 1967 yılında Kaşgarlı Mahmud’un sözlüğünün Rus diline tercümesini bitirmiştir (Kononov, 2004:162). Ayrıca, Türkiye’de ağız araştırmaları ile ilgili ilk yayın V.A. Maksimov tarafından 1867’de St. Petersburg’da basılmış olan Opıt İzsledovanija Tyurskich Dialektov v Chudanvendigarei Karamanii’dir (Akar, 2006:42). Yine Orhon-Yenisey Kitabeleri’ni önce S.E. Malov, sonra V.V. Radlov, P.M. Melioranski ve A.N. Samoiloviç inceleyerek kitabelerin büyük bir bölümünün ilk tecümelerini yapmışlardır. Çalışmamıza kaynak olarak seçtiğimiz; P.İ. Kzunetsov Uçebnik Turetskovo Yazıka, Naçalniy Kurs – Çast 1 / 2, Tükçe Ders Kitabı, Bölüm 1 / 2 , Vastok Zapad, / 2, 2007 (П. И. Кузнецов, Учебник турецкого языка-1. Начальный курс, Восток-Запад, ВКТ, 2009 г.) Y.V. Şeka İntensiviy Kurs Turetskovo Yazıka – YoğunTürkçe Kursu, AST, 2009 (Ю. В. Щека ,Интенсивный курс турецкого языка, АСТ Москва, 2008 г.) L.N. Dudina Turetsky Yazık, Uçebniy Yazık1 / 2, Türkçe Eğitim Kitabı 1 / 2, Bakü 1993 (Л. Н. Дудина, Турецкий язык 1-2, Учебное Пособие, Баку, 1993 г.) A.N. Kononov Gramatika Savremennovo Literaturnovo Turetskovo Yazıka, Çağdaş Türk Edebiyatı Grameri, , Akademii Nauk SSSR, 1956 (А.Н. Кононов, Грамматика современного литературного турецкого языка, Академии наук СССР, 1956 г.) adlı kitaplar bugün Rusya’da üniversitelerin Türkoloji bölümlerinde, eğitim ve araştırma merkezlerinde, kültür merkezlerinde ve kurslarında Türkçe öğreniminde kullanılan başlıca kaynaklardandır. Türkologların hazırladıkları Türkçe ders kitaplarına baktığımızda alıntı cümle ve metinlerin hemen hemen tamamının Türk Edebiyatı’na ait edebi metinler olduğunu görmekteyiz. Tanrı Misafiri,Çalıkuşu (Reşat Nuri Güntekin), İçimizdeki Şeytan (Sabahattin Ali), Memleket Hikayeleri (Refik Halit Karay), Yalnız Efe, Gizli Mabet, Diyet (Ömer Seyfettin), Beklenen Adam (Aziz Nesin), Salkım Söğüt (Nazım Hikmet), Velinimet, Üzüntü (Orhan Kemal) bunlardan bazılarıdır. Sadece P.İ. Kzunetsov, ders kitabında Aleksandr Sergeyeviç Puşkin (1799-1837), Anton Çehov (18601904), Buffon (1707-1788) ve Lermontof (1814-1841)’dan alıntı metinlere yer vermiştir. A. N. Kononov, Türk Edebiyatı’ndan yirmi altı farklı yazarın sekseni aşkın eserinden alıntı yaparak en fazla edebi metne yer veren Rus Türkologdur. Ders kitaplarına edebi metinlerden alıntı yapılırken bazı problemlerin ortaya çıktığı muhakkaktır. Bu problemlere kısaca değinmek isteriz: Edebi metinlerde belirli ortak isimlerin kullanılması: Bizler incelemeye aldığımız ders kitaplarında alıntı edebi metin ve cümlelerde belirli isimlere sıklıkla yer verildiğini görmekteyiz. Bu isimler Aziz Nesin (1915-1995), Sabahattin Ali (1907-1948), Nazım Hikmet (1901-1963), Orhan Kemal (1914-1970)’dir. L.N. Dudina, Türkçe ders kitabında metinlerin tümünü Aziz Nesin’den alıntı yapmıştır. Y.V. Şeka Aziz Nesin, Sabahattin Ali ve Orhan Kemal’den sıklıkla alıntı yapan bir başka yazardır. P. İ. Kzunetsov, Nazım Hikmet’in Salkım Söğüt ve Yanmış Cigara adlı şiirlerini, Orhan 342 �Kemal’den Baba Evi ve Velinimet, Aziz Nesin’in Mehmetçik adlı romanlarından alıntı yapmıştır. A.N. Kononov kitabında metin şeklinde alıntı bulunmasa da Nazım Hikmet’in Benerci Kendini Niçin Öldürdü, Kafatası, Taranta-Babu'ya Mektuplar, Sabahattin Ali’nin Kürk Mantolu Madonna, Kuyucaklı Yusuf, Kanal, Bir Skandal, Köpek, Asfalt Yol, Portakal, Sıcak Su, Köstence Güzellik Kraliçesi, Apartman adlı eserlerinden ve Değirmen, Kağnı, Ses eserinden alıntı yapmıştır. Sosyalist akım şair ve yazarlarının çoğu edebiyatımızda 1940’dan sonra görülmüştür. Roman ve hikayede Marksist görüşe dayalı ‘Sosyal Gerçekçilik” denilen akımın örneklerini veren sosyalist akımın en güçlü şair ve yazarı Nazım Hikmet ve Aziz Nesin, Sabahattin Ali, Orhan Kemal aynı sosyalist bir çizgide hayat sürdüren yazarlardır. Adaletsiz toplum yapısına karşı durmuş, ekmek uğruna her türlü zorluğa direnen, ırgatlıktan işçi sınıfına, ağalık düzeninden patronluğa geçişte çelişkilerle dolu insanoğlunun tanıklarıdır. Kısacası rejim tarafından ezilen sınıfın yanında olmuşlardır. Hayatlarında düzene karşı başkaldırış, ortaya koydukları eserlerde de düzeni tenkit vardır. Sovyet rejiminin taraftarı bu isimler, dönemin Rus devlet sistemi tarafından Türkoloji bölümlerinde okutulmuş ve eserleri üzerine sayısız çeviri ve çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Ne acıdır ki bugün Rusya’da halen Türk edebiyatı denilince ilk akla gelen isimlerdir. Aynı devirde yaşamış, Türk şiirine yeni ses ve söyleyiş imkanları getiren Necip Fazıl Kısakürek ve Ahmet Kutsi Tecer gibi şairlerin ve psikolojik roman tarzının ustası olan Peyami Safa’nın ders kitaplarında şiir ve metinlerine hiç yer verilmemesini ciddi bir eksiklik olarak görüyoruz. Edebiyatımızın bu çok zengin ürün yelpazesinden mahrum olan Türkoloji öğrencileri bu isimleri okumamakla kalmayıp, sosyalist rejim karşıtı oldukları gerekçesiyle de fikir ve düşüncelerine karşı bir duruş sergilemektedirler. Edebi metinlerin öğrencilerin seviyeleri gözardı edilerek verilmesi ve edebi metinlerin dil yönünden ele alınmaması: Dersin öğrenci merkezli yürütülebilmesi için, ders araç-gereçlerinin de buna göre hazırlanması gerekir. İncelememiz sonucunda karşılaştığımız bir başka problem de, alıntı cümle ve metinlerin öğrencilerin seviyeleri dikkate alınmadan verilmesidir. Bu ise öğretimi ve öğrenimi zorlaştırıcı etkenlerdendir. Örneğin Y. V. Şeka, Yoğun Türkçe Kursu adlı ders kitabında beşinci derse Ömer Seyfettin’e ait olan Bir Vasiyetname adlı edebi metin ile başlar (Şeka, 2008:67). Ders 1: Ses bilgisi; sesli-sessiz sesler, ünlü-ünsüz sesler, yuvarlak-düz ve dar-geniş ünlü sesler, sert sessizler ve yumuşak g, Ders 2: Bildirme ekleri -dır/-dir/-dur/-dür, soru eki mı/mi/mu/mü, kim?/nasıl?/ne? ve hece bilgisi, Ders 3: -(ı)yor şimdiki zaman eki, -cı/-ci/-cu/cü/-çı/-çi/-çu/-çü, -lı/-li/-lu/-lü, -sız/-siz/-suz/-süz isimden isim yapma eki, -la/-le, -al/-el/-ıl/-il/-l isimden fiil yapma eki, -lar/-ler çokluk eki sert ünsüzler ve -(y)ı,-(y)i,-(y)u,(y)ü belirtme hali, Ders 4: -mak/-mek mastar eki, şahıs çekim ekleri bulunmaktadır (Şeka, 2008:10-59). Bir Vasiyetname adlı metninin beşinci dersin başında verildiğini yukarıda belirtmiştik. Öğrenciler sadece ilk dört derste gördükleri dil bilgisi kuralları ile metni anlamaya ve çözümlemeye çalışacaklardır. “... dehşetli bir buhran geçirmek, doğru bir cevap verememek, tamlamalarını bulunduran yapılar; kendini öldürmek istemek, yapmak istemek, mektup yazmak istemek eylemsilerini bulunduran yapılar; dünya-da, dünya-dan, cehennem-de, Mısır’da, şehirler-de, oteller-de, ölmek-e, sualler-e türünden henüz ders içerisinde verilmemiş hal ekleri; taşıyamamak, verememek, takip edememek, yiyebilmek, bulundurmak türünden bileşik eylemler, henüz öğrenciler tarafından bilinmeyen dil bilgisi kurallarındandır. Bu ise metni anlamayı güçleştirmektedir. Yazar, alıntısını yaptığı metni gerekirse sadeleştirmelidir. Metin içinde ilgili dil bilgisi kurallarının olduğu sözcükler ve cümle yapıları farklı punto ve yazı karakterleriyle belirgin hale getirilmelidir. “İlim adamlarının nasıl çalıştıklarını hep merak etmişimdir. Ne cevap vereceğimi şaşırmıştım, sattıkları aletin bozuk olabileceğini söyledim, yapabileceğini ifade etti, ihtiyaç duyduğumu belirttim (Kzunetsov, 2007:7172). Yukarıda, Bir Tezin Hikayesi (Mehmet Kara) adlı metinden örnek cümleler vardır. Yazar, ders öncesi dil bilgisi bölümünde işlenen; -ecek/-acak, -dık/dik/-duk/-dük eylemsilerini belirgin hale getirerek öğrencinin dil öğrenimini kolaylaştırmış ve öğrenimine katkı sağlamıştır. Edebi tür ve ürünlere sınırlı sayıda yer verilmesi ve hikaye metinlerinin ağırlık kazanmaması: Rusya’da okutulan ve incelemeye aldığımız ders kitaplarında sınırlı edebi tür ve üründen alıntı yapılmıştır. P. İ. Kzunetsov hikaye, roman ve şiir türlerinde alıntı yaparken, Y.V. Şeka hikaye, roman, fıkra ve anı türünde; L. N. Dudina anı ve fıkra; A.N. Kononov ise hikaye, roman ve fıkra türlerinde alıntı yapmıştır. 343 �Bahçelerde saz olur, Gül açılır yaz olur, Ben yarıma gül demem, Gülün ömrü az olur. Gitti gelmez, geldi gitmez (gençlik, ihtiyarlık) Allah yapar yapısını, demir açar kapısını (karpuz), Ben giderim o gider, cebimde tık tık eder (saat) Dize kadar küçücük (çizme), Ben dururum, o gelir (ses) (Şeka, 2008:138). Y.V. Şeka; edebi tür olmasa da edebi ürün olan bilmece ve maniye yer vermiş, L. N. Dudina atasözlerine, Y. V. Şeka ve P. İ. Kzunetsov atasözü ve deyimlere yer vermiştir. Deveye ot lazımsa boynunu uzatır, davulun sesi uzaktan hoş gelir, her iple adam asılmaz, her ağaç kökünden çürür, baş gidince ayak durmaz, can baldan tatlıdır (Şeka, 2008:203) atasözleri, Kulak vermek, işin içinden çıkmak, dili açılmak, göze almak, içi fena olmak, sıkı fıkı olmak, bıyık altından gülmek (Kzunetsov, 2007, 348) deyimleri bunlardan bazılarıdır. Yazarların ortak özelliği, hikaye metinlerinden alıntı yaparken metni kısaltmış olmalarıdır. L. N. Dudina alıntı yaptığı Aziz Nesin metinlerinin tümünde kısaltmaya gitmiştir. P. İ. Kzunetsov, Böbrek (S. Ali) ve Mehmetçik (R. Nuri Güntekin) adlı romanlarda kısaltmalara giden başka bir yazardır. Yabancılara Türkçe öğretiminde hikaye metinlerinin alıntı yapılması gereken türlerin başında geldiğini belitmek isteriz. Kısa, anlaşılır oluşu, kolay bir olay örgüsüne sahip oluşu dil öğretiminde en çok alıntı yapılan tür olmasına neden olmuştur. Genellikle kısaltılmış olarak verilen hikaye parçaları metnin bütününü anlamayı kolaylaştırmıştır. Sonrasında seviyeye uygun hazırlanmış roman parçalarından alıntılar yapmanın uygun olduğunu düşünüyoruz. Gezi yazısı, söyleşi, deneme, makale ve biyografilerden uygun parçalar seçilerek ders içerisinde tercüme, tahlil şeklinde ve önceden hazırlanan alıştırma metinleri ile ders zenginleştirilebilir. Şiir, bilmece, mani, atasözü ve deyim gibi edebi tür ve ürünler dil öğreniminin tamamlanmasına yakın süreçte verilmelidir. Sonuç Sonuç olarak, yabancılara Türkçe öğretimi için hazırlanan ders kitaplarında edebiyatımızın seçkin isimleri -oluşturulacak bir heyet tarafından- belirlenmeli ve farklı düşünce ve fikir akımının önemli temsilcilerinin eserlerinden alıntı yapılmalıdır. Böylece edebiyatımızı tek tip düşünen ve yazan isimler topluluğu olmaktan kurtarmış oluruz. Rus Türkologların tercih ettiği hikaye metinlerinden alıntılara ders kitaplarında daha fazla ağırlık verilmeli. Bunun dışında derste öğrenilen konuları destekleyecek ve pekiştirecek her seviyeye uygun hikaye kitapları oluşturulmalı; bu hikaye kitapları alıştırma, boşluk doldurma, tercüme bölümleriyle desteklenmelidir. Edebiyatımızın masal, bilmece, mani, atasözü, deyim gibi Türk irfanının seçkin tür ve ürünlerine ders kitaplarında mutlaka yer verilmelidir. Kaynakça Ergin, Muharrem. (1985). Türk Dil Bilgisi, Bayrak Yayınevi, İstanbul. Kavcar, Cahit. (1994). "Yeni Türk Edebiyatı Öğretimi" 1. Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, Kuram-Uygulama-Araştırma (Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi 28-30 Nisan 1994, Çukurova Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları, Adana. Akalin, Şükrü. (2009). Türk Dili, TDK Yayınları, Ankara Kononov, A. N. (1972). İstoriya İzuçeniya Turkish Yazıkov v Rossiy, Dooktyabrskiy Period, Leningrad 344 �Ataöv, Türkkaya. (1972). “Sovyetler Birliği’nde Türkoloji Çalışmaları”, A. Ü. SBFD 27, Ankara Kononov, A. N. (2004). Manas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Bişkek Akar, Ali. (2006). Türkoloji Dergisi 1, sayı:2 Seka, Y. V. (2008). İntensiviy Kurs Turetskovo Yazıka, AST, Moskova Kzunetsov, P.İ. (2007). Uçebnik Turetskovo Yazıka, AST, Moskova 345 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 391 Title A name given to the resource Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Edebi Materyallerin Kullanımı Author Author ÖZDEMİR, Emre Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu çalışmada Rusya’da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde kullanılan edebi materyaller üzerinde durulmaktadır. Bu süreçte Rus Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınmış Türkçe Gramer ve Pratik Kitapları’nda edebi materyallerin kullanım biçimleri ve kullanım gerekçeleri incelenmektedir. Kullanılan edebi materyaller hakkında değerlendirme ve öneriler sunulmaktadır. Özellikle Rusya’da Türkologlar tarafından kaleme alınan eserlere baktığımızda Türkçe edebi materyallerin hangi sebeplerle kullanıldığı ve ne gibi tasniflerden geçirilerek sunulduğu net bir biçimde ortaya konulmamıştır. Bu çalışmanın cevap aradığı temel soru da Türkçe Öğrenimi’nde edebi materyallerin tasnif problemine çözüm önerisi sunmak olacaktır. Çalışma kapsamında incelenen Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un eserleri dikkate alınarak Rusya’da Türkçe Öğretimi’nde edebi materyallerin kullanımı hakkında bir fikir oluşturulmaya çalışılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonucunda, yukarıda belirtilen eserlerin incelenmesinin ardından Yabancı Dil Türkçe’yi öğrenenlerin sınıf ve seviyeleri göz önünde bulundurularak Türkçe edebi materyallerin sunumunda uygulanabilir yöntemler üzerinde durulmuştur. Çalışmamızın konusunu teşkil eden, Y.V. Şeka, P.İ. Kzunetsov, L.N. Dudina ve A.N. Kononov’un Rusya’da Türkçe öğretiminde kullanılmak üzere yazdıkları eserler üzerine Rusya’da şu ana kadar herhangi bir inceleme ve çalışma yapılmamıştır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/300345dbf59a8ec6f36be0fc5f951c1f.pdf da0403fb66183bcbd7dabd1b142e7044 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Entrepreneurship Opportunities and Problems in Indonesia Selim ÖZDEMĐR Dr., Department of Business Administration, Qafqaz University, Baku / Azerbaıjan selim.tx@gmail.com Abstract: In 2008 when I visited to Jakarta for editorship of the book “Entrepreneurship Opportunities in Indonesia” two different survey studies with regard to entrepreneurs and companies were completed. In face to face meetings with company supervisors and official authorities more detailed information related to this subject was collected. In 2004 while visiting Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia during a 6-month academic study, I gathered background information on these countries, and no doubt that these data had made positive contributions to these studies. In this study four main topics were examined: “current potential in Indonesia for foreign investors”, “opportunities in different sectors”, “potential problems” and “business relations rules”, which were responded by about 100 company supervisors and government authorities. Key words: Entrepreneurship, investment opportunities, Indonesia. Introduction Indonesia can be considered as one of the richest countries on Earth due to its biological diversity. The country is located between Asia and Australia, comprised of more than 17,000 islands that stretch 5,000 km from east to west. Because of its complex geographical make-up and unique biogeographic position Indonesia has enormous ecosystem diversity, as well as a fascinating history and heritage. In terms of human diversity, with more than 210 million inhabitants, the country ranks as the fourth most populous nation in the world and the third largest democratic country. It is also the world’s largest Islamic nation, where a constitutional freedom to practice other religions sees major groups of Christians, Buddhists, Hindus and other faiths existing side by side. There are approximately 336 distinct recognized cultures that share more than 250 spoken languages. The lingua franca, Bahasa Indonesia, was adopted only 77 years ago and is now widely used throughout this vast land, serving as a means of communication and as a unifying factor. Indonesia is a diverse country and it is among the culturally richest countries on Earth.1 In addition to this it has enormous mineral, marine and natural resources and it is evident that it ranks as a major economic force in the region. Following the economic and financial crisis that hit the country in 1997, the Indonesian government recognized the important role of foreign investment in the reconstruction of the Indonesian economy. During following years, the successive governments carried out legal and regulatory reforms designed to make Indonesia a competitive destination for foreign direct investment. From the socioeconomic point of view the development of entrepreneurship is very important for Indonesia, where the market economy is still in the process of development. The Encouragement Plan for Development of Entrepreneurship approved in 1995 by the president Soeharto is of great importance. By the effects of economical crisis, increasing level of unemployment caused the state to pay more attention to development of entrepreneurship. In Indonesia approximately 40 million people are in search of a job. Formulation of such a big number of unemployed people arise threats for the country such as increasing number of criminals and decreasing the social welfare. The growth of employment in the country will be possible through the encouragement of entrepreneurship by the government.2 1. Opportunities and Problems For Indonesia, which is in a development trend, healthy growth of the socio-economic structure depends on enterprises, mainly on SMEs. The SMEs share 99% of the total enterprises in Indonesia.3 Parallel to country’s large territory, there are many problems both in general and specific with regard to placing the entrepreneurship on the focus of attention. One can assume that in the future such a great country will have big 1 Doing Business in Indonesia, Urbach Hacker Young International Ltd (UHY), Indonesia, 2008, p.4 Selim Ozdemir, “Motivational Factors Influencing Entrepreneurship in Indonesia: An Empirical Study”, (not published) 3 The Ministry of Cooperative and SME Republic of Indonesia, Press release, 2003. p.1. 2 180 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo enterprises with their important contribution to its development, and also there will be local and foreign investors which can transform problems to opportunities and can utilize current potential of the country. The Government of Indonesia has signed contract with 56 countries, including Turkey for the purpose of protecting foreign investment. Indonesia takes the responsibility of protecting assets of these foreign investors and allows sending profit dividend to their countries. Indonesia also is the member of MIGA (Multinational Investment Guaranty Association). In relation with this, the government made a decision on protecting foreign investments against possible political crisis. Indonesia launched some loosing politics in the beginning of 1990s, such as decreasing tax rates in foreign trade policy, applying non-tariff barriers. The Government of Indonesia is decreasing the number of import restrictions and products which are under special license. Encouragement items about foreign investors can be listed as follows: • Foreign enterprise can be formed 100% by foreign share. But in infrastructure this is 95%. • For foreign investors there isn’t any necessity to sale shares to local companies. • There isn’t minimum capital amount. • Foreign investment procedure and confirmation is being completed within 5 days. • For the purpose of investment, custom taxes for machinery and raw materials have been decreased by 5%. • The depreciation period in foreign investments is short. Dividend tax is 10%. Despite the positive developments in the economy, Indonesia has smaller investment environment than other rival countries in this region, because of bureaucracy, corruption and chaos in country’s law structure. Although, there are noticed different developments, such as trade mark, copyrights, commercial secrets, protection of industrial designs, yet there isn’t sufficient protection in this area. Fighting piracy with respect to patents, trademarks and trade copyrights isn’t be successful. The Trade Mark Rights protects trademarks not based on first utilization, but first registration. Finally, it can be noticed that commercial secrets are not protected by the Indonesian laws. For industrial designs and models there isn’t enough protection either. The Indonesian Government is applying labeling policy for imported food products. According to this policy, for imported food products there must be used labels in Indonesian language. This application is making obstacles for Turkish companies which are exporting food products not only to Indonesia, but to other countries. In some sectors the existence of monopoly impedes development of entrepreneurship on the said sectors. For example, companies that operate in natural gas sector have licensed rights which allow them to derive benefits from different advantages, and this situation prevents other companies from entering these sectors.1 2. Entrepreneurship Survey Analysis in Indonesia for Foreign Investors Doing researches on entrepreneurship in Indonesia is important for foreign investors who desire to engage in entrepreneurial activities in this country. These studies, which analyze opportunities and problems in entrepreneurship, will be guidance for the business world. General evaluation according to the survey questions responded by approximately 100 Indonesian and Turkish entrepreneurs and official authorities are given below. Four question topics were examined here: “current potential in Indonesia for foreign investors”, “opportunities in different sectors”, “probable problems” and “rules in business relations” which were responded by about 100 company supervisors and government authorities. Under the topic of “From the standpoint of foreign investors’ thoughts about current potential in the country” the given responds were like this: Indonesia is an attractive country which has much more potential for investors in different fields. Its geography, population and trade capacity is the most important potential. In 2007 there was 114 billion USD export and 74 billion USD import in this country. There are enough subsoil and surface resources. According to export of coconut palm oil Indonesia takes the leading position. The three largest companies of Indonesia are engaged in coconut palm oil production. The country’s second largest company SINARMAS is doing business in four sectors: coconut palm oil, paper production, construction and finance. Rapid development of Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore and Malaysia and their relations with Indonesia increases the potential of this region. There are about 48 million SMEs in Indonesia, and also there is the Ministry of SME and its subunits. Evaluations on the question “Which sectors in Indonesia are recommended for foreign investors and what opportunities they have?” are as follows: Every sector is important, but potential sectors are: textile, mill machinery, construction products, spare parts for cars, motorbikes, agriculture machinery, infrastructure and apartment building, construction of hydroelectric and thermal electric stations, navigation, food and 1 Selim Ozdemir, Endonezyada Girişimcilik Fırsatları, (not published). 181 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo consumption products, shop chains, mining (especially coal), electronic products, industrial agriculture products, airline business, recreation business, telecommunication, oil and natural gas sectors. It’s logical to provide raw materials and semi-finished products from Indonesia. “Container” fees are very low and it’s possible to export “zero custom” technologic machines from Europe to Indonesia. Mediterranean products like dry fruit, olive oil, greenery and fruit are important export products. Because of cheap labor force, it’s difficult to enter the sectors such oil and gas. Agricultural and industrial products with applied technical knowledge will be more suitable for foreign investors. There can be built a coconut palm oil factory. For those entrepreneurs who are engaged in small business, it’s recommended to open fast-food, candy shops, and building mini-sport complexes. Due to region’s population important brand strategies can be launched. Religion tourism is a potential business area which can bring much more benefits and returns on investments. Doing business in education sector, especially opening a university with international status and building education centers based on English language will be a strategic investment. Thoughts on “Problems awaiting foreign investors in Indonesia” are the following: There is not enough government incentive for foreign investors, the industry and infrastructure has not been developed well enough and there are no mining rights. Like in many countries there are corruption problems in the enforcement of adopted laws. Not forming of secure and healthy environment is an important obstacle. There are considerable bureaucratic problems due to weak synchronization of the central and regional government units. In Indonesia another important problem for foreign investors is the conflicts between local people in having rights on lands. Monopoly and protection, high costs, language based communication problems with local people, geographic adjacency of Australia are the main disadvantages. Traffic jams in Jakarta is an important problem for entrepreneurs who want to do business in this city. “Entrepreneurs who want to do business in Indonesia must pay attention to factors in work relations” are examined like this: One should possess special information about Indonesia. There were plenty of foreign investors who lost money by different ways, like advance. There must be gained enough information from individuals and entities that know this region well and then an action should be taken accordingly. With possibility of 100% foreign investment, investors who don’t know country’s environment should be guided by the state and other agencies which encourage foreign investments. Before doing investment it would be reasonable decision to see the region. Market researches will help to reduce costs. The support of consultants should be taken consultant in order to determine the investment costs exactly. It is necessary to take effective marketing activities. Personal relations are very important. For entering to market, short-term investments have more advantages than long-term one. Those who want to start up a midsize business should find long-term support. Such kind of support can be provided in three different forms: 1. Strong capital. 2. Company supported activity. 3. Cooperation with people who are well-informed about Indonesia. Paying attention to the distance between work place and home will solve traffic jam problems. There must be given standardized trainings and education to personnel and international exchange and development programs should be applied for increasing quality. One needs to understand Indonesia, its local people and culture. Those who want to open a business in this country must have patience at least like Indonesians. Because, phrases like “sebantar lagi” (soon), “gampang” (easy) are the signs of time waste habits of this country’s people. Conclusion and Suggestions In a country with 250 millions of population and rich natural resources, poorly developed industry and infrastructure, weakly synchronized central and regional government authorizes with bureaucratic problems directly affect the investments of foreign investors; trade relations are generally in import-export axis. In meetings with Indonesian and Turkish businessmen one can notice the formation of necessary resources for foreign investors to do business in important sectors. In comparison with China, India and the USA, Indonesia is more pure market for foreign investors. Indonesia is the country which conducts barter trade with other countries: exporting raw materials and importing finished goods. This shows that Indonesia can be a potential trade partner. In many countries there are very little advantages for small and middle size enterprises, however, in Indonesia there are many advantages for them. We can give the following suggestions for the formulation of effective entrepreneurial activities in Indonesia: 1. Increasing the state support to SMEs. 2. Development of laws for encouragement of foreign investors. 3. Decreasing the bureaucratic obstacles. 4. Effective struggle against corruption. 5. Development of investment consulting services for companies. 182 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. 7. Investors should start doing business with short-term investments. To attract foreign investors to the country through organization of exhibitions and job picnics. References Bird, Alan and Hitoshi Matsuhashi (2003). “Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurial Processes: Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on Entrepreneurship in the Japanese Context”, Journal of Asian Perspective, Vol: 27, No: 3. Eren, Erol (2001). Yönetim ve Organizasyon, 5. bs., Đstanbul, Beta Yayınevi, Ertürk Mümin (1995). Đşletmelerde Yönetim ve Organizasyo, Beta Basım-Yayım-Dağıtım A.Ş., Đstanbul, Koçel Tamer (2005). Đşletme Yöneticiliği, 10 bs. Arıkan Yayınları, AS Maatbası, Đstanbul. Ozdemir, Selim (2009). Endonezyada Girişimcilik Fırsatları, (not published). Ozdemır, Selim (2009). “Motivational Factors Influencing Entrepreneuship in Indonesia: An Empirical Study”, (not published). Robbıns P. Stephen (2005). Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 8th edition, Prentice Hall, New York. Susando, Joseph (2005). “Creative Entrepreneurship in Indonesia :problems, strategies and challenges”, Asian Productivity Organization (APO). Analisis Kinerja Koperasi Tahun 2002-2006, Kementerian Negara, Jakarta, 2007 Bahan Sidang Ke-7 Komisi Bersama Kerjasama Ekonomi dan Teknik Antara Indonesia-Turki, Istanbul, 17-18 September 2008 Criteria and Requirements for the Determination and list of Business Fields Closed and Open with Conditions to Investment, the Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2008. Doing Business in Indonesia, Urbach Hacker Young International Ltd (UHY), Indonesia, 2008, p.4 Doing Business in Indonesia Indonesian Social and Business Culture, Communicaid Group Ltd., London 2008, p. 2 Doing Business-Indonesia Investment Guide, the Investment Coordinating Board of The Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, 2007. Foreign Direct Investment in Indonesia, Bahar&Partners, Jakarta, 2007. Government Regulations on Investment Facilities, The Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2007. Investment Opportunities-Indonesia Investment Guide, The Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2007. Law of Investment of the Republic of Indonesia, The Investment Coordinating Board, Jakarta, 2007. Profile of Indonesia- Indonesia Investment Guide, The Investment Coordinating Board of The Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, 2007. Statistik Perkoperasian Tahun 2007, Kementerian Negara, Jakarta, 2008. The Ministry of Cooperative and SME Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta, 2008 Indonesia-Turkey 7th Preparation Meeting to Economical and Technological Cooperation Council, Indonesia Republic Trade Ministry, Jakarta, 14.08.2008. Indonesia SMESCO (Small Medium Enterprozes and Cooperatives Ministry), Meeting with Ministry Consultant Ahmad Zabadi, Jakarta, 21.08.2008. Indonesia University, Meeting with director of post-graduate programme Prof. Dr. Mustafa Edwin Nasution and Director of Middle East Research Institute Prof. Dr. Muhammed Lutfi, Jakarta, 26.08.2008. Jakarta International Leather, Shoe, Cloth and Textil (Jakarta International Expo), 13.08.2008. Meetings with Foreign Trade and Investment Consultant Galip Kayar, Depok, 05-15.08.2008. PASIAD, Meetings with president of organization Demir Timurtaş, Jakarta, 30.07-29.08.2008. Small and Medium Enterprises Republic of Indonesia, meeting with Dr. Choirul Djamhari, Jakarta, 14.08.2008. SMEsCO Indonesia Company, Meeting with President of company Harun Kussuwardhono, Jakarta, 07.08.2008. T.R. Indonesia Embassy, Meeting with Trade Attache Gokhan Bayar, Indonesia Country Profiles Notes, Jakarta, 12.08.2008. http://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/indonesia/Ind_chp6.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.uhy.com/media/PDFs/doing_business_guides/Doing%20Business%20in%20Indonesia.pdf, 10.05.2009 183 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo http://asiafoundation.org/pdf/SMEsurvey_Indo.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.prac.org/newsletters/Ali_2005.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.adb.org/Documents/RRPs/INO/rrp_ino_34113.pdf, 10.05.2009 http://www.communicaid.com/access/pdf/library/culture/doing-business-in/Doing%20Business%20in%20Indonesia.pdf, 10.05.2009 www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/sme/en/wipo_smes_cju_07/wipo_smes_cju_07_topic10_3.ppt, 10.05.2009 http://www.mondaq.com/article.asp?articleid=29859, 10.05.2009 184 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 168 Title A name given to the resource Entrepreneurship Opportunities and Problems in Indonesia Author Author ÖZDEMİR, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. In 2008 when I visited to Jakarta for editorship of the book “Entrepreneurship Opportunities in Indonesia” two different survey studies with regard to entrepreneurs and companies were completed. In face to face meetings with company supervisors and official authorities more detailed information related to this subject was collected. In 2004 while visiting Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia during a 6-month academic study, I gathered background information on these countries, and no doubt that these data had made positive contributions to these studies. In this study four main topics were examined: “current potential in Indonesia for foreign investors”, “opportunities in different sectors”, “potential problems” and “business relations rules”, which were responded by about 100 company supervisors and government authorities. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8d4e830a2ab1dc26b6184a416dba1964.pdf 6bb19362bc54cb06b7e48181f3b333ad PDF Text Text The Role of Mining in Development of Railways in Turkey Ünal ÖZDEMİR Atatürk University, Kazim Karabekir Education Faculty Erzurum/Turkey uozdemir@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Increase of mass production, which is an important indication of Industrial Revolution, requires a change in transportation method. Particularly, railways made it possible to transfer iron and coal ores produced in the central part of Turkey to the ports and plants on the costal towns and cities. This made railways a strong rival to the waterways (rivers and sea ways) and roads. This fast and reliable new transportation also affected the Ottoman Government. The railway transportation, which had been started with the help of western companies due to the economic difficulties, has gained acceleration with the start of Republican period. At this context, together with nationalization of current railways, new railways were also constructed to improve transportation inside the country with military, political and economic aims. Reaching to the mine reserves inside the country and transporting them to the plants were among the aims of constructing railways. The new routes of railways which were sloganised as reaching coal, reaching iron, reaching copper were played an important role in development of Turkish railways. In this study, the role of mining in development of railways in Turkey was investigated with a geographical perspective. Keywords: Turkey, transportation, railways, mining Introduction Industrial Revolution was not only a processes that lead a new means of production but also brought about a considerable change in social, economic, and communal life. One of the areas in which these changes were felt strongest was the transportation sector. The new means of production required a large amount of row materials to be transported to the production facilities on one hand; and the products to market places on the other. The main means of transportation were waterways and inland roads. For the first time a new means of transportation was felt with the mass production of Industrial Revolution and it did not take a long to time for a new competitor to come about. The new competitor was the railroad. The railways are of special importance when it comes to long-distance transportation of goods and products. When the industrial and trade issues are considered, no other means of transportation can carry that mass amount of goods in a considerable short time with a reasonable price except for the waterways (Barda, 1964: 137). Therefore together with new urban areas, the railway was the external symbol of Industrial Revolution (Hobsbawm, 1995: 229). The first railways were made of wooden bars, and the cars were made of wood as well. These were used in Bath mines and coal extraction places in Cornwall in the 17th century (Braudel, 2004: 508). The first regular railway line was built between Stockton and Darlington in 1825 and used to transport the coal. The first railroad line in France, the one from St. Etienne to Roan was built in 1832 and used to carry coal and iron ore (Tümertekin, Özgüç, 1999: 594). This easy transportation of heavy material through railways lead the construction of railways first in England and the new innovation spread through a number of other parts of the world notably in Western Europe, the United States and Russia. The diffusion of this new technology was spread to the Ottoman Empire and the Ottoman bureaucrats considered the rail roads as the solution to transportation within the large territory of the Empire. The railroads were considered important for not just transportation of commercial material but also for military and political reasons (Yıldırım, 2001: 5). However, due to financial difficulties, the construction of railroads was relegated to Western companies in return for operating rights for a certain period of time. In fact, the underlining motivation for the Ottomans and for the Western companies was not the same. The railroads were means of reinforcement of exploitation of the Ottoman economy resource base. That way, especially the agricultural products of fertile Aegean plains and Cukurova to the east, and other row materials would be carried to the European market. With that motivation in mind, the first railroad line in the Ottoman Empire was built between Izmir and Aydin in 1856. Although the colonialist intensions of Western countries were mentioned about the first railroads in Ottoman Empire, these railroads, no doubt that, helped to make a radical change in the traditional production 16 �methods and helped the economical development in a considerable manner (Gürbüz, 1999: 180-181). It was only after the establishment of these new railroads that the large geographical regions in Anatolia besides the Aegean and Marmara Regions that have the advantage of using marine transportation got the opportunity of cheap transportation of goods and this had changed the means of transportation in a fundamental way (Zarakolu, 1950: 573). These first initiatives by investment of the British, German, and French companies provided a railroad web of 4 100 kms for the young Republic. This was an important infrastructure and experience for the Republic. The Republic of Turkey, lead by Atatürk, had a number of projects with a purpose much different than the previous period: The priority would be given to railroads that would encourage the extraction of mines in different part of the country. Railways in the Republican Period With the aim of developing the country, the Republican government decided in the Izmir Economic Congress that as the most reliable and secure transportation method, the construction of railroads would be given priority (Ünsal, 1983:187). Different form the previous period, all railways construction was undertaken by the government as opposed to foreign companies. This is the most notable difference between the republican railways and the Ottoman railways (Barda, 1964: 188). The railway construction policy of the Republic developed in two different ways. The first one was to construct new railways that would support the development of other sectors in the newly established country; the second one was to buy the railroads built and managed by the foreign companies (Yıldırım, 2001: 40). The first Republican governments put a special emphasis on developing the coal and mine industry and this was emphasized in the first and second Industrial plans that covered a five year period each starting from 1933. The government officials thought that developing these kinds of industry was dependent upon a well established railway network because it was the most reliable and cheap means of carrying goods and products to and from markets. The officials developed slogans like reaching to coal (Zonguldak-Irmak), reaching to copper (Adana-Fevzipaşa-Ergani), reaching to iron (Sivas-Malatya), reaching to chrome (Kütahya-Balıkesir). These slogans helped to construct new railway networks in different parts of the country. These railways were not planned as a network covering the whole country but planned as connecting lines of important mining areas. This is in fact an indication of the importance of mining activities in developing the railway network in Turkey. In this research we will look at the development of Republican railways in two different periods: pre1950 period and after 1950 period. The reason for distinction is that the government decided to employ a policy that favoured to motorways over railroads under the Marshall Plan. In the Republican Period a network of 5 515 kms of railways was built. Almost 70 % (3877 kms) of them was built between the 1925-1950 periods, 29 % (1638 kms) was built between 1950- 2000 period. The length of the railways built in the first period more than doubled the railways built in the second period (see figure 1 and 2). The main reason in explaining that difference is the fact that the transportation policy changed radically to prioritize roads over railroads. Only a limited amount of railroads were built in the second period even for mining activities. This number was over 1 000 kms in the first period and it declined ever below 50 kms in the second period. Period Railroad built (km) Mining lines built (km) Percent 1925-1950 3 877 1 093 28.2 1951-2000 1 638 42 2.5 TOTAL 5 515 1 135 20.5 Table 1: Railroad construction in the republican period (1925-2000). Source. Republic of Turkey, State Railroads Company Statistics. When we continue analysing the railroads built with the purpose of mining, we notice that almost all lines with a mining purpose were either built or were in construction phase in 1932-1933. When we look at the Figure 1, we notice that a good proportion of coal line (Irmak-Filyos), copper line (Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Ergani) and chrome line (Kütahya-Balıkesir) were constructed. Despite this early undertaking, the iron line between Malatya and Sivas was not built yet at that time. 17 �Figure 1: Railroad network in Turkey, 1931. (Source: İsveç-Danimarka Grubu, 1931). Figure 2: Railroad network in Turkey, 2008. (Source: TCDD). From the establishment of the Republic up until 1932, with the purpose of extracting mines 493 kms of railroad was built. This was the 28 % of the whole railroads which was 1751 kms built in the same period (Table 2). This means that 850 meters of every 3 000 meters of railroads was built for mine extracting. One of the lines built in that period was Irmak-Filyos Railroads. Called the coal line, this railroad would connect by following the Filyos valley the Zongludak-Ereğli coal basin to Karabük Iron-Steel Factory and to Ankara. The traffic got busy in this line when the line was connected to the iron line. The iron line following the city centers of Malatya, Sivas, and Kayseri, connected the iron ore located in Malatya and Sivas provinces in the central and east Anatolia to the Irmak-Filyos coal line. With these connections it was possible to transport and process the coal of Zonguldak and iron of Malatya and Sivas to the iron-steel factories in Karabük. The Irmak-Filyos line was built by a Sweden-Denmark joint group and the group was working on another project at the same time. This new line was Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Ergani. Ergani has one of the oldest copper processing factories in Turkey. With the construction of this line it was possible to connect the copper valley the Mediterranean ports of Mersin and Iskenderun. Another line built at that time was Kütahya-Balıkesir Line. With the construction of this Chrome line, the chrome extraction of Turkey, which has a considerable proportion of the chrome reserves, reached an important level. 18 �Mine Chrome Copper Chrome Coal Chrome Copper Copper Coal Copper Coal Coal Iron Iron Iron Coal Lignite Coal Coal (closed) Lignite Total Name of the Line Kütahya-Emirler Fevzipaşa-Gölbaşı Emirler-Balıköy Irmak-Çankırı Balıköy-Balıkesir Fırat-Yolçatı-Elazığ Yolçatı- Maden Atkaracalar - Ortaköy Maden - Diyarbakır Bolkuş-Hisarönü Hisarönü-Çatalağzı Yazıhan-Hekimhan Çetinkaya-Divriği Hekimhan-Çetinkaya Çatalağzı-Zonguldak Tavşanlı-Tunçbilek Zonguldak - Kozlu Kozlu-Ereğli-Armutçuk Kütahya-Seyitömer Opening date 1929 1929 1930 1931 1932 1934 1935 1935 1935 1936 1936 1936 1937 1937 1937 1944 1945 1953 1962 Length (kms) 64 138 36 102 153 86 76 56 83 86 15 37 65 70 10 13 4 15 26 1 135 Table 2: The Mining railroads built during the republican period. (Source. Republic of Turkey, State Railroads Company Statistics, 2008). Eregli Iron and Steel Factory was established with the aim of producing the steel need for industry domestically in 1965. The steel was imported before that time. However, because the railway line reaching Kozlu could not be connected to Eregli because of geographical obstacles, the iron ore could not be able to be carried with through same line. Since the 26 kms long Kozlu-Armutcuk line could not be constructed, a new project called train ferry was developed. With this new project, the iron ore used in Eregli Iron and Steel Factory was carried with ferries through the sea from Zonguldak to Eregli. We need to note here that although mining related activities did not play an important role in the establishment of some early railway lines, some of these lines demonstrated an increased traffic in the following years. Examples for these lines are: iron ore in Sivas-Kayseri-Irmak line; boron in Balikesir-Bandirma line; chrome in Erzurum-Erzincan-Kayseri line; manganese and chrome in Irmak-Filyos line; lignite in Sivas-Samsun line. The point I want to emphasize here is that there were enough goods to manage these lines economically and without the mine transportation that would not have been possible at all. According to State Railroads Company’s Statistics, only some 5 percent of all goods were carried by railroads in Turkey in 2005. This percentage was 3 in Bosnia &Herzegovina, 11 in England, 12 in Italy, 18 in France, and 20 in Germany. Some other countries carry most of their goods through railroads and Slovakia with a percentage of 61, Switzerland with a percentage of 98 lead these countries (Table 3). It is important to note here that mines constitute 46 percent of all goods carried by railroads in Turkey (www.tcdd.org.tr/2005). This percent does not include metallurgic products. This point demonstrates clearly how important is the mining sector for the management of the railroad network. Country Percent carried by railroad Switzerland Slovakia Bulgaria Czech Rep. Austria Romania Hungary 97.9 61.4 48.1 47.0 46.7 40.0 36.1 Country Belgium Germany France Italy England Turkey Bosnia &Herzegovina Percent carried by railroad 22.7 19.9 17.8 12.3 11.1 5.5 3.7 Table 3: Transportation of goods by railroads in some European countries, 2005. (Source: UIC Statistics and European Union Transportation and Energy Statistics, 2005). 19 �Conclusion Although the first railroads were constructed by foreign company investments in the Ottoman Empire, the railroads had special meaning for young Republic. Railroads were considered to be a milestone in the economical and social development of the country that just came out of heavy warfare and faced the heavy burden brought by the wars. This vision was realized soon and as pointed out in some republican marches, the country were started to be woven with iron network by the tenth year celebrations of the young Republic. The newly established railroads, on one hand, helped to develop industry and commerce, and connected the interior of the Anatolia to the costal cities and towns. However, the new transportation policy put in effect in 1950 adversely affected the railroad construction. The new policy favoured inland motor roads, ignoring the need to modernize and maintain the old railroad lines. Thus the railroad lines that have been built since the Ottoman times left clumsy and without maintenance. In this period, no new lines were planned and the transportation of mines done increasingly by motor roads. In fact the transportation of mines with roads should have been integrated with railroads. In this case, the 90 percent share of motor roads today would have been kept in a certain level and a more environment friendly and more economic alternative, railroads, would have maintain its importance. References Barda, S. (1964). Münakale Ekonomisi. Istanbul Üniv. Yay. No: 1089. İktisat Fak. Yay. No: 154. Istanbul. Braudel, F. (2004). (Çev: Kılıçbay, M.A), Maddi Uygarlık. Dünyanın Zamanı. İmge Kitabevi, Ankara. Gürbüz, A.K. (1999). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Demiryollarının Rolü. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2 (3), 169-193. Hobsbawm, E. (1995). Sermaye Çağı 1848-1875. Dost Kitabevi. Ankara. İsveç-Danimarka Grubu, (1931). Fevzipaşa-Malatya-Diyarbakır ve Irmak-Çankırı-Filyos Demiryolları İnşaatı. Tümertekin, E., & Özgüç, N. (1999). Ekonomik Coğrafya. Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Ünsal, Y. (1983). Askeri Strateji Açısından Türkiye’deki Demiryolları (1856-1923). Birinci Askeri Tarih Semineri Bildiriler II.,1983, VA:179-187. Yıldırım, İ. (2001). Cumhuriyet Döneminde Demiryolları (1923-1950). Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Yüksek Kurumu. Atatürk Araştırma Merkezi Yay. Ankara. Zarakolu, A. (1950). Memleketimizde Demiryolu Politikası. Ankara Üniv. Hukuk Fak. Dergisi, 573-589. http//www.mta.gov.tr (25 April 2009) http// www.tcdd.org.tr/2005 (01 May 2009) http// www.tcdd.org.tr/2008 (01 May 2009) 20 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 643 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Mining in Development of Railways in Turkey Author Author ÖZDEMİR, Ünal Abstract A summary of the resource. Increase of mass production, which is an important indication of Industrial Revolution, requires a change in transportation method. Particularly, railways made it possible to transfer iron and coal ores produced in the central part of Turkey to the ports and plants on the costal towns and cities. This made railways a strong rival to the waterways (rivers and sea ways) and roads. This fast and reliable new transportation also affected the Ottoman Government. The railway transportation, which had been started with the help of western companies due to the economic difficulties, has gained acceleration with the start of Republican period. At this context, together with nationalization of current railways, new railways were also constructed to improve transportation inside the country with military, political and economic aims. Reaching to the mine reserves inside the country and transporting them to the plants were among the aims of constructing railways. The new routes of railways which were sloganised as reaching coal, reaching iron, reaching copper were played an important role in development of Turkish railways. In this study, the role of mining in development of railways in Turkey was investigated with a geographical perspective. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e2b5329bd2f2fa1ee7368274c8e2590.pdf e24e0bdad8a3ef387827fbd6d5245501 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Balkans Ergin ĐSMAĐL President of COFER, Macedonia e.ismail@coferweb.org Semi ŞAHĐN Finance Director of COFER, Macedonia s.sahin@coferweb.org Abstract: The aim of writing this paper is to reveal that the implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers during the spring and summer seasons, expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. Keywords: global financial crisis; Balkans; growth; unemployment; remittances Financial Crisis in the World, Economic Crisis in the Balkans What started as a global financial crisis has become an economic crisis. The world financial crisis emerged from a property bubble and a credit boom. Bad debts soared and banking sector in the developed economies became insolvent. The implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Investments, remittances, industrial production, foreign exchange reserves and employment rates have fallen. As a result, growth has slowed down. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. The governments of the region of the western Balkans, when the crisis hit in September 2008, argued that they were immune to the crisis. However, as their export-oriented economies began to slump in the autumn of 2008 due to the slid in the world commodity prices, which resulted in tens of thousands of citizens of western Balkan countries loosing their jobs, the governments of the region became more open about the difficulties of their economic situation, although continuing to argue that the effects of the financial crisis are least to be felt in western Balkans in comparison with other regional economies of Europe such as that felt in Iceland, Baltic states or Ukraine. The culprit many of the governments have now settled on is the world out of Balkans. Even wider publics took comfort of this argument due to relatively low exposure of the local economies to the world financial markets. Although the governments continue to predict that the economies would show growth and small contraction in 2009, the economic indicators show that the economies are in some degree of trouble at the moment with industrial output, foreign investment and remittances falling and unemployment rising.1 Growth forecasts are down across the region from 5 to 3%, investors are slowing projects and governments are drawing up rescue plans.2 Independent economists think that 3% growth of GDP for 2009 is wildly optimistic. Depending on the world manufacturing and commodity prices, they could show growth by 2 or even 1% of GDP. For the small economies of a scale of western Balkans that have boomed for the past seven-eight years, following the end of conflicts in the region in 2001 - that last one being the conflict of Macedonia in 2001 - with 1 2 The Economist, "The Balkans: A year in the life of Kosovo", 14 February 2009, p. 14. The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 381 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo annual average GDP growth reaching 5%, economic slowdown and contraction in GDP that has started to be seen starting from the autumn of 2008 is a particularly harsh blow to western Balkans. The whole region, except Serbia and Croatia, has escaped the global financial crisis however it has run into economic crisis due to the recession in its export markets, including EU. As small open economies the western Balkan countries are uncomfortably exposed to the world crisis and particularly to EU as their trade with the EU member states comprises their largest trade volume. Since the global financial crisis hit in September 2008 growth has turned to contraction and unemployment is mounting in the region. Also, any lingering hopes that the western Balkans might escape relatively unscathed from the global financial storms were dashed when managers of the foreign banks in the region, mainly those of Austria and Greece, sought support from the international finance institutions. This shows that, although the economies are small and relatively well protected, they are exposed to the global financial crisis that has been replicated in the region in the form of economic crisis. The falling manufacturing and commodity prices in the world markets are causing problems. Depended on steel and metal exports, the region has been hit hard by the global slump in commodity prices and by the expensive imported electricity, sending metal prices into a tailspin. The price of the metals has fallen by almost two-thirds since mid-2008 leading to slowdown in the region's economies. More than a fifth of economic output and employment are based on exports, making them particularly vulnerable to a fall in global growth and trade. Manufacturing and exporting economies are grinding to a halt, as demand across the world melts away. The western Balkan economies contracted further in last quarter of 2008, as a dispute between Russia and Ukraine over gas prices reduced energy supply to the region and forced the countries' heavy industries to go slow, cutting production or even halting assembly lines. For example, Silmak, a significant producer of ferro-nickel in Jegunovce, in the western part of Macedonia, has cut production and has laid 700 workers due to the drastic fall of the ferro-nickel's price in the world markets.1 The nearby brick factory Kiro Kucuk in Veles, in the central part of Macedonia, also exemplifies the gravity of the setback. On 1 March 2009 the employees turned up for their final day's work. The factory will not reopen until the economy recovers.2 A similar story could be told in many countries of the region. Macedonia is not alone depended on exporting metallurgical industries. Serbia has suffered far more as global demand for the goods in which its industry specialises has evaporated. For example, US Steel, one of Serbia's leading exporters, closed one plant.3 These examples are reflection of the data released for January 2009 that industrial production, which accounts for a fifth of total value added in Macedonia4 and Serbia has plummeted by 17%, its steepest fall in years.5 The Macedonian State Statistics Office reported that the local companies have been operating by using 50% of their capacities in the course of January 2009 and their situation has deteriorated on a monthly basis, which has led to a drop in employment rate as well as a large fall in production due to the reduced foreign demand for Macedonian products, insufficient domestic demand, uncertain economic situation and the financial problems. These are hotbeds that might be transferred to other economic sectors, such as the textile and leather industry and to the construction sector, which comprise large share in the country's GDP. The gloom reflects growing worries about underlying weaknesses that make the countries especially vulnerable to recession happening in the EU and other economies to which Balkan economies are depended. So companies have announced big lay-offs as demand has fallen and factories have closed.6 The official unemployment figure of Macedonia already stands at 33% (unofficially it is probably 35% or more) and is set to rise as the new basic salary estimates will only count employed those who pay social security benefits. Unemployment rate in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo are more than 40%. The unofficial unemployment rate is, however, much higher and many who say that they have jobs are in fact on indefinite unpaid leave. The economists forecast that unemployment region-wide will rise. Most of that rise will be the result of fall in trade (many exporting companies have laid off workers), and due to declining investments. Coffee streets from Knjez Mihajlova in Belgrade to Kej Vardar in Skopje to Bash Charshija in Sarajevo are busy during sunlight as young people, forming more than 50% of the unemployed force in the region, sip their coffees. Unemployment rates are soaring and offices of the Employment Agencies in whole region are full with people looking for work. The stock markets have plunged as well. The Zagreb stock exchange index lost 42% during the last quarter of 2008 and others such as Sarajevo Stock Exchange, dropped by 19% during the same quarter, leading 1 Dnevnik, "Silmak prekina so rabota", 2 Mart 2009, p. 7. Utrinski, "Rabotnicite od Kucuk izvisija", 3 Mart 2009. 3 European Commission, DG ECFIN, EU Candidate and Pre-Accession Countries Economic Quarterly, 9 January 2009, p. 30. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Utrinski, "Pad na proizvodstvoto za 16.7%", 27 February 2009. 6 International Monetary Fund, "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Staff Report for the 2008 Article IV Consultation", Prepared by Staff Representatives for the 2008 Consultation with Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 11 November 2008, p. 11. 2 382 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to an annual decrease of 67% in 2008.1 The Belgrade Stock Exchange tumbled and its index lost 75% during 2008.2 An important sector that waits to be affected is the real estate market as the credits have gone down and the borrowers are unable to pay back their monthly loans. The scale of the bubble in the region is as big as in troubling EU cities. House prices rose further in Belgrade than they did in Tirana. So did commercial-property prices. As a result, demand for new homes has dried up although prices have remained stable and over inflated, with Belgrade topping the prices where average residential square meter is sold at 2000 euros. The housing boom in the region is among the extreme, measured by real price increases and resulting overvaluations. This is a bubble which is waiting to burst. Another bubble which is waiting to burst is commercial property where office blocks and shops are overvalued. Both these booms have been fuelled by debt, another reason why the region looks particularly vulnerable now. There is much to suggest that the pain is felt most by small enterprises, labelled as small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) that are the backbone of the western Balkan economies. SMEs seem especially vulnerable to the downturn. Many specialise in textile and these are also the products whose orders are the first to be cancelled when economies slow and companies trim investment. These firms are finding themselves chronically short of orders and capital. The governments in the region have launched actions to stimulate their economies. Montenegrin government launched a plan with significant capital expenditures and other stimulus to businesses at some 10% of the projected GDP for 2009.3 In November 2008, the Macedonian government unveiled measures worth 5-6% of GDP.4 Other governments as well have unveiled packages that include extra billions to finance investment, infrastructure projects, extra benefits for poorer and tax cuts. The central banks as well have joined in tightening monetary policies and increasing controls of the credit markets. These measures mean the economy may suffer only a mild downturn. Tightening of control by the central banks has encouraged banks to drastically decrease the amount of lending. When there are no loans for companies and consumers, the consumption of domestic and foreign products decreases, leading towards economic stagnation. So officials are also trying to inject cash and confidence into the banking system, avoiding confidence crisis that in October 2008 hit Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia where the lack of confidence led to a withdrawal of deposits by population.5 They have done this in various ways. Croatian central bank has abolished reserve requirements. The Bank of Albania has limited Banks' exposure towards their foreign parent companies.6 The National Bank of Serbia has eliminated the tax on savings income to help boost foreign exchange liquidity.7 The Bosnian central bank has increased the level of guaranteed savings deposits from 3500 to 10.000 euros and the Montenegrin government has given full guarantee to deposits. The Montenegrin government has also given capital boost to ailing Prva Banka to allow it to expand landing, especially for small businesses.8 The global crisis has slowed down western Balkans' credit-fuelled boom. Estimates of output have slumped and currencies have dropped as capital inflows have dried up. The bad debts have raised as local customers default particularly those that have borrowed in foreign currencies that have since risen relative to their own. One of the dirty habits from the boom is that as local loan growth outpaced deposit growth.9 There is likelihood that one or more of the ex-communist Balkan countries will default on its debt. The biggest weakness lies in a financial system that has combined badly run local banks with loosely overseen subsidiaries of western ones. Some local banks now depend on their parents' willingness to keep financing them – and those parents have plenty of problems at home. The Greek government has told its banks to draw back from their lending in the Balkans. Debt burdens are high today because so much was borrowed in the recent past. This began as a logical response to declining interest rates, low inflation, rising asset prices and less frequent recessions. Some countries have an extra problem of big external government debts (in Croatia's case, the gross figure is near 85% of GDP). For other countries, the strong Euro is a problem; they have pegged their currencies to it.10 Tumbling exchange rates raised the real burden of foreign-currency loans, forced policymakers to keep interest rates high. However, by boosting exports, a weaker currency can offer a route to recovery. In Macedonia, by contrast, denar stays strong as the economy slumps, deflation setting in which will lead debts to grow and possibly banking problems to grow. Possible threat of financial crisis has led the Euro to be seen as a shelter for western Balkan economies from the storms. The local currencies dinar of Serbia, kuna of Croatia, lek 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 23. Ibid, p. 31. 3 Ibid, p. 26. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Ibid, p. 3. 6 Ibid, p. 18. 7 Ibid, p. 31. 8 Ibid, p. 27. 9 The Economist, "Eastern European banks: The ties that band", 21 February 2009, p. 73. 10 The Economist, "Eastern Europe: Argentina on the Danube?", 21 February 2009, p. 14. 2 383 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo of Albania have lost their value against the Euro. Kuna depreciated by 2.9% and lek 1% vis-à-vis the euro in the last quarter of 2008,1 where as the Serbia's dinar has lost close to 17% of its value against the Euro in the same period. The central bank of Macedonia has spent over 50 million euros of its reserves in January 2009 alone, largest since the introduction of denar in early 1990s, to cushion the devaluation of its currency and avoid public panic.2 Macedonia will suffer damages if the Euro loses its value in relation to the dollar as it would affect the Macedonian export to EU markets. The increase of the dollar value will also have negative implications for Macedonia as the country uses this foreign currency to purchase twice as much as it sells. The value of the Euro in comparison to the dollar has been declining since autumn 2008. The drop of the value of the Euro with this fixed course of the denar in relation to the Euro currency will damage the Macedonian economy and de-motivate exporters primarily exporting to EU states.3 The government in Macedonia also has shredded investor confidence by calling for decreasing the amounts given to private pension funds. Recovery is possible only through strong demand in the rest of the world (which is to lack for some time), that would lead exports to soar, allowing quick recovery. However, today demand is falling rapidly across the globe and most big developed economies buying Balkans products face simultaneous banking crises. With demand weak everywhere, the familiar route to recovery is blocked.4 For the largest trading partners of western Balkan economies, the EU countries, figures that came out in February 2009, showed that Euro-area GDP shrank at an annualised rate of around 5% in the fourth quarter of 2008. The IMF has forecasted that Euro-area GDP will decline by 2% in 2009 and barely recover in 2010. Countries with huge current-account deficits are most exposed in a credit drought. So the hope had been that weaker economies of Balkans would be offset by faster economic recovery in EU economies and support by the local banks mother banks' in EU. Unfortunately, the EU economies are facing recession and mother banks and mother countries have asked them to lend first to domestic businesses and households and not to transfer money to their subsidiaries in Balkans. The Greeks publicly advised banks to be more prudent about transferring bail-out funds to Balkan subsidiaries.5 The western Balkan countries face a current account deficit this year in average of around 14%. Nevertheless, the crisis for example has not stopped the Macedonian and Kosovar governments from doling out billions of euros' worth of cultural projects. Financial crisis is also having effect on remittances, a large share in GDP of the economies of Balkans. Foreign workers have been first to be laid off in the western economies. Remittances make up more than a tenth of the GDP of Balkan economies. Although they are likely to fall as a result of the slumping world economy, as it has been the case with Albania, where remittances' inflows have declined from 13% of GDP in 2007 to 11% of GDP in the last quarter of 2008,6 they may be less affected by the world economy.7 It is expected that people keep the cross border payments going even when their incomes fall. Migration from western Balkans to EU countries is expected to rise as the borders are getting opened through visa facilitation and liberalisation programmes. However, this rise will be balanced with the recession in the EU economies where it means fewer jobs for migrants. In surveys, the economy has leapt to the top of voters' concerns. Overall the public is scared and uncertain. So far, the Balkans has escaped the civic unrest seen in the Baltic States, Iceland, or elsewhere.8 There are not yet signs of discontent, except concerns expressed by politicians and economists. Thousands taking to the streets to protest against crises in Baltic States and Ukraine have not resembled in Balkans. However, pundits predict unrest in towns that rely entirely on one ailing factory or industry. But so far the signs are limited. The middle class in the whole region is under a great threat. The middle class flourished during communist times. As economy goes into reverse they may well be hit harder than the rich or poor. They work in export industries so their jobs are unsafe. The other part of the middle class, who are employed in the state administration, and whose jobs are relatively safe, they have started to borrow, so are hurt by the credit crunch. To End with a Negative and a Positive Note The economies of the Balkan region, except those of Serbia and Croatia, have escaped the financial crisis. However they are facing the biggest economic crisis since 1991, when they left the communism regime. Corporate profits have collapsed. Big manufacturers' output is down. Metal producers have halved or halted their 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 7. Biljana Krstevska, "Stopeni uste 53 milioni evra", Dnevnik, 27 February 2009; Utrinski, "Samo so dobra plata do kredit", 27 February 2009. 3 Abdulmenaf Bexheti, "Experts on Fixed Course of Denar", Skopjediem, 25 February 2009. 4 The Economist, "America's banking crisis: Worse than Japan?", 14 February 2009, p. 76. 5 The Economist, "Charlemagne: Single-market blues", 7 February 2009, p. 30. 6 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 19. 7 The Economist, "Remittances: Trickle-down economics", 21 February 2009, p. 74. 8 The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 2 384 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo production. Companies have slashed jobs and investment. Industrial output and employment have fallen at record levels not seen since 1991. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers (workers remittances) during the spring and summer seasons. These seasonal effects are expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. 385 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 279 Title A name given to the resource Collaboration of NGOs and Local Governments for a Sustainable Struggle against Urban Poverty in Turkey Author Author ÖZDEN, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. Poverty is among the significant issues that the governments should tackle with. This problem has social and cultural dimensions as well as the economic dimension. From day to day, so many international and national bodies apply policies to cope with this question. For the solution of urban poverty, two worldwide tendencies are critical turning points. One of them is that, throughout the world, there is a tendency that central governments delegate some of their duties and responsibilities to the local governments. This delegation of responsibilities requires the delegation of certain financial and administrative resources as well. Otherwise, a delegation of responsibility without necessary resources will result in growing crisis. Delegation of responsibility and resources, at the same time, to the local governments will prepare more successful solutions in coping with the problem of poverty. In general, local governments are closer to the citizens and therefore they may follow the needs and desires of citizens better than the central governments. Consequently, transfer of both responsibility and resources from central to local governments, most probably will solve the urban poverty problem more effectively. The other tendency is increasing role of NGOs in social issues including the elimination of urban poverty. In coping with poverty, local governments and NGOs engage in two kinds of main activities. One of them is the activities that directly produce a surplus value such as career creating courses. The second one is the solution seeking policies such as social aids in kind and in cash such as offering scholarship and free medical services. In this study, a general outlook for the poverty will be drawn and the “culture of poverty” will be briefly analyzed. Later, the policies of local governments and NGOs as dynamic actors in poverty alleviation will be discussed. Lastly, as a case study, a critical challenge to poverty, “Study Halls” established in the most underdeveloped region of Turkey will be analyzed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46ae62d9a14197c75121d576d4df98e0.pdf 9e1c7054938eb3806cdc7046044122dc PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Colouring Turkish Management Type: An Empirical Analysis on Supermarket Store Managers Rana ÖZEN KUTANIŞ Sakarya University, Economics and Administration Science Faculty, Management Department, TURKEY rkutanis@sakarya.edu.tr Serkan BAYRAKTAROĞLU Sakarya University, Economics and Administration Science Faculty, Management Department, TURKEY serkanb@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: This research presents Spectral Management Types and carrying out of these styles in Turkish managers. This approach leads to eight different kinds of management types. Spectral theory of personality consists of three important characteristics of a manager – cognitive, affective, and behavioural. In this research Spectral Management Type Inventory (SMTI) is used for Turkish managers in a supermarket store. The research is conducted with mixed methodology. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are conducted. At the end of the research, just five managerial types are determined. In terms of their colours, Turkish managers have large managerial perspectives. Keywords: Management, Management Types, Managers Managerial Types Managers have to have some developmental skills for being effective and successful in organisations. The abilities of experienced managers (like knowledge, skill, experience, personality) are emphasized in different ways (Eren, 1989; Koçel, 1999). In macro perspective, the most important external factors that affect the behaviours of managers are education, culture, economical and social environment. Managers are classified differently in the literature. The most popular classification is about democraticautocratic managers. In this study, firstly, Spectral Management Type Inventory (SMTI) - developed by Baruch and Lessem (1995) and updated afterwards (Baruch & Lessem, 1997; Lessem & Baruch, 1999) - is practiced. The dominant dimensions of personality of managers are pointed out. The eight managerial types are: Innovative Manager, Developmental Manager, Analytical Manager, Enterprising Manager, Manager of Change, People Manager, Action Manager and Adoptive Manager. The detailed information on SMTI and explanations of this spectrum were given below: In this spectrum, the dimensions appeared to have effects on the personality of the managers. At the introduction of the spectrum it follows as “SMTI reflects your personal and cultural features as a manager. It is affected by your personal features, your personality, your age and your culture. Your cultural appearance is affected by your roles and status at the level of national, organisational and professional contexts. You can learn which type of manager you are as to fill in the questionnaire below. Although you may have all features of 8 manager types, one of them would be dominant. So there is no good or bad score in this spectrum”. The eight managerial types are summarised below (Lessem, and Baruch, 1999:11-13): Innovative Manager Innovative managers (violet) are total originals, able to create something out of seemingly nothing. They are propelled forward by an inner compulsion, which is projected onto others by a powerful and visually expressive imagination. They will be creative learners and while in a group will emerge as inspired team members. The innovator is probably the rarest of all managers, though s/he is probably more likely to be found in Silicon Valley than anywhere else. Such managers are the inventors and visionaries, pointing a group, in the most picturesque language, towards a promised land. Such team members, if their strengths go unrecognized, can become dogmatic, intolerant and intolerable. In fact often innovative managers consider themselves as idiosyncratic loners, incapable of being integrated into a team, and may need the patience and insight of a harmoniser to form a bridge between themselves and more conventional others. 316 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Developmental Manager Developmental managers (indigo) play a balancing role, more similar with that of enabler rather than fixer that is essentially developmental in nature. For the developmental manager is able to recognize and harness the forces of diversity. Co-operation and interdependence is to developmental managers what co-ordination and dependability is to the analytical manager. These types of managers learn through depth of insight and breadth of exposure rather than through focused instruction or personal challenge. As team members, then, harmonisers are essentially constructive where others are provocative or even destructive. Analytical Manager The analytical manager (blue) is the original executive. S/he fits comfortably into “role” or functionally based organizations where bureaucracy, in either its negative or positive sense, prevails. Impersonal, objective and honest in their dealings, such managers prefer certainty to uncertainty and well plans to different manoeuvres. Analytical managers are a force of law and order in their organizations and progress through the managerial hierarchy along conventional promotional lines. As a team member, s/he would best be the conventional chairperson or team leader. Analytical managers welcome authority and responsibility, and want roles, rules and routes to be closely prescribed. As team members, they are practically thoughtful, and are good organizers in the conventional sense of the word. Enterprising Manager Enterprising managers (green) can manage new markets, recognize and grasp new business opportunities, and generally enjoy the rough and tumble of business life. They are certainly gamesmen and women who love a good scrap, and respond immediately to a challenge, especially if it involves some personal and financial risk. Enterprising managers are at home in the sales-force, in charge of a profit centre or heading up a new venture. They may be ruthless and unscrupulous but also fun loving, larger than life characters. Such entrepreneurial characters learn from emotionally laden experiences. The enterprising managers take most of the responsibility on themselves. This type of manager is typically proactive, seizing every possible opportunity to steer the group in his/her desired direction. S/he is emotionally influential and commercially realistic. If his/her strength become overdone, such a person may sabotage group proceedings to retain influence. Manager of Change The manager of change (yellow) is intellectual rather than emotional or practical. Such managers need to work in a mentally stimulating environment, and will seek professional advancement within a particular organization. As a result managers of change can be prone to job hopping, for the sake of professional stimulus rather than, at least primarily, money or status. Managers of change will learn through trial and error, applying their minds to particular tasks and then learning from the consequences. As a team person then, s/he enjoys working with a wide variety of people. Such a person finds group problem solving stimulating and such a “networker” will use every opportunity available to involve people from outside the group with them. In that context this type of managers will seek to generate and share ideas with as wide a circle of contacts as possible; work, then, must be fun. Should his/her strengths be ignored s/he may become argumentative and stubbornly resistant to authority, thereby preferring varied consultancy based activity to ongoing, functionally based work. People Manager People managers (orange) are naturally friendly, sociable and warm. They characteristically emerge from the sales-force or from the shop floor, rather than through the graduate management ranks. Such a “people orientation” in Japan is a prerequisite for advancement across all management ranks. The people manager finds it difficult to acquire knowledge outside of concrete situations, in association with either people or things. S/he may be the one to remember, and to celebrate, birthdays both of individuals and also of critical events in the history of the group or company. If his/her strength is overdone s/he may spend all their time being nice to others. 317 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Action Manager Action manager (red) is at a premium in very fast moving industries, where the expression “work hard, play hard” has become commonplace. In a production or distribution context where an action speaks louder than words such a “red” management orientation is often called for. The ability to act fast, and to enact situations, can be at a premium. S/he learns best, and fastest, in crisis. Characteristically action managers need to react to external stimuli, in order to learn, and find that any from of management education that is divorced from action is meaningless. This type of manager values deeds far above words. For that reason s/he tends to be reactive rather than proactive, thriving on crises, where external stimuli provoke him or her to action. In fact the compulsive action wo/man can wreak harm by doing things at the wrong time and in the wrong place, not to mention a propensity to do battle, come hell or high water. Therefore, in a group context, s/he might try getting on with the job rather than thinking about it. Adoptive Manager Adoptive manager (grey) is virtually nonexistent in Western Europe and America. For this type of manager has such humility, and faith in the company or the creed, that s/he has minimal individual identity. This person manager immerses him or herself in the surrounding group and culture completely. Adoptive manager is able to carry out required tasks with a degree of persistence and precision, typified by the Japanese and the South Koreans. The Aim of The Research In this research, 24 stores of a National Supermarket Chain in Turkey, are included, and the theory is tested by standardized questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The managerial properties of the managers are meant to measure by the questionnaire. The research is a pre-test of SMTI in a supermarket chain in Turkey. In this research, following the theoretical explanation of the managerial types, questionnaires were issued and implemented within stores of well-known chain-stores in Turkey. Standard questionnaire form was used as to explore whether the participants are in line with the managerial types indicated in the literature. The Limitations of the Research The main limitation of this research is the replication of this study made possible in only one company. The research has been conducted within 5 months within the same sector. However, this research may be considered as a pilot study that the research framework can be applied to different sectors in Turkey. The Methodology For this research, the standardized questionnaire prepared by Baruch and Lessem (1999) is used with their written consent. There are additional 24 questions on measuring the managerial types of the managers qualitatively. During the quantitative research, frequency analyses, Factor Analysis, Cluster Analysis and Reliability Tests are applied. The Sampling Method The sample of the research consists of 59 store managers. There are totally 79 store managers and hence replication rate is 74.68 % which is at acceptable level. In participant stores (one store manager and 2 or 3 deputy managers are employed). Within the retail sector in which competition is intensive the role of personnel and the management have been increasing. So retail sector may be a good choice to explore the managerial types. 318 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Findings The data are analysed by SPSS 15.0 at the end of the research. In addition to the management types, the relationships between the demographics and management types are sought. The managers are categorised according to personal characteristics at the end of the analyses. As it is seen in Table 1, managers are mostly male, young, married and collage graduates. They are also mostly deputy store managers having 1-5 years of work experience and they have chosen their jobs intentionally. Table 1. Demographic Findings n Gender Female Male -30 31-45 Married Single Collage Under- Age Marital Status Education Graduate Graduate Vice Manager Manager -1 year 1-5 years 5-10 years 10+ years Status Experience % 10 49 45 14 53 6 40 14 5 16,9 83,1 76,3 23,7 89,8 10,2 67,8 23,7 8,5 43 16 4 38 6 11 72,9 27,1 6,8 64,4 10,2 18,7 In terms of factor analysis (KMO=0,748) and cluster analysis, instead of eight managerial types, five managerial types are determined (78,223 % of variance is explained). Innovative (violet), Enterprising (green) and People (orange) Managers could not be determined at the end of the research. Table 2. Results of Reliability Tests Alpha-Cronbach (α) Action Manager (red) 0,71 Developmental Manager (indigo) 0,73 Manager of Change (yellow) 0,67 Analytical Manager (blue) 0,69 Adoptive Manager (grey) 0,79 In Lessem and Baruch’s research there were eight managerial types that was the inspiration of this study. However as a result of this study, five managerial types were found. Adoptive, developmental and action managerial types could be identified within the sample. However two of the apparent managerial types are not so explicit as change manager with (α=0,67) and analytical manager with (α=0,69) that the cronbach alpha levels are below 0.70. In terms of the results, the most valuable manager type is Adoptive Manager (α=0,79). The grey colour shows imitative aspects of learning. Learning process has the most important and general tendency in Turkish managers’ characteristics. First Learning and imitating, than developing (indigo) their knowledge and showing their experiences in action (red) are the most important behaviours of Turkish Managers. Analytical (blue) and change (yellow) managers are also be defined. Finally, in order, grey, indigo, and red are prior colours of Turkish managers. Secondly, blue and yellow colours are also available within these managers. 319 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion The SMTI, is a measure of managerial styles but not effectiveness. There are innumerable colour combinations which will affect the shading of a particular managerial type. Different combinations of colour can be seen in different cultures. Some “colours” are more prevalent in one culture than is to another. The managerial spectrum inevitably reflects the “surface structure” of a manager’s personality. His/her “deep structure” will be affected by the particular national, corporate and professional culture of which s/he forms a part. The eight “colours” of manager types can be “vertically” considered as eight sub-processes of learning or innovation. Yellow shows freedom loving person, the green shows entrepreneurship. Grey reflects imitative aspects of learning, at an early stage of information processing, as compared with indigo type insight at a later stage. Violet reflects a creative imagination, prior to the orange aspect of innovation, which incorporates closeness to the customer. Analytical blue shows more methodical managers. Red means more action and working hard. Managers may be liable to retain their basic managerial orientation throughout their career and their support colours might vary over time. In this research, five managerial types were found. In order, adoptive, developmental, action, change, and analytical managerial types could be identified within the sample. Innovative, entrepreneurial and humanistic managerial types could not be identified within the sample. As colour spectrum, grey, indigo, red, blue and yellow colours are important within Turkish managers. Both bright and pastel tones show a kind of managerial diversity in Turkish managerial style as its culture which is in between west and east. In the future researches, the same research might be conducted in different Supermarket Chains in retailing sectors in different cultures. It may be possible to define new types and colours of managers. References Baruch, Y. & Lessem, R. (1995). Managerial Development through self and group evaluation of managerial style. Journal of Management Development. 14(1): 34-39. Baruch, Y. & Lessem, R. (1997). The Spectral Management Type Inventory- a Validation Study. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 12(6): 365-382. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of Mind, Paladin, London. Kingsland, K. (1984). The personality spectrum, unpublished working paper. Lessem, R. (1987). Intrapreneurship; How to be an Enterprising Individual in a Successful Business, Wildwood House, Aldershot. Lessem, R. (1990). Developmental Management, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Lessem, R. (1991). Total Quality Learning, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Lessem, R. & Baruch, Y. (1999). Colour your Managerial type: Colour your Organization. Career Development International. 4(1): 11-18. Lessem, R. & Baruch, Y. (2000). Testing the SMTI and Belbin Inventories in Top Management Teams. Leadership and Organization Development. 21(2): 75-83. Steiner, R. (1966). Study of Man, London: Rudolf Steiner Press. 320 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 235 Title A name given to the resource Colouring Turkish Management Type: An Empirical Analysis on Supermarket Store Managers Author Author ÖZEN KUTANIS, Rana BAYRAKTAROĞLU, Serkan Abstract A summary of the resource. This research presents Spectral Management Types and carrying out of these styles in Turkish managers. This approach leads to eight different kinds of management types. Spectral theory of personality consists of three important characteristics of a manager – cognitive, affective, and behavioural. In this research Spectral Management Type Inventory (SMTI) is used for Turkish managers in a supermarket store. The research is conducted with mixed methodology. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are conducted. At the end of the research, just five managerial types are determined. In terms of their colours, Turkish managers have large managerial perspectives. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/57db62bbdb5b5b9bebb0318fe430ff87.pdf ff8e81725c8104cf4e2397b79fee8e44 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Forecasting of Construction Growth and Investment in Turkey Filiz ÖZKAN Kaynarca Seyfettin Selim Vocational School Sakarya University, Kaynarca, Sakarya, Turkey fozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Ömer ÖZKAN Department of Construction Sakarya University Sakarya, Turkey omerozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The construction sector is regarded as a significant factor influencing economic policies in developing countries like Turkey. Construction investments play an important role in short term economic growth whereas infrastructure investments are vital in long term growth. Developing countries utilize their construction sectors as regulators. In this study, forecasting of construction growth and construction investment was analyzed in Turkey. ARIMA models were used in this study for forecasting of Construction growth and construction investments. It has been seen that, the variables taken at hand is explained at an important rate with their own delayed variables. Introduction Construction industry and investment is an important determinant in developing economies. Developing countries utilize their construction sectors as regulators. These investments affected by the government policies as governments usually regulate the economy (Wigren and Wilhelmsson, 2007; Easterly and Rebelo,1999; Canning et al., 1994; Sanchez-Robles 1998). That is, they tend to lessen construction projects and cut off funds fostering this sector when the economy enters a very rapid growth pace and refresh the sector when the economy suffers from demand shortage and the unemployment rate increases. The construction sector relate to activities of capital investments in construction. Construction products are a function of investments made in other sectors. This sector has undertaken a key role in transition from economic stagnation to growth in terms of the inputs it utilizes and employment it creates, its contribution to the national revenue, its role in creating new employment fields and opportunities and its relation with other industries Öcal et al. (2007). Construction sector investments have been classified as Building+Residential (Government), Building+Residential (private) investment and infrastructure. Except from Building+Residential (private) these sectors investments have effects of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). There is a clear cointegration between “GDP-infrastructure investments” and “GDP-building+residental (government) investments”. It has been concluded that the long term relation in infrastructure investments are not affected by economic shocks in the short run; however building and residential (government) investments are affected by short term shocks (Ozkan and Ozkan, 2009). Because of this, the estimates of construction investments take place an important place at the economies in economical crisis. When it is reviewed that one of the important reasons of the economical crisis boomed in year 2008 is the mortgage financial system, its importance increases once more. In this study, forecasting of Construction growth and construction investment was analyzed in Turkey. ARIMA models are used in this study for forecasting of Construction growth and construction investments. Construction growth and investment data (1987-2007 June periods) used in this study. Data and Economic Model Data collection In this study makes use of construction growth items. This items are Infrastructure Investment, Building+residental (government), Building+residental (private) investments monthly data. Data have been collected from statistics of Central Bank of Republic of Turkey. Construction growth, infrastructure, building and residential (government), building and residential (private) refers to current prices and 1987:01-2007:01 364 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo period level expenditure data. Values are given in New Turkish Lira. In the analysis stage, logarithmic values pertaining to series were used and series have been cleared off seasonal effects as well as the trend effect. Series’ stationary structures have been analyzed via Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) unit root test. ARIMA test has been employed in order to forecast. Unit Root Test The unit root test is executed by way of the following formulation. n ∆Yt = a + ρYt −1 + δT + ∑ b1i ∆Yt −i + ε t i =1 i= 1,2,…,n (1) ∆Yt=Yt-Yt-i, (2) α, is a drift term, and T is the time trend with the null hypothesis, n is the number of lags necessary to obtain white noise and ε is the error term. Note that failing to reject Ho implies the time series is non-stationary. Ho: ρ=0, H1: ρ≠0, (3) Arima Models ARIMA models are, in theory, the most general class of models for forecasting a time series which can be stationarized by transformations such as differencing and logging. In fact, the easiest way to think of ARIMA models is as fine-tuned versions of random-walk and random-trend models: the fine-tuning consists of adding lags of the differenced series and/or lags of the forecast errors to the prediction equation, as needed to remove any last traces of autocorrelation from the forecast errors. A common approach for modeling unvaried time series is the autoregressive (AR) model: Yt = αo + α1Yt-1 + α2Yt-2 + …+ αn Yt-n + ut (4) Another common approach for modeling unvaried time series models is the moving average (MA) model: Yt = αo + α1ut - α2ut-1 - …- αn ut-n (5) Where Yt is the time series, ao is the mean of the series, ut-i are white noise, and α1……. α n are the parameters of the model. The value of n is called the order of the MA model. Box and Jenkins detailed an approach that combines the moving average and the autoregressive approaches in the book (Box, Jenkins, and Reinsel, 1994). Box and Jenkins was in developing a systematic methodology for identifying and estimating models that could incorporate both approaches. This makes BoxJenkins models a powerful class of models. The most general Box-Jenkins model includes difference operators, autoregressive terms, moving average terms, seasonal difference operators, seasonal autoregressive terms, and seasonal moving average terms. This stage is founded on the study of autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation (Box, Jenkins, and Reinsel, 1994; Dobre and AnaMaria, 2008) The Box-Jenkins ARMA model is a combination of the AR and MA models as follows: Yt = ao + a1Yt-1 + a2Yt-2 + …+ an Yt-n + ut + b1ut-1 + … + bput-p (6) Forecasting Result and Discussion Unit Root Test Results Forecasting of construction growth and investment are analyzed in Macro-economic time series are generally characterized by unit root of the stochastic process which reveals the relevant datum. Generalized ADF unit roots tests were employed in this study to determine time series characteristics of data. The fixed term model with trend was used in ADF unit root test. The results of ADF unit root test on series are presented in [Table 1]. Table 1: Unit root test results Level Difference ADF Lag ADF Lag Construction Growth -0.34 3 -8.44 3 Private (Build.+Res.) -0.90 1 -6.91 6 Public (Build.+Res.) -0.631 4 -14.1 2 Infrastruture -1.19 6 -11.6 2 Note: Numbers in lag column represent lag numbers determined according to the Schwartz criteria. McKinnon critical values for fixed term ADF model with trend are as follows: -3.46for %1, -2.87 for %5, -2.57 for %10. 365 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to ADF test results, Construction Growth, Private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and Infrastruture investment series are not stationary [I(1)]. Series were differentiated of order one to become stationary. Graphics of series in non-stationary and stationary status are presented in [Figure 1, 2, 3 and 4]. 0.3 16 0.2 14 0.1 12 0.0 10 -0.1 8 -0.2 6 -0.3 4 -0.4 88 90 92 94 96 Non-stationary series 98 00 02 years 04 06 88 90 92 94 96 CONSTGROWTH 00 02 CONST GROW T H Figure1: Infrastructure investment Figure 2: Private (Build.+Res.) investment Figure 3: Public (Build.+Res.) investment 366 98 Non-stationary series 04 years 06 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4: Infrastructure investment ARIMA Test Results [Table 2] show ARIMA model results for Construction Growth, Private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and infrastructure investments. Coefficients b0 AR(3) AR(9) AR(12) MA(3) MA(6) MA(9) MA(12) Table 2: ARIMA Model Regression Results Construction Private Public Growth (Build.+Res.) (Build.+Res.) Infrastruture -0.003 -0.01 -0.006 -0.001 (0.65) (0.39) (0.72) (0.85) 0.11 0.52 -0.50 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) -0.11 (0.00) 0.58 0.79 0.34 -0.32 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) -0.38 -1.01 0.21 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) 0.38 0.26 -0.21 (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) -0.19 (0.00) 0.35 0.75 (0.00) (0.00) Special Statistics Construction Private Public Coefficients Growth (Build.+Res.) (Build.+Res.) R2 0.50 0.71 0.32 DW 2.08 2.09 2.05 Fprob. 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.41 0.31 0.09 LM Test (0.66) (0.72) (0.91) 4.25 1.68 1.25 ARCH Test (0.04) (0.19) (0.26) Infrastruture 0.36 2.09 0.00 0.13 (0.87) 1.46 (0.22) Models of estimates have been constructed for Construction Growth, Private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and infrastructure investments. When the results are examined, it is seen in the construction growth variables’ forecasting models that it is usually the most explanatory variable the value of the variable 367 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo which explains best the period to be estimated related to its period of one year ago. Besides this, it is seen that the periods which are retarded from the period to be estimated of 3,6 and 9 months are also effective. When it is looked at the general construction growth results, R2 values are calculated as 0.50, 0.71, 0.32 and 0.36 in order. These results express that general construction growth is explained at the rate of R2 with its own retarded values. For the reason that Turkish economy does not have a completely stable structure, as the economical variables are affected from other external effects, only its retarded variables and explanation rate are at the values to be taken into consideration. Conclusion In the studies at where the relationship between economical growth and construction growth is examined, the existence of a strong mutual relationship is emphasized. It is clearly seen in the studies that construction growth is used as a regulator especially at countries which are developing. The assumption that the crisis experienced in the world is sourced by the mortgage financial crisis and that the exit from the crisis shall be with the normalization which shall be attained at the construction sector carries a quality to validate these studies. For this reason, in our study, an estimate model of the construction growth has been constructed. . In our study, the Construction growth, private (Build.+Res.), Public (Build.+Res.) and infrastructure investments estimate models of year 1987-2006 has been constructed. For this purpose, in our study, it is looked at the stagnancy structures of the series with ADF unit root test and ARIMA estimate model has been constructed. It is reached to the conclusion that the rate of explaining the data of which their estimate models have been constructed with their own variables is not very high and this result from the structure of the Turkish economy which is not completely stable and that it is affected from many other external factors. References Wigren, R. and Wilhelmsson, M. (2007). Construction investments and economic growth in Western Europe. Journal of Policy Modeling, 29, 439–451. Easterly, W. and Rebelo, S. (1993). Fiscal policy and economic growth: an empirical investigation. Journal of Monetary Economics, 32, 417– 458. Canning, D., Fay, M. and Perotti, R., (1994). Infrastructure and growth. In: Bsaldassarri, M., Paganetto, M., Phelps, E.S. (Eds.), International Differences in Growth Rates. St. Martins Press. New York. 285– 310. Sanchez-Robles, B. (1998). Infrastructure investment and growth: some empirical evidence. Contemporary Economic Policy, 16, 98–108. Ocal, M.E., Oral Laptali E., Erdis, E. & Vural, G. (2007). Industry financial ratios-application of factor analysis in Turkish Construction Industry. Building and Environment, 42, 385-392. Özkan, F., Özkan, Ö. (2009). Construction Investment And Economic Growth: Turkey. International Conference of Arts,Science,Management and Engineering. April 23-25, Goa, India. Box. G. E. P., Jenkins. G. M. and Reinsel. G. C. (1994). Time Series Analysis. Forecasting and Control. 3rd ed.. Prentice Hall. Englewood Clifs. Dobre, I. and AnaMaria, A.A. (2008). Modelling Unemployment Rate Using Box-Jenkins Procedure. Journal of Applied Quantitative Methods, 3 (2). 156-166. 368 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 259 Title A name given to the resource Forecasting of Construction Growth and Investment in Turkey Author Author ÖZKAN, Filiz ÖZKAN, Ömer Abstract A summary of the resource. The construction sector is regarded as a significant factor influencing economic policies in developing countries like Turkey. Construction investments play an important role in short term economic growth whereas infrastructure investments are vital in long term growth. Developing countries utilize their construction sectors as regulators. In this study, forecasting of construction growth and construction investment was analyzed in Turkey. ARIMA models were used in this study for forecasting of Construction growth and construction investments. It has been seen that, the variables taken at hand is explained at an important rate with their own delayed variables. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory