329 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b3bf68748ca88229e06c2c375ec91c21.pdf 967ab1545653b8023cdf536c919a343a PDF Text Text Reuse of Waste Marble Dust in the Landfill Layer Ismail Zorluer Technical Educational Faculty, Construction Education, Geotechnical Branch Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey izorluer@aku.edu.tr Lemi Tufan Taspolat Vocational High School, Construction Department, Anadolu University Bilecik Bilecik, Turkey lltaspolat@anadolu.edu.tr Abstract: Waste materials are serious environmental problem because they have harmed to soil and ground water. Rapidly developing technology has increased production and consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. Because the waste materials increases characteristic of clay liner such as impermeability, strength, heavy metal absorption, etc. In this study, waste marble dust was used as an additive material in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. Keywords: Waste marble dust, Environment, landfill liner, freezing-thawing 1. Introduction The waste materials are serious environmental problem. Rapidly growing cities with increasing population have formed this problem. Concentration of population in cities has increased consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. However, many technologies are developed for the recycling of wastes; many of them cannot be recycled by the economical and technological points of view. The collected wastes can be burned and/or composted by newly developed technologies; however, a final amount of trashes must be stored for the last removal procedure. In the landfill layers, usage of suitable materials and possibly waste mixture material are important to prevent from environmental conditions. By this way, the waste materials, such as fly ash, would be gained to economy. In recent times, waste marble dust was used as an additive material for soil stabilization. Okagbue and Onyeobi’s study (1999) showed that the geotechnical parameters of red tropical soils are improved substantially by the addition of marble dust, plasticity was reduced by 20 to 33% and strength and CBR increased by 30 to 46% and 27 to 55% respectively. Additionally, normal 28 day curing improved after 7 to 10 days of normal curing. The effect of waste marble dust on swelling potential of Na-bentonite and Meşelik clays was investigated by Zorluer (2003). Specimens were mixed with marble dust at different percentages of dry soil weight. Then, they were compacted at the standard compaction effort and swelling tests were carried out with odometer apparatus. The experimental results reveal that waste marble dust is effective for controlling of swelling potential and it can be used for this purpose. Also marble dust affect unconfined compression strength of clay soils according to study of Zorluer (2006). Clay soil had mixed marble dust at 3, 5, 8, 10 % percentages. Then mixtures had been compacted with standard proctor compaction energy. Specimens had been sampled from compacted soils for compression test. At the end of 28 days curing time, strength increased 20.1 by N/cm2 to 57.3 N/cm2. Hassini (1992) determined that impermeable layer cycles much at landfills. In doing so, he carried out an experiment of freezing-thawing to specify soil strength and its permeability. After 12 cycles, as suggested by Chamberlain (1981), he found that 10-15% grain loss does not have any impact on strength. 57 �This study examines the degree of deformation derived from seasonal temperature differences at impermeable layers with marble dust. For this reason, three mixture of soil to waste marble dust (the proportions were 5, 10, 15% dust to dry soil by weight) have been prepared. And freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. 2. Materials 2.1 Na Bentonite Clay Bentonite is a colloidal aluminium hydro silicate. The volume of bentonite can rise 10 to 30 times by the addition of water. It has a swelling characteristic till 200ºC. This property loses completely over 600ºC. The bentonite clay used in this study is Na-Bentonite. It was supplied from the Karakaya Bentonite factory, Ankara Turkey. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of Na Bentonite clay were shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.2 Kaolinite Clay Kaolinite clay is a product of a type of rock which contains a great amount of feldspar. Kaolinite consists of silica and aluminium layers. The thickness of layers is 7.2 Å, the length of layers is between 1000 and 20000 Å and the specific surface area is (SSA) 15m2/g. The clay used in this study is obtained from the Bilecik district. The clay is produced by a three step procedure; first excavation from clay ores, then cleaning from fine sand by water washing and, finally crashing below 40 µm at the end of washing, groups of clay and shale are completely decomposed. The clay used consists of kaolinite mineral. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of the kaolinite clay are shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.3 Waste Marble Dust Marble dust is minimum sized marble waste. It occurs with sawing process of marble blocks and plates. This dust is carried by water to sedimentation pond. Sediment dust is removed from this pond to wasteland, but this condition have formed serious problem for environment. Because, waste marble dust is used in very little quantities even though it used in the very different industries such as construction, ceramics and cement industry, paint industry, agriculture and fertilizer industry, etc. Therefore, they have happened big mass in the waste areas (Zorluer 2003). Marble dust, used in this study, was obtained a marble processing factory in Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. Then, it is dried and sieved with #40 sieve. The marble dust grains are smaller than 300 micron. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of waste marble dust are shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental Analysis are shown in the table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). GSGb UWc Grain Size Distribution (%) WCa (%) (g/cm3) Sand Silt clay Na-Bentonite 12.7 2.76 0.94 2 46 52 Kaolinite 0.1 2.64 0.59 11 26 63 Marble Dust 4.1 2.75 2.73 14 78 8 ( a ): Water Content, ( b ): Grain Specific gravity:, ( c ): Unit Weight. Additions Table 1 Some physicochemical and geotechnical properties of materials. Additions SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Na-Bentonite 59.49 18.06 4.14 Kaolinite 51.52 32.00 1.75 Marble Dust 0.01 0.85 0.04 ( a ): Loss of Ignition. CaO 3.72 0.20 55.30 MgO 2.42 0.20 0.24 P2O3 0.11 ----- K2O 0.91 0.50 0.20 Na2O 2.50 0.09 0.03 SO3 0.10 ----- Mn2O3 LOIa 8.55 0.04 12.62 ----- 43.51 Table 2 Chemical compound of materials. 58 �3. Experimental Study The changes in the strength at material against seasonal impact are determined by using freezingthawing test. The deformation in the material as a result of this test is closely related to the amount of the water in it given that the nature and ratio of soil water changes to a grade extent when it freezes. When the water transform in to ice, its volume increases about 9% in accordance with the development of its hexagonal crystal texture (Penner & Ueda 1977). Test specimens were prepared by 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite mixture by dry weight for use in the impermeable clay layer. This mixture was named as control specimen - 90K+10B. Then, the waste marble dust was added to the mixture at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. These ratios were obtained from other studies in the literature. Marble dust is abbreviated as a MD. Specimens were prepared with compaction in a standard proctor mold by using optimum water contents for every mixture. Freezing-thawing strength was determined according to “Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures” indicated in ASTM D560 (1985). In this experiment, samples are stored in a freezer at -20o C for 24 hours. Then, the same samples are stored at the room temperatures at 18o C for 24 hours. This process is called as one cycle. 12 cycles are carried out for the samples in this experiment after which the surfaces of the samples are brushed gently with wire brush to remove particles. Then, they are weighted to determine the percentage of the loss compared to their previous weight. The highest loss rate accepted in the literature is 15%. The surface crystallization and the sample deformation after the cycle are given in figure 1and figure 2 respectively. Fig. 1 Crystallization on surface after the freezing Fig. 2 Deformation after the cycles 4. Test results After freezing and thawing test consisting of totally 12 cycles, it was seen that grain loss has decreased with marble dust increase. It has decreased from 17.6% to 12.5% at the end of 12 cycles. It can be declared that this decreasing can make positive influence to the strength values of layers. The less the grain losses is, the higher the soil strength is. The findings show that the strength of the samples increases when the amount of the 59 �added marble dust increases. As it is seen in table 3, an additional 5% of marble dust is ineffective on freezingthawing. While an additional 15% marble dust results in 12,5% grain loss, an additional 10 % marble dust bring in 13,5 grain loss. Initial water Number of Grain loss contents (%) cycle (%) Control (90K10B) 25 12 17.6 90K10B +5% MD 25 12 18 90K10B +10% MD 25 12 13.5 90K10B +15% MD 25 12 12.5 Table 3 Freeze-Thaw experiment results of waste marble dust mixtures. Materials 5. Conclusions Grain Loss (%) Firstly, it is observed that the amount of grain loss in the samples with 10% and 15% of marble dust addition as a result of deformation in the freezing-thawing test are in compliance with the highest grain loss referred in the literature. Secondly, it is seen that on addition of 5 % of marble dust is ineffective since the results from this sample are close to those of the control sample. Thirdly, As it is seen in figure 3, the study shows that the lowest deformation occurs in the material with 15% of marble addition. 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Control 5% MD 10% MD 15% MD Additive Material Fig.3 Effect of waste marble dust on freezing-thawing In the light of the given findings, it can be argued that use of marble dust increases the strength of landfill liner. Trough its use in landfill liners, the recycling of marble dust will be possible. Consequently, this will not only to contribute to the protection of the environment but also to provide an economical additive material to landfill layer. References Okagbue C. O., Onyeobi T. U. S., (1999), Potential of marble dust to stabilise red tropical soils for road construction, Engineering Geology, V. 53, pp 371-380. Zorluer, I., (2003). Effect of waste marble dust to swelling potential of clay soils. XI. National Clay Symposium Proceedings. İzmir-Turkey, pp. 475-482. Zorluer, I., (2006). The Effect of waste marble dust on unconfined compression strength of clay soils. GAP V Engineering Congress Proceedings. Şanlıurfa-Turkey, pp. 1042-1046. Hassini, S., (1992). Some aspects of landfill desing environmental science and engineering, Environmental geotechnology, 137-143p Chamberlaın, E. J., (1981). Overconsolidation Effects of Ground Freezing, Engineering Geology, 18, 97-110. Koyuncu, H., (1998). Physicochemical, microstructure and geotechnical properties of petroleum boring wastes improved with stabilization/solidification method. PhD thesis, Osmangazi University. Penner, E. and Ueda, T., (1977). Proceedings, symposium on Frost Action in Soils, Universty of Lulea, Lulea, Sweden, I, 91-100. ASTM D560-96 (1985). Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. 60 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 650 Title A name given to the resource Reuse of Waste Marble Dust in the Landfill Layer Author Author ZORLUER, Ismail Taspolat, Lemi Tufan Abstract A summary of the resource. Waste materials are serious environmental problem because they have harmed to soil and ground water. Rapidly developing technology has increased production and consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. Because the waste materials increases characteristic of clay liner such as impermeability, strength, heavy metal absorption, etc. In this study, waste marble dust was used as an additive material in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ccd0271c7f99b7d16291a6deed893635.pdf 2e4de342d3e35cfba07667cd97d5db0d PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationship between Economic Growth and Human Capital: An Empirical Analysis for Turkey Mahmut ZORTUK Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, ĐĐBF, Đktisat Bölümü, Kütahya, Türkiye mzortuk@istanbul.edu.tr Đbrahim BAKIRTAŞ Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, ĐĐBF, Đktisat Bölümü, Kütahya, Türkiye ibakirtas@dumlupinar.edu.tr Serkan VARSAK Bilecik Üniversitesi, ĐĐBF, Đktisat Bölümü, Bilecik, Türkiye svarsak@bilecik.edutr Abstract: The aim of this study is to explain the long and short run probable effects on the economic growth of human capital. According to main hypothesis of research, as human capital raises, the economic capital raises. In our analysis, human capital is defined with two variables. These are school enrollment rate (SR) and education spending for each student (ED). The growth rate is defined as real gross domestic product rate (GDP). The analysis includes 1970-2008 term of Turkey. The main hypothesis is tested by the help of Bounds test approach. According to the analysis results there are long run meaningful these are variables. On the other hand, long run coefficients which are estimated by the help of the model are meaningful but short run unmeaning. These are results is parallelisms between the literature and the long run and short run coefficients symbols from the analysis results. Keywords: Human Capital, Economic Growth, Time Series. 1. Introduction Growth models which started with Keynes effect in 1930’s and frequently discussed till early 1950’s, found base with Ricardo and that were brought alternative approach with Marx, has been pushed to background in economic literature for 30 years until 1980’s. Although no general model has been reached about growth; several studies have been made in growth literature by the addition of new economic factors. Globalization in world economy rendered the production and usage of learning technology, qualified labor power, and consequently the importance of human capital. Human capital is the only production factor that could unite and use all other production factors and handle the possible problems that could occur in all other production factors. For this reason, the formation targeted investments of developing countries gained importance in order to realize the expected level of the economic growth. Human capital concept which is one of the major sources of economic growth is being used to express all concepts such as {knowledge, ability, skills, health condition, place in social relations and education level} (Kar ve Ağır, 2003). Although classic economists like Adam Smith, J. Stuart Mill and Alfred Marshall first studied the human capital concept, their opinions have been ignored by modern human capital theories. Later on, Denison, Schultz and Becker; developed the human capital concept referring to Smith’s opinions and integrated it into their analysis as one of the production factors such as physical capital. Studies included in economy literature, has approved the hypothesis of “human capital needs investments just like economy needs physical capital investments” (Kar ve Ağır, 2003). Human capital build up is accepted as the most important factor in the achievement of the expected growth and progress. Companies started giving more importance to personal training in order to exist, compete and get along with the innovation. In the recent years, it is accepted that training achieves not only personal development but also social and economical progress (Hoşgörür ve Gezgin, 2005). However, evoking of this power depends on human capital and the support given to training of human capital. It is a resource; in breeding of qualified labor power which is consistent with the needs of national economy, achievement of social order and realization of economical growth at desired level by supporting the development of higher techniques (Wykstra, 1971). 439 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Literature The impact of human capital on economic growth has been explained using Internal Growth Models and Neo-classical Growth Theory. In the studies concerning this issue the impact of human capital on growth has been measured using the impact of education, which is a measurable human capital indicator, on economic growth. Other capital factors were not included in the analyses made and the studies have been based on the relationship of education and growth (Atik, 2006). The studies that formed the basis of neoclassical growth theory were carried out by Solow (1956) and Swan (1956). In the studies based on Neo-classical economics theory, the impact of human capital factors on economic growth was calculated using Cobb-Douglas production function. The function is given below. Y t = AKt α Ht β Lt γ (1) In Equation (1), the following abbreviations were used; Y; Real income, A; External information, K; Physical capital, H; Education, L; Labor force, α ; Physical Capital Elasticity of Production, β ; Educational elasticity, γ ; Labor force elasticity, t; Time. In the studies based on Cobb-Douglas production function, different indicators were used for education variable. The most common indicators used are; school admission rates, graduation rates, average period of education, educational expenses and the rate of schooling (Atik, 2006). The first study belongs to Schultz (1960). Schultz, making use of the educational indicators in USA between the years 1900–1956, reached the conclusion that all the GNP could not be accounted for by traditional production factors. Schultz asserted that the unaccountable part comprises the variables incorporated to the model under human capital indicators and the rise in the national product which was not accountable by the traditional production factors could be explained by the labor force who are primary school, secondary school and higher education graduates. Nonneman and Vanhoudt (1996) made a generalization of Expanded Solow model in their study and obtained a production function related to the model and used effective labor force as a variable. In the study made by Nonneman and Vanhoudt using the economic growth rates of OECD member countries; only human capital, technological knowledge oriented investments and their starting points were considered to be significant and taken as explanatory variables. Through this study, Nonneman and Vanhoudt have reached the conclusion that the major factors which affect economic growth in almost every economy, especially those of OECD countries, are human capital and technological investments. Denison (1962) investigated the relationship between average education period and economic growth using the annual data pertaining to 1910–1960 period. The results of the analysis suggest that 23% of the economic growth in the USA might be accounted for based on the increase in the level of education of the labor force. Another study which investigates the impact of human capital on economic growth was conducted by Chuang (1999). In the study which investigated two major components of the impact of human capital on longterm economic growth, namely human capital accumulation and technological advancement processes, industrial data from Taiwan were taken as the basis. According to the findings of this study; 7% of the 29% increase in total production can be explained by the increase in levels of education. Schultz (1999) who studied the relationship between economic growth and individual capital stressed that health and education investments not only bring individual benefits but also are important for economic growth. The investments in the fields of education and health in the African continent which is considered to be underdeveloped in education and health services have been assessed and the impact of the scarcity of investment in these fields on economy was evaluated. Schultz has, in view of the series used for obtaining data, reached the conclusion that education and health services in African countries positively effect economic growth. Another study which investigates the impact of human capital on economic growth was conducted by Rangazas (2000). In his study, which uses the data pertaining to the USA for the period from 1870 to 1970, he has investigated the impact of human capital on economic growth. Rangazas divided the labor factor into human capital and unskilled labor force. According to the findings of the study, the growth rate realized as 9,3% from 1870 to 1970 might be accounted for as 20% by physical capital, 6,7% by human capital, and 69% by labor force. Moreover, it has also been concluded that educated labor factor increases the strength of physical capital in defining the increase in growth. Romer (1986) and Lucas (1988) have laid the foundations of internal growth theories. In internal growth models human capital accumulation creates positive externalities and has a positive effect on economic growth. Internal growth models try to make up for the deficiencies of the Cobb-Douglas type production function. Internal growth models include the impact of human capital on production factors and total factor productivity in the analysis. The production function used in internal growth models is as follows (Atik, 2006): Y=A(H) F(H,L,R,A) (2) 440 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In the equation (2), the following abbreviations are used Y income, A(H): technology internalized during education, H education, L unskilled labor force, R: R&D, and A technological knowledge. In Barro (1991)’s study which explains the relationship between human capital and economic growth, the increase in the real value of the per capita GNP of 98 countries in the time period covering 1960-1985 has a positive relationship with initial human capital (according to 1960 school records) yet displays a negative relationship with the initial value of the GNP. Countries that have larger human capitals also display a lower birth rate. Growth is in inverse proportion with the expenditures of government in GNP. Other important findings include the positive correlation between growth rates and political stability and the negative correlation of the growth rates with negative macroeconomic indicators of the market. Wolff and Gittleman (1993) have defined the human capital variable as school admission rates and investigated the impact of human capital on economic growth. The impact of education on labor force has been analyzed in the study. As a result of the analyses it has been asserted that admission to higher education rates increase labor productivity. Tallman and Wang (1994) investigated whether or not the human capital was the source of growth in Taiwanese economy using the data pertaining to the period 1965-1989. Tallman and Wang based their study on Lucas-Romer type internal growth model. The most important assumption of the model appears as human capital has a fixed yield. The findings of the study suggest that human capital factors effect the labor force in Taiwan and account for 40% of the economy and human capital is an important factor that enhances the productivity of technology and labor force. Benhabib and Spiegel (1994), through the model they have built in their study, have studied the adaptation speed of human capital to technological developments in 121 developed and developing countries using the panel data pertaining to 1965-1985 period and they have tested the hypothesis “human capital effects the physical capital productivity and increases total factor productivity”. They have obtained the result that human capital as a production factor has a negative effect on economic growth. However, as a result of the analysis they have made they concluded that human capital has an indirect impact on economic growth rather than a direct one. Coe, Helpman and Hofmaister (1997) have taken average education period as the human capital variable. They have explained the impact of human capital on economic growth for 77 countries covering the time period from 1971 to 1990 in their study. According to the obtained findings, those developing countries which have high levels of education and research and development expenditures acquire positive externalities from the trade with developed countries and have an increase in the productivity of production factors as they produce new technologies. Einarsson and Marquis (1998), on the other hand; adapted the Lucas model to the real business cycles and searched for the influence of human capital on economical growth of the USA. In this study performed using the annual data of the years from 1950 to 1989, they reached the conclusion that the rate of human capital growth was slower than that of physical capital growth and that its influence on economical growth was less strong compared to that of the physical capital. Erk, Çubuk and Ateş (1998), studied on accumulation of physical capital and human capital and also their long run effects on economical growth. In this study they established three alternative models and applied them on 45 developing countries. Moreover, making use of the results of this study the reason for why the developed countries have lower long term growth coefficients compared to the under-developed countries was searched for. In the first model established they used the data pertaining to the 45 countries selected covering the period between the years 1960-1990 and these data revealed that the slope rates that give unit change rates of human capital and physical capital are high for the developed countries and low for the developing ones. Another study focusing on theoretical approaches concerning human capital and production technologies belongs to Park (2004), who manipulates effects of economic growth on distribution of population as for human capital, considering educational success levels. Here, using the data pertaining to some developing and developed countries collected in five- year-periods between the years 1960 and 1995, it was concluded that human capital distribution has a positive interaction with growth. Tunç (1993) in a study, searched for the contribution of schooling rate to the economic growth of Turkey using the annual data pertaining to 1968-1995 and simple regression method. According to the regression results the influence of secondary school schooling rates was determined to be 40%, while higher education schooling rate had a contribution of 0,09%. Furthermore, the study has shown that there is a close relationship between the development levels of the countries and the educational levels of the labor force in economy. Ateş (1998), on the other hand, using the annual data pertaining to 1960-1994 period in Turkey, analyzed the capacity of extended Solow model with human capital to explain economic growth. Ateş reached the conclusion that the capacity to explain the changes in economic growth is higher in extended Solow model with human capital compared to the non-extended Solow model. 441 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The common point of the all studies is that long term economic growth of the countries that care about human capital accumulation beside the other production factors is larger compared to that of the other countries (Gümüş, 2004: 159). Moreover, the main subject of these studies is economic development. Because the most important factor was deemed to be economic growth in realization phase of economic development, the studies were analyzed around the axis of growth. 3.Data and Methodology This study examines the plausible impacts of human development on the economic growth in the light of hypotheses by using annual date for 1970-2008. For the model in which real gross national product (GNP) is dependent variable we use two independent variables, namely; school enrollment rate (SR) and educational expenditure per student (EDE). SR is defined as simple mean values of the rates of primary education, secondary education and higher education. GNP data are from State Planning Organization (DTP), EDE data are from Ministry of Education (MEB), and SR data are from database of World Development Indicators (WDI). In our analyses we use the logarithmic values of GNP, EDE, SR. The model is as follows: ln GNPt = α 0 + α 1 ln EDEt + α 2 ln SRt + u t (3) To implement the bounds test let us define a vector of two variables, zt , where zt = ( y t , xt' )' , yt is the dependent variable and xt is a vector of regressors. The data generating process of zt is a p-order vector autoregression. For cointegration analysis it is essential that ∆ yt be modelled as a conditional error correction model (CECM); p q i =1 j =0 ∆y t = c0 + π yy y t −1 + π yx. x xt −1 + ∑ ϑi ∆y t −i + ∑ φ 'j ∆xt − j + θω t + µ t (4) Here, πyy and πyx.x are long-run multipliers. co is the constant and ωt is a vector of exogenous components, e.g dummy variables. Lagged values of ∆yt and current and lagged values of ∆xt are used the model the short-run dymamic structure and µ t is error term. The bounds testing procedure for the absence of any level relationship between yt and xt is through exclusion of the lagged levels variables yt-1 and xt-1 in Equation 4. It follows, then, that our test for the absence of a conditional level relationship between yt and xt entails the following null and alternative hypotheses: H0; πyy = 0, πyx.x=0' , Hl; πyy ≠ 0, πyx.x ≠ 0' veya πyy ≠ 0, πyx.x= 0' ya da πyy = 0, πyx.x ≠ 0' Peseran et.al.(2001) generated two sets of critical values assuming that both regressors are I(1) and both are I(0). While the critical values are reported in Pesaran and Pesaran (1997) and Pesaran et al. (2001), they are generated for sample sizes of 500 observations and 1000 observations and 20 000 and 40 000 replications, respectively. The F Statistic that has a non-standart distiribution, depends upon; (i) whether the ARDL model contains an intercept and/or a trend, (ii) the number of regressors, (iii) whether variables included in the ARDL model are I(0) or I(1). If the calculated F statistic is higher than the upper critical value, I(1), the null hypothesis of no long-run relationship can be rejected without knowing the order of integration of the regressors. Alternatively, if calculated F statistic is smaller than the lower critical value, I(0), the null hypothesis is accepted without knowing the order of integration of the regressors. When the test statistic falls inside the upper and lower critical value, a conclusive inference cannot be made. Then, we must know the order of integration of variables, I(d), for any conclusion can be drawn. There are different advantages of the bounds testing approach that motivates us in our work. This procedure can be applied to models irrespective of whether the variables are I(0) or I(1). This is unlike other popular cointegration techniques such as the Engle and Granger (1987), Johansen and Juselius (1990) and, which require pre-testing the variables to determine their order of integration. (Pesaran and Pesaran, 1997) Other advantage of bounds testing for this work that the method can be applied in case in which data set is of small sample sizes, such as a in the present study. Narayan(2005) show that the bounds testing approach to cointegration is popular in small sample sizes. In addition to the tis advantages the bounds test, the Engle-Granger Method the Unrestricted Error Correction Model does not push the short run dynamics into the residual terms. Thus, the ARDL approach, because it draws upon the Unrestricted Error Correction Model has better statistical properties than the EngleGranger cointegration test (Benarjee et.al., 1998) 442 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The UECM for equation (1) can be written as below: n n n i =1 i =0 i =0 ∆ ln GNPt = a 0 + ∑ a1i ∆ ln GNPt −i + ∑ a 2i ∆ ln EDE t −i + ∑ a3i ∆ ln SRt −i + a 4 ln GNPt −1 + a 5 ln EDEt −1 + a 6 ln SRt −1 + a 7 DUM + et (5) where, ∆lnGNP, ∆lnEDE and ∆lnSR are first difference of the logarithms of real domestic income (lnGNP), real education expenditure (lnEDE), and school rate (lnSR) respectively. We include a dummy variable to account for structural break. DUM is dummy variable that indicates the beginning of eight-year basic education in Turkey in 1997. The dummy variable is defined by: DUM = 1 If t = 1997-2008 0 otherwise 4. Empirical Results The ADF and PP test the null of a unit root against the alternative of stationary. We allow both intercept and intercept with trends in the testing. As shown in Table 1, the testing results are mixed. Since none of the variables are integrated at an order higher than one, this allows the use of the ARDL bounds procedure. Table 1.Test results for unit roots lnGNP ∆lnGNP lnEDE ∆lnEDE lnSR ∆lnSR ADFa intercept 0.37(0) -6.48(1)* 0.32(2) -3.34(1)* 0.17(1) 3.96(1)* intercept and trend -2.17(0) -6.42(0)* -1.09(2) -3.37(1)* -2.11(0) -4.07(0)* PPb intercept 0.08(2) -6.48(0)* 0.52(0) -4.87(3) 0.32(1) 4.05(1)* intercept and trend -2.67(0) -6.42(0)* -1.13(1) -5.10(2)* -1.79(1) -4.08(1)* Notes: aH0: the series has a unit root. AIC is used to select the lag length. The maximum number of lags is set to be four. bH0: the series has a unit root. Barlett–Kernel is used as the spectral estimation method. The bandwidth is selected using Newey– West method. *, indicate 1% level of significance. The optimal lag length or bandwidth is indicated in the parentheses. The calculated F-statistic together with the critical values are reported in Table 2. The calculated Fstatistic (Wald test), that necessary for testing the presence of cointegration relation among the variables of equation (2). When real GNP is the dependent variable, the calculated F- statistic is FRGNP(RGNP|REDE,RSR)=7.6127 (Prob:0.002). This value higher than the upper bond critical value of 6.36 at the %1 level. The result suggest that the null hypothesis of no long-run relationship can be rejected. A maximum of 2 lags was used for the model. The estimated model presented here is based on the Schwarz Bayesian Criterion. The long-run and short-run results are presented in Tables 3. Cusum and Cusum of Squares tests proposed by Brown et al. (1975) are used in testing for constancy of the long-run parameters. As seen from Figure 1, Cusum and Cusum of Squares tests statistics are inside the 95% confidence interval. This result shows that applied Cusum and Cusum of Squares tests clearly indicate stability of the estimated parameters of the CECM during the sample period. In addition to this Figure 1 was subjected to a number of diagnostic tests, including test of autocorrelation, normality and heteroskedasticity in the error stability term. We found no evidence of autocorrelation in the disturbance of the error term. The estimated model passes the Jarque-Berra normality tests, suggesting that the errors are normally distributed and the Ramsey-Reset test indicates that the model is correctly specified while according to the ARCH test, there is no problem of heteroskedasticity. Table 2. Cointegration Test Results (Critical value Bounds of the F -statistic: Unrest’d intercepts and no trends) 90% level 95% level 99% level k I(0) 2 3.17 Calculated F-statistic FRGNP(RGNP|REDE,RSR) I(1) 4.14 I(0) 3.79 I(1) 4.85 I(0) 5.15 I(1) 6.36 7.6127 (Prob:0.002) Note: The critical value are extracted Peseran et. al. Table CI(iii) Case III and k: The number of explanatory variables. lnEDE lnSR Table 3. Estimated Short-Run and Long-Run Elasticity’s UECM Short-run Long-run -0.02 (Prob: 0.1497) 0.022 (Prob: 0.0042) -0.13 (Prob: 0.2123) 0.40 (Prob: 0.0025) 443 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo *The long run coefficient of DUM variable is calculated to be 0.95 (Prob: 0.031). 12 1.6 8 1.2 4 0.8 0 0.4 -4 0.0 -8 -12 -0.4 1994 1996 1998 CUSUM 2000 2002 2004 2006 5% Significance 2008 1994 1996 1998 2000 CUSUM of Squares 2002 2004 2006 2008 5% Significance Jarque-Bera:1.61 (Prob:0.44), Ramsey Reset[1]: 2.49 (Prob:0.13), Ramsey Reset[2]: 1.97 (Prob:0.19) Breusch-Godfrey, LM test[1]: 0.42 (Prob:0.53), LM test[2]: 0.21 (Prob:0.80), ARCH test[1]:0.02 (Prob:0.87), ARCH test[2]:0.49 (Prob:0.61) ARCH test[3]:0.33 (Prob:0.79). Figure 1. Plots of Cusum Cusum of Squares and Diagnostic tests for the estimated UECM 5. Conclusion and Policy Implication Studies started in 1950’s which human capital concept up to nowadays, are measuring the relationship between growth and progress of domestic economies and education level of the society and moreover effect of education on increase in average per capital income and accordingly rise in national income. Studies on determination of schooling rates and education expenses and their economical effects; stated that there is a positive relation between education and personal income. Additionally, continuing studies showed that as schooling rate and education period increase, the personal income increases faster, personal income raise could be explained with the raise in personal education, education expenses have positive effect on income distribution and domestic education expense levels have linear relation with development levels. By the advantage of this fundamental knowledge and rich literature, a long term statistical meaningful relation has been found between schooling rates, educational expense per student and real gross national expenditure growth rate variables and variables derived from the results of Bounds test approach which were carried on between 1970 and 2008 in Turkey. While model based predicted long term coefficients are said to be meaningful, short term coefficients are found meaningless. At the end of the analysis, it was seen that long and short term coefficient signs derived from the analysis are parallel to the literature. References Ateş, S., Çubuk, A. ve Erk, N. (1998), "Long-Run Growth and Physical Capital-Human Capital Concentration". Working Paper presented at the International METU Conference on Economics II, September 11, Ankara. Ateş, S. (1998), Yeni Đçsel Büyüme Teorileri ve Türkiye Ekonomisinin Büyüme Dinamiklerinin Analizi, Çukurova Üniversitesi SBE, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Atik, H. (2006), Beşeri Sermaye, Dış Ticaret ve Ekonomik Büyüme, Bursa: Ekin Kitapevi. Banerjee, A.J., Dolado, J., Mestre, R.(1998), “Error-correction Mechanism Tests for Cointegration in Single Equation a Framework”, Journal of Time Series Analysis,19: 267- 283. Barro, R. J. (1991), “Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(2): 407443. Benhabip, J. and Spiegel, M. (1994), “The Role of Human Capital in Economic Development Evidence from Aggregate Cross-Country Data”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 34(2):143-173. Brown, R. L., Durbin, J., Evans, J. M.. (1975), “Techniques for Testing to Constancy of Regression Relations over Time”, Journal of Royal Statistical Soceity B, 37:149-192. Chuang, Y. (1999), “The Role of Human Capital in Economic Development: Evidence from Taiwan”, Asian Economic Journal, 13 (2): 117-144. 444 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Coe, D.T., Helpman, E. and Hoffmaister, A. W. (1997), “North-South R&D Spillovers”, Economic Journal, 107 (440): 134149 Denison, E. W. (1962), “Education, Economic Growth and Gaps in Information”, The Journal of Political Economy, 70:124128. Engle R.F. and Granger C.V.J., (1987), “Cointegration and Error Correction: Representation, Estimation and Testing”, Econometrica, 55:251–276. Einarsson, T. and Marquis, M. H. (1998), "An RBC Model with Growth: The Role of Human Capital", Journal of Economics and Business, 50: 431-444 Gümüş, S. (2005), Beşeri Sermaye ve Ekonomik Kalkınma: Türkiye Üzerine Ekonometrik Bir Analiz, Đstanbul : ĐKV Yayınları. Hoşgörür, V. ve Gezgin, G.(2005), “Ekonomik ve Sosyal Kalkınmada Eğitim”, Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Elektronik Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 2 (1): http://efdergi.yyu.edu.tr (22.11.2006). Johansen S. And Juselieus K. (1990), “Maximum Likelihood Estimation and Inference on Cointegration with Application to the Demand for Money”, Oxford Bulletin of Economic and Statistic, 52:169-210. Kar, M. ve Ağır, H. (2003), “Türkiye’de Beşeri Sermaye ve Ekonomik Büyüme: Nedensellik Testi”, II. Ulusal Bilgi, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 181-190 Lucas, R. E. (1988), “On The Mechanics of Economic Development”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 22: 3-42. Narayan, P. K. (2005), “The Saving and Investment Nexus for China: Evidence From Cointegration Tests”, Applied Economics, 37: 1979–1990. Nonneman, Y. and Vanhoudt, P. (1996), “A Further Augmentation of the Solow and the empirics of Economics Growth for OECD Countries”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(3): 943-953. Park, J. (2004), “Dispersion of Human Capital and Economic Growth”, Journal of Macroeconomics, 28(3):520-529. Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. J. (2001), “Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships”, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3): 289–326. Pesaran, H. M. and Pesaran, B. (1997), Microfit 4.0, England: Oxford University Press. Rangazas, P. (2000), “Schooling and Economic Growth: A King-Rebelo Experiment with Human Capital”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 46(2): 397-416. Romer, P.M. (1986), “Increasing Returns and Long-Run Growth”, Journal of Political Economy, 94(5):1002-1037 Schultz, T. W. (1960), “Capital Formation by Education”, Journal of Political Economy, 68 (1): 571-583. Schultz, T. W. (1999), “Education and Economic Growth: Return to Education” Readings in the Economics of Education, UNESCO, 277-292. Solow, R. M., (1956), “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70:65-94. Swan, T.W. (1956), “Economic Growth and Capital Accumulation,” Economic Record, 32:334-361 Tallman, E. and Wang, P. (1994), “Human Capital and endogenous Growth: Evidence from Taiwan”, Journal of Monetary Economics, 34(3): 101-124. Tunç, M. (1993), “Türkiye’de Eğitimin Ekonomik Kalkınmaya Etkisi”, DEÜ, ĐĐBF Dergisi, 8(2):1-32. Wolff, E.N. and Gittleman, M. (1993), “The Role of Education in Productivity Convergence: Does Higher Education Matter?”, Explaining Economic Growth, A. Szermai, B.V. Ark and D. Pilat (Eds.), North Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers, 147-167. Wykstra, R. A. (1974), Education and the Economics of Human Capital. New York: Free Pres. 445 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 289 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship between Economic Growth and Human Capital: An Empirical Analysis for Turkey Author Author ZORTUK, Mahmut BAKIRTAS, ibrahim VARSAK, Serkan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to explain the long and short run probable effects on the economic growth of human capital. According to main hypothesis of research, as human capital raises, the economic capital raises. In our analysis, human capital is defined with two variables. These are school enrollment rate (SR) and education spending for each student (ED). The growth rate is defined as real gross domestic product rate (GDP). The analysis includes 1970-2008 term of Turkey. The main hypothesis is tested by the help of Bounds test approach. According to the analysis results there are long run meaningful these are variables. On the other hand, long run coefficients which are estimated by the help of the model are meaningful but short run unmeaning. These are results is parallelisms between the literature and the long run and short run coefficients symbols from the analysis results. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5046b8f5906c71a3e762e094bcd645df.pdf a407a689f53fb3d3d348a8c65e891309 PDF Text Text Bir Saray Okulu: Enderun Suat ZZEYREK Ali ERKEN Giriş Osmanlı Devleti, 16. yüzyılda askeri ve siyasi olarak gücünün zirvesine çıktığı gibi topraklarını da en geniş sınırlarına ulaştırmış bulunuyordu. Doğal sınırların zorlandığı bu seviyeye güçlü idari, askeri ve eğitim kurumlarının kalitesiyle ulaşmıştı. Adalet ve güvenlik kavramları da Osmanlı toplumunun sağlam bir yapıya kavuşmasında etkili oldular. Osmanlı Devleti çok milletli ve kültürlü bir yapıda olduğu için siyasi sistem farklı uyrukları bir arada tutmaya göre düzenlenmişti. Farklı uyruklar için adalet ve güvenlik sistemi esastı. Osmanlı sistemine göre asker olmadan devlet ve hâkimiyet olamaz, askere sahip olmak için servete ihtiyaç vardır. Servet uyruklardan toplanır, uyruklar ancak adaletle refaha kavuşabilirlerdi.50 Bu sistemin kurulabilmesi için servetin genişletilmesi ve korunması şarttı. Bir devletin güçlendirilmesi ve muhafaza edilmesinde yönetici sınıfının ve ordunun niteliği oldukça önemlidir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin ilk dönemlerinde Türklerden teşkil edilmiş bulunan piyade ve süvari birlikleri fetihlerin genişlemesiyle beraber yetersiz gelmeye başladı. Yeni bir askeri teşkilata ihtiyaç duyulunca savaşlarda ele geçirilen esirlerden yararlanılmaya başlandı. Zaman içerisinde esirlerin azalmaya başlaması sisteme yeni bir kaynak arayışına neden oldu. Bu kaynak arayışında sisteme mükemmel bir askere alma yöntemi kazandırıldı. Bu yöntemin adı “devşirme” yöntemidir. Devşirme yöntemi, Hıristiyan çocukları arasından sekiz yaşından yirmi yaşına kadar uygulanan bir çocuk toplama sistemidir. Esirlere “acemi oğlanı” denildiği için devşirme yöntemiyle toplanan çocuklara da aynı isim verildi. Bu esirlerden ve toplanan çocuklardan daha iyi yararlanmak için sıkı esaslara dayanan bir Acemi Ocağı ilk olarak Gelibolu’da kuruldu. Böylece kapıkulu ocaklarının temeli atılmış oldu. İhtiyaca göre genişletilen ve mükemmel bir hale getirilen Devşirme Sistemi’nin 18. yy ortalarına (1747) kadar devam ettiği anlaşılıyor.51 Devşirme Sistemi; Ermeni, Bulgar, Arnavut ve Bosnalılara uygulanırdı. Boşnaklardan Müslüman olduktan sonra kendi arzularıyla acemi oğlanı alınmaya devam edilmiştir. En çok acemi oğlanı toplanan yerler Üsküp, Köstendil, Prizren, Görice, Taşlıca, Yanya, Pirlepe, İşkodra, Ohri, İpek, Kırçova, Foça, Manastır, Mostar, İzvornik, Böğürtlen, Hurpista ve Akçakale idi.52 Acemi oğlanlarının sayı itibarıyla fazla olduğu zamanlarda bazı acemi oğlanları Türkçeyi ve Türk İslam adetlerini öğrenmek üzere Anadolu’daki Türklerin hizmetlerine verilirdi. Sonra buralardan alınarak muhtelif hizmetlerde kullanılırlardı.53 Diğer Devşirme çocukları yani kadrosu olanlar ise ecemi oğlanları kışlası’nda terbiye ve Müslüman edildikten sonra Yeniçeri Ocağı’na katılırdı. Dışarıdan ocağa yeniçeri yazılmak imkânsızdı.54 Devşirme, her zaman genel bir şekilde yapılmaz, ihtiyaç miktarına göre bölge bölge yapılırdı. Bu iş ile ilgili bizzat Yeniçeri Ağası ile Acem Ocağı Ağası ilgilenirdi. Her türlü suiistimalleri önlemek için devşirmeye gönderilen ocak zabitinin eline bir ferman ile Yeniçeri Ağası tarafından devşirme mıntıkasındaki dadılara bir mektup gönderilirdi. Devşirme memuruna hiç kimse karışmazdı. Devşirme memuru kazalara kadar gidip çocuk devşirmeye geldiğini tellallar vasıtasıyla köylere bildirirdi. Sekiz-yirmi yaş aralığındaki Hıristiyan çocukları başta, papazları olarak ve babaları ile kaza merkezindeki toplantı mahalline gelirlerdi. Toplantı mahalli genellikle mahkemeler olurdu. Çocuklar bizzat görülür ve kanuni vasıfları tutanlar ayrılırdı. Çoğunlukla her kazada 40 haneden bir oğlan devşirilirdi. Fakat her zaman böyle yapılacağı anlamına gelmez, sayı bazen ihtiyaca göre değişirdi.55 Devşirilen çocukların sayısını hesaplayabilmek için elimizde çok az veri olsa da 16. yy.da yıllık devşirme sayısı üç bin dolaylarındadır.56 Devşirilen çocukların yetiştirilmesi ve eğitilmesiyle güçlü bir ordunun çekirdeği ile devlet yönetiminde üst kademe memurları oluşturuluyordu. Bilhassa Türk kültürü ile yetiştirilmiş olan saray devşirmeleri arasında devlet idaresini ele alan çok kıymetli vezir, beylerbeyi yetişmiş, içlerinden birçoğu da 50 Stanford Shaw, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Modern Türkiye, C: I, İstanbul 1982, s.166. Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimleri Sözlüğü, C: 1, s: 448. 52 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, “Devşirme”, İ.A, C: 3, s. 563. 53 Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, aynı eser, s. 445. 54 Mustafa Nuri Paşa, Netayic-ül Vukuat, C:1–2, (sadeleştiren Neşet Çağatay) Ankara 1987, s.153. 55 İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, aynı makale, s. 564. 56 Albert Howe Lybyer, Kanuni Devrinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yönetimi, İstanbul: Süreç 1987, s. 55. 51 346 �sadrazam olmuştur. Görüldüğü gibi kökenleri ne olursa olsun bir insanın Osmanlı Devleti’nde yönetici sınıfına girebilmesi mümkündü. Bunun için de Türkçeyi bilmesi, İslam dinini benimseyip onun düşünce ve eylem sistemini kabul edip uygulaması, verilen görevleri üstlenmesi ve hakkıyla yerine getirmesi gerekirdi. Eğer yönetici sınıftakiler ya da çocukları niteliklerini koruyamazlarsa reaya sınıfına düşerlerdi.57 Yönetici sınıfın yeni üye yetiştirmek için kurduğu çeşitli okullarda uzun bir öğrenim dönemi ve hükümet dairelerinde çıraklık dönemi geçirmek gerekiyordu. İstek, yetenek ve şans Osmanlı düzeninde yükselenleri belirleyen etkenlerdi. Osmanlılarda ırk ve din ne olursa olsun, yetenekli insanlara daha çok değer verip onlardan yararlanmışlardır. Yönetimde kişisel yetenek ve başarı ile dürüst ve topluma yararlı davranışlarla yükselmeye dayanan bir terfi ve ödüllendirme sistemi vardı.58 Nitekim Busbecq, “Türkler kendi soydaşlarını bile kişisel yetenek ve liyakattan başka ölçüyle değerlendirmezler. Bu konuda tek ayrıcalık padişaha aittir’’59 diyecektir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin askeri, siyasi ve idari yönetimi doğrudan doğruya Saray’ın elinde bulunuyordu. O yüzden hükümdar, devlet adamlarının ekserisini tecrübeden geçirmek zorundaydı. Bu eğitim ve tecrübe yeri Enderun Okulu idi. Enderun Okulu, kurulduğu yıllardan itibaren büyük bir gelişme gösterecek, Tanzimat Dönemi’ne kadar gelmiştir. Enderun Okulu’na; Galata Sarayı, Eski Saray ve Edirne Sarayı gibi sarayların orta dereceli saray okullarını bitirenler kabul edilmekteydi.60 Enderun Okulu’na alınan çocuklara “iç oğlanları” denilirdi. Bunlar, üç biçimde yetiştirilirlerdi. Enderun eğitimi, günümüzün eğitim sistemine benzemezdi. Belli bir süresi ve programı yoktu. Her iç oğlanı, hem hevesine göre yöneliyor hem de öğrenebildiği kadar öğreniyordu.61 İç içe girmiş durumda olan bu üç tür eğitimi şu şekilde özetleyebiliriz: Hizmet Yoluyla Öğrenme: Enderun Okulu’nda hizmet yoluyla yetişme yedi oda içinde verilirdi. İlk iki oda Küçük ve Büyük odalar, okulların hazırlık sınıfına benzerler, liyakati olan çocuklar birinden diğerine geçerlerdi. Üçüncü, dördüncü, beşinci ve altıncı odalar; saray hizmetlerini tanırlar ve yaparlardı. Yedinci oda ise Has Oda idi. Has Oda, ihtisas bölümü mahiyetinde olup, padişahla daha yakından temas imkânı bululardı. Her odanın kendine mahsus dereceleri vardı. Bir odadan diğer odaya geçmek için kıdemli, yani eskimiş olmak şarttı. En son sınıf demek olan Has Oda’ya kadar gelenler “çıkma” tabiriyle çıkarılırlar, çırak edilirler ve her türlü hükümet ve ordu işlerinde kullanılırlardı. Çıkma müddeti sekiz sene idi. Çıkmaların yerine Acemi Oğlanlar Ocağı’ndan yenileri alınırdı.62 Enderun Okulu’nda, Has Oda’yı bitirenlerin güvenilir, sadık ve yetenekli bir insan olup olmadığının anlaşılabilmesi için çeşitli görevler verilerek denenmesi gerekliydi.63 Has Oda, Enderun Okulu’nun en önemli sınıfıydı. Fatih’in ünlü kanunnamesinde buna yer vermesi, verilen değerin bir ifadesidir. Padişahın en yakın hizmetlerini gören bu odanın mevcudu kırk kişiydi.64 Teorik Eğitim Enderun Okulu’nda bütün odalardaki çocuklar, kendi odalarına düşen görevleri yaptıktan sonra kalan boş vakitlerinde yazı öğrenirler, Kur’an okurlar ve onu ezberlemeye çalışırlardı. Enderun’da eğitim ve öğretim sadece Büyük ve Küçük odalara (Birinci ve İkinci Odalar) has değildi. Enderun Okulu öğrencilerinin bir gününü şöyle özetleyebiliriz. Sabahları güneş doğmadan önce kalkarlar, sabah namazına kadar Kur’an okurlar, namazı kıldıktan sonra Kur’andan okuyacakları yeni dersleri alırlardı. Enderun öğrencileri bu dersleri de saraya gelen hocalardan alırlardı.65 Öğrenciler, günlük çalışma programları bittikten sonra Hükümdar’a ait ne gibi görevleri varsa onu yaparlar sonra da derse başlarlardı. Burada medreseler düzeyinde kitabî bir eğitim-öğretim yapılırdı. Türk ve İslam kültürü ile ilgili derslerin birinci derecede olduğu görülürdü.66 Okutulan dersler; Türkçe, Arapça, Farsça, Edebiyat, Tarih, İslami Bilimler (Tefsir, 57 Stanford Shaw, aynı eser, s. 167. Yahya Akyüz, Türk Eğitim Tarihi, s. 101. 59 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 85–86. 60 Sina Akşin (Yay. Yön.), Türkiye Tarihi, C: 2, İstanbul: Cem 1997, s. 244. 61 Sina Akşin (Yay. Yön.), aynı eser, s. 84–85. 62 Osman Ergin, Türk Maarif Tarihi, İstanbul 1977, s. 17. 63 Yahya Akyüz, aynı eser, s. 104. 64 Mehmet İpşirli, “Enderun”, DİA, C: 11, İstanbul 1995, s. 186. 65 Osman Ergin, Türk Maarif Tarihi, s. 14. 66 Osman Ergin, aynı eser, s. 14. 58 347 �Hadis, Fıkıh, Kelam, gibi) ve Matematik. Bu dersler arasında Türkçe, Edebiyat, Tarih ve Matematik dikkat çekiyor. Şu halde Enderun Okulu’nun programı medreselerden daha iyi düzenlenmişti.67 Enderun eğitiminde, başından sonuna kadar titizlikle riayet edilen ilkelerden biri “çıkma” idi. Hazırlık sınıfından Enderun eğitiminin sonuna kadar geçen süre içinde başarı ve ilerleme gösteremeyenler, buradan alınıp ordunun çeşitli kademelerine verilirdi. Görüldüğü gibi üstün başarı gösterenler, eğitim süresini tamamlayabilirdi. Enderun’da disiplinden hiç taviz verilmezdi. Çünkü çok değişik ırk ırk ve dini kökenlerden gelen gençler, İslam-Türk kültürü içerisinde yetiştiriliyordu.68 Burada Enderun’un amacı da ortaya çıkıyor. Kendilerinden çok şey beklenen ve daha sonra büyük görevler yüklenerek bu farklı yapıdaki çocukların kültürlerini artırma, disiplin altına alma ve kabiliyetlerini yöneltmedir. Enderun’da kabiliyetli yeni adaylara devamlı bir kontenjan bulunurdu. 1550’li yıllarda İstanbul’da Habsburg elçisi olarak görev yapan Busbecq, Batılıların iyi yetiştirilmiş attan ve köpekten zevk aldığını, Türklerin ise iyi yetiştirilmiş insanlardan büyük zevk aldıklarını anlatmaktadır. Türkler, olağanüstü bir insan bulduklarında, değerli bir nesne edinmişçesine coşku duyarlar, onu yetiştirmek için hiçbir emek ve çabadan kaçınmazlar. Biz ise onu eğitmek için kendimizi zahmete sokmaz, onu eğitmenin bize düşen bir iş olduğunu düşünmeyiz.69 16. yy. da İstanbul’daki hayatı yakından gören Busbecq, insan yetiştirmenin Osmanlıda bir hedef olduğunu gördüğü halde, 20. yy. başlarında A.H. Lybyer, “İnsan sevgisini ve ana babanın çocuklarını kendi hayat ve dinlerine göre yetiştirme hakkını hiçe sayıyordu.70” diyerek tenkit etmektedir. Hâlbuki aynı zamanlarda Avrupa’da toprağa bağlı soy asaleti denilen senyörlük sistemi vardı. Sistemin en üstünde kral, tebaası sayılan köylü de tabanda, en alt kısımda yer alırdı. Kral’la tebaası olan köylülerle doğrudan bir ilişki yoktu. Kralla köylü arasında senyör grubu yer alırdı. Osmanlı Devleti’nde ise tebaa ile merkezi otorite arasında aracı gruplar yer almazdı. Devlet hiçbir zaman bu tip araçların ortaya çıkmasına izin vermezdi. Osmanlı Sipahisi ile padişahın ilişkisi tek yönlüdür. Merkez her şeye hâkimdir. Sözleşme değil, merkezin emri ve kanunlar söz konusudur. Feodal senyörlerin, kralları ile ilişkileri ise iki yönlüdür. Senyörlerin hak ve yetkileri ile kralın hak ve yetki alanları “şart” denilen sözleşmelerle tayin ve tespit edilmektedir.71 Avrupa’daki manasıyla Türklerde feodal kurumların hiçbir izi yoktur. Soy teşkilatı ve asalete dayalı bir sistemde oluşmamıştır. “Bey” kelimesi doğuda bir nezaket unvanıdır.72 Bir insanı ailesinden, yuvasından hayat şartlarından ve dininden ayıran bir düzeni kötülemek kolaysa da bu uygulamayı 16. yy. şartları ve değerleri ve Avrupa’nın o dönemde içinde bulunduğu eğitim anlayışı ile değerlendirmek gerektiği unutulmamalıdır.73 Beden ve Sanat Eğitimi: Enderun’da çocukların yeteneklerine göre de bir eğitim vardı. Dersler dışında ata binmek, iyi silah kullanmak isteyenler iyi bir silahşor olarak yetişirlerdi. Savaş sanatı öğretilirdi. Kanuni Sultan Süleyman’ın binicilikle ilgili özel bir ilgisi vardı. Bu sporu yapan ve öğrenenlerle yakından ilgilenir onlarla konuşur ve hediyeler verirdi.74 Güzel yazı, cilt sanatı, tezhip tasvir ve mimari gibi sanata merak edenler, musiki, şiir, edebiyat ve tıp, matematik, mühendislik gibi bilimlere ilgi duyanlar da ilgilendikleri alanlarda sarayda görevli bilginlere ya da ilgili sanatın ustalarına devam ederlerdi.75 Bu eğitimlerin önemli bir amacı da gerektiği zaman bu yoldan geçimini sağlayacak bir mesleği kazandırmaktı. Enderun Okulu, ordunun ihtiyacı olan nitelikli askerleri yetiştirdiği, merkezde ve eyaletlerde çeşitli seviyelerde hizmet eden kişiler hazırladığı gibi sarayın mimarını, nakkaşını, ressamını, kâtibini, müneccimini, şairini, tarihçisini, bilginini, silahşorunu ve müzisyenini de yetiştirmiştir. Enderun, çalışma biçimi, programı ve işleyişi bakımından bir okuldan ziyade çeşitli hünerlerin, sanatların, idari ve siyasi bilgilerin uygulamalı olarak öğretildiği, kabiliyetlerin tespit edildiği bir kurs ve staj yeri gibi olduğu söylenebilir.76 Osmanlı Devleti’nde şüphesiz Enderun Okulu’ndan başka da eğitim kurumları vardı. Tamamen farklı metotları olan medreseler vardı. Medreseler ülke çapında yaygın kurumlardı. Ülkenin üst düzey görevlilerinin çoğunluğu medrese kökenliydi. Medreseler geleneksel eğitimlerinin yanı sıra tabii bilimler eğitimini de yapıyorlardı. En yüksek düzeyde olan sekiz fakülteli (sahn-ı seman) Süleymaniye Medresesi idi. Buna rağmen daha çok Enderun Okulu ön plana çıkıyordu. Aynı durum ülkede büyük Tımar ordusu (mevcudu 200.000 kişi) 67 Yahya Akyüz, aynı eser, s. 105. Mehmet İpşirli, aynı makale, s. 186. 69 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 76–77. 70 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 56. 71 Mehmet Doğan, Tarih ve Toplum, İstanbul 1977, s. 125–126. 72 Ciro Truhelka, “Bosna’da Arazi Meselesinin Tarihi Esasları”, THİTM, C: I, İstanbul 1931, s. 59–60. 73 Stanford Shaw, aynı eser, s. 169. 74 Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 78. 75 İsmet Parmaksızoğlu, “Enderun Mektebi”, Türk Ansiklopedisi, C: 15, Ankara 1968. 76 Mehmet İpşirli, aynı makale, s. 186. 68 348 �olduğu halde sayıları 12–14 bin kişi olan Yeniçeri Ordusu için de geçerlidir. Devletin temel ordusu Anadolu’da örgütlenen toprağa bağlı Tımar Ordusuydu. Fakat daha çok nazara verilen ordu ise Yeniçeri Ordusu idi. Bunun sebebi İstanbul’a gelen yabancı elçilerin okul olarak Enderun’u, ordu olarak da Yeniçeri Ocağı’nı görüp, onların üzerinden değerlendirmelerde, araştırmalarda bulunarak dış dünyaya tanıtmış olmalarıdır. Bununla birlikte Enderun Okulu’nun ve Yeniçeri Ordusunun insan kaynağının sağlanma biçiminin dikkat çekici olduğu unutulmamalıdır. Enderun Okulu, bir seçkinler eğitimi veriyordu. Aşırı bir disiplin uygulanan okulda kurallara uyma konusunda son derece sert davranılıyordu. En küçük kusurlar bile cezalandırılıyordu. Bu disiplin; sabretmeyi, zorluklara karşı dayanmayı, alçak gönüllü olmayı bir yaşam biçimine dönüştürüyordu. Enderun’daki çocuklar biliyorlardı ki gelecekte sahip olacakları imkânlar bugün yaşadıkları sıkıntıların sonucuna bağlıdır. Enderun, dönemin şartlarından doğmuş çok önemli bir okuldur. Osmanlı Devleti’nin sosyal yapısı çok kültürlülük esasına dayandığı için ırk ve kan bağının yerine kültür bağı ve birlikte yaşama sanatının geliştirilmesi gerekiyordu. Bu dönüşümü ancak bir okul yapabilirdi. Ortak bir kültür, ortak bir vatandaşlık sorumluluğu bir vatan kavramı etrafında oluşturulmuştu. Bir sistem, şirket ve devlet ne kadar sağlam esaslara dayalı olarak kurulursa kurulsun zaman içerisinde zafiyete uğraması ihtimalden uzak bir durum değildir. Ezeli bir tecrübedir ki tarih bu gibi örneklerle doludur. Hedef ve mahiyet itibariyle zirvenin zorlandığı zamanlar aynı zamanda zafiyetin de başlangıç zamanlarıdır. Devşirme sisteminin ve buna bağlı Enderun Okulu’nun Türk dışı unsurlardan oluşması nedeniyle bozulduğu tezinin gerçeği çok yansıttığı söylenemez. Bu konuyla ilgilenen birçok düşünürümüz birbirleriyle tezat halinde olmuşlardır. Osmanlı medeniyetinin dar anlamda da kurumların duraklamasına Osmanlı yöneticilerinin kültürüyle Türk halk kültürünün arasında derin bir uçurumun oluşmasına neden olacak gösterilmektedir.77 Buna karşılık Yeniçeri Ocağı’na Türk dışı unsurların girmesinin bu ocağı bozduğu tezini gözü kapalı savunmaları, ne kadar korkunç bir bilgisizlik içinde debeleştiklerini gösterir, diyenler de olmuştur.78 Osmanlı Devleti, çok kültürlü bir toplum olmanın dezavantajını, milliliği ikinci plana atarak avantaja çevirmiş, dolayısıyla farklı din ve kültüre mensup milletlerden endişe duymamıştır. Osmanlı coğrafyasında ana kimlik dinden çıktığı için ihtida ettirmek sistemin temel amacı olmalıydı. Bu hareket zorlamayla yapılmayacak, İslamiyet’i kabul edenler terfi ettirilip desteklenecekti. Yönetici grubun çoğunlukla her üyesinin Hıristiyan kökenli olmasına karşılık, yükselebilmesi için Müslüman olması şarttı. Enderun Okulu’ndan en dindar Müslümanlar çıktığı halde din değiştirmeden eğitimini tamamlayanlar da oluyordu. Enderun’da kimse Müslüman olmaya zorlanmıyordu. Etnik ve dini unsurlara azami hoşgörü uygulanıyordu. Enderun’da çok ünlü tarihçiler, sanatçılar ve bilginler yetişiyordu. Ünlü Osmanlı tarihçilerinden Fındıklılı Mehmet Ağa, Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi, Evliya Çelebi, Kâtip Çelebi ve Koçi Bey bunlar arasında sayılabilir.79 Enderun’da Müslüman olmadığı halde Türk kültürüne ve devletine büyük hizmetler yapan kişiler de yetişmiştir. Bunların başında Dimitriyus Kantemir (1673–1723) gelmektedir. Enderun’da rehine olarak İstanbul’a getirilen kral çocukları da tahsil ve terbiye görürlerdi. Dimitri Kantemir de Boğdan Prensliğine tayin edilen (1684) babası Kostantin’in devlete sadakatinin bir göstergesi olarak İstanbul’a getirilmediği için durumu diğerlerinden biraz farklı olmakla beraber Enderun’un himayesine verilmişti. Dimitri, kendi dinini muhafaza etmekle beraber Enderun’da okutulan dersleri, sanatları, Türk ve İslam kültürünü öğrenmiştir. 1687 yılında Enderun’a giren Dimitri, Türkçeyi, Arapçayı ve Farsçayı öğrenmişti. Zaten Enderun’a girdiğinde Rumca, Latince, Rusça, eski Yunan ve Fransız dillerini biliyordu.80 Türkiye’de aralıklarla 22 yıl kaldı. Geniş bir dil bilgisinin de etkisiyle doğu-batı kültür değerlerinin güçlü ve anlamlı bir sentezini yaparak Osmanlı Tarihi hakkında iki ciltlik Latince bir eser meydana getirdi. Dimitri Kantemir, bu eserini yazarken Hoca Saadettin Efendi’nin Tacüt-tevarih’i olmak üzere Selaniki, Peçevi, Karaçelebizade, Naima ile dillerini iyi bildiği Batılı tarihçilerden de yararlanmıştı.81 Çok genç bir yaşta İstanbul’a gelen Dimitri Kantemir Doğu ve Batının fikir harmanında kendini bulmuştu. Halil İnalcık’ın deyimiyle Dimitri Kandemir, Osmanlı başkentinde yeni kültürel yönelişe istikamet verenlerden biridir ama aynı zamanda İstanbul’un kültür ve fikir hayatının da bir ürünüdür. Dimitri Kantemir’in Türk kültürüne yaptığı en önemli hizmeti yazdığı Osmanlı tarihi ile oldu. J. Von Hammer’in 1827–1835 yıllarında yazdığı Osmanlı Tarihine kadar Avrupa’da yüzyıl boyunca tek eser olarak kabul edildi. Bütün bir Avrupa neredeyse Osmanlı tarih ve kültürünü Dimitri Kantemir vasıtasıyla öğrendi. Osmanlı Devleti’nin yükseliş nedenlerini objektif bir dille ortaya koydu. Türk adalet, hoşgörü ve iyiliksever özelliklerinin bütün uyrukları kucakladığını bunun da devleti güçlendirdiğini örneklerle ortaya koydu. Osman Gazi’nin oğlu Orhan bey’e vasiyetinin devletin temelinin sağlam olmasıyla yakından ilgisini kurarak halka ve hakka hizmetin esas alındığını hükümdarda acıma ve iyilik duygularının kaybolmamasını ancak böylelikle 77 Mümtaz Turhan, Garplılaşmanın Neresindeyiz, İstanbul 1980, s. 41. Kemal Tahir, Notlar/Kitap Notları, İstanbul 1993, s. 33. 79 İsmail Baykal, Enderun Mektebi Tarihi, İstanbul 1953, s. 98–111. 80 Osman Ergin, aynı eser, s. 11. 81 Dimitri Kantemir, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yükseliş ve Çöküş Tarihi, c:I, İstanbul 1998. s.24. 78 349 �Tanrının himayesine kavuşulacağını belirtir.82 Osmanlılarda yasa ve törelerin egemen olması merhametli hükümdarların göreve gelmeleri, Osmanlı hâkimiyetinin Balkanlarda yayılmasını kolaylaştırmış, Hıristiyan çocuklarının devşirilmelerini kolaylaştırmıştı. Dimitri Kantemir, Hıristiyan çocuklarına İslam eğitimi verildikten sonra asıl orduya katılmalarını da yadırgamamıştır. Orhan Bey’in merhametli davranması karşısında duygulanan İznik halkının gönüllü olarak Osmanlı Devleti’ne vergi vermeyi kabul ettiğini, böylece İznik’te Osmanlı hâkimiyetinin başladığını söyler. Türk hoşgörüsünün kısa zamanda İznik’in nüfusunu, İstanbul’la yarışacak seviyeye getirdiğini ifade eder.83 Dimitri Kantemir’in Osmanlı tarihine dair yazdığı eser, Avrupa’da heyecan uyandırmış kısa süre içinde Avrupa’nın ünlü saraylarında tercüme edilmeye başlamıştır. Bu vesile ile Türk kültürü Avrupa’da sağlam bir kaynaktan yayılma imkanı bulurken, Osmanlılar arasında da Batı’nın 17. yy. sonlarından itibaren başarısının sırrını anlamak yolunda bir keşif başlattığı söylenebilir. 82 83 Dimitri Kantemir, aynı eser, s. 74-75. Dimitri Kantemir, aynı eser, s. 79. 350 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 396 Title A name given to the resource Bir Saray Okulu: Enderun Author Author ZZEYREK, Suat ERKEN, Ali Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/57762c977ea511e21cc6015744fd2df6.pdf 88225623e1db2920276fb8aa6c66c929 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationship Between The Sustainable Development and the Vision of Nations: The Sample of Ottoman Empire Hasan ĐBĐCĐOĞLU Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta hibici@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Belma AK Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta bak@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Münire ÇĐFTÇĐ Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta munire@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Đbrahim Yaşar GÖK Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta yasargok@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Seher DERYA Süleyman Demirel University, Çünür/Isparta seher@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: A global, rapidly changing and advancing world of information age, states in terms of standing and resources to be effective, efficient and people have to use it to live in prosperity, especially in a state that is not strong in the universal space is a problem. Using resources effectively and efficiently be transferred to future generations to improve the quality of life with modern standards, requires a solid and consistent work. This study is one of the sustainable development of future generations to meet their own needs against the needs of our time while not restrict the ability. The conscious of joint action to ensure sustainable development has played a significant role. Individual interests and rant fight are the greatest obstacles in front of the sustainable development. This energy and expectations of individual should be canalized to common area. This area is the requests and the ideals of the nations. In terms of sustainable development, a picture of national requirements should be drawn and this picture is coherent and realistic, must be shown to the nation. That is; a nation vision should be created. Because nations are respected and strong at the rate of their national aims. The national aims are the dynamic power, the reason of unity and the resource of courage for nations. In this study, indicating mission and vision of the nations according to the sustainable development, it is highlighted from Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Repuclic by explaining the created visions and the mission perception that shaped the visions and achieved points in the end. With this study, we can conclude that there is a relationship between the mission perception of nations and visions which are improved by this perception and the mission perception with vision factor are the dynamics of the sustainable development. Key Words: Sustainable development, Vision, Ottoman Empire Introduction The The Holy War (Gaza) thought boost after having been accepted of the Islam by the Turks and ‘the fighting for religion’ phenomenon lying under this thought did not come against warrior structure of the Turks. The Ottomans, the last empire of the Turks continued this ‘gaza policy’ . The Gaza policy continued as a chain from Ertuğrul Bey to Osman Bey and Osman Bey to Orhan Bey didn’t base on only thought of having large territory that was targeted by many states. The vision of ‘dissseminating the Islam and its impact seemed clearly on the Ottomans, was providing directions to this idea. The Ottomans never assimilated people in the conquered places after realized conquest and they approached tolerant to the public and in many places, after some time from the conquest, people adopted and accepted the Otoman Empire. This an evidence to that the idea that the gaza thought didn’t base on domination phenomenon. With the famous historian Gibbon’s phrase: ‘While the Jews was killed totally and the inquisition was spreading death, people with several religion were living in peace and harmonization under the rule of the 337 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ottomans. The famous profesor and the historian C. Brockelmann says that The Muslim Turks had the power and opportunity to alter the Christianity during their conquest but their religion doesn’t allow this. During the transition process to the Otoman Empire ‘’to disseminate the Đslam’ vision was accepted by all parts and it became an ideal. This vision directs the government to govern the people with justice moral and stability and directs people to trust and like the government and thus there is a strong tie between people and government. The reason for this strong tie is the Islamic thought that orders to like the government and to be fair in governing. The Ottomans who approaches the people with the same thoughts enable people to choose the Islam with their own decision. The mission of thinking the citizens that is formed through the vision of disseminating Đslam develop the Otoman Empire and each victory accelarated the this development process. Development, is a social phenomenon and should be evaluated within the social structure. Social structure also houses many problems. When this issue is taken into consideration today’s analysis are inadequate for development. Whether the formation of resources, or use, or the distribuition phase factors other than economic directly influence development process. This fact makes it essential that all these mentioned factors required to be included in the analysis. In order to analyse such a social problem, there are limitations to reach a result and these results can only be overcome when it is supported by other factors. (Yavilioğlu :116) From this perspective vision has been handled as an affect on the development. The relationship between the Ottoman vision and the development has been questioned by taking account of the development in the Ottoman Empire. In this work, first of all the literature is analyzed and the frame of the vision and the sustainable development have been mentioned. In the process of Ottoman Empire all the beneficial activities from establishment to standstill with the vision of Otoman Empire has been analyzed by taking into account the progress. Conceptual Literature People know, while doing something, what the society expect him/her to do by making use of existing institutional system and he/she does the expected behaviour Institutional system which shapes the human behaviour has some identifier. These identifiers takes place in the literature as designs of life. Designs of life are shared: most of the people are reconciled on the designs of life. They are not dependent on the judgement of any people. Designs of people happens with enthusiasm. People does self sacrifice and even die for the holy values. They are taken seriously. People regard these values together with the meeting of social requirements and saving of the mutual prosperity. (Yivilioğlu:117). When we take into consideration the characteristics of designs of life, it is possible t o say that vision is one of these designs of life. The etimological roots of the vision derives from “seeing” . A simple definition of vision is: 'a picture or view of the future. Something not yet real, but imagined (Thornberry:28). Vision is a mental journey from the known to the unknown, creating the future from a montage of current facts, hopes, dreams, dangers and opportunities (Manasse:1). Warren Bennis ve Burt Nanus say that the most critical point of the vision is to show the realist thought, credibility an attractive future for organisation and most problems better than the current situation in a very clear way. Kotter argued that the content of the vision must be sensible and clearly understood by organizational members; content without clarity is ineffective. Likewise, Collins and Porras advised that “vision must be translated from words to pictures with a vivid description of what it will be like to achieve your goal” (Cole:354). The vision that is expressed by a mutual Picture is adopted by the whole organization. To coincide the aim of the organization and the aim of the members is done. In this point of view vision is the tool that enables organisation to act for the mutual aim. Goldberg (1997) says that in order to have a strong vision, the vision that is developed by the supervisor and the managers should help the development and change of the company.(Eren) According to Peter Senge a shared vision is not only an idea it is a strength that motives people. A shared vision is an answer to the question “What do we want to do?” In his book Fifith Discipline he defines vision a shared vision as an hologram. Because when the hologram is cut it reflects the whole with each angle and when it is united it makes the whole.(Senge 226-239) Nations as well as the organizations need to follow the change and adjust the new developments. National vision is the roots of the National developments. National vision enables the economical social political and cultural aims to happen. That constitutes the development. Development is a social phenomenon and must be analyzed in the social structure. Social structure takes socio cultural political psyhological and economic whole in itself. In other words the social structure is a complex of economy, politic, culture and the family. 338 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The first popularly accepted definition of sustainable development arose from the report of Norwegian Gro Harlem Brundtland who, with her Commission members, suggested in 1987 that the world should be “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Lawrence:3). In early 2007, Donald Kennedy, a Harvard-trained biologist, former president of Stanford University, and since June1, 2000 the editor-in-chief of Science, wrote that ‘‘sustainability would require that a resource be technically managed in such a way that its contribution to human welfare is conserved or improved for succeeding generations.’’Sustainable development -meeting the needs of people alive today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs - will be one of the key forces guiding public policy development in the years ahead. (Brauer:7). In a country sustainable development can only be done by social economic and ecological sustainability that means the phenomenon of the social development is an economical development which does not consume the national sources and save balance between the eco system and the economy. (Alagöz:3-4). Vision of Ottoman Empire and Sustainable Development Vision of “fighting for religion” (spreading Islam) appearing with Turks’ acceptance Islam was depending on an idea to establish Islam to the places that don’t know Islam. The Holy War (Gaza) policy, that was considered in accordance with this policy, was realized efficiently on these years and holy wars revealed development and development revealed holy wars respectively. This eventual development continued until 1700’s and Ottomans lived a progress from seigniory to state and state to empire. Policies realizing in accordance with vision of fighting for religion provided the development of Ottomans and caused the long-year continuence of this. Ottoman State, that reached a three-continent structure with this vision until years 1700, afterwards entered a term meaning some changes in perception and declinations in the vision of fighting for religion. Ottoman state going far from the basic vision took the state to an unstable condition. A lethargy term started to occur with the increases of the wealth of public and maximum level of growth at managerial level specially palace administration. Soltans who led every wars during the process of transition from seigniory to state, not joining the wars after the years 1700 and not leading the army with the title of khalif is the result of going far from the basic vision perception. With this alienation from the idea of gaza lost its importance, administration of the army was damaged and fiscal structure of the state went worse. All of these advancements lasted with the collapse of the empire. But a probing point is that the public didn’t go far from this basic vision during the collapse of state. Because an existence challenge was performed with limited opportunities against huge forces just against collapse period. Actually Ottoman State, that didn’t loose the First World War, has been acceppted as looser with the missings of allied countries. Acting with the vision of “fighting for religion” until the discontinuance period caused Ottomans to develop and performing some efforts for the wealth of public. Below table, composed in accordance with the information given by Öztuna, (p:17-265) show that frontiers of Ottoman state expanded with every new Soltans. Ottomans, which had a development economically with the expanding of lands, had a stable condition at income and expense at the budget. There was no difference between incomes and expenses in treasury at the term of Kanuni (Soleman The Magnificient). However incomes of treasury reached to 1830 loads namely 183.000.000 golds and expenses reached to 3000 loads namely and in 1597 incomes reached to 3000 loads and expenses reached to 9000 loads. (Seyithanoğlu: 1993) Socio-cultural structure developed with the economical development and some evidences occured supporting sicence and cultural activities at many provinces and districts. Many mosques and moslem theological school (medrese) and chams in Anatolia and Balkans from Süleymaniye to Selimiye and Ecyad Castle, collapsing in Arabia, may be given as examples. Foundation system was established to prevent the poverty and compensate the needs of public. In this sense every foundation has a land and incomes of the land belongs to foundations and conpensating the needs of the public has importance. 2860 foundations were established in Đstanbul during the years 1519-1596. (Barkan XXXI) 339 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1. Frontiers of Ottoman Empire During the Administration Period of Ottoman Soltans Soltans Before After Administration Administration ( km 2 ) ( km 2 ) Asia ( km 2 ) Europe ( km 2 ) Africa ( km 2 ) Ertuğrul Bey 1000 ila 2000 4800 4.800 *** *** Osman Bey 4800 16000 16.000 *** *** Orhan Bey 16000 98000 98.000 *** *** I. Murat Yıldırım Beyazit 98000 500.000 208.000 291000 *** 500.000 942.000 500.000 441.000 *** Çelebi Mehmed 942.000 872.000 *** *** *** II. Murat Fatih Sultan Mehmed 872.000 950.000 *** *** *** 950.000 2.214.000 511.000 1.703.000 *** II. Beyazit Yavuz Sultan Selim Kanuni Sultan Süleyman 2.214.000 2.373.000 596.000 1.777.000 *** 2.373.000 6.557.000 1.905.000 1.702.000 2.950.000 6.557.000 14.893.000 4.169.000 1.998.000 8.726.000 III. Murat 14.893.000 23.000.000 5.729.285 3.543.662 13.725.464 According to the 953/1546 dated Đstanbul Foundations Census Records, “public” foundations in Đstanbul had more than 4000 houses, 5717 shops, 28 caravansaries, 19 khans, 38 canvas factories, 18 cisterns, 14 basements, 68 bakehouses, 199 villages, 40 hamlets and 228 mills for income. Capital of the 1150 cash foundations reached 21.385.786 golds between the years 1456-1546. (Barkan XXXI) Some foundations were composed in the subjects of equipment of poor girls, arrangement of streets (social), treatment of ill and disabled storks, giving meat to cats and dogs (environmental), paying the debts of people in the prison because of debts (social). Also foundations provided funds for the establishment of many monuments contributing social life. Mosque, masjids, foundations, schools, cultivations, hospitals, baths, caravansaries, khans also social complexes, public fountain, water-tank with fountain, roads, domes, markets, wells, hot springs, squares, libraries, bridges, ports, beacons, channel, water channels, dams are some examples of these monuments. Suggestions and Conclusion Settlement at economical, social and environmental target and policies with the vision of “spreading Islam” developed Ottomans and made it sustainable by extending over a long time. Ottomans composing economical (extending the limits of economical progress, gaza idea), social (fair wealth disturbance, efforts to prevent poverty), environmental (efficient usage of natural resources) targets in accordance with this vision is the sign of sustainable development. The vision of “spreading Islam” is one of the most important factors of sustainable development which was in progress until the end of rising term of Ottomans. Many factors as prince training before acceding, foundation policies developed by government, renewal movements at army, administration policies of bureaucracy were developed in accordance with this basic vision. State continued development during the application of this vision and every soltan developed the country than older soltans. Respective acceptance of this basic vision without refusal is an important reason. There have been economical, sociological, political and cultural developments paralel to this vision. Development of treasury, state getting a stronger condition to help other countries, trade moving around the lands and ports of Ottoman state can be shown as the signs of economical developments. Gladness of Ottoman public from the administration, Ottoman state being respectful to different beliefs and not assimilating different nations may be examples for social aspect of development. Ottoman state being super power of the world, a state administering nations in three continents and other countries not developing policies without considering Ottoman state and composing an effect area between India and England and Africa and Russia may be stated as the political aspects of development. Finally a direct relationship can be mentioned between the vision of nations and sustainable development. Realizing the development with national visions embracing the public in spite of specific visions of leaders. Because this conditions appropriates development to public and development becomes a routine life 340 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo vision in spite of realizing in a specific term. But declinations ,as just seen in Japans and perivously in Ottomans, at the national visions causes development to access in a decreasing process and is a major obstacle on sustainable development. Because of this not lowering the visions and keeping them alive has a big importance. Vision which is one of the factors that people may devote theirselves to make changes in the direction of national development, both is social and another aim –whether having different ideas- should be considered. References Akgemci T, Çelik, A.and Ertuğrul, Ü.G., (2006). “Vizyon Sahibi Örgütlerin Özellikleri: Konya Sanayi Đşletmelerinde Yapılan Bir Araştırma”, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı 11, ss:1-29 Alagöz, M.,(2004), “Sürdürülebilir Kalkınmada Çevre Faktörü:Teorik Bir Bakış”, Akademik Bakış Uluslararası Hakemli Sosyal Bilimler E-Dergisi, Sayı 11. Barkan, Ö. Lütfi –Ayverdi, E Hakkı (1972). Đstanbul Vakıfları Tahrir Defteri 953 (1546) Tarihli, Đstanbul. Akt. Nazif Öztürk “Sosyal. Siyaset Açısından Osmanlı Dönemi Vakıfları”, <http://www.sosyalsiyaset.com/documents/osmanli_vakiflari.htm>. (01.04.2009). Brauer, J. (2008), “International Security and Sustainable Development, Contributions to Conflict Management, Peace” , Economics and Development, Book volume:6. Cole M. S., Harris S. G. and Bernerth J. B. (2006). “Exploring the implications of vision, appropriateness, and execution of organizational change”. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 27 No. 5, pp. 352-367. Cole, M. S., Haris, S. G. and Bernerth, J. B., (2006), “Exploring the implications of vision, appropriateness and execution of organizational change” Leadership & Organization, Development Journal, Vol. 27 No. 5, pp. 352-367. Çetin, M. (2006), “Teori ve Uygulamada Bölgesel Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma”, C.Ü. Đktisadi ve Đdari Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 7, Sayı 1. Döğüş S., (2008), “Avrasya Steplerinde Đlk Gaziler”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı 20 Eren, E., Alpkan L. And Ergün, E., (2003). “Kültürel Boyutlar Olarak Đşletmelerde Đçsel Bütünleşme ve Dışsal Odaklanma Düzeylerinin Performansa Etkileri”, Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 4 (1) , 55-70. Lawrence G., (2006), “Promoting Sustainable Development: The Question of Governance”, Research in Rural Sociology and Development, Book volume:11 Lin C.-C., Luh D.-B. (2009), “A Vision-Oriented Approach For Đnnovative Product Design”, Advanced Engineering Informatics, 23, 191–200. Manasse A. L., (1985), “Vision and Leadership: Paying Attention to Intention”, Peabody Journal of Education, Vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 150-173 Özdemir Đ., Osmanlı Toplumunda Çevre Anlayışı, Türkler, edt. H.C. Güzel-K. Çiçek, Ankara: Yeni Turkiye Yayınları, c. 10. Öztuna Y.,(2004). Osmanlı Devleti Tarihi, Ötüken Yayınları, 2004, s.168 Senge, P.M.(2006), Beşinci Disiplin, 13. Baskı. (Çev.A. Đldeniz ve A. Doğulkan), Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Đstanbul. Seyithanoğlu K., Büyük Đslam Tarihi, Çağ Yayınları, 1993 Thornberry N.(1997). “A View About Vision”, European Management Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 28-34,. Yavilioğlu C.,“Ekonomik Kalkınma ve Motivasyon Arasındaki Đlişki” C.Ü. Đktisadi ve Đdari Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 2, Sayı , 109-130. 341 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 244 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship Between The Sustainable Development and the Vision of Nations: The Sample of Ottoman Empire Author Author iBiCiOĞLU, Hasan AK, Belma ÇiFTÇi, Münire GÖK, ibrahim Yasar DERYA, Seher Abstract A summary of the resource. A global, rapidly changing and advancing world of information age, states in terms of standing and resources to be effective, efficient and people have to use it to live in prosperity, especially in a state that is not strong in the universal space is a problem. Using resources effectively and efficiently be transferred to future generations to improve the quality of life with modern standards, requires a solid and consistent work. This study is one of the sustainable development of future generations to meet their own needs against the needs of our time while not restrict the ability. The conscious of joint action to ensure sustainable development has played a significant role. Individual interests and rant fight are the greatest obstacles in front of the sustainable development. This energy and expectations of individual should be canalized to common area. This area is the requests and the ideals of the nations. In terms of sustainable development, a picture of national requirements should be drawn and this picture is coherent and realistic, must be shown to the nation. That is; a nation vision should be created. Because nations are respected and strong at the rate of their national aims. The national aims are the dynamic power, the reason of unity and the resource of courage for nations. In this study, indicating mission and vision of the nations according to the sustainable development, it is highlighted from Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Repuclic by explaining the created visions and the mission perception that shaped the visions and achieved points in the end. With this study, we can conclude that there is a relationship between the mission perception of nations and visions which are improved by this perception and the mission perception with vision factor are the dynamics of the sustainable development. Key Words: Sustainable development, Vision, Ottoman Empire Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a412783246362cec70a8c4a7b68b550c.pdf 04eb0c19972f269c8fdfb9f0bf4d4ee8 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Individual and Organizational Fit: It’s Impact on Turkish Academic Staff Fatma Nur ĐPLĐK Cukurova University Karatas School of Tourism and Hotel Management Department of Hotel Management, Turkey nuriplik@cu.edu.tr Azmi YALÇIN Cukurova University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Business Administration, Turkey azmiyalcin@cu.edu.tr Kemal Can KILIÇ Cukurova University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Business Administration, Turkey kcan@cu.edu.tr Abstract: Achieving congruence between the values of the employee and the organization which often is called person-organization (P-O) fit that has gaining a growing interest in the organizational behavior field in recent years is the main theme of this article. Researches about P-O fit (O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Lauver & Kristof-Brown 2001; Cable & DeRue 2002; Sekiguchi 2004; Hoffman & Woehr 2006; Nelson & Billsberry 2007) revealed that a high level of congruence has a positive impact on job attitudes of individuals and creates a number of positive outcomes for organizations. P-O fit that affects the degree to which an individual is liked by co-workers, supervisors, and subordinates (Judge & Ferris 1992) improves individual and organizational effectiveness. Because P-O fit has been positively related to job attitudes (organizational commitment, motivation, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behaviors) and negatively related to turnover intentions of employees, the congruence between individual and organizational values could be critical for the organizations. In this context, this study attempts to explore the relationships between the P-O fit and job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance level of academicians. In order to test hypothesis empirically; data was collected from academicians of a State University that is being in the list of Top 500 World Universities located in Turkey. After the reliability, correlation and regression analyses, we conclude by discussing implications, limitations, and future researches concerning the P–O fit. Keywords: Person-Organization Fit, Job Satisfaction, Work Alienation, Individual Performance, Academic Staff, Turkey. The Concept of Person-Organization (P-O) Fit The fit between a person and the work environment received attention from both scholars and practitioners in recent years (Schneider 2001; Ballout 2007; Kristof 1996; Chatman 1989; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986). Practitioners who study in organizational psychology field initially focused on person and environment (P-E) subject to explain the relationship between person and organization. P-E is defined as the compatibility that occurs when personal and situational characteristics of employees are well-suited (Schneider 2001). P-E fit studies have discerned between person-job fit, person-team fit and person-organization fit (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005; Vianen Van et al. 2007). The majority of P-E fit papers have evaluated individual features “needs and values” and situational/organizational characteristics “job demands and occupational type” for forecasting and clearing up the valuable results related with increased fit (Ballout 2007). The most investigated subject within P-E fit is P-O fit (Kristof 1996) that is one of the most popular areas of research in the general management and organizational behavior fields. This domain of research captures the congruence between the characteristics of individuals (i.e., goals, skills, and values) and the characteristics of organizations (i.e., goals, values, resources, and culture) (Bright 2007). P-O fit relates a person’s personality, goals and values with those of the organization (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Thus many PO fit studies (Edwards 1996; Kristof 1996; Chatman 1989; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986) have examined the match between people’s values and those of the organization, because values that are conceived of as fundamental and 373 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo relatively enduring represent conscious desires held by the person and encompass preferences, interests, motives and goals (Vianen Van et al. 2007). P–O fit is defined as “the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when at least one entity provides what the other needs or they share similar fundamental characteristics or both” (Kristof 1996). In other words, P-O fit is the "congruency between patterns of organizational values and patterns of individual values" (Chatman 1989) emphasizing the extent to which a person and the organization share similar characteristics and meet each other’s needs (Sekiguchi 2004). There are certain values that the individual carries over into his or her role, certain values that the organization imposes, and certain values that the two share. The extent to which the role-related values of the organization and those of the individual are shared indicates the degree of the individual's "fit" with the organization (Lopez 1999). P-O fit emphasizes the importance of fit between employees and work processes and the importance of creating an organizational identity through the institutionalization of consistent values that permeate an organization’s culture (Morley 2007). Thus researchers and practitioners contend that P-O fit is the key to maintaining the flexible and committed workforce that is necessary in a competitive business environment and a tight labor market (Sekiguchi 2004). In other words, P-O fit is a positive attribute that is to be promoted (Nelson & Billsberry 2007). Some scholars (e.g. Kristof, Chapman etc.) categorized P-O fit according to their empirical studies. Kristof (1996) identified four different operationalizations of P-O fit: • The first one is the congruence between individual and organizational values. • The second one is goal congruence with organizational leaders. • The third one is the match between individual preferences or needs and organizational systems and structures. • The fourth one is the match between the characteristics of individual personality and organizational climate. As well to labeling demand-abilities and needs-supplies fit within P-O fit construct, P-O fit also includes supplementary fit and complementary fit, both of which are important in P-O fit studies (Morley 2007; Piasentin & Chapman 2006; Nikolaou 2003). Piasentin & Chapman (2006) identify four common definitions of P-O fit, namely: Supplementary fit where an individual possesses characteristics that are similar to existing organizational characteristics. Complementary fit where an individual fills a void or adds something that is missing in the organization. Needs-supplies fit where an individual’s needs are fulfilled by the organization. Demand-abilities fit where an individual’s abilities meet the demands of the organization. Supplementary fit has to do with matching similar levels of characteristics between employees and organizations, whereas complementary fit is concerned with bridging the gap between the patterns of these assessed characteristics, however, needs-supplies and abilities-demands fit have attracted more P-O fit researchers as they apply to congruence and vocational choice theories (Piasentin & Chapman 2006; Morley 2007; Nikolaou 2003; Ballout 2007). Most P-O fit studies have used needs and values as attributes of comparison between persons and organizations (Kristof-Brown et al. 2005). Because organizational needs and individual needs are important factors in P-O fit investigations, a sample list of organizational and individual needs for each organization included in Table 1. The degree of similarity between these lists is an indicator of the degree of the P-O fit (Silverthorne 2004). Table 1: Sample Organizational and Individual Needs List Organizational Needs Individual Needs Loyalty to the organization Good salary Hard work Job security Employee cooperation Being with other people Creativity Good supervision Following directions Opportunity for promotion Good quality of work outcomes Challenging work Commitment to the organization’s objectives Feeling of achievement Comradeship with colleagues Good working conditions Respect for authority Being involved in the organizational climate Employee satisfaction Ability to take responsibility Source: Silverthorne, C. (2004). The impact of organizational culture and person-organization fit on organizational commitment and job satisfaction in Taiwan. The Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 25 (7), 592–599. 374 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationships between P-O Fit and Job Attitudes P-O fit is a key factor with great influence on employee outcomes. Thus it is assumed that both individuals and organizations will be more effective when the values of the person and organization are congruent (Shin & Holland 2004). In the aggregate, empirical studies provide convincing evidence that P-O values fit is an important determinant of long-term consequences for employees (e.g. work attitude, intention to quit and turnover, prosocial behavior, self-reported teamwork, contextual performance and self-report work performance), organizational entry (e.g. individual job search), and socialization (Huang 2005; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Sekiguchi 2004). A high level of P-O fit is likely to increase commitment and motivation of employees toward task performance and their engagement in good and lasting relationships (mentoring relationships, organizational citizenship behaviors) with their employers, which in turn will result in positive organizational outcomes (Ballout 2007). P-O fit has influence on many job attitudes of employees, but in this study specifically we focus on the influence of P-O fit on job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance. P-O fit has been studied as a potential inductor of job choice decisions and job attitudes (e.g. trust, commitment and satisfaction) (Cable & Judge 1996; Zoghbi & Manrique De 2008). In this context, P-O fit has been shown to play a significant role in how job applicants choose organizations (Saks & Ashforth 1997) and how recruiters select applicants (Kristof-Brown 2000). In addition to this, interactionist research suggests that an employee's job attitudes such as satisfaction and organizational commitment result from the relationship between the attributes of the job and the values required in that situation. In other words, jobs that the employee perceives as providing him or her with important values are satisfying, whereas jobs that the employee perceives as being incongruent with his or her values are dissatisfying (Judge et al. 1997; Lopez 1999). Following this approach, if employees don’t have values that are consistent with those of their organization, and therefore lacks proper fit, they experience feelings of incompetence and anxiety (Chatman 1989). P-O misfit would also lead to disconnected personal values for the organization, bringing out emotion of low self-esteem and lack of trust (Kristof 1996; Kuczmarski & Kuczmarski 1995; Saks & Ashforth 1997; Vianen Van 2000; Zoghbi & Manrique De 2008), minimize motivation in work environment and decrease in organizational commitment (Cable & Judge 1996; Chatman 1989; McConnell 2003; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Silverthorne 2004; Vianen Van 2000; Westerman & Cyr 2004; Papavero 2007). Previous literature about person-organization fit suggests that similarity in the values of the employee and the organization bring out positive outcomes for both of them. While past researches have examined various aspects and impacts of fit, we specifically focus on the relationships among P-O fit and three key employee attitudes—job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance. In this direction, it is proposed that the degree of congruence between the values of the employee and the organization will be positively related to employee job satisfaction and performance level and negatively related to three dimensions of work alienation. Studies of the impact of P-O fit on individuals find powerful correlations between P-O fit and greater levels of job satisfaction (Nelson & Billsberry 2007; O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Sekiguchi 2004; Lopez 1999). Thus P-O fit researchers theorize that the degree to which an individual’s and organization’s values overlap, termed value-goal congruence (Chatman 1991), the more satisfied the employee will be in his or her job. On the reverse side, lack of value-goal congruence reduces employee job satisfaction, most likely through violation of employee expectations, which in turn causes employee turnover (Bright 2007; Wheeler et al. 2007; Ostroff et al. 2005). In this direction the following hypothesis are proposed: P1: P-O fit will be positively related to job satisfaction of academicians. Work alienation that refers to subjective feeling states which are the result of objective work conditions is defined as a discrepancy between the workers’ perception of objective task conditions along specific dimensions (control, purpose and self-expression) and their expectations regarding these dimensions, which is further intensified by the importance or salience of these dimensions. The outcomes of work alienation are a feeling of powerlessness, meaninglessness and hence a sense of self-estrangement in work (Mottaz 1981). According to this, powerlessness exists when workers are unable to control their job activities; meaninglessness exists when workers contribute only minutely to the total product; and self-estrangement exists when workers view work as a means to some other end such as making money, rather than as a means of personal self-fulfillment (Shepard 1977; Mottaz 1981). Work alienation is the degree to which an individual identifies psychologically with a specific type of work; it reflects a situation in which an individual cares little about work, approaches work with little energy and works primarily for extrinsic rewards. In this context, business managers consider awareness of the work alienation and organizational commitment of their employees to be a key concern. Ostensibly, highly committed, less alienated employees are more productive and less likely to leave the organization (Michaels et al. 1996). 375 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Work alienation represents a generalized, unenthusiastic outlook toward the world of work that indicates a low level of engagement in the work role and portrays a low level of positive affect for the world of work (Hirschfeld & Field 2000). This unenthusiastic outlook toward work is typically regarded as stemming from people perceiving that, in general, work endeavors do not contribute to the attainment of their personal goals or salient needs. Because work alienation represents a generalized tendency to respond to work endeavors and contexts in a detached manner (Hirschfeld 2002), it is proposed that, the closer the congruence between employees' values and their organizations' values, the lower the employees' work alienation. In this direction the following hypothesis are proposed: P2: P-O fit will be negatively related to the powerlessness dimension of work alienation. P3: P-O fit will be negatively related to the meaninglessness dimension of work alienation. P4: P-O fit will be negatively related to the self-estrangement dimension of work alienation. Job Satisfaction of Academicians H1 H2 PersonOrganization (P-O) Fit H3 Powerlessness of Academicians Meaninglessness of Academicians H4 Self-Estrangement H5 Individual Performance Level Figure 1: The Relationship between Research Variables The P-O fit literature strongly suggests that individuals who are compatible with the characteristics of their organization will have higher performance than individuals who are less compatible (Bright 2007). In a foundational work, Pervin (1968) theorized that when a match exists between individual and organizational characteristics, performance tends to be high and stress tends to be low (O’Reilly et al. 1991). But only a few studies examined the P-O fit – job performance relation and their results remained unclear. Unlike earlier studies which showed P-O fit to relate negatively to indices of job performance (i.e., Becker et al. 1996; Meglino et al. 1989), the study of Shin and Holland (2004) indicated that as indices of P-O fit increased, so did job performance (Shin & Holland 2004). In this context, as the congruence between individuals and organizations increases, employees become more committed and productive (Bright 2007). In this direction the following hypothesis is proposed: P5: P-O fit will be positively related to individual performance level of academicians. Method In order to test hypothesizes empirically; data was collected from academicians of a State University that is located in Turkey. All scales used in this study were translated into Turkish and then translated independently back into English (Brislin 1980). The questionnaire measured P-O fit, job satisfaction, work alienation and job performance along with demographic variables of academicians. The questionnaire which contained these measures was distributed to 256 randomly selected academicians of 9 faculties, 3 high schools and 9 vocational schools of a State University. At the end of the survey 187 questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 73 percent. In study 41.7 percent of respondents were women (78) and 58.3 percent were men (109). In table 3 we see the age range of academic staff. 26.7 percent of them are between 25-31 age. 38.5 percent of them are 32-38 age. 17.1 percent of respondents are between 39-45 and 12.3 percent of them are between 53-59 age. So we can say that most of the staff is in the middle age. 376 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 3: Age And Tenure of Academicians Age Age 18-24 25-31 32-38 39-45 46-52 53-59 60 and + Frequency 1 50 72 32 23 6 3 Tenure Percent .5 26.7 38.5 17.1 12.3 3.2 1.6 Years 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26 and + Frequency 48 62 37 18 14 8 Percent 25.7 33.2 19.8 9.6 7.5 4.3 Academic staff’s tenure is shown in table 3. According to table, 25.7 percent of the staffs are between 15 years job tenure. 33.2 percent are between 6-10 years, 19.8 percent are 11-15 years, 9.6 percent are 16-20 years and 7.5 percent are 21-25 years. Measures and Analyses In this study person-organization fit was measured by three items adapted from Cable&Judge (1996). Work alienation was measured a scale (powerlessness, meaninglessness, and self-estrangement) proposed by Mottaz (1981), job satisfaction was measured five items adapted by Brown&Peterson (1994), and individual performance was measured by four items adapted from Kirkman and Rosen (1999). All constructs were measured with scales adapted from existing scales. All items were measured on a five-point Likert-type scale where “1 strongly agree” and “5 strongly disagree”. This study assessed perceived P-O fit. In perceived or direct P-O fit, academic personnel estimated the extent to which their values are similar to those of their University. We used the three-item five-point Likert scale developed by Cable and Judge (1996). Items include “My values match those currently in the organization”, “The values and ‘personality’ of this organization reflect my own values and personality”, and “I feel my values ‘match’ or fit this organization and the current employees in this organization”. Job satisfaction was measured a scale developed by Brown and Peterson (1994). The demographic variables in the study are age, gender and job tenure. In addition to these, the questionnaire includes the department and academic rank of respondents. In study the coefficient alpha was used to estimate the reliability for scales. Three items for P-O fit measure had alpha reliabilities 0.82. Alpha reliability for job satisfaction was 0.74, for powerlessness was 0.79, for meaninglessness was 0.64 and for self-estrangement of academicians was 0.79. These results indicate that the internal consistency reliabilities for all of the scales were reasonable. Table 4: Descriptive Statistics and Reliabilities Variables P-O Fit Job Satisfaction Work Alienation • Powerlessness • Meaninglessness • Self-Estrangement Job Performance Mean 2.7362 2.2130 Std. Deviation .89765 .74350 Coefficient Alpha .8228 .8637 N 187 187 2.3066 2.3155 3.0419 2.0936 .80981 .60078 .31233 .66645 .7948 .6452 .7941 .8096 187 187 187 187 After the reliability analyses, means and standard deviations for each variable were calculated and a correlation matrix of all variables used in hypothesis testing was created. Means, standard deviations, coefficient alpha and correlations among all scales used in the analyses are shown in Table 4 and 5. The means and standard deviations are within the expected ranges. 377 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 5: Pearson Correlations Among All Research Variables Research Variables 1.P-O Fit 2.Job Satisfaction 3.Powerlessness 4.Meaninglessness 5. Self-Estrangement 6.Job Performance Means Std.Deviation N 1 1 .556** .314** .401** -.057 .296** 2.7362 .89765 187 2 3 4 5 6 1 .485** .543** .109 .447** 2.2130 .74350 187 1 .420** .041 .227** 2.3066 .80981 187 1 .084 .288** 2.3155 .60078 187 1 .111 3.0419 .31233 187 1 2.0936 .66645 187 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). The pattern of correlations is supportive of our four hypothesizes. That is, correlation coefficients between P-O fit and job satisfaction, job performance are significant and in the predicted direction (positively related). For example, P-O fit correlate with job satisfaction .556 (strongly correlate) and with job performance .296 (weakly correlate). Correlation coefficients between P-O fit and powerlessness, meaninglessness are significant and in the not predicted direction (positively related). For example, P-O fit correlate with powerlessness .314, with meaninglessness .401. But correlation coefficient between P-O fit and selfestrangement is non-significant, and not supportive of our fourth hypothesis. Results The findings show that P-O fit is related to job satisfaction and job performance of academicians. In addition to this, P-O fit is positively related to meaninglessness and powerlessness, and non-significant relation with self-estrangement. Results support P1, P5 indicating that P-O fit positively related to academicians’ job satisfaction behaviors. It was proposed that as the compatibility between academicians and their organization increases, job performance will also increase. This hypothesis was weakly supported by the findings of the current study. As the congruence between the respondents and their organization increased, their job performance also increased. Therefore, P1 and P5 were supported. P-O fit positively related to academicians’ powerlessness and meaninglessness behaviors directed at their university. Therefore, P2 and P3 were not supported. P-O fit and selfestrangement is non-significant. So there is no relation between them. Therefore, P2, P3 and P4 were not supported. Limitations and Implications This study makes an important contribution to the literature, but is limited by two key issues. First, the results are based on a single sample. An important consideration is whether the findings of this study will generalize across jobs and organizations. In this context more research is needed to untangle the varying relationships between P-O fit indices and employee job attitudes. In this study we examined perceived congruence between organizational and employees' values. Recent studies have confirmed that both perceived and actual fit with the organization have independent and interactive relationships with job attitudes (Ravlin & Ritchie 2006). Even though the vast amount of research on P-O fit that has been already done, there still are a lot of research opportunities to investigate the role of P-O fit in organizations. Future research is expected to include new topics such as the simultaneous effects of P-O fit on many other work attitudes e.g. organizational citizenship behaviors, organizational commitment, tenure, career success and turnover intention in a crosscultural perspective. Conclusion Empirical facts have shown that a high level of P-O fit is related to academicians work behaviors and performance. Fit has been positively related to individuals’ job satisfaction and job performance and positively 378 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo related to work alienation. While past researches have examined various aspects of fit we specifically focus on the relationship between perceived P-O fit and job performance and job satisfaction, work alienation of academicians. The research results show that P–O was positively related to individuals’ satisfaction and performance consistent with previous research. According to this, the closer the congruence between academicians' values and their universities' values, the higher the academicians' job satisfaction and performance. The results also provide that P-O was positively related to powerlessness and meaninglessness at work. The other result shows that there is a non-significant relation between P-O fit and self-estrangement. These results were inconsistent with the literature. Therefore, the consequences partially reinforce the findings from earlier research (Chatman 1991) that the concept of P-O fit plays an important role for academicians in a variety of organizational settings. Finally, this research provides support for the importance of P-O fit in organizations (Silverthorne 2004) and also indicates the incongruity between P-O fit and work alienation in Turkish State University. This empirical research shows that P-O fit results were estimated direction in Turkish State University, as compared with literature for job satisfaction and performance. On the other hand P-O fit and results about work alienation were inconsistent with the literature. It means that P-O fit level increase work alienation (powerlessness and meaninglessness) increase at the same directions. As academicians and organization fit seems high we can say that our research result is indicating some important problems such as weak organizational culture and leadership style. Therefore, the future studies should search the reasons of work alienation and P-O fit results. And also further cross-cultural studies should be done at the state and private universities’ academic staffs in different countries. References Ballout, H.I. (2007). Career success: The effects of human capital, person-environment fit and organizational support. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22 (8), 741–765. Bright, L. 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Extent The size or duration of the resource. 276 Title A name given to the resource Individual and Organizational Fit: It’s Impact on Turkish Academic Staff Author Author iPLiK, Fatma Nur YALÇIN, Azmi KILIÇ, Kemal Can Abstract A summary of the resource. Achieving congruence between the values of the employee and the organization which often is called person-organization (P-O) fit that has gaining a growing interest in the organizational behavior field in recent years is the main theme of this article. Researches about P-O fit (O’Reilly & Chatman 1986; Lauver & Kristof-Brown 2001; Cable & DeRue 2002; Sekiguchi 2004; Hoffman & Woehr 2006; Nelson & Billsberry 2007) revealed that a high level of congruence has a positive impact on job attitudes of individuals and creates a number of positive outcomes for organizations. P-O fit that affects the degree to which an individual is liked by co-workers, supervisors, and subordinates (Judge & Ferris 1992) improves individual and organizational effectiveness. Because P-O fit has been positively related to job attitudes (organizational commitment, motivation, job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behaviors) and negatively related to turnover intentions of employees, the congruence between individual and organizational values could be critical for the organizations. In this context, this study attempts to explore the relationships between the P-O fit and job satisfaction, work alienation and individual performance level of academicians. In order to test hypothesis empirically; data was collected from academicians of a State University that is being in the list of Top 500 World Universities located in Turkey. After the reliability, correlation and regression analyses, we conclude by discussing implications, limitations, and future researches concerning the P–O fit. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1623a69b95ca04ef9f17f7dd8b2deb70.pdf e24e0bdad8a3ef387827fbd6d5245501 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Balkans Ergin ĐSMAĐL President of COFER, Macedonia e.ismail@coferweb.org Semi ŞAHĐN Finance Director of COFER, Macedonia s.sahin@coferweb.org Abstract: The aim of writing this paper is to reveal that the implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers during the spring and summer seasons, expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. Keywords: global financial crisis; Balkans; growth; unemployment; remittances Financial Crisis in the World, Economic Crisis in the Balkans What started as a global financial crisis has become an economic crisis. The world financial crisis emerged from a property bubble and a credit boom. Bad debts soared and banking sector in the developed economies became insolvent. The implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Investments, remittances, industrial production, foreign exchange reserves and employment rates have fallen. As a result, growth has slowed down. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. The governments of the region of the western Balkans, when the crisis hit in September 2008, argued that they were immune to the crisis. However, as their export-oriented economies began to slump in the autumn of 2008 due to the slid in the world commodity prices, which resulted in tens of thousands of citizens of western Balkan countries loosing their jobs, the governments of the region became more open about the difficulties of their economic situation, although continuing to argue that the effects of the financial crisis are least to be felt in western Balkans in comparison with other regional economies of Europe such as that felt in Iceland, Baltic states or Ukraine. The culprit many of the governments have now settled on is the world out of Balkans. Even wider publics took comfort of this argument due to relatively low exposure of the local economies to the world financial markets. Although the governments continue to predict that the economies would show growth and small contraction in 2009, the economic indicators show that the economies are in some degree of trouble at the moment with industrial output, foreign investment and remittances falling and unemployment rising.1 Growth forecasts are down across the region from 5 to 3%, investors are slowing projects and governments are drawing up rescue plans.2 Independent economists think that 3% growth of GDP for 2009 is wildly optimistic. Depending on the world manufacturing and commodity prices, they could show growth by 2 or even 1% of GDP. For the small economies of a scale of western Balkans that have boomed for the past seven-eight years, following the end of conflicts in the region in 2001 - that last one being the conflict of Macedonia in 2001 - with 1 2 The Economist, "The Balkans: A year in the life of Kosovo", 14 February 2009, p. 14. The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 381 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo annual average GDP growth reaching 5%, economic slowdown and contraction in GDP that has started to be seen starting from the autumn of 2008 is a particularly harsh blow to western Balkans. The whole region, except Serbia and Croatia, has escaped the global financial crisis however it has run into economic crisis due to the recession in its export markets, including EU. As small open economies the western Balkan countries are uncomfortably exposed to the world crisis and particularly to EU as their trade with the EU member states comprises their largest trade volume. Since the global financial crisis hit in September 2008 growth has turned to contraction and unemployment is mounting in the region. Also, any lingering hopes that the western Balkans might escape relatively unscathed from the global financial storms were dashed when managers of the foreign banks in the region, mainly those of Austria and Greece, sought support from the international finance institutions. This shows that, although the economies are small and relatively well protected, they are exposed to the global financial crisis that has been replicated in the region in the form of economic crisis. The falling manufacturing and commodity prices in the world markets are causing problems. Depended on steel and metal exports, the region has been hit hard by the global slump in commodity prices and by the expensive imported electricity, sending metal prices into a tailspin. The price of the metals has fallen by almost two-thirds since mid-2008 leading to slowdown in the region's economies. More than a fifth of economic output and employment are based on exports, making them particularly vulnerable to a fall in global growth and trade. Manufacturing and exporting economies are grinding to a halt, as demand across the world melts away. The western Balkan economies contracted further in last quarter of 2008, as a dispute between Russia and Ukraine over gas prices reduced energy supply to the region and forced the countries' heavy industries to go slow, cutting production or even halting assembly lines. For example, Silmak, a significant producer of ferro-nickel in Jegunovce, in the western part of Macedonia, has cut production and has laid 700 workers due to the drastic fall of the ferro-nickel's price in the world markets.1 The nearby brick factory Kiro Kucuk in Veles, in the central part of Macedonia, also exemplifies the gravity of the setback. On 1 March 2009 the employees turned up for their final day's work. The factory will not reopen until the economy recovers.2 A similar story could be told in many countries of the region. Macedonia is not alone depended on exporting metallurgical industries. Serbia has suffered far more as global demand for the goods in which its industry specialises has evaporated. For example, US Steel, one of Serbia's leading exporters, closed one plant.3 These examples are reflection of the data released for January 2009 that industrial production, which accounts for a fifth of total value added in Macedonia4 and Serbia has plummeted by 17%, its steepest fall in years.5 The Macedonian State Statistics Office reported that the local companies have been operating by using 50% of their capacities in the course of January 2009 and their situation has deteriorated on a monthly basis, which has led to a drop in employment rate as well as a large fall in production due to the reduced foreign demand for Macedonian products, insufficient domestic demand, uncertain economic situation and the financial problems. These are hotbeds that might be transferred to other economic sectors, such as the textile and leather industry and to the construction sector, which comprise large share in the country's GDP. The gloom reflects growing worries about underlying weaknesses that make the countries especially vulnerable to recession happening in the EU and other economies to which Balkan economies are depended. So companies have announced big lay-offs as demand has fallen and factories have closed.6 The official unemployment figure of Macedonia already stands at 33% (unofficially it is probably 35% or more) and is set to rise as the new basic salary estimates will only count employed those who pay social security benefits. Unemployment rate in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo are more than 40%. The unofficial unemployment rate is, however, much higher and many who say that they have jobs are in fact on indefinite unpaid leave. The economists forecast that unemployment region-wide will rise. Most of that rise will be the result of fall in trade (many exporting companies have laid off workers), and due to declining investments. Coffee streets from Knjez Mihajlova in Belgrade to Kej Vardar in Skopje to Bash Charshija in Sarajevo are busy during sunlight as young people, forming more than 50% of the unemployed force in the region, sip their coffees. Unemployment rates are soaring and offices of the Employment Agencies in whole region are full with people looking for work. The stock markets have plunged as well. The Zagreb stock exchange index lost 42% during the last quarter of 2008 and others such as Sarajevo Stock Exchange, dropped by 19% during the same quarter, leading 1 Dnevnik, "Silmak prekina so rabota", 2 Mart 2009, p. 7. Utrinski, "Rabotnicite od Kucuk izvisija", 3 Mart 2009. 3 European Commission, DG ECFIN, EU Candidate and Pre-Accession Countries Economic Quarterly, 9 January 2009, p. 30. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Utrinski, "Pad na proizvodstvoto za 16.7%", 27 February 2009. 6 International Monetary Fund, "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Staff Report for the 2008 Article IV Consultation", Prepared by Staff Representatives for the 2008 Consultation with Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 11 November 2008, p. 11. 2 382 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to an annual decrease of 67% in 2008.1 The Belgrade Stock Exchange tumbled and its index lost 75% during 2008.2 An important sector that waits to be affected is the real estate market as the credits have gone down and the borrowers are unable to pay back their monthly loans. The scale of the bubble in the region is as big as in troubling EU cities. House prices rose further in Belgrade than they did in Tirana. So did commercial-property prices. As a result, demand for new homes has dried up although prices have remained stable and over inflated, with Belgrade topping the prices where average residential square meter is sold at 2000 euros. The housing boom in the region is among the extreme, measured by real price increases and resulting overvaluations. This is a bubble which is waiting to burst. Another bubble which is waiting to burst is commercial property where office blocks and shops are overvalued. Both these booms have been fuelled by debt, another reason why the region looks particularly vulnerable now. There is much to suggest that the pain is felt most by small enterprises, labelled as small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) that are the backbone of the western Balkan economies. SMEs seem especially vulnerable to the downturn. Many specialise in textile and these are also the products whose orders are the first to be cancelled when economies slow and companies trim investment. These firms are finding themselves chronically short of orders and capital. The governments in the region have launched actions to stimulate their economies. Montenegrin government launched a plan with significant capital expenditures and other stimulus to businesses at some 10% of the projected GDP for 2009.3 In November 2008, the Macedonian government unveiled measures worth 5-6% of GDP.4 Other governments as well have unveiled packages that include extra billions to finance investment, infrastructure projects, extra benefits for poorer and tax cuts. The central banks as well have joined in tightening monetary policies and increasing controls of the credit markets. These measures mean the economy may suffer only a mild downturn. Tightening of control by the central banks has encouraged banks to drastically decrease the amount of lending. When there are no loans for companies and consumers, the consumption of domestic and foreign products decreases, leading towards economic stagnation. So officials are also trying to inject cash and confidence into the banking system, avoiding confidence crisis that in October 2008 hit Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia where the lack of confidence led to a withdrawal of deposits by population.5 They have done this in various ways. Croatian central bank has abolished reserve requirements. The Bank of Albania has limited Banks' exposure towards their foreign parent companies.6 The National Bank of Serbia has eliminated the tax on savings income to help boost foreign exchange liquidity.7 The Bosnian central bank has increased the level of guaranteed savings deposits from 3500 to 10.000 euros and the Montenegrin government has given full guarantee to deposits. The Montenegrin government has also given capital boost to ailing Prva Banka to allow it to expand landing, especially for small businesses.8 The global crisis has slowed down western Balkans' credit-fuelled boom. Estimates of output have slumped and currencies have dropped as capital inflows have dried up. The bad debts have raised as local customers default particularly those that have borrowed in foreign currencies that have since risen relative to their own. One of the dirty habits from the boom is that as local loan growth outpaced deposit growth.9 There is likelihood that one or more of the ex-communist Balkan countries will default on its debt. The biggest weakness lies in a financial system that has combined badly run local banks with loosely overseen subsidiaries of western ones. Some local banks now depend on their parents' willingness to keep financing them – and those parents have plenty of problems at home. The Greek government has told its banks to draw back from their lending in the Balkans. Debt burdens are high today because so much was borrowed in the recent past. This began as a logical response to declining interest rates, low inflation, rising asset prices and less frequent recessions. Some countries have an extra problem of big external government debts (in Croatia's case, the gross figure is near 85% of GDP). For other countries, the strong Euro is a problem; they have pegged their currencies to it.10 Tumbling exchange rates raised the real burden of foreign-currency loans, forced policymakers to keep interest rates high. However, by boosting exports, a weaker currency can offer a route to recovery. In Macedonia, by contrast, denar stays strong as the economy slumps, deflation setting in which will lead debts to grow and possibly banking problems to grow. Possible threat of financial crisis has led the Euro to be seen as a shelter for western Balkan economies from the storms. The local currencies dinar of Serbia, kuna of Croatia, lek 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 23. Ibid, p. 31. 3 Ibid, p. 26. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Ibid, p. 3. 6 Ibid, p. 18. 7 Ibid, p. 31. 8 Ibid, p. 27. 9 The Economist, "Eastern European banks: The ties that band", 21 February 2009, p. 73. 10 The Economist, "Eastern Europe: Argentina on the Danube?", 21 February 2009, p. 14. 2 383 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo of Albania have lost their value against the Euro. Kuna depreciated by 2.9% and lek 1% vis-à-vis the euro in the last quarter of 2008,1 where as the Serbia's dinar has lost close to 17% of its value against the Euro in the same period. The central bank of Macedonia has spent over 50 million euros of its reserves in January 2009 alone, largest since the introduction of denar in early 1990s, to cushion the devaluation of its currency and avoid public panic.2 Macedonia will suffer damages if the Euro loses its value in relation to the dollar as it would affect the Macedonian export to EU markets. The increase of the dollar value will also have negative implications for Macedonia as the country uses this foreign currency to purchase twice as much as it sells. The value of the Euro in comparison to the dollar has been declining since autumn 2008. The drop of the value of the Euro with this fixed course of the denar in relation to the Euro currency will damage the Macedonian economy and de-motivate exporters primarily exporting to EU states.3 The government in Macedonia also has shredded investor confidence by calling for decreasing the amounts given to private pension funds. Recovery is possible only through strong demand in the rest of the world (which is to lack for some time), that would lead exports to soar, allowing quick recovery. However, today demand is falling rapidly across the globe and most big developed economies buying Balkans products face simultaneous banking crises. With demand weak everywhere, the familiar route to recovery is blocked.4 For the largest trading partners of western Balkan economies, the EU countries, figures that came out in February 2009, showed that Euro-area GDP shrank at an annualised rate of around 5% in the fourth quarter of 2008. The IMF has forecasted that Euro-area GDP will decline by 2% in 2009 and barely recover in 2010. Countries with huge current-account deficits are most exposed in a credit drought. So the hope had been that weaker economies of Balkans would be offset by faster economic recovery in EU economies and support by the local banks mother banks' in EU. Unfortunately, the EU economies are facing recession and mother banks and mother countries have asked them to lend first to domestic businesses and households and not to transfer money to their subsidiaries in Balkans. The Greeks publicly advised banks to be more prudent about transferring bail-out funds to Balkan subsidiaries.5 The western Balkan countries face a current account deficit this year in average of around 14%. Nevertheless, the crisis for example has not stopped the Macedonian and Kosovar governments from doling out billions of euros' worth of cultural projects. Financial crisis is also having effect on remittances, a large share in GDP of the economies of Balkans. Foreign workers have been first to be laid off in the western economies. Remittances make up more than a tenth of the GDP of Balkan economies. Although they are likely to fall as a result of the slumping world economy, as it has been the case with Albania, where remittances' inflows have declined from 13% of GDP in 2007 to 11% of GDP in the last quarter of 2008,6 they may be less affected by the world economy.7 It is expected that people keep the cross border payments going even when their incomes fall. Migration from western Balkans to EU countries is expected to rise as the borders are getting opened through visa facilitation and liberalisation programmes. However, this rise will be balanced with the recession in the EU economies where it means fewer jobs for migrants. In surveys, the economy has leapt to the top of voters' concerns. Overall the public is scared and uncertain. So far, the Balkans has escaped the civic unrest seen in the Baltic States, Iceland, or elsewhere.8 There are not yet signs of discontent, except concerns expressed by politicians and economists. Thousands taking to the streets to protest against crises in Baltic States and Ukraine have not resembled in Balkans. However, pundits predict unrest in towns that rely entirely on one ailing factory or industry. But so far the signs are limited. The middle class in the whole region is under a great threat. The middle class flourished during communist times. As economy goes into reverse they may well be hit harder than the rich or poor. They work in export industries so their jobs are unsafe. The other part of the middle class, who are employed in the state administration, and whose jobs are relatively safe, they have started to borrow, so are hurt by the credit crunch. To End with a Negative and a Positive Note The economies of the Balkan region, except those of Serbia and Croatia, have escaped the financial crisis. However they are facing the biggest economic crisis since 1991, when they left the communism regime. Corporate profits have collapsed. Big manufacturers' output is down. Metal producers have halved or halted their 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 7. Biljana Krstevska, "Stopeni uste 53 milioni evra", Dnevnik, 27 February 2009; Utrinski, "Samo so dobra plata do kredit", 27 February 2009. 3 Abdulmenaf Bexheti, "Experts on Fixed Course of Denar", Skopjediem, 25 February 2009. 4 The Economist, "America's banking crisis: Worse than Japan?", 14 February 2009, p. 76. 5 The Economist, "Charlemagne: Single-market blues", 7 February 2009, p. 30. 6 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 19. 7 The Economist, "Remittances: Trickle-down economics", 21 February 2009, p. 74. 8 The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 2 384 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo production. Companies have slashed jobs and investment. Industrial output and employment have fallen at record levels not seen since 1991. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers (workers remittances) during the spring and summer seasons. These seasonal effects are expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. 385 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 278 Title A name given to the resource Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Balkans Author Author iSMAiL, Ergin SAHiN, Semi Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of writing this paper is to reveal that the implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers during the spring and summer seasons, expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e5afa8a6aab2aa97997c06f275a9ae28.pdf 77e3ed577542d6f3ae9ed3046478caaa PDF Text Text Rumelili Bir Şair Âhî ve Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevîsi Mümine ÇAKIR Giriş Rumeli, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Trakya’dan Balkanlar’a uzanan ve Avrupa’da kalan topraklarının genel adıdır. Türklerin, Rumeli’ye geçişlerinden itibaren bu topraklar gerek Anadolu’dan getirilenler gerekse devşirme teşkilatının etkisiyle ilmî ve kültürel açıdan tam bir Müslüman Türk ülkesi oldu. Bu çerçevede Rumeli’de Saraybosna, Priştine, Vardar, Üsküp gibi sanat ve kültür merkezleri oluştu. Bu merkezlerde doğup yetişen bir çok şair İstanbul’a gelmiş ve ilim tahsil etmiştir. Tezkirelere bakıldığında edebiyat tarihimize katkıda bulunan bir çok şairin Balkan şehirlerinde doğduğu görülmektedir. Yazımızda bahsedeceğimiz şair Âhî Hasan da bu merkezlerden önemli birisi olan ve Tuna Nehri kıyısında bulunan Niğbolu’da doğmuştur. Âhî’nin Hayatı ve Edebî Şahsiyeti Hayatı: Asıl ismi Hasan olan ve Benli Hasan diye de anılan Âhî, 878/1473-1474 senelerinde Tersenik/Niğbolu’da doğmuştur.1 Âhî’nin bu mahlası almasında tezkîrelerde verilen bilgilere göre birçok psikolojik sebep vardır. Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da, “Hâlâ ki Âhî mahlasının şe’âmeti ile kemâhiye kendüye te’sîr idüp gam u endûh ile âh u vâhdan kurtulmadı. Müddet-i ömründe rûzgârından kâm alup akrân u emsâli miyânında ta‘ayyün bulmadı”2denilerek onun mahlasıyla yaşantısı arasındaki uyum belirtilir. Buradan da anlıyoruz ki Âhî, bu mahlası hayatı boyunca çektiği sıkıntılar sebebiyle almıştır. Fuat Köprülü ise şairin ; Saçların çözsün bulutlar ra‘d kılsun nâleler Haşre dek yansun yakılsun kabrim üzre lâleler matlaından hareketle “rûhunun hissî temâyüllerine tercüman olduğu içün” “Âhî” mahlasını aldığını söyler.3 Hasan Çelebi’ye Benli Hasan denmesinin sebebi olarak da Evliya Çelebi onun yanağındaki “Hâşimî ben”ini zikreder. Ayrıca “bu ben sebebiyle onu gören âşıklar bir âh çekerlermiş”4der. Âhî Hasan ticaretle uğraşan ve bu konuda mahir olan Seyyid Hâce isimli bir zengin tüccarın oğludur.5 Annesi ise Melek Kadın’dır. 6 Babasının vefatı üzerine annesi Melek Kadın başka birisiyle evlenince üzüntüyle işini, ailesini bırakıp İstanbul’a gelir. İstanbul’a geliş sebebi bazı kaynaklarda ilim tahsili7 olarak gösterilmesine karşın asıl sebep, annesinin başkasıyla evlenmesidir.8 İstanbul’a gelmeden önce bir süre gurbette dolaşır. Birçok sıkıntı çeker.9Aşık Çelebi bu durumu şu sözlerle anlatır: “Bî râhile ve bizzâd tek ü tenha piyâde yola girdi. Nâz ü naîm ile perverîş bulmuş vucûdı şedâyid-i sefer-i gurbet ile zebûn...”10 1 Ayrıntılı bilgi için bkz. Necati Sungur, Âhî Divanı, Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ank., 1994, s.15; Mümine Çakır, Âhî’nin “Hüsn ü Dil”i, İstanbul 1998 (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), s. 7-8; Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Ansiklopedisi, c.1, Dergah Yay., İst., 1987, s.50; Tezkire-i Latîfî (Nâşiri Ali Cevdet), İkdam Mat., Dersaadet, 1314, s.97; Tezkire-i Sehî ( Nâşiri Muhammed Şükrü), Matbaa-i Amedî, 1325, s.108; Bursalı Mehmed Tahir, Osmanlı Müellifleri, Matbaa-i Âmire, 1333, c.2, s.67; Kınalızâde Hasan Çelebi, Tezkiretü’ş-şuarâ, TTK Yay., Ank., 1989, c.1, s.191; Mustafa İsen, Künhü’l-Ahbâr’ın Tezkire Kısmı, AKM Yay., Ank., 1994, s.173. 2 Mustafa İsen, age., s.173. 3 Köprülüzâde Fuad, “Harâbâd Erenleri: Âhî” Yeni Mecmua, c.3, S.54, Yıl: 1918, s.25 4 Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi (Tevfik Temel KURAN- Necati AKTAŞ), c.1, İst., 1978, s.240. 5 Âşık Çelebi Tezkiresi (Meşâirü’ş-Şuarâ) (Haz: Meredith-Owens), London, 1971, s.51a (Tezkire için bkz. Necati Sungur, Âhî Dîvânı, KTB Yay., Ank., 1994, s.13); Şemseddin Sami, Kâmusu’l-Âlâm, Tarih ve Coğrafya Lügati, Mihran Mat., İst., 1306, c.1, s.502; Faik Reşat, Terâcim-i Ahvâl, Kasbar Mat., İst., 1313, s.41; Kınalızâde, a.g.e., c.1, s.191; Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e. s.173; Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.25; Sadeddin Nüzhet Ergun, Türk Şairleri, c.1, İst. 1936, s.20. 6 Âşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.51a; Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.25, S.Nüzhet., a.g.e., s.20. 7 Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.191; Kâmusu’l- Âlâm, a.g.e., s.502; Terâcîm-i Ahvâl, a.g.e., s.41; Kafile-i Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.31. 8 Aşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.51a; Köprülüzâde, a.g.m., s.54. 9 Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.54. 10 Aşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.52b. 403 �Âhî, İstanbul’a gelince ilim tahsiline başlar.11 “İstanbul’a gelüp tahsil-i ma‘ârif u kemâlâta müdâvim ü tarîk-i pür- tevfik-i ilme sulûk itmekle mülazım olmuşdur”12 Kırk yaşlarında Kara Bâlî’den mülazım olmuş,13 bu arada tahsiline devam ederken şiir yazmaya da devam etmiş ve ismini duyurmuştur. İlimdeki başarısını şairlikte de göstermiştir. Ticareti bırakıp İstanbul’a gelerek ilimle uğraşan Âhî, oldukça geç yaşlarda mülazım olur. Bu arada gazeller yazarak, mesnevî vadisinde dolaşarak edebiyatla da uğraşır. Bir gün Yavuz Sultan Selim onun şiirlerinden bazılarını görür ve kim olduğunu sorar. Onun kırk yaşlarında ve hala mülazım olduğunu öğrenince bir medreseye tayinini emreder. Âhî, Bursa’da Bayezid medresesine tayin edilir. Zeyrekzâde onu kandırarak bununla kanâat etmemesini, kendisine daha önemli bir müderrislik verileceğini söyler. Âhî de verilen görevi kabul etmez. Bunun üzerine Yavuz Selim kızarak Âhî’den bir daha bahsedilmemesini ister. Bu olay üzerine Necâtî’nin bir gazeline nazire yazan Âhî’ye Yavuz’un hiddeti daha da artar. Nihayet, Âhî, sıkıntılı yıllar geçirdikten sonra Karaferye müderrisliğine tayin edilir. 14 Âhî, H.923/M.1517’de tahmînen 45 yaşlarındayken vefat etmiştir. Ömrünün yarısına yakını Niğbolu’da, diğer kısmının hemen tamamı İstanbul’da ve son yılları Karaferye ve Manastır’da geçmiştir.15 Âhî, sessiz, rint-meşrep karakteriyle, gurur ve istiğna dolu halka yakın söyleyişleriyle, samîmî, kayıtsız ve lâubâlî bir ifadeyle aşk duygularını ve diğer düşüncelerini anlatmasıyla ve harabâtî tarafıyla orijinal bir şahsiyete sahiptir.16 Edebî Kişiliği Âhî’nin edebî kişiliği ile ilgili olarak tezkirelerde oldukça değerli bilgiler vardır: Latîfî “Şu‘arâ-i Rumun mümtâz u müstesnâlarındandur” diyerek onun üslûbunun Hüsrev’in şiirlerindeki yakıcılıktan, Selman’ın sanatları ve Kemal’in hayallerinden daha güzel olduğunu belirtir. Gazelleri renk, laf, söz ve mana bakımından bütün dünya söz ustaları tarafından makbüldür. 17 Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da ise Âhî şu şekilde anlatılır: “Alâ külli hâl mesnevîsi gazellerinden râcihdür. Eş‘ârı hem-vâr degül idügi zîrâ ki vâzıhdur. Cümleden a‘la eseri ve müellif-i matbû‘ u mu‘teberi kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dilidür ki vilâyet-i Rûmda te’lif olınan âsârun makbul u bî-mu‘adilidür.”18 Kınalızâde Tezkiresi’nde “Hakkâ ki şuârâ-yı Rûm’un a’lâlarından ve bu tâ‘ifenün mümtaz u müstesnalarındandur. Eş’âr-ı dil-güşâ vü ebyât-ı can-fezâsı makbul u müsellem ü memdûh-ı sühan-verân-ı âlemdür.”19 Bu şekilde bilgilerin yer aldığı tezkirelerin dışında Âhî’nin Divanı üzerinde doktora çalışması yapan Necâti Sungur’un, şairin gazelleri hakkındaki değerlendirmesi ise şöyledir: “Âhî’nin gazelleri incelendiğinde, ruh bakımından iki unsurun şiire hâkim olduğu görülebilir. Bunlardan biri, hızını biraz da mahlastan alan ıstırap ve bedbînlik, diğeri ise bunun tamamen aksine, şuh bir edâ ve bazan de işi kalenderliğe vuran rindâne meşrepdir... Bize göre Âhî, Necâtî’yi Nedim’e bağlayan çizgide yer alan bir şair olarak görünmektedir... Rumeli şairlerinin bâriz özellikleri olan, sanat gösterme düşüncesiyle yapmacıklığa düşmeme, çok sade hatta bazan kayıtsız ve laubali bir ifade ile aşk duygularını anlatma, halk zevkine uygun buluşlar Âhî’de kendini çok açık olarak gösterir...”20 Eserleri Dîvân Âhî’nin önemli eserlerinden birisi Divân’ıdır. Âhî’nin, Divân şiiri geleneği içinde oldukça orijinal ve kudretli bir şair olmasına rağmen, divanında az şiir vardır. Âhî Divânı üzerinde araştırma yapan Necati Sungur, 11 Tezkire-i Sehî, a.g.e., s.108. Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.191. 13 Mustafa İsen, “Âhî “ mad.,İslam Ansiklopedisi, TDV,c.1, İst., 1988, s.527. 14 Âşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.52b; Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.174-175; Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e.,s.193-194 15 Necati Sungur, a.g.e.., s.18-19. 16 Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.30. 17 Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s.99; Latífî Tezkiresi, (Haz: Mustafa İsen), Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ank., 1990, s. 92. 18 Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.274. 19 Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., c.1, s.191. 20 Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.37-44. 12 404 �çalışmasında belirttiğine göre şairin Divanı’nda; 1 kaside, 1 murabba, 1 tahmis, 1 kıta ve 136 gazel bulunmaktadır. Sungur, bu rakamları dikkate alarak onun bir gazel şairi olma özelliği taşıdığını söyler.21 Hüsrev ü Şîrîn: Âhî’nin kaleme alıp bitiremediği eserlerinden birisidir. Latîfî Tezkiresi’nde verilen bilgiye göre Şeyhî’nin Hüsrev ü Şirin’ine nazire olarak kaleme alınmıştır. Eserin ismi “Hikâyet-i Şîrîn u Perviz vü Rivâyet-i Gülgûn u Şebdîz”dir.22 1- Hüsn ü Dil: Âhî’nin çok beğenilen bir eseridir. Tezkirelerde övgüyle bahsedilen Hüsn ü Dil tamamlanmamıştır. . Hüsn ü Dil hikayesinin kaynağı; Hüsrev ü Şirin, Leyla vü Mecnun gibi İranlı bir şair olan Fettâhî Nişâburî’nin temsili bir aşk hikayesidir. Türk Edebiyatı’nda bir çok Hüsn ü Dil yazılmıştır. Hüsn ü Dil yazan Türk şairleri şunlardır: Lâmiî, Yenipazarlı Vâlî, Muhyî-i Gülşenî, Edirneli Sabrî, Sıdkî, Reşid ve Âhî. 23 Âhî’nin mesnevîsi, Hüsn ü Dil hikayelerinin en güzellerindendir. Bu konuda tezkirelerde çeşitli değerlendirmeler vardır. Âşık Çelebi onun güzelliğini anlatmanın imkansızlığından bahsederken24 Kınalızâde de “Merhûmun bir te’lîfi dahî Hüsn ü Dil’dür. Hakkâ ki bir inşâdur ki Hüsn gibi vasf-ı hüsni hâric-i hayta-i dâire-i imkân ve dil gibi makbûl u memdûh-ı dil u cân-ı ins u cândur. Manzumât-ı dil-âvizi cemâl-i dilberân gibi tarabefzâ vü menşûrât-ı lutf-âmîzi hâl-i ‘âşıkân gibi engüşt-nümâ dakâ’ik-ı ‘ibârâtında i‘câz-ı suhan-ârâyı peydâ u hakâ‘ik-ı kinâyâtında âsâr-ı mu‘ciz-nümâ-yı vâzıh u hüveydâdur.”25 der. Künhü’l-Ahbâr’ın tezkire kısmında da Hüsn ü Dil için Rum ilinde benzerinin olmadığı söylenerek şöyle denilmektedir: “Alâ külli hâl mesnevîsi gazellerinden râcihdür. Eş‘ârı hem-vâr degül idügi zîrâ ki vâzıhdur. Cümleden a‘la eseri ve müellif-i matbû‘u mu‘teber kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dilidür ki vilâyet-i Rûm’da te’lif olunan âsârun makbûl u bî-mu‘âdilidür. Lâmi‘î merhûmun Hüsn ü Dili güyâ bu da‘vânun hâll-i müşkilidür.”26 Âlî, Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’inin diğer Hüsn ü Dil’ler içindeki yerini de onun benzersizliğini söyleyerek ve Lâmî‘î’nin eserini değerlendirerek ortaya koyar. Sehî Bey de Tezkiresi’nde Hüsn ü Dil’den bahsederken şu ifadeyi kullanmıştır: “Hüsn ü Dil adlu bir kitabı dahî var, gayet güzel ve bî-bedel yazmışdur.”27 Latîfî ise Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’de yeni bir tarz oluşturduğuna dikkat çekerek şunları söyler: Hakkâ budur ki kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dil’i üslûb-ı inşâda tarz-ı hâs u makbul-ı efâzıl-ı havâsdur. Tarîk-ı inşâda tarz-ı münşiyânı kudemâya gitmemişdür...”28 Bursalı Mehmet Tahir ise Âhî’’nin Hüsn ü Dil’ini pek çok yenilikler ve değişiklikler yaparak yine o isimle Fettâhî Nişâburî’den tercüme ettiğini fakat tamamlayamadığını belirtir.29 Tezkirelerin verdiği bilgilerden de anlaşılıyor ki Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Îranlı şair Fettâhî Nişâburî’nin eserinden pek çok yenilikler yapılarak tercüme edilmiş; nazım-nesir karışık bir hikayedir. Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da Lâmí’nin eserine nazire olarak yazıldığı belirtilse de asıl kaynak Fettâhî Nişâburî’dir. Âhî Hasan’ın Hüsn ü Dil’i diğer Hüsn ü Dil’ler arasında en çok okunan ve beğenilen eserdir. Gelibolulu Âlî bunu Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da Lâmiî’yi anlatırken şu şekilde ifâde eder: “Nihayet Hüsn ü Dil-i Âhî tururken anun mü’ellefi okınmaz.”30 Âhî Hasan Hüsn ü Dil’ini tamamlayamadan ölmüştür. Bu da onun Hüsn ü Dil’i (923) 1517’de yazdığını gösterir. Yarım kalan eseri kayınbiraderi Haverî tamamladığı söylenmekle birlikte bu şekliyle de eser eksiktir.. Hüsn ü Dil önce Asır Gazetesi’nde tefrika edilmiş sonra da aynı gazetenin matbaasında Çaylak Tevfik tarafından bastırılmıştır. 31 Hüsn ü Dil’in tespit edebildiğimiz kadarıyla Türkiye’nin çeşitli kütüphanelerinde 40 kadar nüshası vardır. Bu da onun çok sevilip okunduğunu göstermektedir.32 21 Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.24. Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s. 98. 23 Daha geniş bilgi için Fatih Köksal, “Türk Edebiyatında Hüsn ü Dil Hikayeleri ve Yenipazarlı Vâlî’nin Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevisi”, Türklük Bilimi Araştırmaları, Sayı 3, Sivas 1997, s. 95-104. 24 Âşık Çelebi , a.g.e., s. 51b 25 Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.194 26 Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.174. 27 Tezkire-i Sehi , a.g.e., s.108. 28 Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s.98-99. 29 Osmanlı Müellifleri, a.g.e., s.67. 30 Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.266. 31 Fatih Köksal, a.g.m., s.103; Âhî, Hüsn ü Dil, Çaylak Tevfik Matbaası Yay., İst. 1287 (1871) 22 405 �Hüsn ü Dil’in Konusu: Hüsn ü Dil hikayesi, güzellik, gönül ve bununla birlikte bazı vücut organlarına kişilik verilerek meydana getirilmiş tasavvufî bir aşk hikayesidir. Hikayede Hüsn ile Dil’in aşkları uğruna geçirdikleri sıkıntılar, uğradıkları bazı haller sembol kahramanlarca anlatılır. Hikayede; Dil(gönül), Hüsn(güzellik), Aşk, Akıl, Nazar, Himmet, Rakip, Hayal, Nağme, Rahip Zerk, Gamze, Zülf gibi temel kahramanlar ve bunların yanında yardımcı kahramanlar diyebileceğimiz Namus, Tevbe, Gayr, Nefs, Fahr, Tebessüm, Naz, Sak, Gayret, Şive, Ney, Çeng, Def, Şemayil yer almaktadır. Bütün bu kahramanlar allegorik bir şekilde canlandırılmıştır. Hepsinin de karşıladığı bir tasavvufî mânâ vardır. Eserin konusu kısaca şu şekildedir: Yunan ülkesinde Akıl isimli bir hükümdar vardır. Karısı Nefs-i Nefis ile birlikte ettikleri duaların ve adadıkları adakların sonucunda Dil isimli bir erkek çocukları olur. Dil Kal’a-i Beden ve Hisâr-ı Ten’de devlet tecrübesi kazanması için yetiştirilir. Bu sırada öğrendiği “Âb-ı hayat”ı merak eder. Dil’e bu konuda Nazar isimli adamlarından birisi yardımcı olur. Onun adına Âb-ı Hayat’ı aramaya gider. Âfiyet şehrine gelir. Hükümdar Namus’tan, Şöhret şehrinde hükümdar Fahr’dan böyle bir suyun olmadığı cevabını alır. Nazar daha sonra Hayret girdabına dalar ve Hidayet şehrine ulaşır. Hükümdar Himmet ona yardım eder ve yol gösterir. Nazar yola çıkar. Diyar-ı Maşrık’ta bulunan Aşk isimli padişahın kızı Hüsn’ün bulunduğu Didar şehrindeki Bâğ-ı Ruhsar’a gidecektir. Âb-ı Hayat oradadır. Nazar yolda çeşitli tehlikelerle karşılaşır. İlk önce Segsâr isimli yerde Rakîb’e yakalanır. Himmet’in kardeşi Kamet’in yardımıyla oradan kurtulur. Yola devam ederken Zülf ile karşılaşır. Zülf, Nazar’a bir kaç kıl verir. Nazar başı sıkışınca bunu yakıp sıkıntıdan kurtulacaktır. Nazar yoluna devam eder. Mâr-pâye’ye esir düşer, ondan da kurtulur ve Şehr-i Dîdâr’a ulaşır. Bu şehirde birçok gariplikler vardır. Sonra Hüsn’ün silahdarı Gamze ile karşılaşır. Gamze onu tam öldüreceği sırada Nazar’ın kulağında bend gibi bir gevher görür. Gamze’nin kılıç bağında ise hamayıl gibi bir cevher vardır. Bu işaretler onların kardeş olduklarını göstermektedir. Bunun üzerine Gamze onu Hüsn’ün huzuruna çıkarır. Hüsn ona bir cevher gösterir ve ne olduğunu sorar. Bu cevher Dil’in şeklidir. Hüsn Dil’e âşık olur. Dil’i getirmeleri için Nazar’ın yanına bir ressam olan aynadar Hayal ve mutrib Nağme’yi katarak onları gönderir. Bu arada Nazar’a bir yüzük vermiştir. Bu yüzük tılsımlıdır ve onu kötülüklerden koruyacaktır. Nazar ve yanındakiler şehr-i Beden’e Dil’in yanına gelirler. Hayal, Hüsn’ün resmini yaparak Dil’e gösterir. Dil de Hüsn’e aşık olur. Hüsn’ün yanına gitmeye karar verir. Bunu Akıl’ın veziri Vehm, hükümdara iletir. Nazar, Hayal ve Nağme tutuklanır. Akıl bunları ayrı ayrı hapseder. Nazar yüzük sayesinde kurtulur. Birden kendisini Çeşme-i Mîm-Fem’de bulur. Bu “âb-ı hayat”tır. Nazar âb-ı hayattan içmek isterken yüzük buraya düşer ve kendisini Rakîb’in ülkesi Segsâr’da bulur. Rakîb’in elinden, saç telini ateşe atarak kurtulur. Şehr-i Dildar’a geri gelir. Olanları Hüsn’e anlatır. Hüsn bir ordu hazırlayarak Gamze önderliğinde Şehr-i Beden’e gönderir. Rakib’in oğlu Tevbe’nin askerleriyle karşılaşırlar. Tevbe yenilir. Bunu haber alan Akıl, Dil’i iknâ ederek Aşk’ın ülkesine doğru yola çıkarlar. Hal ve Ân’ın yardımıyla Dil yaralanarak esir edilir. Akıl da oğlunu kurtarmak için Hüsn’ün ordularına saldırır ve esir düşer. Hüsn Dil’i Çâh-ı Zekan’a attırır. Tebessüm isimli nedîmesi Dil’in yaralarını iyileştirir. Dil’i Vefâ’nın Bağ-ı Dil-güşâ denilen bahçesindeki Çeşme-i Âşinâ’nın ortasındaki Kasr-ı Visal’e götürür. Burada günlerini geçiren Dil’i Hüsn görmek ister. Dil’i sarhoş ederler ve Hüsn onu bu şekilde görür. Hikaye burada kesilmektedir. Buradan sonra ise diğer Hüsn ü Dil’lerde konu şu şekilde devam eder: Bir gün Rakib’in kızı Gayr Hüsn’ün kılığına girer ve Dil’e gider ve yanına yatar. Hüsn bunu görür ve Dil’i zindana attırır. Daha sonra Dil’in kabahatsiz olduğu Hüsn’e bir mektupla bildirilir. Hüsn pişman olur. Onu affeder. Aşk’la Akl’ın gerçekte kardeş oldukları anlaşılır. Dil ile Hüsn evlenir. En sonda Hızır ortaya çıkar ve dini vecibelerden bahseder. Hüsn ü Dil’de Dil ve Üslup Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil isimli eserinde 16. yüzyıl Türkçesini görmek mümkündür. Bu sebeple bugün kullanmadığımız bir çok kelime eserde yer almaktadır. Eser nazım-nesir karışık olmakla birlikte eserin nesir kısmı ağırlıktadır. Olayların anlatımında kolay anlaşılır bir dil kullanılırken tasvirler, hitaplar Arapça ve Farsça tamlama ve kelimelerle yüklüdür. Olayların 32 M. Çakır, a. g. t., s. 14-16. 406 �geçtiği kısımlarda fazla tamlama ve yabancı kelime yoktur. Fakat hitaplarda, tasvirlerde ve metnin diğer kısımlarında dil ağırlaşmaktadır. Sade olan beyitlerden birkaç örnek: “Cihandan yüz çevirüp nâme gibi Dilüm kesmişdim andan hâme gibi Bütün dünyada bir yârim yog idi Egerçi anda agyârım çog idi.”33 ... “Câhilüñ fahri kesb-i mâlledür ‘Ârifüñ ‘izeti kemâlledür Bizi gör kim ne hâlimiz vardur Ne kemâl ü ne mâlimiz vardur”34 Eserde Türkçe şiirlerin yanında Arapça, Farsça şiirler de vardır. Bununla birlikte Türkçe-Arapça; Türkçe-Farsça yazılmış beyitlere de rastlanmaktadır. Derya-yı dil ol cihanda ki bu rûzigârdur Tecri’r-reyâhu leyse kemâ teştehî’s-sefeki”35 Eser oluşturulurken ağırlıklı olarak ayetler, hadisler, Arapça ve Farsça ibarelere yer verilmiştir. Özellikle ayet ve hadisler metne ustalıkla yerleştirilmiştir. Kimi yerde ayetin ve hadisin sadece metne uygun olan kısmı verilirken, kimi yerde de tamamı verilmiştir. Âhî Hasan’ın Hüsn ü Dil’ini incelerken karşımıza çıkan diğer bir husus da eserin tamâmen teşhis ve intak sanatı ile yazılmış olmasıdır. Eserde allegorik bir anlatım söz konusudur. Dil, Hüsn, Nefs, Riyâ gibi soyut kavramlar kişileştirilirken ney, def, çeng gibi çalgı aletleri de kişileştirilmiş ve konuşturulmuştur. Eser insan dışındaki cansız varlıkların canlandırılması üzerine kurulmuştur. Teşhis ve intak sanatı bütün esere hakimdir. Bununla birlikte eserde teşbihler oldukça başarılı ve canlıdır. Birçok durum ve olay teşbihlerle canlı bir şekilde ifade edilmiştir.36 Sonuç Rumeli’nin Türk toprağı haline gelmesinden itibaren buralarda oldukça etkili bir edebiyat ortamı oluşmuştur. Bu topraklarda birçok şair yetişmiş, bunlar çeşitli vesilelerle İstanbul’a gelmiş ve İstanbul’da edebî bir muhitin oluşmasına katkıda bulunmuşlardır. İşte bu şairlerden birisi de Rumelili Âhî Hasan’dır. Âhî Hasan, XV. yüzyılın sonu XVI. yüzyılın başında yaşamış, Niğbolulu bir şairdir. Bazı sebeplerden dolayı İstanbul’a gelmiş ve burada ilim tahsil etmiştir. Tahsili neticesinde müderrislik yapmaya başlayan Âhî, daha ziyade şair kimliği ile tanınmıştır. Şiir meclislerindeki sessizliği, içine kapanıklığı, rind meşrep bir yapıya sahip oluşu, şiirlerinde samimî ve harâbâtî bir ifadeye dönüşmüştür. Âhî, çağının sanattaki olgunluğunu şiirlerine yansıtabilmiş bir şairdir. Tezkireler onun şairlikteki becerisinde hem-fikirdirler. Şiirlerindeki sadelik, atasözü ve deyim zenginliği, halk söyleyişine yakın ifadeler onun orjinalliğini ve bu konudaki başarısını göstermektedir. Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil isimli eserinden başka Divân’ı ve Hüsrev ü Şîrîn mesnevisi vardır. Hüsrev ü Şîrîn mesnevisi, Hüsn ü Dil gibi tamamlanamamıştır. Divân’ı ise onun bir gazel şairi olduğunun işaretidir. Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Hüsn ü Dil hikayelerinin en güzellerindendir. Eserin çeşitli kütüphanelerde 40 civarında nüshasının bulunması onun halk tarafından beğenilerek okunduğunu gösterir. Tezkirelerden öğrendiğimize göre Âhî’nin ömrü eseri tamamlamaya yetmez. Tezkirelerde verilen Haverî’nin eseri tamamladığına dair bilgi yanlış olup eser elimizdeki haliyle eksiktir. Hüsn ü Dil hikayesi; güzellik, gönül, akıl, aşk ve bununla birlikte sembolleştirilmiş bazı varlıklarla meydana getirilmiş temsîlî bir aşk hikayesidir. Eserde aşk uğruna çekilen sıkıntılar tasavvufî bir ifadeyle anlatılır. Eser, nazım-nesir karışık kaleme alınmış ve şiirler mesnevî, beyt, kıt‘a başlıklarıyla verilmiştir. Arapça, Farsça ibareler, ayetler metinde ustalıkla kullanılmış, hatta metne eseri ilgi çekici hale getirmek için Arapça, Farsça, Türkçe karışık şiirler yerleştirilmiştir. Eserin dili nesir kısmında, özellikle de tasvirlerde ağırken, şiirler oldukça sadedir. Hüsn ü Dil, dil ve üslup hususiyetleriyle devrinin özelliklerini yansıtan önemli bir eserdir. Sonuç olarak şunu söyleyebiliriz ki; Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Leylâ ve Mecnun, Hüsn ü Aşk gibi kendi vâdisindeki benzerleri içinde zirveye yerleşmiş mühim bir eserdir. 33 M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 64. M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 89 35 M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 98 36 M. Çakır, a.g.t., s 24-27. Bu çalışmanın kaynak alındığı tez: Mümine Çakır, Âhî’nin “Hüsn ü Dil”i, İstanbul Fatih Üniversitesi 1998 (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi) 34 407 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 430 Title A name given to the resource Rumelili Bir Şair Âhî ve Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevîsi Author Author ÇAKIR, Mümine Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/af8677c724a4f66b29fa79f2ab363cc1.pdf c2610f71850261de1bb906c05fee435e PDF Text Text The Effect of a Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) Group Counseling Program on the Internet Addiction among University Students Mehmet ÇARDAK Social Sciences Institute, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey mehmetcardak@hotmail.com Mustafa KOÇ Education Faculty, Sakarya University,Turkey mkoc@sakarya.edu.tr Tuğba Seda ÇOLAK Education Faculty, Sakarya University,Turkey tseda@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Internet addiction is a common problem in our universities as the number of Internet users are increased. The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the addicts, these benefits develop into severe disadvantages. We examined the effect of a REBT group counseling program derived from choice theory and control theory of reality therapy theory for group counseling on the Internet addiction among university students. Participants in the treatment group attended the REBT group counseling program that was held one session per week for 10 consecutive weeks, whereas the participants in the control group received no treatment. The findings indicated that the treatment program effectively reduced Internet addiction among university students. At the same time, the results revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on the dependent variables. 1. Introduction Technology is changing the nature of problems. Symptoms often identified were a preoccupation with the Internet, an inability to control use, hiding or lying about the behavior, psychological withdrawal, and continued use despite consequences of the behavior (Young, 2007). The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the excessive Internet users, these benefits turn out to be useless. Most individuals use the Internet without negative consequences and even benefit from it, but some individuals do suffer from negative impacts. Psychologists and educators are aware of the potential negative impact from excessive use and related physical and psychological problems (Griffiths ,2000 & Greenfield ). Users who spend a significant amount of time online often experience academic, relationship, financial, and occupational difficulties, as well as physical impairments (Chou, 2001). Some researchers (Brenner, 1997, Nie & Erbring, 2000.) have even linked Internet use with an increase in psychological difficulties such as depression and loneliness. Excessive Internet use is a more common problem in Turkey. Internet use in Turkey has increased rapidly and has become a major part of daily life. However, the advancement of Internet technology not only brings benefits, but also negative results. Of these negative aspects, excessive Internet use is increasing dramatically. Internet addiction is called addiction disorder, pathological Internet use, excessive Internet use, and compulsive Internet use. (Kim, 2008) Internet addiction is described as an impulse control disorder that does not involve the use of an intoxicating drug and is very similar to pathological gambling (Young, 1996). “Healthy Internet use” is the use of the Internet for an expressed purpose in a reasonable amount of time without cognitive or behavioral discomfort. Problematic Internet use is “a psychiatric condition which involves maladaptive thoughts and pathological behavior” (Davis, 2002). Problematic Internet use is excessive time spent on various activities on the Internet to an extent that might have negative effects on the user’s physical and psychological health; social, academic, professional, and marital relationships, and other areas of life (Young1997). Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, (2000) define problematic Internet use as intensive use of the Internet, failure to control Internet use, serious harm to the user’s life resulting from this use. Problematic Internet use has been associated with increases in impulsivity and increases in social comfort while online (Davis, 2002). Problematic Internet use can cause Internet addiction. Young characterized Internet addiction as staying online for pleasure averaging 38 hours or more per week, largely in chat rooms, and concluded that Internet addiction can shatter families, relationships, and careers (Young, 1996). 172 �Internet addiction, also described as pathological Internet use, is defined as an individual’s inability to control his or her use of the Internet, which eventually causes psychological, social, school and/or work difficulties in a person’s life (Young & Rogers 1998; Davis 2001). Addictive Internet use is defined as “an impulse control disorder that does not involve an intoxicant” and is akin to pathological gambling (Young, 1998). Young further categorized five specific types of Internet addiction: (1) cyber sexual addiction to adult chat rooms or cyber porn; (2) cyber relationship addiction to online friendships or affairs that replace real-life situations; (3) net compulsions to online gambling, auctions, or obsessive trading; (4) information overload to compulsive web surfing or databases searches; and (5) computer addiction to game playing or programming (Young, 1998). Like other addictions, furthermore, Internet addiction has been linked to a variety of problems. Besides little sleep, failure to eat for long periods and limited physical activity, it also disrupts the studies and other aspects of the daily life of an individual ( Cao &Su; 2006). These people demonstrated two or more Internet addiction symptoms, namely, spending more time on the Internet than intended, feeling an urge to instantly connect to the Internet once arriving home, receiving complaints from family members and friends about too much time on the Internet, and unsuccessful attempts to cut back on Internet use (Chak &Leung, 2004). Previous studies indicate that people may develop a new lifestyle through Internet activities, which may cause a worsening in their actual social relationships (Whang, Lee & Chang, 2003). In other words, depressive feelings of people relying on the Internet for social support might remain or even worsen toward their real-life interpersonal relationships, increasing their risk of becoming Internet addicted (Yu-Chun, Huei-Chen , Jo Yung-Wei, M.A.,2 and Chung-Ping, 2008). Internet use may be beneficial when kept to 'normal' levels, however high levels of Internet use which interfere with daily life have been linked to a range of problems, including decreased psychosocial well-being, relationship breakdown and neglect of domestic, academic and work responsibilities (Beard 2002; Weiser 2001; Widyanto & McMurran 2004; Yao-Guo, Lin-Yan & Feng-Lin 2006; Young 1998). Studies indicated that the potential for negative psychological and social consequences reduced as society became more accustomed to using the Internet. ( Kraut, Kiesler, Boneva, Cummings, Helgeson & Crawford 2002). The explosive growth of the Internet in the last decade has had a huge impact on psychological research in understanding its role in communication and interpersonal behavior. There has been increased interest in the addictive potential of the Internet1 and the effect this can have on psychological well being ( Niemz, Griffiths & Banyard, 2005). Internet use in university students is becoming a serious problem, possibly resulting in many physical and mental health problems The advancement of Internet technology not only brings benefits, but also negative results. Of these negative aspects, excessive Internet use is increasing dramatically. Typical The aims of this study were to determine effect of group counseling program on Internet addiction in Turkish University Students. 2. Research Method 2.1 Participants The subjects for this study were 276 University students who were at Sakarya University in Sakarya province. After the pretest, twenty-four participants were volunteers among sixty-five Internet addicts who had shown Internet addiction disorder. Demographic information of the participants follows. The participants consisted of twenty-eight males and thirty-seven females. They were randomly assigned into two groups, twelve for the experimental group and twelve for the control group, respectively. In the experimental group, there were six males and six females. Twelve were in the control group, of whom six were males and six females. 2.2 Data collection tools Demographics This section included questions about the participant’s sex and daily Internet use. Addicted Internet Users 173 �With the following two cases as university students were dependent on Internet addicted in this study. In other words, Internet use six hours a day and from five to eight questions, yes, was adopted as the Internet addicted. 1. Young characterized Internet addiction as staying online for pleasure averaging 38 hours or more per week, largely in chat rooms, and concluded that Internet addiction can shatter families, relationships and careers (young, 1996). 2. She developed an 8-item questionnaire for diagnosing addicted Internet users, which was adopted from the criteria for pathological gambling as referenced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders–IV (Young, ,1996). In her studies, respondents who answered “yes” to 5 or more criteria were classified as addicted Internet users and those who responded “yes” to less than 5 were classified as normal Internet users. Criteria for Problematic Internet Use Include (Young. 1999): ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ Preoccupation with Internet Need for longer amounts of time online Repeated attempts to reduce Internet use Withdrawal when reducing Internet use Time management issues Environmental distress (family, school, work, friends) Deception around time spent online Mood modification through Internet use 2.3 Procedure Prior to the initial commencement of the REBTgroup counseling program, all participants signed an informed consent agreement and completed a demographic information questionnaire. Subsequent to the completion of the pretest assessment, the treatment group participated in the REBT group counseling program that would be held two sessions per week for five consecutive weeks. The control group received no treatment. After completion of the program, both the treatment and the control group completed the posttest assessment. Experimental pretest-posttest control group design as follows, RG1 RG3 T --- RG2 RG4 2.4 Data Analysis The data collected were analyzed by independent samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test. in an effort to examine the initial differences between the treatment and control groups on the pretests. Means, standard deviations, and estimated marginal means of the treatment group and the control group were calculated. 3. Results Independent samples t tests found significant differences that two groups were not statistically equivalent on two variables including Addictive Automatic Thought and averaging use of Internet 38 hours or more per week. The results of this study are reported in Tables 1-2 and Figures 1-2. 174 �test Groups pretest yes/no hours Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= 67.00 Mean Rank Sum of Ranks treatment N 12 12,08 145,00 control 12 12,92 155,00 Total 24 treatment 12 12,50 150,00 control 12 12,50 150,00 Total 24 Z: -.314 P, .754 / Mann-Whitney U: H= 72.00 Z: ,000 P: 1,00 Table 1. Results on Pretest for Treatment and Control Groups 8 7 6 5 no 4 yes Daily Internet Use:hours 3 2 1 Treatment male6 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 male6 female1 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 female1 0 Control Figure 1.Results on daily Internet use and 8-item questionnaire for diagnosing addicted Internet users As exhibited in Table 1, Mann-Whitney U scores, Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= 67.00 Z: -.314 P, .754 / MannWhitney U: H= 72.00 Z: ,000 P: 1,00 There is no differences between treatment and control groups about Internet addiction and Internet use 38 hours or more per week. Research Question Does the REBT group counseling program for Internet addiction University students reduce significantly their Internet addiction level? 175 �test groups posttest yes hours Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= ,500 Mean Rank Sum of Ranks treatment N 12 6,54 78,50 control 12 18,46 221,50 Total 24 treatment 12 6,50 78,00 control 12 18,50 222,00 Total 24 Z: -4,219 P, .000 / Mann-Whitney U: H= ,000 Z, -4,266 P: ,000 Table 2. Results About Posttest Of Treatment And Control Groups 8 7 6 5 no yes 4 Daily Internet Use:hours 3 2 1 Treatment male6 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 male6 female1 male5 male4 male3 male2 male1 female6 female5 female4 female3 female2 female1 0 Control On each of the dimensions of the Internet Addicted Scala, after the treatment of the “Rebt Group Counseling Program”, the treatment group demonstrated significantly even lower Internet addiction than did the control group. Rebt Group Counseling Program reduce significantly Internet addiction university students daily Internet use level ( Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= ,500 Z: -4,219 P, .000 / Mann-Whitney U: H= ,000 Z, -4,266 P: ,000). The results revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on Internet addiction. 4. Discussion Internet addiction is a common problem in Turkey as Internet users are increased. They spent at least 3-4 hours a day online, usually playing games or chatting .Generally, many counselors who specialized in the treatment of addiction such as drug, alcohol, gambling, sex, and even Internet take advantage of individual, group, and family counseling with a heavy emphasis on the rational choice. Many studies on addiction recovery treatment have proved that group counseling is the predominant modality (Kim,2008). University students, also, become to Internet addiction because of many factors such as difficulty adapting to life away from home and underlying psychological problems, including depression or social problems, anxiety and loneliness. University is a training center for adulthood and an individual must be responsible for oneself. Counselors and University administrators should treat Internet addiction University students for their recovery(Kim,2007) Does the REBT group counseling program for Internet addiction University students reduce significantly their Internet addiction level? The purpose of the present study was to implement this program and examine the effectiveness. 176 �The data collected immediately after the delivery of the treatment of the REBT group counseling program showing that the participants who participated in the treatment group demonstrated significant lower Internet addiction level than did participants in the controlled group. Disclosure the treatment group to the REBT group counseling program significantly reduced university students Internet addiction usage. This may be linked to the fact that exposing the experimental group to R/T group counseling program enables them to aware of their doing and wants, and to plan and perform plan. Also, self-evaluation for the implementation and the choice of more effective behaviors help them improve responsibility. The treatment group experience psychological support from the counselors. The REBT group counseling program that was used in this study techniques: observation of demonstration, reinforcement, behavioral practice, explanation, role-play, feedback, encouragement, and assignment of behavioral tasks related to Internet excessive usage. In the posttest Immediate after the treatment, participants who participated in the REBT group counseling program exhibited higher self-esteem than did participants who received no treatment 177 �References Beard, K.W. 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(1997) What makes the Internet addictive: potential explanations for pathological Internet use. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of The American Psychological Association, Chicago. Young, K. (1996). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 3, Til-iAA. Young, K. S. & Rogers, R. C. (1998) The relationship between depression and Internet addiction. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 1, 25–28. Young, K.S. (1996). Psychology of computer use: XL. Addictive use of the Internet. A case that breaks the stereotype. Psychological Reports 79:899–902. Young, K.S. (1998). Internet addiction: The emergence of a new clinical disorder. CyberPsychology & Behavior 1:237–244. Young, K.Y.S. (2007). Cognitive Behavior Therapy with Internet Addicts: Treatment Outcomes and implications, Cyberpsychology & Behavior Volume 10, Number 5, 671-679. Young K, Rodgers R. (1998). The relationship between depression and Internet addiction. CyberPsychology & Behavior; 1:25–8. Yu-Chun Y. , Huei-Chen K., Jo Yung-Wei W., M.A., and Chung-Ping C. (2008). Gender Differences in Relationships of Actual and Virtual Social Support to Internet Addiction Mediated through Depressive Symptoms among College Students in Taiwan. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY & BEHAViOR Volume 11, Number 4, 485-487. 179 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 385 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of a Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) Group Counseling Program on the Internet Addiction among University Students Author Author ÇARDAK, Mehmet KOÇ, Mustafa ÇOLAK, Tuğba Seda Abstract A summary of the resource. Internet addiction is a common problem in our universities as the number of Internet users are increased. The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the addicts, these benefits develop into severe disadvantages. We examined the effect of a REBT group counseling program derived from choice theory and control theory of reality therapy theory for group counseling on the Internet addiction among university students. Participants in the treatment group attended the REBT group counseling program that was held one session per week for 10 consecutive weeks, whereas the participants in the control group received no treatment. The findings indicated that the treatment program effectively reduced Internet addiction among university students. At the same time, the results revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on the dependent variables. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e8f7ccdf44dd2b5c313e0107c7e0555.pdf 4bee2d5178fb7affc1f0ead6cc294d78 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Favoritism and Nepotism in The Ottoman Empire Đlker Hüseyin ÇARIKÇI Assoc. Dr., Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey ihcarikci@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Ahmet Sait ÖZKUL asozkul@sdu.edu.tr Aygen Demir OKSAY aygen@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Hasan Hüseyin UZUNBACAK hhuzunbacak@yahoo.com.tr Abstract : The professional criteria can be neglected in both the developing countries and the countries that have intensive traditional ties. One can be recruited or appointed according to his relations with a politician, the owner or the manager of a business instead of his qualifications. We come across with this situation, what is called as ‘kin selection’ or ‘nepotism,’ in our society both in the past and today. In this study, we will try to explain the cognitive frame of favoritism especially nepotism (relative/kin favoritism) in Ottoman Empire, which has a very important role both in the world and the Turkish history, and also give some examples to it. Because nepotism is very important today for taking control of the management process in associations and corporations as in the past. The Concept of Nepotism and Favoritism Favoritism is giving someone preferential treatment. In other words it can be explained as the public officers defending their relatives when they behave against law. In literature, relative favoritism is called as ‘nepotism,’ friends and acquaintances favoritism is called as ‘cronyism’ and political favoritism is called as ‘patronage’ (Aktan and Çoban, 2008) The reason of favoritism in public sector is more then money; it is about loyalty and responsibility. It is possible to use relative ties as an impression tool to affect the public officers instead of something economical like some goods or money. The essence of this cooperation depends on favoritism. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002) Favoritism is a big problem of the bureaucracy. Favoritism, which in bureaucracy can be found in various forms, first took place in the literature when General Jackson won the presidential elections in 1828. The ‘Protection System he carried out was misused and afterwards the concept favoritism took place in the politics and management literature. Yılmaz and Kılavuz (2002) define favoritism as some specific measures like going to the same schools, being from the same town, supporting the same political party being much more important then the universal measures that regulates the management practices. The degeneration in politics provides a basis for degeneration in the society as well. The negativeness and the corruption in the politics affect the society’s trust on the political system. This in turn reflects as the corruption in the society, which is most known as favoritism. (Aktan and Çoban, 2008) The laziness and the blindness of being unable to see the future changes the society’s habits from producing to consuming. It is really hard to make decisions about future in an environment like this where all the balances in the economy and politics are destroyed. The distrust that comes along with hopelessness drags the society to bribery or other illegal ways to become rich. (Özbilen, 2001: 1-2) The most common types of favoritism are relative favoritism and political favoritism. In the public institutions ‘relative favoritism’ can be seen in the assignment of the jobs. It shows itself as showing preferential treatment to someone because of some personal factors such as his town, relatives, friends, etc. other then his qualifications. People sometimes try to take advantage of being friends or a relative of the public officer and ask the officer to treat him specially. In these kinds of situations sometimes the public officer depending on his responsibilities his relations require, treats the citizen in a special way then he does a plain citizen. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002: 25) 498 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The first type of relative favoritism as known as “Nepotism” is “assigning someone to a public position according to his relative relations instead of the required qualifications.” According to some studies, especially in less developed countries, the close relative relations still have an important affect in formal organization structure. The second type is known as “cronyism” which is known as “assigning someone to a public position according to his relations such as friendship or citizenship.” Some researches say that there is no difference between nepotism and cronyism. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002: 25-26) Another type of favoritism occurs when someone influential uses his force to ask a privileged treatment from a public officer. In this situation; the officer in case of asking a favor later or just to protect himself from the possible negative reactions, might does a privileged procedure. (Yılmaz and Kılavuz, 2002) Nepotism, cronyism and partisanship can be seen in almost all the public offices. The wrong policy carried out in personnel management decreases the efficiency and also affects the trust to the government negatively. (Özbilen, 2001: 1-2) The Formation Of Nepotism Nepotism is a fact that is seen mostly in countries that have intense traditional ties and relations and where the market mechanism isn’t developed well as well as in those family businesses in the developed countries. (Özler, Özler ve Gümüştekin, 2008: 438; Tepav, 2006) “Kin selection” is a natural instinct in humans and as some scientist say in animals. According to the biological/ecological approaches nepotism is a rational behavior. These approaches define nepotism as a chosen behavior. (Özler, Özler ve Gümüştekin, 2008: 438) The phrase “Friendship lasts a day, kinship lasts every day.” is taken from Kramer’s book ‘L’Historie Commence a Summer’, summarizes nepotism as the continuance of trust from the human being’s point of view. (Danışmend, 1979: 27) Another factor in the forming of nepotism is the structure of family and society. The degree of society’s being individualist or collectivist also affects nepotism. The appropriate composition of society’s individualism or collectivism is important for the balance and health of society. In the western societies estrangement is seen because of excessive individualist structure. On the opposite side the excessive collectivist structure prevent the forming of non-governmental organizations; while the sharp collectivist structure forms estrangement in the eastern societies. In this context the spirit of cooperation should be built again in the western societies. On the other hand in the eastern societies the individualism should be supported so as to turn the firm and close community into a society. (Bayhan, 2002) According to Fukuyama traditional family ties form dependant individuals and prevent the development of the countries. The continuance of only family and complex relative relations prevents economical progress. The individuals who only trust their family or relatives can’t establish free will relationships. Nepotism is effective in those societies where the self-interest and solidarity in family comes before the ethical values. Family, relatives, citizenship, political party, clan, ideology or a religious community play a deterministic role in social relations. “When loyalty in social structure exceeds economical rationalism; then the cooperation in the commune will lead to favoritism in simple employment procedures.” (Bayhan, 2002) The definitions of nepotism in the literature are as follows: Nepotism is “employing or giving promotion to people according to their relative ties and ignoring whether they have the required qualifications such as education, skills, ability, etc.” (Özler, Özler and Gümüştekin, 2008: 438) Nepotism is derived from a Latin word ‘nepos’ which means a ‘male cousin’ or a ‘grandson’. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism) The negative meaning of the word comes from the Renaissance period where the Popes assigned their nephews to the highest positions without looking at their qualifications. (Khanri vd.; 6-7) Thus it can be defined as giving position to nephews or other relatives according to relations other then capability or suitability. (Khatri vd.; 7) Another definition of nepotism is using one’s preference in favor of a relative in assignment of important positions. The applications of nepotism can be seen mostly in less-developed countries where the traditional ties are more intense. (Özsemerci, 2003: 20, Uluyol, 2004: 63) Some researches say that in case of nepotism the public officers don’t have a benefit whereas other researches disagree with this idea. As a result it is obvious that the public officer gains prestige and recognition as well as monetary benefit from a status he doesn’t deserve. (Tepav,2006) In the private sector we see the applications of nepotism during the establishment of family businesses. (Uluyol, 2003: 63) It should be seen something natural to put family members in the important positions; but it can hurt the company negatively to employ someone without the required qualifications just because they are family members. Just like Nejat Eczacıbaşı said “It’s a big mistake to hire inadequate talented family members and give them a managing position just because of their relations.” ( Eczacıbaşı, 1999: 257) The application of nepotism can be seen in two different ways: 499 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo � � The ones who gain power give important positions to their friends and acquaintances. The most known way of nepotism is this. (Fişek; http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2000/10/05/246865.asp) In this kind of application nepotism is done by the one who owns power. The one who has authority uses this power to gain benefit to his relatives. We can say that in this kind of nepotism the person deliberatively uses his position badly. In the other type of application the relatives themselves use the person’s authority, name or power to gain advantage. (Fişek) We can see this kind of application especially in the government bidding processes. Nepotism in History Favoritism is seen in all periods of history: in Archaic China, India, Greece, the Roman Empire, the Sumerians, the Middle Ages, Age of Reason and today in most of the world. The Sumerian tablet, found in BC 4000, in Istanbul Archaeological Museum shows how an unsuccessful student became the most successful student of the class as well as the president of the class. It tells in the tablet how the family invites the teacher to their house, serve him food and give him presents. (http://www.tepav.org.tr/tur/admin/dosyabul/upload/yolsuzluk1.pdf) It is known that 2300 years ago the president of Brahmani counted the 40 ways of corruption and in the old China the civil servants were paid ‘yang-lien’ in addition to their salary just to prevent bribery. (http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/komisyon/yolsuzluk_ arastirma/ kaynaklar/Kisim_1.pdf) Another interesting example of favoritism in history is Platon assigning his sister’s son Speusippos to the management of the academy after himself in order for him to survive. (Platon; 2005: 13) When the president of USA J. Garfield gets killed by an unemployed person, the system was questioned and The Law of Pendleton (1883) which decreased patronage and formed Government Personnel Unit was accepted. Thus the system changed from captured property to merit and career system. The senator Frank Murkowski, when chosen as the chief magistrate of Alaska assigned his daughter as the representative of the state was blamed for nepotism. John F. Kennedy was blamed for nepotism as well when he assigned his brother Robert Kennedy as his advisor. The second Prime Minister of Malaysia, Tun Abdul Razak, assigned his son Najib Tun Razak as vice president. The first prime minister of Singapore Lee Kuan Yew assigned his son as prime minister after himself. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism) In 1952 the Truman management was blamed for Cronyism because of assigning his friends to the public offices. (Khatri vd.;3) Favoritism and Nepotism in Establishment of The Ottoman Empire Until the 16th century it is possible to say that favoritism isn’t seen in the Ottoman Empire. The reason of this was because of the theologists and their advices that were effective in the establishment of the empire as well as the precautions to prevent the bad going of the empire. During the 16th and 17th centuries when the favoritism starts, many tractates, which gave advices and warnings towards corruption and moral, such as tractate of Koçibey was indicted. (Özcan Yeniçeri, www.kibris.com, Erişim: 09.04.2009) The advices of Şeyh Edebali to Osman Gazi have been the most important principles in the establishment of the Ottoman Empire. One of these advices was: “The country isn’t an asset that is shared between the Sultan and his brothers or sons. The country only belongs to the Sultan.” (Topbaş, 1999: 28) When we take these advices as a whole it isn’t a surprise to not find a sign of favoritism during the establishment of the empire. Osman Gazi also advices his son Orhan Gazi not to turn aside from honesty and justice. (Topbaş; 1999: 26–29, 34- 35) It is hard to find applications of favoritism in such a system like this. It can be said that nepotism isn’t seen until the end of the 16th century. But towards the end of 16th century many resources show that corruption, bribery and nepotism becomes widespread. Nepotism is a management style just like monarchy or dynasty and it has both its advantages and disadvantages just like every other system. Every culture has it’s own trends towards nepotism where the traditions, symbols and rules differ in the application process. Thus there are differences between the Turkish nepotism, the American nepotism or the Italian nepotism. For example it is possible to come across with two different ways of becoming the Sultan in the Ottoman Empire. One is a relatively institutionalized method where the most talented brother becomes the Sultan. This is rather a way that covers both nepotism and competition. The other way is becoming the Sultan without having the talent or the capacity thanks to the intrigues. (Özler, Özler, Gümüştekin, 2008:438) Favoritism And Nepotism During The Decline Period Of The Ottoman Empire In the book of “The Moral and Mentality World of Economic Disengagement” Ülgener gives place to couplets showing the portrait of the people in the disengagement period. These couplets show that nepotism is a 500 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo matter of preference and that people should be leery on the cooperation with the foreign and should prefer their relatives even if they are unqualified. The couplets express that there should be distance with the foreign. (Ülgener, 1981: 205) Favoritism is one of the major problems that come across after Kanuni. (Yılmaz ve Kılavuz; 2002: 26) C.H. Fleischer, in his monography on Mustafa Ali from Gallipoli, tells that the Ottoman intellectuals in the 16th century have a strong awareness of the law. These people criticize those who are assigned to some duties without having deserved it and talk about the concept of ‘kanun-i kadim’ which is a law on punishment, management and finance. Even though it is said that the government system is destroyed before the 16th century, nepotism is widespread after this century. (Özsemerci: 29- 30) After the 16th century corruption started wide spreading in every area. After the 16th century the administrative system as well as the financial system fell down and the authority got lost in time. The loosing of the authority provides a basis on favoritism and bribery. (Özsemerci; 2003: 27). “Another factor that supports this development is the financial problems that the public managers go through at the end of the 16th century. As a result of this the managers fell in trouble of surviving and negative effects on honesty and prestige occurs.” (Bayar; 1979: 48) From this point of view one can say that the applications of nepotism start with the government loosing power on economy and politics. These kinds of applications start even in the education system. The Medresseh structure starts to drop back after the 16th century and from this date on politics and favoritism starts to interfere with the education system. Before the 16th century, in order to become a teacher in the Medresseh academical qualifications were important whereas after the 16th century favoritism became more important. (Sağ; 2003: 17) Some Examples of Favoritism and Nepotism in The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire was unable to cope with the applications of favoritism. The cradle of ulema is a good example of this. The scientists were called ulemas and they were intellectual people who were educated on both religion and social sciences. But during the decline period of the empire, in case the ulema had a son he would gain a salary as much as his father (the ulema himself) and he would be called ‘cradle of ulema.’ Thus just after he is born it is thought that he would be an intellectual person just like his father. Also in the 18th century it was ordered the non-educated boys of the ulema to grow a beard so as to cover for their illiteracy, which was made fun of. In the beginnings the salary was cut off when the son didn’t became an intellectual; but later on this application was discarded. The cradle of the ulema has been the most beautiful example on favoritism in the Ottoman Empire. (Ortaylı, 2006) The men who married with the daughters or the sisters of the Sultans were called as bridegroom. The ones married with the bigger sister of the Sultan was called brother-in-law. When choosing bridegroom, the status of the person was taken into importance not the age, the degree or the aristocracy. During the establishment period the gentleman of the Anatolian Seljuks, later on the gentlemen of sanjaks were chosen as bridegroom. Beginning from the 16th century the bridegroom was chosen from the Ottoman civil servants. The election would be told to the chosen person and ask him to get ready for the wedding. The bridegroom would indulge to the princess because of his respect to the dynasty. The bridegrooms who were working in the provinces would be assigned to Istanbul because the princesses weren’t allowed to get out of Istanbul. During the 18th century some high degreed public officers imitated the Sultan’s way of living. They lived in very big residences and hired hundreds of servants. In order to strengthen their power they would hire young and talented Ottomans. And then make them marry with someone from the family in order to become relatives with them. This application was similar to making the grand vizier as bridegroom. If a young talented person succeeds to take attention of a high degreed officer, he will be assigned to important positions. During the 18th century this application was so common that the historians of that period used the term ‘being bridegroom’ as the finding of a protector and climbing up the steps of the Ottoman management. Fall from grace meant to confiscate the assets of the officer. (Findley, 1996) One of the examples of favoritism in the Ottoman Empire is Đbrahim Pasha. He has been first assigned as the grand vizier and then became the bridegroom after marrying with the Sultan’s sister. Uzunçarşılı wrote about this event in his book called the History of Ottomans and pointed out that by marrying with the Sultan’s sister Hatice he has raised his prestige. Clever, educated and someone very talented Đbrahim Pasha has been the object of compliments never seen before in the empire. One of the main reasons of Đbrahim’s promotion is the closeness to the Sultan Süleyman. (Tezcan; 2004: 12- 14–15) After the 17th century the occupation of ulema lost its importance and instead of the qualified people the ones who are patronized and who give a bribe were assigned to this occupation. Below are some examples of favoritism that occurred after the breakdown. There is emphasis on nepotism in these examples; because the favoritism in the examples are about the first and second degree relatives. 501 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sir Saadettin, who first was the teacher of Murat the 3rd and later on became his son’s teacher became the Muslim judge of Mekka when his older son was 3 years old only. Immediately he was assigned as the Muslim judge of Istanbul which caused a rumor. A poet even wrote a poem about this corruption. This child became a military judge after two months when he was only 29 years old. The other son of the teacher, named Esad suddenly became a Muslim judge of Edirne and after that at about 25 years old he became the Muslim judge of Istanbul. These promotions closed the doors to the real scholars and the positions of judges were opened to the sons of the Sultan’s teachers, Military judges and the chief religious officials. (Uzunçarşılı, 1995: 123) Sultan Mehmet the 3rd once complained about not having found an equitable and trustable man. When they asked him the reason he would tell them that he had complimented the chief religious official Sir Bostanzade and he had immediately assigned his ignorant brother as a military judge and also assigned another ignorant young as a Muslim judge to Salonika. He also told that his father’s teacher Saadeddin by assigning one of his young sons to the military judge of Anatolia and the other to the Muslim Judge of Edirne, made him gain a bad reputation and himself shameful. (Uzunçarşılı, 1995: 123-124) A study oriented to the working women in the Ottoman Bank has interesting results. According to the results most of the women working in the bank during 1911-1939 are the daughters of the privileged people. “Behiye the daughter of the Commander of the Bosphorus Asaf Pahsa; Zaruhi Acemiyan the daughter of Sir Dikran, the eye doctor; Halab diplomat Michel Yakimansky's daughter Irène Yakimansky; Adèle Huri the daughter of a cotton Merchant Joseph Huri; Bedriye the daughter of a sergeant; lawyer Hasan Tahsin’s daughter Meryem Muazzez [Berkand]; the daughter named Pierrette Alyanaki of a hat seller named Antoine; Alba Pech daughter of one of the old worker’s of the bank; a commissioner’s daughter Elsa Filozof; the gardner Alexandre’s daughter Athanassia Fasulakis; the granddaughter of Cemile Sultan Mevhibe Cellaleddin, etc…They all worked in the Otoman Bank in one part of their lives.” (Ammour and Baruh; 1999) The Preacautions Taken in The Ottoman Empire to Prevent Favoritism and Nepotism One of the main problems that bother the Ottoman Empire was favoritism. Lots of effort was made in order to prevent favoritism in the government businesses. The most significant example to these efforts was recruiting boys for the Janissary corps. This system can be explained as taking the non-muslim children to the palace and educating them for to give duties on different stages of the government. One of the reasons why this system was formed was to prevent favoritism. The children who were raised with this system couldn’t do any favoritism since they didn’t have any relatives. We can say that many great people such as Sokullu Mehmet Pasha, Mimar Sinan, etc. have been raised with this system. (Ortaylı, 2006) Especially the researches who have claimed that the breakdown started in the 16th century, have stated that favoritism in education, military and Muslim judgement have begun. The government which affected negatively from this favoritism made some reforms. The breakdown that started in the second half of the 16th century affected the judgment system as well. Especially the breakdown in the education system made the students graduate without having enough knowledge and skill; thus the negativeness that occurred because of the Muslim judges increased. The precautions that were taken weren’t enough. No positive results were gained from the orders that have been declared during the 17th century. Especially with the precautions taken in 1838 the judgment institutions have been set in order and the assignments, the promotions and the dismissals have been tied to legal rules; trying to prevent favoritism. (Fevzioğlu and Kılıç, 2008) Immediately after the innovations done in civil, fiscal and other areas; beginning from 1844 arrangement in military was done while trying to get volunteer support from the citizens. Especially precautions that will get support and contribution from the Muslim citizens were taken. The concepts of religion, government and homeland were used in order to make some propaganda. Along with this it was emphasized that the laws would treat everyone equally, that no one will be looked out and transparency will be the principle in hiring military personnel. (Tunalı, 2008) A solution such as lottery was found for the military where favoritism was extremely common. The lottery being picked in front of the eyes of the participants ended the injustice in hiring military personnel and the applications of favoritism which were reminders of the old period. Along with these general reforms some Sultans gave importance to individual reforms as well. Selim the 3rd, apart from the Sultans before him tried to widespread the reforms through the society. Before having formed the reform project he asked opinions of the notables and also opened a way to participation. Understanding truly the breakdown in social, political, economical and legal areas of the Ottoman Empire, Selim the 3rd tried to attract attention to prevention of favoritism and bribery, delegation of the government to the qualified people and sharing of the responsibilities of the management. But the idea and the importance of socializing wasn’t understood by his politicians thus his attempts were unsuccessful. (Akça ve Hülür, 2008: 239) 502 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Akça, G. and Hülür, H., “Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyete Siyasal Ve Hukuksal Yapının Modernleşmesi”, Türkiyat Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2008. Aktan, C. C. and Çoban, H., “Kamu Sektöründe Đyi Yönetim Đlkeleri”, 2008. Ammour, L. and Baruh, L.T., “Çalışan Kadından Bir Kesit: Osmanlı Bankası Kadın Personeli (1911-1934)”, Tarih ve Toplum, No: 183, Mart 1999. Bayar, Y., “Türk Kamu Yönetiminde Rüşvet”, Amme Đdaresi Dergisi, C: 12, Sayı 3, September 1979. Bayhan, V., “Demokrasi ve Sivil Toplum Örgütlerinin Engelleri: Patronaj ve Nepotizm”, C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt : 26 No: 1, May 2002. Cem, Đ., Türkiye’de Geri Kalmışlığın Tarihi, Cem Yayınevi, Đstanbul, March 1989. Danişmend, Đ.H., Tarihi Hakikatler, Tercüman Tarih ve Kültür Yayınları, Đstanbul, 1979 Eczacibaşi, N.F., Kuşaktan Kuşağa, Dr. Nejat F. Eczacıbaşı Yayınları, 2. Baskı, Đstanbul, 1999. Feyzioğlu, H.S. ve KILIÇ, S., Tanzimat Arifesinde Kadılık- Naiplik Kurumu, 2008. Findley, C.V., Kalemiye’den Mülkiye’ye Osmanlı Memurlarının Toplumsal Tarihi, (çev.: Gül Çağalı Güven ), Tarih Vakfı Yurdu yy., Đstanbul, 1996. Findley, C.V., Osmanlı Devletinde Bürokratik Reform Babıali (1789-1922), Đz Yayıncılık, Đstanbul, 1994. Fişek, K., “Nepotizm Đki Taraflı Kesen Bir Kılıçtır”, http://webarsiv.hurriyet.com.tr/2000/10/05/246865.asp 09.05.2009. , Date: http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepotism , Date: 09.05.2009. http://www.gelinvegelinlik.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=18&Itemid=40 , Date: 09.05.2009. Khatri, N., Wen, C., Fuei, L.W. ve Geok, T.A., “Cronyısm: http://www.ntu.edu.sg/nbs/sabre/working_papers/10-99.pdf , Date: 09.05.2009. Antecedents and Consequences”; ve Ana Ortayli, Đ., Osmanlı’yı Yeniden Keşfetmek, Timaş Yayınları, Đstanbul, 2006. Öz, M. “Klasik Dönem Osmanlı Siyasi Düşüncesi: Tarihi http://www.history.hacettepe.edu.tr/archive/siyasidus..htm. , Date: 09.05.2009 Temeller Đlkeler”, Özbilen, Ş., “Türkiye’de Đktisadi Krizin Temel Nedenleri Ve Bir Mali Sistem Reform Önerisi”, Yeni Türkiye Dergisi, Kriz Özel Sayısı I, September-October 2001. Özler, H., Ergun Özler, D. and Gümüştekin, G., “Aile Đşletmelerinde Nepotizmin Gelişim Evreleri ve Kurumsallaşma”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2007. Özsemerci, K., “Türk Kamu Yönetiminde Yolsuzluklar, Nedenleri, Zararları ve Çözüm Önerileri”, Sayıştay Yayın Đşleri Müdürlüğü Yayınları, Ankara, October 2003. Platon, Devlet, (Translation: Saraçoğlu, Cenk ve Atayman, Veysel), Trend Yayın; 9. Baskı, Đstanbul, September 2005. Sağ, V., “Toplumsal Değişim ve Eğitim Üzerine”, C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 27 No:1, May 2003. Tepav, Bir Olgu Olarak Yolsuzluk, Nedenler, Etkiler Çözüm Önerileri, TBMM Yayınları, 2.Baskı, Ankara, 2006. Tezcan, E., “Pargalı Đbrahim Paşa Çevresindeki Edebi Yaşam”, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi; Bilkent Üniversitesi Ekonomi ve Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, June 2004. Topbaş, O.N., Abide Şahsiyetleri ve Müessesleriyle Osmanlı, Erkam Yayınları, Đstanbul 1999 Tortop, N., Personel Yönetimi, Yargı Yayınları, Ankara, 1994. Tunali, A.C., “Tanzimat Döneminde Ordu-Halk Đlişkilerine Dair Bazı Gözlemler”, 2008. Uluyol, O., Aile Şirketleri, Medipres, Malatya, 2004. Uzunçarşili, Đ.H., Osmanlı Tarihi, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Beşinci Baskı, Cilt 3, Bölüm 1, Ankara, 1995 Ülgener, S., Đktisadi Bozulmanın Ahlak ve Zihniyet Dünyası, Đstanbul, 1984 Yeniçeri, Ö., “Türk'ü Devlet Yapan Adam: ATATÜRK”, http://www.kibris.com , Date: 09-04-2009 Yilmaz, A. and Kilavuz, R., “Türk Kamu Bürokrasisinin Đşlemsel Sorunları Üzerine Notlar”, C. Ü. Đktisadi Ve Đdari Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 3, Sayı 2, 2002. 503 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 504 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ABSTRACTS 505 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 506 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 300 Title A name given to the resource Favoritism and Nepotism in The Ottoman Empire Author Author ÇARIKÇI, ilker Hüseyin ÖZKUL, Ahmet Sait OKSAY, Aygen Demir UZUNBACAK, Hasan Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. The professional criteria can be neglected in both the developing countries and the countries that have intensive traditional ties. One can be recruited or appointed according to his relations with a politician, the owner or the manager of a business instead of his qualifications. We come across with this situation, what is called as ‘kin selection’ or ‘nepotism,’ in our society both in the past and today. In this study, we will try to explain the cognitive frame of favoritism especially nepotism (relative/kin favoritism) in Ottoman Empire, which has a very important role both in the world and the Turkish history, and also give some examples to it. Because nepotism is very important today for taking control of the management process in associations and corporations as in the past. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8daf0bef4d42e2143f09220c9d4a280d.pdf 4d1529a6c7432373d462e5d2eb3d9e45 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Factors That Affect Life Values “A Research on the Students of Suleyman Demirel University” Đlker Hüseyin ÇARIKÇI Assoc. Dr., Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey ihcarikci@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Ahmet Sait ÖZKUL asozkul@sdu.edu.tr Sebahattin TAŞ sbhttntas@hotmail.com Abstract:This study aims to determine the life values profiles of the students of Suleyman Demirel University according to demographic variables whether it changes. The theory part of the research about life values is consist of Maslow, Rokeach, Hofstede and Schwartz Value Theories. The domain of the research is 600 students from five different faculties of Suleyman Demirel University. Gungor’s Life Values scale was used for questionnaire of the research. First, the principal component analyses was applied to the scale. As a result, the life values could be collected in three factors. Later, these factors were tested with the demographic factors which were chosen. At the analyses, independent sample t test, One Way Anova and principal component analyses methods were used. Value Notion Value notion was initially explained by famous social psychologist Milton Rokeach’s (1973) expressions. Rokeach gave master assumptions about nature of human values preferential consideration in order to make description on value. These assumptions are stated as follows: 1) Total number of values owned by an individual is relatively small. 2) Individuals undertake same values with different levels. 3) Organization of values eventuated in value systems. 4) Culture, society, associations and personality of the individual are effective in development of an individual’s values. 5) Value’s importance outstands and evidently observed in every piece of social science’s spehere of interest. Rokeach defined value as “enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” on the basis of above assumptions. (Rokeach, 1973: 3,5) Geert Hofstede (1980) who made broad intercultural research on values, expressed value as “a great tendency towards preferring specific states than alternatives.”(Hofstede, 1980: 19) Shalom Schwartz (1999) who performed considerable efforts on values, describes value as, “a social actor which helps in choosing behaviours/actions, evaluating people, explaining behaviours/actions” and defines as “desirable purposes serve as guiding principles within variable importance in the lives of people” (Schwartz, 1999: 24–25) In other words, values defined as, “verbal representatives of master motivations approved by society.” (Struch and others, 2002: 16–17) Erol Gungor who is recognized by his studies on Values Psychology, defines value as, “belief respect to anything desirable or unenviable.” (Gungor, 2000: 27) Schwart defines the properties of values as follows. 1) Values are beliefs. But, they are not objective/not subjective/neutral and cold beliefs, they are bonded/committed with strong feelings which are sometimes impasse/inevitable. 2) Values have motivational structure. Values contain desirable targets and they are about these targets which people show strenuous efforts to achieve. 3) Values are the concepts which are upon specific movements/behaviours and occasions. Values are metaphysical targets. This metaphysical structure differentiates values from concepts like norms and attitiudes mostly related to special movements, objects or occasions. 4) Values lead in evaluating and selecting events, people, behaviour patterns and movements. This case is the indicator of values serving as leading standards and criterias. 488 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 5) Values are arranged/lined up by comparative importance of a condition to another. These lined up values network yields to value priorities to be formed. People’s value figure is a steady system of value priorities which defines/describes/characterized them individually. Values’ hierarchical feature differentiate themselves from norms and attitudes. (Schwartz, 2007) Value Theories Leading life theorists can be listed as, Abraham Maslow, Milton Rokeach, Geert Hofstede and Shalom Schwartz. Maslow told that needs and values are in relation one another hierarchical and developmental in terms of power and priority. According to Maslow, needs are values. He said that the only value that every single person wants to attain is to actualize oneself. According to Maslow’s postulate, if the needs at lower levels are met/satisfied, the higher needs are conspicuous. As it is specified above, together with the thought Maslow had that the condition that person is in at that moment without realising a new need is the most important need while he was representing that some of the factors may influence for good. (Oishi and others, 1999: 981; Malka and Chatman, 2003: 744) Rokeach emphasized that values can be categorized as instrumental and terminal. According to Rokeach, terminal values are classified as individual-centric/subjective (intrapersonal) values and societycentric/social (interpersonal) values. He specified that this classification that he spoke out can be in the form of interpersonal and transpersonal, and he specified the distinction of these two forms, as an example; personal purpose expressions like person’s peace of mind and salvation are transpersonal values, on the other hand, communal purpose expressions like world peace and fellowship are interpersonal values. (Rokeach, 1973: 7-8) According to Hofstede, values also have two features; intensity (importance level) and direction (what it implies). He expressed that if an individual accepts a value, these features have great importance to respond the questions in the subject of how much this value is important for him and to what level it is suitable for that individual. According to Hofstede, reason for the individual to determine some behaviours as good and some as bad is resulting from the characteristic of the values’ direction/orientation and people differentiate in terms of intensity or direction or both. Hofstede set off this with an example. According to him, the money is important for the one who heeds/adopts Holy Book-Bible (intensity), nonetheless having less is important than having a lot of (Direction). According to present day’s values, money is still important (Intensity), but it is important that the money is a lot not the less (Direction). However, money is no consideration for some people (Intensity). (Hofstede, 1980: 20) Schwartz told that the content which abstracts values are the motivational purpose types that values signify, and he assumed that value types result from three universal requirements. He declared these basic assumptions as, 1) Biologic reasoned basic requirements of individudal’s organism, 2) Social interaction requirements among individuals, 3) Social requirements which provide continuity and affluence of societies and groups (Roccas and others, 2002: 790) As a reply to the question, “What are the basic contents of the values?”, Schwartz expressed that universal requirements of human existence form the basis of the values. (Bardi and Schwartz, 2003: 1208) Schwartz expressed that societies and individuals represent their universal requirements consciously which they should overcome. (Ros and others, 1999: 51) Students’ Point of Vıew on Life and Work Values Life values of the students, who have many expectations from daily life and working life, is the main subject of the research. In this study, life values of university students were tried to be profiled and the subject of which values the students give the most importance was accentuated. Model of the below study’s hypothesis is seen as: Model of Research Hypothesis Demographic Factors Life Values Gender Ideal Values High School Faculty Belief Values Class Birth Place Economic Values Resident Area 489 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Cosmos of the research is Undergraduate and Associate Degree students of Suleyman Demirel University in 2006–2007 Fall and Spring Semester. %1-%2 of the students of Suleyman Demirel University participated in this research. A fixed number of scale of Life and Work Values handed out to 750 students with the criteria of academic unit (Faculty/MYO) and gender differences and 600 of them filled out the survey and took part in the implementation. Because the non-proportional quota sampling model has been applied, 120 each person has been selected from each faculty. 60 each person from both first and senior classes from each faculty has been selected. 300 each person has been selected as in equal for the number of female and male students. Findings of the Research 1. Reliability Analysis: Reliability coefficient for life values scale in Cronbach-Alpha personal consistency analysis was 0,8295 and N: 573. 2. Life Values Factor Analysis According to the results obtained from life values scale, factors were formed and they were called upon the predominance of the topics. Calling of Life Values Factors Factor 1: Ideal Values (Total Variance Contribution: % 26,088) 1) Provide equity 2) Fight for Independence 3) World in which ignorance purified 4) Help People Factor 2: Belief Values (Total Variance Contribution: % 22,900) 1) Purification of sins 2) Achieve eternity-beyond 3) Peace in conscience Factor 3: Economic Values (Total Variance Contribution: % 16,728) 1) Economic independency 2) Live in easy circumstances As it is stated at the first factor, political and notional statements that person wants to do/achieve/fulfill priority consideration in life, and in general, because it reflects the ideals not the realities first factor is called as Ideal Values. Because the second factor emphasizes the spiritual feelings and belief dimension of an individual, it is called as Belief Values. In the last factor, individual’s eagerness to economic independency and desire to live in easy circumstances to be monitored so it is called as Economic Values. 3. Life Values of Demographic Factors In this section, whether there’s difference or not of demographic factor groups over on life value factors in terms of attitudes of students was researched. Relations between demographic factors and variables added up under the name of examined factors that were stated before with the applied analysis. All hypothesis has been developed in this context. Gender and Life Values • Gender-Ideal Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 490 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Sig. 1,382 ,240 ,534 ,465 ,203 ,653 6,004 ,015 t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -,704 596 ,481 -3,801E-02 5,396E-02 -,1440 6,796E-02 -,705 593,748 ,481 -3,801E-02 5,395E-02 -,1440 6,794E-02 -,260 593 ,795 -1,247E-02 4,788E-02 -,1065 8,157E-02 -,261 588,959 ,795 -1,247E-02 4,788E-02 -,1065 8,156E-02 ,506 595 ,613 2,454E-02 4,854E-02 -7,08E-02 ,1199 ,506 590,318 ,613 2,454E-02 4,853E-02 -7,08E-02 ,1199 1,420 596 ,156 6,893E-02 4,854E-02 -2,64E-02 ,1642 1,419 581,009 ,156 6,893E-02 4,856E-02 -2,65E-02 ,1643 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sig. (2-tailed) values of all variables are above 0,05. This case shows that no difference is noted in attitudes of students towards ideal values among gender groups. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per gender groups.” is accepted. Furthermore, the result of “Gender groups did not give rise to changes of attitudes in belief and economic values” is seen by the applied analysis. High School which was Graduated and Life Values • High School – Ideal Values ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 6,160 253,472 259,632 1,229 201,050 202,279 ,703 208,604 209,307 1,262 209,347 210,609 df 6 591 597 6 588 594 6 590 596 6 591 597 Mean Square 1,027 ,429 F 2,394 Sig. ,027 ,205 ,342 ,599 ,731 ,117 ,354 ,331 ,920 ,210 ,354 ,594 ,736 Sig. values of all variables except first one are above 0,05. No difference is noted in attitudes of students towards ideal values among high school groups. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per high school groups.” is accepted. • High School-Belief Values ANOVA DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 10,483 328,097 338,579 9,348 448,403 457,750 7,672 210,150 217,822 df 6 585 591 6 586 592 6 588 594 Mean Square 1,747 ,561 F 3,115 Sig. ,005 1,558 ,765 2,036 ,059 1,279 ,357 3,578 ,002 Sig. values of all variables except variable DINI2 are below 0,05 at the table. This shows that there is difference in attitudes of high school groups towards belief value variables. Graduates of Regular High School, Super High School, High School in English language, Engineering High School are more sensitive than Science High School graduates as per belief value factor variables. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per high school groups.” is accepted. • High School-Economic Values 491 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ANOVA EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 2,248 417,333 419,581 1,968 255,379 257,346 df 6 590 596 6 591 597 Mean Square ,375 ,707 F ,530 Sig. ,786 ,328 ,432 ,759 ,602 Sig. values of all variables are above 0,05. This shows that there is no difference in attitudes of high school groups towards economic value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per high school groups.” is accepted. Faculty and Life Values • Faculty-Ideal Values ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Sum of Squares 3,905 df 4 Mean Square ,976 ,431 Within Groups 255,728 593 Total 259,632 597 3,782 4 ,945 Within Groups 198,497 590 ,336 Total 202,279 594 3,871 4 ,968 Within Groups 205,435 592 ,347 Total 209,307 596 Between Groups Between Groups Between Groups 2,229 4 ,557 Within Groups 208,379 593 ,351 Total 210,609 597 F 2,264 Sig. ,061 2,810 ,025 2,789 ,026 1,586 ,176 Sig. value of two variables is above 0,05 and for two of them it is below 0,05 at the table. When the analysis checked, no difference is noted in attitudes towards ideal values as per faculty groups. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per faculty groups.” is accepted. • Faculty-Belief Values ANOVA DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 492 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 2,231 336,348 338,579 7,367 450,383 457,750 5,032 212,790 217,822 df 4 587 591 4 588 592 4 590 594 Mean Square ,558 ,573 F ,973 Sig. ,421 1,842 ,766 2,405 ,049 1,258 ,361 3,488 ,008 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sig. value of two variables is below 0,05 and one variable’s value is above 0,05 at the table. This shows that there is difference predominantly in belief values factors among faculty groups. Students of Engineering Faculty and Economics and Business Administration Faculty are more sensitive than the students of Technical Education Faculty and students of Business College are more sensitive than students of Engineering Faculty. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per faculty groups.” is accepted. • Faculty-Economic Values ANOVA EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 4,487 415,094 419,581 3,328 254,018 257,346 df 4 592 596 4 593 597 Mean Square 1,122 ,701 F 1,600 Sig. ,173 ,832 ,428 1,942 ,102 One variable’s Sig. value is below 0,5 and other is above 0,05 at the table. According to the results of the analysis, a significant difference is not observed among faculty groups. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per faculty groups.” is accepted. Class and Life Values • Class-Ideal Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 1,038 ,040 2,746 ,481 Sig. ,309 ,841 ,098 ,488 t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper ,659 596 ,510 3,557E-02 5,396E-02 -7,04E-02 ,1415 ,659 593,729 ,510 3,557E-02 5,397E-02 -7,04E-02 ,1416 -,120 593 ,904 -5,751E-03 4,789E-02 -9,98E-02 8,830E-02 -,120 587,208 ,904 -5,751E-03 4,789E-02 -9,98E-02 8,831E-02 -,737 595 ,462 -3,576E-02 4,853E-02 -,1311 5,955E-02 -,737 591,151 ,461 -3,576E-02 4,852E-02 -,1310 5,953E-02 ,317 596 ,751 1,541E-02 4,861E-02 -8,01E-02 ,1109 ,317 590,939 ,751 1,541E-02 4,863E-02 -8,01E-02 ,1109 Attitude difference is not noted between first classes and senior(last) classes for ideal values at the table. Because all p values are above 0,05 and their group average is so close to each other. This case represents that class groups do not set forth different attitudes among ideal value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per class groups.” is accepted. 493 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Class-Belief Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Sig. 4,766 3,332 1,211 t-test for Equality of Means t ,029 ,068 ,272 df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper -1,375 590 ,170 -8,549E-02 6,217E-02 -,2076 3,661E-02 -1,377 574,124 ,169 -8,549E-02 6,210E-02 -,2075 3,647E-02 -,966 591 ,334 -6,980E-02 7,222E-02 -,2116 7,205E-02 -,967 577,980 ,334 -6,980E-02 7,217E-02 -,2115 7,194E-02 -,766 593 ,444 -3,807E-02 4,967E-02 -,1356 5,948E-02 -,766 592,974 ,444 -3,807E-02 4,966E-02 -,1356 5,947E-02 Sig.(2-tailed) values of variables at the table are above 0,05. This represents that there is no attitude difference among belief value variables as per class groups. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per class groups.” is accepted. • Class-Economic Values Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed ,154 11,229 Sig. ,695 ,001 t-test for Equality of Means t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper 1,795 595 ,073 ,1230 6,855E-02 -1,16E-02 ,2577 1,795 591,740 ,073 ,1230 6,856E-02 -1,16E-02 ,2577 2,609 596 ,009 ,1394 5,344E-02 3,449E-02 ,2444 2,608 583,728 ,009 ,1394 5,346E-02 3,444E-02 ,2444 First variable’s p value is above 0,05, second variable’s p value is below 0,05 at the table. When T values are checked, first classes are more sensitive to economic values than senior(last) classes. This case shows that there’s attitude difference towards economic values among class groups. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per class groups.” is accepted. Place of Birth and Life Values • Place of Birth-Ideal Values 494 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 2,645 256,784 259,430 1,539 200,572 202,111 4,668 204,078 208,746 2,432 207,991 210,423 df 7 588 595 7 585 592 7 587 594 7 588 595 Mean Square ,378 ,437 F ,865 Sig. ,534 ,220 ,343 ,641 ,722 ,667 ,348 1,918 ,064 ,347 ,354 ,982 ,443 No difference is noted from the table among the students who came from different regions. Reason for this is, Sig. values of all statements are above 0,05. This represents that despite birth places are different, student groups do not set forth different attitude among ideal value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per place of birth groups.” is accepted. Moreover, the analysis shows that there’s no difference in attitude towards belief and economic values among place of birth groups. Place to Live and Life Values • Place to Live as of now-Ideal Values ANOVA SIYASI1 SIYASI2 TEORIK2 SOSYAL2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 12,185 247,143 259,328 4,880 197,147 202,027 3,025 205,960 208,985 9,038 201,292 210,329 df 5 589 594 5 586 591 5 588 593 5 589 594 Mean Square 2,437 ,420 F 5,808 Sig. ,000 ,976 ,336 2,901 ,013 ,605 ,350 1,727 ,126 1,808 ,342 5,289 ,000 Although one variable’s Sig. value is above 0,05, three variables’ value is below 0,05. This case is the indicator of having difference predominantly in ideal values factors among place groups. Students staying at dormitories or at parent’s place are more sensitive to ideal values than the ones staying alone. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards ideal value variables as per place to live groups.” is accepted. 495 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • Place to Live as of now-Belief Values ANOVA DINI1 DINI2 AHLAKI2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 6,351 331,537 337,888 28,537 426,385 454,922 3,629 213,491 217,120 df 5 583 588 5 584 589 5 586 591 Mean Square 1,270 ,569 F 2,234 Sig. ,050 5,707 ,730 7,817 ,000 ,726 ,364 1,992 ,078 First variable’s Sig. value is 0,05, although second variable’s Sig. value is below 0,05, one of those variables’ value is above 0,05. This case is the indicator of having difference in belief values factors among place to live groups. Students staying at dormitories, at parent’s place, with friends and at other places (guest house, etc.) are observed to be more sensitive than the ones staying alone. In this case, the hypothesis of “There’s difference in attitudes of SDU students towards belief value variables as per place to live groups.” is accepted. • Place to Live as of now-Economic Values ANOVA EKONOMK1 EKONOMK2 Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 5,674 412,765 418,439 2,848 253,831 256,679 df 5 588 593 5 589 594 Mean Square 1,135 ,702 F 1,617 Sig. ,154 ,570 ,431 1,322 ,253 All variables’ Sig. values are above 0,05. This represents that students within place to live groups do not set forth different attitudes to economic value variables. As a result, the hypothesis of “There’s no difference in attitudes of SDU students towards economic value variables as per place to live groups.” is accepted. Results Acording to the results of the research, the relation with Life Values and Demographic Factors is as follows. • A result with attitude difference is not seen in terms of grouping between life values and gender factor. Male and female students do not show different attitudes in life value factors like; Ideal, Belief and Economic Values. • Where the hypothesis was set as differing in high schools types-engage very important place for education in the life of students- may have effect in value judgements, the achieved results represent the difference in grouping. As a result, there is difference in attitudes towards life values among high school groups. • According to the analysis results about life values could be commented in a different way as per the cases of faculty groups, it can be said that there is difference in point of view. Results like differing in being educated in separate faculties have effect on belief values which is a factor of life values. • According to the test results about different attitudes may occur in life values in terms of being educated in first grade or senior(last) grade, it can be said that there is difference in point of view. It is observed that there is 496 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo attitude difference only in economic values in terms of differences of classes of the students. Based on this case, it is observed that first grade students are more sensitive than senior(last) grade students to economic values. • A result with attitude difference is not seen in terms of grouping between life values and birth place factor. • According to the hypothesis test results, where the hypothesis was set as, if selected places where the students are staying cause any differences on their thoughts for life values or not; it is observed that there is difference in attitudes towards the subject of Ideal and Belief values which have the most highest and second highest variant value of the students’ life values. With these factors, it is observed that the students, staying at dormitory or with parents, are more sensitive to ideal values than the ones staying alone. It is observed that the students, staying at dormitory, with parents, with friends and other places (guest house, etc.) are more sensitive to the factor of belief values than the ones staying alone. It is observed that the students who are staying alone are showing dissimilar attitude than other groups in both factors. Circumstances/environment of the place to live may effect individuals’ point of view to life. As a result, the places where students are living as of now cause differences in attitudes on life values. References Bardi, A. ve Schwartz, S. H., “Values and Behavior: Strength and Structure of Relations”, Personality Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, s: 1207-1220, 2003. Güngör, E., Değerler Psikolojisi Üzerine Araştırmalar, Đkinci Baskı, Ötüken Yayınevi, Đstanbul, 1998. Hofstede, G., Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage Publications, London 1980. Malka, A. ve Chatman, J. A., “Intrinsic and Extrinsic Work Orientations as Moderators of the Effect of Annual Income on Subjective Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study”, Personal Social Psychology Bulletin, 29; 737, 2003. Oishi, S., Diener, E. F., Lucas, R. E. ve Suh, E. M., “Cross-Cultural Variations in Predictors of Life Satisfaction: Perspectives from Needs and Values”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, s: 980, 1999. Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S. H. ve Knafo, A., “The Big Five Personality Factors and Personal Values”, Personal Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, s: 790, 2002. Ros, M., Schwartz, S. H. VE Surkiss, S., “Basic Individual Values, Work Values and The Meaning of Work”, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48 (1), s: 49–71, 1999. Schwartz, S. H., “A Theory of Cultural Values and Some Implications for Work”, Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48 (1), 23–47, 1999. Schwartz, S. H., “Basic Human Values”, Theory, Methods and http://dpms.csd.auth.gr/emplak/Schwartzpaper.pdf (Date: 23 Mart 2008, Saat: 00:58) Aplications, An Overview, Rokeach, M., The Nature of Human Values, Free Press, New York, 1973. Struch, N., Schwartz, S. H. ve Kloot, W. A., “Meanings of Basic Values for Women and Men: A Cross-Cultural Analysis”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 2002. 497 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 299 Title A name given to the resource Factors That Affect Life Values “A Research on the Students of Suleyman Demirel University” Author Author ÇARIKÇI, ilker Hüseyin ÖZKUL, Ahmet Sait TAS, Sebahattin Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to determine the life values profiles of the students of Suleyman Demirel University according to demographic variables whether it changes. The theory part of the research about life values is consist of Maslow, Rokeach, Hofstede and Schwartz Value Theories. The domain of the research is 600 students from five different faculties of Suleyman Demirel University. Gungor’s Life Values scale was used for questionnaire of the research. First, the principal component analyses was applied to the scale. As a result, the life values could be collected in three factors. Later, these factors were tested with the demographic factors which were chosen. At the analyses, independent sample t test, One Way Anova and principal component analyses methods were used. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory