327 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cffdca89b7cb7a2a40fa1b3ceb4434ca.docx 3ddd185458d898e02c7e421713a33fe7 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/16cc0b0e3f26b27d97c5f32182d36748.pdf 77a276bcedcd5577d9ddf28af19f0be8 PDF Text Text TÜRKİYEDE 1992-1995 TARİHLERİ ARASINDA YAYINLANAN DERGİLERDEKİ BOSNA KONULU ŞİİRLER Kürşad KARA Bayburt Üniversitesi, Bayburt / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk Edebiyatı, Süreli Yayın, Dergi, Bosna Şiiri. ÖZET Bosna Savaşı, Bosna-Herek’te 1 Mart 1992 tarihinden 14 Aralık 1995 tarihine kadar sürmüş olan bir savaştır. Farklı bir coğrafyada meydana gelen ama aynı kültür coğrafyasında olan bizlerin bu savaşa karşı duruşumuzu edebiyat açısından ele alarak iki ayrı mekânda bulunan aynı kültürün insanlarının ortak acısı olan Bosna Savaşını Türk edebiyatındaki yansımasını ortaya çıkarmaya çalıştık. Türkiye o tarihlerde çıkan süreli yayınlarda (dergi) yayınlanmış Bosna temalı şiirler tespit edilip Türk Edebiyatında şiir türünde Bosna Savaşı teması ele alınmış ve süreli yayınlar aracılığıyla Türk halkının Bosna Dramı hakkındaki duyguları açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Edebiyat tarihle ilişki içerisinde olduğu vakit zamanın hem tanıklığını yapar hem de kaydını tutar. Tutulan bu kayıtlara ulaşıldığında geçmiş günlerin panoraması gözlemlenebilecektir. Savaşın çirkin yüzünü dile getireceğimiz zaman bu kaynaklara dönülerek bir bağ kurulmuştur. Bu savaşın etkileri başka bir ülke edebiyatında ne sıklıkla yer bulduğu dile getirilmiştir. Araştırma yöntemi kullanılarak elde edilen bulgular sayısal veriler izah edilmiş. Bütün dergilere ulaşmanın zorluğu göz önüne alınarak ortalama bir dergi sayısına ulaşılıp tümevarım uygulanmış ve toplam kaç adet şiir yayımlandığı veri olarak sunulmuştur. Bir ülkenin yaşadığı bir savaşın etkilerinin başka bir ülkenin edebiyatında bir tür ele alınarak incelenmiş ve Bosna halkının Türkiye vatandaşlarına ve Türk edebiyatına karşı ilgisi artırılmaya çalışılmıştır. Kaynaşan iki halkın ortak değerler üretme adına küçük de olsa bir adım atılması sağlanmıştır. Şiirlerin yer aldığı süreli yayınlar(dergiler): İcmal Dergisi, Diyanet Aylık Dergi, Çınar Gençlik Dergisi, Güneysu Dergisi, Ağla Çınarım Ağla, Yedi İklim, Tını, Mürşid Dergisi, Sabır, Türk Edebiyat Dergisi, Milli Folklor Dergisi, Türk Yurdu Gençlik Dergisi, Seda Dergisi, Palandöken, Bizim Dergâh Dergisi, Ümit Dergisi, İcmal Dergisi, Sızıntı, İslami Edebiyat Dergisi � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5a532acaf915e7c9d608bbe5a0dc7ef2.docx d8ae2ccf84b66726adc060e30a3a4953 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f1dccbd29c7c008822778eb1df565489.pdf 45ab981d105870ded7e9bac547814d32 PDF Text Text “TÜRKİYE’DE 1992-1995 YILLARI ARALIĞINDA DERGİLERDE YAYINLANAN BOSNA TEMALI ŞİİRLER” Kürşad KARA1 Özet Süreli yayınlar belirli aralıklarla yayımlanan dergi, gazete gibi yayınlardır. Araştırmacılar için vazgeçilmez kaynaklardır ve yaygın bir okuma aracıdır. Edebiyat tarihi olaylarla iç içe olduğunda zamanın hem tanıklığını yapar hem de kaydını tutar. Tutulan bu kaynaklara ulaşıldığında geçmişin panoraması gözlemlenebilir. Bosna savaşı, üç yıldan fazla sürmüş ve bu süre içinde büyük acılar yaşanmıştır. Savaşın etkileri Türkiye‟de de hissedilmiş ve derin bir üzüntü duyulmuştur. Türk halkının hissettiği bu derin acıların etkisi şiirlerde de görülmüştür. Yazılan her şiir Türk halkının belleğinde, vicdanında yer etmiş ve edebiyat sayesinde, şiir sayesinde halklar arasında ortak bir dayanışma köprüsü kurulmuştur. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye‟de yayınlanan dergilerin 1992-1995 yılları aralığı eldeki imkânlar doğrultusunda taranmaya çalışılarak Bosna Savaşının şiirlere nasıl ve ne yoğunlukta yansıtıldığı incelenecek, seçilen örnek metinler üzerinden Bosna temalı şiirlerin genel özellikleri aktarılacaktır. Tarihi olayların edebiyatla ilişkisi açıklanacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk Edebiyatı, Süreli Yayın(dergi), Bosna, Şiir “BOSNIA-THEMED POETRY IN TURKEY PUBLISHED IN JOURNALS BETWEEN 1992 and 1995” Abstract Periodicals, such as magazines and newspapers, are publications that are published regularly. They are essential sources for researchers and they provide a common means of reading. When it is intertwined with history, literature both keeps track and makes witness of time. Through these resources held, a panorama of the past can be observed. The war in Bosnia lasted more than three years with great suffering. The effects of the war were also felt in Turkey with a deep sorrow. The reflections of Turkish people‟s regret can be seen in poetry. Each and every poem written left a mark in the conscience and memory of Turkish people, and through literature and poetry a common bridge of solidarity between two peoples was established. In this work, journals published in Turkey between 1992-1995 will be scanned within the avaliable resources, and how and to what extent the war in Bosnia was reflected in poetry 1 Bayburt Üniversitesi, kursadkara08@hotmail.com �will be examined, and general characteristics of Bosnia-themed poems will be explained through selected texts. Relationship between historical events and literature will be described. Key Words: Turkish Literature, Periodicals (magazines), Bosnia, Poetry Giriş 1992 yılında Sırpların başlattığı savaş, 1995 yılına kadar sürmüş ve büyük trajediler doğurmuştur. Bu savaş tarihi bir olay olmakla birlikte birçok alanda etkisini göstermiştir. Tarihi veriler tarihçilere bırakılarak bu çalışmada Türk edebiyatı sahasında şiir türündeki eserler üzerinde savaşın etkileri irdelenmeye çalışılacaktır. Ünlü edebiyat tarihçisi ve teorisyeni Lanson, edebiyatı toplumun yansıması olarak düşünür. Lanson, edebiyat tarihinin, edebiyat-hayat arasındaki bağlantıya da vurgu yaptığını söyler. Bu yargıdan hareketle şairler, yaşadıkları ruh iklimi itibariyle kolektif kimliğin temsilini üstlenirler. Herkesin hissedip de anlatamadıklarını onlar dile getirirler ve halkın “işte bu” diye kendisini içinde bulduğu hissiyatı ortaya koyarlar. (Bostancı, 2007: 18) Dergilerde şiirleri yayınlanan şairler, bizlere o dönemlerde ekran başında hissedip de anlatamadığımız hisleri anlatarak farklı bir coğrafyada meydana gelen acıya tercüman olmuşlardır. Coğrafyalarımız farklı olsa da aynı kültür havzası içinde olduğumuzu hatırlatırcasına şiirlerini yazmıştır. Dergilerin 1992-1995 yılları aralığındaki sayılarında, yüze yakın Bosna temalı şiir tespit edilmiştir. Bu şiirlerin varlığı Türk edebiyatının o dönemin şahitliğini yaptığını göstermektedir. Elde edilen şiirlerde Bosna savaşındaki süreç aktarılmaya çalışılmıştır. Bosna teması yoğunlukla “acı”, “hüzün”, “Bosna için yapılan temenniler” “umutsuzluk” “vefasızlık”, “çaresizlik” bağlamında ele alınmıştır. Ancak savaşın edebiyata kaynak olması ve nitelikli bir savaş edebiyatının meydana gelmesi, insanların savaşa verdikleri „değerden‟ dolayı zor olmaktadır. Şöyle ki insanlar, tarih içerisinde savaş karşısında tarafsız olamamışlar, hadise daha ziyade var olma-yok olma meselesi şeklinde cereyan etmiştir. Bu duygusal konumlanma, malzemeyi öne çıkarmış, estetik anlatım biçimini, arkada bırakmıştır.(Coşkun, 2010:4) İncelenen dergilerin birçoğu Türkiye‟de bugün bile takip edilen ulusal nitelikte dergilerdir. Örneğin: Türk Edebiyatı, Yedi İklim, Milli Folklor, İslami Edebiyat, Sızıntı, İcmal, Türk Yurdu vb. Bunun yanı sıra ulusal hüviyette olmayan ama yayıncıları tarafından posta yolu ile her bölgeye ulaştırılabilen dergiler de incelenmiştir: Çınar, Gençlik, Mürşid, Seda, Ağla Çınarım Ağla, Sabır, Palandöken, Ümit, Bizim vb. Üzerinde çalışılan dergilerdeki şiirlerin niceliğinden daha çok niteliği üzerinde duracağız. Bunların isimlerinin hepsini burada 2 �saymak ve şiirlerin bütününden bahsetmek bildirinin hacmini genişleteceğinden tümevarım yöntemiyle çıkarımlarda bulunulacaktır. Tespit edilen şiirlere başlıklarından yola çıkarak bakacak olursak Bosna temasının hangi detaylarla işlendiğini görebiliriz: Yusuf Hadi Özgün, “Bosna ve Ben” adlı şiirinde “ve” bağlacıyla adeta Bosna‟ya kendini bağlamış, Bosna ile eş değer öge olmuştur. “Bosnalı Güzeller”, “Bosnalı Asker”, “Bosnalı Annem” şiirleri, Türkiye‟deki her bir güzelin, askerin, annenin gönül teline dokunarak Bosna acısını toplumun birçok katmanına nüfus ettirmiştir. “Bosnalı Çocukların Türküsü” , “Şu Dağın Ardında Bosnalı Çocuk” şiirleri savaşlarda en çok mağdur olan çocukların, acılarını ve savaştaki durumlarını gözler önüne sermiştir. Savaşta verilen destansı mücadeleye karşılık “Bosna Hersek Destanı” yazılmıştır. Ayrıca Âşık Hasan hissettiği acıyı, “Bosna Dramı” adlı şiirinde, Mehmet Çınarlı, içimizdeki yarayı “Bosna Yarası” adlı şiirinde dile getirmiştir. Hissedilen acılar mısra mısra yüreklere nakşedilmiştir. Türkülerin kahreder beni Anarım iki hecelik adını Bilsen… Nasıl erir içim …….. Hissederim acını Kararır gözümde dünya Yüklenir ahın kalbimi Kaldıramam … Lokma aşmaz boğazımdan Düşünürüm Sayıklarım uykumda adını Bosna ……..( Bütün, 1993: 45) Şiirlerin genelini bu bağlamda incelediğimizde “Bosna Teması” en ince detaylara kadar şiirleştirilmiştir. Saraybosna yanar bağrım kavrulur Korların üstüne karlar savrulur Çınarlar fidanlar dallar devrilir Akan gözyaşımdan arlanıyorum Feryad kâr etmiyor darlanıyorum ( Akarsu, 1993: 15) 3 �Bosna Savaşı‟nın acısının, adeta savaşa yakılan bir ağıt olarak Türk şiirine taşındığına şahit oluruz. (Coşkun, 2010:4) Ağıt sözcüğü, ağlamak, “ağmak” fiili ile ilişkilendirildiğinde acı, feryat, ağlaşma ve haykırışların yükselmesi anlamına gelir. ( Aslan, 2008:155) Acısının ağıtını yakan şairlerin şiirleri, dergilerde yerini alıyor, okuyan herkesin acısının iniltisi beliriyordu. Sızılarımızın bin yıllık olduğu özellikle vurgulanarak duygu bağımızın tarihi yönü de belirtilmek isteniyor, Balkan tarihinin acı yönü de hatırlatılıyordu. Balkanlar‟dan koparılmış gülümü Kınarım ahh; mezar gibi sessizim Leyla bir aldanış Batı ufkundan Kanarım ahh; çöller kadar ıssızım Boğar beni bu Leyla‟nın düğümü Depreşir kalbimde bin yıllık sızım Çaresizim, kararsızım, yalnızım Sanki ölesiye ihtiyarım, oyy Bu benim en kanlı intiharım, oyy (Genç, 1992: 20-21) Şiir, varlığın ve varoluşun sesidir. Eğer şiir, en derin metafizik kaygıları olduğu kadar en güncel politik istekleri de dile getirebiliyorsa, bu; hem toplumsal etkinliğimize hem de tinsel beklentilerimize ait oluşundandır. (Oktay, 2008: 13) Şair içini çektikçe Bosna‟da var olan acıyı duyar ve yazdığı “Kefaret” adlı şiirle bütün acılara, yaşanmışlara bir bedel olarak sunar. Her bir dize haykırışın, sıkıntıların adıdır. Yazılan şiirler adeta çaresizliğe bir kefaret olmuştur. Bir yarayım ben asla onulmaz Ara sıra insanların – siz insanların Meclisine sokulmaya çalışan Buz tutan soluğum İçimin üşüyen yanlarını Resmetmekte zorlanmakta. Gülümseyen her çocuğun Kesik kollarını. Hatta öncesini bilmemesi Kefaretidir yüzümden silinmeyen zulmün. (Atlansoy, 1993:7) 4 �Bazı şiirler, bazı şarkılar çoğu zaman bilinçsiz, derin bir ortak duygusallığı ifade edebilirler ve ona bazen törenlerde ya da ortak gösterilerde, bazen köklerinde gerçekten tarihsel olayların bulunduğu „düşünce akımları‟nda veya „düşünce hareketleri‟nde kendini ifade etme olanağı verirler. Edebiyat, ruhların çok derinliklerinde bazı ilk örnek imajları yeniden canlandırdığı için, ortak şuuraltının olasılıklarını güncelleştirir ve onlara bir dinamizm verir. (Michaud, 2004:66) Savaş boyunca, Türkiye‟de yaşayan insanlar okudukları şiirlerin etkisiyle kilometrelerce uzaktaki acıları hissetmeye çalışmıştır. Kalabalıklara seslerini duyurmaya çalışan şairler, çağın çaresizliğini acizlik içinde karanlıklara haykırmışlardır. Açıldı kapandı kanatları Çırpındı darağacında ufkun Yaralı bir kuş gibi akşam. Islak sabahlara yürüdü bulutlar Büyüdü başım, Gölgesine sığındım da saçlarımın Ağladım. Kalbimdi, kanamıştı. Ve rüzgârlı gecenin ortasına Sımsıcak düştü buzdan heykeli acının Şehrin iniltili yorgun bedenine Damar damar kasıldı sokaklar, Ürkmüş bir sessizliğe yayıldı renkleri Bütün çiçeklerin. Yerden göğe bir göğüs Upuzun uyudum. İçimde uğultusu akıl almaz kalabalıkların. (Budak, 1992:33) Şiirin bilim ve felsefeden daha çok insani bir faaliyet olduğunu belirtir Heidegger. Şiirsel edimler dünyaya nevi şahsına mahsus açılımlar getirir. Şiirsel edimler, insanın dünyadaki duruşunu değiştirir. (Poyraz, 2007:149) Şiirin insani bir faaliyet oluşu, Bosna temalı şiirlerle yaşanan acıları şairlerin Türkiye gündemine getirmesiyle ispatlanmıştır. Yaşanan acılar başka yüreklere taşınmış, verilen mücadele destanlaşmış, ortak bir tarihimiz olduğu dile getirilerek derin bağlar kurulmaya çalışılmıştır. 5 �Savaş döneminde Bosna‟ya yapılan haksız uygulamalar büyük adaletsizlikleri de beraberinde getirmiştir. Çift taraflı uygulanan yaptırımlar daha çok Bosna aleyhine gelişmiş ve bu durum büyük sıkıntılar doğurmuştur. Bu haksızlığa karşı şairler Bosna‟nın safında kendilerini konuşlandırmıştır. Bir yanım Bosna – Hersek, Bir yanım Karabağ‟dır Umut önümde sırat, Umut önümde dağdır. (Subaşı, 1993:18) Aliya İzzetbegoviç, 1994 Eylül‟ünde Birleşmiş Milletler Genel Kurul Toplantısında Bosna‟yı şu cümlelerle tanımlar: Bosna olarak adlandırdığımız şey, yalnızca Balkanlar‟da bir toprak parçası değildir. Çoğumuz için Bosna sadece vatan değildir, Bosna bir ideolojidir. Farklı din, millet, farklı kültür ve geleneklere ait insanların beraber yaşayabilme inancıdır, der. (Trnka, 2008: 47) Bu tanım Türk edebiyatında da anlam kazanmıştır. Şairler Bosna‟yı özgürlüğün ideolojisi yapmış, özgürlük Bosna üzerinden yeniden tanımlanmıştır. Biz yani Boşnak bakışlı çocuklar Rüyalar görürüz cennete dair Ruhumuzda karanfiller açar Karanfil bahçesidir Bosna‟mız (Akar, 1993: 25) Savaşın en acı taraflarından bir tanesi de vefasızlıktır. O dönem Bosna‟ya gereken yardım yapılamamıştır. Aliya Dedo‟nun savaş döneminde söylediği “Düşmanlarımız burada! Dostlarımız nerede?” feryadı vefasızlığı gözler önüne sermektedir. Bu vefasızlığı dizelerine taşıyan şair, bir şehidin diliyle duygularını dile getirmiş ve bir Boşnak‟ın, bütün dünyaya inat, yaşama sevincini bizlerle paylaşmıştır. Yıkıldım sıcacık kanım üstüne İsterim ki, Bosna‟nın gülleri Damlasın yüzüme, bu Umutsuzluk değil hüzün Ellerinizi aradım Yoktunuz İşte toprağa koyuyorum canımı Bütün dünyaya inat gülümsüyorum (Göçer, 1992:23) 6 �Vefasızlık başka bir şiirde daha acı bir lisanla anlatılmaktadır. Bosna‟ya yağan yağmurların halini gören şairimiz yağmurların tercümanı olup hislerini dile getirir. Yağmurlar yağıp yağıp geri döndüler Sığınacak bir yer aradılar yeryüzünde, evlerin çatılarını, elbiselerini, suratımı, el değmedik, en görülmedik mağaraları suların ıslatamadığı karanlıkları yokladılar kimseler açmadı onlara kapılarını yağmurlar yağıp yağıp geri döndüler (Uysal, 1992:12) Bu sessizlik, açılmayan kapılar, suların ıslatamadığı karanlıklar, yeryüzünde bulunamayan yerler sonuçta bir dramı ortaya koyuyordu. Dili bağlanmış çocuklara gül yetmez Kurumuş gözyaşlarına sabır, Çatlamış ayaklarına acımak, Sırtına yapışmış karnına dua… Ellerinden alınan oyuncakları değil barış Geri gelmeyecek peri masalı… (Ünlü, 1992: 37) Bu vefasızlık içinde vatanı için şehit olmuş Bosnalılar da unutulmamış, Ali Göçerin dizeleriyle anılmıştır. Her şehit savaşın gerçek tanığıdır. Onların verdikleri mücadele adeta resmedilmiştir. Bosna için yapılan fedakârlığın zirve noktasına ulaşılmış ve canlar birer birer toprağa düşmüştür. Bosna‟nın dağları dumandır, kardır. Mü‟minin sükûtu sade vakardır. Orda Osmanlı‟nın kokusu vardır Yüksekte olmalı iman yüksekte! Her şehit bir tohum, Bosna Hersek‟te (Çelen, 1993: 21) Bosna‟daki feryadı bizlere duyurmaya çalışan Âşık Türki karşılık verilmeyen çığlıkların şiirini yazar. Sabrı tavsiye eder, bir gün Bosna‟ya kavuşacağımızı söyler. Âşığımız aslında o dönemde farkında olmadan bir vazifeyi de yapmış olur. Yazdığı şiir, bizim gönüllerimizden başka gönüllere ulaşan bir yol olur. Bugün burada bulunmamız gönül köprülerinin işe yaradığını göstermektedir. 7 �Ağlama güzel kız yarını bekle Evlad-ı fatihan devrini bekle Çok çağlar değişir sabır ekmekle Yine ulaşırız Bosna‟ya burdan Serden geçeriz de geçmeyiz yardan (Türki, 1992:38) Dramı anlatan şiirlerin yanı sıra geleceğe dair ümitli olmamızı dile getiren şiirler de yazılır. Bunlar âdete zafere götüren birer reçetedir. Yapılacak ilk iş tarihin derinliklerden alınacak güç, bugüne taşınmalıdır. Tarihi değerlerimizi zafer adına hatırlama vaktidir. İbrahimler hatırlanarak mücadeleyi İbrahim‟ce sürdüren “Bilge Kral‟ın yaptıkları, mücadelesi haykırılmalıdır. Gelecek nesillerin önüne aynı idealin fertleri olduğumuz en açık bir şekilde konmalıdır. Nemrut bakışlar keser yolumuzu Ölüm-kalıma yürür talihimiz Tut ki binlerce nemruda karşı biz yapayalnız birer İbrahimiz (Şimşek, 1993:11) Bütün sonlar gibi Bosna‟nın da sonunun hayırlı olması adına dillerde tek bir ses duyulur. En umutsuz anlarda dua büyük bir ibadet olur. Yazılan şiirler dua makamındadır artık. Yapılan dirilişe destek olma adına, kendi adına, bütün şairler adına, bütün şehitler adına, yıkılamayan güzellikler adına, Bosnalılar adına “Son Dua” adlı şiirle duayı şair Yüksel Peker yapar: yeter! demek vakti gelip geçmişse çoktan şöyle bir silkinip yürüsek altmışmilyon Endülüsle yaşamış Endülüsü yaşayan Son Boşnak düşmeden toprağa (Peker, 1993:19) 8 �Sonuç olarak; savaş yıllarında Türk edebiyatı reflekslerini hayattan yana koymuştur ve acılara karşı duyarsız kalmamıştır. Ortaya çıkan eseler halklar arasında ortak bir duygu yoğunluğunu yansıtmaktadır. Edebi eserlerimiz incelendikçe kara sınırı olmayan milletlerin gönül sınırları gün yüzüne çıkmış olacaktır. KAYNAKÇA: AKAR, Ali (1993), “Bakışlı Çocuklar”, Türk Edebiyatı Dergisi, Şubat 1993, S.232, s. 25. AKARSU, Kamil (1993), “Bosna Bosna”, Çınar Gençlik Dergisi, Temmuz 1993, S. 26, s.15. ASLAN, Ensar (2008), Türk Halk Edebiyatı, Ankara, Maya Akademi Yayınları, s. 155. ATLANSOY, Hüseyin (1993), “Kefaret”, Yedi İklim Dergisi, Şubat 1993, S.35, s.7. BOSTANCI, Naci (2007), “Mehmet Akif Ersoy‟u Bilmek Anlamak” 70 Yıl Sonra Mehmet Akif Ersoy Bilgi Şöleni, Ankara, Türkiye Yazarlar Birliği Yayınları, s.18. BUDAK, Ali (1992), “Akşamdan Sabaha Örsünde Zamanın”, Türk Edebiyatı Dergisi, Kasım 1992, S.229, s.33. BÜTÜN, Zeynep (1993), “Bosna‟yı Yaşarım Düşümde”, Bizim Dergâh Dergisi, Ocak 1993, S.57, s.45. COŞKUN, Sezai (2010), “ Savaş-Edebiyat İlişkisi Bağlamında Bosna Savaşı‟nın Türk Şiirine Yansıması”, International Symposium on Sustainable Development, International Burch University, (Sunumu Yapılmış Bildiri), Haziran 2010, s.4. ÇELEN, Ahmet(1993), “Bosna-Hersek Destanı”, Tepe Edebiyat Dergisi, Ocak 1993, S.24, s.21. GENÇ, Nurullah (1992), “Bosna- Hersek Ağıdı”, Sabır Dergisi, Eylül 1992, S.3, s:20-21. GÖÇER, Ali (1992), “Kuşlar Çığlık Attı Ağaçlar Ürperdi Vurdular Balkan Kızını”, Yedi İklim Dergisi, Eylül 1992, S.30, s.23. MİCHAUD, Guym (2004), “Bir Disiplin Olarak Edebiyat Sosyolojisinin Kurulması”, Edebiyat Gönül Kürede, Edebiyat Sosyolojisi, Ankara, Hece Yayınları, s.66. OKTAY, Ahmet (2008), İmkânsız Poetika, İstanbul, İthaki Yayınları, s.13. PEKER, Yüksel (1993), “Son Dua”, Yedi İklim Dergisi, Mayıs 1993, S.38, s.19. POYRAZ, Hakan (2007), “Model ve Teklif”, Mehmet Akif, Türkiye‟de Modernleşme ve Gençlik Bilgi Şöleni, Ankara, Türkiye Yazarlar Birliği Vakfı Mehmet Akif Araştırmaları Yayınları, s.149. SUBAŞI, M. İlyas (1993), “Hüzün Coğrafyası”, Türk Edebiyatı Dergisi, Mart 1993, S.233, s.18. 9 �TACETTİN, Şimşek (1993),“Kan Ektim Küllerine”, Palandöken Dergisi, Mart 1993,S.4, s.11. TRNKA, Kasım (2010), “Aliya İzzetbegoviç: Bosna Hersek‟in Devlet Olma Mücadelesi”, Uluslararası Aliya İzzetbegoviç Sempozyumu, 2010, Bağcılar Belediyesi Yayınları, s.47. TÜRKİ Âşık (1992), “Çığlıklar Yarım Kaldı”, Milli Folklor Dergisi, Kış 1992, S.16, s,38. UYSAL, Ali (1992), “Yağmurlara Dair Söz”, Yedi İklim Dergisi, Aralık 1992, S.33, s. 12. ÜNLÜ, Özcan (1992), “Bosna‟da Dram”, Türk Edebiyatı Dergisi, Kasım 1992, S.229, s. 37. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2311 Title A name given to the resource TÜRKİYEDE 1992-1995 TARİHLERİ ARASINDA YAYINLANAN DERGİLERDEKİ BOSNA KONULU ŞİİRLER Author Author KARA, Kürşad Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk Edebiyatı, Süreli Yayın, Dergi, Bosna Şiiri. ÖZET Bosna Savaşı, Bosna-Herek’te 1 Mart 1992 tarihinden 14 Aralık 1995 tarihine kadar sürmüş olan bir savaştır. Farklı bir coğrafyada meydana gelen ama aynı kültür coğrafyasında olan bizlerin bu savaşa karşı duruşumuzu edebiyat açısından ele alarak iki ayrı mekânda bulunan aynı kültürün insanlarının ortak acısı olan Bosna Savaşını Türk edebiyatındaki yansımasını ortaya çıkarmaya çalıştık. Türkiye o tarihlerde çıkan süreli yayınlarda (dergi) yayınlanmış Bosna temalı şiirler tespit edilip Türk Edebiyatında şiir türünde Bosna Savaşı teması ele alınmış ve süreli yayınlar aracılığıyla Türk halkının Bosna Dramı hakkındaki duyguları açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Edebiyat tarihle ilişki içerisinde olduğu vakit zamanın hem tanıklığını yapar hem de kaydını tutar. Tutulan bu kayıtlara ulaşıldığında geçmiş günlerin panoraması gözlemlenebilecektir. Savaşın çirkin yüzünü dile getireceğimiz zaman bu kaynaklara dönülerek bir bağ kurulmuştur. Bu savaşın etkileri başka bir ülke edebiyatında ne sıklıkla yer bulduğu dile getirilmiştir. Araştırma yöntemi kullanılarak elde edilen bulgular sayısal veriler izah edilmiş. Bütün dergilere ulaşmanın zorluğu göz önüne alınarak ortalama bir dergi sayısına ulaşılıp tümevarım uygulanmış ve toplam kaç adet şiir yayımlandığı veri olarak sunulmuştur. Bir ülkenin yaşadığı bir savaşın etkilerinin başka bir ülkenin edebiyatında bir tür ele alınarak incelenmiş ve Bosna halkının Türkiye vatandaşlarına ve Türk edebiyatına karşı ilgisi artırılmaya çalışılmıştır. Kaynaşan iki halkın ortak değerler üretme adına küçük de olsa bir adım atılması sağlanmıştır. Şiirlerin yer aldığı süreli yayınlar(dergiler): İcmal Dergisi, Diyanet Aylık Dergi, Çınar Gençlik Dergisi, Güneysu Dergisi, Ağla Çınarım Ağla, Yedi İklim, Tını, Mürşid Dergisi, Sabır, Türk Edebiyat Dergisi, Milli Folklor Dergisi, Türk Yurdu Gençlik Dergisi, Seda Dergisi, Palandöken, Bizim Dergâh Dergisi, Ümit Dergisi, İcmal Dergisi, Sızıntı, İslami Edebiyat Dergisi Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e3ba716c5ce75325ebc136188955901.pdf 48caccc9cb01b0c66a6947539791641c PDF Text Text TURNING THE CRISIS INTO OPPORTUNITY: CASE OF BANVİT Mustafa Tok Suleyman Sah University Turkey 110201049@st.ssu.edu.tr Erhan Atay Suleyman Sah University Turkey eatay@ssu.edu.tr Abstract: Uncertainty is rapidly increasing in fast-changing world. With each moment we are faced with various crisis and uncertainties. Today, crises have become an important part of our lives. It is same for the organizations. That is why preventing the crisis before it starts, exiting from the crisis with minimum damage and effectively managing crisis has become a main object of the organizations. In this research firstly; crisis, its reasons and effects are tried to be explained and identified. After that crisis management and its processes are examined and tried to be identified. In second part of this study we are going to examine Banvit Bandırma Vitaminli Yem Sanayi Ticaret A.Ş. Şirket. We will try to examine and understand the organization’s reaction to crisis (avian influenza), how they handle it and how a crisis can be turn into an opportunity. 1. Introduction Crisis is the most important factor that affects the production and marketing strategies of organizations. Production and demand drops significantly during the crisis time. In global world; political instability, wars, technological innovations, socio-cultural and political changes effect the organizations anywhere in the world. Although some researchers say that the biggest features of the crisis are emerging suddenly and occur an unexpected time, some crisis can be recognized, but ıf organizations cannot foresee upcoming events and improvements or cannot manage the situation, they will face crisis a lot. In order the prevent crisis, organizations need to develop strong crisis management procedures and make preparation for possible crisis. 2. Scope and Methods of the Study This case study was made on Banvit (Bandırma Vitaminli Yem Sanayi Ticaret A.Ş. Şirket). Data were obtained for 2005. Secondary data is used. Main information source is the data from the company and it is also used newspapers’ articles and corporate’s website. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 203 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) 3. Purpose of the Study Purpose of the study is to understand how crisis begins, develop and what should organizations do in order to stop and turn the crisis into an opportunity or avoid crisis with minimum damage. Banvit has been selected as example organization in order to understand the process of crisis and its management. Banvit is a feed and poultry producer that founded in Bandırma, western Turkey. They started as a feed producer in 1968 and moved into the production of broiler chickens in 1985. Today Banvit is the largest single broiler producer in Turkey. 4. LITERATURE REVIEW 4.1. Crisis Today, there are lots of definitions for crisis. The word crisis means ‘extraordinary and adverse event’, ‘difficult situation that undesirable and hard to avoid, ‘complex phase of a work or an event’ ‘suddenly emerged deterioration and dangerous moment’(Tutar, 2011: 13). In Oxford dictionary, definition of crisis is ‘‘time of intense difficult or danger’’. (http:// www.oxforddictionaries.com/). In Turkish Language Society defines crisis as ‘it is hard time, depression, of society or organization’s life in a country or between the countries’(http://tdk.gov.tr/). Organizational sense, crisis threatens the existence and purpose of the organization(Sezgin, 181). In this respect, there were made some definition about what crisis means for organizations. According to Tağraf, ‘Crisis is unexpected and unforeseen situation which threatens the current value and purposes of the organization’(Tağraf & Arslan, 2003: 150). Güler defines crisis as; ‘Crisis is an unexpected situation that can occur at anytime and it limits the organization’s way of doing business’(Güler & Yılmaz, 2009: 88). Coombs’s definition is ‘‘Crisis is the perception of an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of stockholders related to health, safety, environmental and economic issues and can seriously impact an organization’s performance and generate negative outcomes’’(Coombs, 2014: 3). In systematic approach ‘‘Crisis is seen as critical change in important variables that endanger or destroy either part of or the entire system’’(Glasser, 2006: 11), and Devlin describes it as, ‘‘Crisis is unstable time for an organization, with a distinct possibility for an undesirable outcome’’(Devlin, 2006: 5). Another definition is, ‘Crisis is the situation of tension which is not expected and predicted, and which threatens the prevention and adoption mechanisms of the organization’(Baran, 2001: 26). So, by looking at these definitions we can say that, crisis is a crucial situation that has to be handled quickly and in proper way before it turns into disaster or catastrophe for the organization. 4.2. Causes of Crisis Many factors may bring out crisis in the organizations, but we can address them in two topics, one is internal factors, second one is external factors. 204 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation 4.2.1. External Factors The most important reason why organization is in the crisis is external environmental factors. External factors are the uncontrollable changes that occur outside of the organizations(Aymankuy, 2001: 107). ‘‘The external environment includes a wide variety of needs and influences that can affect the organization, but which the organization cannot directly control’’(McNamara, 2006: 143). These uncountable factors are; natural environmental factors such as earthquakes, fire, and flood. Socio-cultural factors like change of values in society, social turmoil and reduction of customer’s interest. Political factors, technological innovations and strong competition. 4.2.2. Internal Factors Internal factors are related to external factors. These problems occurs when organizations cannot adapt and response to the changing external environment(Erten, 2011: 8). Incompetent Top Managers; Incapable senior executives have weak estimation and intuition about organization’s future. Because of inability to understand differences of new problems and tendency to solve them in old way, denial of crisis(Baran, 2001: 29) and unqualified managers led organization to crisis(Yavaş, 2014: 16). Data Collection and Lack of Experience; Crisis situation is not always occur surprisingly, sometimes unqualified managers cannot see the early warning signals of upcoming threat. This situation may become a crisis in the future and it prevents the organization from taking precautions(Yavaş, 2014: 16). To prevent this situation, organization should gather information and evaluate them. These information needs to be; accurate, received in exact time, full (all data that the manager needs), short (for making fast decision) and relevant (information should reach the required place or manager(Akçe, 2005: 22). Organization’s Experience; Organizations can benefit from their past experiences in order to solve the crisis they are in(Yavaş,2014: 17), but generally, old experience is not suitable for new crisis and it requires new solutions(Baran, 2001: 29), so organizations should always consider new solutions for every possible threat that may occur in the future. Management’s Values, Benefits and Attitudes; Values and assumptions of the managers may in conflict with changing environment. This conflict may led organization to crisis(Yavaş, 2014: 17). The life Stage of Organization; Organization may be in any phase in its life (birth, growth, maturity, regress, collapse). In first three phase, organization face only predictable problems and in last two stage, mostly faces with fear of loss and it usually threatens the organization’s life span(Baran, 2001: 29). According to Greiner; organizations face leadership crisis in birth, devolution crisis at growth, bureaucracy crisis at maturity and need for resurgence at regress. If organization cannot overcome the regress it will collapse(Uzun, 2001: 38 in Şen, 2011: 20). ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 205 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Life Cycle of Business Source:http://thepresidentscouncil.org/are-you-sure-of-which-business-life-cyclestage-youre-in/ 4.3. Types of Crisis Origin of all type of crisis comes from technical, economic, social, legal, administrative, anthropogenic and communicative problems. Environmental and organizational factors are categorized as(Baran, 2001: 28); -Industrial Accidents -Financial Problems -Hand over -Recalled products -Natural Disasters -Service Disruptions -Environmental Problems -Shareholder Problems -Strike -Failure of Information System -Bankruptcy 4.4. Formation Process of Crisis Generally, crisis is defined as unexpected situation and it may occur anytime without giving a sign but it actually has a process. It is important the identification these processes to managing crisis effectively. 4.4.1. Inability to Recognize Interior and Exterior Signs (Blindness) At this stage, there are signals about the situation that threatens the organization’s aim and existence. Because of insufficient information flow in the organization(Demirtaş, 2000:361) managers cannot get enough information to take precaution. Taking the good results for granted, managers do not care the possible incoming crisis during precrisis period(Tağraf & Aslan, 2003: 151). However, when the severity of crisis increases, managerial and organizational problems become more obvious, and it may cause panic in management. 206 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation 4.4.2. Failing to Take Action and Unresponsiveness Phase In this phase, managers think that, danger or opportunity that emerged is temporary or cost of changing the current practice will be high(Baran, 2001: 31). Because of these thought, managers expect crisis to recover by itself or it is believed that the current situation can be resolved over time with temporary measures and standards(Tağraf & Arslan, 2003: 151). 4.4.3. Wrong Decisions and Activities In this stage, management recognizes that, there is a crisis in the organization. At this rate some problems occur in the organization such as lack of capital, decline in the market share and profitability, reduction of qualified staff and increasing centralization etc. this make uncertainty for the future and it prevents common views in the management(Akçe, 2005: 37). 4.4.4. Crisis Stage In this phase, if an organization fails to pass through first three stages and cannot adopt the changes, then crisis revealed and anger and bustle occurs in the management (Baran, 2001: 32). At crisis stage, organization may have not passed all of these processes (4.1, 4.2, and 4.3). At this stage, management should change organization’s purposes, strategies, structure, functions and personnel. However, if organization pass all of these process (4.1, 4.2, 4.3) then management should be changed(Sucu, 2000: 65). 4.4.5. Solution or Bankruptcy of the Organization Exit from the crisis, but if intervention is insufficient then it will decrease the chance of survival of the organization(Sucu, 2000: 66). 4.5. Result of the Crisis There will be two outcomes after the crisis. First one is negative results, second one is positive results. 4.5.1. Negative Effects of the Crisis Tendency of Centralization in Decisions; In crisis time, quick decision must be made by the managers. In order to make quick decision, power of authority must gather in the center(Şen, 2011: 31). The reason of gathering authority in the center is that crisis is corrupting the normal decision-making process in the lower management and top management wants to be informed all of the process(Özdevecioğlu, 2002: 99). That is why organizations are centralized in the time of crisis. Organizational Communication Corruption; In crisis situation, because of lack of time, and information, there will be tension in the whole organization from lower level to top management. The reason is that this information from outside of the organization is insufficient and because of insufficient information, there will be deficiency and disconnections within the organization. In time of crisis, information from outside of the organization might be inadequate or none. In that case, there might be a problem among decision makers, personnel and information processing in the ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 207 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) organization(Özdevecioğlu, 2002: 99). Deterioration of the Quality of Decisions; Making quick decisions only in head office impair the quality of decision. Because for quick responding, manager will decide by asking few managers or bosses. This cause poor communication and lack of information. So in this situation, manager cannot make good decision(Özdevecioğlu, 2002: 99). Psychological And Physiological Depression; Even crisis is abolished; still some members of the organization may not escape from effect of the crisis. Because even minor problems are perceived as a harbinger of the crisis during that time and it cause a feeling of shyness about making new ideas(Özdevecioğlu, 2002: 101). Increase in Self-Defense; In crisis time, all energy and attention focused on solution to overcome the crisis(Şen, 35 :2011), but after overcoming crisis, worker will begin to fear for the future because working at an organization in crisis is risky(Özdevecioğlu, 2002: 101). The Decline of Confidence between Employees and Top Management; Due to the centralization, number of empowered personnel will be decreased, so participation of employees will be reduced. Because of these reasons, there will be strong resistance to change among the employees (Şen, 35 :2011). 4.5.2. Positive Effects of the Crisis Emerging Of the Weaknesses of The Organization; Organizations usually do not revision their daily activities when everything is alright. They cannot see the problems or ignore the problems they discovered and they get used to it(Akçe, 2005: 28). However in the time of crisis, these problems attract the attentions. That is why we can say that, it is the positive effect of the crisis(Şen, 2011: 36). Development of Effective Strategies; Crisis must be recognized as soon as possible in order to minimize its effects. But to do so, it is not enough to use conventional methods(Akçe, 2005: 29). They need to develop new strategies. Otherwise, organizations cannot keep up with changes and cannot compete with competitors(Şen, 2005: 36). Establishing Teamwork and Discovery Of New Talents; If crisis handled with care, teams are created and some talented personnel might be found after the crisis, because in the time of crisis, management will create teams and some extra work will be given to lower and middle class managers by the top management. This extra works will improve the managers’ talents(Akçe, 2005: 28-29). Developing Effective Strategies; By establishing early warning system, organization can recognize exterior threats and opportunities. Organization can develop new strategies by looking at these threats and opportunities(Şen, 2005: 36). 4.6. Crisis Management The meaning of the crisis management in the Turkish Language Society (TDK) is, ‘it is a way of management in a troubled time (because of faulty production, raw material shortage, low quality, marketing, etc.) by the managers.’(http://tdk.gov.tr/). Every crisis requires immediate response. As in the definition of crisis, there are lots of definitions about crisis management. According to Tutar’s definition of crisis management, 208 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation ‘Instead of detecting problems early or taking steps for limiting the results of these problems, it is a reaction to problems after it occurs’(Tutar, 2011: 69). Akdağ defines crisis management as, ‘Crisis management is a public relation studies which is done in order to avoid damage to communicate with target audience and to prevent injuries to organization’s image’(Akdağ, 2005: 3). In a different definition, ‘‘Crisis management is a changing tasks and processes of the organization during the crisis time’’(Glasser, 2006: 22). Coombs describe it as, ‘‘Crisis management represents set of factors designed to combat crisis and to lessen the actual damage inflicted.’’(Coombs, 2014: 5). According to Devlin, ‘‘Crisis management was designed as special measures taken to solve problems caused by a crisis to confine or minimize any damage to the organization’s reputation or image.’’(Devlin, 2006: 1). 4.6.1. Pre-Crisis Management Pre-Crisis phase is one of the periods of crisis. For the organizations, primarily important thing is not to overcome the crisis(Ofluoğlu, 2001: 3). Pre-crisis management should make accurate forecast, necessary strategies and preparation before the crisis moment by noticing the early warnings and signs of incoming crisis(Demir, 2011: 31). Basic studies are required by the pre-crisis management: - Creating Strategies Establishing an early-warning system Making Crisis Management plan Establishing Crisis Management team 4.6.2. Crisis Moment Management Approaches for management during crisis and post-crisis period are very different from the pre-crisis stage(Babüroğlu, 1999: 6). During the crisis time, trying to solve the problem as if the organization is in under normal conditions will fail. (Ofluoğlu, 2001: 15). During this period, the decision taken should be more consistent and also should serve post-crisis period(Demir, 2011: 31). Crisis management during the crisis consist three phases(Demir, 2011: 32); - Crisis should be identified, emergency detection should be done. Organization should determine what kind of measures to be taken and related decision should be taken. The decision taken must be implemented, the process of implementation should be monitored and the results should be evaluated. 4.6.3. Post-Crisis Management The end of the crisis period is the period after the crisis, but the effects continue. The purpose of post-crisis management is to eliminate the behavior of feeling of insecurity, fear, fatigue and excessive reaction to even small problems(Erten, 2011: 32). Management prepares for the recurrence of the crisis. Organization tries to prevent crisis as much as possible but if occurs again, management determines urgent applications(Ofluoğlu, 2001: 24). ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 209 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) 4.7. Approaches There are 2 basic approaches which is the subject of crisis management (Dinçer, Ön.Ver. s.328 in Aymantkuy, 2001: 108); Avoiding Crisis; the main purpose here is to prevent organization go into crisis. In order to prevent and effectively manage the crisis, organizations should create mechanisms that collect and evaluate the crisis and make plans by evaluating the result of crisis signals(Erten, 2011: 23-24). Crisis Solving Approach; in case of facing possible crisis, it is a process of recognizing and evaluating early signals of crisis and taking necessary precautions and practice them at the right time ın order to overcome the crisis with minimal losses(Baran, 2001: 32). We saw the simple three-stage approach above (6.1, 6.2, 6.3), but in order to better understand stages of crisis it is tried to be explained Pearson and Mitroff’s five stage framework of crisis management at below(Pearson and Mitroff(1993) in Crandall & Spillan, 2009: 9-10); Source:http://www.slideshare.net/AnishaDahiya/understanding-crisismanagement-30380919 Signal Detection; sometimes crisis warns the organization before it occurs. By capturing these signals, organization can make preparation for the impending crisis. Preparation/Prevention; in this stage crisis management team make plan by looking the data obtained from phase of the crisis signal and attack the crisis that may occur. The purpose is preventing as many crises as possible and manage crisis that appear. Containment/Damage Limitation; the goal is to mitigate the effect of the crisis and kept damage minimum to organization and stakeholder. Recovery; the intention is to continue the activities of organization as normal as possible. Short-term recovery aims to get operations back to acceptable level. In long-term, it is expected that operational activities will be restored to their pre-crisis level or better. Learning; in this stage, organizations should not seek scapegoat or blame another party for the crisis. Instead of this, organizations should take lesson from the crisis and use this information to improve current operational problems and preventing future ones. 210 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation “An open system is a system that regularly exchanges feedback with its external environment. Open systems are systems, of course, so inputs, processes, outputs, goals, assessment and evaluation, and learning are all important”(McNamara, 2006: 143). Organizations are constantly interacting with the environment. This interaction is very important for the organizations. In the absence of inputs, there will be no output(Yalçınkaya, 2002: 105) so it means organizations cannot survive if they cannot sell outputs. Avian Influenza was a big environmental problem for white meat producers. One of the white meat producers Banvit is an open system organization and it was affected from that problematic environment. 5. Banvit Case Study Avian İnfluenza (bird flu) began to be seen in Far-East countries in 2003 and it spread to other countries by migratory birds1. This disease was seen in lots of countries including Europe and it affects the economies of these countries. Avian influenza emerged in October 5, 2005 for the first time in Turkey, it transmitted to 12 people and killed 4 of them and also it downsized Turkish poultry sector2.Banvit was one of the companies that were affected from this chaotic environment. Their sales came to a standstill and their stock prices declined. 1:http://www.mfa.gov.tr/avian-influenza-_kus-gribi_-hastaliginin-turk-ekonomisiuzerindeki-etkileri-.tr.mfa 2:http://www.kusgribi.gov.tr/TR/Genel/BelgeGoster. aspx?F6E10F8892433CFFAAF6AA849816B2EF3F93D97214554F97 5.1. Pre-crisis Period There had been many signals to be noticed before the crisis of avian influenza broke out. First of all, the occurrence of a disease in Far-East and the developments related to the risk that the disease might be spread by migratory birds were amongst these signals. This case put Turkey in potentially risky position. In this step, their priority was preventing crisis or managing the crisis with minimum damage by evaluating the early signals of crisis. With this respect, the works of Banvit in Pre-Crisis period were: Company Meetings Executive committee, in which also the directors of corporate development and communications are included, met in stated meeting every Friday. There had been exchange of information, situation assessment and risk analyses in these meetings. Developments related to the avian influenza in Far-East countries have been followed and the studies of World Health Organization have been examined. Informing the employees Live Production Director, who manages the core of production (breeding farms), and veterinary surgeon and breeders came together at educational meetings. People at the meeting were informed about avian influenza, bio-security measures and disinfection system in case the virus spread to poultry. There has been information sharing about the crisis that the disease may bear, and also in monthly personnel meetings where administrative departments and production departments have ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 211 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) participated; the CEO, Ömer Görener, shared information with employees about the disease. Avian Influenza Seminar and Demonstration Works In case that avian influenza occurs in Turkey, Avian Influenza emergency action plan was addressed through seminar and demonstration in Balıkesir 5-9th September. This study was undertaken by the officials from Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Ministry of Health, Banvit, other sectoral firms, local administrations, and TAIEX (European Commission Technical Assistance and Information Exchange). In this seminar, there was presentation on “Avian Influenza Emergency Action Plan”. In virtual demonstration, an emergency action practice was made against a possible avian influenza incident close by Manyas Bird Paradise. The Creation of a Crisis Management Team Crisis management team was formed to manage the crisis that may occur in the precrisis period. This team determined the crisis communication and management policies. After that, spokesman was selected in order to provide information to the media and target audience. CEO of the company was decided to be crisis spokesman. Management team - CEO Institutional development and communication director Business director Communication agency representative 5.2. Crisis Period News and Interview Studies The first week of the outbreak of the crisis, CEO’s interview has been published in all national newspapers. Company’s CEO has attended 4 times live broadcast in TRT HABER and other programs and in these interviews, images that related to safety and hygiene conditions of production facilities were shown very often. Newspapers and Advertising Activities In the first campaign, 6 different printed advertising was published on newspapers. Advertisements were published 5 days after the outbreak of the crisis. These advertisements were published 40 times in 22 national newspapers and 2 magazines in 13 October- 22 November. We can see the advertisement and given message below: Ads Messages Her Kuşun Eti Yenmez Questions was answered (‘What is bird flu?’, ‘How does it infect?’, ‘Does it pass from human to human?’, ‘What are the symptoms?’. ‘What are the ways of protection and ’?treatment 212 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Kuşkusuz It has been given ‘no doubt the Banvit’ message to the consumer who already knows what bird flu is Uygunsuz ’Message was given ‘use packaged products Uyanık Olun Real danger comes from poultry that grown in the open. Do not buy unpacked prod.ucts Emin Olun It is continuation ads of ‘Uyanık Olun’. Message was ‘Choose brands that have quality ’assurance practices Ürün Takip .It was given info how to reach information about products through website Advertorial Campaigns First TV advertorial campaign was broadcasted in all national channels in October 19-31, 2005. In this period, 2 short videos was shown, first one was 70 seconds. It was explained that the virus came to our country through migratory birds in the first 20 seconds of first video. Through the last 50 seconds, Banvit’s hygiene and quality assurance standards were introduced. Second video was 60 seconds. Through the second video; technology, production standards, bio-security practices, and hygiene procedures was shown. Both videos has been published 200 times in 14 channels in the 12-day period. Second advertorial campaign was published in January 26- February 5, 2006. In this period, second video in the first campaign was changed visually and textually and published as a third video and it has been published 221 times in 15 national channels in 15-days period. In March 29-April 4, 2006, fourth advertorial video was published and its main theme was ‘izlenebilirlik’ (traceability). That movie was shown 68 times in 4 channels in 6-days period. Web Communication Banvit began to publish information about avian influenza, the dangers, way of protection and treatment in Banvit’s website.(www.banvit.com.). Banvit sent mails to 575.000 people with attached information. We can see the studies below: Web Communication By making question-response part in the website, questions were answered as quickly as possible .izlenebilirlik’ (traceability) work started by the company transferred to the web‘ Consumer can watch their product on the website by entering the barcode number of their products By informing 19 e-groups (internet groups) , accurate information and answers were provided ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 213 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Outdoor and Alternative Environment Studies Outdoor and Alternative Environment Studies Advertising -Metro This advertisings was displayed in the billboard at the Istanbul subway Movies-Metro First advertorial movie was shown in Istanbul, third movie was shown in Ankara metro and stations Movies-Cinema .Traceability’ movie was shown in Izmir, Ankara and Istanbul cinemas‘ Banners For ‘Traceability’ (tracking products) campaign, banners were given to websites. (mynet.com, msn messenger, bebek.com, yemeksepeti.com, ailem. )com, milliyet.com STBP Studies CEO of Banvit Ömer Görener, serving as executive board member in Sağlıklı Tavuk Bilgi Platformu (STBP), he played an active role in all communication activities carried out by STBP. Various advertising campaigns were made in collaboration with STBP such as; giving accurate information about avian influenza, the ways of protection, and importance of consuming branded and packaged products. Brochures Works 774.000 brochures were printed to be given to consumers and customers. Through these brochures, cases of avian influenza and issues that are wondered by consumers, clarifications of ministry of agriculture informed. Also, it was reminded that branded and packed products should be consumed and the message ‘Banvit’s products can be consumed without doubt’ was given. Internal Communication The staff meeting which CEO included were continued during crisis. Recent developments about crisis and its effects on private sector and Banvit, were discussed in these meetings. In addition, CEO and Corporate Development and Communications Director sent mail to staff for informing the employees about avian influenza. In order to keep staff’s morale high, some support messages from educational institutions, partner companies and consumers were shared with employees. Proficiency test which is to detect administrative staff’s knowledge about production process was done. Personnel that could not show adequate performance, sent to orientation program to update their knowledges. 5.3. Post-Crisis Period Project ‘İyiliğiniz İçin, Sağlığınız İçin’ It was seen that, society who do not have sufficient information about avian influenza, caused emergence of speculation and panic. The probability of facing a similar event such as avian influenza, Banvit launched social responsibility project to be implemented in the Aegean and Marmara region. This project was performed in 68 districts and 88 villages from İzmir, Bursa, Balıkesir and Çanakkale. This project was performed by 27 veterinaries and professionals educators in May, June, July, 2006. 214 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Village Education Educations were centered on raising awareness about the disease and it was given to villagers living in rural areas. These educations basically explain; - What avian influenza is and its dangers How this disease spread and what are the symptoms How to approach the sick animals Measures to be taken against the disease. Public Education Centers (HEM) Education Purpose of this education is to inform housewives about avian influenza, food safety and hygiene rules to be followed at home. Primary School Education These events showed that, children especially living in rural region are more vulnerable to disease. With this respect, some information was given to children to understand; - What is microbe and what does it like? When do they and why and how should they wash their hands? Which animals they can play At the end of the education, letters were given to the children to pass on to their parents. These letters included same information and it was also explained why poultry should be fed in the coops. With this practice, Banvit aimed that to strengthen the basic awareness about ways of protection from avian influenza. Avian Influenza Fast Testing Procedure Although the virus is seen in free-roaming poultry, there are risks spread to coops of the companies. To eliminate this risk, Banvit made test that detect virus. It allows the virus to be controlled and this early diagnosis resetting the risks. 6. Conclusions and Recommendations When crisis arise, it is mentioned as a condition which entails a losses and occur suddenly in organizations. However, crises usually send signals before it happens but generally, managers pay no attentions.(Tağraf&Arslan, 2003: 158) That is why organizations face crises a lot. In pre-crisis period, Banvit was able to notice the threat and soon they made preparation for incoming crisis. We can say that they could recognize the early signals of upcoming crisis and make preparation for it. However, although it was fore seen upcoming crisis, Banvit and other organizations could not prevent the crisis and poultry sector were damaged in Turkey. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 215 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Source: http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2006/03/31/ekonomi/resim/axeko02.gif As we can see there is a decrease in sales of white meat about 60-70% in October 2006 because of detection of avian influenza and deaths due to illness. In crisis period, cooperate with STBP, newspaper and TV commercial studies that provide detailed information about avian influenza made packed chicken sales have become better than pre-crisis period. Consumer awareness was increased by right information that provided by the organization. At the end of the crisis, Banvit started to recover its wound and turn to crisis into opportunity. In this stage, Banvit limited the damage of the crisis, recover its wounds and they could turn the crisis into an opportunity. They could achieve the high sales rate after the crisis by directing people to buy packed products. 216 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation According to household consumption panel survey that made by Banvit, packed white meat consumption increased %168 in general, packed white meat consumption of Banvit increased %179. Managerial İmplication In summary, there is no exact method to completely prevent the crisis in advance. Organizations that having continues interaction with their environment are very vulnerable about change in their environment, but organization can see the incoming crisis by watching their environment by creating right early warning system. So, ınstead of dealing crisis after it happens, organizations should try to eliminate or reduce effect of crisis before it occurs. To do so, organizations should restructure their approach to crisis and make plans and studies for pre-crisis to post-crisis period. However if organizations go into crisis, someone should take command but he/she should not take all authority because if he/she gather all authority on himself/herself, he/she will prevent new ideas and opinion. 7. Attachments All documents below are taken from Banvit Bandırma Vitaminli Yem Sanayi Ticaret A.Ş. Şirket. Newspaper and Interview Samples Media Plan Summary Advert Her Kuşun Eti Yenmez Date October 2005 13-16 Repetition Publication 20 Akşam, Hürriyet, Sabah, Dünya, Posta, Referans, Takvim, Yenişafak, Milliyet, Tercuman, Türkiye, Vatan, Zaman, Cumhuriyet, D.B., Gözcü, Güneş, Radikal, Star, Yeni Asır ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 217 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Uygunsuz October 2005 29-31 10 Vatan, Akşam, Milliyet, Posta, Zaman, Radikal, Hürriyet, Sabah, Sonar, Cumhuriyet 10 Fanatik Basket Newspaper, Lezzet Güneşi, Çocuğum ve Ben Magazines Repetition Publications 24 Hürriyet, Sabah, Milliyet, Posta, Radikal, Akşam, Takvim, Yeni Asır, Vatan, Zaman, Türkiye, Gözlem 6 Hürriyet, Sabah, Posta, Takvim, Yeni Asır, Gözlem November 2005 18-22 Kuşkusuz November-December 2005 Advert Date Emin olun ve uyanık olun January 2006 22-29 January 2006 29-31 Emin Olun March 2006 15-26 İzlenebilirlik Advertorial Campaign Date )Time (second Channels 1. and 2. mo�vie October 2005 19-31 ’and 60 ’70 Show TV, Kanal D, Atv, Kanal 7, Star, STV, TGRT, NTV, Cnbc-e, CnnTürk, SkyTürk, TV8, Ege TV, Olay TV, Sky TV, Haber Türk January 2005 22-27 3. movie 4. movie ’60 January- 5 February 27 2005 ’55 March 2006 29-31 ’20 April 2006 1-4 ’20 Advertisement Samples 218 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book Atv, Cnbc-e, CnnTürk, Ege TV, HaberTürk, Kanal 7, Kanal D, NTV, Olay TV, Show TV, SkyTürk, Star, STV, TGRT, TV8 Atv, Kanal D, Show TV, Star �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Website and Mailing Samples Outdoor and Alternative Environment Samples ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 219 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) STBP Advertisement Samples Brochure Samples 220 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Banners of Social Projects and News Samples References • Akçe, K. (2005). Kriz Sürecindeki İşletmelerde Örgütsel Küçülme (Downsizing) Uygulamaları ve Kayseri İlinde bir Araştırma • Akdağ, M. (2005). Halkla ilişkiler ve kriz yönetimi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 14, 1-21. • Aymankuy, Ş. Y. (2001). Turizm Sektöründe Kriz Yönetimi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6. • BABÜROĞLU, N. (1999). Kriz Süreci Yönetiminde Yeni Bir Paradigmaya Doğru. TÜSDAD Görüş Dergisi. • Baran, H. (2001). İşletmelerde kriz yönetimi. A& G Bülten) Araştırma ve Meslekleri Geliştirme Müdürlüğü. • Coombs, W. T. (2014). Ongoing crisis communication: Planning, managing, and responding. Sage Publications. • Crandall, W., & Spillan, J. E. (2009). Crisis management in the new strategy landscape. Sage. • Demir, N.(2011) Türk Kamu Yönetiminde Kriz Yönetimi. • Demirtaş, A. G. H., & Üniversitesi, E. F. İ. (2000). Kriz yönetimi. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 23(23), 353-373. • Devlin, E. S. (2006). Crisis management planning and execution. CRC Press. • Erten, Ş. (2011). Türk kamu yönetiminde kriz yönetimi anlayışı= The concept of crisis management in Turkish public administration (Doctoral dissertation, Sosyal Bilimleri Enstitüsü). • Erten, Ş. (2011). Türk kamu yönetiminde kriz yönetimi anlayışı= The concept of crisis management in Turkish public administration (Doctoral dissertation, Sosyal Bilimleri Enstitüsü). • Glaesser, D. (2006). Crisis management in the tourism industry. Routledge. • GÜLER, E., & YILMAZ, B. EKONOMİK KRİZ, KOBİ’LERE YANSIMASI VE BİR ÇIKIŞ YOLU OLARAK BARTER. • McNamara C. (2006). Field Guide to Consulting and Organizational Development: A Collaborative and Systems Approach to Performance, Change and Learning 143-145 • OFLUOĞLU, G. (2001) İşletme ve Kriz Yönetimi. • ÖZDEVECİOĞLU, M. (2002). KRİZİN İŞLETMELERİN YÖNETSEL VE ÖRGÜTSEL YAPISI ÜZERİNDEKİ OLUMSUZ ETKİLERİ VE KAYSERİ SANAYİ İŞLETMELERİNDE YAPILAN BİR ARAŞTIRMA. • SEZGİN, F. KRİZ YÖNETİMİ.181-195 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 221 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) • SUCU, Y., & KİTAP, G. (2000). Kriz Yönetimi. Elit Yayıncılık, Ankara. • Şen, F. (2011). Küçük ve Orta Ölçekli İşletmelerde Kriz Yönetimi ve Bir Örnek Olay Analizi • Tağraf, H., & Arslan, N. T. (2003). KRİZ OLUŞUM SÜRECİ VE KRİZ YÖNETİMİNDE PROAKTİF YAKLAŞIM. • TUTAR, H. (2011). KRİZ VE STRES TÖNETİMİ. • YALÇINKAYA, M. (2002). Açık sistem teorisi ve okula uygulanması. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(2). • Yavaş, E. (2014). İşletmelerin Kriz Döneminde Uyguladıkları İnsan Kaynakları Politikalarının, İşletmelerin Kriz Alabilirliğine Olan Etkileri. 222 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3331 Title A name given to the resource TURNING THE CRISIS INTO OPPORTUNITY: CASE OF BANVİT Author Author Tok, Mustafa Atay, Erhan Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Uncertainty is rapidly increasing in fast-changing world. With each moment we are faced with various crisis and uncertainties. Today, crises have become an important part of our lives. It is same for the organizations. That is why preventing the crisis before it starts, exiting from the crisis with minimum damage and effectively managing crisis has become a main object of the organizations. In this research firstly; crisis, its reasons and effects are tried to be explained and identified. After that crisis management and its processes are examined and tried to be identified. In second part of this study we are going to examine Banvit Bandýrma Vitaminli Yem Sanayi Ticaret A.Ţ. Ţirket. We will try to examine and understand the organization’s reaction to crisis (avian influenza), how they handle it and how a crisis can be turn into an opportunity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/727d86ddfca78fa793fcb6c54b3b92f3.pdf 97116e206fdc2d31dff2cfc1ae5a3693 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Master's Theses Description An account of the resource IT Master's Thesis collection features master's theses authored by graduate students in the Department of Information Technology. Each thesis reflects a significant research effort, combining theoretical knowledge with practical application to address complex challenges in the IT domain. These works demonstrate students’ advanced understanding of information systems, software engineering, data science, cybersecurity, and emerging technologies. The theses serve as a testament to the students' capability to conduct independent research, propose innovative solutions, and contribute to the advancement of the IT field. Subject The topic of the resource IT Master's Thesis Language A language of the resource English Language Author Author IT Department Master’s Students Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Tweet Categorization and Sentiment Analysis of Tweets Author Author Vedad Fejzagić Abstract A summary of the resource. <span>In today’s era, using internet platforms to convey information to others, whether family, friends, or strangers has become the norm. One of the leading social platforms in that regard is “Twitter” (now “X”). The effectiveness of communication on such platforms can be analyzed through the process of sentiment analysis. Sentiment analysis is considered a classification problem that determines whether an input is positive or negative.</span><br /><br /><span>The research aimed to show to what extent certain machine learning models outperform others for the given subset of data, depending on the choice of preprocessing steps within the sentiment analysis domain. This can be divided into two goals. The first goal was to present results on how one pipeline of preprocessing steps affects each machine learning model compared to the other preprocessing pipeline. The second goal was to present results on the viability of using several machine learning models for sentiment analysis of tweets by comparing the accuracies of each. For that purpose, a single subset was taken from the data and duplicated two times. Each subset duplicate had different preprocessing steps applied to it. Afterward, both subsets were fed to several machine-learning models in order to gauge their performance. </span><br /><br /><span>Finally, this paper presented results on the aforementioned processes for which it was found that the Naïve Bayes machine learning model had the best accuracy, while the choice of preprocessing steps proved to be almost negligible in improving the overall model accuracy.</span> Keywords Keywords. Sentiment Analysis, Machine Learning, Preprocessing, Natural Language Processing, Twitter machine learning master's thesis natural language processing preprocessing sentiment analysis twitter https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/eb2e8e8e915d40a9007bfefee0b10327.pdf 312f134f1931be361c00738d1a566968 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe City University of New York (CUNY), USA lamaghionyeodiwe@york.cuny.edu lamaghionyeodiwe@yahoo.co.uk Opeyemi Akinyemi Covenant Universty Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria opsie88@yahoo.com opeyemi.akinyemi@covenantuniversity.edu.ng Abstract: This study re-examines the long run relationship between the budget and current account deficits in an oil-dependent open economy like Nigeria using a multivariate Granger causality test within the VECM framework. This result confirmed the existence of a long run relationship between the budget and current account deficit in Nigeria, thus supporting the Mudell-Fleming theory and refuting the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis (REH). The causality result indicates no causality between budget deficit and current account while the current account deficit causes budget account deficit. This implies that reduction in the current account deficits will help reduce the “twin deficit” dilemma. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 Keywords: Budget Deficits; Current Account Deficits; Multivariate Granger Causality; OilDependent Open Economy; Nigeria JEL Classification: E62, F32, H6 Article History Submitted: 19 December 2014 Resubmitted: 2 September 2015 Accepted: 15 September 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS15528 149 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi Introduction In empirical literature, there are two major theories that are used to explain the causal link between budget deficit and current account deficits. These are the Mundell-Fleming Model of Exchange Rate Regime and the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis (REH). The traditional Keynesians use the Mundell-Fleming model to explain the twin deficit relationship and they argued that when budget deficit increases, the current account balance will deteriorate as the increases in the budget deficits will drive up domestic interest rates, real exchange rate and rate of capital inflows. On the other hand, while acknowledging the detrimental effects of large fiscal deficits on the economy, the critics of the Mundell-Fleming model have disputed the sequence of causation implied by the model (Harshemzadeh and Wilson, 2006). These groups of researchers used the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis (REH) to argue that no relationship exists between the two deficits as budget deficits results mainly from tax cuts which tend to reduce public revenue and public savings. They opined that individuals will perceive these tax cuts as incurring future tax liabilities and thus will increase savings rather than consumption. Nigeria, experiences over the years have shown that there have been periods of persistent and rising budget deficits as well as periods with current account deficits. As such, it is evident that the Nigerian economy has been experiencing the twin deficit phenomenon. In the same vein, Nigeria as an oil-exporting country where revenue from oil production contributes more than 95% of its foreign exchange, 40 percent of GDP and 80 percent of fiscal revenues makes the economy susceptible to fluctuations in government revenues as a result of volatility in oil revenue (Onafowokan and Owoye, 2006). In Nigeria, two studies are of prominence in this respect, these are Egwaikhide (1997), Egwaikhide et al (2002) and Onafowokan and Owoye (2006). Egwaikhide (1997) examined the effects of budget deficits on the current account balance in Nigeria and concluded that quantitative evidence suggests that budget policy affects the current account balance for Nigeria. Egwaikhide et al (2002) in their paper on causality between budget deficit and current account balance for a number of African countries, found a unidirectional causality from the budget deficits to the current account deficits to exists for Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria and South Africa. Onafowokan and Owoye (2006) examined the relationship between budget and trade deficits. Their findings showed evidence of positive relationship between trade and budget deficits in both the short and long run but that causality is unidirectional running from trade deficits to budget deficits. Apart from the fact that these studies in Nigeria utilized a bivariate framework commonly used in previous empirical studies which this study tends to improve upon by using a multivariate framework of Granger causality analysis, available data from the last ten years showed that the two deficits have not been moving together as argued by the two studies (Egwaikhide, 1997 and Onafowokan and Owoye, 2006) that were previously done for Nigeria. The most recent study to the best of my knowledge was 150 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination carried out in 2006 and between then and now; there could have been some adjustment. Consequently, it becomes imperative to re-visit and re-examine the validity of the twin deficit phenomenon for Nigeria. As it is believed in open economy macroeconomics that budget deficit leads to deterioration of the current account balance (Jayaraman et al, 2008), it therefore becomes imperative to find out if the resulting current account balance experienced by the Nigerian economy is as a result of the substantial increase in its budget deficit over the years as has been argued by the twin deficit hypothesis or it is the other way round. This thus raises some pertinent questions like – Is the twin deficit hypothesis still valid for Nigeria? Is there a long run relationship between budget deficits and the current account deficits? What are the major channels of transmission through which budget deficits affect current account deficits? What is the direction of causality between the budget deficit and the current account deficit? In response to the above questions and given the recent fiscal expansion due to the global financial crisis, it becomes relevant and significant for a study like this to revisit the twin deficit phenomenon for Nigeria and examine the direction of causality. Thus, using time series annual (secondary) data covering the period 1970 through to 2010, the study re-examines the long run relationship between the budget and current account deficits in Nigeria. Following this introductory section, section two reviews the literature while section three examines some stylized facts on budget and current account deficit in Nigeria. Section four contains the methodology and empirical analysis while section five concludes the study. Literature Review Theoretical Review In empirical literature, two major theories are commonly used to explain the causal link between the budget deficit and the current account deficits. They include the MundellFleming model of exchange rate regime and the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis approach. The Mundell-Fleming Model Framework This model was developed by the works of Robert Mundell (1968) and J. Marcus Fleming (1967) and it offers an exchange rate approach to analyzing how the budget and current account deficits are related. The model presupposes a small open economy with full international capital mobility with the assumption that interest rate is the same in the world economy, except in cases where capital controls exist (Olga, 2000). It posits that a positive relationship exists between the two deficits and that causality is from budget deficit to current account deficit. The model is often used by the conventional Keynesians to argue that an increase in the budget deficits would cause an increase in domestic absorption, increase aggregate demand and put upward pressure Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 151 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi on domestic interest rate above the world rate. This in turn increases imports, reduce export and bring about an appreciation of the exchange rate thereby deteriorating the current account balance. According to Fleegler (2006), as a government borrows to finance its deficits, it drives up borrowing costs or the interest rates. A higher interest rate makes domestic securities more attractive and leads to an increased demand for the domestic currency causing an appreciation of the domestic currency due to the capital inflows. As the currency appreciates, domestic goods become more expensive relative to foreign goods thereby leading citizens to increase imports thus increasing the trade deficit (Fleegler, 2006). Onafowora et al (2006) also argued that in this framework, an increase in government deficit spending will cause an increase in aggregate demand and the domestic interest rate. If the domestic interest rate is higher than the world interest rate, there will be a net capital inflow from abroad and the domestic currency will appreciate. This results to a rise in imports, a fall in export and the deterioration of the current account balance. Harshemzadeh and Wilson (2006) also posited that an increase in the fiscal deficit will lead to current account imbalance by driving up domestic interest rates, exchange rate and rate of capital inflows. Chang and Hsu (2009) equally argued that the increase in the budget deficit induces an upward pressure on interest rates which in turn trigger capital inflows and an appreciation of exchange rates ultimately leading to an increase in the current account deficit. Arize and Melinderos (2008) pointed out that even though the Mundell-Fleming suggests a unidirectional causality from budget deficit to current account deficit, there could be a reverse causality from the current account deficit to the budget deficit. This can come about if there is a change in expected inflation. A decrease in expected inflation would lead to currency appreciation and thus decrease net exports and increase the trade deficits. Chang and Hsu (2009) also provided another possible explanation reverse causality between the budget deficit and current account deficit by stating that this reversal could occur if deterioration in the current account balance leads to a slower pace of growth and hence an increase in the budget deficit. Kim and Kim (2006) equally argued that out reverse causality could be as a result of excessive trade deficits plunging an economy into a recession and subsequently leading to a financial or solvency crisis in which large injections of public fund may be needed to rehabilitate the struggling financial sector or minimize the severity of a recession. This reverse causality was referred to as “current account targeting” and suggests that external adjustments may be sought through the budget or fiscal policy. Furthermore, Arize and Melinderos (2008) posited that bidirectional causality could also exist between the twin deficits whereby the existence of significant feedbacks causes causality to run in both directions. This was corroborated by Chang and Hsu (2009). Thus, it becomes necessary to complement budget-cut policies with a coherent package, focusing on policies for export promotion, productivity improvement and exchange rate (Arize and Melinderos, 2008). 152 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination The Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis An alternative explanation for the existence of long run equilibrium relationship between the budget deficit and the current account deficit is based on the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis (REH) which is commonly associated with the work of Barro (1989). He stated that the ricardian equivalence implies that taxpayers do not view government bonds as net wealth; hence its acquisition by individuals does not alter their consumption behaviour. Critics of the Mundell-Fleming framework question the sequence of causation described by the model and thus employed the Ricardian equivalence hypothesis to argue the absence of any relationship between budget deficit and current account deficit. These proponents argue that in a Ricardian world, it is believed that a budget deficit that is financed through a tax cut and bond sales would be perceived by individuals as incurring future tax liabilities to service and retire the increased debt (Onafowora and Owoye, 2006; Yanik, 2006 and Ratha, 2011). The Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis dispenses entirely with the income-expenditure approach and relied instead on the inter-temporal approach. They asserted that since a government‟s means of finance do not alter private agents‟ inter-temporal budget constraints; the real interest rate, the quantity of investment or current account balance will not be affected. They claimed that budget deficits do not cause any interest and exchange rate changes which thus have no effect on the current account imbalances (Chang and Hsu (2009). The main assumption of the REH is that changes in budget deficit will have no effects on domestic interest rates, total savings, investment, price level and national income; thus not having effect on current account balance. The argument is that a reduction in taxes which is accompanied by an increase in budget deficit does not affect growth of consumption and hence, does not have any expansionary effect as households tend to increase savings in anticipation of higher taxes in the future which are necessary to redeem the debt (Gadong, 2009). Furthermore, Mamdouh (2000) posited that a tax cut (leading to a budget deficit) has the effect of reducing public revenues and public savings thus enlarging the budget deficit. This however, increases private savings by an amount equal to the expected increase in the tax burden in future years (Arize and Melinderos, 2008). In other words, savings will respond positively to the changes in budget deficit leaving the trade deficit unaltered. Equally, if the government runs a deficit by borrowing, economic agents being rational will expect that government will raise future taxes to finance the borrowing (budget deficit) and so they will rather increase their savings to meet the future tax burden. Thus, alterations in the composition of public financing will have no impact on real interest rate, aggregate demand, private spending, exchange rate and ultimately, the current account balance (Arize and Melinderos, 2008). However, the ricardian equivalence theorem argues that either ways of financing the deficit (through reduced taxes or issuance of bonds), the present value wealth of private households is not altered since both temporarily reduced taxes and issuance of bonds represents future tax liabilities (Hakro, 2009). Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 153 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi Methodological and Empirical Review In analysing the relationship between the budget deficit and the current account deficit, the most commonly used method employed in estimation is the co-integration approach, the Granger causality test, Vector Error Correction(VEC) model and the Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model (Chang and Hsu, 2009; Hashemzadeh and Wilson, 2006). The nature of this relationship is said to vary across countries and periods and different studies arrived at different conclusions as a results of difference in data set used and methodologies (Hashemzadeh and Wilson, 2006). Abbas et al (2010) identified three categories of methodologies broadly used to study the twin deficits relationship. The first category studies the impact of fiscal policy on external balance using causality tests and VARs. The second category analyze the long term correlation between indicators of fiscal policy and external imbalances using co-integration techniques and single or panel regression techniques. The third category invokes the narrative approach to identify exogenous changes in fiscal policy and uses regression analysis to study the impact on external imbalances. This study takes a look at a review of some of the methods used in some previous studies carried out on the twin deficit relationship. Arize and Melinderos (2008) employed the conventional fractional co-integration approach and the multivariate Wald test for Granger causality in testing for dynamic linkages and causality between the budget and trade deficits for selected countries in Africa. Their study found a unidirectional causality and thus supported the twin deficit hypothesis. Ganchev (2010) used VAR and VEC model in his analysis for Bulgaria and his results rejected the twin deficit hypothesis in the short run but indicated it might be valid in the long run. Egwaikhide (1997) did a simulation exercise by constructing a number of behavioural equations using descriptive statistics such as t-values, F-test, DW test, R2 and the standard error of the regression. His simulation experiments show that budget deficit, engendered by increased expenditure, leads to a deterioration of the current account. Korsu (2006) performed a similar simulation experiment to that of Egwaikhide (1997) to investigate the effects of fiscal deficits on the external sector performance for Sierra Leone, but he used a 3 Stage Least Squares (3SLS) approach. His study could not directly identify the direction of causality. Shukur and Hatemi (2002) tested the causality direction between the twin deficits in the US using the Rao‟s multivariate F-test combined with Bootstraps simulation technique which they argued has appealing properties. Their study found that there is a uni-directional causality which runs from current account deficit to budget deficit. Specifically, budget deficit granger causes current account deficit for 1975 to 1989 sub-period, while current account deficit granger causes budget deficit for the 1990 to 1998 sub-period. Afonso and Rault (2009) equally employed the Bootstrap panel Granger causality test to investigate existence of causality between current account balance and budget balance for different EU and OECD countries. Their results showed a causal relation from budget deficits to current account deficits for several EU countries: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Italy, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovakia, along the lines of the so-called twin-deficit relationship. 154 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Olga (2000) employed co-integration and Granger-causality test and found the transmission mechanism between the two deficits to be mainly through the exchange rate for Ukraine. The finding showed that budget deficits and current account deficit were co-integrated while uni-directional causality from budget deficit to current account deficit existed. Yanik (2006) employed co-integration, Granger-causality, VEC and impulse response in his methodology while using quarterly data for Turkey. He found that both deficits are counter-cyclical and move together in the long run indicating uni-directional causality, where current account deficit causes budget deficit, but not the reverse. Zamanzadeh and Mehrara (2011) and Celik and Deliz (undated) also used the same techniques of estimation for Iran and a number of emerging economies respectively. Their findings showed that bi-directional relationship existed between the government budget deficit and non-oil current account. Brian (undated) also used quarterly data of Argentina with co-integration, Granger-causality and chow test. He found that there was no determinable Granger-causal relationship between budget data and trade deficit data. Likewise Mukhtar et al (2007) who made use of quarterly time series data for Pakistan employing co-integration technique and Granger-causality test. Their study found that a long run relationship exists between the two deficits and also there was bi-directional causality between the two deficits. Zengin (n.d)’s VAR model for Turkey indicated that trade deficit do not directly bring (Granger-causes) about budget deficits but that budget deficit directly affects trade deficits. Ratha (2011) employed the Bounds-testing approach to co-integration and error correction modelling on the monthly and quarterly data of India. He concluded that twin-deficits theory holds in the short-run, but not in the long run for India. Baharumshah, et al (2006) examined the twin deficit hypothesis in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand using co-integration, impulse response function and variance decomposition of the VAR model. Their study found long run relationships between budget and current account deficits. Also, for Thailand, there was a unidirectional relationship, which runs from budget deficit to current account deficit. For Indonesia the reverse causation (current account targeting) was detected while the empirical results indicate that a bi-directional pattern of causality exists for Malaysia and the Philippines. Abbas et al (2010) used panel regression and panel VAR for a number of countries ranging from low income countries to emerging economies and then advanced economies in his methodology. They concluded that the association between fiscal policy and the emergence of large external imbalances is limited. Hashemzadeh and Wade (2006) and Evan and Tang (2009) in emphasizing the dynamic relation between the two deficits employed the VAR technique and causality tests in their methodology for Cambodia, a transition economy in South East Asia. Hashemzadeh and Wade (2006) empirical findings suggest that the incidence of twin deficits appears to be country specific. And the observed cross-country variations with respect to the effects of fiscal deficits on current account deficits tend to show that the dynamic relationship between the two deficits is subject to change depending on the underlying tax system, trade patterns and barriers, monetary regimes, the exchange rate and a complex host of internal and international forces that shape a country’s economic status in the global economy. Furthermore, their findings indicated that the presence Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 155 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi and the direction of causality between the two deficits is generally country specific and ambiguous in certain cases. For Evan and Tang (2009), their study of Cambodia also supports the twin deficits hypothesis in which the budget deficits do cause external deficits, in the short run while these two variables are moving together in the long run. Chang and Hsu (2009) and Evan et al. (undated) adopted the Toda and Yamamoto (1995) modified WALD (MWALD) for testing Granger non-causality to evaluate the budget-current account nexus for the regional economy and Malaysia respectively. Chang and Hsu (2009) claimed that budget deficits do not cause any interest and exchange rate changes which thus have no effect on the current account imbalances while Evan et al (n.d) did not find a significant effect of the budget deficit on the current account. Fleegler (2006) did a cross-country empirical approach by employing the multi co-integration analysis in his methodology. The findings suggest that an economy’s susceptibility to the twin deficits may be time-specific and influenced by a variety of factors. And specifically, a country’s susceptibility is in part influenced by where the country is in the development process, who it trades with, and what it imports and exports. Rauf and Khah (2011) investigated the relationship between the twin deficit in Pakistan using simple OLS regression technique and Granger causality. They found that increase in the budget deficit is caused by a decrease of trade account deficit (the largest component in the current account) Egwaikhide et al (2002) employed simple regression equation and Granger-causality tests in their own methodology for a number of West African countries which includes Nigeria and found that budget deficit leads to a deterioration of the current account balance. Saleh (2006) employed the Unrestricted Error Correction Model (UECM) and bounds test (co-integration test) in testing the Keynesian proposition for Lebanon and his findings partially supported the Keynesian view of the “twin deficit” hypothesis. Schismita and Sudipta (2011) provided fresh evidence on the twin deficit hypothesis for India within a multi-dimensional system by giving descriptive statistics and analysis. Their study found that there was a reverse causation in the twin deficit hypothesis for India and oil prices helped complete the chain of reverse causation. Also, the direction of causation is unambiguously seen to run from oil prices to the external deficit to the fiscal deficit Onafowora and Owoye (2006) found a positive relationship between trade and budget deficits in both the short run and long run. Their results supported the conventional Keynesian twin deficits position and refute the Ricardian equivalence hypothesis for Nigeria. Olga (2000) found budget deficit and current account to be co-integrated in which case budget deficit Granger-causes a current account deficit for Ukraine. Ganchev (2010) found the existence of dual causality between fiscal and current account deficits for the Bulgarian economy. Yanik (2006) using quarterly data of Turkey supported the REH or the twin divergence theory, stating that causality runs from current account deficit to budget deficits. Brian (undated) did the twin deficit analysis for Argentina and also did not find any relationship to exist between the two deficits. Zengin (undated) on the other hand supported the twin deficit hypothesis as he found budget deficit to influence trade balance. Ratha (2011) empirical results suggested that the twin deficit theory holds for India in the short run but not in the long-run. 156 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Abbas et al. (2010) found the association between fiscal policy and emergence of large external imbalances to be limited. An improvement in the fiscal balance of 1% of GDP improves the current account balance by 0.2-0.3 percent of GDP upon impact in emerging and low income economies. Hashemzadeh and Wilson (2006) emphasized that the dynamic relationship between the two deficits is subject to change, depending on the underlying tax system, trade patterns and barriers, exchange rate and a host of internal and international forces that help to shape an economy. Chang and Hsu (2009) provided broader evidence on the debate of causal linkage between the budget and current account deficits for five North European countries, four Asian Tigers and the United States, concluding that most of the countries supported the twin deficit hypothesis but the strength varies across countries noting that none of the countries studied supported the REH. Fleegler (2006) did a cross-country empirical approach of countries at different stages of development to ascertain the validity of the twin deficit theory and found multiple factors contribute to a country‟s susceptibility to the twin deficit. Such factors include the country‟s stage in its developmental process and its trading partners. Egwaikhide et al (2002)’s empirical result revealed that for 16 African countries including Nigeria, budget deficit leads to a deterioration of the current account balance. Mukhtar et al (2007) made use of quarterly data in testing the twin deficit theory in Pakistan and found a long run relationship to exist between budget and current account deficit. Their study however put a doubt on the use of single-equation approach to analysing the twin deficit hypothesis. Kulkarmi and Erickson (2001) tested the twin deficit hypothesis with the annual data of India, Pakistan and Mexico. They found no evidence of twin deficits and causality in Mexico, strong evidence for India and Pakistan. However, causality for Pakistan was in opposite direction, that is, a reverse causality. Zamanzadeh and Mehrara (2011) found support for the twin deficit hypothesis in Iran, likewise the study of Jayaraman and Choong (2008) in Vanuatu, a small open Island economy in South Pacific. Celik and Deniz (undated) analyzed the Keynesian well-known twin deficit hypothesis for a group of emerging countries using quarterly data, they found support for the twin deficit theory. Saleh (2006) observed that in the case of Lebanon, causality runs from trade deficit to budget deficit, supporting the Keynesian view that there is a linkage between the two deficits. Shukur and Hatemi (2002) employed the Rao‟s multivariate F-test combined with bootstraps simulation technique in testing for the twin deficit phenomenon in the US. They found structural breaks to be of paramount importance when causality test was conducted as both budget deficit and current account did not granger cause each other using the whole sample. After splitting the sample into two sub periods, results showed that budget deficit causes current account deficits in the first period while the opposite occurred for the second period. Mukhtar et al (2007) found a long run relationship between the deficits and bi-directional causality using quarterly time series data for Pakistan. Rauf and Khan (2011) using annual data found reverse causality to be strong in Pakistan. Ratha (2011) employed the bounds-testing approach to co-integration and error correction modelling on monthly and quarterly data for India and concluded that the Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 157 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi twin deficit theory holds in the short run while the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis is what holds in the long run. The findings of Suchismita and Sudiptal (2011) supported reverse causality for India. Zengin (n.d) found support for the twin deficit hypothesis in Turkey using a VAR model and posterior probability bounds test. On the other hand, Yanik (2006), using Turkish quarterly data and the method of Granger-noncausality tests and VAR, found both budget deficit and current account to be countercyclical and supported the “twin divergence” or ricardian equivalence hypothesis for Turkey. Momdouth (2002) found that neither the twin deficit hypothesis nor the ricardian equivalence hypothesis was valid for Saudi Arabia as a petroleum economy. Zamanzadeh and Mehrara (2011) found support for the twin deficit hypothesis for Iran rather than the ricardian equivalence hypothesis. Neaime (2008)’s empirical results for Lebanon showed support for the existence of uni-directional causal relationship in the short run from budget deficit to current account deficit. Celik and Deniz (n.d) analysed the twin deficit phenomenon for 6 emerging economies and found support for the twin deficit hypothesis using advanced econometric techniques for the panel data. Arize and Melinderos (2008) using a panel of 10 African countries revealed that a positive long run relation exists however, weak link between the two deficits was found in the short run and that budget deficits causes current account deficits. Below is a summary of empirical studies, their type of data set, the methodology they employed and their results in tabular form. Table 1. Synopsis of Empirical Studies from the Literature S/N Author Methodology Transmission Mechanism Direction of Causality Findings/Results 1. Onafowora and Owoye (2006) Nigeria, annual data, 1970-2001, co-integration, Granger-causality and VEC model. Interest rate was found to be strongly exogenous. Uni-directional Causality from trade deficit to budget deficit. A positive long run relationship exists between trade deficits and budget deficits. Supports conventional “twin deficit” hypothesis 2. Olga (2000) Ukraine, quarterly data, 1995:1 to 1999:4, cointegration and Granger-causality. Transmission works mainly through the exchange rate. Uni-directional Causality from budget deficit to current account deficit. Budget deficits and current account deficit were found to be co-integrated. 3. Ganchev (2010) Bulgaria, annual data, 2000-2010, Granger-causality, VAR and VEC model. Dual causality between fiscal and current account deficits. Findings reject the “twin deficit” hypothesis in the short-run, but indicate that it might be valid in the long run. 158 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination 4. Yanik (2006) Turkey, quarterly data, 1988:1 to 2005:2, cointegration, Granger noncausality, VAR and impulse-response analysis. Short-run impacts of budget deficit on current account deficit are through the real exchange rate and real interest rate channels. Uni-directional causality, current account deficit causes budget deficit, but not the reverse. Both deficits (CAD and BD) are counter-cyclical and move together in the long run. Supports “twin divergence” or the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis. Uni-directional causality Supports twin deficit hypothesis. Direct causal relation exists from budget deficit to trade deficit. Supports the conventional “twin deficit” hypothesis. 5. Arize and Melinderos (2008) 10 African countries, quarterly period 1973:2 to 2005:4. Fractional co-integration approach and error correction mechanism. 6. Zengin (undated) Turkey, quarterly data, 1987:1 to 1998:1, Granger-causality and VAR model. 7. Ratha (2011) India, monthly and quarterly data, 1998-2009, bounds-testing approach to co-integration and error-correction modelling. 8. Abbas et al. (2010) 124 countries, annual data, 19852007, panel VAR. Association between fiscal policy and the emergence of large external imbalances is limited. The impact is longer-lasting in emerging countries than in advanced countries. 9. Hashemzadeh and Wade (2006) Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Syria, Oman, Morocco, Turkey and Yemen. Annual data, 19701990. Causality test and VAR. Correlation between the two deficits is both complex and ambiguous. Dynamic relationship between the two deficits is subject to change depending on some underlying factors. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 Transmission is through interest rate and exchange rate. Twin-deficits theory holds in the shortrun, but not in the long run. 159 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi 10. Chang and Hsu (2009) 5 North European countries, 4 Asian Tigers and the United States. Annual and quarterly data,1980 to 2007 Modified WALD test and Granger non-causality procedure. 11. Fleegler (2006) 12. Direction of causality varies across the different countries. Shows support for “twin deficit” hypothesis, though the strength varies across countries. US, South Korea, Mexico, Peru and Costa Rica, annual data, 1970-2004. Multi co-integration analysis. Significant positive correlation exist between the twin deficits for most of the economies. An economy’s susceptibility to the twin deficits may be time-specific and influenced by a variety of factors. Egwaikhide et al. (2002) 16 African countries, annual data, 1970-1999, OLS and Granger-causality test. In group, causality runs from current account to budget deficit. Budget deficit leads to a deterioration of the current account balance 13. Mukhtar et al. (2007) Pakistan, quarterly time series data, 1975-2005, co-integration, Granger-causality and simultaneous equation model. Bi-directional causality runs between the two deficits. A long run relationship exists between the two deficits. 14. Saleh (2006) Lebanon, annual data, 1975-2003, co-integration (bounds test), Granger-causality and Unrestricted Error Correction Model (UECM) Causality runs from trade deficit to budget deficit. Results partially support the Keynesian view of the “twin deficit” hypothesis. 15 Zamanzadeh and Mehrara (2011) Iran, annual data, 1959-2007, co-integration technique and Vector Error Correction Model (VECM). Bi-directional relationship exists between the government budget deficit and non-oil current account. Supports the twin deficit hypothesis. 160 Transmission mechanism varies across different countries. For some, interest rate, for others, exchange rate. Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination 16 Celik and Deniz (undated) Brazil, Czech Republic, South Africa, Colombia, Mexico and Turkey, quarterly data, 1996Q1 to 2006Q4, panel co-integration technique. Twin deficit hypothesis is supported using advanced econometric techniques for the panel data. 17. Jayaraman and Choong (2008) Vanuatu, annual data, 1983-2005 Evidence support twin deficit hypothesis. Source: Compiled by the Authors In some of the studies where evidence has been inconclusive, many reasons can be adduced to this. One important factor is the differences in data set used and methodologies (Hashemzadeh and Wade, 2006). Another reason include the possibility of excessive trade deficits plunging an economy into a recession and subsequently leading to a financial or solvency crisis in which large injections of public fund may be needed to rehabilitate the struggling financial sector or minimize the severity of a recession, Kim and Kim (2006). Some Stylized Facts on the Twin Deficits in Nigeria Nigeria is an oil-exporting country where the revenues from oil production contribute more than 95% of its foreign exchange earnings, 40% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 80% of its fiscal revenues (Onafowokan and Owoye, 2006). The economy therefore provides a good study to test if the theory of the twin deficit on the direction of causality is valid as this dependency exposes the country to oil price shock and volatility, thereby causing fluctuations in government revenues leading to erratic patterns in public expenditure. A striking feature of Nigeria‟s fiscal operations since the second half of the 1970s is persistent and rising budget deficits (Egwaikhide, 1997). These rising budget deficits were according to Gadong (2009) as a result of the oil boom of the early 1970s, in which case the discovery and exploration of oil in commercial quantity led to an escalation in the government budget. In 1975, with the oil glut, fiscal deficits emerged in the economy. This trend continued until 1994 with the exception of 1979 and later in 1997, the trend started again. Nigeria was one of the many developing countries that adopted the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) during the mid-1980s in the attempt to reduce the role of the public sector in the economy, reduce the share of fiscal deficit in the GDP, restore balance of payment equilibrium and maintain a stable price level (Onafowokan and Owoye, 2006). But as argued by Gadong (2009), the growth of government bureaucracy permitted by the oil boom, as well as the establishment of public corporations that had to be maintained even after government revenue (mainly from oil) had declined made government expenditures to remain high. Table 2 shows the budget and current Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 161 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi account deficit of Nigeria from 1982 to 2010. From the table, it can be observed that over the periods when fiscal deficits were sustained, these deficits as proportions of GDP went as high as 12.44 percent in 1982, 11.94 percent in 1986, 11.45 percent in 1991, 9.53 percent in 1993 and 8.93 percent in 1999. This aggravated the economy’s debt profile from both domestic and foreign source prior to the debt cancellation the country received in 2005. Notice that fiscal deficits for the years between 1982 and 1994 all exceeded 4 percent of GDP. Also, developments in the external sector revealed that periodic deficits in the current account have characterized Nigeria‟s balance of payment profile. Egwaikhide (1997) stated that the current account deficit deteriorated from N259 million in 1976 to N5.2 billion in 1982, though relatively large surpluses were recorded in the last 12 years. A close inspection of available data from figure 1a and 1b show some degree of association between budget deficit and the current account deficit for most of the years. Budget deficit was recorded for most of the years, though some years experienced a current account surplus. Figure 1a. Graph of Budget and Current Account Deficits for Nigeria, 1970 to 2010 40 30 20 10 0 -10 -20 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 CAD BD Source: CBN Statistical Bulletin (2010) 162 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Figure 1b. Graph of Budget and Current Account Deficits for Nigeria (1970 – 2010) Source: CBN Statistical Bulletin (2010) From the graph above, it can be observed in the earlier periods, both deficits move together even as they fluctuate. From the 1990s to recent periods, the current account balance has been more of a surplus than a deficit while the budget balance continues to be in deficit. This brings to mind the issue of the validity of the twin deficit hypothesis for the Nigerian economy being a oil-dependent economy. In other words, if the hypothesis holds for Nigeria, does causality still run from budget deficit to current account deficit? According to Mamdouh (2002), the Keynesian approach which implies the existence of a direct relationship from the budget deficit towards the trade deficit may not be applicable to an oil-based economy. This is because the basic source of income in an oil-based economy like Nigeria is revenue from oil export and these revenues affect government revenue and export of goods and services. It thus becomes imperative to ascertain if the direction of causality will flow from current account deficit to budget deficit. Model Specification Following the theoretical literature and methodology of previous empirical studies, a model can thus be specified for this study that current account deficits of Nigeria depends on government budget deficits, domestic income(real GDP), money supply, domestic interest rates and real exchange rate. Theoretically, the relationship between the twin deficits can be presented in an implicit form to give this equation: CADt = f (BDt, MONt, RGDPt, INTt, RERt) (1) The explicit form of the model showing the linear relationship between current account deficit and budget deficit is given as follows: Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 163 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi CADt = αo + α1BDt + α2MONt + α3RGDPt + α4INTt + α5RERt + et (2) Where CABt is current account balance as a percentage of GDP; BDt is budget balance as a percentage GDP; MONt is broad money supply as a percentage of GDP; RGDPt is real GDP (proxy for domestic income); INTt is the prime lending rate; RERt is the real exchange rate and et is a white noise disturbance. α1, α2, α3, α4 and α5 are the unknown parameters. Technique of Estimation The econometric analysis of the relationship between the fiscal and current account deficits usually involves the application of Granger causality (Chang and Hsu, 2006, Ganchev, 2010) and Vector Autoregressive Models (Hashemzadeh and Wilson, 2006). Thus, in line with most empirical work on twin deficit hypothesis, this study tests for the long run equilibrium relationship and direction of causality between budget and current account deficit. In doing this, the study will carry out a stationarity test, cointegration test and multivariate Granger causality test. The stationarity test helped determine if the time series are stationary or not as empirical literature has argued that estimation of time series data that have unit root will produce a spurious result. Also, the co-integration procedure will help explore the possible long run relationships among the variables in the model and interpret the evidence of this relationship as the interdependence between the variables. The Granger causality test will be carried out within the multivariate framework as against the bivariate framework that is commonly used. This will help to determine the direction of causality and feedback among the variables. The Granger causality test thus helps to determine the direction of causality between the current account deficits and the budget deficit. This study however employs an alternative methodology for testing the causality direction between the twin deficits for Nigeria, which is the multivariate Granger-causality rather than the bivariate framework. The results of the multivariate framework are said to be more informative and reliable than the results of the bivariate framework, (Tang, 2010). Also, the Granger causality tests with the bivariate framework are likely to be biased owing to the omission of relevant variables that affects the relationship between the two deficits and their interacting variables. The basic idea of the Granger causality is that one variable or time series can be called “causal” to another if the ability to predict the second variable is improved by incorporating information about the first, (Barret et al, 2010; Onafowokan et al, 2006). In other words, variable Y granger-causes X if in a statistically suitable manner, Y assists in predicting the future of X beyond the degree to which X already predicts its own future. According to Barret et al (2010), the Granger causality idea can be extended to the conditional case as well where Y is said to Granger cause Y conditional on Z if Y assists in predicting the future of X beyond the degree to which X and Z together already predict the future of X. This conditional Granger causality is what is termed multivariate Granger causality (Barret et al, 2010). 164 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination The Granger causality test will be performed with annual data of budget, current account deficit data and the interacting variables between the two deficits. The Augmented form of the Granger causality test involving the ECM is formulated in a multivariate pth order Vector Error Correction (VEC) model and is given below: ∆Yt = Ci + Ʃ Пt ∆Yt-k + λi + ECMt-1 – 1 + εit (3) Where: ∆Yt = 6x1 vector matrix of variables. Пt = 6x6 square matrix of βit ∆Yt-k = 6x1 vector matrix of lagged values of variables. ECMit = 6x1 vector matrix of the error correction model. εit = 6x1 vector matrix of the error terms. The above matrix equations can also be written in the following form: ∆CADt = α1 + Ʃβ1∆CADt-i + Ʃθ1∆BDt-i + Ʃδ1∆MONt-i + Ʃγ1∆RGDPt-i + Ʃλ1∆INTt-i + Ʃρ1∆RERt-1 + ПECMt-1 + εt (4) ∆BDt = α2 + Ʃβ2∆BDt-i + Ʃθ2∆CADt-i + Ʃδ2∆MONt-i + Ʃγ2∆RGDPt-i + Ʃλ2∆INTt-i + Ʃρ2∆RERt-1 + ПECMt-1 + εt (5) ∆MONt = α3 + Ʃβ3∆CADt-i + Ʃθ3∆BDt-i + Ʃδ3∆MONt-i + Ʃγ3∆RGDPt-i + Ʃλ3∆INTt-i + Ʃρ3∆RERt-1 + ПECMt-1 + εt (6) ∆RGDPt = α4 + Ʃβ4∆CADt-i + Ʃθ4∆BDt-i + Ʃδ4∆MONt-i + Ʃγ4∆RGDPt-i + Ʃλ4∆INTt-i + Ʃρ4∆RERt-1 + ПECMt-1 + εt (7) ∆INTt = α5 + Ʃβ5∆CADt-i + Ʃθ5∆BDt-i + Ʃδ5∆MONt-i + Ʃγ5∆RGDPt-i + Ʃλ5∆INTt-i + Ʃρ5∆RERt-1 + ПECMt-1 + εt (8) ∆RERt = α6 + Ʃβ6∆CADt-i + Ʃθ6∆BDt-i + Ʃδ6∆MONt-i + Ʃγ6∆RGDPt-i + Ʃλ6∆INTt-i + Ʃρ6∆RERt-1 + ПECMt-1 + εt (9) The choice of the test is in line with the Mudell-Fleming theory. Many studies have been done using the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis (REH) especially in Nigeria as such this study tries to extend this by using the Mudell-Fleming theory. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 165 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi Description of Variables and A priori Expectations Current Account Deficit as a percentage of GDP (CAD): This represents the sum of the difference between imports of goods and services, exports of goods and services plus net income from abroad and is measured as percentage of GDP. It is the dependent variable in the model of the twin deficit. Budget Deficit as a percentage of GDP (BD): This represents the excess of government expenditure over revenues for different years measured as percentage of GDP. It is expected to have a positive sign as increases in government budget deficit will lead to a deterioration of the current account balance while reduction in budget deficit will improve the current account balance. Money Supply as percentage of GDP (MON): This is simply defined as M2 which is broad money calculated as a percentage of GDP. It consists of narrow money in addition to savings and time deposits with banks including foreign denominated deposits. It is expected to have a positive sign as increases in money supply will improve the current account balance, that is reduce the current account deficit in the long run. Real Gross Domestic Income (RGDP): This is used as a proxy for domestic income. It is the Gross Domestic Product at constant basic prices and is expected to be negatively signed as increases in domestic income have the effect of worsening (enlarging) the current account deficits in the long run. Interest Rate (INT): This is the Prime lending rate which is the interest rate charged by banks to customers for loanable funds which is to be used for investment purposes. This is expected to be negatively signed as increases in domestic interest rate which is as a result of increases in aggregate demand will increase imports and worsen the current account balance in the long run. Real Exchange Rate (RER): This is the official exchange rate at which the local currency which is the naira exchanges for a dollar. It is expected to have a negative sign as the appreciation of the domestic currency will worsen the current account balance in the long run and vice versa. Data Sources and Measurement This study made use of annual data for Nigeria for the period 1970 to 2010 (40 years). The current account balance, budget balance and the money supply (M2) were calculated as percentage of GDP and is represented by CABt, BBt and MONt respectively. Also, to account for different channels of interaction between the current account balance and the budget balance, other variables were included in the analysis. They include Real GDP (as a proxy for domestic income) represented as RGDP, treasury bills rate (used as a proxy for interest rate) and represented as TBR and real interest rate represented as RER. All the variables are in percentage in exception of Real GDP which is in naira, the interest rate which is in rate and the exchange rate which represents the rate at which the naira exchanges for a dollar. The data for the study was 166 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination sourced from the 2010 edition of the CBN Statistical Bulletin and the World Bank Development Indicators (WDI). Presentation and Discussion of Results Correlation Matrix The correlation matrix helps to identify the level of correlation that exists among the independent variables. From Table 2, it can be observed that budget deficit has a 44 percent positive correlation with the current account deficit while real exchange rate has a strong positive correlation with the current account deficit with 58 percent. This implies that budget deficit is averagely correlated with the current account deficit. Also, only money supply has a negative and weak correlation of about 26 percent with current account deficit. In the same vein, the RGDP and the interest rate has a positive correlation of 50 percent and 29 percent respectively. Table 2. Correlation Matrix CAD BD MON RGDP INT CAD 1.000 BD 0.434 1.000 MON -0.266 -0.554 1.000 RGDP 0.501 0.010 0.235 1.000 INT 0.293 -0.243 -0.188 0.606 1.000 RER 0.579 0.184 0.027 0.886 0.462 Source: Author’s computation with E-Views RER 1.000 Where CAD is current account deficit as a percentage of GDP, BD is budget deficit as percentage of GDP, MON is money supply as percentage of GDP, RGDP is real GDP, INT is prime interest rate and RER is official exchange rate. Unit Root Test The next step is the determination of the time series properties of each variable based on unit root tests. This is used to determine if the time series variables under observation are stationary or not. This is because most time series data sets are often found not to be stationary and estimation with such data produces a spurious result. Various methods are often used to test for stationarity of variables, they include Dickey-Fuller (1979 & 1981), Augmented Dickey-Fuller (1979), GLS Detrended Dickey-Fuller (GLS-DF, 1996), Phillips-Perron (1998), Kwiatkowski-Phillips-Schmidt-Shin (KPSS, 1992), NgPerron (2001) among others. However, this study employed the Augmented DickeyFuller (ADF) unit root test to test for non-stationarity or otherwise of the variables. Table 3 below presents the results of the stationarity test for each of the variables. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 167 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi Table 3. Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) Unit Root Test SERIES ADF at Levels ADF at First Difference Order of Integration CAD -3.499651** -6.782101 I (O) BD -4.013597* -9.203227 I (O) MON -1.621164 -5.885483* I (1) RGDP 1.975411 -5.303351* I (1) INR -1.472475 -9.781999* I (1) RER 0.571636 -5.795255* I (1) Source: Author’s computation with E-views Note: A variable is stationary when the ADF t-stat is greater than the critical values at a given level of significance. * and ** indicates stationarity at 1 percent and 5 percent level of significance. From the table 3 above, it can be observed that only the budget deficit and current account were stationarity at levels at 1 percent and 5 percent level of significance respectively, the others were found not to be stationary at levels. However, all the variables became stationary after the first differencing; in other words, all the variables were integrated of order 1 that is I(1). Thus, the null hypothesis of the presence of a unit root is rejected at first difference as the absolute values of the ADF statistics were greater than the critical values at 1 percent level of significance. Co-integration Test Having ascertained the order of co-integration, the next step is to test for the existence of a long run relationship between budget deficit and current account deficit together with their interacting variables. The purpose of the co-integration test is to determine whether a group of non-stationary series is co-integrated or not. Engle and Granger (1987) pointed out that if the linear combination of non-stationary series exists, then the non-stationary time series are said to be co-integrated. The stationary linear combination is called the co-integrating equation and may be interpreted as a long run equilibrium relationship among the variables. In the study, the multivariate Johansen co-integration test will be used as against the Engle and Granger two-step procedure. According to Tang (2010), the major advantage of using the multivariate co-integration approach is that it has superior properties in particular for two or more variables in a system as it is not sensitive to the choice of dependent variables as it assumes all variables to be endogenous. Also, the Johansen test is preferred to the Engle and Granger two step procedure as the latter first estimates the regression equation and test for stationarity of the residual, this can bring about the transmission of errors. In addition, the Johansen method shows the number of co-integrating equations as well as the estimation of the long run equation which is not possible with the Engle and Granger two step procedures (Arize and Melinderos, 2008). 168 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Johansen proposes two different likelihood ratio tests of significance of theses economical correlations. These are the trace tests and the maximum eigen value tests. The trace test statistics tests the null hypothesis “there are at most r co integrating relations” against the alternative hypothesis of “m co integrating relations” (that is, the series are stationary), r = 0, 1, 2, ..., m-1. The maximum eigen value on the other hand test the null hypothesis “there are co-integrating relations” against the alternative hypothesis “there are r + 1 co-integrating relations”. The co-integration rank test which is to test the number of co- integrating vectors was done under the assumption that the series have no deterministic trend and have intercept. This is because a number of the variables were found to have intercepts when the line graph was constructed. The results of the Johansen co-integration test is presented in table 4 and 5. Table 4. Johansen Co-integration Test (For Trace Stat.) Hypothesized Trace 0.05 No. of CE(s) Eigen value Statistic Critical Value Prob.** None * 0.683006 130.3979 103.8473 0.0003 At most 1 * 0.589095 85.59187 76.97277 0.0095 At most 2 0.463455 50.90557 54.07904 0.0932 At most 3 0.350045 26.62396 35.19275 0.3082 At most 4 0.158355 9.820732 20.26184 0.6574 At most 5 0.076345 3.097264 9.164546 0.5627 Source: Author’s computation with E-views. Trace indicates 2 co-integrating equations at 0.05 level. * denotes rejection of hypothesis at 0.05 level. Table 5. Johansen Co-integration Test (Max-Eigen value Stat.) Hypothesized No. of CE(s) None * At most 1 At most 2 At most 3 At most 4 At most 5 Eigen value 0.683006 0.589095 0.463455 0.350045 0.158355 0.076345 Max-Eigen Statistic 44.80599 34.68630 24.28162 16.80322 6.723468 3.097264 0.05 Critical Value 40.95680 34.80587 28.58808 22.29962 15.89210 9.164546 Source: Author’s computation with E-views. Max-Eigen stats indicate 1 co-integrating equation at 0.05 level. * denotes rejection of hypothesis at 0.05 level. Prob.** 0.0176 0.0517 0.1613 0.2450 0.7031 0.5627 The result of the trace and maximum Eigen value summarized in Table 4 and 5 Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 169 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi indicates the possibility of rejecting the null hypothesis that says there are no cointegrating vectors at 5 percent level of significance. This confirms the existence of long run equilibrium relationship between budget deficit and the current account deficit as the trace statistics indicates 2 co-integrating relationship while the maximum Eigen value indicates 1 co-integrating relationship, which means that they do not diverge away from each other in the long run. However, in this study, the indication of the maximum Eigen value test is followed. This is because the maximum Eigen value test is more likely to give normal result as regards the number of equations in the model that would converge towards the long run equilibrium path. Table 6. Normalized Co-integrating Coefficients (Standard Error in Parenthesis) CAD BD MON LRGDP INT RER C 1.000000 0.275883 0.443051 -4.24E-06 -0.385598 -0.165482 -5.985680 (0.42769) (0.20966) (1.4E-05) (0.29101) (0.04313) (5.75258) Source: Author’s computation with E-views Max-Eigen stats indicate 1 co-integrating equation at 0.05 level. * denotes rejection of hypothesis at 0.05 level. Furthermore, the estimates of the normalized co-integrating vector generated by the cointegration test is reported at the bottom of table 6 showing long run effect of budget deficit (BD) and the other interacting variables. The related t-statistics are reported in parenthesis below each coefficient. The existence of a unique co-integrating vector here implies that equilibrium relationship exists among the co-integrating variables and that no matter the fluctuation in the short run; these variables have a tendency to return to this equilibrium path in the long run. In other words, given an initial disequilibrium, the co-integrating variables will not wander away from one another endlessly but will eventually return to its established equilibrium path. From the normalized co-integrating coefficients above, it can be observed that only money supply and exchange rates were found to be statistically significant given their t-statistics. Also, the budget deficit and money supply were negatively signed while the RGDP, interest rate and exchange rate were positively signed. In other words, in the long run, a 1 percent change in BD will lead to approximately a 28 percent decrease in the current account deficit but it is not significant. Also, a 1 percent change in money supply will result to about 44 percent decrease in the current account. Multivariate Granger Causality Test Given that the variables are not co-integrated, the ECM (using the Johansen) cannot be applied as such, we proceeded to carry out the causality test. The Granger causality test thus, helps to test the existence of causality and determine its direction. In most studies on the relationship between the budget deficit and the current account deficit, the most commonly used type of Granger causality is the bivariate framework. The Granger causality tests with the bivariate framework are said to be biased owing to the 170 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination omission of relevant variable(s) that affects the relationship between the twin deficits (Tang, 2010). Also, the multivariate Granger causality shows how the other variables individually and jointly Granger causes the dependent variable. This is a remarkable improvement over the bivariate framework. This study employs the Vector Error Correction (VEC) Granger causality/Block Exogeneity Wald test to test for the multivariate Granger causality which shows causality among the variables of interest. The multivariate Granger causality can be performed in various ways but this study will use the Granger causality Block Wald test within the VEC model framework. The result is presented in table 7 through 12 below. VEC Granger Causality/Block Exogeneity Wald test Table 7. Dependent Variable; D (CAD) Excluded Chi-Square df Prob D(BD) 1.381567 2 0.5012 D(MON) 5.089605 2 0.0785 D(RGDP) 2.220917 2 0.3294 D(INT) 1.524860 2 0.4665 D(RER) 1.117600 2 0.5719 ALL 12.78470 10 0.2360 Source: Author’s computation with E-views Table 8. Dependent Variable; D (BD) Excluded Chi-Square df Prob D(CAD) 5.088710 2 0.0785 D(MON) 2.399733 2 0.3012 D(RGDP) 8.187262 2 0.0167 D(INT) 3.559773 2 0.1687 D(RER) 2.178612 2 0.3364 ALL 17.59277 10 0.0622 Source: Author’s computation with E-views Table 9. Dependent Variable; D (MON) Excluded Chi-Square df Prob D(CAD) 1.662903 2 0.4354 D(BD) 3.195489 2 0.2024 D(RGDP) 5.180465 2 0.0750 Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 171 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi D(INT) 1.613148 2 0.4464 D(RER) 2.191019 2 0.3344 ALL 9.580632 10 0.4780 Source: Author’s computation with E-views Table 10. Dependent Variable; D (RGDP) Excluded Chi-Square df Prob D(CAD) 8.221225 2 0.0164 D(BD) 6.546916 2 0.0379 D(MON) 13.92505 2 0.0009 D(INT) 3.758688 2 0.1527 D(RER) 2.749333 2 0.2529 ALL 31.79899 10 0.0004 Source: Author’s computation with E-views Table 11. Dependent Variable; D (INT) Excluded Chi-Square df Prob D(CAD) 8.401906 2 0.0150 D(BD) 0.773984 2 0.6791 D(MON) 0.626852 2 0.7309 D(RGDP) 0.984094 2 0.6114 RER 0.345336 2 0.8414 ALL 16.02099 10 0.0990 Source: Author’s computation with E-views Table 12. Dependent Variable; D (RER) Excluded Chi-Square df Prob D(CAD) 0.161862 2 0.9223 D(BD) 0.411191 2 0.8142 D(MON) 4.550628 2 0.1028 D(RGDP) 0.611457 2 0.7366 D(INT) 2.117522 2 0.3469 ALL 7.449806 10 0.6824 Source: Author’s computation with E-views Applying the WALD test, the results from table 8 shows that the causality between budget deficit and current account deficit does not exist, but rather from current account deficit to budget deficit. The value 0.5012 is not statistically significant showing that budget deficit does not granger cause current account deficit. Only 172 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination money supply was found to granger cause the current account deficit at 5 percent level of significance even though their joint p-value was found not to be significant (0.2360). However, Table 9, the probability value of current account deficit which is 0.0785 shows that current account deficit significantly granger cause the budget deficit at 5 percent level of significance when budget deficit is the dependent variable. This result implies that only a unit-directional causality exists between the twin deficit and it flows from current account deficit to budget deficit as against the proposition of the Keynesians that the flow is from budget deficit to current account deficit. In other words, for the Nigerian economy, reverse causality is what is evident. A possible reason for this reverse relationship is that budget policies in Nigeria have been accompanied by substantial external trade deterioration. And given that increase in government spending is mostly transitory, it has little or no effect on the permanent income and consequently consumption plans of domestic households. Thus, when the government uses debt to finances increases in its spending, it leads to a near static increase in domestic private savings while the budget deficit incurred will have a near proportional effect on the current account. Basically, the budget deficit will lead to higher interest rates and this higher interest rates lead to the appreciation of the exchange rate and this leads to the widening of current account deficit. The results obtained though consistent with many other results may not be generalizable given that the Nigerian economy, being an oil rich country that relies much on oil revenue, may be affected by occurrences that affects the oil market and subsequently the price of oil internationally. The result of this study confirms the earlier result from Egwaikhide, et al (2002) for Nigeria. Furthermore, it supports the findings of Kulkarmi and Erickson (2001) for Pakistan; Neaime (2008) for Lebanon; Arize and Melinderos (2008) for selected 10 African countries including Nigeria; Suchismita and Sudiptal (2011) for India and Rauf and Khan (2011) for Pakistan, among others. Summary of Findings, Policy Implications of Result and Conclusion. This study investigates the twin deficit relationship in an oil-dependent open economy like Nigeria where exports, government revenue and income are closely linked with oil revenue. The study attempted to prove that even in a petroleum economy, the Keynesian proposition of a long run equilibrium relationship exists between the twin deficits, but the direction of causality is reversed. The study showed that the twin deficits hypothesis was valid for the Nigerian economy as the result from the cointegration test showed the existence of long run equilibrium relationship between the budget deficit and the current account deficit. Also, the study found strong support for reverse causation also known as “current account targeting” for Nigeria. This implies that even the Mundell-Fleming model was valid for Nigeria; the direction of causality was not from budget deficit to current account deficit but rather from current account deficit to budget deficit. This can be attributed to the nature of the Nigerian economy being an oil-based and oil-dependent economy. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 173 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi The economic implication of this phenomenon is very important for the Nigerian economy. The reverse causality that was found to exist for Nigerian implies that if the Nigerian government intends to reduce the “twin deficit” phenomenon in Nigeria, it must begin by reducing the current account deficits. In other words, policies showed should be geared towards controlling the deficit in the current account most especially by diversifying the export base of the economy by promoting non-oil exports. Since the current account balance of Nigeria depends on oil prices, the government should endeavour to diversify the sources of the National income by encouraging exports of non-oil products and reducing imports. The multivariate Granger causality test which was done using the Wald/exogenueity test within the VECM framework showed a uni-directional causality flowing from the current account deficits to the budget deficits in Nigeria for the period of review by this study. The result of the Wald Test showed that the causality between budget deficit and current account does not exist, but rather the current account deficit is the one that causes the budget account deficit for the Nigerian economy. The ECM which shows the speed of adjustment back to equilibrium reflected that the model has about 59 percent adjustment to equilibrium from the long run to the short run which is a moderate adjustment. The examination of the relationship between the twin deficits has important policy implications for the economy. Firstly, persistent large deficits is believed to cause indebtedness as government will tend to resort to borrowing internally and externally which may affect the debt profile of such economy. Secondly, it imposes burden on the future generations as debt incurred by the government to finance the deficits is carried into future generations. Also, since increases in current account deficit reflect escalating government budget deficits, the current account deficit cannot be remedied by just fiscal consolidation as argued in some empirical literature. Similarly, if the causal role of the twin deficit is incorrect, then reductions in the federal budget deficit may not resolve the current account dilemma causing diversion of scarce economic resources from relevant sectors. Based on the study’s findings, it was recommended that: If government intends to reduce its “twin deficit” dilemma, it must begin by reducing its current account deficits and this can be achieved by reducing imports, increasing exports or a combination of both measures. Also, since the findings of this study showed evidence of reverse causation from current account deficits to budget deficits, adjustments in fiscal balance can only be achieved through the implementation of strong external policies. The strong found that of all the interacting variables, only money supply Granger causes current account deficits. This implies that changes in the money supply base of the Nigerian economy will impact significantly in the current account balance. So the Central Bank of Nigeria must endeavour to consciously monitor the supply of money in the economy. In reducing the current account deficit, increase in domestic savings is required which in turn requires the development of a strong financial sector. 174 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination References Abbas, S. M., Bouhga-Hagbe, J., Fatás, A. J., Mauro P., & Velloso, P. C. (2010) Fiscal Policy and Current Account. IMF Working Paper No 121. May. Afonso, A., & Rault, C. (2009). Bootstrap Panel Granger-Causality between Government Budget and External Deficits for the EU. CESifo Working Paper No 2581. Arize, A. C., & Melindreros, J. (2008). Dynamic Linkages and Granger Causality between Trade Deficits and Budget Deficits: Evidence from Africa. African Journal of Accounting, Economics, Finance and Banking Research. 2(2). Bagnai Alberto, (2006). “Structural breaks and the twin deficits hypothesis,” International Economics and Economic Policy, Springer, vol. 3(2), pages 137-155 Baharumshah, A. Z., Evan, L., & Khalid, A. M. (2006). Testing Twin Deficits Hypothesis Using VARs and Variance Decomposition. Business Papers, Bond University School of Business. ePublications@bond. Barro, R. J., (1974). Are government bonds net wealth? Journal of Political Economy, 82, 1095–1117. Baxter, M. (1995). International Trade and Business Cycles. In: Grossmann, G. and K. Rogoff (eds.), Handbook of International Economics, 3, North-Holland Elsevier, Amsterdam. Brian, N. (n.d). Twin Deficits: An empirical analysis on the relationship between budget deficits and trade deficits in Argentina. Retrieved on May 18, 2012 from http:// business.pages.tcnj.edu/files/2011/07/Ng.Thesis.pdf Bussiere, M., Fratzscher, M., & Muller, G. J. (2005) Productivity Shocks, Budget Deficits and the Current Account. European Central Bank Working Paper Series. No. 509. Cavallo, M., (2005). Understanding the Twin Deficits: New Approaches, New Results. FRBSF Economic Letter. Number 2005-16, July 22. Celik, S., & Deniz, P. (n.d). An Empirical Investigation of Twin Deficit Hypothesis for Six Emerging Countries. Retrived on May 18, 2012 from http://www.hull.ac.uk/php/ ecskrb/MED2009/Celik_fup.11889.1239886856. Chang, J., & Hsu, Z. (2009). Causality Relationship between the Twin Deficits in the Regional Economy. Department of Economics, National Chi Nan University. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 175 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi Chinn, M. D. (2005). Getting Serious about the Twin Deficits. The Bernard and Irene Schwartz Series on the Future of American Competitiveness. CSR NO. 10, September. Council on Foreign Relations. Egwaikhide, F. O. (1997). Effects of Budget Deficits on the Current Account Balance in Nigeria: A Simulation Exercise. AERC Research Paper 70. Nairobi. Egwaikhide, F. O., Oyeranti, O. A., Ayodele, O. S., & Tchokote, J. (2002). Causality between budget deficits and the current account balance in African Countries. West African Journal of Monetary and Economic Integration. 2(2). Evan, L., and Tang, T. C. (2009). Twin deficits in Cambodia: Are there Reasons for Concerns? An Empirical Study. Monash University, Business and Economics. Department of Economics. Discussion Paper 11/09. Evan, Lau; Puah, Chin-Hong and Tan, Kim Lee (2006): Budget-current account deficits nexus in Malaysia. The Journal of Global Business Management, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 126-135. Fleegler, E. (2006). The Twin Deficits Revisited: A Cross Country Empirical Approach. Being Honors Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for graduation with distinction in Economics in Trinity College of Duke University. Gadong, T. D. (2009). Fiscal Deficits and the Growth of Domestic Output in Nigeria. Journal of Economics. 4(1). Jos. Ganchev, G. T. (2010). The Twin Deficit Hypothesis: The Case of Bulgaria. Financial Theory and Practice 34(4). pp 357-377 Giancarlo, C., & Gernot, J. M. (2006). Twin Deficits: Squaring Theory, Evidence and Common Sense. Preliminary version of a paper prepared for the 43rd Panel Meeting of Economic Policy in Vienna. Giancarlo, C., & Gernot, J. M. (2007). Twin Deficits, Openness and the Business Cycle. Being paper presented at EEA meeting in Budapest, Goethe University of Frankfurt. Hakro, A. N. (2009). Twin Deficits Causality Link- Evidence from Pakistan. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics. 24. Hashemzadeh, N., & Wilson, L. (2006). The dynamics of current account and budget deficits in selected countries in the Middle East and North Africa. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics. 5. 176 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Hossain, S. (2012). Multivariate Granger causality between economic growth, electricity consumption, exports and remittances for the panel of three SAARC Countries. Global Journal of Management and Business Research. 12(4). Jayaraman, T. K., & Chee-Keong, C. (2008). Twin Deficits in Pacific Island Countries: A Case of Vanuatu. Journal of Small Economies and Global Economies. Editors: J.R. Pillarisetti, R. Lawrey and J. T. S. Yean. Jayaraman, T. K., Chee-Keong, C., & Siong-Hook, L. (2009). Testing the Validity of Twin Deficit Hypothesis in Pacific Island Countries: An Empirical Investigation. Economics Bulletin, 30(2). Kim, S., & Roubini, N. (2003). Twin Deficits or Twin Divergence? Fiscal Policy, Current Account and Real Exchange Rate in the US, NYU Stern mimeo. Kim, S., & Roubini, N. (2007). Twin Deficit or Twin Divergence? Fiscal Policy, Current Account and Real exchange Rate in the US”. Loic Berger and Lena Korber, June 15. Korsu, R. D. (2006). Fiscal Deficits and the External Sector Performance of Sierra Leone: A Simulation Approach. Journal of Economics and Monetary Integration. 9(1). Kulkarni, K.G. and Erickson, E.L. (2001). „Twin Deficit Revisited: Evidence from India, Pakistan and Mexico.‟ Journal of Applied Business Research, 17(2): 97-100. Labonte, M., & Makinsen, G. (2005). The Budget Deficits and the Trade Deficits: What is their Relationship? CRS Report for Congress. Order code RS21409. Mamdouh, A. A. (2002). The Twin Deficits Phenomenon in Petroleum Economy: Evidence from Saudi Arabia. King Saud University Dept. of Economics. Retrieved on January 17, 2012, from http://www.erf.org.eg/html/finance1.pdf. Mukhtar, T., Zakaria, M., & Ahmed, M. (2007). An Empirical Investigation of the Twin Deficits Hypothesis in Pakistan. Journal of Economic Co-operation. 28(4), pp 6380. Neaime, S. (2008). Twin Deficits in Lebanon: A Time Series Analysis. IFE Lecture and Working Paper Series No 2. Beirut Institute of Financial Economics, American University of Beirut. Nkang, N. M., Abang. S. O., Akpan, O. E., & Offem, K. J. (2006). Co-integration and Error-Correction Modelling of Agricultural Export Trade in Nigeria: The Case of Cocoa. Journal of Agriculture and Social Sciences. 2(4), pp 249-255. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 177 �Lloyd Ahamefule Amaghionyeodiwe, Opeyemi Akinyemi Olga, V. (2000). Twin Deficit Hypothesis: The Case of Ukraine. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Economics at the National University “Kyiv - Mohyla Academy” Onafowokan, O. A., & Owoye, O. (2006). An Empirical Investigation of Budget and Trade Deficits: The Case of Nigeria. Journal of Developing Areas. 39(2), pp 153-174. Orebiyi, J. S., & Ugochukwu, A. I. (2005). Budget and Budgetary Control in Nigeria: Procedures, Practices and Policy Issues. Global Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 4(1) pp 69- 73 Osakwe, P., & Verick, S. (2007). Current Account Deficits in Sub-Saharan Africa: Do they Matter? Draft: 7 October. Ratha, A. (2011). Twin Deficits or Distant Cousins? Evidence from India. Economics Working Paper No 5. Rauf, A., & Khan, A. Q. (2011). An empirical study to find the relationship between trade deficits and budget deficits in Pakistan. Academic Research International.1 (3). Saleh, A. S. (2006). Long-run Linkage between Budget Deficit and Trade Deficits in Lebanon: Results from the UECM and Bounds Tests. IIUM Journal of Economics and Management. 14(1). Schneider, E., Chen, P., & Frohn, J. (2008). A long run structural macro-econometric model for Germany: An empirical note. Open-Assessment E-Journal. 2(16). Shukur G. and Hatemi-J A. (2002) “Multivariate-Based Causality Tests of the Twin Deficits in the US”. Journal of Applied Statistics, Vol. 29(6), 817-824. Sims, C. A. (1980). Macroeconomics and Reality. Econometrica. 48(1), pp 1-48. Suchismita, B., & Sudipta, J. (2011). India’s Twin Deficits: Some Fresh Empirical Evidence. ICRA Bulletin, Money and Finance. December. Sule, K. O., & Momoh, C. O. (2009). The impact of stock market earnings on Nigerian per capita income. African Journal of Accounting, Economics, Finance and Banking Research. 5(5). Tang, C. F. (2010). Multivariate Granger causality and the dynamic relationship between health spending, income and health price in Malaysia. MPRA Paper No 27298. Posted 08/12/2010. Yanik, Y. (2006) The Twin Deficits Hypothesis: An Empirical Investigation. A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of Social Sciences Of Middle East Technical University. December. 178 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Zamanzadeh, A., & Mehrara, M. (2011). Testing Twin Deficits Hypothesis in Iran”. Interdisciplinary Journal of Research in Business. 1(9) pp 07-11. Zengin, A. (n.d). The twin deficits hypothesis (The Turkish Case). Zonguldak Karaelmas University. Department of Economics, Zonguldak, Turkey. Retrieved on May 18, 2012 from http://www.opf.slu.cz/vvr/akce/turecko/pdf/Zengin.pdf. Zhidong, B., Heng, L., Wing-Kenng, W., & Zhang, B. (2009). Multivariate Causality Tests with Simulation and Application. Springer. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 179 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2931 Title A name given to the resource Twin Deficit in Nigeria: A Re-Examination Author Author Amaghionyeodiwe, Lloyd Ahamefule Opeyemi, Akinyemi Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This study re-examines the long run relationship between the budget and current account deficits in an oil-dependent open economy like Nigeria using a multivariate Granger causality test within the VECM framework. This result confirmed the existence of a long run relationship between the budget and current account deficit in Nigeria, thus supporting the Mudell-Fleming theory and refuting the Ricardian Equivalence Hypothesis (REH). The causality result indicates no causality between budget deficit and current account while the current account deficit causes budget account deficit. This implies that reduction in the current account deficits will help reduce the “twin deficit” dilemma. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/99f1516c5814a1b1748b94adc0ea71d8.pdf f63e494b57a139e11c6b8bd3ac8b5711 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Two Women, Two Wars, Two Plays:Queen Elizabeth I and Lady Thatcher in the Theatre Nilgün Müftüoğlu Department of Translation & Interpretation School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey denizmuftuoglu6107@hotmail.com Abstract: Theatre does not only provide people with mere entertainment but also throughout history it has functioned as an effective instrument through which those in power impose their policies or playwrights vigorously criticize these policies. In this sense, Elizabethan drama, which is often associated with Shakespeare, played a significant role of endorsing the ideas and policies of a woman ruler, Queen Elizabeth I, namely maintenance of order and equilibrium in that particular period, whereas Lady Thatcher’s policies, one of the longest serving politician in British Political History, came under severe criticism from the prominent contemporary playwrights in the 1980s. In this paper, Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher are compared in terms of their portrait in the theatre by referring to two plays, Henry V and Sink the Belgrano!. Although Henry V is not a play directly about Elizabeth I, it celebrates Elizabeth I and her victory at the defeat of Spanish Armada. And Sink the Belgrano! directly criticizes Thatcher’s policy in Falklands War. Throughout history theatre has not only provided people with mere entertainment but also functioned as an effective instrument through which those in power have imposed their policies while simultaneously allowing playwrights to vigorously criticize these policies. This can be seen particularly clearly in the comparison between Elizabethan Drama and the theatre under Thatcher’s rule. Elizabethan drama which is often associated with Shakespeare played a significant role in endorsing the ideas and policies of a woman ruler, Queen Elizabeth I, namely maintenance of order and equilibrium in that particular period. On the other hand, Lady Thatcher’s policies, one of the longest serving politicians in British Political History, came under severe criticism from the prominent contemporary playwrights in the 1980s. Such an argument might be strengthened by attention to their portraits in the theatre by referring to two plays, Shakespeare’s Henry V and Steven Berkoff’s Sink the Belgrano!. Although Henry V is not a play directly about Queen Elizabeth I, it alludes to Elizabeth and her victory at the defeat of the Spanish Armada. On the other hand, Sink the Belgrano! directly criticizes Thatcher’s policy in the Falklands War. These two ruling women, Queen Elizabeth I from the sixteenth century and Margaret Thatcher from the twentieth century, share many similarities in terms of their character and political events of their era. Both women exhibit characteristics that prevent themselves from behaviors peculiar to the weaker sex. Elizabeth I was so concerned with the welfare of her country that she turned down all marriage proposals for the sake of her country as she thought that marriage would only serve to distract her from her governmental duties. Elizabeth’s commitment to her country is strikingly clear in this expert from her coronation speech. As she displayed her coronation ring, just like a wedding ring she stated as such “Behold…the Pledge of this my Wedlock and Marriage with my Kingdom. Every one of you, and as many as are English-men, are Children and Kinsmen to me” (Thomas, 1998, p. 95). Like a wife and a mother with responsibilities for her husband and children, Elizabeth had the responsibility to maintain the order and safety in the country as well as to remain faithful. Then, how could people expect her to marry while she had already been married? As for Margaret Thatcher, she had a hair-style in the appearance of being contrived and always dressed in either black or blue with an intention to have more impact than her male colleagues (Peacock, 1999). Elizabeth I had only one wish which was to get England to be recognized as a world power. By the same token, Margaret Thatcher desired to prove that England was still the world power as it used to be. Neither Elizabeth I nor Lady Thatcher inherited a peaceful and stable country. When Elizabeth I ascended to the throne in 1558, country was suffering from serious economic problems including inflation, the debasement of coinage and their farmers were struggling with another bad harvest (Hibbert, 1992). Likewise, in 1979 when Margaret Thatcher was elected as the Prime Minister, she too witnessed a near national breakdown with an inherent consequence of widespread distress (Reitan, 2003). Moreover, both Elizabeth I and Lady Thatcher had to deal with the power 356 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo struggles between two opposites. The former was caught between Protestantism and Catholicism and the latter between the Conservative and the Labor Party. In other words, they both had to prove themselves as powerful and talented leaders in the eyes of their people as well as their enemies. In this respect, the victories at the wars against Spain in 1588 and against Argentina in 1982 provided the prestige and popularity they looked for. In 1588, Philip II of Spain attacked England for a number of reasons: the piratical raids of English sailors on Spanish ships and ports, the intolerable interference of Elizabeth I in the Netherlands and the Pope’s desire to overthrow Elizabeth I, whom he announced as heretic (Carter & Mears, 1960). The battle drew to a conclusion with the defeat of the Spanish Armada. This victory not only secured the throne of Elizabeth I but also made England the most powerful naval force in the world. Thus, it paved the way for England to colonize North America. In addition, this meant a victory gained against Catholicism. On November 24th 1588, Elizabeth I gave thanks for the nation’s victory in St Paul’s Cathedral. Hibbert (1990) states that she arrived at the cathedral in a chariot drawn by two white horses and she was like the Goddess of Victory. From then on, people admired her so much that whenever the queen passed through the streets, they were eager to show their adherence. In the same manner, the Falklands War began when Argentina invaded the Falklands Islands and South Georgia in April, 1982, propounding the historic claim that the islands belonged to them. The Falklands issue was regarded as a chance by the governments because neither political nor economic situation was good in either country. For this reason, this war had important political consequences for both sides. The defeat of Argentina hastened the downfall of its government. In England’s case it reminded individuals all around the globe that England still had the power and ability that was so notable in its past. In particular, this victory meant a great deal to Margaret Thatcher since “Thatcherite triumphalism was born in the Falklands war” (Clarke, 1996: 375 cited in Cross, 2004: 174). It secured a second term as Prime Minister for Thatcher, who hitherto has been among the most unpopular leaders of Britain. With the advent of victory, people began to regard her as a powerful leader standing against a foreign power and voted for the Conservatives in the 1983 election (Evans, 2004). Thatcher recognized herself as the savior and unifying force of Britain (Cross, 2004), which reaches its fullest expression in her remarks on April 25th of 1982. Addressing to the public in front of the cameras outside 10 Downing Street, she wanted them just to rejoice. As Peacock (1999) states, “such self-aggrandizement exhibited monarchical tendencies.” (p. 19). The fact the Thatcher sunk a battleship and eventually defeated Argentina- a Spanish speaking nation, identified her in the minds of the people as a second Queen Elizabeth I (Cross, 2004). However, unlike Elizabeth I, Thatcher was annoyed by the Archbishop of Canterbury at the service of thanksgiving for the victory which was held at St. Paul’s Cathedral. In his sermon, Robert Runcie said “War is a sign of human failure, and everything we say and do in this service must be in that context” (Blewett, 2008, p. 4). Contrary to their parallels in personal character and political history, Queen Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher differ almost entirely when it comes to their portrayal in theater. Elizabeth I manipulated theater to maintain her power and authority. She herself patronized and protected the theatre. Stephen Greenblatt puts forward that it is because of the fact that Elizabeth had neither a powerful army nor an extensive police force (Hall, 1997). However, she had a more powerful thing, which was the pen of Shakespeare. Writing his histories with a pedagogical and political intention, Shakespeare became her preeminent comrade. By means of these plays, particularly Henry V, he aimed to “reinforce and consolidate belief in social order based on the power of the monarch” (Hall, 1997, p. 17). On the other hand, after Margaret Thatcher came to power in 1979, the contemporary playwrights such as John McGrath, David Hare and Carly Churchill, who criticized capitalism in their works until that time, saw Thatcherism as a great threat and turned their harsh criticism towards Lady Thatcher and her policies (Cross, 2004). One play in particular was Berkoff’s Sink the Belgrano!. It is highly critical of Thatcher and particularly her policies during the Falklands War. In fact, when Shakespeare wrote his play, Henry V in 1599, it had passed eleven years after the defeat of Spanish Armada and there were four years to the end of the reign of Elizabeth I. The Golden Age of the British Empire was near to end and people were wondering who would be the successor of the queen. Moreover, the threat of war with Spain was still there to be prevented, and Queen Elizabeth was providing help to the Protestants in other countries (Hall, 1997). This historical and political background makes all the more apparent to us the fact that Henry V is not just one of those history plays of Shakespeare but that it embodies a profoundly important mission beneath its surface meaning. As Hall (1997) points out, “the play implicitly reflects Elizabethan England’s desire for a peaceful succession of the monarchy” (p. 14) while expressing the gratitude towards the queen. The play is full of implicit references to Queen Elizabeth I herself, her current reign and her victory on Catholic force of Spanish Armada. As for Berkoff, he waited four years to write his play, Sink the Belgrano! after the Argentine light cruiser General Belgrano was sunk by British nuclear-powered submarine Conqueror in 1982. It had been seven years since Lady Thatcher came to power and she would continue to rule the country for four more years. This meant that contemporary playwrights shifted their focus away from socialist and Marxist critique of capitalism to 357 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo an emphasis on Thatcherism (Cross, 2004) which aimed at low inflation through controlling the money supply in the economy, privatization and applying constraints on labor movement. Explicitly criticizing “the jingoistic patriotism of the Falklands War” (Cross, 2004, p. 170), Berkoff may try to warn about other inherent threats of Thatcher herself and Thatcherism. When it comes to their portrait in the plays, however, the names under which they appear immediately attract our attention. Queen Elizabeth I is replaced by another Tudor king, King Henry V who is in the process of proving himself a great king and a hero as well through not only his victory at the war with France but also his decisions concerning the state and his old friends. On the other hand, Margaret Thatcher turns out to be Maggot Scratcher in the play. This name leaves the impression that she feeds on other people’s death like a maggot and it can be understood that she gives damage around herself slightly like in the act of scratching. She gains prestige and popularity by means of 400 dead bodies in sinking the Belgrano. Even John Nott and Francis Pym, who worked as Secretary of State of Defence during the Thatcher government, are called through different names: Nott becomes “Nit”, which means a silly or stupid person, and Pym as “Pimp”. These names make it clear how Shakespeare and Berkoff perceive their characters and their deeds as well. The difference in their portraits becomes more visible in their deeds and speeches. First of all, both Henry V and Maggot Scratcher assert a claim on a land which is far away from the home. Henry V has a claim to the throne of France. His following question to the Archbishop of Canterbury suggests his already desire for such a claim: “May I right and conscience make this claim?” (I. ii. p. 446). Beneath such a question lies a sixteenth century fact. In this question, Henry V only looks for a justification for the war because in the sixteenth century there was the question of whether two Christian states could make war against one another (Campbell, 1970). And the Archbishop of Canterbury explains that one can not inherit the throne through the mother in France but Henry V can inherit that throne since there is not such a law in England and as he is the grand-grandgrand son of the daughter of the king of France, he can claim the throne to France. Thus, this claim is justified in the eyes of sixteenth century audience as well. However, there is something disturbing in Maggot’s claim on Falklands Islands. This is understood in what she says to Pimp: “the land is ours, that’s plain to see.” Maggot recognizes the islands as her own even though she does not know even how to locate on the map. At one point she asks “By the way Pimp… where is the Falklands??” Moreover, as one of the farmers living on the island states, it is Argentina but not England who concerns about their problems: They’ve done sweet FA all these years No roads are built, no hospitals… When we are ill or hurt we fly To Argy land where Argy hands Repair our broken bodies or we’d die (Berkoff, 1994, p. 12) Henry tries to show himself as a king who has been forced to make war against France. He achieves this by means of allowing the message from the French king to be delivered “freely” and thus showing himself as gracious (Hall, 1997): We are no tyrant, but a Christian king; Unto whose grace our passion is as subject As are our wretches fetter’d in our prisons: (I. ii. p. 448) Then he learns about the present of tennis balls from the French king. Realizing the mock under such a present, Henry states that it is a cause of a war: And tell the pleasant prince this mock of his Hath turn’d his balls to gun-stones; … Tell you the Dauphin, I am coming on, To venge me as I may, and to put forth My rightful hand in a well-hallow’d cause. (I. ii. p. 448) However, Maggot is shown to have a big desire for war. For example, when Pimp tells her that the Argentine government wants to make peace terms, Maggot gets nervous and says: They bloody what? Why peace terms no? After they shit on our front door (Berkoff, 1994, p. 158) It seems that she has not become happy with this news as she longs for a war in which she will make “a Spanish omelette”: I’ll make a Spanish omelette! At first I’ll crack some Argy eggs Throw in some tasty British herbs Well flavoured with strong English earth (Berkoff, 1994, p. 162) She needs a war to “establish once again our might and strength, Shake our old mane, out fly the moths” as she states herself in the play. As Margaret Thatcher declared, “We have ceased to be a nation in retreat. We have 358 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo instead a new-found confidence, born in the economic battles at home and tested and found true 8.000 miles away” (Young, 1989, p. 281). This was a message generally to the rest of the world and more specifically to the leftists. In her great desire to prove this, Maggot Scratcher does not miss the chance to sink the Belgrano although it stays out the Zone and even returning back. Affected by the speech of Tell who tells her to be hard as steel befitting her name “Iron Lady”, Maggot says: Then sink the bloody sod, that’s why I say We’ll change the engagement rules … OK (Berkoff, 1994, p. 181) and then gives the order: Then give the order… Let it be swift. Anyway those bastards started it Let them now take the consequence… (Berkoff, 1994, p. 182) However, Margaret Thatcher herself did not admit that the Argentine battleship was sailing back home when she was questioned on TV a year later during the 1983 election campaign. Mrs. Diana Gould asked the reason to sink the Belgrano while it was in fact drawing away from the Falklands, the answer of Thatcher was that “But it was not sailing away from the Falklands” (Young, 1989, p. 286). As Peacock (1999) observes, the decision to sink the battleship was heroic for her. In such a decision, she demonstrated her characteristics of decisiveness and fortitude that Young (1989) talks about in his work. If we refer to the play once again, we come across Berkoff’s explicit criticism in one of the speeches of the Chorus: Around the world, in every pub, In every dining room and lounge The voice of England can be heard Discussing the Falklands with angry sounds As if the family jewels had been thieved. Outraged. The telly on, the pot of tea Refueling parched throats for verbal war You’d never believe until last week They didn’t know Falklands from Leigh-on-Sea. (Berkoff, 1994, p. 169) Berkoff here criticizes the English public supporting Thatcher on this war and presenting jingoism to a place that they have not known about anything hitherto. The jingoistic attitudes of the ordinary public are because of the fact that there exists petrol in Falklands Islands. There is irony in the words “family jewels” pointing out the fact that the Falkland Islands and the petrol there do not already belong to England. Contrary to this portrayal, Shakespeare presents Henry V as an ideal hero and achieves to create a mood of exultation throughout the play (Campbell, 1970). For example, Henry V does not hesitate to execute his former friend, Scroop when he betrays the king. This shows that Henry V attaches more importance to the safety of the country than his relationships (Hall, 1997). When Scroop begs forgiveness, King Henry says: Touching our person, seek we no revenge; But we our kingdom’s safety must so tender, Whose ruin you have sought, that to her laws We do deliver you. Get you, therefore, hence, Poor miserable wretches, to your death: (II. ii. p. 451) King Henry once more proves himself when he learns that one of his old friends, Bardolph was killed in the battle field. He was already sentenced to death by King Henry because of stealing a “pax” from a French church. This is also evidence to the fact that King Henry gives importance to show respect towards the conquered country and that “the expedient military leader can not afford to be sentimental” (Hall, 1997, p. 88) as in the case of Scroop: We would have all such offenders so cut off: – and we give express charge that in our marches through the country there be nothing compelled from the villages, nothing taken but paid for, none of the French upbraided or abused in disdainful language; for when lenity and cruelty play for a kingdom the gentler gamester is the soonest winner (III. v. p. 458) However, celebrating Elizabeth I reaches its fullest expression in the speech Henry delivers before the battle of Agincourt. This speech becomes “the ultimate proof of Henry’s strength as a leader” (Hall, 1997, p. 90). Stating that they will fight for honour, justice and glory, Henry manages to encourage and inspire his soldiers and make them feel that to fight shoulder to shoulder with the King is a sign of brotherhood: If we are mark’d to die, we are enow To do our country loss; and if to live, The fewer men the greater share of honour. God’s will! I pray thee, wish not one man more. 359 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo By Jove, I am not covetous for gold; Nor care I who doth feed upon my cost; It yearns me not if men my garments wear; Such outward things dwell not in my desires: But if it be a sin to covet honour, I am the most offending soul alive. …. We few, we happy few, we band of brothers; For he to-day that shed his blood with me Shall be my brother; be he ne’er so vile, This day shall gentle his condition: (IV. iii. p. 464) This famous St. Crispin’s Day Speech immediately reminds one of Queen Elizabeth I’s address to her troops at Tilbury on 19 August 1588, when they were at the preparation to meet with the Spanish army: My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit our selves to armed multitudes, for fear of treachery; but I assure you I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear. I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects; and therefore I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. … I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. … but by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and of my people (Hibbert, 1992, p. 221). Both of these speeches present King Henry and Elizabeth I as rulers devoted to their country, individuals who would give their right arm for the sake of their kingdom and their people. Thus, celebrating Queen Elizabeth I, Shakespeare conveys the message of the importance of obedience to the throne and tries to convince the Elizabethan audience that a skillful and powerful leader’s concerns lie only with the well-being and stability of the kingdom and its people. And just as King Henry, Elizabeth I has been a great king and a hero; she had “the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too” (Hibbert, 1992, p. 221) as the queen herself states at her Tilbury speech. As can be deduced, there are a number of parallels between Queen Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher. Even both have a nickname. Elizabeth I was called as the “Virgin Queen” as she chose to remain single throughout her life, namely her reign. Margaret Thatcher is known as “Iron Lady” because of her tough-talking. Even tough the women share many similarities in their character and political history, one is celebrated by the theater of Shakespeare and the other receives harsh criticism from contemporary leading playwrights. While in the former theatre becomes a propaganda machine for the governments to strengthen their power and maintain order in the society, in the latter it turns out to be a means for the playwrights to attack the governments and their foreign policies. All these make it clear that theatre has served as a means of reflecting the characteristics of the time and some important personalities. References Berkoff, S. (1994). The Collected Plays. London: Faber and Faber. Blewitt, T. (2008). Introduction. In T. Blewitt, A. Hyde-Price & W. Rees (Eds.), British Foreign Policy and Anglican Church: Christian Engagement with the Contemporary World (pp. 3-8). Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Campbell, L. S. (1970). Shakespeare’s Histories: Mirrors of Elizabethan Policy. London: Methuen. Carter, E. H. & Mears, R. A. F. (1960). A History of Britain. London: Oxford University Press. Cross, R. (2004). Steven Berkoff and the Theatre of Self-Performance. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Evans, E. J. (2004). Thatcher and Thatcherism. NY: Routledge. Hall, J. L. (1997). Henry V: A Guide to the Play. Westport: Greenwood Press. Hibbert, C. (1992). The Virgin Queen: The Personal History of Elizabeth I. London: Penguin. Peacock, D. K. (1999). Thatcher’s Theatre: British Theatre and Drama in the Eighties. Westport: Greenwood Press. Reitan, E. A. (2003). The Thatcher Revolution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major, Tony Blair, and the Transformation of Modern Britain, 1979-2001. USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 360 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Shakespeare, W. (1987). The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, (Ed.). London: The Hamlyn Publishing Group. Thomas, J. R. (1998). Behind the Mask: The Life of Queen Elizabeth I. NY: Houghton Mifflin Company. Young, H. (1989). One of Us: A Biography of Margaret Thatcher. London: Macmillan. 361 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 718 Title A name given to the resource Two Women, Two Wars, Two Plays:Queen Elizabeth I and Lady Thatcher in the Theatre Author Author Müftüoğlu, Nilgün Abstract A summary of the resource. Theatre does not only provide people with mere entertainment but also throughout history it has functioned as an effective instrument through which those in power impose their policies or playwrights vigorously criticize these policies. In this sense, Elizabethan drama, which is often associated with Shakespeare, played a significant role of endorsing the ideas and policies of a woman ruler, Queen Elizabeth I, namely maintenance of order and equilibrium in that particular period, whereas Lady Thatcher’s policies, one of the longest serving politician in British Political History, came under severe criticism from the prominent contemporary playwrights in the 1980s. In this paper, Elizabeth I and Margaret Thatcher are compared in terms of their portrait in the theatre by referring to two plays, Henry V and Sink the Belgrano!. Although Henry V is not a play directly about Elizabeth I, it celebrates Elizabeth I and her victory at the defeat of Spanish Armada. And Sink the Belgrano! directly criticizes Thatcher’s policy in Falklands War. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 945 Title A name given to the resource Two-in-One Instructors…Ikisi bir Arada…The Best of Both Worlds Author Author Ozturk, Nursel Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper will argue for the benefits and prosperity of native/native instructors as defined by Medgyes. I add that instructors with the knowledge and ability to utilize, for learning purposes, the language, culture, and religion of L1 students as well as a firm grasp of these features in their native culture and language provide the most beneficial English language learning environment; 2 in 1 instructors: those who are both native (foreigners) and native (to the populous they teach). A befitting example: a Canadian/American English instructor who is also a Turkish national, familiar since childhood with the customs and language of Canadians/Americans as well as Turks. This paper will not explore, per say, the strengths or weaknesses of non-native vs. native or vice versa, but the fortes, and if any, the shortcomings of a native/native instructor as well as advocate these types of instructors as being a future asset to the EFL world and thus employers and students of English teaching institutions. Thus, it must be assumed that experience, training, and other EFL qualifications are accorded. It is certainly the case, as Medgyes claims, where variables such as age, sex, aptitude, charisma, motivations, training, and so on play a decisive role in the teaching/learning process…yet he notes, are non-language specific variables. What we are interested in here are the best of both worlds…an instructor with a multitude of variables (charisma, motivation ...) as well as language specific ones. Here I argue that non-natives no matter how much L2 they have acquired will most likely not be completely native as is the case with the native who tries to become non-native. I conclude, contrasting to Medgyes, that native/native instructors are the repositories of NESTness and non-NESTNESS, a rare commodity that should be amplified. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46444f0d99b3b0edc254c86d077586c4.pdf ebe0d1338b872e5639356df58fa86990 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Two-Level Description of Kazakh Morphology Harun ReĢit Zafer Department of Computer Eng. Fatih University hrzafer@fatih.edu.tr Birol Tilki Department of Computer Programming Vocational School, Fatih University birolt@fatih.edu.tr Atakan Kurt Department of Computer Eng. Fatih University akurt@fatih.edu.tr Mehmet Kara Deparment of Contemporary Turkic Lang. Istanbul University mehkara@yahoo.com Abstract: Koskemnieni‘s two-level model has received a lot attention in modeling morphology. In this paper we present an ongoing study on a comprehensive two-level description of Kazakh morphology. Our description is implemented using the morphological parser in the Dilmaç Machine Translation Framework. A lexicon containing the root words of contemporary Kazakh is used in the testing. Phonological and morphological special cases and exceptions have been considered in nominal, and verbal conjugations. To out knowledge this is the first time Kazakh phonological rules and morphotactics are computationally described which makes it possible to implement other linguistics applications such as machine translation systems. Keywords: Kazakh, two-level morphology, orthographic rules, finite state machines. Introduction Two-level morphology [ 182] has been applied to many languages. Tools to implement two-level morphology such as PC-KIMMO [183] is publicly available. It was originally applied to describe finite state Finnish morphology by Koskenniemi. A detailed description with an application to English is given by Antwort [ 184]. Two-level or finite state models later were applied to many languages such as Japanese [185], Korean [186], Turkish [187], Arabic [188], and Mongolian [189]. All these languages except Arabic are related linguistically. They are Altaic languages. Like Ural languages of Finnish and Hungarian they are agglutinative. There is a group of languages called Turkic Languages including Turkish, Turkmen, Kazakh, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Azerbaijani. There are more than 20 languages in this group. These languages share a lot in common from phonological, morphological and syntactic aspects. However they are not intelligible for the most part. 182 Koskenniemi, K., 1983, Two-Level Morphology: A General Computational Model of word-form recognition and production, Tech. Rep. Publication No. 11, Department of General Linguistics, University of Helsinky. 183 Karttunen L, 1983, PC-KIMMO: A General Morphological Processor. In Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp.165-186. 184 Antworth, E.L., 1990, PC-KIMMO: A Two-level Processor of Morphological Analysis, Summer Instıtute of Linguistics, Dallas, TX. 185 Alam, Y.S., 1983, Two-level Morphological Analysis of Japanese, Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp. 229-252. 186 Kim, D. B., Lee S. J., Choi, K.S., and Kim, G.C., 1994. A two-level morphological analysis of Korean. In Proceedings of the 15th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1 (COLING '94), pp. 535-539. 187 Oflazer, K. 1994, Two-level description of Turkish morphology, Literary and Linguistic Computing, Literary and Linguistic Computing Volume9, Issue2 pp. 137-148. 188 Arabic Finite State Morphological Analysis and Generation, In COLING-96, Cophenagen, pp. 89-94. 189 Jaimai, P., Zundui, T., Chagnaa, A., and Ock, C.Y., PC-KIMMO-based Description of Mongolian Morphology, International Journal of Information Processing Systems Vol.1, No.1, 2005 pp. 41-48. 560 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo They are mostly spoken in Turkey, Turkic states, in Central Asia and in various parts of Russia and other parts of the world. These languages are except Turkish are usually resource poor from computational linguistics point of view. Although recently there are some work on the Turkmen [190 191], Azerbaijani, Uyghur and others. It can be said that we are only at the beginning of research considering the many languages in this group. Kazakh is one of the important languages in this group considering the number of people speaking this language. Kazakh (also Qazaq) language is a Turkic language and belongs to Kypchak branch. It is the official language of Kazakhstan. It is spoken about 12 million people all over the world. Like other Turkic Languages Kazakh is also agglutinative and employs vowel harmony [ 192]. This paper is organized as follows: In Section 2 Kazakh orthography is described using two-level rules of Koskenniemi. Kazakh alphabet and phonological rules are defined here. In Section 3 we briefly discuss Kazakh morphotactics using Finite State Machines with a few examples. Conclusions and future work is given in the last section. Kazakh Orthography Kazakh is officially written in the Cyrillic alphabet. We will use a latin transcription of Cyrill version for convenience. There is a transliteration system converting from Kazakh Cyrill to Latin [193]. Kazakh alphabet is given in Table 1 shows current Kazakh Alphabet and its transliteration to Latin Alphabet. Cyrillic Аа Әə Бб Вв Гг Ғғ Дд Ее Ёѐ Жж Зз Ии Й Кк Table 1: Cyrillic Kazakh alphabet and its transliteration to Latin alphabet. Latin Cyrillic Latin Cyrillic Latin Aa Ққ Qq Фф Ff ä Лл Ll Һ H Bb Мм Mm Хх Xx Vv Нн Nn Цц Tsts Gg ң Ñ Чч Çç Ğğ Оо Oo Шш ġĢ Dd Өө Öô Щщ ġçĢç Eye Пп Pp Ыы Iı Yoyo Рр Rr Іі Ġi Jj Сс Ss Ээ Ee Zz Тт Tt Юю Yuyu Ġyiy Уу Uwuw Яя Yaya Y Ҧҧ Uw Kk Ҥҥ Üù Two-level morphology is a language-independent method to model morphologic rules of natural languages. In this model words are represented in two forms; lexical and surface. Two-level rules define transformation between the two forms. Phonological rules in this model can be expressed in one the following formulations: a:b => LC__RC This rule states that a lexical a, corresponds to a surface b only if it follows the left context (LC) and/or precedes the right context (RC). This correspondence only occurs under this condition but not always. a:b <= LC__RC This rule states that a lexical a, always corresponds to a surface b if it follows the left context (LC) and/or precedes the right context (RC). This correspondence always occurs with this condition but can also occur with different conditions. 190 M. Shylov, ―Dilmaç: Turkish and Turkmen Morphological Analyzer and Machine Translation Program,‖ Master‘s thesis, Fatih University, Ġstanbul Turkey, 2008. 191 Tantuğ, A. Cùneyd and Adalı, EĢref and Oflazer, Kemal (2006) Computer analysis of the Turkmen language morphology. Advances in natural language processing, proceedings (Lecture notes in artificial intelligence), 4139 . pp. 186193. 192 Dzhubanov, A., Khasanov, B.. 1973. Computational description of the Kazakh language. In Proceedings of the 5th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 2(COLING '73), Vol. 2. Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 75-77. 193 Buran, A., Alkaya, E. (in Turkish) ―ÇağdaĢ Tùrk lehçeleri,‖ ANKARA: Akçağ, 2009, pp. 273-312. 561 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo a:b <=> LC__RC This states that a lexical a, corresponds to a surface b always and only if it follows the left context (LC) and/or precedes the right context (RC). This correspondence never occurs with any other condition. a:b \<= LC__RC This rule states that a lexical a, never corresponds to a surface b in given the environment of left context (LC) and right context (RC). This correspondence never occurs under this condition. Below we present a set of meta-phonems used in expressing rules. The Latin Kazakh alphabet consists of 30 letters. There are 9 vowels and 21 consonants in this alphabet. The letter groups that used in rules are defined below: Consonants: C= {b, g, ğ, d, j, z, y, k, q, l, m, n, ð, p, r, s, t, w, x, h, Ģ } Vowels: V= {a, ä, e, ı, i, o, ô, u, ù} Back Vowels: Vb = {a, ı, o, u } Front Vowels: Vf = {e, ä, i, ô, ù} I = {ı, i} A = {a, e} L = {l, d, t} Q = {ğ, q} G = {k, g} K = {k, q} M = {m, b, p} N = {n, d, t} D = {d, t} S = {s}. There are two different lexical s in Kazakh. The S is used for the one that is never deleted on the surface form. And letter s is used for the one that can be deleted on the surface form under some conditions. 2.2 Two Level Orthographic Rules Kazakh has the most strong vowel harmony among Turkic languages [ 194]. Vowels in a suffix have to agree with the preceding morpheme‘s vowels. Consonant harmony or assimilation is also strong in Kazakh. [ 195] Voiced consonants are converted into voiceless ones or vice versa. Consonants can be assimilated by preceding consonants or vowels. Under certain circumstances sound dissimilation can occur. When concatenating a morpheme to a stem, consonants or vowels can be deleted. The deleted letters can belong to either stem or suffix. Below are some of the two-level morphologic rules of Kazakh language. We consulted the following language resources on morphology [194, 195, 193] in creating these rules. We give only a portion of the rules because of space limitation. 1. k:g <=> V __ +:0 (@:0)V 2. q:ğ <=> V __ +:0 (@:0)V 3. p:b <=> V __ +:0 (@:0)V The consonants k, q and p at the end of stem are converted to g, ğ and b respectively when the preceding letter and the first letter of affixed morpheme are vowels. 194 195 Lexical: jùrek+sI Surface: jùreg0i N(heart)+Poss3PS jùregi (his heart) Lexical: ayaq+sI+nDA Surface: ayağ0ında N(foot)+Poss3PS+Loc ayağında (on his leg) Tamir, F., (in Turkish) "Kazak Tùrkçesi," Tùrk Lehçeleri Grameri, ANKARA: 2007, pp. 430-480. Koç, K., Doğan, O., (in Turkish) Kazak Tùrkçesi Grameri, ANKARA: Gazi Kitabevi, 2004. 562 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lexical: kitap+sI Surface: kitab0ı N(book)+Poss3PS kitabı (his book) 4. L:d <=> [l | m | n | ð | z | j] +:0__ The lexical L at the beginning of affixed morpheme is converted to d when the last letter of stem is one of consonants l, m, n, ð, z and j. Lexical: jol+LAr Surface: jol0dar N(road)+PLU joldar (roads) Lexical: beyne+LA Surface: beyne0le Lexical: sôz+Lik Surface: sôz0dik N(shape)+NtoV beynele V(shape) N(word)+NtoN sôzdik (dictionary) 5. L:t <=> [k | q | p | s | t | Ģ | ç] +:0 __ The lexical L at the beginning of affixed morpheme is converted to t when the last letter of stem is one of voiceless consonants k, q, p, s, t, Ģ, ç. Otherwise L is converted to l by default. Lexical: ädep+LI Surface: ädep0ti N(manners)+NtoADJ ädepti (well-mannered) Lexical: tas+LAr Surface: tas0tar N(stone)+PLU tastar (stones) Lexical: Qazaq+LAr Surface: Qazaq0tar N(Qazaq)+PLU Qazaqtar (Qazaqs) 7. V:0 => V+:0__ If both last letter of the word and first letter of the suffix are vowels then the first letter of suffix is deleted. Lexical: bala + Im Surface: bala0m Lexical: caqında + Ip Surface: caqında0p N(çocuk) + Poss1PS balam (my child) V(get closer) + VtoADJ caqındap (by getting closer) 8. s:0 <=> C +:0__ An s at the beginning of the suffix is deleted when the word end with a consonant. Lexical: jùrek+sI Surface: jùreg0i N(heart)+Poss3PS jùregi (his/her/its heard) Finite State Morphotactics In agglutinative languages morphemes are affixed to the root successively. This affixation is dependent on the morphotactic rules of the language. Morphotactic rules define the suffixes that can be added to a word in a certain state. Each suffix changes the state of word that it is affixed. Morphotactic rules can be represented by a finite state machine. A finite state machine, which in principal is a directed graph, consists of a set of states and a set of transitions among these states. Transitions are the edges of graph labeled with inflectional or derivational morphemes defining in what order those morphemes can be affixed to a word. The immediate states, in a way, represent partial words and their part of speech tagging. The initial states represent the roots words from a lexicon and their part of speech such as noun, verb, adverb, adjective, etc. The final states represent full words 563 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo created by starting with a root word in an initial state and affixing morphemes on the transitions to the partial words in each intermediate state. We define the nominal, verbal and adverbial morphotactics of the language using this FSM model. The initial states such as noun or verb are represented by rectangles. Each state is shown by rounded rectangles. The end states are defined by double bordered circles. The states represented by dotted rounded rectangles can not be a solution for words. But all other states can be a solution. Here is an example inflection of the noun üy (house). house +N +PL +P3Sg +LOC +REL üy +0 +LAr +sI +ndA +Gi üy +0 +ler +i +nde +gi ùylerindeginið (of the thing in their house - evlerindekinin) +GEN +NIñ +niñ In this nominal analysis the following nodes are visited in FSA: Noun, Plural, Possesive 3rd Person Single, Locative case, Relative,Genitive. Here is a verbal inflection example in Kazakh: bar +Ma +Qan +Min arrive +NEG +PAST +P1s bar +ma +ğan +mın barmağanmın ((I was told) I hadn‘t arrive) The following nodes in FSA are visited in this analysis: Verb, Negative, Indefinite Past, 1 st Person Single. bar +AtIn +0 MA +0 edi +m arrive +FUTR +QUE +PAST +P1s bar +atın +0 ba +0 edi +m baratın ba edim (Was I going to arrive) The following nodes in FSA are visited in this analysis: Verb, Future tense, Question, Past Continuous, 1 st person single. bar +UwIm kerek +0 emes +0 bolsa arrive +NECS P1s +NEG +COND bar +uwım kerek +0 emes +0 bolsa baruwım kerek emes bolsa (If I shouldn‘t arrive) The following nodes in FSA are visited in this analysis: Verb, Necessity for 1 st person, Negative, Condition. Conclusions A comprehensive description of Kazakh Language is given using Koskemnieni two level morphology for the first time. We described the Kazakh phonological system using 27 two level rules which describes the mapping between lexical level and surface level of a word. Then we use the finite state machines to define nominal and verbal morphotactics. We implemented both orthographic rules and the finite state morphotactics on Dilmaç Machine Translation Framework [190]. Dilmaç is a language independent framework. Language specifications are represented in XML files in Dilmaç. No programming is required. System is web based and our implementation can be found on the Internet. Currently we are implementing a Kazakh-Turkish Machine Translation System on Dilmac. Since both languages in the same language family, they have a lot in common from phonological, morphological and syntactic aspect. Phonological and syntactic differences generally do not pose any significant problems and can be handled easily. However two languages have different morpheme sets and lexicons. A morphological word by word translation requires a morphological parsing in source language (Kazakh), a bilingual translation dictionary to translate word stems into target language (Turkish), and a morphological generator to generate the translation by affixing the morphemes the word stem in the proper order. Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr. Kalmamat Kulamshaev for his valuable insight in this study. 564 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 85 Title A name given to the resource Two-Level Description of Kazakh Morphology Author Author Zafer, Harun Rešit Tilki, Birol Kurt, Atakan Kara, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Koskemnieni‘s two-level model has received a lot attention in modeling morphology. In this paper we present an ongoing study on a comprehensive two-level description of Kazakh morphology. Our description is implemented using the morphological parser in the Dilmaç Machine Translation Framework. A lexicon containing the root words of contemporary Kazakh is used in the testing. Phonological and morphological special cases and exceptions have been considered in nominal, and verbal conjugations. To out knowledge this is the first time Kazakh phonological rules and morphotactics are computationally described which makes it possible to implement other linguistics applications such as machine translation systems. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f373d8b0bf0e5e4db1f67d0922a2e2a.pdf 84c4c42f4412e26c3778be8c586cb7be PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Two-Level Qazan Tatar Morphology Ercan Gökgöz Computer Engineering Department, Fatih University, Turkey ercangokgoz@gmail.com Atakan Kurt Computer Engineering Department, Fatih University akurt@fatih.edu.tr Kalmamat Kulamshaev Contempoary Turkish Dialects & Lieteratures Dept Fatih University, Turkey kkulamshaev@fatih.edu.tr Mehmet Kara Contemporary Turkish Dialects and Literatures Department Istanbul University, Turkey mehkara@yahoo.com Abstract: In this paper we present a two level description of Tatar Language. Tatar is a Turkic language and the official language of Tataristan. It is spoken by millions of people mostly in the world. We describe the Tatar orthography using two level rules of Koskenniemi. These orthographic rules governing the phonology of the language during word formation is essential to morphological parsing and generation. We then represent the Tatar morphotactics using finite state machines. The FSMs for nominal and verbal morphotactics describe in detail how the words of the language can be formed. The orthographic rules and morphotactics are implemented in the Dilmac Machine Translation Framework by encoding them in XML files in an language independent way. Key Words: Qazan Tatar morphology, orthographic rules, two-level morphology, finite state machines. Introduction Turkic languages are spoken by more than 200 million people in a vast geographic area stretching from Eastern Europe to China. Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Turkmen, Kyrghyz, Uzbek, Tatar, Uygur dialects are among the most spoken languages after Turkish. All Turkic languages except Turkish are computationally resource poor languages. Computational linguistics studies on these languages are very scarce. Turkish morphology was studied by Oflazer [101]. Turkmen morphology by Maxim et al. [90], and Tantug [91]. Azerbaijani by Ġlyas [92]. Tatar belongs the Idel-Ural (Volga-Urals) region of Kipchak subgroup of Turkic Languages [93]. Tatar, more specifically Tatar Turkish or Qazan Tatar, is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russian Federation. Tatar is spoken by more than 5 million people in Russia. There are about 10 million Tatars in Central Asia, parts of Europe and Turkey. Today Tatar language has 3 dialects: Western, Eastern and Middle. The middle dialect is spoken by Qazan Tatars. Tatars had used Arabic script until first quarter of 20 th century. Current Tatar alphabet is based on the Cyrillic alphabet with some additional letters. 90 M. Shylov, ―Dilmaç: Turkish and Turkmen Morphological Analyzer and Machine Translation Program,‖ Master‘s thesis, Fatih University, Ġstanbul Turkey, 2008. 91 Tantuğ, A. C., Adalı, E., and Oflazer, K. 2006. Computer analysis of the Turkmen language morphology. Advances in natural language processing, proceedings (Lecture notes in artificial intelligence), 4139 . pp. 186193. 92 Hamzaoglu, Ġ. 1993. Machine translation from Turkish to other Turkic languages and an implementation for the Azeri language. MSc Thesis, Bogazici University, Istanbul 93 Oner, M., 2007, (In Turkish) Tatar Turkcesi; Turk Lehceleri Grameri Ed., Ahmet Ercilasun, Akcag Publications, Ankara, Turkey. 428 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Turkic languages are agglutinative languages where many inflectional and derivational morphemes are attached to root to express syntactic and semantic information. These morphemes allow one to create potentially infinite number of words [94]. Tatar like other Turkic Languages is a resource poor language. Studies on Tatar morphology are virtually non-existent. Books and articles on this language is usually in Tatar or Russian, and not available in English [ 95]. In this study we aim to describe Tatar morphology from the computational linguistics perspective using twolevel model. The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2 the Tatar phonology will be described using two level orthographic rules. The orthographic rules describe the phonetic changes occurring when affixing morphemes to words. In Section 3 Tatar morphotactics will be described from computational point of view using Fine State Machines. In Section 4 conclusion and future work will be discussed. Orthographic Rules of Tatar Orthography specifies standardized path of writing system of the language. Orthography is produced by standardized orthographic rules, although sometimes includes ambiguities. These ambiguity is usually occurs in loanwords. These two level rules are describes phonologic events during word formation when morphemes are affixed to a stem or a root. The two levels are lexical and surface level of a word. Lexical level is a formulation of a morphological parsing of a word in a written text. In lexical level the root word and the sequence of morphemes affixed to are represented such as Noun + Plural + 1PersonPossesive. The surface level of a word is the word as it appears in the text. Parsing is the process of attaining of lexical level from the surface level of a word. The rules and meaning are given in Table 1. Table 1 Orthographic Rules Syntax a:b  lc_rc a:b  lc_rc a:b  lc_rc a:b / lc_rc Meaning Lexical a is realized as surface b, only when converion‘s left side equals to lc and the right side equals to rc Lexical a is always realized as surface b, when converion‘s left side equals to lc and the right side equals to rc Lexical a always and only realized as surface b, when converion‘s left side equals to lc and the right side equals to rc Lexical a is never realized as surface b when converion‘s left side equals to lc and the right side equals to rc Tatar Alphabet Tatar is written in Cyrillic alphabet. It is also written in unofficial Latin. In the past Tatars used Arabic script until the revolution in 1917. In this study we will use the following Latin Tatar alphabet consisting of 35 letters which 9 of is vowel given in Table 2. Vowels are a,e,ı,i,o,ô,u,ù,é. Consonants are b,v,g,d,n,j,z,h,y,k,l,m,y,u,y,a,p,r,s,t,u,f,x, ç,Ģ,ç,Ģ,c,ð. Table 2 Tatar Alphabet Cyril Latin Cyril Latin Cyril Latin Аа Әə Бб Вв Гг Кк 94 Aa Ee Bb Vv Gg Kk Ҥҥ Лл Мм Нн Ң Оо Üù Ll Mm Nn Ñ Oo Фф Һ Хх Цц Чч Шш Ff Hh Xx Ts ts Çç ġĢ Tatar Turkcesi; Prof. Dr. Mustafa Oner, Turk Lehceleri Grameri, Prof. Dr. Ahmet Ercilasun, Akcag, 2007. 95 Poppe, N. N. (1963). Tatar manual: descriptive grammar and texts with a Tatar-English glossary. Bloomington: Indiana University. 429 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Дд Ее Ёѐ Жж Зз Ии Й Dd Éé,yé Yo yo Jj Zz Ġy iy,Ġi Yy Өө Пп Рр Сс Тт Уу Öô Pp Rr Ss Tt Uw uw Щщ Ыы Іі Ээ Юю Яя ġç Ģç Iı Ġi Ee Yu yu Ya ya Tatar employs vowel harmony like other Turkic languages. Like other Turkic Languages Tatar has consonant softening, consolidation and harmony, assimilation, vowel conversion, vowel drop, vowel epenthesis, consonant duplication. Below are lexical meta morphemes used in two level rules: Consonants : C =(y,b,k,f,v,l,h,g,m,d,n,ç,Ģ,j,p,c,z,r,s,h,t) Vowels: V = (a,e,é,ı,i,o,ô,ù,u) Front Vowels: Vf = (e,i,é,ù,ô) Back Vowels: Vb = (a,ı,o,u) A = (a,e) H = (ı,é) I = (ı,i) U = (ù,u) L = (l,d) M = (m,n,ð) P = (p,b) G = (k,g) D = (d,t) 1. a : ı __ +:0 y The lexical a at the end of a word is converted to ı if the preceding affix starts with y. Lexical: sayra+y Surface: sayrı0y Lexical: sırla+ym Surface: sırlı0ym V(caw) VVI_TAORSH sayrıy (to be caw)(ôtmek) V(draw) VVI_TAORSH sırlıym (draw cavity lines)(oyuk çizgiler çizmek) 4. L:n  M+:0__Ar The lexical L is converted to n, if the word ends with m, ð or n, and the preceding affix is LAr Lexical: ùlen+LAr Surface: ùlen0ner N(grass)+NNI_PUL ùlenner (grasses)(otlar) Lexical: urman+LAr Surface: urman0nar 8. p:b  __+:0V N(forest)+ NNI_PUL urmanlar (forests)(ormanlar) The lexical p at the end of a morpheme is converted to b if the preceding affix starts with a vowel. Lexical: ùp+er Surface: ùb0er Lexical: kùp+rAk Surface: kùb0érek N(kiss)+ VVI_TAORSH ôper(kisses) N(more)+NNI_POSS3S kùbérek(more than)(daha çok) 9. D:t  [f|s|t|k|ç|Ģ|h|p]+:0__ If a word ending with f, s, t, k, ç, Ģ, h, or p is affixed with morpheme starting with D, then D is realized as t. Lexical: yeĢ+DAĢ N(age)+ NND_DAS 430 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Surface: yeĢ0teĢ yeĢteĢ(contemporary)(yaĢıt) Lexical: cinayet+DAĢ Surface: cinayet0teĢ N(murder)+ NND_DAS cinayetteĢ(accomplice) 11 A:a  C*VbC*+:0C*_C* The lexical A is converted to a if the preceding vowel is a back vowel to employ vowel harmony. Lexical: suw+LAr Surface: suw0lar N(water)+ NNI_PLU suwlar (waters) Lexical: kitap+DA Surface: kitap0ta N(book)+ NNI_LOC kitapta (in the book) 20. z:s  __+:0 s The lexical z at the end of a word is converted to s if the preceding affix‘s first letter is s. Lexical: toz+sız Surface: tos0sız N(salt)+ JND_SIZ tossız(without salt)(tuzsuz) Lexical: kùz+séz Surface: kùs0séz N(eye)+ JND_SIZ kùsséz(without eye) 21. r:0  __+:0g The lexical r at the end of a word is dropped, if the preceding affix starts with g. Lexical: kitirir+ge Surface: kitiri00ge N(bring)+ NVD_GA kitirige(to bring)(gôtùrmeye) Lexical: éçérér+ge Surface: éçéré00ge N(bring)+ NVD_GA éçérége(to bring)(içirmeye) Tatar Mophotactics Two-level morphology [ 96] have been applied to many languages. Tools to implement two-level morphology such as PC-KIMMO [97] is publicly available. It was originally applied to describe finite state Finnish morphology by Koskenniemi. A detailed description with an application to English is given by Antwort [ 98]. Two-level or finite state model later was applied to many languages such as Japanese [ 99], Korean [100], Turkish [101], Arabic [102], Mongolian [103]. All these languages except Arabic are related linguistically. They are Altaic languages. Like Ural languages of Finnish and Hungarian they are agglutinative. To our knowledge, Qazan Tatar morphology is not defined before. There is a work on Crimean Tatar [104]. 96 Koskenniemi, K., 1983, Two-Level Morphology: A General Computational Model of word-form recognition and production, Tech. Rep. Publication No. 11, Department of General Linguistics, University of Helsinky. 97 Karttunen L, 1983, PC-KIMMO: A General Morphological Processor. In Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp.165-186. 98 Antworth, E.L., 1990, PC-KIMMO: A Two-level Processor of Morphological Analysis, Summer Instıtute of Linguistics, Dallas, TX. 99 Alam, Y.S., 1983, Two-level Morphological Analysis of Japanese, Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp. 229-252. 100 Kim, D. B., Lee S. J., Choi, K.S., and Kim, G.C., 1994. A two-level morphological analysis of Korean. In Proceedings of the 15th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1 (COLING '94), pp. 535-539. 101 Oflazer, K. 1994, Two-level description of Turkish morphology, Literary and Linguistic Computing, Literary and Linguistic Computing Volume9, Issue2 pp. 137-148. 102 Arabic Finite State Morphological Analysis and Generation, In COLING-96, Cophenagen, pp. 89-94. 103 Jaimai, P., Zundui, T., Chagnaa, A., and Ock, C.Y., PC-KIMMO-based Description of Mongolian Morphology, International Journal of Information Processing Systems Vol.1, No.1, 2005 pp. 41-48. 104 Kemal Altıntas, 2000. Turkish to Crimean Tatar Machine Translation System. MSc Thesis, Bilkent University, Ankara 431 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We describe Tatar morphology using finite state machines (FSM). A finite state machine, which in principal is a directed graph, consists of a set of states and a set of transitions among these states. Transitions are the edges of graph labeled with inflectional or derivational morphemes defining in what order those morphemes can be affixed to a word. The immediate states represent words and their part of speech tagging. The initial states represent the roots words from a lexicon and their part of speech such as noun, verb, adverb, adjective, etc. The final states represent words that cannot take any ore morphemes. We define the nominal, verbal and adverbial morphotactics of the language using this FSM model. In Figure 1 only a small portion of FSM is shown because of space limitation. +lHk, +lH, +çHk, +sHz, +çH, +DAş, +çHl, +şAr, +çA,+çAk,+çAn, +rAk, +GHlt, +nçH, +GH,kAy Noun +lH, + sHz +lAr +lArH Plural +Hm Possesive 1st Person Single +Hñ Possesive 2nd Person Single +sH,+H Possesive 3rd Person Single +bHz Possesive 1st Person Plural +gHz Possesive 2nd Person Plural +sH,+H Possesive 3rd Person Plural Figure 1 Nominal Morphotactis (Partially given) Conclusions We described Tatar morphology using the two-level morphology model and finite state machines. A number of two level orthographic rules are created to handle the conversion from surface to lexical level of a word during morphological parsing. Finite state machines for representing nominal and verbal morphotactics are given for Tatar. The model is being implemented in Dilmaç machine translation system . We conducted extensive testing of nominal and verbal Tatar conjugations. Our final objective is to implement a morphologic machine translation system between Tatar and Turkish. 105 58 Antworth, E.L., 1990, PC-KIMMO: A Two-level Processor of Morphological Analysis, Summer Instıtute of Linguistics, Dallas, TX. 59 Alam, Y.S., 1983, Two-level Morphological Analysis of Japanese, Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp. 229-252. 60 Kim, D. B., Lee S. J., Choi, K.S., and Kim, G.C., 1994. A two-level morphological analysis of Korean. In Proceedings of the 15th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1 (COLING '94), pp. 535-539. 61 Oflazer, K. 1994, Two-level description of Turkish morphology, Literary and Linguistic Computing, Literary and Linguistic Computing Volume9, Issue2 pp. 137-148. 62 Arabic Finite State Morphological Analysis and Generation, In COLING-96, Cophenagen, pp. 89-94. 63 Jaimai, P., Zundui, T., Chagnaa, A., and Ock, C.Y., PC-KIMMO-based Description of Mongolian Morphology, International Journal of Information Processing Systems Vol.1, No.1, 2005 pp. 41-48. 64 Kemal Altıntas, 2000. Turkish to Crimean Tatar Machine Translation System. MSc Thesis, Bilkent University, Ankara 432 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 63 Title A name given to the resource Two-Level Qazan Tatar Morphology Author Author Gökgöz, Ercan Kurt, Atakan Kulamshaev, Kalmamat Kara, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper we present a two level description of Tatar Language. Tatar is a Turkic language and the official language of Tataristan. It is spoken by millions of people mostly in the world. We describe the Tatar orthography using two level rules of Koskenniemi. These orthographic rules governing the phonology of the language during word formation is essential to morphological parsing and generation. We then represent the Tatar morphotactics using finite state machines. The FSMs for nominal and verbal morphotactics describe in detail how the words of the language can be formed. The orthographic rules and morphotactics are implemented in the Dilmac Machine Translation Framework by encoding them in XML files in an language independent way. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/68fa7a9077b69db203e322c842585ede.docx 027cfb7aa9dc6050252acc38dcca2b65 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3422f3eb899197f1f68760264c13077d.pdf c17599b83072917e5ec56d696babef59 PDF Text Text Type of Language and Learning Abilities Alma Jeftić & Velid Draganović International University of Sarajevo / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: types of languages, ability, learning, acquisition ABSTRACT In topological classification of languages linguists use to divide them in five main types: isolating languages (analytical or root languages), agglutinating languages, inflecting languages, polysynthetic or incorporating languages and analytic languages. However, it is hard to say that any language belongs to only one group, since none of them is one pure variant. According to Edward Sapir (2000), it has already been observed that one language runs to tight-knit synthesis where another contents itself with a more analytic, piece-meal handling of its elements, or that in one language syntactic relations appear pure which in another are combined with certain other notions that have something concrete about them. Even though there are many researches with regard to similarities and differences between five major types of languages, only a few of them are trying to discover if type of language can influence second language learning abilities. The major aim of this paper is to analyse whether the type of native language influence second language aquisition, especially in situation when second language belongs to other group. Statistical learning approach, as well as evolutionary approach are used in order to explain the major aim. Also, cognitive theories of learning are applied to explain mechanisms that can hinder learning and acquisition. It is concluded that different structure of five groups of languages can influence language acquisition when learning language that belongs to group other than native language. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1695 Title A name given to the resource Type of Language and Learning Abilities Author Author JEFTIĆ, Alma DRAGANOVIC, Velid Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: types of languages, ability, learning, acquisition ABSTRACT In topological classification of languages linguists use to divide them in five main types: isolating languages (analytical or root languages), agglutinating languages, inflecting languages, polysynthetic or incorporating languages and analytic languages. However, it is hard to say that any language belongs to only one group, since none of them is one pure variant. According to Edward Sapir (2000), it has already been observed that one language runs to tight-knit synthesis where another contents itself with a more analytic, piece-meal handling of its elements, or that in one language syntactic relations appear pure which in another are combined with certain other notions that have something concrete about them. Even though there are many researches with regard to similarities and differences between five major types of languages, only a few of them are trying to discover if type of language can influence second language learning abilities. The major aim of this paper is to analyse whether the type of native language influence second language aquisition, especially in situation when second language belongs to other group. Statistical learning approach, as well as evolutionary approach are used in order to explain the major aim. Also, cognitive theories of learning are applied to explain mechanisms that can hinder learning and acquisition. It is concluded that different structure of five groups of languages can influence language acquisition when learning language that belongs to group other than native language. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 996 Title A name given to the resource Type your abstract here (no more than 300 words excluding references). The abstract must be in English. Author Author Huyuk, Nazife Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. Idioms are groups of words in a proper order that have a specific meaning bearing difference from the meanings and connotations of each word understood on its own. They are crucial elements of a language and it is difficult to imagine a language without its idioms. As understood from the definition, their meaning cannot be understood from their elements, but should be learned as a whole. In languages, it is possible to find idioms in any topic and category. The aim of this article is to compare English and Turkish idioms with food names. Five idioms of English have been chosen, and it has been searched whether Turkish has the same idioms or not. The cultural reasons of these idioms have been searched in both languages. Their meanings and connotations are given. Moreover, similarities and differences are discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics