328 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d7300c730ac69fde94b8513ba3e5435e.pdf 1d51ac9fb36e24aaf5265b2485dfdfec PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Leniency and Severity Errors in Performance Appraisal in the Context of Collectivist and Individualist Culture Gültekin YILDIZ Prof. Dr., Department of Business Administration Sakarya University, Turkey yildizg@sakarya.edu.tr Adem BALTACI Assist. Prof. Dr., Department of Business Administration Kırklareli University, Turkey adem.baltaci@kirklareli.edu.tr Abstract: Although the difficulty in carrying out the human resources’ practices into life in different cultures is a major problem that the implementers have been handling for years, the “appraisal errors”, which are important obstacles in front of an effective performance appraisal, are needed to be examined more deeply in terms of socio-cultural factors. Because, performance appraisals may be affected much by the value judgments that may have quite serious differences with respect to the cultures. Therefore putting forward the effects of the context in which the appraisal errors take place, has a critic importance for making sense of the error reasons and for creating solutions. In this study, leniency and severity errors, those are included in the performance errors, have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist cultures. Besides, the question as “how do the judgment values of those cultures affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity error?” has been tried to answer. This theoretical study has revealed that the variety of the cultural differences could affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity influentially. Keywords: Performance Appraisal Errors, Leniency and Severity Errors, Collectivist and Individualist Culture. Introduction Performance appraisal whose necessity and benefits have been proved by numerous researchers has been presented as an objective and rational function in business management books and guide books; most of its appraisal methods have been developed basing upon the assumption that the raters will be objective and free from prejudice in their observation and decisions. Otherwise; it does not matter how perfectly and impeccable your system works for the errors will be inevitable during the process since the people who will carry out the appraisal and the ones who will be affected by its results are all human beings. When the complexity of today’s human behavior patterns and the inadequacy of the appraisal systems in encompassing these behavior patterns are considered, it is obvious that performance appraisal errors will play an important role in the theoretical and the practical researches in the forthcoming years. The researchers have made great efforts and developed numerous methods in order to find a method which is free of errors. This effort is displayed evidently by Landy and Farr’s (1980:82) statements: “Mighty efforts have been made to discover the potential effects of various appraisal formats for many years. The alleged hypothesis states that the instrument being used to obtain the information has a substantial importance on the accuracy and expedience of the obtained information.” In fact, one of the reasons of these numerous methods to be able to choose in performance appraisal is the indefinite attempts made by researchers to develop an enduring method against appraisal errors. But, a method which is free of errors has not been developed yet. The prevalence of appraisal errors are stated by Warmke and Billings (1979:124) by following words: “The subjective appraisals made about the employee’s performance are usually get spoiled and corrupted by the errors like halo or leniency.” Another comment made by Spool (1978:853) that supports this view and also states that appraisal errors are everywhere: “The methods based on observation are nearly much more vulnerable against human error margin than almost all other methods.” The importance of the problem resulting from the appraisal errors is also highlighted by Borman (1979:410): “Unfortunately, performance appraisals are nearly inevitably corrupted by appraisal errors (e.g. halo, leniency error) and they probably present in accurate appraisal results of individuals which were obtained during performance appraisal process.” Proved existence of appraisal errors are an obstacle to the validity and reliability of performance appraisal and have a negative effect on organization employees’ beliefs and satisfaction regarding appraisal results. Ilgen 342 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo proved that despite the researches done for years to develop and improve this process, the dissatisfaction about performance appraisals have not decreased. Murphy and Cleveland displayed that performance appraisals are hard core target of criticism and complaints and this dissatisfaction have become a norm in most of the companies (Holbrook, 2002:102). Because performance appraisal results form a basis for management decisions and the dispute among performance appraisal results which arise between the uppers and the inferiors probably cause interpersonal conflicts (Greenberg, 1991:51-60). The employees get satisfied with appraisal results only if their beliefs about their performances, which are high, match with the results. Employees consider that the feedbacks are unfair when their appraisal results are low and especially when they get less positive results than their expectations. As this will be inferred from the explanations given above, typical dependent variable of the performance appraisal researches is the accuracy of the performance measurement and in this context a lot of independent variables (roles, instruments, goals, criteria etc.) have been examined in order to determine their effects. But there is a quite need to examine “the appraisal errors” which are one of the most important factors that have adverse effects on the validity and reliability of performance appraisal and also to research in depth the effects of the context in which these errors took place. In this work, from performance appraisal errors, leniency and severity errors have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist culture. The main purpose of the work is to display how collectivist and individualist values affect the raters’ tendency towards leniency and severity errors. In the framework of this basic purpose, the answers for the following questions are being looked for in this research: 1. How do the collectivist and individualist culture values affect leniency and severity errors? 2. Does the raters’ individualist or collectivist cultural background differentiate their tendency towards errors (leniency and severity)? 3. Can the collectivist and individualist culture values be the explanatory of leniency and severity error? It has been aimed at attaining the goals of this work in the context of these questions. Leniency and severity errors have been theoretically examined in terms of a socio–cultural factor by using secondary data by means of literature study. Culture and Performance Appraisal Errors We can define culture in brief as an integrated system consisting of characteristic behavior models of the members that belong to society (Czinkota et al., 1999:35). In other words, culture consists of perception, believing, evaluation, communication and the shared factors which provide acting among the people who share a language, a historical period, and a geographical region (Triandis, 1996:408). Thereby, it is considered that culture has a strong and continuous impact on individual and corporations in all over the world. Especially starting from 1970s, culture has become a controversial concept in terms of culture, business and management. Until recent years, while it is alleged that management is universal, international culture was being ignored but in the recent years it has been started to investigate about the influences of the intercultural differences on the management and it has been proved basing upon the specific researches that cultures affect the individuals and direct them to different behavior models. It has been observed that the people who live in different cultures react differently against similar subject and conditions. Consequently, this intercultural differentiation is an explanatory of important problems since they affect working methods of the corporations, behavior models of the individuals and management styles (Sargut, 2001:137). One of the problems is the errors made in performance appraisal which provide how effectively the human resources are used in the organizations, most outcomes of which are used in managerial operations and actions. Appraisal errors are judgmental errors which occur while an individual observes and assess the other one (Latham et al., 1975:550-555). What is ideal in performance appraisal is that the appraisal results reflect the accurate, unprejudiced judgments processes. But, as it has been mentioned earlier, since the people are at stake in the appraisal, lots of emotion, needs, attitudes and values involve in the process. Accordingly, it depends on a lot of factors to find out what extend it was created in an unprejudiced way and whether it was really used or not to guide the appraisal. The most important factor among these is the cultural characteristics that the rater possesses. Leniency and Severity Error, Collectivist and Individualist Culture Before starting to discuss how cultural differences of the raters affect their tendency towards leniency and severity errors, it is useful to present the definitions of these errors and what collectivist and individualist culture means in order to be able to understand the case. Leniency error is one of the common errors which are faced in performance appraisals (Ilgen and Feldman, 1983). Leniency error is defined as an error which impels to make higher appraisals compared to other raters and a valid/reliable tendency as to certain raters (Kane et al., 1995:1039). According to another definition, leniency error is the case when the raters unjustly give higher scores, appraisal results. These scores are 343 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo evaluated by the distances of middle point of the scale to other scores or by their range to an accurate score (Saal et al., 1980:413-428). In other words, leniency errors limit the used value range and this causes a statistical decrease in the validity. Just opposite of the leniency error is severity error that this is the case when the rater evaluate the employee’s performances lower than it actually is (Can et al., 1998:167). In other words, it is the case when the rater evaluates and employee or a group of employees lower than they actually are without taking into account their actual success level. This tendency is usually observed among the raters who are inexperienced and not exactly aware of the factors that affect the performance, whose self-confidence is low and also who get low appraisals. Besides that the desire to show themselves as a perfectionist and an exacting manager and high standards in the corporation play role in such appraisals (Bayar, 2002). Collectivism means that people connect tightly to the social environment, the social members’ take care of each other and protect the organization’s members and interests. Individualist means that individuals have loose connections with the social framework and they are responsible for themselves (Hofstede, 1983:79). According to another definition, individualism is the tendency that people only care about their and their families interests (Hudgetts and Luthans, 1993:103). The first main discrepancy between collectivist person and individualist person falls out in the point how these people define themselves. While the collectivist person feels himself dependent on the other members of the group, individualist person displays more independent attitudes. Second discrepancy point falls out in the positioning regarding the goals. While the individualist person’s goals differentiate from the goals of the group that he/she belongs to, collectivist person’s goals make compliance with the goals of the group. While the individualist person determines his/her collectivist behavior according to his/her personal requirements and the rights which he/she perceives, collectivist person acts group norms according to his/her duties and responsibilities. For a collectivist person, having relationships with internal group and other people comes before rationalism. However individualist person makes rational calculations which keep cost and benefit rates in the front (Sargut, 2001:187). Collectivist culture individuals have the features of owning alignment, challenge, conflict avoidance and more compatible behavior models. It seems that individual initiatives are not encouraged and the ideas are determined within the group (Hofstede, 1984). On the contrary individualist cultures are described with their features which accept conflict, consistency and put less emphasis on compliance, individual initiative is expected and individual’s thought expressions are valuable. Therefore, in individualist cultures it is expected to show greater tendency to opinion diversities. Performance Appraisal in Collectivist and Individualist Culture These distinctive features of the societies which have been mentioned above reflect on organizational structures according to dominant culture and accordingly on performance appraisal systems. Here, Hofstede’s individualist and collectivist dimension in the research that he carried out in order to explain how and why the people from different cultures act as they will be expository as to be able to understand the issue better. Forasmuch as some performance appraisal researchers claim that collectivist and individualist dimension is the most important cultural dimension which has an impact on performance appraisal. Because, the person who provides the assessments and feedback affect performance appraisal process in many aspects such as the purpose and content of performance appraisal process (Milliman et al., 1998:157) Hofstede analyzed culture in four dimensions in his study which he carried out on 116,000 employees in 40 countries. These dimensions are power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism and collectivism, masculinity and feminity. Hofstede’s individualism and collectivism dimension corresponds to “the relationship between the individual and collectivism which rifles in a certain society” (Hofstede, 1984:148). To express more explicitly, individualism and collectivism dimension is related to what extent the individuals’ goals and need prevail over the groups that is belonged to goals and needs (Triandis, 1989; Hofstede 1984). Individualist societies care for individuals’ competition over the group’s welfare and individuals define themselves with their own characteristics and success (Fiske et al., 1998). For instance, in such a culture, individuals act according to their personal interests and employee–employers’ relations are generally perceived as a business exchange (Seddon, 1987) and freedom of choice and individual initiative are emphasized. Within this culture, most of the multi–sourced performance appraisal systems have been designed to obtain a comprehensive and objective assessment about the individual’s performance (London and Smither, 1995; Denisi and Kluger; 2000). Usually, individual performance assessments which have been obtained from various sources are valued. As long as feedback performance develops self–confidence and success, individualists attribute value to constructive and critical feedback (Milliman et al., 1998). The importance of personal relations between the subject and raters has been reduced in order to facilitate to provide the critical feedback and performance development. On the other hand, due to the collectivist cultures’ nature, they have shown a tendency not to overrate the role of the individuals in any case. Thus, in performance appraisal, it is focused on group performance rather 344 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo than individual performance of each members of a group. The employees who work in a collectivist culture make an effort to see their own interests above the groups’ interests (Hofstede, 1984) and employers recruit the individuals who take place in their groups and whose behavior overlap with the group behavior (Huo and Von Glinow, 1995). For the collectivists, it is very important to save the appearance (Fiske et al., 1998), to reduce the differences and to maintain the harmony and good relations among the group members. The practices which are individual–based human resource management covers is perceived as a threat to the team spirit since it moves attention from group success to the individuals’ success. The Impact of the Raters’ Collectivist and Individualist Cultural Background on Their Tendency to Make Mistakes about Leniency and Severity It is not too surprising that cultural differences which affect organizational structures appraisal systems also have influences on leniency and severity errors from assessment errors. As mentioned before collectivist cultures care about in–target goals togetherness, cooperation, loyalty and commitment; challenges and disputes among group members are ignored at all costs. Therefore, raters in performance appraisal mostly make lenient assessments; so disputes, resentments, in–group this harmony are being ignored (Milliman et al., 1998). The date obtained from feedback sessions proves that the collectivists tend to ignore the disputes among the employees (Cascio and Bailey, 1995). Within the collectivist cultures, it is more important to ensure compliance with others, to gain a sense of belonging than reflecting a positive personal image which could disrupt the group harmony (Korsgoard et al., 2004:874). To ignore these problems in order not to distort the image may cause the appraisals regarding employee performance to be more lenient and inaccurate. The researchers have revealed in a research that the Malaysians whose individualism is low avoid giving negative feedback and Chinese managers make leniency errors in the appraisals they perform (Chow, 1998; Seddon, 1987). As a support to this, in a research carried out in Republic of China, in which 982 couples who work in 9 different institutions in leader and subordinate positions have been used as subjects, the appraisals regarding performance that individuals carried out on their own are compared to the appraisals regarding inferior performance that were performed by supervisors. Results indicate that Chinese employees assessed their own performance less tolerant than their supervisors. These results contrast with the performance appraisal results which American employees typically do about themselves and are more lenient compared to their inspectors (Farh et al., 1991:129). These results coincide with the results of Hofstede’s (1997). Hofstede has found out in his study that the employees who belong to Republic of China are the most collectivist and American employees are the most individualist. Leniency error which arises among American employees is compatible with view that the individualist appraisers have the impulse to see/perceive themselves as positive as possible. This view rooted in a profound way in western, individualist tradition which emphasizes individual achievement, personal competence and self-respect. Exaggerated personal perceptions accord with individualist cultures; and don’t accord with collectivist cultures which promote interpersonal harmony a interdependence, solidarity and group harmony (Farh et al., 1991:131). The Effects of Psychological Process on Leniency and Severity Errors To display the psychological processes regarding the appraisers who have different cultures can lead to some different results as to performance appraisals. Thus, individualists focus on their own uniqueness, to achieve their goals, their internal reference forms, self ego (Oyserman et al., 2002). This case potentially drives them to do harsher assessments on other people’s behaviors models. The collectivists think that self-ego may easily be affected by static social environment (Triandis, 2001). For collectivists, happiness implies control and self-restraint in emotional and behavioral expressions. Thus it will be possible to maintain relations away from dispute. Contrary to the judgments of collectivists, the question of causality and attributions are based on social context in which social boundaries and behaviors take place. Collectivists’ focus on the case and context (on the attitudes and behaviors of, in other words, on the content and characteristics of cases compared to individualists) in which a behavior is being fulfilled can be a disadvantage to obtain accurate performance appraisals. Collectivists have higher chances to make leniency error to maintain in-group harmony, because they want to ensure the group to attain its goals and to maintain its happiness. Furthermore, the group members’ behaviors can be interpreted in the context of social boundaries (Oyserman et al., 2002). As a result, determined for collectivists rationalism means the importance of determined fixed and static group relations in which the exchange is based on the principles of equality and generosity. While explaining the research results, Smith (2004) claims that in-group harmony in collectivist societies will encourage the individuals to do more tolerant assessments which include consent/acceptance. 345 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In individualist cultures, it is not a big problem for individualists (compared to the collectivists) not to give negative feedback for the fear of creating conflict among the employees. On the contrary, it is a priority to express the attitudes and opinions in an honest way. In addition, individualists may tend to present harsh appraisal results; because task performance and development are more important than the goal of maintaining compatible relations among the employees. According to them, if the old relationships are quite troublesome, new relationships can be easily established. According to the individualists, the relations are perceived as the facilitator factors which serve to obtain their own interests. This makes the appraisal differences between the individualists and collectivist to be noticed easily. Cultural Differences between the Rater and Ratees Another case which the culture can have a significant impact on appraisal behavior is the case when the rater and ratees have different cultural backgrounds. For example, since the labor force is culturally more different, this situation may occur often in North American institutions. In these cases, since the rater is not aware of the behavior models within the ratee’s culture, the accuracy of the appraisals decrease (Triandis and Brislin, 1984:1006-1017). For instance, an individualist rater may not be focusing on the contributions of the ratee to the group he/she belongs to and may not care his/her team work skills. On the contrary, a rater with a collectivist perspective may put more emphasis on the roles of the ratees in the team, the contributions they make for the achievement of the team’s goals and he/she may pay less attention to their individual performance. As a result, these cultural misunderstandings may cause to be fallen in leniency error in one and severity error in another. Motivation Approaches of the Raters Another issue that must be dealt with here is the relationship between severity error and motivation in the context of individualism and collectivism. Researchers offered explanations on the effect of motivation behind the appraisers’ lenient and severe appraisals. Accordingly, it’s possible that managers can make different appraisal regarding the employees’ motivation according to their individualist and collectivist cultural background. Increasing number of studies suggest that North Americans for whom individualist values are dominant within the context of business, are less aware of their colleagues’ socio-emotional expressions (Sanchez-Burks, 2002). Although the recent intercultural surveys which have been carried out indicate that people constantly say that the money is a factor that satisfies least their needs (Sheldon et al., 2001) an intercultural research which was carried out by Morris and his friends about global company the idea that North Americans bring a “Market Orientation” to their interpersonal relationships, in other words, they evaluate their relationships according to their interests (Morris et al., 2000:97-123). As a support to this research, Miller claims that Western individualism puts a greater emphasis on the role of external factors about the others’ behaviors and has a common belief about “self–interest norm” (Miller, 1999:1053-1060). Self–interest norm defends that if any economic interests exist, even if in the cases which employees believe that they are internally motivated, external factors would be more effective. However, within the collectivist cultural contexts that self–interest norm is less determinant, it is expected that managers potentially will pay more attention to the internal factors that motivate the employees. When the managers’ who belong to collectivist culture compared to the individualists, their employees will be assessed in the most useful way for the groups. Therefore, if the high appraisal results will mean more employee satisfaction and more compatible relations, the managers will make lenient errors depending on high assessments. In accordance with this, according to Morris and his friends’ findings, unlike North American employees who have individualist values, Spanish employees have demonstrated a proximity orientation (having a high emotional commitment with his work–mates) and Chinese employees have demonstrated a family orientation (a self–sacrifice orientation for group) (Morris et al., 2000:97123). As a result, in the collectivist cultures, even if the low assessment results are deserved, the motivation decrease among the people at the point of performance development (Longenecker et al., 1987), the raters’ tendency to maintain positive relationships with the subjects (Murphy and Cleveland, 1995) may cause them to fall in leniency error. As it will be understood from the researches, in the performance appraisal, the raters’ cultural differences will influence their tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. An effective performance appraisal system will only be possible with the creation of a system which offers valid and reliable results that are free of errors. In the establishment of such a system, the need for not ignoring cultural differences among the raters, determination of the socio–cultural factors in the error analysis play a critical role. 346 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion Performance appraisal has become available in all areas of industry in today’s business life and it has become an application which has a strategic competition advantage in the globally severe competitive conditions. In a survey made by Locher and Teel, it has been observed that 89 % of the companies that participated in the survey placed their performance appraisals on a regular basis (Locher and Tell, 1977). Bass and Barrett argued that all institutions have a method regarding employee’s performance appraisal that they carry out secretly or explicitly (Bass and Barrett, 1981:259). Despite the increasing popularity of performance appraisal, there is a need to do a further examination as to socio- cultural factors on appraisal errors which affect negatively the performance appraisal activities. The research indicates that there is a need to do a very good analysis of social and cultural factors in order to be able to explain the variability of leniency and severity errors are judicial errors which the raters do during the appraisal process. So it is a result of distorted judicial process that here raters’ tendency to fall in leniency and severity errors. 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Billings (1979), “Comparison Of Training Methods For Improving The Psychometric Quality Of Experimental And Administrative Performance Rating”, Journal Of Applied Psychology, Vol. 64, s.124. 348 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 247 Title A name given to the resource Leniency and Severity Errors in Performance Appraisal in the Context of Collectivist and Individualist Culture Author Author YILDIZ, Gültekin BALTACI, Adem Abstract A summary of the resource. Although the difficulty in carrying out the human resources’ practices into life in different cultures is a major problem that the implementers have been handling for years, the “appraisal errors”, which are important obstacles in front of an effective performance appraisal, are needed to be examined more deeply in terms of socio-cultural factors. Because, performance appraisals may be affected much by the value judgments that may have quite serious differences with respect to the cultures. Therefore putting forward the effects of the context in which the appraisal errors take place, has a critic importance for making sense of the error reasons and for creating solutions. In this study, leniency and severity errors, those are included in the performance errors, have been examined in the context of collectivist and individualist cultures. Besides, the question as “how do the judgment values of those cultures affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity error?” has been tried to answer. This theoretical study has revealed that the variety of the cultural differences could affect the tendencies of the raters towards leniency and severity influentially. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0b42f50d4606d96204d92abd3096ed9a.pdf 9ec058599384c6403735d9307c30b1ec PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Does Sector Make a Difference in HRM Practices? Turkish Companies in Marmara Region Gültekin YILDIZ Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Serkan BAYRAKTAROĞLU Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Yasemin ÖZDEMĐR Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Özlem BALABAN Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Abstract: HRM discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labour. HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances (Andersen, 2000), sector, market type (Beer et al., 1984). In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a paralel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices and according to this aim the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. Keywords: HRM, HRM in manufacturing sector, HRM in service sector Introduction Human resource management (HRM) discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labor. And also sector (Kaufman, 2007) and market type (Beer et al., 1984) are effective on HR departments structure and HR practices based on functions. There are many HRM models in America and Europe which are descriptive for determining the HRM understanding of an organisation or a country. These models are maps factors that affect the HRM structure in a general manner or and HR functions in a more specific view. The Model of Brewster and Bournois underlines 86 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the importance of sectors effect on HRM practices (Brewster and Bournois, 1991; from Pinnington ve Edwards, 2000: 19). The importance of human in the organizations and the features of the jobs/works are different in different sectors. In manufacturing sector automation and information technologies are used more than service sector. But in service sector the production and consuming are simultaneous, the intensity of labor is high so a structure that is consisted of a face-to-face relationship between the personnel and customers. A production focused management style is dominant in manufacturing sector and in service sector, a customer focused management style is dominat (Gök, 2006). Because of these main differences of sector features and management styles, in two sectors different HRM practices are expected. The Background of HRM Practices in Turkey In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a parallel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). In addition HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances like sector (Andersen, 2000). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. Objective of the Research This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices. Because in the literature it is mentioned that sector is one of the important factors that affect the HRM practices. And also if our hypothesis is true, this can give an opinion to the organisations for realizing their HRM decisions according to sectoral circumstances. Research Methodology According to the objective of this study, the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. General Findings The datas are gained from 62 manufacturing organisations and 63 service sector organisations, totally 125 organisations. In this section, the findings of our research will be indicated. Initially the frequencies about our sample’s features like sector and personnel number will be given in Table 1. Table 1: The Frequencies about Sample’s Features (Sector) Manufacturing Service Sector N % Sector N Textile 12 19,4 Tourism 29 Construction 13 21,0 Banking 18 Iron and steal 8 12,9 Insurance 12 Automotive 17 27,4 Other 4 Food 11 17,7 Information technologies 1 1,6 TOTAL 62 100 TOTAL 63 % 46,03 28,57 19,04 6,3 100 87 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to literature organisational size is an important factor that affect the HR structure so frequencies about this is like in Table 2. Table 2: The Frequencies about Sample’s Features (Personnel Number) Manufacturing Service Personnel number N % Personnel number N 1-49 26 41,9 1-49 16 50-99 8 12,9 50-99 4 100-250 5 8,1 100-250 16 More than 250 23 37,1 More than 250 27 TOTAL 62 100 TOTAL 63 % 25,4 6,3 25,4 42,9 100 The personnel number frequencies show that there is similarity and balance in our sample in both sectors. Findings about HR Practices In this part the findings of our research about HR practices will be given in two parts; for manufacturing and for service sector, then will be compared generally. As it is indicated in the previous researches the name of the department related with human resources is called human resources. The distribution of frequencies on the name of the department is in Table 3. Table 3: Distribution of Frequencies on the Name of the Department Manufacturing Service Department name N % Department name N Personnel 16 25,8 Personnel 8 Administrative and financial 6 9,7 Administrative and 6 works financial works Accounting and financing 3 4,8 Human resources Other (Personnel and administrative works, personnel and human resources) TOTAL 32 3 51,6 4,8 Accounting financing Human resources Other 62 100 TOTAL and % 12,7 9,5 4 6,3 40 5 63,5 7,9 63 100 There is similarity in the name of the department related with human resources and in both sectors human resource department is used mostly with great rate. In manufacturing sector, human resources managers/directors (N= 15, 24, 2%) and human resource and financial works managers (N= 14, 22, 6%) are at the position for the responsibility of HR function. And the 93% of the people who is responsible of HR department are graduated from university and from business administration (N= 31, 50, 0%). And in service sector, human resources manager/director are at the position for the responsibility of HR function with 28, 6%. And the 93, 7% of the people who is responsible of HR department are graduated from university and 47, 5% of them from business administration. There is also a similarity in the graduation of the people who is responsible of HR department. *From this point it is necessary to indicate that the person who filled the questionnaires could select more than one choice. So the most selected choices are mentioned here and the totals can be more than 100% for each question. As it is mentioned in the theoretical background, there are many internal and external factors that affect HR practices. Here are the findings about these factors; • In manufacturing sector, the most important internal factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like total quality management (N=44, 70, 9%) and features of the employees (N=36, 58, 0%). • And in service sector, the most important internal factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like features of the employees (N=47, 74, 6%), strategic management (N= 42, 66, 6%) and the top managers’ management style (N=38, 60, 3%). The ranking of the internal factors that affect the HR practices is different. Features of the employees are the only common factor mentioned above. 88 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • In manufacturing sector, the most important external factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like labour structure (N= 46, 74, 1%) and competition density (N= 42, 67, 7%). And in service sector, the most important external factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like labour structure (N= 54, 85, 5%), competition density (N= 49, 77, 7%) and technology (N=39, 61, 9%). The external factors that affect the HR practices and their ranking of is the same. The findings about HR functions in manufacturing sector can be indicated as below; The necessity of ISO/TSE standards (N= 24; 38, 7 %) and HR/personnel selection (N= 24; 38, 7 %) are the most important aims of the job analysis. HR planning time is especially between 6 months and 1 year (N=29; 46, 7 %). Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method (N=55; 88, 7%). The most common used employee/ HR supply methods are overtime working (N= 32; 51, 6%) and external employee/HR supply application (N= 31; 50%). Previous applications (N=34; 54, 8%) and personal advices (N= 29; 46, 7%) are especially used as the type of external personnel supply resources. Organisations use conferences (N= 31; 50 %) and probation (N= 26; 41, 9%) as training methods most commonly. The training result are evaluated by measuring previous and latter performances (N= 39; 62, 9%) and previous and latter tests (N=29; 46, 7%). Job evaluation is used for employee selection according to job (N= 30; 48, 3%) and internal movements like promotion and transfer (N=29; 46, 7%). The most important factor that affect the wage level is effective performance appraisal (N= 44; 70, 9%) and the other market wages level (N= 22; 35, 4%). Incentive wage system based on personal performance is the most common used wage system (N= 34; 54, 8%). Main wage plus premium/bonus is also being used frequently (N= 24; 38, 7%). The wage increase is mostly affected by inflation rate adding performance results (N= 42; 67, 7%). Salaried day off expect legal requirements for death, accident, marriage, etc. (N= 30; 48, 3%), bonus (N= 30; 48, 3 %), cafeteria services and year permission money (N= 27; 43, 5%) are the most common used social aids and services. Performance lowness (N= 42; 67, 7%) and disciplinary (N=40; 64, 5%) are the most common layoff reasons. The findings about HR functions in service sector can be indicated as below; Constituting job descriptions (N= 31; 49, 2 %) and job requirements (N= 31; 49, 2 %), job evaluation (N= 27; 42, 9 %) are the most important aims of the job analysis. HR planning time is especially between 6 months and 1 year (N=30; 47, 6 %). Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method (N=56; 88, 9%). The other ones are interview of one person (N= 34; 54, 0 %) and references (N= 33; 52, 4 %). The most common used employee/ HR supply methods are external employee/HR supply application (N= 37; 58, 7%) and internal movements like promotion and transfer (N= 28; 44, 4%). Previous applications (N=38; 60, 3%) and personnel advices (N= 31; 49, 2%) are especially used as the type of external personnel supply resources. Organisations use conferences (N= 36; 57, 1 %) and probation (N= 21; 33, 3%) as training methods most commonly. The training result are evaluated by measuring the usage level of what is learned (N=32; 50, 8%) and pervious latter performances (N= 31; 49, 2%). Job evaluation is used for internal movements like promotion and transfer (N=28; 44, 4%), equal wage principle (N=27; 42, 9%) and also determining education necessity (N= 26; 41, 3). The most important factor that affect the wage level is performance appraisal (N= 37; 58, 7 %) and also market wages level is the effective factor (N= 31; 49, 2%). Incentive wage system based on personal performance is the most common used wage system (N= 28; 44, 4%). Main wage plus premium/bonus is also being used frequently (N=23; 36, 5%). The wage increase is mostly affected by inflation rate adding performance results (N= 38; 60, 3%). The other important factor that affect the wage increase is average market raise (N= 21; 33, 3%). Salaried day off expect legal requirements for death, accident, marriage, etc. (N= 32; 50, 8%), bonus (N= 25; 39, 7%) and clothing aid (N=22; 34, 9%) are the most common used social aids and services. Disciplinary (N= 46; 73, 0%) and performance lowness (N= 37; 58, 7%) are the most common layoff reasons. As a result we can generally say that; The aims of job analysis in two sectors are different. HR planning time is between 6 months - 1 year and is same in two sectors. Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method in two sectors. 89 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • The employee/ HR supply methods are different in two sectors but the type of external personnel supply resources is the same. • The training methods and the training evaluation methods are the same. • The areas of job evaluation usage in two sectors are different. • The factors that affect the wage level are the same. • The wage systems and the factors that affect the wage increase are the same. • The social aids and services are also the same. • The most common layoff reasons are same in two sectors. The general evaluation of the findings shows that there more similar aspects in HR practices than differences. Conclusion Most of the HR functions and especially HR requirement and selection, training and development, wage management, performance appraisal are nearly used in all organisations and in all sectors. HR functions are affected by organisation culture, structure, organizational size and sector. So it is thought that there is a difference between the HR practices of the organisations in manufacturing and service sector. This study’s findings shows that generally there are similarities in HR functions like HR planning time, HR selection methods, HR supply resources, training methods and evaluation methods, wage management, social aids and layoff reasons. But it must be said that although the methods used in these HR functions are similar, the ranking and the factors that affect the HR practices are different. Also the aims of job analysis, HR supply methods and the areas of job evaluation usage are different. As a result sector makes a difference in some HR practices. But this result can’t be generalized. So many other researches that have bigger samples is required to make general decisions and find the reasons of the differences in HR practices. References Andersen, A. (2000) “2001’e Dogru Insan Kaynakları Arastırması”, Sabah Yayıncılık, Istanbul. Aycan, Z. (2001) “Human Resource Management in Turkey-Current Issues and Future Challenges”, International Journal Of Manpower, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 252-60. Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P.R., Mills, D.Q. and Walton, R.E. (1984), Managing Human Assets, Free Press, New York. Bingöl, D. (2006) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Arıkan Yayınları, 6. Baskı, Đstanbul. Brewster, C. ve Bournois, F. (1991) “Human Resource Management: A European Perspective”, Personnel Review, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 4-13. Ercek, Mehmet (2006) “HRMization in Turkey: Expanding the Rhetoric-Reality Debate in Space and Time”, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 648-672. Gok, Sibel (2006) 21. Yüzyılda Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Beta Basım Dağıtım, Istanbul. Kaynak, Tugrul, Z. Adal and et al., (2000) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Istanbul Universitesi Isletme Fakultesi Isletme Iktisadı Enstitusu Arastırma ve Yardım Vakfı Yayını, No: 7, Istanbul. Kaufman, Bruce E. (2007) “The Development of HRM in Historical and International Perspective”, in The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management, edit: Boxall, Peter, John Purcell ve Patrick Wright, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 19-47. Lundy, O. (1994), “From Personnel Management to Strategic Human Resource Management”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 687-720. Pinnington, A. ve T. Edwards (2000) Introduction to Human Resource Management, Oxford University Press, New York. Storey, J. (1989) New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, Routledge, London. Uyargil, C. and Ozcelik, O. (2001), “Some Characteristics of the Turkish HR Managers/Professionals and a Comparative Study with Three European Countries (United Kingdom, Germany and Spain)”, Paper Presented At Global HRM Conference, June 19th-22, Barcelona. 90 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 149 Title A name given to the resource Does Sector Make a Difference in HRM Practices? Turkish Companies in Marmara Region Author Author YILDIZ, Gültekin BAYRAKTAROĞLU, Serkan ÖZDEMİR, Yasemin BALABAN, Özlem Abstract A summary of the resource. HRM discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labour. HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances (Andersen, 2000), sector, market type (Beer et al., 1984). In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a paralel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices and according to this aim the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05bd8d9bf6ed0aa513d6b80b74c8e707.pdf f51c2798275cc295ae67ade62ca34235 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Comparative Analysis of Economic and Social Performances of Transition Economies and the Case of Bosnia-Herzegovina1 Đbrahim Güran YUMUŞAK Asst. Prof., PhD. Kocaeli University Department of Economics iyumusak@kocaeli.edu.tr Mahmut BĐLEN Asst. Prof., PhD. Sakarya University Department of Economics mbilen@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Transition economies have undergone an enormous transformation since 19891991. After the recession of the early 1990’s, some of these economies experienced a GDP recovery, at a different pace, with different outcomes in terms of economic growth and social performance (human development, employment, poverty, etc.). This paper tries to analyze the level of human capital for Transition Economies by comparative methods. In order to analyze level of human capital for Transition Economies, we used the human development indexes. Transition economies progress in the transition process has different effects due to internal and external factors. The human development level in transition economies is relatively high in spite of a huge recession and very poor economic performance, thanks to previous investments made in social dimensions by previous regimes. In fact, economic performance would suggest worse human development levels. Nevertheless, the transition process influenced the nonincome dimensions of people, often worsening the main indicators. Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the ninth position as far as HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. Key Words: Human Capital, Human Development, Transition Economies, BosniaHerzegovina Introduction After the collapse of the Soviet, Countries belongs to the Socialist economic system has tried to change the production and trade forms of economy fundamentally from the socialist to open economy. These economies need to structure of property and the consumer and producer of behavior a well for change in the encounter. The countries economic structures defined as transition economy. The countries in the transition process get attention due to several reasons by the researchers. This study tries to analyze the transition characteristic of the economy of the South East European Countries’ human and social development levels, the human and social development and economic development relationship. Therefore, this study aims to compare the transition economies of the human development levels in comparison analysis. In this goal, transition economies of education rate, enrolment ratio, the average life expectancy and people per capita are used to reach human and social development index values of using the for analysis. Thus, the countries’ economic development human capital potential has been determined. Although, income shows economic development levels for countries, income, health and the quality of should be the taken into consideration on the basis of the examination. As we know that The United Nations Development Organization publishes every year in a Human Development index (Human Development INDEX-HDI) since 1990, this index not only shows the qualitative change but also in terms of quality that functions as a scale of an important indicator. This index covers economic performance, human and social development, the education and health indicators. This study proceed as follows: The first section gives the properties of transition economies, features economic performance and the relationship between the human and social development. The second section explains the human capital and the concept of human and social development index. The third section examines the transition economies’ levels in human and Social Development index. 1 This paper based on “The Comperative Analysis of Levels of Human Development Levels of Transition Economies” presented at the Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences Faculty and “The Comperative Analysis of Levels of Human Development of Middle Asia Turkish States And Turkey” II. International Social Scientists Congress, Bishkek, 22-24 October 2008. 414 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1. Transition Economies and Economic-Social Performance Transition economies have undergone an enormous transformation since 1989-1991. After the recession of the early 1990’s, some of these economies experienced a GDP recovery, at a different pace, with different outcomes in terms of economic growth and social performance (Tridico, 2005:1). After the collapse the bloc's Socialist in 1989, these countries has increased their effort to transforming economic systems. Countries are living this transition process from central plan economy to free market economy economic structures defined as “Transition Economy”. Even though these countries are classified in different group for several criteria, these countries classified as the geographical and their union categorical : Central and Eastern European Countries and the Baltic Countries (The Czech Republic, Poland, Lithuania, and others), South -East European Countries (Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Albania, and others) and the Commonwealth of Independent States (Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and others). 1.1. Economic-Social Performance Transition from central plan economy to free market economy is a tough process and fundamental reforms are required. Institutional structure with the social norms, the institutions which fails powers and values ties between should be transformed (Tridico, 2005:2). This transformation, transition economies the current economic problems increased problem and makes difficult transition. In the early 1990s, Central and Eastern European Countries and the Commonwealth of Independent States member of the countries in economic wreckage, poverty, have increased its income distribution changed and unemployment rates increased. In particular The Former Soviet Union countries of the people living life standards are getting worse. This situation in countries market economy transition process is lame and that it put faith in the adverse effect. New economic order and relations, the establishment of the development of perceptions of people depends on the changing. Transforming economy from the planned economy to the market economy involves many social costs. There are several reasons. These reasons are: there is no social security guarantees in market economy, it does not personal prosperity of the education and health services focus on economic productivity and competition, the budget deficit will decrease social services performed. Even though, the transition economies show different characteristics, they have some similar properties. The properties; some of the state administration with a relatively flexibility at a distance but is strong, public sector to be great, underdeveloped corporate infrastructure, the problem is poverty to be widely (UNDP, 2005a:16). In addition to these, due to the lack of infrastructure crime fed its height is that a bribe with problem also serious fundamental problems with is among them. These problems are important barriers for the development of the market economy. This claims to the contrary the countries in another feature, human capital and social the most important factor in the education of the infrastructure in the field of the very strong. The economy of Transition process the countries of the economic structures and the situations is significantly differ from the. The Baltic countries and among the Balkan countries, there are differences between Turk Republics and the Central European countries. Table 1: Transition Economies and Economic Performances USD Central Eastern Europe – The Baltic Commonwealth of Independent States South Eastern Europe States (CIS) Annual PPP Income Annual PPP Income Annual PPP Income (USD) Growth Rate (USD) Growth Rate (USD) Country Growth Rate Country Country 2005 2005 2005 (1990-2005) (1990-2005) (1990-2005) 3.2 22273 Macedonia -0.1 7200 -0.1 10845 Slovenia Russia 1.9 14494 Romania 1.6 9060 -2.4 6848 Lithuania Ukraine 3.6 13646 Bosnia-Herz. 12.7∗ 2546 2.2 7918 Latvia Belarus 4.2 15478 Bulgaria 1.5 9032 -3.5 2100 Estonia Moldova 4.3 13847 Albania 5.2 5316 0.2 3365 Poland Georgia 1.9 20538 4.4 4945 Czech Rep. Armenia 2.8 15871 2.0 7857 Slovakia Kazakhstan 2.6 13042 … 5016 Croatia Azerbaijan 3.1 17887 -6.8 3838 Hungary Turkmenistan 0.3 2063 Uzbekistan -1.3 1927 Kyrgyzstan -4.0 1356 Tajikistan Source: (UNDP, 2007b:277-80) ∗ Data refer to a period shorter than that specified. 415 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In addition to these differences, economies liberalize and privatization programs differences into account the given the countries that economic performance transit and was successfully programs resuming a limited similarities are observed It is therefore, the country assessments is not based on the individual country, assessments should based on grouped countries. Transition economies economic performances of the assessment is done in particular in Europe the countries involved growth and income per capita indicators compared to others is quite high that acceptable. Central and Eastern European Countries and the Baltic Countries’ per capita of income levels 13000-22000 USD (PPP) while between 1990 and 2005 between the years annual growth rate is between 1.9 - 4.3. In South East European countries per capita of the level of income 5000-9000 USD (PPP) and economic growth rate accept Bosnia and Herzegovina and Albania, is quite low. In The Commonwealth of Independent States of the countries in the Russian to those who level of income 8000 USD (the PPP under the) while the average annual performances are growth distributed between -6.8 and 4.4. In this group, economic performances of the Turkish Republics are lowers than the others When we compare the transition economies with countries in low human infrastructure and low economic performance, due to social investments by the socialist regime, the human development level is relatively high. But economic crisis in the early 1990s, due to the low economic performance, human and social development has affected negatively. In particular, The Baltic countries and the Commonwealth of Independent States of death of countries increased rates of, the average life expectancy shortening, education and health investments for the slowdown causes. Kyrgyzstan's income, education and health indicators taken into consideration of the economic crisis effects more open to a trend. Meanwhile, in 1993, per capita in purchasing power 2330 USD decreased to USD 1850 in 1995. The average life expectancy with 67.3 years decreased to 66 years and enrolment ratio decreased from 66 to 63 percent (UNDP, 2000a:87). The indicators of human and social development came to their levels after 2000. From Ancient period’s philosopher to historian’s Ibn el Sina to the many intellectual made various assessments. But, the modern explanation of human development and UNDP Human Development Reports based on Amartya by the endurance work and the people to boost options as the process is defined (UNDP, 2007/8:22-23). A Long and a healthy life, information acquisition and a good standard of living the necessary conditions for the provision of the human and social development concept include four fundamental elements. Table 2: GDP and HDI for Transition Economies (1985-2002) GDP/HDI HDI Reduction GDP Russia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Kyrgyzstan, Reduction Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Macedonia, BosniaHerzegovina, Serbia-Montenegro GDP Stable GDP Increase HDI Stable Tajikistan, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan HDI Increase Uzbekistan, Belarus, Turkmenistan Albania, Latvia, Croatia, Lithuania, Estonia, Slovakia Slovenia, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary Source: (Tridico, 2005:26-27) These are: people in economic preferences expand, from the point of economic efficiency capable of the event, the people against discrimination and to protect human development potential to use freely and equality of the present time, and the future capabilities offspring safe use of the sustainability was passing by and the capabilities of potential and that these drive development of capability (UNDP, 2007/8:22-24). The relationship between human development and economic performance is the very complex. Economic growth boost mad contribute the human development level. But the economic growth and the humanities would not occur at he same time. It is therefore transition countries’ economic performances and the human development relationship could not be explained for the entire same manner. The Countries economic performances and the human development performances are different. The most important reason is that difficulties order to change economic system and the effort includes social and economic costs. According to a study which covers 1985-2002 a Russia according to the, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro Serbia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan to both the income and the human development of the decline in the while the Albanian, Latvia, Lithuania, Croatia, Estonia and Slovakia humanities and social development levels also defended income levels increased. Tajikistan, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan in the humanities and social development levels stay the same and but the level of income declined (Tridico, 2005:26/27). According to the another study covering the years 1990-1997,16 countries human development levels of declined. The basic reasons for these are the economic recession and plague diseases (HIV/AIDS). The study 416 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo includes Belarus, Bulgaria, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan which have economies recession and human development levels are affected negatively (Mendoza, 2001:101). 1.2. Human Development Human development is about expanding the choices open to people to lead full and valuable lives. First articulated in the 1980’s, the approach provides a means of understanding ant tracking economic and social progress which is rooted in the real-world experiences of ordinary people. A company values of property not only the value of the assets but also the value of the employees’ information and skills level. Thus, the countries development level is not only measured by per capita income of citizens but also the information, knowledge, health level taking into consideration to evaluate. It Therefore, In order to measure and compare developed countries development level, we consider quantitative indicators and qualities indicators. Even though, there are different definitions of human capital represents the combination of ability of labor and individuals. Human capital covers, people information together with the skills, talent, attitude, reliability, commitment to, creativity, to share information at the request, become part of the team in organization to concentrate on goals (Abeysekera, 2004:253) Human capital not only covers knowledge, information and skills but also covers several features. These features are; technical information and talent; Education; Professional qualities of Employees; a community participation in the Professional; development; Entrepreneurship spirit, innovation, progressive, Training programs; racial, religious and competition; equality Flawed equality; employment security; Syndicate operating; number of Employees , properties and effectiveness (Abeysekera, 2004:259). Due to above difficulties to measure human capital and compare countries, we need to find a new a practical way. It is therefore, The United Nations Development Organization (UNDP), measure the development level by education, health and revenue data of the Human Development Index (HDI). This index formation gives information about the development level and human development level. Thus, it is the most important index. Certainly human development have several indicators but difficulties in measuring, the limited, limited number of indicator should be used. Political, cultural and economic freedoms, starting with the human rights of individuals, increase the efficiency and creativity alternatives to provide that contributes too many of the size of the human development based on three dimensions. If only three dimensions taken into consideration under a large number of variables may change the direction of study basic indicators may be ignored. The first dimension of human development index is measured by the long and healthy life, the average life expectancy. Life expectation is an indicator of health and nutrition in connection with a better life. If a country provides health and nutrition in good conditions to individuals, the average life expectancy there will be longer. The infant mortality rate is the most basic health indicator of the average life expectation. In particular, baby death rates are high in countries where the average life expectancy is very low to maintaining. The low rate of infant mortality rate shows high the average life expectation. The second dimension of human development index is information and education. This dimensions the most important and easily calculable indicators and measured. Education rate e be measured with countries in particular the comparisons when it comes to the wrong consequences to open. Enrolment ratio of adults with the rate of literacy is the same but the higher education levels of the different two country's education indicators in this measurement will be the same. But for all the countries and easy to check the education rate to the school and the countries of education level of measuring the indicators show hospitality The first dimension of human development index is necessary resources to have better life. There several difficulties to measure it. Thus, average income levels taken into account. In order to remove disparities between countries, per capita of GDP figures are used and marginal contribution are taken into consideration. Each of the countries, education and health indicators of certain calculations transferring 0 and 1 of value gathered after divide three and thus each country's index is calculated. This calculation, each of the indexes a points improvement in the middle of the same with the human development process marginal of the different effect on possible. For example, 0.1 point increase in the average life index contributes differently on 0.5 or 0.9, but the average will be the same finally. Moreover, in health index, 0.1 points contribute on average for income or education index, this change differently human development index. Despite the fact some difficulties, the human development index shows development level of countries and this still an important index. 1.3. Human Development Index Human capital is the most fundamental element of the economic development for Countries. Physical capital, technological development and natural resources in other such as presence of elements of the system has economic the functioning of the other of the key factors are among the others. But the human capital economic development of basic elements of the one of the as well as the other elements are producing and efficiently in the 417 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo exercise of a positive and of the effects. It is therefore countries human developments and social development of the capital's potential is very important as a factor is considered. In order to have an assessment for Transition Economies’ economic development according to only income levels take into consideration is not very meaningful happening. Because the countries market economy transition process is still ongoing and the level of income citizens’ welfare levels designation may inadequate. It is therefore of income, with levels of economic with the development of an important factor in the human development levels of development is also taken into account. The human development level in transition economies is relatively high in spite of a huge recession and very poor economic performance, thanks to previous investments made in social dimensions by previous regimes. In fact, economic performance would suggest worse human development levels. Nevertheless, the transition process influenced the non-income dimensions of people, often worsening the main indicators (RuminskaZimny; 1997). Table 3: Human Development Index and Transition Economies (2007-8) Country Rank 1 Iceland 27 Slovenia 32 Czech Rep. 36 Hungary 37 Poland 42 Slovakia 43 Lithuania 44 Estonia 45 Latvia 47 Croatia 53 Bulgaria 60 Romania 64 Belarus 66 Bosnia & Hrz. 67 Russian Fed. 68 Albania 69 Macedonia 73 Kazakhstan 76 Ukraine 83 Armenia 96 Georgia 98 Azerbaijan 109 Turkmenistan 111 Moldova 113 Uzbekistan 116 Kyrgyzstan 122 Tajikistan 177 Sierra Leone Developing Count. WORLD Combined gross Adult enrolment Life literacy ratio for GDP per education capita Life expectanc rate y at birth (%) (PPP US$) expectancy Education (%) 2005 2005 2005 2005 index index 81.5 100 95.4 36510 0.941 0.978 77.4 99.7 94.3 22273 0.874 0.974 75.9 100 82.9 20538 0.849 0.936 72.9 100 89.3 17887 0.779 0.958 75.2 100 87.2 13847 0.836 0.952 74.2 100 78.3 15871 0.821 0.921 72.5 99.6 91.4 14494 0.792 0.965 71.2 99.8 92.4 15478 0.770 0.968 72.0 99.7 90.2 13646 0.784 0.961 75.3 98.1 73.5 13042 0.839 0.899 72.7 98.2 81.5 9032 0.795 0.926 71.9 97.3 76.8 9060 0.782 0.905 68.7 99.6 88.7 7918 0.728 0.956 74.5 96.7 69.0 7032 0.825 0.874 65.0 99.4 88.9 10845 0.667 0.956 76.2 98.7 68.6 5316 0.853 0.887 73.8 96.1 70.1 7200 0.814 0.875 65.9 99.5 93.8 7857 0.682 0.973 67.7 99.4 86.5 6848 0.711 0.948 71.7 99.4 70.8 4945 0.779 0.896 70.7 100 76.3 3365 0.761 0.914 67.1 98.8 67.1 5016 0.702 0.882 62.6 98.8 73.0 3838 0.627 0.903 68.4 99.1 69.7 2100 0.724 0.892 66.8 99* 73.8 2063 0.696 0.906 65.6 98.7 77.7 1927 0.676 0.917 66.3 99.5 70.8 1356 0.689 0.896 41.8 34.3 44.6 806 0.280 0.381 66.1 76.7 64.1 5282 0.685 0.725 68.1 78.6 67.8 9543 0.718 0.750 GDP index 0.985 0.902 0.889 0.866 0.823 0.846 0.831 0.842 0.821 0.813 0.752 0.752 0.730 0.710 0.782 0.663 0.714 0.728 0.705 0.651 0.587 0.653 0.609 0.508 0.505 0.494 0.435 0.348 0.662 0.761 GDP per Human capita rank Dev. Index minus HDR rank Value 0.968 4 0.917 4 0.891 2 0.874 2 0.870 11 0.863 -1 0.862 3 0.860 0 0.855 4 0.850 4 0.824 11 0.813 3 0.804 8 0.803 17 0.802 -9 0.801 30 0.801 11 0,794 1 0.788 9 0.775 20 0.755 24 0.746 4 0.713 5 0.708 25 0.702 25 0.696 29 0.673 32 0.336 -5 0.691 0.743 - Sources: (UNDP, 2007b:229-232) Transition Economies of the human development index of the indicators and orders are shown in Table. This table shows that during the 2007-2008 index indicators the high value and alignment of the country is Slovenia in 2005. After Slovenia, Central Europe and the Baltic countries follow: Poland, Slovakia, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia and Croatia. Human development index in the area of Transition Economies are second places: Bulgaria, Romania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania and Macedonia. The Commonwealth of Independent States group of the transition economies in the last places among the South East Europe in the group of the Transition Economies of the human development their own indicators comparison of their following graphs. According to the human development index, the most high value to Bulgaria the lowest value of the Macedonia. This total of the 5 countries of the human development levels is above threshold level. 418 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo GDP 1 HDI 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,6 Tajikistan Krgyzstan Moldova Uzbekistan Turkmenistan Georgia Azerbaijan Ukraine Armenia Kazakhstan Albania Macedonia Russia Belarus Bosnia H. Romania Croatia Bulgaria Latvia Estonia Lithuania Poland Slovakia Hungary Czech R. 0,4 Slovenia 0,5 Figure 1: GDP Index and HDI for Transition Economies (2008) Source: (UNDP, 2007b:229-232) In general, only countries which experienced an increase in their human development level had a sustained economic growth. Hence it seems to us that, in transition economies, human Development is a sufficient, yet not a necessary, condition for economic growth. This means that there can be economic growth without human development, but if there is human development then there will be economic growth (Tridico, 2005:21). 69 Macedonia 66 Bosnia Hrz. 68 Albania 0,8 60 Romania 0,9 53 Bulgaria 1 53 Bulgaria 60 Romania 66 Bosnia Hrz. 68 Albania 0,7 69 Macedonia 0,6 Figure 2: South Eastern Europe Transition Economies and HDI Rank (2007-8) Source: (UNDP, 2007b:229-232) Over the past decade, Romania has been experiencing, like many other countries in transition, a process of transformation that involves changing economic and political systems inherited from the communist era. For all the potential that Romania holds and despite many achievements on the political front, the first decade of transition can be considered one of missed opportunities and great disappointments on the economic and human development fronts. Dismantling the command-and control former socialist state with its social protection system and building the bases of a new market-oriented and democratic system has come at a tremendous cost for the over 22 million Romanians (UNDP, 2000b:19) The Human Development Reports shows that Romania has finally gained a place among the high Human Development Index (HDI) countries by surpassing the 0,800 value of index which makes access to this group. Data for 2004 ranks Romania on the 60th position among 177 countries and data from the National Institute for Statistics shows a further improvement in the HDI for Romania (0.808 in 2005) thanks to improvements in all the three basic components of the index: longevity, education level and standard of living, with the greater increase in the latter one (UNDP, 2007a:5). But, unfortunately Romania still holds the last position within the European Union countries, the lag between Romania and the next country in the HDI ranking (except Bulgaria ranked 54 with a HDI equal to 0.816 in 2004) is 15 places, namely 0.045 HDI points. As it can be seen in the figure below, the evolution of the HDI for the European Union countries is quite uneven. 419 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Between 1995 and 2000 the 10 New European Union member countries registered higher increases in the HDI compared to the 15 European Union countries at that time, but afterwards, between 2000 and 2004, the trend smoothens and the two slopes become very similar. The two newest European Union member countries, Romania and Bulgaria, are far from the EU25 average and also from the ten countries that have acceded in 2004. As for the difference in the HDI between Romania and Bulgaria the latest tendencies are in favor of Romania, as the overall index increased sharper in its case and the distance between the two countries is smaller by every year that passes (UNDP, 2007a:5). 1 EU 15 Average EU 25 Average 0,9 New EU 10 Average EU 27 Average 0,8 Romania Bulgaria 0,7 1990 1995 2000 2004 Figure 3: The Evolution of Human Development Index in EU15, EU25, EU27, and New EU10 (2004), Romania and Bulgaria Source: (UNDP, 2007a:6). Yet, there is a very important aspect that should be mentioned regarding the Human Development Index dynamics for Romania for the period 2000-2004 and that is the significant change in its value (0.027 points increase1) equaled only by Estonia and Lithuania and outrun only by Latvia (0.030 points increase) in the European Union area. This stands for consistent evidence of the important progresses Romania achieved in the area of human development during the last years. Table 4: Human Development Evolution for Selected Countries in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) Country HDI HDI Evolution 2004 Rank 1990 1995 2002 1990-2000 1995-2005 Hungary 0.807 0.810 0.848 0.027 0.048 38 Croatia 0.806 0.798 0.830 0.017 0.007 48 Bulgaria 0.795 0.784 0.796 -0.011 0.012 56 Romania 0.771 0.759 0.786 0.001 0.017 69 Ukraine 0.798 0.751 0.777 -0.036 0.015 70 Turkey 0.683 0.713 0.751 0.030 0.038 88 Source: (UNDP, 2005b:19) How does the human development profile of Romania fair in comparison to its region and neighbors? According to the 2004 HDR, of the 15 countries from the CEE only 9 can be classified as high human development countries (with a HDI value of over 0.800). These countries are Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Poland, Hungary, Lithuania, Slovakia, Croatia and Latvia. The other 6 countries, including Romania, can be classified as medium human development countries (with HDI values ranging from 0.788 0.667). There are no countries from the CEE classified as having low human development. If the 15 countries of CEE were ranked according to their 2004 HDI value, Romania would be ranked 14. The HDI of Romania is below the average of the CEE (UNDP, 2005b:18). In addition, Romania has to cover a human development deficit of 0.14 to reach the high human development level. Since 1999, the HDI for Romania has increase average 0.009 per year. In the CEE region, fourteen countries, such countries as, Hungary (0.848), Croatia (0.830) and Bulgaria (0.796) have a higher HDI value than that of Romania (0.786). As can be seen in Table 4, the CEE region shows a diverse pattern of evolution of the HDI. While Hungary and Croatia have increased their HDI value at high rates during the last decade, the gains for other countries, including Romania have been at much slower and lower rates during the same period. Romania's transition impact on its human development profile becomes even clearer, when it is analyzed in the context of the remaining countries that are considered candidates to join the 420 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo EU, (Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey), those that are already part of the EU like Hungary and those countries that in the future may be consider candidates like Croatia, Russia and Ukraine. As can be seen in Table 4 among these countries, Romania would be ranked somewhere in the middle, below Bulgaria and Russia, but on top of Ukraine and Turkey. All of the countries in Table 4 have been pursuing some form of reform policies during the last decade. However, the impact on human development of these processes has been different in all these countries. The HDI value of a country shows the distance that it has to travel to reach the maximum possible value of 1. In this line of analysis and using the values found in Table 4, while Hungary shortfall would be 15%, Romania's would be close to 21% almost twice as much as Turkey. 2. Human Development Index and Bosnia-Herzegovina It was once the proud boast of Bosnians and Herzegovinans that their country, the former Yugoslavia, was the America of Eastern Europe. The positions of Slovenia and to a lesser extend Croatia today may be taken into consideration in this regard. The Human Development Index and the level of GDP, however, now place BiH among the less developed countries of Europe. In fact, they place BiH among the last two or three of whatever comparative group one chooses, be they the countries of Eastern and Central Europe, the CIS or the Stability Pact (UNDP, 2002:99). The state of human development in BiH, thus, gives grounds for concern. Per capita incomes remain low, health indicators are at best static and educational performance shows only weak improvement. Most problematic of all, BiH citizens still face a raft of discriminatory practices which circumscribe access to basic services and weaken the wider democratic process. Year by year BiH is falling behind other countries in Eastern Europe (UNDP, 2005c:13). Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is in ninth position as far as the HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. In terms of the literacy level, the enrolment rate in all three educational levels, and realized GDP/pc (PPPUSD), BiH is below the average of Central and Eastern European countries. BiH is 8.0% more developed than the world’s average in the human development context, 14.1% more developed than the average of countries in the medium human development category and 2.6 times more developed than the country which comes last. In 2004, Norway had the highest HDI in the world within index, 21% higher than that of Bosnia and Herzegovina. BiH’s HDI rank is 62nd out of 177 reporting countries, below Malaysia and above Mauritius (UNDP, 2007c, 177). Within the context of human development, a stable progress has been achieved in BiH since 2002. The calculated human development indices are presented in Table 4, together with analyses of trends for the period 2000-2004. The Human Development Index in 2004 was 0.804. By obtaining this score, BiH has entered the group of countries with high human development, i.e. those with a HDI score of 0.800 and above. However, it must be recognized that the increase in the HDI compared to 2003, when it was 0.793, partly results from a revision of the value of PPP adjustment, which simply reflects the difference between relative prices in BiH and the rest of the world. The increase in PPP has to a large degree contributed to the HDI increase. Nevertheless, it is important to consider that most of the assessment data is based upon special surveys and thus the change is not wholly methodological (UNDP, 2007c, 30). Table 4: HDI Trends for BiH Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2004/2000 Life expectancy at birth 73.3 73.0 74.0 74.1 74.3 1.014 Adult literacy rate 85.9 88.9 94.3 96.7 97.1 1.130 Combined enrolment ratio 64.0 67.0 67.3 68.0 69.0 1.078 GDP/pc PPP USD 2875 3949 5970 6250 7230 2515 Life expectancy index 0.805 0.800 0.817 0.818 0.822 1.021 Education index 0.787 0.817 0.853 0.871 0.877 1.114 GDP index 0.560 0.614 0.683 0.690 0.714 1.275 HDI 0.718 0.744 0.784 0.793 0.804 1.120 Source: UNDP, 2007c, p.165. Significant differences between the two Entities remain. The Federation of BiH (FBiH) is 1.5% above the average of BiH as a whole, while RS, with a value of 0.784, and is still under the threshold of countries with high human development. It is also worth emphasizing that there will doubtless be huge variations within FBiH and it therefore cannot be assumed that high human development conditions are predominant throughout its territory. The stability of HDI growth in BiH is also reflected in the fact that BiH’s in 2004 was 12% higher than for 2000 (UNDP, 2007c, 30). 421 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1 Life expectancy index 0,8 Education index 0,6 GDP index 0,4 2000 2001 2002 2003 HDI 2004 Figure 4: HDI Trends for BiH Source: (UNDP, 2007c, 166.) Despite the increase in HDI, in comparison with other countries of Central and Eastern Europe, BĐH’s position remains virtually unchanged. BiH lies in ninth place, just ahead of Macedonia and Albania. In global terms the HDI value would place BiH 62. Yet it is important to recognize this is a national ranking and assumes the placement of other nations does not change (UNDP, 2007c, 31). BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. Table 5: HDI and GDI Relation for BiH and the Entities HDI BiH 0.793 2003 FBiH 0.806 RS 0.771 BiH 0.804 2004 FBiH 0.816 RS 0.784 GDI Difference HDI-GDI 0.782 0.011 0.790 0.016 0.765 0.006 0.801 0.003 0.806 0.010 0.779 0.005 Source: (UNDP, 2007c, 172.) The GDI (Gender Development Index) for 2004 was 0.801, which shows an improvement over 2003. But gender inequality is still articulated, especially in education and economic activities. It is important to stress that the difference between HDI and GDI shows significant gender inequality in BiH and both Entities. 0,8 HDI 0,7 GDI 0,6 BiH 2003 FBiH 2003 RS 2003 BiH 2004 FBiH 2004 RS 2004 Figure 5: HDI and GDI Relation Source: UNDP, 2007c, 172. (BiH: Bosnia Herzegovina, FBiH: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, RS: Republica Srpska) In 2004 there was a reduction in the difference between the HDI and GDI, primarily due to the more dynamic growth of GDI. The growth of GDI was influenced by the increase of employment of women, as well as a higher rate of female enrolment at all three educational levels (UNDP, 2007c, 172). 422 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 6: HDI for FBiH Cantons and the RS Canton or RS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sarajevo Neretva West Herzegovina Republica Srpska Central Bosnia Tuzla Zenica Doboj Podrina Posavina Herceg Bosna Una Sana Economic index 0.792 0.718 0.712 0.633 0.600 0.594 0.581 0.569 0.563 0.563 0.548 HDI Variation from State level 0.824 0.800 0.798 0.761 0.760 0.758 0.754 0.750 0.748 0.748 0.743 5.1 % 2.0 % 1.8 % -2.9 % -3.1 % -3.3 % -3.8 % -4.3 % -4.6 % -4.6 % -5.2 % Percentage difference on high HD level (0.800) 3.2 % 0.3 % 0.0 % -4.8 % -5.0 % -5.3 % -5.5 % -6.0 % -6.3 % -6.3 % -6.9 % Source: UNDP, 2005c, 165. The above show a reasonable level of variation with the highest value (Sarajevo) being 5.1 % above the State-level figure and correspondingly the lowest value (Una Sana Canton) is a similar percentage below the State level. More interesting are the relatives the High-Human Development interval which begins at a value of 0.800. This illustrates a distinct break in the data with three regions (Sarajevo plus the Herzegovina cantons) being within the category, and the others all around 5 % below. Indeed, the level of variation outside the higherscoring regions is very much reduced (UNDP 2005c, 165). Conclusion After the collapse of Soviet bloc, these countries have found them in the transition process of the free market economy. All the country's market economy transition process preceded in different ways, these countries area called transition economies. Transition economies has effected in the transition process due to internal and external factors. Transition economies, the Central European Countries and the Baltic countries are on the top for that human development index and South East Europe follow up these countries. Independent States are ranked at the lowest level. In the Independent States, Republics of Turks are lower situated among them. Except, Russia and Slovak, in the Transition Economies according to the GDP, they are the located in the top level. Albania, according to the human development index is ranking 30 steps above the threshold level. For the development of Transition Economies, they should protect their enhancements and foster their progress. This depends on countries’ transition progress to market economy. These countries, many sectors as the education and health are transforming from previous system to market based economy and this gives soma difficulties for the people and new system is face to be failure. Liberalization also comes with social and economic costs for humanities and this bring difficulties to use social potential capital uses. With market economy based on the system and firmly economic stability, countries human capital potential will drive economic developments. Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is in ninth position as far as HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. From the perspective of almost years of transition, at least three lessons can be learnt. The first lesson is obvious that transition takes time and has high human costs. The second is that growth alone does not eradicate human poverty. And the third is that rethinking the transition strategy is needed based on a concept of human development. References Abeysekera, Indra, James Guthrie (2004), “Human Capital Reporting in a Developing Nation,” The British Accounting Review, Volume: 36. Mendoza, Maria F. Trujillo (2001), The Global Digital Divide: Exploring the Relation between National Core Computing and Network Capacity and Progress in Human Development Over the Last Decade, Tulane University. Ruminska-Zimny, Ewa, (1997) “Human Poverty in Transition Economies: Regional Overview for HDR,” Tridico, Pasquale (2005), “Institutional Change and Human Development in Transition Economies,” EAEPE Conference, Bremen, 10-12 November 2005. UNDP (2000a), Kyrgysztan: National Human Development Report for 2000. 423 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo UNDP (2000b), Team for The Preparation of National Human Development Report Romania 2000, Bucherest. UNDP (2002) Human Development Report 2002: Bosnia-Herzegovina. UNDP (2005a) National Human Development Report, the Influence of Civil Society on the Human Development Process in Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz Republic. UNDP (2005b), The National Human Development Report 2003-2005 Romania. UNDP (2005c) The National Human Development Report 2005-Better Local Governance in Bosnia and Herzegovina. UNDP (2007), National Human Development Report Romania 2007 – Making EU Accession Work for All, Bucherest. UNDP (2007), National Human Development Report Romania. UNDP (2007b), Human Development Report 2007-8, Palgrave Macmillan, NewYork. UNDP, (2007c) Social Inclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina, National Report. UNDP (2007-8) Uzbekistan, Education in Uzbekistan: Matching Supply and Demand, Tashkent. Yumuşak, Đ.G.- M. Bilen (2008), “The Comparative Analysis of Levels of Human Development of Middle Asia Turkish States And Turkey” II. International Social Scientists Congress, Bishkek, 22-24 October 2008. 424 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 284 Title A name given to the resource The Comparative Analysis of Economic and Social Performances of Transition Economies and the Case of Bosnia-Herzegovina Author Author YUMUSAK, ibrahim Güran BiLEN, Mahmut Abstract A summary of the resource. Transition economies have undergone an enormous transformation since 1989- 1991. After the recession of the early 1990’s, some of these economies experienced a GDP recovery, at a different pace, with different outcomes in terms of economic growth and social performance (human development, employment, poverty, etc.). This paper tries to analyze the level of human capital for Transition Economies by comparative methods. In order to analyze level of human capital for Transition Economies, we used the human development indexes. Transition economies progress in the transition process has different effects due to internal and external factors. The human development level in transition economies is relatively high in spite of a huge recession and very poor economic performance, thanks to previous investments made in social dimensions by previous regimes. In fact, economic performance would suggest worse human development levels. Nevertheless, the transition process influenced the nonincome dimensions of people, often worsening the main indicators. Among the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the ninth position as far as HDI rank is concerned, just above Macedonia and Albania. BiH in aggregate human development terms is continuing to progress. Its HDI score now places it at the lower band of the most developed countries in the world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a34c298042a03cdf153e30b36f8a874a.pdf b3fc2dcc29c88097dcb212922e0869e2 PDF Text Text Academic Writing in English: Approaches, Processes and Challenges in Higher Education Oktay Yagiz English Teaching Department Ataturk University Turkey oktayyagiz@hotmail.com Kemalettin YIGITER English Teaching Department Ataturk University Turkey yigiter@atauni.edu.tr Gencay Genc English Language and Literature Cyprus International University ggencay@hotmail.com Abstract: Writing is pivotal and good language use is marked in higher education throughout disciplines. Self-assumptions, others’ arguments, transformed knowledge, and research results are primarily given in written documents including articles, theses, dissertations and books. Though writing is often referred to as a skill or competence, it is widely acknowledged that writing resides in much more than solely being able to communicate what you already know. It rather stands as primary tool for thinking, learning and knowledge construction. Based on the above considerations, the present study takes a qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they encounter in this process in English departments. Introduction As a truly international phenomenon English appears overwhelmingly the language of research and publication as well as language of instruction. With this tremendous expansion, there is a parallel growth in the understanding and preparation of non-native English speakers of dissemination of academic knowledge and scholarly findings in higher education. Disciplinary writing for academic achievement is of vital importance (Benfield, 2007; Benfield & Feak, 2006; Coates et al., 2002) and academic writing in English at advanced level is a challenge for both native and nonnative English speakers. University students are inducted into a particular discipline through lectures, discussions, readings; and achievement of their academic performance is most commonly evaluated through their written assignments. However, when these students embark on graduate studies, writing becomes more complex, demanding and challenging. As the number of the universities (68 state and 25 private institutions; YÖK, 2003), is increasing, serious academic expectations and requirements concurrently come to the existence including within the reference of scientific output. However, the debates concerned ostensibly confine to quantity but not quality matters. Most of the above mentioned universities have English language related departments, the educational language of some are 80 �English, and finally almost all of the disciplines require their members to write in English prominently, journal article, book review, thesis and dissertation. It is imperative to write in English, as an example, in that Social Citation Index journals do not enfold Turkish journals. Almost no studies in literature have been focused on Turkish EFL graduate students’ writing processes, writing needs and challenges. To the contribute to this lacking field, this study investigated Turkish graduate students’ English writing approaches and their difficulties that often affect their academic achievement. In particular, this study explores how these students approach their academic requirements and expectations in terms of producing academic text such as research paper, proposal, thesis and dissertation, how they compose these texts, and how they feel about the writing experience. Based on the above considerations, the present study takes qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they encounter in this process in English departments, and how Turkish EFL graduate students approach to writing, their strategies and their discursive and affective difficulties and challenges were explored. Background Given that the major language for the dissemination of academic knowledge, and going further, as the very language for the communication of research findings, English plays a crucial role for students, who must gain fluency in the conventions of English language academic discourses to understand their disciplines and to successfully survive in the academia. The growth of English as the leading language for the dissemination of academic knowledge has had a major impact around the world, binding the careers of thousands of scholars to their competence in a foreign language and elevating this competence to a professional imperative. (Hyland & HampLyons, 2002, p.2). This growth has inevitably been at the expense of other languages so that now more than 90 per cent of the journal literature in many scientific domains is printed in English and the most prestigious and cited journals are in English (Hyland, 2006; p. 24). Therefore, for most tertiary level students in many countries, mastering the right English with proficiency in a certain discipline has become a matter of great urgency including the native speakers of English. In fact, there appears little surprise to see this need even among native speakers of English considering the institutions’ expectations as the international norms (Hyland, Hamp-Lyons, 2002). Hinkel (2004) alludes to the power of ability to use language efficiently and accurately stating that no matter the writer has supposedly a remarkable idea there will not be any outcomes if the language is not salient and synthesized in an organized way. With globalization and marketisation of the academy in an increasingly competitive and intermingled world, the number of nonnative English speakers (NNES) students in tertiary institutes has increased not only in developed countries but also in periphery countries. For the last a few years, due to economic growth and social demands, Turkey has witnessed serious debates pertaining to higher education. As the student population has become outnumbered and diverse in the field of EFL/ESL in accordance with different linguistic and educational backgrounds, learning needs of students attract particular attention. In this context, diversity has of considerable importance. Marked challenges reside in this distinctiveness of disciplinary communication for students, in that; such disciplines displaying steady change and development requires students to learn to master so as to succeed (Hyland, 2006). The professional and institutional expectations and requirements of academics are in line with developed English-language-speaking countries sharing the same roles and tasks. Yet, writing an academic paper in English for a non-native speaker of English, undeniably, having some disadvantages will be more difficult and time consuming than a native speaker. Ferguson (2007) asserts that linguistic factors represent a noticeable obstacle to negotiate in academia. Meyer (2008) further emphasized the distinction between non-native English speakers who have spent time in an English-speaking country and/or members of prestigious, internationally known research groups in their home countries, and, on the other hand, being a non-native English speaking academic in a not developed country where English is not used as the native language, or having not a chance work and conduct research under supervision or mentoring of renowned NNES scholars or native English speakers (NES) expatriates, or being NNES scholars who have never left their home country. He, thus, closely correlates both discursive (language related) and non-discursive (non-language related) factors. Bereiter and Scardamalia’s examination of writing process that distinguishes two types of writing that is knowledge telling and knowledge transforming gives more about academic language proficiency (1989). The 81 �Bereiter and Scardamalia model of writing addresses a more psychologically complex type of writing that they called knowledge transforming. It consists of thinking about an issue, obtaining the information needed for definition, analysis and modifying one’s thinking (Hinkel, 2004). This form of writing leads writers to expand their schematic knowledge, and develop new knowledge by processing new information taken for the purpose of writing on a topic. Therefore, advanced cognitive and information-processing tasks entail transforming and demonstrating knowledge in writing place, and it might jeopardize L2 writers’ achievement of writing. At this point, language has always been a matter of significance to scholars no matter they are novice researchers or experienced academics, since it is the basis of consciousness, thinking and interaction. Therefore, the ‘right’ language reveals that a writer is a member of their community towards the audience. The concept of community draws attention to the fact that we use language to communicate with other members of social groups each of whom has own conventions and norms as well as communicate with the world generally. As for the influence of emotions on the ways in which students interpret, approach and experience the new learning tasks, EFL writers’ feelings have significant effect on students’ academic writing. When adult graduate EFL students are required to skillfully and productively write about scientific topics under stressful timed or testing situations negative affective reactions become remarkably observable. Thus, many EFL writers demonstrate enhanced writing anxiety, fear of evaluation, writer’s block, lack of motivation, and writing procrastination. Conversely, these students may display positive emotional reactions such as excitement, enthusiasm, satisfaction when they perform successful writing. Both types of feelings affect students’ cognitive processes in L2 academic writing development. That is why, L2 learners’ emotional mechanism in learning to write academic English, their psychological efforts to cope with the stress of performing to write academically appear to be important. Pomfret and Medford’s assertion , hereby, catches attention: “Academic success is not merely a matter of studying, hard work, and attendance. Emotions can interfere with academic performance. These kinds of impediments are not usually evident to teachers; thus making the process of working with students in the classroom that much more difficult” (2005, p.339). Method Interviews To have a deeper understanding of the participants’ writing strategies and processes in line with describing and interpreting their feelings, perceptions and experiences of these graduate Turkish EFL graduate students while writing academic texts in their own voice, semi-structured interview was used. As a powerful tool to provide insights in educational issues through understanding the approaches and processes of the individual interviews were employed in the current study. Interviewing can take indifferent formats and the most common one appears individual face to face verbal interchange In each interview the participants were posed the questions listed below. Interview Questions What do you attach particular importance in your academic paper? What are your feelings (e.g. motivational problems, anxiety, procrastination, writing apprehension) and beliefs when you are to write an academic text (e.g. conference proposal, research paper or thesis/dissertation?) What are the prominent difficulties and needs considering the academic expectations and requirements in your graduate studies?(publishing, paper presenting, thesis/dissertation writing) What language based points do you have particular difficulties and need to pay extra attention? In addition to the questions, in the course of the conversation, spontaneous follow-up questions relevant to interviewees’ responses also occurred. The questions were in English and they asked them to feel free while speaking. Thus, in some part of the interviews, the interviewees preferred to speak in English. Their responses in L1 were then translated into English. Prior to the each interview their permission were taken and they were given the general nature of the research study. Then each interviewee was asked whether they had any questions or concerns before we got started. Following this procedure, each participant signed a letter of consent to participate in the study All the interviews were tape-recorded, then transcribed and coded categories. During the interviews taking brief notes also helped us with the data analysis. Participants 82 �As for the criteria for selecting participants for interviews, three prominent sets of criteria were set forth: first, all of the interviewees had to pursuing the same academic degree ( i.e. doctoral students), working in the same discipline (i.e. English language teaching and learning) and have had some writing experiences including writing conference proposal, attempting to write research article for publishing (whether their manuscripts hade been published or not was ignored) and writing thesis or dissertation. However, they might be at the different stages of their degree studies. For instance, some of them were in their second year or beyond of doctoral studies, others were either on the verge of finishing or had just finished their doctoral studies. All of them had their master degree having a thesis writing experience. At the very outset of the design of the qualitative phase of the study, though some master students were invited to participate in the interviewing, the further period of the study required to exclude the master students’ participation It was considered that the more experienced they were in writing in the academia, the more they could provide the study with deeper insights as for the writing processes and difficulties. Selecting participants at the similar stages provided the study with relatively fair comparisons and generalizations. Therefore, only doctoral students were included in the interview part of the study. Nevertheless, the gender difference was not taken into consideration for sampling the interviews since the comparing differences or possible language use tendencies and preferences or particular challenges and needs between males and females were not the purpose of the current study. The four general themes that 8 interviewees touched in the study with some extracts are given below, pseudonyms for the participants were only provided. What was the same feature of all interviewees is that none of them have taken academic writing course throughout their tertiary level education. When they were undergraduate students, their writing classes did not include formal academic writing both in L1 and L2. Students’ Remarks about Constructing Their Academic Text Each interviewee was asked how they write academic text according to the disciplinary rules and conventions, and what they mostly attached importance while writing, at both macro and micro levels. Participants initially saw writing as an important tool to produce original ideas, generally emphasized originality and creativity stating that main idea and the topic which might be useful in their field would be the most important feature. They highlighted that even if they, according to them, were not so competent in writing as novice writers, and they may somewhat dislike writing they had to gain the ability to construct new knowledge and show themselves according to the norms of their disciplines. The fundamental compensation towards this demanding and often difficult process is to be able to create new ideas and contribute to their fields. The following extracts from the view of an interviewee exemplifies the relevant idea about the nature scientific writing. Below Matrix (pseudonym) points out: … What is more important to me is the original idea and if the writer’s ideas can contribute to the field. The language related issues are most probably manageable. If your study does not serve to your field and original and inspiring then your graduate studies means nothing, because it is not scientific to me… In accordance with Matrix assumptions, Ufuk’s view attracts attention. Thus she states that “I don’t want to study what others have already studied, at least from their findings I want to do something new and original.” When they insisted on the originality of the topic, the flow of the conversation passed into the integration of writers’ own knowledge and others’ ideas. As mentioned earlier, academic writing consists of thinking about an issue, obtaining the information needed for definition, analysis and modifying one’s thinking. What was significant that the integration of the self knowledge with others’ knowledge was directly connected to the issue of citation rules and the ethical dimension of writing in higher education particularly the concept of plagiarism. All the participants’ agreed on the sensitivity towards plagiarism. The following extract summarizes the common point of view of the interviewees. Serdar: We should as a researcher, we should respect for the others ideas and efforts, and we should cite them… I regard plagiarism as a crime, a serious crime in terms of academic studies. I am quite respectful of others’ thoughts and I do not copy their ideas, I just benefit from their ideas and cite the author… I care about it because it is quite a sensitive topic, you should avoid it… Ufuk: Ethics and giving credit to the studies that I use is also another part that I am highly sensitive about. Yigit: …I want to underline that it is a serious and important issue, unfortunately in our country ethical sensitivity is not given to the students from earlier period, and the current situation is quite bad in the universities, even in higher 83 �education. Also I believe that integration of the ideas only in terms of citation rules is not so simple. It means more than APA guide… However, as for the obtaining this academic literacy in other words, going beyond from knowledge transferring to knowledge transforming, each interviewee indicated that they had never taken explicit instruction or made practice about the motivation of knowledge transforming and citation rules. In the course of the each interviewee they pointed out they had never taken academic writing course, participated or made detailed practice with any experienced academics. In contrast they inevitably try to acquire this necessary ability by their own efforts, without getting any feedback and practice but in their own academic texts, i.e. in their research proposals, research studies or theses/dissertations manuscripts, they could only assess their achievement at the very final stage receiving the response from the advisors, referees or the jury, “it is accepted or rejected”. Thus, Dolphin’s view appears to be important: …While writing, I have many times I examined the articles on my own and tried to replicate what I have seen… Organizational concern is another issue that mostly interviewees underlined. While they want to put forward original ideas and constructing new knowledge, they at the same time tend to pay attention to the organization and unity of the text. Their common concern appears to be building a coherent text. As coherence is the implicit and quite abstract links in a text, they stated that they tend to use transitional devices as much as they can. Ufuk’s statement exemplifies this emphasis: I pay a great deal of attention to the format, coherency and organization. It is really important to me if what I am saying makes sense to the reader, or if the reader can see what I suggest. I also like creating clear links and transitions among my thoughts… But all of the interviewees had agreed on they knew little about logical sequencing or clear progression of the ideas. Thus, in the following extracts Yigit and Alex summarize the common perception: Yigit: We have always read in the books while I was an undergraduate student in writing books and the writing guidebooks now in my graduate studies that I must provide coherence, I should use cohesive devices. But I have never been taught about these concepts and taken some recommendations from professional academics or writers. It has remained at surface level. Still, I am doing my best and paying attention to this issue… Aex: I think there is a close relationship between form and meaning and this relationship is an arbitrary relationship between form and meaning which is inseparable. In our academic studies, to me, we cannot focus on only form or merely meaning. Certainly both of them must be integrated… As for the writing process, most interviewees indicated their approach to revising their texts both directly and implicitly. Besides, the changes that these writers make remain at minor level. When they were asked their revision strategy most of the interviewees, most of them regard revision as having their texts proof read or editing on their own. They generally do not prefer rewriting and revising. The extract from Alex’s transcription illustrates this situation Alex: I believe that a text should be read and read again and at the end of the writing the whole text should be examined more than once but not by yourself, someone else who is known as good in the field. Because you probably miss some points and cannot see your errors. And I make some corrections in the text such as grammatical rules, citation rules or punctuation. Though they believed that revision is an important phase of writing they tend to do it at minor level and this process is largely disliked. Baris’s statement can be attributed to the overall participants’ views about revision: …when I am to finish the work, I don’t like last revisions much… Graduate academic writers’ feelings and their affective difficulties when they write and their needs during their graduate studies. Interviewees’ affective difficulties including motivational problems, anxiety, writing procrastination and their psychological perspectives were explored. At the very outset of the interview Serdar’s assumptions deserve particular attention: I think while writing an academic paper such as proposal, thesis or research article the major problem is motivation. It is one of the biggest issues in the modern world of academia today. The level of your motivation is quite important in our stressful years of graduate studies. For example, I am quite a sensitive person and I am easily affected by any kind of treatment, behavior even eye contact though I work hard and read many books or articles, anything in my field. I sometimes feel that I do not know anything about my field, applied linguistics to say or write. It is a great obstacle for a researcher. It is not totally related to my feelings, emotions my inner world. It is also related to my environment you should be supported by your environment colleagues, advisors and lecturer in order to minimize this obstacle. We, the researchers, should be encouraged and motivated by the others especially our experienced instructors and supervisors… 84 �In the course of the interviews though seemingly they did not want to explicitly state that they were not satisfied with the current advisor-advisee relationship, and the graduate students tend to need more encouragement and guidance by the other academics. Yigit could share his comment about his mood: They always tell us write articles and make them publish, send a proposal to present for the x conference, I expect a good thesis, it should be something and it should not be something. But no one teach us how to be able to write a paper, a proposal or construct a good thesis or dissertation. And sometimes even their expectations turn into lower than they give to us, that is worse, I think. The participants, the graduate students, also mentioned the issue of procrastination. Most of the interviewees tend to procrastinate their writing tasks. The extract taken from Baris’ statement exemplifies writers’ mood that can influence their writing performance: …I cannot use the days or weeks before the presentation of the papers effectively. On the other hand, when I feel that I might not complete my study before the deadline I get over-anxious and it makes me feel sick… Lack of motivation and burden of life appear to be their justification for delaying writing. When they were asked whether they were satisfied with their writing performance, they clearly indicated that they had no self confidence about their product’s desirability. They appeared not to have a perfectionist approach towards what they produced rather they seem to have fear of evaluation, since they have no adequate experiences and have not taken guidance from others. Hasan’s perspective is relevant to fear of evaluation: If I have to be understood by the readers that is in order that my manuscript or thesis could be accepted I have to clear and coherent. The days while we are waiting for an answer and their, for example advisor, referee, committee are really tough. It makes me very nervous. It is our profession I have to be successful. However, one interviewee regarded his anxiety as a positive trait to concentrate on his writing task. He was very pleased with his anxious mood otherwise he thought he could fail in his graduate studies. Along with this, one of the two female participants pointed out that she did not experience high level of anxiety though she said she is not much comfortable since she studies what she is interested in and tries to create new knowledge or findings she feels excited. Discursive Difficulties that Graduate Students Encounter in Writing Process Appropriate use of the core words and the technical terms in academic discourse are good indicators of both professional or novice texts. Almost all of the interviewees centered their concern on the lexical difficulties. They frequently emphasized the mandatory of formal vocabulary use. However, the interviewees’ sensitivity to the formal and appropriate vocabulary and phrase use in their texts does not display direct proportion to correct and appropriate vocabulary use. The major reason of this low performance could be attributed to the answers that posed during the interview about how they tried to maximize the use of formal and appropriate lexical units in their texts were largely based on their personal efforts to learn these conventions focusing on the text from the books and articles they read. For example, their prominent strategy appear to focus on unfamiliar or unknown terms or phrases in an academic text. If these unfamiliar units can attract their attention, they look up a dictionary and learn; finally they try to use these terms and phrases in their own texts at the appropriate places of the discourse. The following statements of the interviewees can be given as examples for their perceptions of academic writing difficulties: Baris: One of the biggest problems is that I often feel that I use similar expressions in different parts of the paper. I also feel that I have to shorten my sentences. Sometimes I cannot be sure if there are good transitions across paragraphs. I feel I cannot express my thoughts directly and briefly enough. I know I have to read more… Yigit: I don’t believe that we write consciously and creatively with the integration of conventions. I think I don’t have serious problems about structure but to able to reach the formality in my text, I haven’t enough experiences and no guidance. Alex: To be able to use the right vocabulary at the right context is much more difficult than grammar. Familiarity with technical and correct vocabulary meanwhile affect their fluency of their text; that is why, their second problematic area in writing appears to be coherence and cohesion based issues. In fact, they have already indicated that they pay considerable attention to provide unity and transition between sentences and paragraphs. The term coherence is basically recognized implicitly and seen as a quite abstract concept, for EFL/ESL writers, it becomes more complicated and difficult. They were all aware that their texts had to be coherent, in other words there must be clear and smooth links between sentences and paragraphs. But they were not sure about how to make their text “well organized” or “logical sequenced”. Their initial strategy to maximize coherence in their text appears to employ cohesive devices, particularly, as observed, the initial elements were conjunctive adverbs (e.g. however, moreover and furthermore), and transition phrases (e.g. in addition, on the other hand and in contrast). 85 �Discussion The in-depth interviews aimed to explore graduate students’ strategies and their major difficulties both affective and discursive while constructing academic texts and thus capture a clearer scene of their experiences and perceptions. The findings of the current study saliently indicated that there is an overall lack of awareness and knowledge abut academic writing and its subtitles. This inadequacy also contributed to the participants’ general feelings of anxiety and lack of achievement in writing outcomes in their own disciplines. The participants’ L1 academic writing experiences seem to be correlated with their English academic English development. As one of the interviewees stated that students wrote essays in Turkish in a style (introductionbody-conclusion) that was rather different than English academic essay that currently they are required to write in their academic lives, and they were not taught any particular academic writing style or genre. The findings of this study supported the Cummin’s (1981) Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency theory in the development of adult L2 learners’ academic writing. The results of the research studies can be quite related to current study, especially in terms of how the participants’’ L1 literacy exposure and experience influence the mastery of L2 academic language. Adult EFL/ESL learners’ positive or negative attitudes and approaches towards their native language can influence their attitudes, approach, and motivation while they are writing in a second language. Their attitudes are formed in the early periods of cultural and school experiences; ultimately an adult EFL/ESL student may transfer the attitudes into his/her academic English writing in both positive and negative ways. As Cummin (1981) in Interdependence Hypothesis asserts that “there is a basic cognitive/academic proficiency that is common across languages which allows the transfer of literacy –related skills across languages (cited in Kroll, 1990, p.95). Many Turkish students until embarking on their graduate studies appear not to have learned how to write systematically except being instructed to be grammatically correct and writing in certain number of paragraphs. Graduate students’ lack of awareness in a foreign language, English, can be attributed to the same reason. Given the graduate programs of many institutes do not include or require academic writing course, it will be seen that students know not much about the nature and the critical instruments of academic writing in certain styles and genres. This little schematic knowledge contributes to the assumption that the expectations of academic writing rules and conventions can be met by means of commercial proofreading and rewriting websites, and as two out of eight participants indicated, academic writing conventions are allegedly confined to the mechanical aspects editorial style in any ( e.g. APA and MLA) manual. These findings tend to support the premise which highlights the significance and influence of native language literacy skills in the development of second language writing and academic success. The study’s findings revealed that creating and organizing ideas to write in a text is the common concern of the graduate student writers. As they attach significant attention to create new knowledge they meanwhile confront organizing their ideas in a coherent and well-written way. The participants appeared to be much less worried about expressing their ideas in accurate English. The emphasis on structural accuracy in L1 is seen also in L2 in students’ educational background; therefore they appear to have self confidence to achieve linguistic correctness. To provide the right words in English to express ideas appropriately and accurately is a pervasive difficulty for many EFL/ESL writers due to partly L2 writers’ dependence on the translation of their native language into the English or cultural differences between two languages’ modes of expression. The EFL writers’ lack of English vocabulary in terms of formality, rhetoric and technical aspects is partly due to inadequate opportunity to develop a robust English lexicon through reading and writing activities. Though mastering surface-level aspects of English grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics is of considerable importance, writing at the academic level in a foreign language requires L2 writers to learn to think and write in new ways including knowledge transforming, voice and identity that may be quite unfamiliar and challenging. However, their awareness and experience due to lack of explicit instruction and affective reasons such as low self-confidence. Interviewees’ ethical sensitivity is seen to be quite high, they frequently mentioned the original and creative thought in their writings, In addition while using others’ ideas they highlighted the notion of correct citation. However, it is not clear enough whether their knowledge and experience about transforming others’ ideas and findings can discriminate the paraphrasing and patchwriting. As they have indicated they were not totally sure about the performance and quality of their outcome about using others’ ideas most probably due to lack of practice much about formal writing both in their native and English languages. That is why, originality and citation appear to be regarded merely around the manuals’ citation format. Fear of evaluation and procrastination seem to be the most common emotion among all the participants, particularly when they are anxious about receiving negative reactions to what they have written and under time pressure. The participants’ affective difficulties and negative feelings toward constructing academic text could be 86 �basically attributed to the motivational needs. In fact they indicated that motivation has an important place in their academic studies. However, they generally manifested lack of self confidence and fear of evaluation; 6 of the 8 interviewees exhibited this low self self-confidence at various levels. If they could be supported both explicitly and met their motivational needs in the axis of institution and supervision, they can be expected to achieve the mastery of academic English writing expectations. Among these adult EFL students, the study shows that motivation plays a crucial role in their English academic writing development. The majority of the participants were considerably motivated to learn to write within disciplinary conventions and norms. Although their intrinsic motivation in learning to write academic English appear quite low, they seem to recognize the practical need of learning academic writing for largely extrinsic reasons.. Their comments suggest that they are basically instrumentally motivated to learn to write academic English because of both benefit and mandatory that it eventually gains in their academic careers and they seem not intrinsically interested in learning to write academic English for its own sake. Gender did not reveal different response tendency among the participants, thus the participants ideas and their affective difficulties did not exhibit significant differences. However, what was important that, in line with Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis, the female student indicated that her anxiety affected her positively; in this case she thinks she can be more successful. A general writing challenge that makes all students concerned that putting their thoughts in good rhetoric, appropriate style and coherent way still need to be resolved . However, they seemed to be motivated to learn about academic writing being aware of their lack knowledge and experience. What was another positive result can be they all acknowledge that writing in their academic discipline is crucial for their survival in the academia and are eager to improve them. In this case, it is possible to strengthen their enthusiasm, minimize the current gap and enhance their achievement. Conclusion As English uninterruptedly expands as the leading language for dissemination of academic knowledge, the question of writing effectively and in expected ways causes considerable challenges to students requiring graduates to learn to master and so as to succeed in the academia. Yet, novice writers cannot be taught by only means of cautions and threats, but they should be socialized into disciplinary ways of writing so that they can more easily acquire discipline specific discourse concerned. Especially advisor-advisee relationship attracts serious attention for the graduate student to be able to take part in the community. Supportive attitudes towards the students can strengthen their self-esteem and confidence; moreover, it can help the students internalize their community. At language level, the enhanced awareness of scholarly writing leads novice writers to selections at the appropriate degree and phase. To achieve this awareness, explicit academic writing instruction both in L1 and L2 from early periods of education life should be integrated. More specifically, like the developed countries’ universities do, particularly North American universities, writing centers can assist students and academics about their discursive needs of writing and can encourage their efforts and thus enhance their self-confidence with professional support prior to their the evaluators ( i.e. course instructors, thesis advisors, or article referees). References Benfield, J. R., & Feak, C. (2006). How can authors cope with the burden of English as an international language? Chest, 129, 1728-1730. Benfield, J. R. (2007). Cardiothoracic surgeons divided by a common language. Annals of Thoracic Surgery, 84, 363-364. Bereiter, C.&Scardamalia, M (1989). Intentional learning as a goal of instruction. In L.Resnick(Ed.), Knowing, Learning and Instruction (pp.361-391). Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Coates, R. B., Sturgeon, B., Bohannan, J., & Pasini, E. (2002). Language and publication in cardiovascular research articles. Cardiovascular Research, 53(2), 279-285. Ferguson, G. (2007). The global spread of English, scientific communication and ESP: question of equity, Access and domain loss. IBÉRICA, 13, 7-38. 87 �Hinkel, E. (2004).Teaching Academic ESL writing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Publishers. Mahwah, New Jersey. Hyland, K. & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2002). EAP: issues and directions. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 1, (1), 1–12. Hyland, K. (2006). English for Academic Purposes: An Advanced Resource Book. Routledge Taylor&Francis Group, New York. Meyer-Salager, F. (2008). Scientific Publishing in developing countries: Challenges for the future. English for Academic Purposes, 1,( 7), 121-132. Pomfret, M.P.& Medford, J.L. (2005) Affective domain: Journaling. In R. Seidel, K.C. Perencevich, A.L., Kett, From Principles of Learning to Strategies for Instruction. Springer Science+Media Inc. NY, USA. YÖK (2003) Türk Yüksek Öğretiminin Bugünkü Durumu (The Situation of Turkish Higher Education Today) http://www.yok.gov.tr/egitim/raporlar/mart2003/baslik.pdf. 88 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 333 Title A name given to the resource Academic Writing in English: Approaches, Processes and Challenges in Higher Education Author Author Yagiz, Oktay YIGITER, Kemalettin Genc, Gencay Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing is pivotal and good language use is marked in higher education throughout disciplines. Self-assumptions, others’ arguments, transformed knowledge, and research results are primarily given in written documents including articles, theses, dissertations and books. Though writing is often referred to as a skill or competence, it is widely acknowledged that writing resides in much more than solely being able to communicate what you already know. It rather stands as primary tool for thinking, learning and knowledge construction. Based on the above considerations, the present study takes a qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they encounter in this process in English departments. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9fa4f5ab19fcbd67d67b5fff42afbdb3.pdf 1d180e0fefa3c15b2a57766ea4558ca6 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Dissolution Kinetics Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate In Aqueous Chlorination Solutions Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate Ah met Yartaşı Hakan Temur M. Muhtar Kocakerim Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty Department of Chemical Engineering Erzurum TURKEY yartasi@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, the dissolution kinetics of chalcopyrite concentrate was investigated by using the solutions obtained with dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine. Reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] were chosen as parameters. It was determined that the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrate increased with increasing reaction temperature, [Fe3+] and [H+], and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio, but was not affected importantly by [Cu2+] and stirring speed. A mathematical expression representing the process was established by using experimental data and a package program, as follows, 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t Also, it was found that the dissolution rate was controlled by chemical reaction step with an activation energy of 31.78 kJ.mol-1 in the reaction temperature range 50-88 0C. Keywords: Chalcopyrite, copper, chlorination, dissolution kinetics. Introduction Chalcopyrite, being one of the most abundant copper ores in the world isthe most important ore used in production of the copper by pyrometallurgical methods.It contains minerals such as FeS2 , ZnS, PbS in addition to CuFeS2 in nature. On the other hand, the SO2 gas emitted to atmosphere during the production of copper by pyrometallurgical methods is an important pollutant. Nowadays, the governments force the firms producing metals from sulphide minerals to use less harmful technologies because of its threatening properties for environment. This situation brings along the necessity of developing of new environmentalisttechnologies. As an alternative to the pyrometallurgical processes, hydrometallurgical metalrecovery is getting importance in this area. Furthermore,the problem of evaluating the chlorine gas being a by-productin production of NaOH needed in enormous amountsinindustry is waiting a solution because ofimpossibility ofits emission to the atmosphere. There are many studies on the dissolution, dissolution kinetics and mechanism of copper ores in various aqueous media. Havlik et al.(1995) examining the leaching of chalcopyrite concentrate with ferric chloride solutions found that the rate of leaching increased with concentration of ferric ions up to the 0.5 M concentrations of ferric chloride and the activation energy of this process was 55 ± 5 kJ.mol-1. Havlik and Kam mel(1995) investigated leaching of chalcopyrite in acidified FeCl3 and acidified FeCl3 + CCl4 solutions. They found thatthe leaching in the absence of CCl4 was a chemically controlled reaction with activation energy of 68.9 kJ.mol-1 inthetemperature range 45-800 C and inthe presence of CCl4 was a diffusion controlled process with activation energy of 31.2 kJ.mol-1 inthe same temperature range. The high reactivity of gaseous chlorine as an oxidizing agent in leaching processes have been caused a number of studies on the extraction of metalsulphides by chlorineleaching. Bayrakçeken et al.(1990) studied the kinetics of the chlorination of pyrite in aqueous suspensions and found that the rate controlling step was the chemical reaction between chlorine and pyrite forthe temperature range 13-35 0 C, and the diffusion of chlorine through the fluid film forthe temperature range 40-60 0 C withthe activation energies respectively 36.7 kJ.mol-1 and 3.7 kJ.mol-1,respectively. Çolak et al.(1987) examined the kinetics of dissolution of chalcopyritein aqueous solutions saturated by chlorine gas and determined thatthe diffusion of the reactants through product layer was the rate controlling step with an activation energy of 9.81 kJ.mol-1. 212 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reactions of copper sulfide minerals with chlorine in an aqueous media were studied by Groves and Smith(1973) and determined that when the dissolution process was complete,the reaction products(copper,iron and sulfur) were in their highest oxidation states and stoichiometric amount of chlorine was consumed. In an study carried out by Ekmekyapar et. al.(1988), it was investigated the dissolution kinetics of an oxidized copper ore in water saturated by chlorine, and found that the dissolution process proceeded in two stages and was controlled by diffusion through the ash layer in each stage. The authors determined that the activation energies forthe first and second stages were 27.15 and 20.21 kJ.mol-1,respectively. Chalcopyrite can be dissolved with various leaching agents such as hydrochloric acid (Habashi and Toor, 1979), chloride/hypo chloride media (Puvvada and Murthy, 2000),ferric chloride (Dutrizac, 1990; Maurice and Hawk,1999), acidic Cl- solutions(Lu et al.,2000), CCl4 saturated with chlorine(Saraç etal.,1994) and H2 SO4NaCl-O2 (Padilla et al., 2003). In addition to these, oxide and sulphide ores of base metal minerals were examined by using various chlorinating agents such as Cl2,HCl, Cl2-O2, FeCl2 and O2 and CuCl2 (Mukherjee and Gupta, 1983). In this study, the dissolution kinetics of concentrate chalcopyrite in the chlorination solution (solution obtained by dissolution of chalcopyrite concentratein water saturated with chlorine was investigated and effects of the parameters, such as reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] on the dissolution rate were determined. Methods And Materials The chalcopyrite concentrate used in this study was provided from Çayeli, Rize in Turkey and sieved by using a 75 µm AST M standard sieve. Chemical analysis of concentrate gave a composition of 24.02 % Cu, 29.36 % Fe, 36.55 % S, 2.19 % Zn, 0.19 % Pb, 0.1 % Al2 O3, 0.9 % moisture and 6.69 % other components. X-ray diffractogram obtained by a Rigaku D M A X 2000 Series X-ray diffractometer and given in Figure 1 shows that the concentrate contains CuFeS2, FeS2, ZnS, Cu2 S, CuS and very smallamount of Al2 O3 and SiO2. Also, SE M photogram ofthe concentrateis seen in Figure 2. 250mL- a jacketed glass reactor was used for dissolution experiments under atmospheric pressure. The reactor contents were mixed by a mechanical stirrer with tachometer and its temperature was controlled by a constant temperature circulator. The reactor was fitted with a cooler to prevent the volume reduction of the solution by the evaporation. The parameters used in the experiments and theirranges are given in Table 1. Dissolution experiments were carried out using the chlorination solutions.In order to obtain this solution an enough amount of chalcopyrite concentrate was dissolved in enough amount of chlorine saturated water under predetermined optimum conditions(45o C for reaction temperature, 0.05gmL-1 for solidto liquid ratio, 0.2 molL-1 for [Fe3+], 0.025 molL-1 for [Cu2+] and 120 min for reaction time), and then,the suspension was filtered and the filtrate stocked. The obtained solution was containing species such as Fe3+, Cu2+, H+, SO4 2- and Cl-. Concentrations of these spieces were 14.6, 4.0, 4.46, 2.2 and 124.3 gmL-1, respectively. Various concentrations of Fe3+, Cu2+ and H+ were prepared by adding Fe3+, Cu2+ or H+ to this solution or by diluting the solutions. After 250 mL of the chlorination solution was placed into reaction vessel it was heated to the reaction temperature. And then, a certain amount of the concentrate was added tothe reaction vessel,and the vessel content was stirred at a certain stirring speed for a desired period. At the end of dissolution period, reaction mixture was filtered, and the amounts of Cu2+ passing to the solution was determined by the volumetric method(Gülensoy, 1984). In the experiments, whilethe effect of one parameter was examining,the values of other parameters were kept constant. The data obtained were plottedinthe form of conversion fraction, described as X = [the amount of Cu passing to the solution from chalcopyrite concentrate /the amount of Cu in chalcopyrite concentrate] versus time. Results And Discussion Dissolution Reactions In aqueous medium, the reactions between chalcopyrite concentrate and chlorine gas are as follows(Demopulos and Distin,1983, O’Malley and Liddell, 1987, Meyers,1977) 2CuFeS2(s) → Cu2 S(s) + 2 FeS(s) + S(s) (1) Cu2 S(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + CuS(s) (2) CuS(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + S (aq) (3) (4) FeS2(s) →FeS(s) + S(s) 2FeS(s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl2(aq) + 2S(s) (5) 213 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4S (s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2 S2 Cl2(l) (6) 2 FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl3 (7) (aq) (8) 2 S2 Cl2(l) + 10Cl2(aq) + 16H2 O → 4H2 SO4(aq) + 24HCl(aq) FeS2(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 3Fe2+(aq) + 2S(s) (9) CuFeS2 (s) + 4Fe3+ → Cu2+ (aq) + 5Fe2+ (aq) + 2S(s) (10) S(s) +6Fe3+ (aq) +4H2 O→ HSO4 - (aq) +6Fe2+ (aq) +7H+ (aq) (11) W hen chalcopyrite concentrate is added into the chlorination solution,the reactions taking place in the medium can be written as follows; (10) CuFeS2(s) + 4Fe3+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 5 Fe2+(aq) + 2 S(s) CuFeS2(s) + 16Fe3+(aq) + 8H2 O → Cu2+(aq) + 17 Fe2+(aq) + 2SO4 2-(aq) +16H+ (aq) (12) FeS2(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 3Fe2+(aq) + 2S(s) (9) 6Fe3+(aq) + S(s) + 4H2 O → 6Fe2+(aq) + HSO4 -(aq) + 7H+ (aq) (13) After dissolving the concentrate atreaction temperature of 75 o C, particle size of 75 µm, stirring speed of 450 min-1, solid-to-liquid ratio of 0,02 g.mL-1, Cu2+ ion concentration of 4.03 g.L-1, Fe3+ ion concentration of 13.90 g.L-1 and H+ ion concentration of 4.46 g.L-1 and the mixture was filtered. After the solid part was extracted with 100 mL of carbon sulphide in a reaction vessel equipped with a condencer and the extraction mixture was filtered,the filtrate was evaporated and it was seen thatthe residue was elemental sulphur. The effects of parameters The effect of reaction temperature on the dissolution rate was studied using four reaction temperatures (50, 65, 75 and 88 o C ) at particle size of 75 µm, stirring speed of 450 min-1,solid-to-liquid ratio of 0,02 g.mL-1, [Cu2+] of 4.03 g.L-1, [Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. As seen in Figure 4,the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrateincreases with increasing reaction temperature. The effect of stirring speed on the dissolution rate was studied by using three stirring speeds (300, 450 and 600 min-1) at particle size of 75 µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-to-liquid ratio of 0.02 g.mL-1, 2+ -1 3+ -1 + -1 [Cu ] of 4.03 g.L ,[Fe ] of 13.90 g.L and [H ] of 4.46 g.L . The experimentalresultsseen in Figure 5 show evidently thatthe dissolution rate is not affectimportantly of stirring speed. To investigate the effect of solid-to-liquid ratio on the dissolution rate,the experiments were carried out by using three solid-to-liquid ratios(0.01, 0.02 and 0.04 g.mL-1) at particle size of 75 µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, stirring speed of 450 min-1,[Cu2+] of 4.03 g.L-1,[Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. Data for various solid-to-liquid ratios is seen in Figure 6. This figure shows that decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio increases the dissolution rate, which can be explained by the decrease in the amount of solid per amount of solution in the reaction mixture. To determine the effect of [Cu2+] of on the dissolution rate, the experiments were carried out by using three[Cu2+] values (4.03, 6.03 and 8.05 g.L-1) at particle size of 75 µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-toliquid ratio 0.02 g.mL-1, stirring speed of 450 min-1,[Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. As can be seen in Figure 7, which the experimentalresults are given,the effect of[Cu2+] on the dissolution rateis notimportant. This case can be explained by the factthat when the large amount of Fe3+ ions are presentin reaction medium, Cu2+ ions can not have an oxidizing effect. The effect of[Fe3+] on the dissolution rate was investigated by using three [Fe3+] values (13.90, 20.89 and 27.85 g.L-1) at particle size of 75µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-to-liquid ratio 0.02 g.mL-1, stirring speed of 450 min-1, [Cu2+] of 4.02 g.L-1 and [H+] of 4.46 g.L-1. Experimental results plotted in Figure 8 show that the dissolution rate increase with increasing [Fe3+]. It has been stated that the following reactions occur during reaction between chalcopyrite and FeCl3 (Hawlik et al. 1995; Çolak et al., 1987); CuFeS2(s) + 4Fe3+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 5 Fe2+(aq) + 2 S0(s) (10) CuFeS2(s) + 16 Fe3+(aq) + 8H2 O → Cu2+(aq) + 17Fe2+(aq) + 2 SO4 2-(aq) + 16H+ (aq) (12) Due to above reactions (1 and 2),the dissolution rateincreases with increasing [Fe3+]. The effect of [H+] on the dissolution rate was investigated by using three [H+] values (4.46, 2.23 and 1.12 -1 g.L ) at particle size of 75µm, reaction temperature of 75 o C, solid-to-liquid ratio 0.02 g.mL-1, stirring speed of 450 min-1,[Cu2+] of 4.03 g.L-1 and [Fe3+] of 13.90 g.L-1. The experimentalresults plotted in Figure 9 show that dissolution rateincrease with increasing [H+]. Kinetics Analysis The kinetics of a noncatalytic reaction between a solid and a liquid,represented by A(fluid) + bB(solid) → Products, can be represented by one of two ideal model: Progressive-conversion model and shrinking core 214 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo model(Levenspiel, 1999). In progressive-conversion model, it is visualized that reactant liquid enters to particle and reacts throughoutthe particle at alltimes. At this case,the reaction rate can be defined by pseudo-homogenous models and in the shrinking core modelitis derived integrated rate equations to show the reaction rate.In such a case, the particle size may unchanged or shrink. Ifit unchanges, the derived integrated rate equations are t/t* = X, (for diffusion controlthrough liquid film) t / t* = 1-3(1-X)2/3 +2(1-X), (for diffusion control through ash or product layer) t / t* = 1-(1-X)1/3, (for surface chemical reaction control) If it shrinks during the reaction, the diffusion through ash or product layer is absent and the integrated rate equation are t / t* = 1-(1-X)2/3 , (the diffusion control through liquid film for small particles) t / t* = 1-(1-X)1/2 , (the diffusion control through liquid film for large particles) t / t* = 1-(1-X)1/3, (for surface chemical reaction control) In the presented study, it was determined by statistical and graphical methods that which of above models fits with experimental data and was observed that the most appropriate model was surface chemical reaction control. As shown in Figure 10, graphs of[1-(1-X)1/3] versus tfor various reaction temperatures(50, 65, 75 and 88 o C ) gave straightlines. The similar straightlines were obtained for other parameters, also. The regression coefficients of these lines were higher than those obtained for other models. This result stated that the dissolution rate is controlled by chemical reaction. The activation energy of this dissolution process was found to be 32.96 kJ.mol-1 from the slop ofthe straightline of Lnk versus 1/T in Figure 11. W hen the activation energy result of the present work is compared the results from the literature for chalcopyrite leaching (Dutrizac 1978, Jermilow et al. 1969, Dutrizac 1978, Dutrizac 1982 and Hirato et al. 1986),itis seen thatthe results ofthis work islower than those in the literature(Table 2).To find the reason of this case,the initialrate values, ro were determined from Figure 4, and accepting thatthe kinetic equation isin the form of ro = ko[exp(-Ea/RT)],another activation energy value of 47.59 kJ.mol-1 was calculated from the graph of Lnro versus 1/T shown in Figure 12. This value is in a good agreement with the literature values given in Table 2, and can be considered astrue value ofthe activation energy. The difference between the observed activation energy and the one calculated from initialrate values can be explained by the formation of elemental sulphur covering the surface of the particle. When the reactions between the active species in the leaching solution and chalcopyrite and/or pyrite proceeds, elemental sulphur occurs according to the following reactions FeS2(s) + 2Fe+3(aq) → 3Fe+2(aq) + 2S0(aq) (9) CuFeS2(s) + 4Fe3+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 2S0(s) (10) Elementalsulphur precipitating on the particle surface can coverthe surface,forming a productlayer. Due tothis film,the activation energy reduces from the true value of 47.59 to 32.96 kJ.mol-1 asthe reaction proceeds. Similar observations have been recorded by Boncukçuoğlu et al.(1994) and Erşahan et al.(1995). In the study of Boncukçuoğlu et al.the reactions taking place in the leaching system were FeS2(s) + 2Fe+3(aq) → 3Fe+2(aq) + 2S0(s) (9) FeS2(s) + 14Fe3+(aq) +8H2 O → 15Fe2+(aq) + 2HSO4 - aq) + 14H+ (aq) (14) Because reaction 9 is very fast compared to reaction 14 and high acidity gains speed this reaction (Boncukçuoğlu et al.,1994; Erşahan et al, 1995, Meyers, 1977) and ,in similar way,it may say thatreaction 10 is faster than reaction 12, also, sulphur obtained by reactions 9 and 10 forms a sulphur layer increasing on particle surface and the dissolution reaction becomes slow. As a results,taking into accountthe values ofthe activation energies, 1-(1-X)1/3 versus t graphs and their regression coefficients, ineffectiveness of stirring speed on the dissolution rate, it can be concluded that the dissolution process was controlled by chemicalreaction. To drive a mathematical expression including the effects of the parameters, the experimental data were treated using a statistical program and the following equation was developed 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)-0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+ ]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t (15) This method gave an activation energy of 31.78 kJ.mol-1 which is slightly lower than the value of 32.96 kJ.mol-1 calculated from Lnk – 1/T graph. To test the agreement between the experimental conversion values and the values calculated from mathematical expression,the plot of Xexp versus Xtheo was drawn. As seen in Figure 13, the agreement between the experimental and calculated values is very good. 215 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusions In the presented study, the dissolution kinetics of concentrate chalcopyrite in a solution obtained by dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine have been investigated using reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] as parameters. It was determined that the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrate increased with increasing reaction temperature, [Fe3+] and [H+], and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio, but was not affected importantly by [Cu2+] and stirring speed. For this dissolution process, a mathematical model was obtained as follows, 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)-0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+ ]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t (15) It has found thatthe dissolution rateis controlled by chemicalreaction step with an activation energy as much as 31.78 kJ.mol-1 in the reaction temperature range 50-88 0 C. List Of Symbols X t t* b D T S/L SS [H+] [Fe3+] [Cu2+] fractional conversion time (min) time for complete conversion of a single solid particle(min) stociometric coefficient of B (solid) reacting with each mole of A (fluid) particle size (µm) reaction temperature (K) solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) stirring speed(min-1) H+ ion concentration (g.L-1) Fe3+ ion concentration (g.L-1) Cu2+ ion concentration (g.L-1) References Bayrakçeken, S., Yaşar, Y. and Çolak, C., (1990). Kinetics of the chlorination of pyrite in aqueous suspension. Hydrometallurgy. 25, 27-36. Boncukçuoğlu, R., Kocakerim, M. M. and Erşahan, H., (1994). Kinetics of desulphurization of Nevşehir-Dadağı coal with ferric chloride solutions, Fuel Processing Technol. 38, 31-44 Çolak, S., Alkan, M. and Kocakerim, M.M., (1987). Dissolution kinetics of chalcopyrite containing pyrite in water saturated with chlorine. Hydrometallurgy. 18, 183-193. Demopoulos,G.P. and Distin,P.A.,(1983). Ferric Chloride Leaching of Sulphidized Chalcopyrite. Hydrometallurgy, 10,111122. Dutrizac, J.E., (1978). The kinetics of dissolution of chalcopyrite in ferric ion media. Metallurgical Transactions B. 12B, 431 438. Dutrizac, J.E., (1982). Ferric ion leaching of chalcopyrite from different localities. Metallurgical Transactions B. 13B: 303309. Dutrizac, J.E., (1990). Elemental Sulphur Formation During The Ferric Chloride Leaching Of Chalcopyrite. Hydrometallurgy. 23, 153-176. Erşahan, H., Bonçukcuoğlu, R.and Kocakerim, M.M., (1995). Elemental Sulfur Formation In The Meyers Coal Desulphurization Process, Fuel. Vol 74, No:11, 1682-1686 Ekmekyapar, A., Çolak, S., Alkan, M. and Kayadeniz, Đ., (1988). Dissolution Kinetics Of An Oxidized Copper Ore In Water Saturated By Chlorine. Chem.Tech. Biotechn. 43, 195-204. Groves R. D. and Smith, P.B., (1973). Reactions Of Copper Sulphide Minerals With Chlorine In An Aqueous System. United States Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigation 7801. Gülensoy, H., (1984). Kompleksometrinin Esasları ve Kompleksometrik Titrasyonlar. Fatih Yayınevi Matbaası, 259 s, Đstanbul. 216 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Habashi, F. and Toor, T., (1979). Aqueous Oxidation Of Chalcopyrite In Hydrochloric Acid. Metallurgical Transactions B. 10B, 49-56. Havlik, T. and Kammel, R., (1995). Leaching Of Chalcopyrite With Acidified Ferric Chloride And Carbontetrachloride Addition. Minerals Engineering, 8 (10), 1125-1134. Havlik, T., Skrobian, M., Balaz, P. and Kammel, R., (1995). Leaching Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate With Ferric Chloride. Int., J., Miner. Process. 43, 61-72. Hirato, T., Kinoshita M, and Awakura, Y, (1986). The Leaching Of Chalcopyrite With Ferric Chlorides. Metallurgical Transactions B. 17B, 19-28. Küçük, Ö., Kocakerim, M.M., Yartaşı, A. and Çopur, M., (2002). Dissolution of Kestelek’s colemanite containing clay minerals in water saturated with sulphur dioxide. Ind. Eng.Chem. Res. 41, 2853-2857. Levenspiel, O., (1999). Chemical Reaction Engineering, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 566-586. Lu, Z.Y., Jeffrey, M.I. and F. Lawson, (2000). The effect of chloride ions on the dissolution of chalcopyrite in acidic solutions. Hydrometallurgy. 56 (2), 189-202. Maurice, D. and Hawk, J.A., (1999). Simultaneous autogenous milling and ferric chloride leaching of chalcopyrite. Hydrometallurgy. 51, 371-377. Meyers, R.A., (1977), Coal Desulphurization, Dekker, New York. Mukherjee, T.K. and Gupta, C.K., (1983). Base metal resource processing by chlorination. Mineral Processing Technology Review. 1, 111-153. O’Malley and Liddell, K.C., Leaching of CuFeS2 by aqueous FeCl3,HCl and NaCl: Effects of solution composition and limited oxidant. Metallurgical Transaction B, 18B,505-510. Padilla, R., Zambrano, P. and Ruiz, M.C., (2002). Leaching of sulfidized chalcopyrite with H2SO4-NaCl-O2, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B. 34B, 153-159. Puvvada, G.V.K. and Murthy, D.S.R., (2000). Selective precious metals leaching from a chalcopyrite concentrate using chloride/hypochlorite media. Hydrometallurgy. 58, 185-191. Saraç, H., Kocakerim, M.M. and Çolak, S., (1994). Dissolution kinetics of chalcopyrite containing pyrite in carbon tetrachloride saturated with chlorine. Chimica Acta Turcica. 22 (3), 259-370. Parameters Values Reaction temperature ( 0 C) 50 65 75 Solid-to-liquid ratio(g.mL-1) 0.01 0.02 0.04 Stirring speed(min-1) 300 450 600 [Fe3+ ](g.L-1) 13.90 20.89 27.85 [Cu2+ ](g.L-1) 4.03 6.03 8.05 [H+ ](g.L-1) 4.46 2.13 1.12 Table 1.Parameters used in the experiments and theirranges 88 Temperature range Ea Literature (0 C) (kJ.mol-1) 50-100 46 ± 4 Dutrizac (1978) 30-100 42 ± 4 Dutrizac (1978) 40-100 63 ± 8 Dutrizac (1982) 58-85 59.5 Hirato et al.(1986) Table 2. Apparent activation energy values Ea of chalcopyriteleaching with ferric chloride 217 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. X-Ray diffractogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate Figure 2. SE M photogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate Figure 3. SE M photogram of undissolved solid portion during the reaction 218 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0,8 0 Reaction temperature( C ) 0,7 50 65 75 88 0,6 X 0,5 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time (min) Figure 4. Effect of reaction temperature on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,6 -1 Stirring speed (min ) 300 450 600 X 0,4 0,2 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 5. Effect of stirring speed on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 219 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0,7 -1 Solid-to-liquid ratio( g.mL) 0.01 0.02 0.04 0,6 0,5 X 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time (min) Figure 6. Effect of solid-to-liquid ratio on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,7 0,6 2+ -1 [Cu ] ( g.L ) 4.03 6.04 8.05 0,5 X 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 7. Effect of [Cu2+] on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,8 0,7 3+ [Fe 0,6 X 0,5 -1 ]( g.L ) 13.90 20.89 27.85 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 40 80 120 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 8. Effect of [Fe3+] on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 220 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0,6 + 0,4 X -1 [H ]( g.L ) 2.64 1.32 0.66 0,5 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0 0 30 60 90 120 150 Reaction time (min) Figure 9. Effect of [H+] on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate 0,35 0 Reaction temperature( C ) 50 65 75 88 0,30 1-(1-X) 1/3 0,25 0,20 0,15 0,10 0,05 0,00 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Reaction time(min) Figure 10. Plot of 1-(1-X)1/3 againstreaction time for various reaction temperature -6,0 Ln k -6,4 -6,8 -7,2 -7,6 2,7 2,8 2,9 3,0 3 3,1 -1 1/T x 10 (K ) Figure 11. Graph of Lnk versus 1/T for dissolution process inthe reaction temperature range 50-88 0 C. 221 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -4,2 -4,6 Ln r 0 -5,0 -5,4 -5,8 -6,2 -6,6 2,7 2,8 2,9 3 3,0 3,1 -1 1/T x 10 (K ) Figure 12. Graph of Lnro versus 1/T forinitialreaction rate 0,40 0,35 0,30 X Experimental 0,25 0,20 0,15 0,10 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35 0,40 XTheoretical Figure 13. Comparison of experimental and theoretical conversion values from mathematical expression in Eq. 15 222 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 513 Title A name given to the resource The Dissolution Kinetics Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate In Aqueous Chlorination Solutions Of Chalcopyrite Concentrate Author Author Yartası, Ahmet Temur, Hakan Kocakerim, M. Muhtar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, the dissolution kinetics of chalcopyrite concentrate was investigated by using the solutions obtained with dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine. Reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio, stirring speed, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] were chosen as parameters. It was determined that the dissolution rate of chalcopyrite concentrate increased with increasing reaction temperature, [Fe3+] and [H+], and decreasing solid-to-liquid ratio, but was not affected importantly by [Cu2+] and stirring speed. A mathematical expression representing the process was established by using experimental data and a package program, as follows, 1-(1-X)1/3 = {0.803.(S/L)- 0.32.(SS)0.17.[Fe3+]0.38 .[Cu2+]0.19.[H+]1.19.exp(-31.78/RT)}.t Also, it was found that the dissolution rate was controlled by chemical reaction step with an activation energy of 31.78 kJ.mol-1 in the reaction temperature range 50-88 0C. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/607da21842ba6a92dcd60e42c1f88966.pdf df457c175f9db3cd3d16ca1d651d1a4c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Biodegradable Modified Corn Starch and Its Electroreological Properties M ustafa Yavuz, Suleyman Demirel University,Isparta, Turkey yavuz@fef.sdu.edu.tr Tahir Tilki Süleyman Demirel University,Isparta, Turkey Meh met Çabuk Mus Alparslan University, Mus, Turkey Meh met Ulutürk Süleyman Demirel University,Isparta, Turkey Abstract: In this study an electrorheological (ER) effect of the suspensions containing both native starch (S) and modified starch (MS) particles in corn oil under various externally applied electric field strengths are reported. To prepare an ER active material, biodegradable starch was partially hydrolyzed and converted to its Li+ salt. Both biopolymers were characterized by 13C-NMR, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Suspensions of Starch and modified Starch particles were prepared in corn oil at concentrations ranging from 5-40% by mass. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator to investigate the effects of electric field strength and particle concentration on ER performance. Effects of various parameters such as sedimentation stability, dispersed particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate, frequency and temperature onto ER activity were investigated. Modified starch suspension was accepted as a biodegradable anhydrous ER fluid. Introduction Biodegradation is the process by which organic substances are broken down by the enzymes and microorganisms. The term is often used in relation to ecology. Starch is a linear polymer (polysaccaride) made up of repeating glucose groups linked by glucosidic linkages in the 1-4 carbon positions. Biodegradation of starch based polymers is a result of enzymatic attack (Ogungbenle 2007) at the glucosidic linkages between the sugar groups leading to a reduction in chain length and the splitting of sugar units (monosaccharides, disaccharides and oligosaccharides)(Kato et al. 2003). ER fluids can potentially be used as a smart materialfor active devices, which transform electric energy to mechanical energy. They are composed of a suspension of polarization solid particles dispersed in a nonconducting liquid media (Block & Kelly 1988). When an electricfieldisimposed,the rheological properties of the fluid vary, showing a characteristic fibrillation (Winslow 1949);the strings of the particles are oriented along the direction ofthe electricfield. This structureis known to be induced by a mismatch ofthe dielectric constants and conductivity ofthe suspended particles and theinsulating oil(Parthasarathy & Klingenberg 1996). ER fluids are divided into two categories (Tao et al. 2001): one is called dry-base ER system (or anhydrous, which shows ER activity without adding any polar promoter) the other one is called wet-base ER systems (or hydrous, which needs a polar promoterto be added to show ER activity). In this study, we investigate native starch and modified starch as a vigorous nominee for anhydrous particles in high performance dry-base systems by analyzing the effect of particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate and frequency via sheartests. 50 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Experimental 1. Material The chemicals were Aldrich, Acros and Merck products, with analytical grade. The base fluid used was corn oil with a density ρ= 0.936 g/cm3, viscosity η = 45 mPa s, dielectric constant ε = 3.34, and conductivity (E = 1 kV/mm) σ = 4X10-11 S/m at 25 o C. The starch was (used as dispersed phase) produced by Acros Organics products. 2. Modification Of Native Starch Suspensions of the air-dried corn starch (50 g) in distilled water (500 mL) were supplemented with ammonium vanadate (NH4 VO 3). A marine blue color was appeared. The pH of each suspension was adjusted to 9.0 by adding 10% NaOH(aq). Each suspension was continuously stirred for 48 h at a constant temperature of 35–40o C, under atmospheric conditions. After the reaction was completed, its color turned to yellowish. The reaction mixture was filtered through a sintered glass and the filtrate washed with cold water to remove any impurities present. The products were dried in desiccators over molecular sieves. The dried products were dispersed in 0.1 M LiOH(aq) and the lithium-salt of partially modified starch was obtained. The final product was also dried under the same conditions. The modification reaction mechanism of the native starch is given in Scheme 1. H CH2OH OH NH4VO3 10% NaOH O H H H H O H pH: 9 OH OH LiOH COOH OH H OH OH OH H OH Scheme 1. Oxidation reaction mechanism and chemical structure of modified starch. 3. Electrorheological Measurements Suspensions of starch derivative particles were prepared in corn oil at a series of concentration (c = 5– 40% m/m). Suspensions were mechanically stirred before each measurement against sedimentation. Rheological properties ofthe suspensions were determined with a Termo-Haake RS600 parallel plateElectro-rheometer (Germany). The gap between the paralel plates was 1.0 mm and the diameters ofthe upper and lower plates were 35 mm. Allthe experiments were carried out at a controlled rate (CR) mode and at various temperatures (25–125 ◦ C, with 25 ◦ C increments.). The voltage used in these experiments was also supplied by a 0–12.5 kV (with 0.5 kV increments) dc electric field generator (Fug Electronics,HCL 14, Germany), which enabled resistivity to be created during the experiments. Scheme 2. Mechanism of ER behavior. Results and Discussion 1. Characterizations Both native starch and modified starch were subjected to the following characterizations before ER measurements to be carried out; The 13 C-N MR spectra were obtained in D MSO-d6 and CDCl3 at ambient 51 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo temperature using a 400 MHz Bruker DPX Avonce Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometer atthe Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Ankara Test and Analysis Laboratory (ATAL). Modified starch showed similar 13 C-N MR spectratothat of the native starch,indicating that modification did not have an effect on the molecular packing of the double helices in the crystalline regions but a new additional signal of the carbonyl carbons in ester groups formed by the formulation at 176.15 ppm is clearly visible; some differences exist also in C6 region. The samples were scanned by Scanning electron micrographs (SE M) with an extra of ED A X analyzer ( Jeol JSM-6360 LV, Japan ).The study of EDAX analysis revealthat reactions of modification were completed positively. EDAX analysis evaluated the extent of ionic types (Mi et al. 2003). Spectra (a) is shown energy profiles coming from starch as oxygen and carbon but spectra (b) shows that one more energy profile became the Li+. (a) (b) Figure 1. EDAX analysis of energy positions (a) starch (b)modified starch. Thermal analysis data of particles were obtained using a Setaram 8ET8 V8 Evolution 1760 model thermogravimetric analyzer(TG A) inthe presence of nitrogen atmosphere up to 600o C, ata heating rate of 10 o C / min. The results from TGA are compared for starch and modified starch as a thermogram. Starch has two decomposition stages with one beginning at 250 o C and another beginning at 450 o C. Thermal result of starch and modified starch is similar. There aretwo weightlosses for samples consistat 245 o C and 440 o C. The weight loss is approximately 100% for starch and 85% for modified starch at 600 o C. as a result, modified starch was appeared about 15% end ofthe analysis( Vijaya et al. 2008). Figure 2. Thermogravimetriccurve of (a) starch and (b) modified starch. 52 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Electrorheology 2.1.Effect Of Dispersed Particle Concentration Effect of dispersed particle concentration on viscosity of S and MS suspensions was investigated using five different concentrations (5%–40% m/m) and results obtained are shown in Figure 3. Suspension concentration exerts principle effect on the ER activity (Wu & Shen 1996). The viscosities of both S and MS suspensions were shown increase with rising particle concentration up to c = 30 (%, m/m) and then leveled off. The maximum electric field induced viscosities (ηE) of Starch and Modified Starch were observed to be 1976 Pas and 3170 Pas,respectively under E = 2 kV/mm and shown a typical strong ER effect. Figure 3. The change in viscosity with concentration, T = 20o C and E = 2 kV/mm. 2.2. Effect Of Electric Field Strength Shear stress is one of the critical design parameter in ER phenomenon and has attracted considerable attention both theoretically and experimentally. Figure 4 also shows the changes in the shear stress (τ) and viscosity (� of S and MS in Corn Oil suspensions under various electric field values. Increase in electric field causesincreasein τ and � Thisis due tothe formation of chain-like structure caused by the polarized particlesin suspensions under E electric field strength ( Choi et al. 1997). Figure 4. The change of viscosity and shear stress with electric field strength, T = 20o C, c = 30% m/m,�= 0.2 s−1 2.3. Effect Of Temperature The temperature dependence of the shear stress is shown in Figure5. The results were investigated at 53 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo temperatures between 25-80°C. It was observed that,for S/Corn Oil system, τ decreased with increasing T and a shear stress loss of ∆τ = 118 Pa was measured. An interesting curve was obtained for MS/Corn Oil suspension, showing a decrease in τ up to T = 50 °C, then gave an increase with rising T. This may be attributed to the loss of moistureinthe MS/Corn Oilsuspension and the increased kinetic energy of Li+ ionsinsertedintothe structure of starch withthe modification process, which gave risetoincreased mobility and polarizability ofthe suspended modified starch. Although shear stress changes withincreasing temperature reported inthe literature ( Unal et al. 2006;Liu & Shaw 2001 ) Figure 5. Effect oftemperature on the shear stress for starch and modified starch suspension, c =30% m/m, � = 0.2 s–1, E = 2.0 kV/mm. 2.4. Effect of frequency The effect of frequency (f) on the shear modulus (G’) for S and MS suspension is shown Fig.6. Up to f = 50 Hz, viscoelastic properties of both Starch and Modified Starch were not much changed. After f = 50 Hz, a sharpincrease was observed for each sample as atypical characteristic of a viscoelastic material, which indicates a vibration damping property. The increase in G’ with increasing external f was also reported in the literature( Zhao et al. 2008). Figure 6. The change of Gı with frequency, c= 30% m/m, T=20o C, γ = 10 Pa, E=2kV/mm . 2.5. Sedimentation stability Sedimentation ratio curves as a function of time for S and M S suspension at 20% concentration at room temperature are shown in figure 7 that, prepared polymer suspensions exhibited colloidal stability against sedimentation, which the sedimentation ratio is 58 % end of 30 days. The sedimentation stability of modified starch suspension is betterthan that of starch. Thisis possibly because starch is easily congregation foritsflakelike structure, greatly modifies its dispersal ability so as to increase its anti-sedimentation ability (Xiang & Zhao 2006). 54 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 7. Sedimentation stability of starch and modified starch depend on time, c = 20% m/m, T= 20o C Conclusions In presentstudy we have shown thatthe native starch can successfully be partially modified and converted to ER active Li salt. The results showed that, S and MS suspension exhibited ER behavior under electric field strength. The conductivities of S (10-9 S/m) and MS (10-5 S/m) were in the range of ER active materials. Sedimentation stabilities of S and MS suspension were found to be 58% and suitable for potential industrial applications. Optimum particle concentration of the both suspensions was determined to be 30% by mass. The shear stresses of the both materials were shown a linear increase with increasing E. S and MS suspension showed Newtonian behavior when E = 0 kV and Bingham behavior when E ≠ 0 kV. The viscosities of S and MS suspension decreased with increasing shear rate and given a typical of viscoelastic behavior by means of shear thinning. Electric field induced viscosities of the both materials were observed to increase linearly. Temperature was observed to be effective on the both materials and caused shear stress losses on S and shear stress increase on M S, especially at elevated temperatures. Our results revealed that, wet-base ER active S/corn oil suspension system become dry-base ER active after the modification, and shown 3 times stronger ER strength; which is extremely important from industrial point of view. Acknowledgements We are grateful for financial support by The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (Project no: 107T628 ) References Block H. and Kelly J.P. (1988). Electro-rheology. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 21, 1661-1667. Choi, H. J., M. S. Cho, and M. S. Jhon. (1997). Electrorheological properties of poly(acene quinone) radical suspensions. Polym. Adv. Tech. 8, 697–700. F.-L. Mi, H.-W. Sung, C.-C. Su, C.-K. Peng (2003). Synthesis and characterization of biodegradable TPP/genipin cocrosslinked chitosan gel beads. Polymer 44 6521-6530. Kato Y., Matsuo R., Isogai A. (2003). Oxidation process of water-soluble starch in TEMPO-mediated system. Carbohydrate Polymers, 5, 1 69–75. Liu, B.; Shaw, M. T. (2001). Electrorheology of filled silicone elastomers. J. Rheol., 45, 641-657. Ogungbenle H. N. (2007). Effect of chemical modification in starch of some legume flours. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6 (2), 167-171. Parthasarathy, M. and Klingenberg, D.J. (1996). Electrorheology : mechanisms and models. Mater. Sci. Eng., R17:57–103. 55 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Tao, R., Zhang, J., Shiroyanagi, Y., Tang, X. and Zhang, X. (2001). Electrorheological Fluidsunder Shear. Int. J. Mod. Phys. B, 15:918–929. Unal, H. I.; Agirbas, O.; Yilmaz, H. (2006). Electrorheological properties of poly(Li-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) suspensions Coll. and Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 274, 77-84. Winslow, W.. M. (1953). Field Controlled Hydraulic Device. U.S., Pat. No: 2661596. Wu, S. and Shen, J., 1996. Electrorheological properties of chitin suspensions. J.Appl.Polymer Sci., 60:2159-2164. Xiang, L.; Zhao, X. (2006). Preparation of montmorillonite/titania nanocomposite and enhanced electrorheological activity. J. Coll. Inter. Sci., 296, 131–140. Vijaya, Y., Popuri, S.R., Boddu, V.M. and Krishnaiah, A. (2008), Modified chitosan and calcium alginate biopolymer sorbents for removal of nickel(II) through adsorption. Carbohydrate Polymers, 72 (2), 261-271. Zhao,Y.; Wang, B.; Ding, C.; Zhao, X. (2008). Nano Titanium Oxide Organosol: Synthesis, Characterization, and Application for Electrorheological Fluid. J.Appl.Polym.Sci.,110, 3763-3769. 56 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 471 Title A name given to the resource Biodegradable Modified Corn Starch and Its Electroreological Properties Author Author Yavuz, Mustafa Tilki, Tahir Çabuk, Mehmet Ulutürk, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study an electrorheological (ER) effect of the suspensions containing both native starch (S) and modified starch (MS) particles in corn oil under various externally applied electric field strengths are reported. To prepare an ER active material, biodegradable starch was partially hydrolyzed and converted to its Li+ salt. Both biopolymers were characterized by 13C-NMR, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). Suspensions of Starch and modified Starch particles were prepared in corn oil at concentrations ranging from 5-40% by mass. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator to investigate the effects of electric field strength and particle concentration on ER performance. Effects of various parameters such as sedimentation stability, dispersed particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate, frequency and temperature onto ER activity were investigated. Modified starch suspension was accepted as a biodegradable anhydrous ER fluid. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/30336fda94929648514a2f36504a02b6.pdf e9785e8e64de3488ccf1f18938a3b57a PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Application of Factor Analysis in the Assessment of Water Quality in Sakarya River (Turkey) Suheyla Yerel Bozuyuk Vocational School Bilecik University, Bilecik, Turkey suheyla.yerel@bilecik.edu.tr Nurgul Ozbay Engineering Faculty Bilecik University, Bilecik, Turkey nurgul.ozbay@bilecik.edu.tr Huseyin Ankara Department of Mining Engineering Eskisehir Osmangazi University Eskisehir, Turkey hankara@ogu.edu.tr Abstract: Factor analysis is applied to the dataset on surface water quality of the Sakarya River (Turkey), generated one year monitoring at five monitoring stations for eight parameters. This study presents of factor analysis technique for evaluation of large complex dataset with a view to get better information about the surface water quality and design the monitoring stations for effective management of water sources. Three factors were determined, which were responsible from the 88.886% of total variance of the surface water quality in the Sakarya River (Turkey). The first factor explained 43.639% of the total variance. The second factor explained 27.914% and the third factor 17.332% explained of the variance, respectively. This study showed that, factor analysis help decision makers to judge effectiveness of surface water quality programs. 1. Introduction One of the major concerns in hydrological studies understands the factor and process that control and affect water quality. Water quality “reflects the composition of water as affected by natural processes and by humans’ cultural activities, expressed in terms of measurable quantities and related to intended water use” (Novanty and Chesters, 1981). Surface waters contain many chemical species in the dissolved state that play an important roleinthe survivalaquatic ecosystems (Santos-Roman et al., 2003). Water quality monitoring has one ofthe highest prioritiesin environmental protection policy (Simeonov et al., 2002). The main objective isto control and minimize the incidence of pollutant-oriented problems, and to appropriate qualityto serve various purposes such as drinking water,irrigation water, etc (Boyacioglu, 2006). The quality of water is identified in terms of its physical, chemical and biological parameters (Sargaonkar and Deshpande, 2003). The particular problem in the case of water quality monitoring is the complexity associated with analyzing the large number of measured variables (Saffran, 2001). The data sets contain rich information about the behavior of the water resources. The classification, modeling and interpretation of monitoring data are the most important steps in the assessment of water quality (Boyacioglu, 2006). Inthis study evaluated the water quality parameters using factor analysis. This analysis was applied to a surface water quality dataset obtain by Sakarya riverin Turkey. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Dataset Surface water quality datasets of five surface water quality observation stations comparing eight parameters monitoring monthly a years, were obtained from DSI. Observation stations are seen fig. 1. 262 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The selected surface water quality parameter for the determination of water quality characteristics are; Total dissolved solids (TDS), Sulphate (SO4), Chloride (Cl), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ), Nitrate nitrogen (NO3 -N), Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Dissolved oxygen (DO) and Sodium (Na). The results were evaluated by using factor analysis. Figure 1. Sakarya river monitoring stations 2.2. Factor Analysis Factor analysis is a statistical technique that attempts to extract a lower dimensional linear structure from the data. The main purpose of factor analysisisto reduce the contribution of less significant variables and to simplify even more of the data structure. As a result, a small number of factors will usually account for approximately the same amount of information as the much larger set of original observations (Shrestha and Kazama, 2007). The factor analysis can be expressed as: zji = af1f1i + af 2f2i + af 3f3i +... + afmfmi + efi i = 1, 2,..., p (1) where z is the measured variable; a isthe factor loading; f represents the factor score, e is the residual term accounting for errors or other source of variation;iisthe sample number,and m representsthetotal number of factors. 3. Results and Discussion Surface water quality parameters were grouped using factor analysis in this study. The eigenvalues for different factors, eigenvalues and total variance are given in Tab. 1. The table shows that,the three eigenvalues were higher than 1. Majority of the total variance of the dataset has been investigated by the firstthree factors Varimax rotation was then used to obtain readily interpretable factorloadings. 263 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters TDS Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 0.952 - SO4 0.946 - - Cl 0.887 - - BOD5 0.857 - - NO3-N - 0.943 - COD - 0.777 - DO - - 0.843 Na - - 0.708 Eigenvalue 3.491 2.233 1.387 Total variance (%) 43.639 27.914 17.332 Table 1. Rotated factorloadings matrix The factor analysis generated three significant factors, which explained approximately 88.886% of the variance in monitoring stations dataset. Parameters were grouped based on the factorloadings and the following factors were given: Factor 1: TDS, SO4, Cl and BO D5 Factor 2: NO3-N and COD Factor 3: DO and Na The first factor (Factor 1) is explained 43.639% of the total variance. The second factor (Factor 2) is positively loaded with parameters NO3 -N and COD. This factor accounts for 27.914% of the total variance. Factor 3 explained 17.332% ofthe total variance and related tothe parameters DO and Na. The data of the Factor 1 were calculation into mean value to compare the aspects of the variation in surface water quality data obtained from five different monitoring stations as presented by fig. 2. Among the mean value, all parameters were found to be high at Station 1 showing high pollution ofthese sites. Figure 2. TDS, SO4, Cl and BO D5 mean value at monitoring stations 264 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion In this study, factor analysis was applied to surface water quality dataset. The analysis was used to classify surface water quality parameters. Based on the above results, monitoring stations were explained by the three factors,itisthe Factor 1 (TDS, SO4, Cl and BOD5 ) that best observed variances in the data. These results represent that pollution caused differences in terms of water quality in the Station 1 of the river. Finally,it was determined thatthe factor analysis usefulness forinterpretation of water quality dataset. 5. References 1. Boyacioglu, H. (2006). Surface water quality assessment using factor analysis. Water SA, 32, 389-394. 2. Novanty, V., & Chesters, G. (1981). Handbook of non-point pollution, Sources and Management. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. 3. Saffran, K. (2001). Canadian water quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life, CCME water quality index 1,0 User’s manual, ISBN 1-896997-34-1. 4. Santos-Roman, D.M., Warner, G.S., & Scatena, F. (2003). Multivariate analysis of water quality and physical characteristics of selected watersheds in Puerto Rico. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 829-839. 5. Sargaonkar, A., & Deshpande, V. (2003). Development of an overall index of pollution surface water based on a general classification scheme in Indian context. Environ. Monit. Assess., 89, 43-67. 6. Shrestha, S., & Kazama, F. (2007). Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques. A case study of Fuji river basin, Japan. Environmental Modelling and Software, 22, 464-475. 7. Simeonov, V., Einax, J.W., Stanimirova, I., & Kraft J. (2002). Environmetric modeling and interpretation of river water monitoring data. Anal. Bional Chem., 374, 898-905. 265 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 477 Title A name given to the resource Application of Factor Analysis in the Assessment of Water Quality in Sakarya River (Turkey) Author Author Yerel, Suheyla Ozbay, Nurgul Ankara, Huseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. Factor analysis is applied to the dataset on surface water quality of the Sakarya River (Turkey), generated one year monitoring at five monitoring stations for eight parameters. This study presents of factor analysis technique for evaluation of large complex dataset with a view to get better information about the surface water quality and design the monitoring stations for effective management of water sources. Three factors were determined, which were responsible from the 88.886% of total variance of the surface water quality in the Sakarya River (Turkey). The first factor explained 43.639% of the total variance. The second factor explained 27.914% and the third factor 17.332% explained of the variance, respectively. This study showed that, factor analysis help decision makers to judge effectiveness of surface water quality programs. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/73349563813ae6f8f9a424df3efa4b2c.pdf 14248c40963bdb8332ca53ecff5eeed9 PDF Text Text Significance of Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park in Sustainable Tourism Mehmet ZAMAN Ataturk University Department of Geography, 25240 Erzurum / Turkey mzaman@atauni. edu.tr Abstract: Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park are located in the Eastern Black Sea part of the Eastern Black Sea Region. Administratively, the whole Fırtına Basin, and a great part of Kaçkar Mountains National Park (83.7 %) area located within Çamlıhemşin, Rize, and the rest of the area (16.3 %) falls within the boundaries of Yusufeli, Artvin and İspir, Erzurum. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park, a large part of which is in the basin of the related valley, are one of the most important natural places of Turkey and are known at an international level owing to their wild life, vegetation richness and geomorphological formations they have. On account of these characteristics, the related area has been counted in 200 ecological areas that must be preserved by WWF (World Wild Fund For Nature). In addition, centuries - long high pasture activities in the area and archaeological works add historical and folkloric value to the basin. Therefore, they remain one of the important areas in Sustainable Tourism. They have a potential for such natural recreational activities as mountain tourism, high pasture tourism, thermal tourism, cultural tourism, botanical tourism, rafting, heliksi, camping, photography, mountain cycling, jeep safari, trekking, fishhook, paragliding and observation of birds and wild life. Utilization of the related area with respect to sustainable tourism potential will greatly contribute to the economic devolopment of the region. The reason is that sustainable tourism remains a kind of tourism which protects local, natural, cultural and structural sources, devolops life quality of the people around, provides a high – quality service for the tourists, increases environmental quality of sites and fosters economic devolopment. Key Words: Kaçkar Mountains National Park, Fırtına Basin, Sustainable Tourism Introduction In the context of prospective sustainability, sources continue to be utilized on the one hand while it becomes necessary to protect the same sources so that future generations may make use of them. The reason for this is that the process of technological and socio-economic developments and changes in our century will continue in the same way in the future. Therefore, it has been an obligation to follow a planned method while making natural and human sources available to use (Atabay, 1998:2). In addition, sustainability is a kind of behaviour that is constantly renewed. The objective of such behaviour is to protect the sources in terms of sustainability. This is significant not only with respect to economy but human life. Accordingly, sustainable tourism can be defined as an activity which adorns natural, cultural and social sources in the long run and protects them, and which supports economy moderately(Scharpf, 1998:18). Such terms as Responsible Tourism, Soft Tourism, Eco-Tourism and Alternative Tourism bear similar meanings with Sustainable Tourism. They are examined within in the scope of Sustainable Tourism. Geographical Characteristics of the Area Fırtına Stream Basin is made up of a land (2000-2200 m.) incised deeply with rivers and high mountainous fields where glaciations/ glaciations is effective. Among forms of glaciations are actual glacial, glacial lakes, glacial basins, moraine sets and synclinal folds (Erinç, 1949: 243-245; 1971: 258-260). A semioceanic and semi-continental climate is seen in this region. There exists a thick forest thanks to suitable precipitation and temperature. The forest is visible till 2200 metres and from that metre upward, there are subalpine and alpine meadows. The Kaçkar Mountains National Park (Figure 1) remains the fifth with respect to size among the 36 national parks in Turkey with its space of 5150 hectares. It was gained the status of tourism centre in 1991 and of national park in 1994 with its such characteristics as geological and geomorphological qualities, existence of traditional transhumance, richness of vegetation and wild life, and natural landscape. Located in the area, Ayder 28 �High Pasture is a place was announced to be the first touristic centre in the Eastern Black Sea Region in 1987 under name of ‘Rize-Çamlıhemşin-Ayder Thermal Spring Touristic Centre’. Figure 1. Location Map of Fırtına Stream and Kaçkar Mountains National Park. There are one town (Çamlıhemşin), 27 villages, 41 high-pastures and 18 hamlets in Fırtına Stream Basin. Facilities of Sustainable Tourism and Their Utilization Such recreational activities as high-pasture tourism, mountain tourism, thermal tourism, cultural tourism, rural tourism (agriculture and farm tourism), wild life and bird watching (ornito-tourism), hunting tourism, botanical tourism, river tourism (sportive hand line fishing, canoe and rafting), congress tourism, rafting, heliski, camping and caravan tourism, photography (photo safari), mountain cycling, paragliding, horse riding, film and documentary production, scientific research and training camps(Zaman, 2007, s. – 2008: s.). High pasture tourism is without doubt one of the mostly-demanded of those mentioned above and has been the most popular form of alternative tourism. The reason is that high pastures with their natural beauty, cold and clear waters, fresh air, ethnological, cultural and other attractive characteristics draw attention. The high pasture in the basin are suitable for such activities as stopover, rest, observation of nature and culture, trips, photography, observing and participating in traditional high pasture life, tasting local food, and taking place in cultural activities. With these characteristics, the related area offers sustainable tourism facilities and draws the attention of both local and foreign tourists (Photo 1). Among the important high pastures with transportation and accommodation facilities are Ayder, Yukarı Kavron, Elevit, Başyayla, Çiçekliyayla, Tirovit, Palovit, Amlakit, Apivanak, Pokut and Sal(Zaman, 2007: 200-2008:17-26). Photograph 1. Such Social and cultural activities as high pasture festivals and bullfights are organized in Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park. Another important kind of alternative tourism is mountain tourism on the mountains with high peaks located in the south part of the basin. There are such summits as that of Mount Kaçkar (3932 m.) and of Mount Verçenik. The touristic potential of the park in mountain tourism includes tracking and hiking, peak and glacial climbing, mountain skiing and alpinism (Photo 2-Somuncu, 1986:1 - 1988: 30-31). 29 �Photograph 2. The potential of the Kaçkar Mountains National Park in mountain tourism includes tracking and hiking, peak and glacial climbing and heliski. The mentioned area has rural tourism facilities with its rural life style, traditional village and high pasture life, scattered settlement, houses built in accordance with wooden civil architecture, customs and conventions, garden and agriculture activities, and animal husbandry. In addition, the fact that the thermal springs in Ayder High Pasture, which is the thermal tourism centre, have positive effects on the treatment of rheumatism, on skin, blood system, respiration, gynaecological system, neural system and muscles attract many tourists to the area. Fırtına Basin is also one of the most attractive places in terms of cultural tourism with its historical sites like Zilkale and Kale-ı Bala as well as stone bridges, its architecture, music, wearing style of people, food culture, rural residences, high pasture festivals, bullfights and life style (Photo 3). Photography 3. The castles on the basin (e.g. Zilkale), historical stone bridges, residences and local clothes are among the elements that contribute to the development of cultural tourism in the area. 30 �Hunting tourism and bird watching are also available in Fırtına Basin (Photo 4). In addition to diversity of wild life, the large number of bird kinds adds value to the area, which has been announced as one of the 100 significant bird areas of Turkey by The Society for the Protection of Nature and by Bird Life International. 57 of the bird kinds have been taken under protection in accordance with Bern III Contract. In addition, capercaillies in the area have given the area the status of being one of the 217 endemism areas (Kurdoğlu, 2002: 5/Bird Life,1995). Photography 4. In recent years, bird watching has been carried out in Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park. Having a unique botanical diversity, the area holds a number of rare kinds with its 537 woody plants, Fırtına Basin remains one of the 122 significant plant fields(Yeğen,2007:101-103). All these demonstrate that the area has a significant potential for the devolopment of botanical tourism. Since 2003, heliski has been available in the National Park(Photo 5). Tourists, especially from Sweden, Switzerland, Norway and Finland, join heliski activities which are mostly held on Kaçkar Mountains and such valleys as Kavran, Ceymakcur and Avacur. Photograph 5. The tourists landed on the peaks of Kaçkar Mountains join heliksi. As for river tourism, the area offers such alternatives as canoe and rafting thanks to the length of the course, flow rate and valley slope(Photo 6). Photograph 6. Canoe and rafting are carried out in Fırtına Stream especially in the period of transition from spring to summer. 31 �In recent years, jeep safari and mountain cycling have become popular activities in Fırtına Basin. There are many routes for these activities. In addition, the area has often been preferred by the campers with its magnificent views and fresh, clean air. With its unique natural beauty, the basin provides heavenly facilities for photographers and photo safari. As for as their height, slope and wind are concerned, the peaks of Kaçkar Mountains are suitable for paragliding(Photo 7). Sal, Pokut and Hazindak high pasture are among the appropriate places for this activity. Photograph 7. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park have places suitable for camping and paragliding. Apart from these, local residences, thermal spring, accomodation sites and cultural structure of Ayder High Pasture can be arranged so as to host congresses to be held, which will add to sustainable tourism activities in the area. In addition, there are suitable places for horse riding, orienteering, view watching and picnic. Conclusion Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park offers various alternatives of sustainable tourism for tourists. It is obvious that present state of the National Park, which has a number of natural, social and cultural sources, can only be maintained by the protection and sound use of these sources. To do so; • • • • • • Economic, ecologicial and social aspects of sources should be assessed together for a sustainable development. Plans, projects and investments that may cause pollution and environmental damage should be avoided. Ecological capacity should be taken into account while development is supported. Natural, cultural and social diversity should be protected and supported. Tourists and local people should be informed about possible negative environmental effects. Sustainability of the above without doubt is closely connected with the continuity of the relationship between tourism, and natural and social environment in a sound and positive manner. References Atabay, S., (1998 ), 21. Yüzyılda Sürdürülebilir Turizm Politikaları. 1. Uluslar arası Turizm Sempozyumu (1617 Aralık 1998), Yıldız Teknik Üniv., İstanbul. Doğanay, H., (2001), Türkiye Turizm Coğrafyası (3. Baskı). Çizgi Kitabevi Yay. No:33, Üniversite Kitapları: 9, Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya Doğu, A.F., Somuncu, M., Çiçek, İ., Tunçel, H., Gürgen, G., (1993), Kaçkar Dağı’nda Buzul Şekilleri, Yaylalar ve Turizm. Ankara Üniv. Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Derg. 2, Ankara. Erdoğan, N., (2003), Çevre ve (Eko)turizm. Pozitif Matbaacılık, Ankara. Erinç, S., (1945), Doğu Karadeniz Dağları’nda Glasyal Morfoloji Araştırmaları. İstanbul Üniv. Edebiyat Fak. Yay. Coğrafya Enst. Doktora Tezleri Serisi, No: 1, İstanbul. Kurdoğlu, O., (2002), Fırtına Vadisi’nin Doğal Kaynak Yönetimi Açısından İncelenmesi. KTÜ Fen Bil. Enstitüsü (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Trabzon. Scharpf, H., (1998), Sürdürülebilirlilik Açısından Bölgesel ve Yerel Yönetimlerin Turizm Politikasındaki Görevleri. 1. Uluslar arası Turizm Sempozyumu (16-17 Aralık 1998), Yıldız Teknik Üniv., İstanbul. 32 �Yarar, M., Magnın, G., (1997), Türkiye’nin Önemli Kuş Alanları. Doğal Hayatı Koruma Derneği Yay., İstanbul. Zaman, M., (2007), Doğu Karadeniz Kıyı Dağları’nda Yaylalar ve Yaylacılık. Atatürk Üniv. Yay. No: 960, Fen Edebiyat Fak. Yay No: 105, Araştırma Serisi No: 75, Erzurum. Zaman, M., (2008), Fırtına Deresi Havzası ve Kaçkar Dağları Milli Parkı’nın Alternatif Turizm Açısından Önemi. Atatürk Üniv. Sosyal Bil. Enst. Derg.Cilt:12, Sayı:2 , Erzurum. 33 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 645 Title A name given to the resource Significance of Fırtına Stream Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park in Sustainable Tourism Author Author ZAMAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park are located in the Eastern Black Sea part of the Eastern Black Sea Region. Administratively, the whole Fırtına Basin, and a great part of Kaçkar Mountains National Park (83.7 %) area located within Çamlıhemşin, Rize, and the rest of the area (16.3 %) falls within the boundaries of Yusufeli, Artvin and İspir, Erzurum. Fırtına Basin and Kaçkar Mountains National Park, a large part of which is in the basin of the related valley, are one of the most important natural places of Turkey and are known at an international level owing to their wild life, vegetation richness and geomorphological formations they have. On account of these characteristics, the related area has been counted in 200 ecological areas that must be preserved by WWF (World Wild Fund For Nature). In addition, centuries - long high pasture activities in the area and archaeological works add historical and folkloric value to the basin. Therefore, they remain one of the important areas in Sustainable Tourism. They have a potential for such natural recreational activities as mountain tourism, high pasture tourism, thermal tourism, cultural tourism, botanical tourism, rafting, heliksi, camping, photography, mountain cycling, jeep safari, trekking, fishhook, paragliding and observation of birds and wild life. Utilization of the related area with respect to sustainable tourism potential will greatly contribute to the economic devolopment of the region. The reason is that sustainable tourism remains a kind of tourism which protects local, natural, cultural and structural sources, devolops life quality of the people around, provides a high – quality service for the tourists, increases environmental quality of sites and fosters economic devolopment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9ae4764f51ffc193d39e5cca3a2756ec.pdf b0531b138502adc8e2ccec2fa51d7ffa PDF Text Text The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student Achievement in Geography Education Serhat ZAMAN Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Geography Education, Erzurum-Turkey (serhatz@atauni.edu.tr) Res.Assist. Ogün COSKUN Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Geography Education, Erzurum-Turkey Ramazan SEVER Atatürk University Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Department Of Primary School Teaching, Social Science Education, Erzurum-Turkey Kenan TÜRKEZ Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum, Turkey Nilgün ZAMAN Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups. Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional methods. Key words: Geography Education, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), Teaching Methods. 227 �Introduction Rapid increase in the production of information and technology and development of communication in the world led to the extensive and easier access to sources of information and, in this way, drastically changed the life. It became the initial problem of the educators to convey this accumulated information in every sphere to individuals effectively and equally. For the realization of this transmission and retention of learning, everyday, new methods, techniques are developed and new materials are used in education. With its subject topics, geography is one of the courses which are appropriate for the use of different instructional materials. Due to this convenience, different teaching designs and materials are developed in order to increase the effectiveness in the education and instruction of geography. One of them is the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which is more extensively used day by day. In this study, the effects of GIS on the academic achievement of the students in geography education were investigated by an experimental research. The study consists of two major parts. In the first part, definition of the GIS, its role in geography education, and the utility of this system in the new changing geography curriculum in Turkey are questioned; and, in the second part, the results of a study aiming to investigate the effects of GIS on students’ academic achievement are discussed. What is GIS (Geographical Information Systems)? Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is a computer system which was designed to collect every type of data, together with their coordinates, related to the physical and anthropological characteristics of the Earth in a database, to make some analyses on them in line with certain purposes, and to illustrate the results in the forms of maps, tables, and figures (Fitzpatrick,C. & Maguire,D.J. 2000,63–64). In other words, GIS is a computer-based data processing program designed to analyze and visualize the objects and events on the Earth (Demirci,A.,2008a,11). The system consists of basically four components. They are computer (hardware), programs used in computer (GIS software), the data to be analyzed through software, and the user who would organize and direct these three components (Figure 1). Figure 1. Components of GIS, Reference: Demirci 2008a: 12. GIS, due its name, is considered to be a technology developed only for the area of geography. Although it is partially true, since GIS is a system collecting, storing, processing, and analyzing data, it is in an interaction with many disciplines. GIS, a system helping the more effective services in various sectors, is a tool used to increase the quality in decision making and solutions of problems. Due its content and scope, GIS can be used by all of the disciplines and groups of profession whose domains cover the phenomenons of natural environments, variable of time, and human beings which somehow represent a part of the Earth (Turoğlu,H. 2000,4). In this sense, GIS can be 228 �defined as a technology with the qualities that would facilitate the lives of people not only from the area of geography but also from every part of society. GIS in the Institutions of Education in Turkey GIS, which used in many official institutions and organizations in Turkey, is utilized mostly by universities in education. It has just begun to be used in primary and high schools. Since 2000, contents of all courses have been gradually changed by the Ministry of National Education with a student-centered educational approach. Trying to keep pace with developed and rapidly changing teaching strategies, Ministry of National Education advises the use of materials, especially, GIS technologies equipped with computers in classes. While GIS is used as an instructional material in social sciences, environmentalism, and sciences courses in the world, in Turkey, it is used only in geography courses. Together with the change in the geography curriculum by the Ministry of National Education in 2005, GIS began to be used in geography education. Unfortunately, limitations of GIS use in schools reveal themselves in the curriculum. In the part related to the application of the program, there is an expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities in schools, teachers may develop GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). However, since most of the schools do not have the equipments and facilities required for the GIS implementations and the teachers qualified enough to use the data and software, they are not ready to use these systems effectively. GIS in the New Geography Curriculums The discipline of geography has vital responsibilities in understanding the relationships between people and the nature and the relationships among themselves. One of the most important aims of geography education is to help students learn the abstract and complex geographical issues meaningfully and far away from memorization and to prepare the conditions required. Therefore, educationalists need the well-selected methods and materials to be able to teach geography in the most effective ways. GIS implementations, the main concern of this study, can meet these needs. For this reason, GIS implementations were put great emphasis on in the new geography curriculum prepared in 2005. Geography curriculum supports the use of GIS in the teaching of geography topics. In the program, it is clearly stated in the expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities in schools, teachers may develop GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). The suggestions for the use of certain acquisitions in the program can be regarded as a clear evidence for this support. When globally analyzed, it is easily seen that most topics (or issues) are convenient to be taught via GIS. However, for the extension of GIS in schools, geography teachers, at least, should attain GIS equipments and make practices. Otherwise, it is certain that the extension of GIS in schools will not be possible. In the geography curriculum in Turkey, there are many activities which are appropriate for the use of GIS. Five of the topics suggested to be taught by GIS are in the 9th, nine of them in the 10th, two of them in the 11th, and four of them are in the 12th year program. The number of the targeted acquisitions in these topics is 28 in sum (See Table 1). 229 �Suggested Number Grade Outcome Numbers A.9.3 1 9 A.9.4 2 A.9.5-A.9.6 3 C.9.5-C.9.6 4 C.9.7 5 A.10.2-A.10.3 6 10 B.10.2 7 B.10.3 8 B.10.4 9 B.10.5 10 B.10.9-B.10.10 11 C.10.10 12 C.10.11 13 C.10.12 14 B.11.4-B.11.5-B.11.6 15 11 D.11.2 16 C.12.4-C.12.5 17 12 C.12.8-C.12.9 18 D.12.6 19 D.12.8 20 Suggested Topics of Activities Maps (in the section of definitions) Coordinate System (in the section of definitions) Contour Lines Climate of Turkey Elements of Climate in Turkey Thermal Springs World Population Population Change Dynamics of Population Population Pyramids Categorization of Economic Activities Urban Structure of Turkey Differences in the Distribution of Population in Turkey Dynamism of Our Population From Production to Consumption Span of Spread of Turkish Culture Trading Structure of Turkey Scenarios in the Population of Turkey for Future Locations of Countries Regionalization of the World Table 1. The Topics in the New Geography Curriculum Appropriate for the Use of GIS (Demirci 2008a: 70). Study The Effects of the Instruction of Vegetation and Types of Climate Topics in the 10th Year Geography Course through GIS on Achievement Levels of Students (Turkey-Erzurum Sample) In this section of the study, the findings obtained from the instruction of pre-determined geography topics (Vegetation and Types of Climate) to students in two different methods were presented. First of them was the conventional method whereas the second was GIS-supported method. The universe of the research consists of the high school students studying at schools in the city centre of Erzurum in 2008-2009 education years; and the sample consists of 86 10th year students from Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye in Erzurum. Formation of the Experimental and Control Groups Tests including the questions related to “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics were given to all 10th year students from both of the schools; and, according to the results, two classes (one experimental and one control) from each school, in sum, four groups, were determined (See Table 2). Research Group Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School Şükrüpaşa High School 10 Science-A 10 Science-B 10 Social-A 10 Social -B (Experimental) (Control) (Control) (Experimental) Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male 7 13 5 14 10 Table 2. Research Sample. 230 14 7 16 �By this study, it was aimed to investigate the effects of the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics in the 9th and 10th years using the Geography Information Systems on the academic achievement levels of students. Using the software of GIS, some practices were made together with the students and they were allowed to develop their own materials. Later, on the basis of the material developed by the researcher, topics were taught in connection with the data formed by the students according to the instructions. In this way, it was intended to help students acquire the skills to use the program and participate in the classes with the materials they developed themselves. In this experimental research, the real experimental design, the model with pre-test/post-test and experimental/control groups, was conducted. In this model, a pre-test and a post-test were given to randomly chosen experimental and control groups before and after the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate” (See Table 3). G1 PRE-TEST X1 POST-TEST G2 PRE-TEST X2 POST-TEST Table 3. Research Model. G1: Experimental Group, G2: Control Group, Pre-test and Post-test: Achievement Test, X1: The group taught through GIS implementations, X2: The group taught through conventional methods. Throughout a four-week period, the experimental group students were taught “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics enriched with the prepared course plans and activities based on GIS, and the control group was taught the same topic through the conventional methods in accordance with the targeted outcomes. Procedure In the procedure of the research, the steps below were followed; ■ In the research, as the data collection instrument, an achievement test consisting of 20 questions which some experts were councilled about was used. ■ A course plan was prepared for the activities to be held and the treatment took four weeks. ■ Both experimental and control groups were taught by the same teacher. ■ A computer downloaded ArcWiev 9.2 program and a projector were taken to the classroom in which GIS implementations would be carried out and a list of instructions was given to each student. ■ GIS implementations were carried out together with the students. ■ In the control group, teacher-centered conventional instructional methods, in which the teacher, all the time, was active, were used. In addition, maps and atlases were utilized in the classes. ■ During the classes, similar extra activities were carried out in the groups and the students were given some questions and asked to answer in order to identify whether they had understood the topics or not. Findings and Interpretations While the mean of the scores of the experimental group students taught through GIS-based activities from the test on “Vegetation and Types of Climate” was X =8,20 before the treatment, after the treatment the mean was found to be X =14,65. On the other hand, whereas the mean of the scores of the students taught through conventional methods (e.g., question-answer, direct instruction) was X =8,20 before the treatment, it changed to X =11,39 after the treatment. According to these results, it was determined that although achievement levels of both groups got higher the increase in the scores of the experimental group students was greater (See Table 4 and Figure 2). 231 �Pre-test Post-test Groups X S.S. N Experimental Control Experimental Control 8,20 8,20 14,65 11,39 2,44 2,62 1,67 2,70 43 43 43 43 Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations for Achievement Test Scores of All Students. As a result of the treatment, it is seen that students’ behaviors (knowledge) related to “Vegetation and Types of Climate” changed positively. The differences between the achievement levels of the groups can be associated with the student-centered GIS practices in the experimental group. Figure 2. Pre-test and Post-test Scores of Experimental and Control Groups. Results and Suggestions Development and use of new technologies in education increase the quality and effectiveness of instructional services. GIS is one of these new techniques. Furthermore, according to the observations, it was understood that students are more willing for classes carried out through GIS-based activities. As understood from the findings from the treatments, students’ achievement levels in geography courses based on GIS technologies are higher than others. When geography classes are taught by the conventional methods, learning based on memorization appears and the topics cannot be remembered in long term. During geography classes, teaching settings which will involve as many senses as possible should be designed. In addition, in GIS-based classes, education, being far away from memorization, is realized by the participation of the students on the basis of practices. Rate of retention in learning through computer is higher. Also, one of the skills acquired by the students thanks to GIS-based activities, as pointed at in geography curriculum, is the skill to use information and communication technologies. More time should be allotted for the GIS use in geography education and, for this purpose; some revisions should be made in the content of geography courses. In a study on the utility of GIS technologies in schools (Demirci 2006,5), it was found that none of the teachers could use the GIS Technologies. To solve this problem, use of GIS Technologies by teachers should be increased and laboratories of GIS technologies should be designed and developed in the faculties serving to train geography teachers. 232 �One of the most important problems in geography education is that there are not enough and appropriate places to preserve the instructional tools and materials. Modern classrooms in which geography instruction can be realized most effectively and the components of GIS can be placed and used should be formed. As in developed countries, the utility of GIS technologies should be tested in not only in geography but also in other, especially, science, courses. The most important components of GIS are data and software. Without them, implementations of GIS are not possible. These sources should be provided to teachers and students by their institutions. References Aksoy,B.,(2004). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Uygulamalarının Öğretimi Üzerine Bir Model. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi. Cilt 12, (No:1), pp. 179–190. Aladağ, E.,(2007). İlköğretim 7. Sınıf Sosyal Bilgiler Dersinde CBS’nin Kullanımının Öğrencilerin Akademik Başarı ve Derse Karşı Motivasyonlarına Etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi. Ankara. Demiralp,N.,(2007). Coğrafya Eğitiminde Materyaller ve 2005 Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programı. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi. Cilt 5–6, (No:1), pp. 373–384. Demirci,A.,(2006). CBS’nin Türkiye’deki Yeni Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programına Göre Coğrafya Derslerinde Uygulanabilirliği. 4. CBS Bilişim Günleri Bildiriler Kitabı. Fatih Üniversitesi Yay., İstanbul. Demirci,A.,(2008a). Öğretmenler İçin CBS: Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri. Fatih Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Bölümü, Yay. No. 41, İstanbul. Demirci,A.,(2008b). Türkiye’deki Yeni Coğrafya Öğretim Programının Öğretmenlerin Bakış Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi (Sayı-178), pp. 105–178. Doğanay,H,(2002). Coğrafya Öğretim Yöntemleri. Aktif Yayınları, 5. Baskı, Erzurum. Doğanay,H.,Zaman,S.,(2002). Orta Öğretim Coğrafya Eğitiminde Hedefler-Stratejiler ve Amaçlar. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 8), pp. 7-26. Fitzpatrick,C.,Maguire,D.J.,(2000). GIS In Schools: Infrastructure, Methodology And Role In: Gıs: A Sourcebook For Schools. Edited by David R. Green, Taylor&Francis. Girgin,M.,(2001). Neden Coğrafya Öğreniyoruz. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 5), pp. 127-143. M.E.B.,(2000). Milli Eğitim ile İlgili Mevzuat. Milli Eğitim Basımevi, MEB Yay. No: 3126, Ankara. M.E.B.,(2005). Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Coğrafya Dersi Öğretim Programı ve Kılavuzu (9-12. Sınıflar), MEB Yayınları, Ankara. Nalçacı,A.,(2006). İlköğretim 6. ve 7. Sınıf Sosyal Bilgiler Programındaki Coğrafya Konularının Öğretmen ve Öğrenci Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Erzurum. Taş,H.İ.,(2005). Cumhuriyetin Kuruluşundan Günümüze İlköğretim II. Kademe ve Liselerde Coğrafya Dersi ve Müfredatının Değişimi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 14), 2005, pp. 311–330. Türkez,K.,(2009). 10. Sınıf Coğrafya Dersinde Yer Alan İklim Tipleri ve Bitki Örtüsü Konularının CBS İle Öğretilmesinin Öğrenci Başarısına Etkileri (Erzurum Örneği). Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erzurum. Yomralıoğlu,T.,(2002). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Temel Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar. İber Ofset, Trabzon. Zaman,S.,Coşkun,O.,(2006). Erzurum’da Görev Yapan Coğrafya Öğretmenlerinin Sınıf İçi Performanslarını Etkileyen Faktörler Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Kâzım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (Sayı: 14), pp. 373–391. 233 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 405 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student Achievement in Geography Education Author Author ZAMAN, Serhat COSKUN, Ogün SEVER, Ramazan TÜRKEZ, Kenan ZAMAN, Nilgün Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups. Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional methods. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ca864cf69562c308873bf60df189a1ed.pdf 190cbefc1b2bc6797993c990e2dfe798 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Analysing Business Competition by Using AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method: An Example of Turkish Domestic Aviation Industry Halil ZAĐM Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, halilzaim@fatih.edu.tr Mehmet ŞANAL Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, msanal@fatih.edu.tr Nuri Gökhan TORLAK Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, gtorlak@fatih.edu.tr Selim ZAĐM Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Fatih University, Istanbul, szaim@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The article uses AHP weighted TOPSIS multi-methodological approach in the Turkish domestic aviation industry. It starts by describing exceedingly complex nature of competition in the sector. Then, it deals with the constituent parts of the research methodology and the eclectic approach itself. The implementation of AHP weighted TOPSIS method reveals the ranking of major air carriers in light of key success variables in the sector. Keywords: strategy, AHP weighted TOPSIS, multi-methodology, TOPSIS. 1. Introduction The purpose of this article is to apply AHP weighted TOPSIS approach to the Turkish domestic aviation sector in order to rank air carriers according to their relative closeness coefficient on the basis of criteria that are most critical to success and prosperity in the industry. This analysis provides useful information for airline companies about evaluating their objectives and strategies. To reach this end, in the first section the article initially describes the nature of rising competition in the Turkish domestic aviation industry that became a menace to the survival of firms during the period 2003-2007 as well as provides brief information about the chief characteristics of major domestic air carriers in the sector. The next section, called background information about research methodology, explains AHP weighted TOPSIS method, namely analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method, and the traditional TOPSIS method, and then proposed AHP weighted TOPSIS method. We assume that this multi-methodological AHP weighted TOPSIS approach with its wide-ranging applications meet the requirements of survival volatile environments like aviation industry Then the following section, called the application of the AHP weighted TOPSIS method, undertakes a real industry case from a comparative perspective that provides full and invaluable data for airline companies in the sector so that they should review their goals, strategies, plans, and programmes. Conclusion is provided in the final section. 2. The Nature of Turkish Domestic Aviation Industry Although the Turkish aviation sector has been negatively affected by the political and financial crises, it has continued its progress in the long term with the growth of economy, liberalisation, globalisation, developing international trade, lowering prices, and expanding service net. This sector’s climax was the terrorist attack in 9/11 2001 in the U.S. The aviation sector was globally harmed due to this attack that gave rise to the bankruptcy of some prominent airline companies. While the aviation sector was trying to recover itself, it was damaged again by Gulf War and SARS illness in the Far East Asia in 2003. But, Iraqi War was shorter than expected and SARS was taken under control, so aviation sector got into growing trend in 2004. The high performance of the Turkish economy in recent years, the rising numbers of tourists coming to Turkey, the lower prices of the private airline companies after the tax cut on flight prices in 2004 accelerated the 207 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkish aviation transportation to the sector. Though the domestic passenger number was 8, 7 million in 2002, it rose to nearly 20 million in 2005. This number was 38 percent more than the number in 2004. By 2006, the Turkish aviation sector had 204 passenger planes, 24 cargo planes and capacity of 38 thousand passengers. Although the Turkish Airlines had domestic flights from two airports to 25 scheduled domestic points in 2003, the flights today are from seven airports by five airline companies to 38 points. If we bear in mind the Turkey’s advantageous geographical condition, interregional trade development, and the improvement efforts in tourism, the Turkish aviation sector which has a current growing trend is expected to continue its expansion process. Turkey due to its geographical location acts like a point of passing between Europe, Middle East, and Asia. Improvements in recent years as well as Turkey’s liberal policies and bilateral agreements have turned this hectic geographical area to a special centre for passenger and cargo transportation. However there are still 70 idle airports nationwide that can be opened to air traffic in Turkey. In particular, in the East part of Turkey the number of unused airports is high due to the topographic structure of this region. In a short time, the increasing need for air transportation would bring these airports in use and provide important benefits for Turkey. In terms of competition in the Turkish Domestic Air Transportation after the privatisation of Turkish Airlines in 2003 the number of passengers in Domestic Air Transportation was noticeably increased. This led to new air carriers enter the aviation sector and the competition became severe. The slogan of “Every Turk will try plane at least once” became popular in the Domestic Air Transportation. In relation with the incentive policy to make the domestic flights attractive and to bring activity to regional airports there has been a reduction in DHMI (Government Airport Service) tariffs, and a cut in private communication tax. Furthermore, the Ministry of Transport abolished the education contribution pay in 2003 and gave authorisation of domestic flights to the private airline companies. With this practice a couple of new carriers such as Fly Air, Onur Air, Pegasus Airlines, and Atlas Jet entered the market. As a consequence, a sudden change and a cutthroat competition developed in the sector. This increased the number of domestic passengers (Table 1). Private firms increased domestic flights by taking their licenses. Onur Air, Pegasus Airlines, and Atlas Jet became initial firms that took their licenses. Rank 1 2 3 4 Table 1: Number of Domestic Passenger Carried in 2006 Companies Number of Passenger Turkish Airlines 8.857.000 Onur Air 4.400.267 Atlas Jet 2.982.712 Pegasus 1.818.989 3. Background Information about Research Methodology This section briefly describes the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) technique, and the TOPSIS method, and proposed AHP weighted TOPSIS method. 3.1. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Methodology The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) methodology, which was developed by Saaty (1980), is a powerful tool in solving complex decision problems. The AHP helps the analysts to organize the critical aspects of a problem into a hierarchical structure similar to a family tree. By reducing complex decisions to a series of simple comparisons and rankings, then synthesizing the results, the AHP not only helps the analysts to arrive at the best decision, but also provides a clear rationale for the choices made (Chin et al., 1999). In AHP approach, the decision-maker is required to provide his preferences by pairwise comparisons, with respect to the weights and scores (Chu and Lin, 2003). 3.2. The TOPSIS Method TOPSIS method is a technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (Hwang and Yoon, 1981). The ideal solution (also called positive ideal solution) is a solution that maximizes the benefit criteria/attributes and minimizes the cost criteria/attributes, whereas the negative ideal solution (also called antiideal solution) maximizes the cost criteria/attributes and minimizes the benefit criteria/attributes. The so-called benefit criteria/attributes are those for maximization, while the cost criteria/attributes are those for minimization (Bellman and Zadeh, 1970). The best alternative is the one, which is closest to the ideal solution and farthest from the negative ideal solution. 208 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3.3. The Proposed AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method The basic steps of proposed AHP weighted TOPSIS method can be described as follows: Step 1. In the first step, a panel of decision makers (DMs) who are knowledgeable about airline selection and evaluation process is established. In a group that has K decision-makers (i.e. D1, D2, ..., Dk) are responsible for developing the hierarchical structure of the airline evaluation and selection. Then, using AHP technique, the normalized weights for each evaluation and selection criterion are determined. Step 2. In the second step, DMs evaluate the performance of each airline company with respect to each criterion to obtain a decision matrix.  x11 x X =  21  ...   xm1 x12 x22 ... xm 2 ... x1n  ... x2 n  ... ...   ... xmn  Step 3. After forming the decision matrix, normalized decision matrix is obtained as:  r11 r12 r r R =  21 22  ... ...  rm1 rm 2 ... r1n  ... r2 n  ... ...   ... rmn  Step 4. The weighted normalized decision matrix is computed by multiplying the importance weight of evaluation criteria and the values in the normalized decision matrix. Step 5. Then positive and negative ideal solutions are determined. Step 6. Then the distance of each alternative from positive and negative ideal solutions are calculated. Step 7. Then the closeness coefficient CC is determined. 4. The Application of AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method The application of the proposed algorithm is explained in the following steps. Step 1. In the first stage, a panel of ten DMs from various departments including purchasing, quality, and production and planning who are involved in Strategy process was formed. Based on semi-structured interviews with DMs, a list of nine Strategy Process criteria was generated. These criteria are related to various aspect of strategy ranging from Advertising Product Quality, Price Competitiveness, Customer Loyalty, Market Share, Customer Service, E-commerce, Management Experience, and Branding. The DMs were then asked to specify the relative importance of airline selection criteria using pairwise comparison scale. Then normalized weights for each criterion were obtained. These values are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Normalized Weights for each Evaluation Criteria standart Advertising 0.0417 Product Quality 0.2584 Price Competitiveness 0.1499 Customer Loyalty 0.1555 Market Share 0.0551 Customer Service 0.1396 E-commerce 0.0249 Management Experience 0.0981 Branding 0.0767 Total 1.0000 209 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Step 2: In this step, we measure the performance of firms with respect to each strategy criterion. Table 3 shows the decision matrix of selection criteria. Table 3: Decision Matrix Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding THY 5 5 3 4 5 5 5 5 5 Onur Air 2 2 4 2 3 1 3 2 1 Pegasus 3 3 5 3 4 3 4 4 3 Atlasjet 3 3 4 2 3 2 3 2 1 Step 3: In this stage, normalized decision matrix is obtained depending on whether the objective of selection criterion is that of minimization or maximization. Table 4 shows the normalized decision matrix. Table 4: Normalized Decision Matrix Turkish Airlines Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet max max max max max max max max max Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.7293 0.2917 0.4376 0.4376 0.7293 0.2917 0.4376 0.4376 0.3693 0.4924 0.6155 0.4924 0.6963 0.3482 0.5222 0.3482 0.6509 0.3906 0.5208 0.3906 0.8006 0.1601 0.4804 0.3203 0.6509 0.3906 0.5208 0.3906 0.7143 0.2857 0.5714 0.2857 0.8333 0.1667 0.5000 0.1667 Step 4: Then weighted normalized decision matrix is calculated. The weighted normalized decision matrix for each selection criterion is shown in Table 5. Table 5: Weighted Normalized Decision Matrix THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.0304 0.0122 0.0183 0.0183 0.1885 0.0754 0.1131 0.1131 0.0554 0.0738 0.0923 0.0738 0.1083 0.0541 0.0812 0.0541 0.0359 0.0215 0.0287 0.0215 0.1117 0.0223 0.0670 0.0447 0.0162 0.0097 0.0130 0.0097 0.0701 0.0280 0.0561 0.0280 0.0639 0.0128 0.0384 0.0128 Step 5 and Step 6: The positive and negative ideal solutions are determined. Table 6 and 7 show the ideal solutions. Table 6: Positive Ideal Solution and its Distance for Each Alternative THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.0000 -0.0183 -0.0122 -0.0122 0.0000 -0.1131 -0.0754 -0.0754 -0.0369 -0.0185 0.0000 -0.0185 0.0000 -0.0541 -0.0271 -0.0541 0.0000 -0.0144 -0.0072 -0.0144 0.0000 -0.0894 -0.0447 -0.0670 0.0000 -0.0065 -0.0032 -0.0065 0.0000 -0.0421 -0.0140 -0.0421 0.0000 -0.0511 -0.0256 -0.0511 Step 7: The closeness coefficient CC is determined. As initial average weights were used in the TOPSIS calculations, the values of CC in Table 8 are considered as crisp TOPSIS results. Table 7: Negative Ideal Solution and its Distance for Each Alternative THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet 210 Advertising Product Quality Price Competitiveness Customer Loyalty Market Share Customer Service Ecommerce Management Experience Branding 0.0183 0.0000 0.0061 0.0061 0.1131 0.0000 0.0377 0.0377 0.0000 0.0185 0.0369 0.0185 0.0541 0.0000 0.0271 0.0000 0.0144 0.0000 0.0072 0.0000 0.0894 0.0000 0.0447 0.0223 0.0065 0.0000 0.0032 0.0000 0.0421 0.0000 0.0280 0.0000 0.0511 0.0000 0.0256 0.0000 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 8: Computations of AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method (CC) Firm CC THY Onur Air Pegasus Atlasjet 0.8211 0.0977 0.4631 0.2620 5. Conclusion In this study, the AHP weighted TOPSIS methodology has been employed as an alternative to the conventional TOPSIS approach. When AHP weighted TOPSIS approach has been implemented, the Turkish Airlines has been identified as the most suitable company, Pegasus the runner-up, Atlasjet the third, and Onur Air the fourth (Table 8). This research finding indicated that the Turkish Airlines preserved its dominant role even after its privatization and new entrants in the domestic airline industry. It is worthy of noting that Pegasus though newly founded air carrier could intensify the competition in the sector and become a serious rival for the Turkish Airlines in the coming years. References Bellman, B.E., Zadeh, L.A. (1970). Decision-making in a fuzzy environment. Management Science 17 (4), 141–164. Chin, K. S., Chiu, S. , Tummala, V. M. R. (1999). An evaluation of success factors using the AHP to implement ISO 14001- based ESM, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 16, 4, pp. 341-361. Chu, T. C., & Lin, Y. C. (2003). A fuzzy TOPSIS method for robot selection. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 21, 284–290. Hwang, C.L. and Yoon, K. (1981). Multiple Attribute Decision Making: Methods and Applications. Berlin: Springer Saaty, T.L. (1980). The Analytical Hierarchy Process. Mc. Graw-Hill, New York, NY. 211 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 193 Title A name given to the resource Analysing Business Competition by Using AHP Weighted TOPSIS Method: An Example of Turkish Domestic Aviation Industry Author Author ZAİM, Halil ŞANAL, Mehmet TORLAK, Nuri Gökhan ZAİM, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. The article uses AHP weighted TOPSIS multi-methodological approach in the Turkish domestic aviation industry. It starts by describing exceedingly complex nature of competition in the sector. Then, it deals with the constituent parts of the research methodology and the eclectic approach itself. The implementation of AHP weighted TOPSIS method reveals the ranking of major air carriers in light of key success variables in the sector Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory