323 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ee030fb601943c5308f10f24558ea0c9.pdf e695db5041e67e6a934ffbe53777f9ab PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Antinutritional Factors in Food Grain Legumes M ustafa Onder Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY monder@selcuk.edu.tr Ali Kahraman Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY kahramanali@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract:The use of plants to meet the world’s food needs is vital to human survival. On a global basis, over 65 % of food protein and over 80 % of food energy is supplied by plants. In terms of gross tonnage, approximately 98 % of the total world food production is harvested from land sources and only 2 % from the ocean and inland waters. Of the total food harvest, plant products directly contribute about 82 % of the gross tonnage, whereas the other sources (animal and marine products) together contribute only 18 %. The avarage production of plant protein potentially edible by humans was estimated to be 200 million tons, compared to 50 million tones of animal protein. Their unfavorable balance of amino acid requires that complementary protein be provided for optimal nutrition. In the developed countries of the Western world, animal protein make up a substantial portion of the diet. In the developing countries, however, the animal proteins are either too expensive, so legumes serve as main sources of both protein and calories in many of these tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Dry legumes and legume products are, in fact, the richest source of food protein from plants. Keywords: Antinutritional factors, inhibitory, legume, pulses. Introduction Pulses, whose history of cultivation dates back to earlier times, are essential for human and animal nutrition as well as crop rotation. The factthattheir grains contain 18-36 % protein (Çiftçi,2004), are sufficient in carbohydrates, consist of high amounts of phosphor,iron and calcium and are rich in vitamins (A, B, C, D) further adds to their significance. Since pulses contain high amounts of amino acids, they are consumed in developing countriestogether with low-protein and high calorie foods that are staple diets ofthose areas instead of animal proteins, which are both expensive and rare. Rice and bean or bean and bulgur in Turkey, corn and cowpea or rice and cowpea in African countries and corn and bean combinations (mixtures) complement each other in terms of their nutrient contents. However,in addition to increasing consumption of pulses in diets,itis also important to know how sparing amounts of antinutrient substances that are inherent in them will be removed. It has been established that pulses contain various substances, some varieties of which can be toxic (though rare) or may cause indigestion. However,it has been observed thatthe effects of these factors disappear or decrease when legumes are properly prepared. Among appropriate techniques of preparing legumes are germination, peeling, soaking, cooking, treating with various chemicals, fermenting, adding enzymes, roasting and frying. However, heat treatment applied to remove antinutritious substances should be performed carefully because this can lead to a decrease in essential amino acids. Shimelis and Rakshit(2005) reported thatthe most important factorthat affected the amount ofthe ingredientsin a grain is genetic constitution. Pulses contain proteins, oils, vitamins, mineral substances, carbohydrates and dietary fibers, which positively affect nutritional value as well as antinutrients that negatively affect diets. The most important of these substances are the following. Enzyme inhibitors Protease (trypsin, chymotrypsin) and Amylase Inhibitors: These protein inhibitors are found in many nutrients. Found in various forms, inhibitors are present in the tissues of animals and plants as well as in microorganisms. By virtue of theirinnumerable pharmacological properties,they also enjoy medical value. The 40 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo rate of water-soluble non-glucose proteinase inhibitor in legume seeds is about 0.2-2 % of the total soluble protein (Sgarbieri and Whitaker 1982). These substances reduce protein digestion. They decompose with heat. Therefore, when legumes are eaten raw or without being cooked properly, they upset digestive functions and cause diarrhea or excessive gas. Autoclave treatment or boiling also reduces the quantity of these substances (Khalil, 2001). About 10-20 % of the total active trypsin is found in human pancreatic juice (Weder and Link 1993). They bind proteases,which are resistantto digestion in the smallintestine, and thus ensure theirremoval through excretion. This is why the availability of amino acids (methionine and cystine) consisting of sulphur in legume grains is low. Sulphur deficiency may occur in a diet thatis dependent on legume grains (Ergün et al., 2002). In addition to this information, it is also known that trypsin inhibitors also carry characteristics of an insecticide (Hilder et al. 1990). Amylase inhibitors alter reactions to blood sugar and insulin by slowing down digestion and thus can be used fortherapeutic purposes in diabetes (Lajolo et al. 1991). Lectins (Hemagglutinins) All of them are proteins or glycoproteins. Lectin activity has been determined in more than 800 varieties of the legume family, which consists of 600 genus (Liener et al. 1986). 2-10 % of the total protein legume seeds are lectins. One of their mostimportant characteristicsisthatthey prevent absorption of digestive end products in the small intestine. They enable the coagulation of red blood cells by affecting erythrocytes. Lectins possess some other interesting chemical and biological properties, some of which are as follows: they interact with specific blood groups;they perform various functions in mitotic division, demolish cancerous cells and have toxic effects in some animals. Since they bond with different sugar groups, their bonding with intestinal wall may exhibit variation depending on the type of sugar.If some types of beans are consumed raw, they may cause shock cramps (Saldamlı 1998). Besides these characteristics,lectins can easily disintegrate (ElAdawy- 2002; Mubarak, 2005). Oligosaccharides They are gas generating factors in legumes. Legume seeds, which produce digestive gases in humans and animals, contain oligosaccharides of raffinose, stachyose and verbascose (Aksar 1986). As the duration of cooking increases, a decrease is observed in oligosaccharide content. Moreover, a decrease in oligosaccharide content also occurs when soaking wateris poured, seeds are washed a second time or seeds are germinated (Table 1).Itis known thatflatulent substances,which belong to the indigestiblefibers group, reduce the risk of intestinal cancer, fortifies the immune system, increases excretion frequency and weight as well as H DL cholesterollevel. Duration of cooking (min) 0 Total Sugar Verbascose Stachyose Raffinose Percentage 78,5 40,3 7,8 - 0 10 59,3 35,7 7,6 - 8,8 20 56,6 34,8 7,5 - 10,9 30 54,9 33,9 6,8 - 14,3 40 52,6 29,6 5,8 - 25,5 Table 1. The Effect of Cooking on Total Sugar and Oligosaccharides Content of Legume Seeds (from Reddy and Salunke (1980)) Phenol Compounds They constitute plants’ protection mechanisms against external factors. It is known that there is a relationship between flower color and bollcolor and tannin compositions. They are found infruitand vegetables and in some cereals. They cause plants to have a pungent taste. They reduce bioavailability of some minerals (especially zinc). Tannins of this group are usually stable when confronted with heat, and they may negatively affect pH mechanism, reduce protein digestion, and cause nitrogen mechanism. They can be discharged with excrement. 41 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Saponins They are glycoside derivativesthat are found in many plants. Their general characteristics can be cited as follows: they give a bitter taste, foam when they are treated with various solutions and cause hemolysis in red blood cells. Sincethey reduce the surfacetension of blood in cold-blooded animals,they have an extremely toxic effect. On the other hand, due to their cholesterol-reducing effect, legumes are the most important sources of saponins. The fact that saponins can bond with cholesterol and therefore reduce absorption and that legumes contain saponins points to theirimportance for health (Sidhu and Oakenfull 1986). Studies on medical uses of saponins continue. Cyanogens Glycosides (HCN) Many members of the plant kingdom contain cyanide. The cyanide contents of some legumes have been investigated forlong years (Montgomery 1964). Cyanogen compounds of tall plants are of two types: cyanogen glycosides and cyanogen lipids. Both groups contain cyanohydrins and free carbonyl. Since glycosides, which consist of HCN (hydrocyanohydric acid), can come out as a result of hydrolysis, they are potentially toxic. Cyanide can not be disintegrated with heat and since it separates from legumes during cooking or washing, it will be beneficialto pour soaking water(Devos 1988).Itisknown that broad beans and Lima beans are potential sources of cyanide. Vicine and Convicine (Favism factors) Favism is a hemolytic disease thatisfound in sensitive individuals with consumption of broad beans.Itis more widely found in people living in the Mediterranean countries. Itis known to be of genetic source (Liener 1983). The structure of hemoglobin, which is the primary carrier of oxygen, is upset. Dizziness, vomiting, feeling oftiredness and dark orange urine, which isthe firstsymptom of blood transfusion,are symptoms ofthis disease. The disease disappears soon butincidences of death may be encountered when the disease is prolonged. This disease of hemolytic anemia is caused by favogens. Favism also causes high fever and jaundice. Phytic acid and Phytoids Phytoid phosphor accounts for almost 80 % of the total phosphor in many legume seeds (Lolas and Markakis 1975). Most of them are found on the outer layer of the aleurone or endosperm (Desphande et al. 1984). Phytic acid causes the bioavailability of essential mineralsto decrease and turn into insoluble compounds whose absorption and digestion isless in the smallintestine (Desphande and Cheryan 1984). Pulses are sources of dietary phytoid (Ergün et al., 2002). When phytoid phosphor is not made use of, it is discharged with excretion. A way of preventing this is through the hydrolysis of phytoid phosphor; for this purpose, besides methods such as soaking, germinating, using food rich in vegetable endogen phytosis enzyme and storing, methods like cooking and performing autoclave where phytoid phosphor is demolished in the presence of heat can also be used. The studies that have been conducted demonstrated that phytoids reduce cholesterollevel and protect against intestinal cancer of iron origin. Besides, phytoids exhibit characteristics of natural antioxidants thanks to their benefits such as reducing lipid peroxidation (Zhou and Erdman 1995). Moreover, pulses are important sources of calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, phosphor, potassium and zinc (Geil and Anderson 1994). The content of these minerals and their bio-availability depend, to a large extent, on the degree of the processing (cooking) process and their absorption is affected by the phytoid level found in the plant (Liener 1994). 50-80 % of the endogen phytoids in broad beans can be discharged through soaking and cooking. Allergens They are substancesthat are generally found in nutrients. They cause allergic reactionsthatare specificto certain individuals. The level of harm done depends on the sensitivity level of individual’s body rather than the quantity ofthe substances taken with the food. Diarrhea and vomiting are symptoms of allergy. Itis also argued that proteins with high molecular weight cause allergies(Perlman 1980). Histamine and compounds of histamine derivatives act as antigens against allergens. 42 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Toxic Amino acids There are certain amino acids in legume plants that are not of protein nature and reduce nutritious value and cause toxic effects. These substances are commonly found in Lathyrus and broad beans. Dihydroxyphenyl alanine (DOPA) is the most common toxic amino acid found in legumes. Although these amino acids do not display a direct toxic effect,the plant firstly takes on a black color due to these substances, and then withers. Moreover, the nutritional value of plants that contain such amino acids (broad beans, Lathyrus) decreases substantially. Toxic amino acids are believed to combine causes of metabolic favism. Despite allthese,these substances can not do any kind of harm because they need to be inlarge quantitiesinthe plantto pose a risk. In addition to this group of toxic substances, some legumes may contain sparing amounts of antivitamin substances and estrogen factors. Substances of this kind may be activated with heat and cause serious harm. Extensive studies are reported in the relevantliterature on the elimination of these substances in orderto reduce their harmful effects on plants (Desphande 1984). When itis taken into account that pulses are sources of the highest quality vegetable proteins, the importance of studies on the toxicity mechanisms of toxic amino acids that have an unfavorable effect on the quality of this protein and the degree of their potential harm become obvious. Goitrogens Soybean, a kind of oil seed, contain glycosides called goitrogens. Consisting of sulphur,these glycosides cause the thyroid gland to grow by inhibiting the iodine intake of the thyroid gland. This toxic effect can be reduced with the addition ofiodine to the diet. Conclusion In addition to being perfect sources of vegetable protein, pulses contain nutrients with high-fiber content and reduce blood cholesterol levels thereby contributing favorably to human health (Eastwood and Hamilton 1968; Önder and Akçin 1996).Increased legume consumption is recommended on cold days when energy need rises (Pekşen and Artık, 2005). Nergiz and Gökgöz (2007) stated that soaking before cooking is the most traditional, economic and appropriate method. Although cooking causes a reduction in soluble quality substances, especially vitamins and minerals in legumes,they should not be consumed raw by humans because they eliminate antinutrient substances or reduce them substantially. Also called the meat and bread of the poor and having dry grains whose chemical composition resembles that of peanut and soybean, pulses are recommended to be consumed frequently asthey are highly suitable for dieting. References Aksar, A. (1986). Faba beans (Vicia faba L.) and their role in the human diet. Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 8: 15-24. Çiftçi, C. Y. (2004). Dünyada Yemeklik Tane Baklagiller Tarımı. TMMOB Ziraat Mühendisleri Odası Teknik Yayınları Dizisi No: 5, 197 s. Ankara. Desphande, S. & Cheryan, M. (1984). Effect of phytic acid, divalent cations and their interactions on alfa-amilase activity. J. Food Sci., 49: 516-519. Devos, P. (1988). Mercimek ve nohutun besin değeri ve proses sırasındaki değişiklikler, Herkes Đçin Mercimek Sempozyumu, 29-30 Eylül, Marmaris/Muğla, 174-196. Eastwood M. A. & Hamilton, D. (1968). Stıdies on the absorbtion of bile salts ton on-absorbed componenets of the diet. Biochemical Biophys. Acta 152: 165-173. El-Adawy, T. A. (2002). Nutritional composition and antinutritional factors of chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) undergoing different cooking methods and germination. Plant Food for Human Nutrition, 57: 83-97. Ergün, A., Tuncer, Ş. D., Çolpan, Đ., Yalçın, S., Yıldız, G., Küçükersan, M. K., Küçükersan, S., Önol, A. G., Muğlalı, Ö. H. & Şehu, A. (2002). Yemler, Yem Hijyeni ve Teknolojisi. A. Ü. Veteriner Fakültesi, Hayvan Beslenme ve Beslenme 43 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Hastalıkları A. B. D., Ankara, 465 s. Geil, P. B. &Anderson, J. W. (1994). Nutritional and health implications of dry beans: a review. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 13: 549558. Hilder, V. A., Gatehouse, A. M. R. & Boulter, D. (1990). Genetic Engineering of Crop for Insect Genes of Plant Origin. In: eds. D. Grierson, G. Laycet, Genetic Engineering of Crop Plants. Butterworths, London, pp. 51-56. Khalil, M. M. (2001). Effect of soaking, germination, autoclaving and cooking on chemical and biological value of guar compared with faba bean. Nahrung/Food, 45: 246-250. Lajolo, F.M., Filho, F.F. & Menezes, E.W. (1991). Amylase inhibitors in Phaseolus vulgaris beans. Food Tech. 45: 119-121. LĐENER, I.E. (1983). Toksic constituens in legumes . Pages 217-257 in: Chemisrtey and Biochemistry of legumes . S.K. Arora , ed. Edward Arnold , London. LĐENER, I. E. (1976). Legume toxins in relation to protein digestibility: A rewiew. J. Food Sci. 41:1076-1081. Liener, I.E. (1994). Implications of antinutritional components in soybean foods. Critt. Rev. Fd. Sci. Nutr. 34: 31-67. LOLAS. G. M. & MARKAKĐS, P. (1975). Phytic acid and other phospohos compouds of beans Phaseolus vulgaris L. J. Agric Food Chem. 23:13-15. MORTGOMERY, R.D. (1964). Obzervations on the cynadie content and toxicity of tropical pulses . W.indian Med. j. 13:111. Mubarak, A. E. (2005). Nutritional composition and antinutritional factors of mung bean seeds (Phaseolus aureus) as affected by some home traditional processes. Food Chemistry 89: 489-495. Nergiz, C. & Gökgöz, E. (2007). Effects of traditional cooking methods on some antinutrients and in vitro protein digestibility of dry bean varieties (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) grown in Turkey. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 42: 868–873. Önder, M. & Akçin, A. (1996). M3 Generasyonundaki Mutant Fasulye Hatlarında Verim ve Bazı Verim Öğelerinin Korelasyonu ve Path Analizi. S. Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(11) : 83–90. Pekşen, E. & Artık, C. (2005). Antibesinsel maddeler ve yemeklik tane baklagillerin besleyici değerleri. J. of Fac. of Agric, OMU. 20 (2): 110-120. Perlman, F. (1980. Allergens. Toxic constitues of plant foodstuffs. Academic Pres, New York. 295-327. REDDY,N.R. & SALUNKE, D.K. (1980). Changes in oligosaccarides durin germination and cooking of black gram and fermantation of black gram Rice blend .Creal Chem. 57:356-360. Saldamlı, Đ. (1998. Gıda kimyası. Doğal toksik maddeler ve Kontaminantlar. Acar J. ve Uygun Ü. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Gıda Mühendisliği Bölümü- Ankara. 399-433. SGARBIERI, V.C. & WHITAKER, J. R. (1982). Physical , Chemical and Nutritional properties of common bean (Phaseolus) proetins. Adv . Food Res. 28-93-166. Shimelis, E. A. & Rakshit, S. K. (2005). Antinutritional factors and in vitro protein digestibility of improved haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) varieties grown in Ethiopia. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 56(6): 377-387. Sidhu, G. S. & Oekenfull, D. G. (1986). A mechanism for the hypocholesterolaemic activity of saponins. Br. J. Nutr. 55: 643649. Weder, J. K. P. & Link, I. (1993). Effect of treatments on legume inhibitor activity against human proteinases. In Recent advances of research in antinutritional factors in legume Seeds; van der Poel, A. F. B., Huisman, J., Saini, H. S., Eds.; Wageningen Pers: Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp: 481-485. Zhou, J. R. & Erdman, J. W. Jr. (1995). Phytic acid in health and disease. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 35 (6): 495-508. 44 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 467 Title A name given to the resource Antinutritional Factors in Food Grain Legumes Author Author Onder, Mustafa Kahraman, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. The use of plants to meet the world’s food needs is vital to human survival. On a global basis, over 65 % of food protein and over 80 % of food energy is supplied by plants. In terms of gross tonnage, approximately 98 % of the total world food production is harvested from land sources and only 2 % from the ocean and inland waters. Of the total food harvest, plant products directly contribute about 82 % of the gross tonnage, whereas the other sources (animal and marine products) together contribute only 18 %. The avarage production of plant protein potentially edible by humans was estimated to be 200 million tons, compared to 50 million tones of animal protein. Their unfavorable balance of amino acid requires that complementary protein be provided for optimal nutrition. In the developed countries of the Western world, animal protein make up a substantial portion of the diet. In the developing countries, however, the animal proteins are either too expensive, so legumes serve as main sources of both protein and calories in many of these tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Dry legumes and legume products are, in fact, the richest source of food protein from plants. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b51c71fd48aa198a147ca5e2b8ac316d.pdf 3340fa7d58d784ecbefbf99d342de1a8 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Investigation of Cluster Analysis in Surface Water in Yesilirmak River Nurgul Ozbay Engineering Faculty, Bilecik University, Bilecik, TUR KEY nurgul.ozbay@bilecik.edu.tr Suheyla Yerel Bozuyuk Vocational School, Bilecik University, Bilecik, TUR KEY suheyla.yerel@bilecik.edu.tr Huseyin Ankara Department of Mining Engineering, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, TURKEY hankara@ogu.edu.tr Abstract: The main aim of this study is focused on surface water quality classification of the Yesilirmak River (Turkey) and evaluation of pollution dataset obtained by the monitoring stations. The study shows the application of selected statistical technique to the pollution monitoring dataset, namely, cluster analysis. Cluster analysis is an exploratory data analysis tool for solving classifications problems. Its objective is to sort cases into clusters so that degree of association is strongly members of the same cluster and weak between members of different clusters. The analysis of the monitoring stations identified two clusters. It was concluded that agricultural pollution strongly effected Stations II and Station III. Finally, it was believed to help surface water management to water quality issues and determine priorities to improve surface water quality. 1. Introduction The surface water quality is a matter of serious concern today. Rivers, due to their role in carrying off the municipal and industrial wastewater and runoff from agricultural land in their vast drainage basins, are among the most vulnerable water bodiesto pollution. The surface water qualityin a region islargely determined both by the natural process and the anthropogenicinfluence of water quality (Carpenter etal.,1998, Singh et al., 2005; Yerel, 2009). The particular problem in the case of water quality monitoring has a complexity associated with analyzing thelarge number of measured variables. The data sets contain richinformation aboutthe behavior of the water resources. The classification and interpretation of monitoring stations are the most important steps in the assessment of surface water quality.In orderto determine the data structure,to classify and modelthe data sets, to reveal time trends and to identify the contribution of pollution etc. cluster analysis should be applied. Some applications of the cluster analysis have also been carried out. Muri (2004) has investigated basic physical and chemical characteristics of water in lakes using cluster analysis. Although the water quality has deteriorated in some lakes, most of the lakes are stillin a good condition. Boyacioglu and Boyacioglu (2008) suggested that cluster analysis was applied to assess water quality. In their study, cluster analysis can be used to understand complex nature of water quality issues and determine priorities to improve water quality. The aim of this study was to examine whether or not the monitoring stations were similar by using single linkage cluster analysis. 2. Material and Methods 2.1. Dataset Surface water quality dataset covers a year and contains the values of selected pollution indicators for three monitoring stations from the Yesilirmak River in Turkey. Coordinates of the monitoring stations were 237 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo depicted in Tab. 1 and selected pollution indicators were given in Tab. 2,respectively. Station No X Y Station I 299530 4470025 Station II 287150 4468680 Station III 271125 4463355 Table 1. Coordinates ofthe monitoring stations Parameter Symbol DO Units mg/l Cl− mg / l SO −42 mg / l A m monium NH +4 − N mg / l Nitrite nitrogen NO −2 − N mg / l Nitrates NO3− − N mg / l Total phosphorus P-tot mg/l Total Dissolved Solid TDS mg/l Dissolved oxygen Chloride Sulfate Table 2. Selected pollution indicators 2.2. Cluster analysis Cluster analysisis an exploratory data analysistool for solving classification problems. Its objective is to sort cases into groups or clusters, so that the degree of association is strong between members of the same cluster and weak between members of different clusters. Each cluster thus describes, in terms of the data collected, the class to which its members belong; and this description may be abstracted through use from the particular to the general class type (Einax et al., 1998; Kowalkowski et al., 2006). Itis evident that the cluster analysisis usefulin offering reliable classification of surface waterinthe whole region and would make possible to design a future spatialsampling strategy in an optimal manner. Thus,the number of observation stationsin the monitoring network will be reduced, hence cost without loosing any significance of the outcome (Singh et al., 2005). In this case of cluster analysis,the similarities-dissimilarities are quantified through Euclidean distance measurements,the distance between two objects,iand j,is given as; d = ∑ ( zik − z jk ) m 2 ij where k =1 2 (1) d ij2 donates the Euclidean distance, z ik and z jk are the values of variable k for object i and j, respectively, and m is the number of variables (Kowalkowskiet al., 2006; Yerel, 2009). Euclidean distance and the Single linkage cluster method were used to obtain dendrograms. 238 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Application of cluster analysis to monitoring stations Cluster analysis organizes sampling entities into discrete groups, such that within-group similarity is maximized and among-group similarity is minimized according to some objective criteria (McGarial et al., 2000).Inthis study monitoring stations classification was performed by the use of single linkage cluster method. Two major clusters were formed by treating all the by clustering. The dendrogram of the monitoring stations model resulting from the single linkage cluster method of measured surface water quality datasetis presented in the fig. 2. Figure 2 Dendrogram of the single linkage cluster method The dendrogram shows that all the monitoring stations may be generally grouped into two clusters. Cluster 1 correspond to Station I. Cluster 2 corresponds to Stations II and III. The classification to those clusters varies with the significance level.Itis shows that Cluster 1 is characterized by the biggest Euclidean distance to the Cluster 2. The dataset of the surface water quality parameters were to compare the aspects of the variation in surface water samples collected from three monitoring stations as shown in fig. 3. Among the mean concentrations, all parameters were found very high at monitoring stations II and III. Figure 3 Water quality parameters mean values at Yesilirmak River 239 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion In this study, cluster analysis were applied to dataset obtain from Yesilirmak River in Turkey. This analysis is important to intercept misinterpretation of monitoring stations dataset due to uncertainties. Cluster analysis grouped three monitoring stationsinto two clusters of similar water quality characteristics. Based on the above results,it was concluded that agricultural pollution strongly affected Cluster 2. Thus,this study show that usefulness of cluster analysis in water quality assessment, determination of pollution sources with a view to get betterinformation aboutthe monitoring stations. 5. References 1. Boyacioglu, H., & Boyacioglu, H. (2008). Water Pollution Source Assessment by Multivariate Statistical Methods in the Tahtali Basin, Turkey. Environmental Geology. 54, 275-282. 2. Einax, J.W., Truckenbrodt, D., & Kampe, O. (1998). River pollution data interpreted by means of chemometric methods. Microchem. J., 58, 315-324. 3. Carpenter, S., Caraco, N. F., Correll, D. L., Howarth, R. W., Sharpley, A. N., & Smith V. H. (1998). Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl,. 8(3),559-568. 4. Kowalkowski, T., Zbytniewski, R., Szpejna, J., & Buszewski, B. (2006). Application of chemometrics in river water classification. Water Research, 40, 744-752. 5. McGarial, K., Cushman, S., & Stafford, S. (2000). Multivariate statistics for wildlife& ecology research, Springer, New York. 6. Muri, G. (2004). Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Lake Water in 14 Slovenian Mountain Lakes. Acta Chim. Slov. 51, 257-272. 7. Singh K.P., Malik A. & Sinha, S. (2005). Water quality assessment and apportionment of pollution sources of Gomti river (India) using multivariate statistical techniques—a case study. Analytica Chimica Acta, Vol. 538. 8. Yerel, S., (2009). Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical analysis techniques: A case study from Tahtali dam, Turkey, Asian Journal of Chemistry, 21, 4054- 4062. 240 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 468 Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Cluster Analysis in Surface Water in Yesilirmak River Author Author Ozbay, Nurgul Yerel, Suheyla Ankara, Huseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. The main aim of this study is focused on surface water quality classification of the Yesilirmak River (Turkey) and evaluation of pollution dataset obtained by the monitoring stations. The study shows the application of selected statistical technique to the pollution monitoring dataset, namely, cluster analysis. Cluster analysis is an exploratory data analysis tool for solving classifications problems. Its objective is to sort cases into clusters so that degree of association is strongly members of the same cluster and weak between members of different clusters. The analysis of the monitoring stations identified two clusters. It was concluded that agricultural pollution strongly effected Stations II and Station III. Finally, it was believed to help surface water management to water quality issues and determine priorities to improve surface water quality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/951af219d368a378dc9f8728cd3fcf59.pdf caa40ae2543fbe4661f7dc779e140672 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Organic Strategies to Sustainable Buildings and Cities Ebru Ozer Assistant Professor, Landscape Architecture Department Florida International University, U.S.A. eozer@fiu.edu Douglas T. Thompson Landscape Designer, LEED AP, EDA W | AECO M Miami Beach, FL, U.S.A. douglas.thompson @aecom.com Abstract: In the pursuit of creating sustainable buildings and cities, architectural strategies have mainly focused on approaches relying on technological efficiency and engineered systems. The focus has been such because these strategies are evolutionary in that they are solutions to the problems posed by existing building system design strategies and are thus more easily integrated into those systems. In some cases however, architectural offices have been teaming with landscape architects and other professions whose focus are more on natural systems rather than building systems. In these cases where disciplines have worked cooperatively toward the goal of sustainability, strategies have emerged which take a combined approach in which building systems utilize and integrate with natural systems. Projects and strategies that have emerged from these collaborative endeavors can provide architects and city builders with valuable lessons and insights and contribute to developing a better overall framework for approaching sustainability in the built environment. Through an examination of recent successful sustainable building projects in which architects have worked collaboratively with landscape architects, natural scientists, and similarly focused professions, this research analyzes specific strategies, methods, and construction details which integrate building systems with natural systems, providing valuable lessons for such collaborative approaches and insights for approaching sustainable buildings. I. Introduction: Landscape in Building Design In recent years,theterm landscape has become popularized inthe architecture profession. The term has creptinto the jargon of many architects and builders, appearing in prominent architectural writings in reference to new building projects which include plant materials incorporated into their structures or involve the integration of buildings and earthforms. The inclusion oflandscape withinthe structure ofarchitecture has been used to sometimes connotate a measure of environmental awareness or a closer relationship with the earth. In some cases, such uses of landscape in architecture have been deceiving or as ambiguous as the use of “green.” Despite this ambiguity,the interest by architects in incorporating nature into their buildings through the use of landscape can have positive implications for sustainability. It has led many architects to seek out cooperative efforts with landscape architects, environmental scientists, and other environment related professions as collaborators and consultants in their designs. This collaboration has the potentialto serve as a catalyst for the reevaluation of current sustainable design strategies which often rely heavily on technological solutions. It may also serve to bring about a reinterpretation of the built environment’s relationship to the natural environment. Thisinturn can lead tothe development of buildings and cities which are more cooperative with naturalsystems, are better able to adapt to changing conditions, enrich theirlocal ecology, and strengthen connections between people and natural processes. II. Approaches to Sustainable Building Design: Technologically Driven versus Integrative Modern buildings are sophisticated systems which incorporate a variety of technological subsystems to maintain conditions suitable for human uses. In large part,sustainable design, as it relates to architecture, has been the mitigation of the environmental impacts caused by the construction and operations of building 292 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo systems. In the pursuit ofthis, many building projectsfocus on strategies and methods that utilize technological improvements in the operations of the building to gain efficiencies in order to reduce their negative environmentalimpacts. They employ such strategies as: new technologicalinsulation materials and double-skin facades for building envelopes; light shelves, shading devices, and energy efficient bulbs for lighting; solar systems and cooling towers for heat gain and cooling; photovoltaic’s and wind turbines for energy needs; or phase change materials and filters for waste water treatment and reuse. While such strategies and methods produce significant results in the reduction of building related consumptions of energy and resources, and reductions in the generation of building related wastes and pollution,they often do not seek any contribution or part in the environment in which they reside (or displace). The focus of these strategies emphasizes an improvementin the efficiencies of building centric systems, whose basis of design isto circumvent or substitute natural systems while ignoring their biological purposes and functions. The result is that they still maintain many problems that exist with the technologically based systems in the first place. First, they are rigid with regard to their environmental adaptivity, producing systems in which a narrow range of operations and conditions must persist which may be counter to local environmental systems. Second, they only abstractly or distantly, or worse, superficially,reflectreal and/or underlying ecologies. Finally,they often continue to isolate people from the natural processes, producing building systems which are not as environmentally rich or connective as they might be. Thus they do not produce changes in the relationship between people and the environment, but operatein a manner of containment of negative effects. Rather than merely reducing negative environmental impacts, strategies might be employed which are positive in their approach, leading to systems that are flexible in their interactions with natural systems, responsive and adaptive to such changes, and comprehensible and didactic in their connections with nature. They might seek symbiotic relationships with ecologies, hydrology, and cultures where they exist. By approaching the building and its systems as part of a large but also very local environmental context, it is possible to develop environmentally sustainable buildings which are more genuinely sustainable and possess meaning as such. Such an approach might be considered landscape centric. It does notrequire an abandonment of technology, but it does require that technological improvement is used wisely in complement with other strategies,thatitis developed in a way that willimprove the connection of building systems to natural systems rather than replacing or simplifying them, and that it does not deceive people in its purposes and regarding its connections with natural systems. In the past an overreliance on technology in the development of solutions forthe built environment has created rifts between building systems and natural processes. Many architects have written critically about the relationship between architecture and nature. Architect Malcolm Wells in his book, Gentle Architecture, asks the question “Why isitthat almost every architect can recognize and appreciate beauty in the natural world and yet so often fail to endow his own work with it” (1981, 41). Wells asserts that architecture has greater responsibilities to the environment than it maintains and sets up standards for a better relationship to natural systems. He expresses that buildings should consume their own waste, provide animal habitat, and moderate their own climate (1981). More than two decades later, Ken Yeang, in his essay, On Green Design, is not just critical of architecture’s impact on the environment, but also its methods which may rely too much on technology for mitigating itsimpacts. He says: There is also much misperception about what is ecological design today. We must not be misled by the popular perception that if we assemble in one single building enough ecogadgetry such as solar collectors, photo-voltaics, biological recycling systems, building automation systems and double-skin facades, we will instantaneously have an ecological architecture. The other misperception is that if our building gets a high notch in a green-rating system, then all is well. Of course, nothing could be further from the truth. Worse, a selfcomplacency sets in whereupon nothing further is done to improve environmental degradation. (2007, 22) Yeang,in this quote,is also critical of building rating systems such as the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating System in the United States. A systematic approach, the LEED program awards points based on the meeting of set criteria in the measurement of environmental sustainability. Yeang seems to doubt that systems like LEED are capable of providing a lasting change in approach or even providing the right kind of change. Rather, he feels that these programs might represent the replacement of one kind of complacency for another with an overreliance on technology as a solution to all problems. Although Yeang is critical of building rating systems, they may be part of a long term solution. Such systems provide a method of measurement which clarifies standards and allows for clarity in evaluations and comparisons of sustainable buildings. Furthermore, LEED in particular has been able to produce a greater number of cooperative effortsin sustainable building projectsthrough its encouragement of collaboration among 293 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo disciplines. The US Green Building Council(USGBC),the developer of LEED, through itsliterature promotes its program as a “whole building approach” which encourages architectsto work cooperatively with other design disciplines by considering design more holistically. This is meant to encourage builders and architects to consider multiple building systems and their synergies in the achievement of sustainability goals, rather than focusing on isolated system goals. It also provides additional mechanisms in its process to encourage cooperation through delegation of authority among various design professions and by promoting collaboration in the administration of a project. This has created opportunities in which the viewpoints of various design professionals have new influence in the design process for buildings,leading to new and innovative approaches to sustainable building design. In conjunction with interests in landscape centric approaches and sustainability, such cooperative efforts have led to the development of some innovative projects and methods which may provide architects and other design professionals with insights regarding a greater integration of building systems and natural ones. By examining these projectsin their uses oftechnological solutions and the extent to which they utilize integrative strategies, the value of such collaborative efforts with regard to sustainable building practices can be evaluated. III. Projects: California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California, U.S.A. Some notable building projects exist which utilize strategies that can provide insights into the efficacy of collaborative efforts between architects and natural system linked design professionals and their value with regard to the integration of building systems and natural systems. One such cooperative effort is the recently builtand award winning California Academy of Sciences museum in San Francisco’s Golden Gate Park (Fig.1). The project was developed as a replacementforthe Academy’s previous cluster of buildingsinthe same location which were damaged in the 1989 earthquake affecting San Francisco. The projectteam included lead designer, Renzo Piano Building Workshop, Chong Partners (now Stantec Architecture),landscape architects S W A Group, and biological consultant Rana Creek. Figure 1: The new building of the California Academy of Sciences. (Courtesy of Earth2tech) The project was awarded a LEED Platinum certification – (LEED’s highest award), for its design and construction by using strategies such as;the use of recycled materials (Over 90% of the demolition waste from the old academy was recycled), naturallighting (atleast 90 percent of regularly occupied spaces have access to daylight) (Stone 2008), natural ventilation (about 40 percent of the academy utilizes natural ventilation), a perimeter canopy of photovoltaic cells(providing atleast 5 percent ofthe building’s power)(Steen 2008), and a gray-water collection system (Post 2008), However, the most significant component of the building’s design, and its most significant with regard to developing a relationship between building and natural systems, is its green roof. 294 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: The front view of California Academy of Sciences showing the undulating roof against hillsin San Francisco (Courtesy of California Academy of Sciences) The roof is designed as an undulating blanket laid over the top of the building structure with the sphericalforms of a planetarium and a rainforestterrarium pushing up surface ofthe roof plane from the interior of the building below to form two large mounds that along with 5 smaller mounds are meantto evoke the 7 hills ofthe city of San Francisco’slandscape (Fig. 2). The undulating hills ofthe roof make it visiblefrom the ground level which overcomes a problem many green roofs have of being seen. The roofis 2.5 acres and is planted with 1.7 million plants of nine native species. Itis meant that the roof serves as a wildlife habitat that will attract pollinating animals,like hummingbirds, bumble-bees and butterflies (Steen 2008). The plants used for the roof were chosen fortheir adaptabilitytothe Bay Area’s seasonalrainfallcycle (SW A 2008). For San Francisco,the green roof creates the most concentrated area of native wildflowers within the city (Green Roofs for Healthy Cities 2008). The roof is also an educative component of the building, which is partially accessible and is integrated into the program of the museum. The concept ofthe roof developed from Renzo Piano’s idea for creating the building as a continuity of the park. Describing his concept he said, “The idea was to cut a piece of the park, push it up 35 feet - to the height of the old buildings - and then put whatever was needed underneath” (Steen 2008). Though the development of the roof as a diverse habitat might seem integral to the design, it was not a straightforward process. In his vision for the roof Renzo Piano preferred a plant palette that was monolithic, neat, and clean (Steen 2008). He was originally dissatisfied by the plants presented to him by botanistsfor the roof which were not necessarily chosen for their beauty, but for their ecological value. However, consultants of Rana Creek, along with the landscape architects of S W A, through experimentation, found plants which were able to satisfy Piano’s aesthetics and achieve the diversity desired. These differences of view in plant aesthetics atteststo the value that collaboration broughttothe design process. In addition to providing habitatfor plant and animal species,the roof also triesto maintain a connection with local hydrology. Most of the rain water falling onto the roof is captured for the irrigation needs of the roof’s plant materials in panelized reservoirs along the roof’s surface underneath the plant materials and their growing medium. The water quantities exceeding irrigation needs are siphoned off the roof by a crisscrossing system of gabions to an underground watertable recharge system (Fig. 3). Filtered through sand and gravel,the rainwaterinthe chamber naturally percolates back into the watertable of Golden Gate Park. Beyond its connections to natural systems, the green roof serves as an important component of the operational systems ofthe building. The steep slopes ofthe roof mounds create a naturalventilation and cooling system which reduces the use of mechanical cooling. Outdoor air cooled by the vegetated roof surface is funneled intothe entry plaza whose mechanically operable skylights open to allow the cooled airto flow into the building interior. The roof also helps to regulateindoor temperatures by creating a thermal bufferforthe spaces below. The seven inches of soil substrate on the roof, acting as naturalinsulation, are expected to maintain the building'sinterior an average of 10 degrees coolerthan a standard roof would in hot weather (Stone 2007). 295 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 3: Green roof system drainage components (left) & panel composition (right) (drawn by: Alejandro Stein) Despite the naturalized appearance and use of natural processes,the design of the California Academy of Sciences green roof employs a great deal of engineering to make it function. Overall,the building utilizes large amounts of technology and gadgetry as components of its sustainable design strategies. The green roof provides an interface between the technologically sophisticated building and the world outside (nature). Through its habitat function and its attention to site hydrology, the roof establishes a connection with natural systems which is positive and contributory. Its visibility and access as a museum exhibit also promote connections between building users and nature. The connection between the functions of the green roof and building HVAC systems and electricity usage illustrates a symbiotic relationship between the building and natural systems. One shortcoming of the design isthat access to the entire roof islimited to an observation area at one corner of the building roof. A stronger interaction between the roof and the building occupants would improve the value of the design. With regard to adaptability and responsiveness to changing conditions in natural systems,the roof has exhibited some adaptability according to botanists working forthe academy. Birds and bees have deposited foreign pollens and seeds on the site, bringing new species of plants (Steen 2008). Depending on how these species interact with the existing roof habitat, they are allowed to remain or are removed by maintenance workers. Such flexibility may seem minimal, but itis an important step forward and demonstrates how flexibilityin a building system might work. Sidwell Friends School, Washington, District of Columbia, U.S.A. Going a step further in linking people and buildings to natural systems is the Sidwell Friends School (Fig. 4) in Washington D.C. designed by Kieran Timberlake Architects with Andropogon Landscape Architects and consultants Natural Systems International. Sidwellisa schoolfounded on the Quaker philosophy of human beings as stewards ofthe Earth. The school, during an expansion in 2007, wanted to strengthen the link between this philosophy and the curriculum by integrating it into the design of its facilities. The project, like the California Academy of Sciences museum building, received LEED Platinum certification. The project’s environmental credentials are numerous with strategies that include light shelves, a green roof, operable skylights,reuse of an existing building stock, use of recycled contentin the building’s construction, use of solar chimneys for passive cooling, and use of photovoltaic cellsfor electricity. These strategies have reduced energy demand by 60% when compared to other similar sized schools (AIA 2007). The centerpiece of the project’s design, and its strongest link between natural processes and the building, is the school’s courtyard which contains terraced wetlands and a rain garden forthe reuse and recycling of water (Chen 2007). The wetlands,in combination with a biologicalfiltering system, are used to process and treat wastewater created by the schoolforreuseinthe school’stoilets and its cooling towers,and also forinfiltration. The process begins with a primary treatment of wastewaterin an underground tank. The wateristhen circulated through a series of reed bed in the school’s courtyard. Within the wetland, microorganisms attached to gravel in the planting medium, in conjunction with the roots of the plants, breakdown contaminants in the water. Trickle and sand filters provide further treatment (Fig. 5). The system receives up to 3000 gallons of wastewater per day (Margolis & Robinson 2007). During the winter time warm wastewater entering the system prevents the wetlands from freezing making the system viable year round. 296 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4: Sidwell Friends School, building and constructed wetlands (Courtesy of Green Infrastructure) Figure 5: Wastewatertreatment wetland system, Sidwell Friends School (drawn by: Alejandro Stein) Overall, the system achieves water savings of 90% (Tutterow, & Filippov & Harris 2008). Additionally, using biological processes to treat wastewater is energy efficient and produces significantly less sludge waste than conventional processes. In addition to water and energy savings and the reduction in generated waste material,theterraced wetlands have created habitatforlocalinsects, birds and small animals. It uses planting design that follows the range of plant communities that would occur along the soil within each 297 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo given moisture gradientto create habitatsreflective of what might naturally exist on the site. Using native plant species is a strategy that extends throughout the school grounds, strengthening connections between local ecology and the school. In addition to treating wastewaterthrough its wetlands,the school also captures rainwater from its roof to aid in its irrigation needs and for use within the courtyard to supply a biological education pond. During seasons of high precipitation, water directly supplies the needs of the pond. Excess rainwater is stored in an underground cistern which isthen used to supply the pond during dry seasons when itslevels arelow (Fig. 6). Figure 6: Rainwater capture and biology pond, Sidwell Friends School (drawn by: Alejandro Stein) The treatment of the school grounds is an integral component of a larger strategy within the school to foster connections between the students and their environment, both inside and outside the school. Learning aboutthe building and itssystems, and its connectionsto natural processes,is part ofthe educational curriculum. The goalisto make systems and their processes evident. Students have access to monitors which measure such things as the temperature outside and inside the building, air quality, wind speeds,rainfalllevels, and the health of their school’s wetlands. The blending of the school’s water supply and wastewater treatment systems with natural processesinthe wetland systems sit atthe center of a design which works to provide a strong connection between the building and natural processes, the building and the people inside, and also between people and natural processes. The school’s green roof, although very limited in comparison to the one on the California Academy also contributes to the connections between the building and itslandscape. Additionally,the green roof of Sidwell also functions as a rooftop vegetable and herb garden where students grow some ofthe food which is used in the school’s cafeteria, developing another connection between students and natural processes. Overall,the Sidwell Friends School represents a notable example for the integration of landscape and building systems. It provides connections between building functions and natural ones in many ways, most notably with its integration of building wastewater treatment and water use with hydrological and wetland systems. This project does very well connecting people, building systems, and natural systems. The integration of building and natural systems appears comprehensible and is didactic. The wetland system expresses flexibilityinits operations with its abilityto adjustto cold weather and the biological pond also expresses similar flexibility in its adjustments to wet and dry seasonal changes. Although the projectis mostly a successful one, some shortcomings exist. Hiding the primary treatment process facilities underground may be a somewhat questionable elementin the projectinthatitseems deceptive in illustrating the watertreatment process, possibly giving the perception thatitfunctions independently of additionaltechnology. Additionally,the adjacencies of the wastewatertreatment system,the stormwater collection system, and the biological pond also seem to imply a connection that does not really exist. Information regarding these items is not hidden in literature about the project orininstruction to students, butthe system could have been developed with greaterclarity. Although 298 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo these shortcomings hurt the project somewhat, as a whole the project seems to use technology positively to further connections between people and natural processes. It also represents a successful collaboration linking building systems and natural systems. IV. Conclusion With the increasing urgency of finding sustainable answers to the world’s problems, solutions are necessary which do not just depend on mitigation through efficiency, but include the development of new connections and symbioses between human systems and ecological ones. In his article entitled “Making the Case for Landscape Ecology,” ecologistJianguo Wu, contrasts modern human engineering systems withthose of beavers (2008). In so doing he articulates that human beings must find an alternative way of building their environment. Drawing upon the concept of human beings as “ecosystem engineers” that actively develop and maintain their own habitat,W u notes that beavers are also engineers of their own ecosystem, utilizing trees to build dams as habitation forthemselves. “However,even ifbeavers change a naturallandscape from one stateto another, their influences are usually confined within the local landscape” (Wu 2008, 47). Furthermore, as beavers do alter their systems, they do not replace them with simplified, ecologically inefficient versions as humans often do or altertheirenvironments atthe scalesthathumans do. Human beings may not be ableto live as beavers, but this illustrates the profound problems that current human systems maintain in their relationship with natural systems. Improving this relationship requires areevaluation ofitasit now exists. Architects and builders, who seek a path to sustainability in their work, should look beyond solutions to existing systems. By depending solely on strategies of containment and increased efficiencies, opportunities to develop better systems may be overlooked and left out. Strategies need to focus on developing new systems which are compatible with naturalsystems and processes. Thisrequires alandscape centric (integrative) mindset rather than a building centric (technologic) one. Through collaborative efforts with other professionals with knowledge of natural processes, and with an increased understanding of the relationship between the human environment and the natural one, architects and builders can move toward a new paradigm in which buildings and citieslook to natural systems for an example and a partner. Acknowledgements This ongoing research is being supported by a grant from the Paul Cejas Foundation of Florida International University. References AIA American Institute of Architects. (2007). Cote Top Ten Green Projects 2007. http://www.aia.org/aiaucmp/groups/aia/documents/pdf/aias077513.pdf (accessed March 1, 2009) Chen, A. (2007, July/August). Teaching Tools. Metropolis Magazine, 106-111. Green Roofs for Healthy Cities. (2008). 2008 Awards of Excellence: California Academy of Sciences. http://www.greenroofs.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1039&Itemid=136 (accessed April 3, 2009) Margolis, L., & Robinson, A. (2007). Living Systems: Innovative Materials and Technologies for Landscape Architecture. Berlin: Birkhauser Verlag AG. Post, N. M. (2008, June). San Francisco Museum’s Green Redo Keeps Team on Slippery Slopes. Engineering News Record. Steen, K. E. (2008, September). Green Architecture’s Grand Experiment. Metropolis Magazine, 109-114. Stone, S. (2008, October 8). New California Academy of Science Receives Highest Possible Rating From U.S. Green Building Council : LEED Platinum, [Press release]. San Francisco. Stone, S. (2007, June 7). Dramatic Living Roof Installed Atop New California Academy of Sciences, Making It the “Greenest” Museum Ever Constructed, [Press release]. San Francisco. SWA. (2008). Prototypical Sustainable Science Museum. http://www.swagroup.com (accessed May 2, 2009). Tutterow, V., & Filippov, A. & Harris, J. (2008). Energy-Efficient New Federal Buildings: Awareness and Implementation of Federal Building Standards &Case Studies. Alliance to Save Energy. 299 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ase.org/files/4787_file_EnergyEfficientNewFederalBuildings.pdf (accessed January 3, 2009) Wells, M. (1981). Gentle Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill. Wu, J. (2008). Making the Case for Landscape Ecology: An Effective Approach to Urban Sustainability. Landscape Journal, 27 (1), 41-50. Yeang, K. (2007). On Green Design. In Eco Skyscrapers, ed. Ivor Richards. Mulgrave, Vic.: Images Publishing Group Pty. Ltd. 300 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reuse of Waste Marble Dust in the Landfill Layer Ismail Zorluer Technical Educational Faculty, Construction Education, Geotechnical Branch Afyon Kocatepe University Afyonkarahisar, Turkey izorluer@aku.edu.tr Lemi Tufan Taspolat Vocational High School, Construction Department, Anadolu University Bilecik Bilecik, Turkey lltaspolat@anadolu.edu.tr Abstract: Waste materials are serious environmental problem because they have harmed to soil and ground water. Rapidly developing technology has increased production and consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. This case was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. Because the waste materials increases characteristic of clay liner such as impermeability, strength, heavy metal absorption, etc. In this study, waste marble dust was used as an additive material in landfill liner. Mixtures of kaolinite-bentonite were mixed with waste marble dust for design of landfill liner. This process was performed at marble dust ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. At the end of the tests, it was observed that waste marble dust increased strength of liner in conditions of freezing and thawing. Keywords: Waste marble dust, Environment, landfill liner, freezing-thawing 1. Introduction The waste materials are serious environmental problem. Rapidly growing cities with increasing population have formed this problem. Concentration of population in cities has increased consumption. The increasing of production and consumption results in the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing are initiated to prevent the environment pollution. However, many technologies are developed forthe recycling of wastes; many of them cannot be recycled by the economical and technological points of view. The collected wastes can be burned and/or composted by newly developed technologies; however, afinal amount oftrashes must be stored forthe lastremoval procedure. In the landfilllayers, usage of suitable materials and possibly waste mixture material are important to prevent from environmental conditions. By this way, the waste materials, such as fly ash, would be gained to economy. In recent times, waste marble dust was used as an additive material for soil stabilization. Okagbue and Onyeobi’s study (1999) showed thatthe geotechnical parameters of red tropical soils are improved substantially by the addition of marble dust, plasticity was reduced by 20 to 33% and strength and CBR increased by 30 to 46% and 27 to 55% respectively. Additionally, normal 28 day curing improved after 7 to 10 days of normal curing. The effect of waste marble dust on swelling potential of Na-bentonite and Meşelik clays was investigated by Zorluer (2003). Specimens were mixed with marble dust at different percentages of dry soil weight. Then, they were compacted atthe standard compaction effort and swelling tests were carried out with odometer apparatus. The experimentalresultsrevealthat waste marble dustis effective for controlling of swelling potentialand it can be used forthis purpose. Also marble dust affect unconfined compression strength of clay soils according to study of Zorluer (2006). Clay soil had mixed marble dust at 3, 5, 8, 10 % percentages. Then mixtures had been compacted with standard proctor compaction energy. Specimens had been sampled from compacted soils for compression test. At the end of 28 days curing time, strength increased 20.1 by N/cm2 to 57.3 N/cm2. Hassini (1992) determined that impermeable layer cycles much at landfills. In doing so, he carried out an experiment offreezing-thawing to specify soilstrength and its permeability. After 12 cycles,as suggested by 301 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Chamberlain (1981), he found that 10-15% grain loss does not have any impact on strength. This study examines the degree of deformation derived from seasonal temperature differences at impermeablelayers with marble dust. Forthisreason,three mixture of soilto waste marble dust(the proportions were 5, 10, 15% dustto dry soil by weight) have been prepared. And freezing-thawing tests were carried out in these mixtures. 2. Materials 2.1 Na Bentonite Clay Bentonite is a colloidal aluminium hydro silicate. The volume of bentonite can rise 10 to 30 times by the addition of water.It has a swelling characteristictill 200ºC. This property loses completely over 600ºC. The bentonite clay used in this study is Na-Bentonite.It was supplied from the Karakaya Bentonite factory, Ankara Turkey. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of Na Bentonite clay were shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.2 Kaolinite Clay Kaolinite clay is a product of a type of rock which contains a great amount of feldspar. Kaolinite consists of silica and aluminium layers. The thickness oflayersis 7.2 Å,thelength oflayersis between 1000 and 20000 Å and the specific surface area is (SSA) 15m2/g. The clay used in this study is obtained from the Bilecik district. The clay is produced by a three step procedure;first excavation from clay ores,then cleaning from fine sand by water washing and, finally crashing below 40 µ m at the end of washing, groups of clay and shale are completely decomposed. The clay used consists of kaolinite mineral. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters ofthe kaolinite clay are shown in table 1, The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). 2.3 Waste Marble Dust Marble dustis minimum sized marble waste.It occurs with sawing process of marble blocks and plates. This dustis carried by waterto sedimentation pond. Sediment dustis removed from this pond to wasteland, but this condition have formed serious problem for environment. Because, waste marble dust is used in very little quantities even though it used inthe very differentindustries such as construction, ceramics and cementindustry, paintindustry, agriculture and fertilizerindustry, etc. Therefore,they have happened big mass in the waste areas (Zorluer 2003). Marble dust, used in this study, was obtained a marble processing factory in Afyonkarahisar-Turkey. Then, it is dried and sieved with #40 sieve. The marble dust grains are smaller than 300 micron. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of waste marble dust are shown in table 1,The results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental Analysis are shown in the table 2 (Koyuncu 1998). W Ca GSGb U Wc Grain Size Distribution (%) (%) (g/cm3) Sand Silt clay Na-Bentonite 12.7 2.76 0.94 2 46 52 Kaolinite 0.1 2.64 0.59 11 26 63 Marble Dust 4.1 2.75 2.73 14 78 8 ( a ): Water Content, (b ): Grain Specific gravity:, (c ): Unit Weight. Additions Table 1 Some physicochemical and geotechnical propertiesof materials. Additions SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 Na-Bentonite 59.49 18.06 4.14 Kaolinite 51.52 32.00 1.75 Marble Dust 0.01 0.85 0.04 ( a ): Loss of Ignition. CaO 3.72 0.20 55.30 Mg O 2.42 0.20 0.24 P2 O3 0.11 ----- K2 O 0.91 0.50 0.20 Na2 O 2.50 0.09 0.03 Table 2 Chemical compound of materials. 302 SO3 Mn2 O3 LOIa 0.10 8.55 0.04 12.62 ----- ----- 43.51 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Experimental Study The changes in the strength at material against seasonal impact are determined by using freezingthawing test. The deformation in the material as a result ofthistestis closely related to the amount ofthe water in it given that the nature and ratio of soil water changes to a grade extent when it freezes. When the water transform in to ice,its volume increases about 9% in accordance with the development ofits hexagonal crystal texture (Penner & Ueda 1977). Test specimens were prepared by 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite mixture by dry weight for use in the impermeable clay layer. This mixture was named as control specimen - 90K+10B. Then, the waste marble dust was added to the mixture at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. These ratios were obtained from other studies in the literature. Marble dustis abbreviated as a MD. Specimens were prepared with compaction in a standard proctor mold by using optimum water contents for every mixture. Freezing-thawing strength was determined according to “Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures” indicated in AST M D560 (1985).In this experiment,samples are stored in a freezer at-20o C for 24 hours. Then,the same samples are stored atthe room temperatures at 18o C for 24 hours. This process is called as one cycle. 12 cycles are carried out for the samples in this experiment after which the surfaces of the samples are brushed gently with wire brush to remove particles. Then, they are weighted to determine the percentage of the loss compared to their previous weight. The highest loss rate accepted in the literatureis 15%. The surface crystallization and the sample deformation afterthe cycle are given in figure 1and figure 2 respectively. Fig. 1 Crystallization on surface afterthe freezing Fig. 2 Deformation afterthe cycles 4. Test results After freezing and thawing test consisting of totally 12 cycles,it was seen that grain loss has decreased with marble dustincrease.Ithas decreased from 17.6% to 12.5% atthe end of 12 cycles.It can be declared that this decreasing can make positive influence to the strength values of layers. The less the grain losses is, the 303 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo higher the soil strength is. The findings show thatthe strength of the samples increases when the amount of the added marble dustincreases.As itis seen in table 3, an additional 5% of marble dustis ineffective on freezingthawing. While an additional 15% marble dustresultsin 12,5% grain loss, an additional 10 % marble dust bring in 13,5 grain loss. Initial water Number of Grain loss contents (%) cycle (%) Control(90K10B) 25 12 17.6 90K10B +5% M D 25 12 18 90K10B +10% MD 25 12 13.5 90K10B +15% MD 25 12 12.5 Table 3 Freeze-Thaw experiment results of waste marble dust mixtures. Materials 5. Conclusions Grain Loss (%) Firstly, itis observed that the amount of grain loss in the samples with 10% and 15% of marble dust addition as a result of deformation in the freezing-thawing test are in compliance with the highest grain loss referred in the literature. Secondly, it is seen that on addition of 5 % of marble dust is ineffective since the results from this sample are close tothose ofthe control sample. Thirdly, As itisseen in figure 3,the study shows thatthelowest deformation occursinthe material with 15% of marble addition. 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Control 5% MD 10% MD 15% MD Additive Material Fig.3 Effect of waste marble dust on freezing-thawing In the light of the given findings, it can be argued that use of marble dust increases the strength of landfillliner. Trough its use in landfillliners,the recycling of marble dust will be possible. Consequently,this will not only to contribute to the protection of the environment but also to provide an economical additive materialtolandfilllayer. References Okagbue C. O., Onyeobi T. U. S., (1999), Potential of marble dust to stabilise red tropical soils for road construction, Engineering Geology, V. 53, pp 371-380. Zorluer, I., (2003). Effect of waste marble dust to swelling potential of clay soils. XI. National Clay Symposium Proceedings. Đzmir-Turkey, pp. 475-482. Zorluer, I., (2006). The Effect of waste marble dust on unconfined compression strength of clay soils. GAP V Engineering Congress Proceedings. Şanlıurfa-Turkey, pp. 1042-1046. Hassini, S., (1992). Some aspects of landfill desing environmental science and engineering, Environmental geotechnology, 137-143p Chamberlaın, E. J., (1981). Overconsolidation Effects of Ground Freezing, Engineering Geology, 18, 97-110. Koyuncu, H., (1998). Physicochemical, microstructure and geotechnical properties of petroleum boring wastes improved with stabilization/solidification method. PhD thesis, Osmangazi University. 304 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Penner, E. and Ueda, T., (1977). Proceedings, symposium on Frost Action in Soils, Universty of Lulea, Lulea, Sweden, I, 91100. ASTM D560-96 (1985). Methods for Freezing and Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures. Annual Book of ASTM Standards. 305 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 487 Title A name given to the resource Organic Strategies to Sustainable Buildings and Cities Author Author Ozer, Ebru Thompson, Douglas T. Abstract A summary of the resource. In the pursuit of creating sustainable buildings and cities, architectural strategies have mainly focused on approaches relying on technological efficiency and engineered systems. The focus has been such because these strategies are evolutionary in that they are solutions to the problems posed by existing building system design strategies and are thus more easily integrated into those systems. In some cases however, architectural offices have been teaming with landscape architects and other professions whose focus are more on natural systems rather than building systems. In these cases where disciplines have worked cooperatively toward the goal of sustainability, strategies have emerged which take a combined approach in which building systems utilize and integrate with natural systems. Projects and strategies that have emerged from these collaborative endeavors can provide architects and city builders with valuable lessons and insights and contribute to developing a better overall framework for approaching sustainability in the built environment. Through an examination of recent successful sustainable building projects in which architects have worked collaboratively with landscape architects, natural scientists, and similarly focused professions, this research analyzes specific strategies, methods, and construction details which integrate building systems with natural systems, providing valuable lessons for such collaborative approaches and insights for approaching sustainable buildings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/06fc59b79f4c1d24bb754082b3ca4faa.pdf 142d1412ecd7735425a8d205a0251774 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Determination Of The Economic Results And Income Distribution Of The Wheat Farms In Central Anatolia Turkey Cennet OĞUZ Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Economics coguz@selcuk.edu.tr Kemal ESENGÜN Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University Faculty of Economy and Business Administration kesengun@kmu.edu.tr Abstract: The purpose of this study is to determine the economic results and income distribution of wheat producers in Middle Anatolia Region. The data used in this study was collected from farms selected by random sampling among 20 villages of wheat producers in Konya and Ankara province. The data belongs to the 2006-2007 production years. The average size of all farms was 250.30 decare. The owned land covered the 63.55 % of the total area. The average number of fields per farm 8.03 and the average size of each field is 31.17 decare. Arable area occupied 94.25 % of total land. About 76.46 % of gross production was obtained from plant production and 23.54 % animal production. Income distribution of the farms was detailed by agricultural income, total family income and per capita family income. It was determined that per capita agricultural average income was 1 808.7 TL, and the average agricultural family income was 2 211.1 TL. Gini ratio of the agricultural income was found 0.358 . Key Words: Central Anatolia, wheat farms, gross production value, income distribution Introduction As world population increases rapidly, countries run new progress to improve the level of their feed, shelter and life quality; based on the results of which activities, remarkable changes and improvements are seen. Expectations about better feed, shelter and live have influenced both the world’s people and those of our country. In this case, our agricultural production has to be increased greatly in order to feed our growing population and animal existence better, and also provide necessary supplements to our economy and provide the required raw material to our industry. The success of these situations depends upon using our scarce natural resources more consciously and effectively and the effective transformation of our agricultural potential into production. It is a well known reality that grain production has an important role on countries’ economy as well as in Turkey. The grains have the most important portion among the agricultural production and wheat greatest. In 2010’s will be the sovereignty of agricultural producing. Moreover, wheat and other grains will have the highest priority. According to the world’s well known articles which are written by strategic experts, the strength, importance and functions of the wheat become more important. The population of the world and Turkey has increased continuously but grain stocks have decreased gradually. As a result of that, agriculture production became more important. Turkish economy depends upon mainly agriculture and 31% of population works for agriculture sector. Agriculture sector has 7,4 % of the Turkish gross domestic production (GDP) and 2,3 % of export (Anonymous,2007). The crop yield has to be increased, because of human and animal’s feed. Wheat production is very important economically and strategically. Wheat is the most important income source of agricultural farms especially in Ankara, Konya, Eskişehir, Kayseri, Sivas, Niğde, Yozgat, Kırşehir, Karaman, and Aksaray are the cities of Central Anatolia. Central Anatolia region is 162 540 km² (Bayraklı and others, 1991) and of all this agricultural area is 9 million hectare. The total more than 4 million hectare is in Konya, Ankara and Sivas. Only, Ankara and Konya have 4 521 487 hectare. This is equal to 51% of Central Anatolia Land. Even though 89% of this area is rainfed and 11% of is irrigated. The 90% of grain has been obtained from rainfed areas. In general, wheat, and barley are produced in dry whereas the sugar beet is produced in irrigated area. Grain has 50% of total product in Konya, and 46% in Ankara (Anonymous, 2004). Both Ankara and Konya’s income has 3.4% of total Turkey’s plant production value. Also Central Anatolia region has 13% of Turkey’s agricultural farming and 21.2% agricultural land. It should be given attention that Turkey population 173 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo will be more than 100 million in 2010’s years so Central Anatolia will become much more important. The aim of this study is to investigate grain farms present situation, their problems, and give some suggestions. Materials and Method The survey method was used and all questions were asked to the farmers. The research area in this study covered Ankara and Konya. The grain farmers who have 50% and more were involved to this research. The 30 farms (Akşehir, Altınekin (Oğuzeli), Beyşehir, Çumra (Đçeri Çumra), Kadınhanı (Kızılkuyu, Başkuyu), Karatay (Obruk, Yarma, Ovakavağı, Đsmil), Sarayönü (Ertuğrul), Seydişehir (Akçalar, Gevrekli, Karabudak) were selected from Konya, and two farms from Ankara (Polatlı and Evren). The research data was obtained by surveying using stratified random sampling that was well known in economy fields (Yamane, 1967, Arıkan 1985). The other statistical findings and results also were utilized. The research farms distributions were as; 12 farms for 1-15 ha land, 17 farms for 15.1-20 ha land, and 7 farms for greater they 30.1 ha. The formula used for this purpose is written by; n= N2Σ (Nh. Sh2) / N2D2 + ΣNhSh2 D2=d2 /Z2 2 n: number of farms, Nh: farms number (h) for every stratified, Sh : Variance of samples for every stratified, d: The acceptable error to take the average of population, Z: standard normal distribution value obtained from Z table in which was 1.645 according to confidence limit 90%. To measure the inequality distribution of farms, Lorenz Curve and Gini ratio were used. Lorenz Curve defines the relationship between the certain income share and population obtained this share. The share of farms can be expressed by percentage and is plotted to the vertical axes. The percentage of population is plotted horizontal axes. Thus, the curve is obtained ( Ross, 1969). The 45º line passed away from the origins is named as “Certain Equal Line”. The Certain Equal Line shows the 100% equal income distribution. If the income distribution goes away from the equal level, Lorenz Curve also goes away from the certain equal line and goes down. The Lorenz curve interests with certain equal line in 100% equality ( Dauring, 1991). Gini ratio may be calculated as; G = 1- Σni=1 ( Ni - N i-1 ) (Ai + Ai-1) Where; G = Gini ratio, Ni = Cumulative farm number ratios in total farms ( for each series), Ai = The ratio of farms or incomes to total farms or total incomes for i. farm, and n = series number . Results and Discussions Land Use by Crops Every farm had 25.03 ha of land; 63.55% of land owner, 8.95% of rental land, 27.50% of share farmer. The owner, rental, share cropped lands were found to be 63.55%, 8.99% and 27.50% respectively. The production areas of wheat, barley and sugar beet and others such as fallow were determined to be 54.59 % (13.663 ha), 39.66% (9.927 ha), 4.11%(1.030 ha) and 1.64% (4.100 ha) respectively (table 1). Table 1.The Patterns of Land Uses Farm Sizes Wheat (ha) 0.1-15 8,250 15.1-30 17,218 30.1-+ 17,357 Average 13,663 farms Rate (%) 54,59 Barley Sugar Beet Fallow Other Total 2,983 4,182 30,857 9,927 1,175 1,300 0,357 1,030 0,217 0,236 0,286 0,240 0,146 0,500 0,170 12,625 23,082 49,357 25,030 39,66 4,11 0,96 0,68 100,00 The parcel number was found to be 8.03 and average parcel size 3.117 ha. According to results of Farm Counting 1991, average farm size was 5.68 ha in Turkey. The farm size was smaller comparison to Turkey’s average. The total production wheat area was determined to be 1176656 kg/ha and was equal to 12.6% of Turkey Land. The production was 2 447 070 tons that was 13.12% of Turkey’s total production. Total land has been increased because of great automation in agriculture after 1970. The Farms number have increased and reached up to 2.5 millions in 1951, 3.7 millions in 1980 and, 4.1 millions in 1991, 4.5 millions in 1999 in Turkey. But in recent years, this number again decrease 3,1 millions. As a result of this, arable land has reduced to 5.68 ha per farms. In Turkey, most producers have had own land whereas the 59% of producers in EU have used their own land (Eurostat, 2004). 174 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Employment Potential The employment potential for farmer family is given in table 2. According to results, employment varied between 4.47-3.76 MPU (man power unit) and depended upon the farm size. The average MPU was determined as 4.16. The annual working day was found to be 280 day, depending upon climatic conditions. According to actual production patterns for present technological level, the employment hour was determined adding present employment power to family members worked hours from farms. This was compared individually and farm size and average farm size and unemployment men power were computed. Table 2.Working Patterns in Agricultural Farms Family Potential Power in Family Farm Man Man Out of Out of Sizes (ha) Power Power farms In farm agricultural Total Unit Day 0.1-15 4.47 1251.6 116.0 32.0 80.0 228.0 15.1-30 4.07 1139.6 193.0 21.0 108.0 322.0 30.1-+ 3.76 1052.9 265.0 19.0 320.0 604.0 Average 4.16 1164.8 179.0 24.9 146.3 350.2 farms Foreigner power 71.0 140.0 185.0 122.9 Total Power 299.0 462.0 789.0 473.1 The average family employment potential was found to be 1164.8 MPD (man power day) but, only 350.2 of this was used. Although there was an unemployment power in farms, 122.9 MPD was met from foreign workers (Table 2). In the research area the average family number were 5,90. In the central Anatolia region, working was very intensive during the harvesting and planting period. To use inactive capacity, it was important to enhance animals products, and change the production design. Erkuş reported that in Konya proper production sources uses resulted in reducing 15% of inactive workers and fell to 35.31%, so that income increased to be 28.64% (Erkuş, 1991). Oğuz (1992) reported that average worker was 780 MPD in agricultural farms for Konya. The 375 of it was obtained from women workers who were used animals sector. Economic Results The Value of Gross Production in Farms In production concept, the gross production value can be defined as increase of value that covers the end of economic activities produced new products value and exchanging (Woermann, 1958). In research, gross production value was determined by multiplying of unit price of product value and market price obtained from activity results plus productive increments of plant and animals capital. Table 3 shows gross production value at the end of production activities. Table 3. Gross Production Values according to crop production (TL and %) Total crop Farm sizes (ha) Wheat Barley Sugar beet Other product production value 0.1-15 1 206,00 278,00 712,00 2 196,00 15.1-30 2 744,00 475,00 928,00 54,00 4 201,00 30.1 - + 2 907,00 3 433,0 200,00 150,00 6 690,00 Average 2 166,80 1 086,40 671,7 54,8, 3 979,70 Farms Gr.Pro.Val 86,57 43,40 26,84 2,19 159,00 Per hectare Rate (%) 54.45 27.30 16.88 1.37 100.00 The total plant value was 3979, 70TL (Turkish Liras) and the 54.45% of this covered from wheat, 27.30% from barley, 16.88% from sugar beet and 1.37% from other products (melon, spinach, lettuce etc). The average gross production value per farm was 159 TL per hectare. In the Central Anatolia Region, wheat generally has been produced in dry conditions. As a result of this, average productivity has reduced up to 46.7% per ha. The producer income has gone down notably. If plant and animal production values were adding, gross total product value was calculated. The animal product value is given in table 4. In agriculture farms, total average animal production value was 1225,4 TL. That number covered 61.5% of milk, 3.53% of wool, fertilizer etc., 19.04% of fixed asset increase, 14.97% of live animal sales and 175 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 0.95% of other productions such as eggs. In general, Central Anatolia Region is very appropriate for livestock in terms of natural resources and ecological conditions. However, animal husbandry has not developed enough because of plant production has been encouraged and supported relatively more than animal production. According to the results, animal husbandry was calculated to be 23.5% for research area and 25% for Turkey. The animal husbandry was more than 55% in EU for agriculture sector (Anonymous, 2004). Table 4. Animal Production Values (TL and %) Farm (ha) sizes 0.1-15 15.1-30 30.1-+ Average Farms Rate (%) 928,00 452,00 929,00 753,70 44,5 45,0 38,0 43,2 10,0 9,5 18,0 11,7 210,0 182,0 354,0 233,3 125,0 572,0 183,5 Total Animal product. Value 1 317,5 688,5 1 911,0 1 225,4 61,51 3,53 0,95 19,04 14,97 100.00 Milk Wool Other Equipment Increment Life sale Animal In this research, since agricultural farm was small and separated, poor production was occurred. Therefore, producers organization and publications service have been in a difficulty. The producers were weak against unstable market conditions. They couldn’t access to Extension services. Also producers haven’t been informed about fluctuation conditions. The soil was effective factor for production and there was no balance between work power, capital and production factors. This was a characteristic of all agricultural farms Central Anatolia. Gross Profit, Farm and Family Income Gross profit can be defined as omitting private variable costs from gross production values (Brandes and others, 1971). It was a main success criteria to use scarce production factors and to express competition power of production activities. The farmers needed to this profit for family expenditure, investment and tax payments. In research, agriculture income was calculated omitting interest and rent payment from agricultural income and adding family income which was equivalent to family works (Erkuş et all, 1995). The total family income was found by collection of income and out of income ( Table 5). Table 5. Gross Production Value, Gross Profit and Agricultural Family Incomes (TL and $) 1$=1,56TL Gross Total Out of Agricultural Gross Agricultural Farm Sizes Agricultural Family production Variable ( ha) Profit Income value Cost Income Income 0.1-15 3 513,50 1 353,90 2 159,60 1 517,10 357,00 1 874,10 15.1-30 4 889,50 1 876,00 3 013,50 1 879,00 255,00 2 134,00 30.1 - + 8 601,00 3 257,00 5 344,00 2 198,00 712,00 2 910,00 Aver. TL 5 205,10 1 989,40 3 215,70 1 808,70 402,40 2 211,10 Farms $ 3336,60 1275,26 2061,35 1159,42 257,95 1417,37 The farm had an average 5205,10 TL or $3336,60 the value of gross production. Total variable cost and gross profit were 1989,40 TL ($1275,26) and 3215,70 TL ( $20 61,35) respectively. In agricultural income and out of income were 1808,70 or $1159,42 and 402,40 TL or $257,95. As a result of this, farmer obtained an average 2211,11 TL ( $1417,37) per year. The 81.8% of family income was obtained from agriculture and, 18.2% of out of agriculture. This income was very low when it is compared with Turkey’s average of $10000 income. In this area a lot of farmers have been living under the standard of poverty. 176 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Income Distribution Of Agricultural Farms Household Ratios First %20 Second %20 Third %20 Fourth %20 Fifth %20 Total Gini ratios Table 6. Income Distributions, Family Income and Gini Ratios Total Family Income Cumulative Family Income Value (TL) Ratio(%) Value (TL) Ratios(%) 5 370,50 4,89 5 370,50 4,89 11 839,50 10,79 17 210,00 15,68 18 232,20 16,60 35 442,20 32,28 27 832,50 25,35 63 274,70 57,63 46 516,50 42,37 109 791,2 100,00 109 791,20 100,00 0,358 Figure 1. Lorenz Curve 100 Income (%) 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Househoulds (%) The research showed that 80% of the agricultural farms had 57.63% share of the total family income and rests ( 20%) was 42.37%. According to the Gini ratio value of 0.358, agricultural farms were situated in research area. The total family income was not distributed uniformly. Since certain equal line that explains exactly 100% equal distribution. As the income distribution goes away from the equal level, Lorenz Curve also will far away from the certain equal line. In conclusion, it is seen that income distribution was not balanced well. Conclusions According to the research, farms had 63.55% of own land, and every farm size was 25.03 ha. The farm size was relatively greater than Turkey’s average. According to the general farm counting in 1991, agricultural farms which covered nineth region (Afyon, Kayseri, Konya, Nevşehir, Niğde, Aksaray) varied between 10.01 and 9.9 ha land (Anonymous, 1994). Even though land was very small, it was still larger than Turkey’s average. Every plot was found to be 3.12 ha and fallow area became narrow. It can be accepted as good amendments. The farm capital was not sufficient (26.07%). The money was determined to be 1.73% of this capital due to the lower saving rate (Demirci, 1981). Thus, producers were supported by Government. The employment and land productivity especially should be increased by using business economy. Price, market and insufficient knowledge and information were the most important producer problems and currently more than 3,1 million agriculture farms, which produced products without having information and communication between them. Turkey population will be greater than 100 million in 2014’s, so cereals should be produced more in order to meet increased population needs. Agriculture products mainly depend upon the natural conditions. Therefore, there was not stable balance between demand and supply, and price and cost fluctuations. On the other hand, the problems in agricultural farms have been grown up. Their problems were derived from the small-scale activity, 177 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo organization, and insufficient integration between agriculture farms and industry. The finance problems may be more serious in the coming future. The product quality becomes more important because of internal market demand and customer, baker and miller. Although, Turkey has a great potential about product kinds, export, it may not have stable and effective world market because of poor market research. The external cereals demands have increased gradually. Even though, world population is more than 6 billion, world cereals stock speed was less than world population growth. The FAO gave pay attention this subject and called world countries to improve their product (Kün et all. 1991). Turkey’s production quality should be international standard and product costs must be minimized because of Turkey competition. The Turkey should grow macaroni wheat for international standard and external market. Therefore, producers must be encouraged to produce more qualified wheat. The Turkey is the eighth wheat producer in the world and wheat export has decreased recently. Although China is the first wheat producer in the world, wheat is still imported because of high population. The Brazil, Japan, Egypt and Italy are also other wheat importer countries whereas the Canada, USA, Argentine, and France are important wheat exporter in the world. Even though India and Russia are the biggest wheat producer, their export is limited. By producing of about 19 million tons wheat a year, wheat product will be more stable in Turkey. To be successful in this area, producers should be more organized. The public and private institutions were informed more for grain products’ quality and quantity and producers should be supported related to this subject. Support price should be explained previous year and, this rate must be equal to inflation rate. Therefore, farmers may be organized to change price in favor for them. References Anonymous, 1994. General Farm Determination in Agricultural Farms. Research Results, GSI ( Government Statistical Institution ) No: 1691, Ankara ( in Turkish). Anonymous, 1997. Agricultural Structure and Production. State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey. Anonymous, 1998. An investigation on Uses of Present Sources and Improvement of Sources Uses in Agricultural Farms for Küçük Menderes Catchment Area. Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Bornova, Đzmir (in Turkish). Anonymous, 2004. Agricultural Structure and Production. State Institute of Statistics. Anonymous, 2007. Agricultural Structure and Production. State Institute of Statistics. Arıkan, R. , 1985. The Statistics of Agricultural Economics A.Ü. Faculty of Agricultural No: 924 Ankara. Bayraklı , F. , Gür , K., Karakaplan , S., Fırat , B., Gezgin , S., 1991. The Symposium on Productivity Problems for Agriculture in Central Anatolia. Pp.: 30-39. MPM Publications, No:440, Ankara ( in Turkish). Bülbül, M., Erkan, O., Orhan, E., Budak, F., Şengül, H., Yılmaz, Đ., 1991. Capital Situations of Agricultural Farmers and Loan Uses in Turkey. p. 191 Agricultural Engineers 3 th Technical Congress, Ankara ( in Turkish). Brandes, W., Woerman, E., 1971. Landwirtschaftliche Berlin. Betriebslehre, Band2. spezieller Teil, Paul Parey, Hamburg- Dauring, F. , 1991. Inequality, The Political Economy of Income Distribution, Preager, New York. Demirci, R., 1981. Agricultural Structures and Reformation. Turkey 2nd Economics Congress, Agricultural Papers, DPT Pp.: 859-889, Ankara ( in Turkish). Erkuş, A. , 1991. Employment rates of Agricultural Farms and Productivity in Central Anatolia. The Symposium on Productivity Problems for Agriculture in Central Anatolia. MPM Publications, No: 440, Ankara ( in Turkish). Erkuş, A., Bülbül, M., Kıral, T., Açıl, F., Demirci, R., 1995. Publications of Education, Research and Development Foundation, in Ankara University, No: 5, Ankara (in Turkish). Eurostat, 2004. “ Statistics in Focus - Agriculture Forestry and Güneş, T. and Arıkan, R., 1985. Agricultural Economics in Turkish). Fisherings ”, SOEC, Luxembourg. Statistics, Ankara University Publication, 924, Ankara ( Işıklı, E., Turan, A., Tanrıvermiş, H., 1994. Capital Problems in Turkey’s Agriculture. Agricultural Week Symposium, Ankara ( in Turkish). Karagölge, C., Kızıloğlu, S., Yavuz, O., Primary Principles of University Publication, No: 801, Erzurum 1995 ( in Turkish). Agricultural Economics. p. 126, Atatürk Oğuz, C. , 1992. An Investigation on Woman Employment Capacity in Animal Husbandry of Agricultural Farms for Konya Province. Journal of Agricultural Faculty, Selçuk University, No: 4 , Vol. 2, Pp.: 21-26, Konya ( in Turkish). 178 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Oğuz, C., 1996. An Investigation on Productivity Analysis of Tomatoes Production Farms in Konya - Çumra. Turkey 2nd Agricultural Economics Congress, Vol. 1, Pp.: 118-128, 4-6 September 1996, Adana (in Turkish). Ross, M. H. , 1969. Income: Analysis and Policy, Grow - Hill Company, Second Edition, New York. Talim, M., Saner, G., Ardıç, E., 1990. Structural Problems and Improvement of Structures in Turkey Agriculture. Pp.: 9-23, Turkey Agricultural Engineers 3rd Technical Congress, Ankara ( in Turkish). Woermann, E., 1958. Landwirtschaftsbetrieb in HandwörterbuchderSocialwissenschaften, Stuttgard, Tübing en, Göttingen. Yamane, T. , 1967. Elementary Sampling Theory Prentice - Inc. Englewood Cliffs. N.S.USA. Yılmaz, B., 1991. Cereals Potential and Technical Congress, Ankara ( in Turkish). Strategies of Turkey. p. 255 Turkey Agricultural Engineers 3rd 179 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 166 Title A name given to the resource The Determination Of The Economic Results And Income Distribution Of The Wheat Farms In Central Anatolia Turkey Author Author OĞUZ, Cennet ESENGÜN, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to determine the economic results and income distribution of wheat producers in Middle Anatolia Region. The data used in this study was collected from farms selected by random sampling among 20 villages of wheat producers in Konya and Ankara province. The data belongs to the 2006-2007 production years. The average size of all farms was 250.30 decare. The owned land covered the 63.55 % of the total area. The average number of fields per farm 8.03 and the average size of each field is 31.17 decare. Arable area occupied 94.25 % of total land. About 76.46 % of gross production was obtained from plant production and 23.54 % animal production. Income distribution of the farms was detailed by agricultural income, total family income and per capita family income. It was determined that per capita agricultural average income was 1 808.7 TL, and the average agricultural family income was 2 211.1 TL. Gini ratio of the agricultural income was found 0.358 . Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2736d7a173812804123f304abc3a380c.pdf 20b4adf7e95af59d83b8da0506bc76a3 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Apple Production and Marketing in Turkey Cennet OĞUZ Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Economics, Konya, Turkey coguz@selcuk.edu.tr Zuhal KARAKAYACI Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Economics, Konya, Turkey zkarakayaci@gmail.com Đ.Hakkı KALYONCU Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture, Konya, Turkey kalyon@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Turkey has wide varieties of fruits and vegetables, of which many are indigenous to the area, such as the pear, quince, cherry, plum, grape, hazelnut, walnut, apricot, and apple. The land area has 6% fruit, olives and vineyard of Turkey. Six top countries for apple production in the World are Chine, USA, Iran, Turkey, and Russia. Their apple production percentages that took from World production are 42.8%, 6.6%, 4.1%, 3.5% and 3.4% respectively. These countries provide approximately 60 % of the World apple production. Turkey is top fourth apple producer country in the World, by 3, 7 % of total production. Apple yield in Turkey is by 20600 (kg/ha) that over than it’s in the World average. In spite of large amount of apple production in Turkey, the export percentage in the annual apple production is very low, just 1%. In this case, foreign exchanges are not reaching to apple producers in Turkey. Some varieties of apple that produced in Turkey need to be putted on the market immediately after harvest. Also, storage period is very short for some varieties of them, so apple decay is high in Turkey. Apple waste can be decreased by increasing storage capacity and provide better storage conditions. Producer’s conscious act for choosing good variety and cultivation techniques, and also improving quality by giving more attention to the labeling, packing, and storage conditions in order to increase apple export. The aim of this study can be explained as over viewing or exposing of apple production structure and the portion of it in World production, estimating export potential of apple, determining the problems of apple marketing, confirming the measures of solving the problems, and predicting some options in order to increase apple export in Turkey. Key words: Apple production, apple trade, apple marketing, Turkey Introduction Many fruits except some tropic fruits can be grown in Turkey because of suitable climate and ecological characteristics. The mother land of apple is The South Caucasus Region which includes Anatolia Region. Apple can be planted almost everywhere in Turkey because of ecological conditions compatibility and being gene center. Although, the most convenient hybrid types of apple exist in The North Anatolia Region as run parallel with spread area of undomesticated apple types. Furthermore, South Anatolia, Black Sea Coast Region, Central Anatolia and transition regions between East Anatolia uplands constitute the most important apple growth area. Apple has big importance in nutrition by reason of included minerals and vitamins. Fresh apple contains 84%water. Dry matter components of apple are carbohydrate, malice acid, proteins, oily substances, vitamins, pectin and mineral substances. Some salt is formed by A and C vitamins conjoin with some elements like calcium, magnesium and sodium. The organic parts of such salts, organic acids, oxidation in blood to provide energy resulted with some alkali components. Thus, apple gain acid-alkali equilibrium. A case study of conducted in England shows that, one apple consumption in a day decreases risk of cancer (Anonym 2003). 164 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Material and Method The main material of the study was statistical data and published researches. Especially, data of State Planning Organization and Statistic Institution was largely used in the study. World Apple Production, Consumption, and Trade World Apple Production and Consumption Today in the world cultivated area for apple is 4.9 million hectare, the production is 64.2 million tone and the yield is 13.1 tone/ha. Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Table 1. The Apple Production Area, production and Yield (Source: FAO) Production area Üretim Miktarı Verim (Hectare) (Tone) (Ton/Hectare) 4.878.245 55.952.172 11,5 4.781.818 58.377.086 12,2 4.761.005 62.775.656 13,2 4.802.133 62.123.069 12,9 4.786.350 63.875.324 13,3 4.921.767 64.255.520 13,1 Fifth top countries for apple production in the World are China, USA, Iran, Turkey and Rusia. Their production percentage that took from world production as listed respectively above; 42.8%, 6.6%, 4.1%, 3.5% and 3.4%. These countries provide approximately 60 % of the World apple production. Turkey is the 4th country of the world according to apple production by sharing of 3, 5%. China is the top first country in apple production results from greatness of apple production. Being in the most important countries about yield per hectare in the world are Belgium (40.7 tone/ha) and France (33,7 tone/hectare) and Chile and Italy are following that. On account of apple yield per hectare, Turkey is the 4th place in the world. Table 2. The Most Important Countries for Apple Production in the World and Their Production Amount (2007) Production Area Production Amount Yield Countries (hectare) (tone) (tone/hectare) 2.000.650 27.507.000 13,7 China 156.000 4.237.730 27,2 USA 150.000 2.660.000 13,1 Iran 110.000 2.266.437 20,6 Turkey 370.000 2.211.000 5,9 Russia 61.188 2.072.500 33,9 Italy 261.600 2.001.400 7,6 India 46.000 1.800.000 39,1 France 38.000 1.390.000 36,6 Chile 46.000 1.300.000 28,3 Arjantin 8.100 1.093.853 40,7 Belgium 175.400 1.039.100 5,9 Polland 31.700 911.900 28,8 Germany Source: FAO Average annual apple consumption per person in the world is 9, 28 kg by FAO data sources. Off course there are also countries that apple consumption per person is 48 kg annually. World Apple Export and Import The most important quality of apple is consumes as fresh. On the other hand, the rest is used in processing industry. China is the top first country in the world apple export, Chile, Italy, France, USA and polland, Netherland fallow Belgium with apple export amount. Although Turkey is the fourth order for apple 165 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo production in the world, its share of world export is too low. The most countries which have the important share in the apple production, also take big portion in the first orders by the apple export. Countries China Chile Italy France USA Poland Netherland Belgium South Africa New Zeland Turkey World Source: FAO Table 3. World Apple Export(tone) 2002 2003 2004 438.857 609.052 774.131 548.194 601.248 738.985 687.771 707.712 541.969 766.992 803.778 628.017 596.126 546.244 491.676 327.823 348.656 407.393 258.475 349.414 388.094 394.806 340.094 336.737 256.467 325.809 305.190 318.860 322.758 358.327 14.504 19.442 20.023 5.668.121 6.235.832 6.422.428 2005 824.050 639.515 723.944 654.074 685.431 427.034 444.353 352.775 262.745 318.608 29.043 7.006.255 2006 804.246 725.002 713.179 683.351 638.625 384.796 354.958 291.300 267.863 265.436 8.586 7.166.752 The World apple import is nearby 6.606.012 tone annually. The most important apple important countries are Germany, Russia, UK, Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, USA, Mexico, China and Canada respectively. Their import is just 10% the world apple import. Countries Russia Germany England Netherland Belgium Mexico Spanish Iraq Canada USA Chine Turkey World (Source: FAO) 166 2002 362.071 777.014 448.569 279.799 246.644 171.719 207.770 26.500 138.945 170.354 173.676 3.189 5.392.425 Table 4. World Apple Import (tone) 2003 2004 608.297 705.277 812.653 736.256 475.860 524.928 387.078 322.596 249.609 222.052 180.774 154.051 236.114 248.937 43.537 76.798 142.054 133.341 186.763 207.378 150.269 154.109 2.866 2.465 5.986.483 6.236.237 2005 723.579 773.567 514.215 320.092 225.533 195.172 224.829 95.132 159.061 122.773 170.598 4.021 6.613.919 2006 812.726 698.513 531.785 364.926 214.187 204.400 188.592 172.906 156.676 156.651 148.761 5.644 6.967.882 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 8,000,000 7,000,000 6,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 0 2002 2003 2004 export 2005 2006 import Figure 1. World Apple Trade(Tone) World Apple Prices The World apple price has been examined as import and export price between 2002 and 2006 in the study. As the export price was 508,59 $/tone in 2002, that increased to 618,38 $/tone. The world apple import price was 570,32 $/tone in 2002. While this price has been floating year and year, in 2006 that increased to 695,41 $/tone. Table 5. World Apple Prices Import Price ($/tone) 570,32 633,41 686,57 622,34 695,41 Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Source: FAO Export Price($/tone) 508,59 548,85 594,90 554,25 618,38 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2002 2003 2004 Import 2005 2006 Export Figure 2. World Apple Import and Export Price ($/tone) 167 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Apple Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in Turkey According to 2007 Statistics from the National Statistical Service, Turkey apple production was the first highest ranked fresh market fruit. Annual apple production of Turkey is about 2.266.437 tones while it was 2.200.000 tones in 2002, so Turkey’s apple production has been increasing 3% in last decade that’s equal the world production increased level in the same period. The production of apple in Turkey has been changed during the years like it’s in Figure 3. While the fruit production changes year and year, average fruit production in Turkey is 19,83 million tone. 84 % of total fruit production is apple. For average of last 5 year, Turkey annual apple production is about 2,4 million tones. The apple consumption in Turkey is 36, 22 kg/person in the same period. Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Source: FAO Table 6. Apple Production Area (hectare) and Yield (Kg/hectare) in Turkey Production Areas Production Yield (Hectare) Ton) (Ton/Hectare) 109.890 2.200.000 116.551 2.600.000 118.216 2.100.000 120.860 2.570.000 121.667 2.002.033 110.000 2.266.437 125.000 20,0 22,3 17,8 21,3 16,5 20,6 25000 120.000 20000 115.000 15000 110.000 10000 105.000 100.000 5000 2002 2003 2004 2005 Production Area(Hectare) 2006 2007 Yield(Kg/Hectare) Figure 3. Apple Production Area (hectare) and Yield (Kg/hectare) in Turkey Apple Export and Import in Turkey In value terms, over 1% percent of Turkey fresh apple was exported in last decade. Export price of apple is about 3.024.000$ in Turkey. Total apple exports have been decreasing in recent years. The Turkey apple import is nearby 3.633.000 tone annually. Years 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 (Source: FAO) 168 Table 7. Apple Export and Import in Turkey (Tone, 1000$) Import Export Amount (Tone) Value (1000$) Amount (Tone) Value (1000$) 3.189 1.250 14.504 5.891 2.866 1.370 19.442 9.879 2.445 1.544 20.023 9.950 4.021 3.007 29.043 11.960 5.644 4.975 8.586 3.024 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 30,000 25,000 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0 2002 2003 2004 Import 2005 2006 Export Figure 4. Apple Trade in Turkey (Tone) The 53,29 % of Turkey’s apple production is supplied by the 5 provinces such as Isparta, Karaman, Antalya, Nigde, Denizli in Turkey. According to 2007 Statistics from the National Statistical Service, Annually apple production of Turkey is about 2.3 million ton. Table 8. The Name of Most Important Apple Production Provinces and Their Production Amounts in Turkey Percentage of Apple Production Provinces Production Amount (Tone) Province in Turkey Apple Production (%) 496.596 21,91 Isparta 342.447 15,11 Karaman 308.376 13,61 Antalya 219.376 9,68 Niğde 174.676 7,71 Denizli 81.219 3,58 Kayseri 79.673 3,52 Çanakkale 65.010 2,87 Konya 62.884 2,77 Đçel 40.490 1,79 Bursa 1.870.747 82,54 Total of 10 Provinces 2.266.437 100,00 Total of Turkey Source: SIS 2007 Agricultural Structure (Production, Price and Value) 169 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Çanakkale 4% Kayseri 4% Konya Đçel 3% 3% Bursa 2% Isparta 22% Denizli 8% Niğde 10% Karaman 15% Antalya 14% Isparta Karaman Antalya Niğde Denizli Kayseri Çanakkale Konya Đçel Bursa Figure 5. The Name of Most Important Apple Production Provinces and Their Production Amounts in Turkey Turkey Apple Prices The average apple price in Turkey has been examined as import and export price between 2002 and 2006 in the study. As the export price was 406,16 $/tone in 2003, that decreased to 352,20 $/ton. Turkey apple import price was 391,97 $ in 2002. While this price has been floating year and year, in 2006 that increased to 881,47$/ton. 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 2002 2003 2004 Import 2005 2006 Export Figure 6. Apple Price of Turkey Marketing Fresh vegetable and fruit trade is regulated by 552 Law in Turkey. The aim of law is to take record of fresh vegetable and fruit since them are not record in farms. Every Municipality of Turkey has wholesale place for fresh vegetable and fruit. Municipalities are not allow to fresh vegetable and fruit to be sold before that record in the place. Recently Turkey’s Government allow to public or private entrepreneurs to establish wholesale fresh vegetable and fruit place in 2003. Unfortunately this regulation is not going on yet. Fresh fruits and vegetables come to consumer after some stages some time long chain like producer-broker and/or wholesaler-trim-seller and/or consumer (Olgun and Işıklı 1992). 170 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Transportation is one of the most important and compulsive services in foreign trade of fresh fruit and vegetable in conditions of Turkey nowadays. This service can be provided by suitable transport system and haulage vehicle (Karabağlı and et al. 1989). The quality and quantity of Turkey export can be increased conscious and planned program which is implemented from production to consumption. The observed problems about fresh fruits and vegetables marketing are packaging, storage and transportation (Gündüz 1993). The principles of act in every type of product transportation are common. The product should be protected against decomposition and quality loosing. This protection act includes transportation product without disturbance and also conserve product against freeze in winter and hot weather in summer. Easily decomposed agricultural products need air cooling construction and protection precautions during transportation. So, these steps increase the transportation expenses in huge amount (Yurdakul 1996). Aggregation of products in specific gathering center, product processing and products distribution to the consumer centers are important. Nevertheless, marketing comprise all these steps, harvesting, gathering, rating, standardization, packaging, transportation, storage, venturing the damage danger, consisting of price, making financial affairs, organizing accounting affairs, organizing sale, and creating demand (Güneş 1996). Usually harvested apple keep in store until put them to the market. These stores may low quality storages, cold stores and controlled atmosphere cold stores.The apple keep period in store may differ according to fruit storage time, the feed situation of tree season and type. The fruit which is harvested after normal period resulted with quick mature and earlier harvested resulted with huge amount of loosing water and decreases of eat quality of fruit. In Turkey, 30%-40% production waste occurs after fresh fruit-vegetable harvest. This waste comprises all waste that occur in every phase of cold chain. In this case, annually 750.000 tone of 2,5 million tone produced apple is wasted in Turkey. The storage capacity is not enough, so almost half of produced apple are not stored in Turkey. Recently, Turkey’s government has being grant for establishing cols stores in rural area. The fundamental cause of marketing problems is about do not being organized either producers or exporters. Apple producers must be organized in Turkey where have significant portion in the World apple production in order to cerate significant portion for apple export too. Apple producers are interesting in choosing good quality of apple and applying new growing techniques in the orchards. Also, producers are couriers brought quality of apple, using productive inputs, packing, labeling, and conservation. In consequence, to solve the marketing problems in Turkey apple producers should be organized as federation, cooperative, and union. Off course, unorganized producers are always been alone against to the dealer and middleman. The result of that they do not fix price as they want, dealer and middleman take the considerable share of value added and consumers have to pay more for the goods all this problems will be solved by only establishing democratically producer organization such as Farmers Union, Producer Export Union, and Research Progressive(Oğuz et. al 2006) Conclusion Absences of efficient marketing organization in domestic and overseas markets are creating some marketing problems. Establishing producer organizations are necessary for surviving in external competition, even for sustainability in the markets. Productivity, good quality and consumer pleasure are the keys in order to take advantage from the competition in the markets. References Anonymous (2003). The Chamber of Agricultural Union’s Report, Ankara. Anonymous (2002). Agricultural Structure (Production, Price and Value) SIS, Ankara Anonymous (2001). Vegetable Production Special Commission Report, Fruit Sub Commission Report. 8th Five Year Development Plan, DPT: 2644, ÖĐK: 652, Ankara. Anonymous (2009a). News Bulletin, Plant Production 2008, Number:50. Anonymous (2005) http://www.ansiad.org.tr Anonymous, (2005) http://www.fao.org. Anonymous (2009). http://www.fao.org Anonymous (2005). http://www.tarim.gov.tr Anonymous (2009). http://www.tarim.gov.tr Anonymous (2005). http://www.ansiad.org.tr 171 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Gündüz, M. (1993). The Importance of Cold Chain in Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Export and Analyses of Present Structure .Export Promotion Center, Ankara. Güneş, T. (1996). Agricultural Marketing. The University of Ankara Agricultural Faculty. General Publication No: 110, Ankara. Karabağlı, A., Şenel, D., Ergün, N., Arıkbay, C., Yıldırım, Ş. (1989). Improvement of Internal and External Marketing Substructure of Fresh Fruit and Vegetables in Turkey. National Productivity Center. Publishing No: 388, Ankara. Oğuz, C., Peker, K. Kan A. and Beşen T. (2006). Apple marketing in Turkey, International Horticulture Quality Conference, BOKU Vienna, Austria, 2-6 February. Olgun, F.A. ve Işıklı, E. (1992). Production, Valuing and Market Issues and Solution Suggestions of Some Important Fruits for Aegean Region Agriculture. Turkey 1th National Horticulture Congress, Volume1, The University of Agean Agricultural Faculty, 13-16 October, Đzmir. Tan, M. (2001). The Organizational Structure and Marketing Targets of Agricultural Unions. The Symposium of Turkish Agriculture Targets for 2010, 21-23 February, Đzmir. Yurdakul, O. (1996). Agricultural Marketing. The University of Cukurova, Agricultural Faculty. General Publication No: 39, Adana. 172 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 163 Title A name given to the resource Apple Production and Marketing in Turkey Author Author OĞUZ, Cennet KARAKAYACI, Zuhal KALYONCU, İ.Hakkı Abstract A summary of the resource. Turkey has wide varieties of fruits and vegetables, of which many are indigenous to the area, such as the pear, quince, cherry, plum, grape, hazelnut, walnut, apricot, and apple. The land area has 6% fruit, olives and vineyard of Turkey. Six top countries for apple production in the World are Chine, USA, Iran, Turkey, and Russia. Their apple production percentages that took from World production are 42.8%, 6.6%, 4.1%, 3.5% and 3.4% respectively. These countries provide approximately 60 % of the World apple production. Turkey is top fourth apple producer country in the World, by 3, 7 % of total production. Apple yield in Turkey is by 20600 (kg/ha) that over than it’s in the World average. In spite of large amount of apple production in Turkey, the export percentage in the annual apple production is very low, just 1%. In this case, foreign exchanges are not reaching to apple producers in Turkey. Some varieties of apple that produced in Turkey need to be putted on the market immediately after harvest. Also, storage period is very short for some varieties of them, so apple decay is high in Turkey. Apple waste can be decreased by increasing storage capacity and provide better storage conditions. Producer’s conscious act for choosing good variety and cultivation techniques, and also improving quality by giving more attention to the labeling, packing, and storage conditions in order to increase apple export. The aim of this study can be explained as over viewing or exposing of apple production structure and the portion of it in World production, estimating export potential of apple, determining the problems of apple marketing, confirming the measures of solving the problems, and predicting some options in order to increase apple export in Turkey Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3b5ae10b68c39cfc970375e8eadf71b2.pdf 04105e7129157eb5b54f273063d46657 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Rural Finance Intermediation for Sustainable Development of Rural Areas Amela PEDISA Investment Banking Department of FIMA Bank Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina apedisa@yahoo.com Abstract: Rural financial services are key to enhancing rural economic development in rural areas. Rural financial services in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in many cases, have completely broken down as a result of the war conflicts, restructuring and privatization. Access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited in rural areas as for households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. The development of rural and micro finance institutions with an appropriate range of high quality financial services and products tailored to specific rural needs makes the availability of financial services in rural areas permanent. Favorable policies, improved and adapted legal and regulatory framework of Bosnia and Herzegovina which support the coexistence rural and micro finance institutions with other finance providers (formal financial institutions, informal financial service providers, NGOs and member-owned organizations) promise sustainable rural financial intermediation. Key words: rural finance, micro finance, sustainable development, rural areas, and financial intermediation. Introduction Traditional approaches for agricultural development of rural areas are ineffective in accomplishing economic stability and efficiency, social equity and effective environmental protection of rural areas. Use and conservation of resources of rural communities with the aim of continuous, economical, ecological, and social way to meet human needs in the long term implies the need for multidimensional approach to development of rural areas. Rural financial services are key to enhancing economic development in rural areas. Financial services for rural households, farm and non-farm enterprises.are either inappropriate or non-existent. A lack of local financial services tailored to specific rural needs harms the economic viability and sustainability of rural areas. Population in rural areas should have acceptable access to a wide range of financial services and facilities. In order to support change toward sustainable rural development, this paper discusses the concept of developing rural financial intermediation based on the sustainability. Methodologies for Rural Micro Finance and Principles of Sustainable Rural and Micro Finance There are different methodologies for providing financial services to households and their micro enterprises in rural areas such as village banking, solidarity group, credit unions and transformation lending (Otero & Rhyne, 1994: 117). These methodologies are not appropriate in every context. It is important develop a range of financial intermediaries in order to use sources of financing such as long term refinancing, equity, time deposits or debentures/bonds. A community credit and saving association organized by the members of village, with decentralized institutional structure providing community based savings and credit is village bank. If clients join a group to receive access to financial services, primarily credit and collectively guarantee loan repayment we have solidarity group. A cooperative financial institution that is owned and controlled by its members and provide credit and other financial services to its members is credit union. Transformation lending methodology turn micro enterprises into small businesses by providing working capital and fixed-asset loans combined with training. Basic principles common to the rural and micro finance institutions are: • Rural and micro finance services are demand-driven and meet the needs of households and their enterprises in rural areas. 482 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • • � Customers need access to a variety of financial services such as saving credit, payment transfers, insurance, etc. in rural areas. Saving is equally important as credit. Services is simplified, customer-friendly and located close to client. Repayment are motivated by saving, group solidarity and joint liability. Saving is an effective tool for achieving self-sustainability and decreasing vulnerability of rural client. Credit is not always appropriate, private capital can be complemented by grant. The governments support an enabling environment. State Estimation Agriculture is still an important activity for the economic growth in rural areas of the Bosnia and Herzegovina. Rural sector is facing low population density, undeveloped public infrastructure (transportation, communication, electricity, health, education, etc,), low and irregular income flows from agricultural production. Rural financial services, in many cases, have completely broken down as a result of war conflicts, restructuring and privatization. Access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited as for rural households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. Because of small size of the transactions, high transaction costs, less affluent clients, lack of adequate security and information on borrowers' credit history, banks have little or no presence in many rural areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Finance providers such as micro credit organizations promote credit services as the most important financial services to rural clients. Micro credit organizations in the Bosnia and Herzegovina are not allowed to mobilize savings. Credit is not always appropriate. In order to decrease their vulnerability and accumulate lump sums for purposes specific to their needs, poor and low-income households and their micro enterprises in rural areas such as small farmers, small-scale traders, artisan producers want to save and save in various forms such as cash, gold, land, animals, etc. They want to entrust their savings to financial institutions but they do not have access to those institutions. If they have it, it is limited access with inappropriate products and delivery services. Many of them keep money at home or entrust their savings to relatives or friends. On the basis of researched sources that elaborate rural and micro financial intermediation and taking into account the state estimation, it is necessary to develop a range of financial intermediaries in order to use sources of financing such as long term refinancing, equity, time deposits, debentures and bonds. Research Results On the basis of researched sources that elaborate rural and micro financial intermediation and taking into account state estimation, it is necessary to develop a range of financial intermediaries, in order to use sources of financing such as long term refinancing, equity, time deposits or debentures/bonds. Favorable policies, improved and adapted legal and regulatory framework of the Bosnia and Herzegovina which support the coexistence of rural and micro finance institutions with other finance providers (formal financial institutions, informal financial service providers, NGOs and member-owned organizations) promise sustainable rural financial intermediation. The development of rural and micro finance institutions with an appropriate range of high quality financial services and products tailored to specific rural needs makes the availability of financial services in rural areas permanent. These institutions that are authorized to mobilize savings have either the legal form of savings and credit unions or of mini banks. Conclusion Because of elemental and partial approach to developing of rural finance access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited in rural areas as for households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. Rural population needs access to a broad range of financial services, appropriate products and delivery processes. Sustainable rural and micro finance intermediation that supports both agricultural and non-agricultural activities with appropriate financial services, such as savings, credit, payment transactions and insurance etc. can contribute to sustainable rural development and vulnerability reduction and use synergies with other rural development measures. Supervised financial institutions engaged in rural and micro finance can reach significant scale through mobilization of domestic savings. Other financial providers such as community-based savings and credit associations, self-help groups and NGO may support certain target groups that remain beyond the reach of 483 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo formal financial institutions. Savings mobilization is crucial for long-term sustainability of rural and micro financial institutions. It is very important to work on environment, and create favorable policies and regulatory and legal framework which will enable the development of rural and micro financial institutions, rural savings and credit unions, the development of a wider range of rural financial products, appropriate industry standards and supervision. References Otero, M., & Rhyne, E. (1994). The New World of Micro enterprise Finance: Building Healthy Financial Institutions for The Poor. West Hartford: Kumarian Press, Inc. Reimer, B. (1997). Informal Rural Networks: Their Contribution to Making a Living and Creating Rural Employment. In (Bollman, R., & Bryden, J.) Rural Employment: An International Perspective. Oxford: CAB International. Yaron, J. (1992). Successful Rural Finance Institutions. World Bank Discussion Paper, No.150, World Bank, Washington. Persson, L.O., & Ceccato, V. (2001). Dynamics of Rural Areas: National Report-Sweden. Siklos, P. (2001). Money, Banking and Financial Institutions. Canada in Global Environment. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, pp.35. 484 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Assessment of Development Trend of Natural Stone Industry for Turkey Tekin ERSEN Pazaryeri Vocational School, Bilecik University, Pazaryeri/Bilecik, Turkey tekin.ersen@bilecik.edu.tr Kamil ÖZDEMĐR Pazaryeri Vocational School, Bilecik University, Pazaryeri/Bilecik, Turkey kamil.ozdemir@bilecik.edu.tr Suheyla YEREL Bozuyuk Vocational School, Bilecik University, Bozuyuk/Bilecik, Turkey suheyla.yerel@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: Natural stone is the oldest building material used by man. From ancient times until today, natural stones including marble, granite and other building stones have played an important role in Turkish industry. The industry of natural stone, which has developed in an important trend since 1980, has become one of sectors supporting in country such as the potential of production, exportation and employment. For this reason, in this paper, the position of natural stone industry being in the last five years in Turkey has been considered, and exportation value has been analyzed with statistical technique. At the end of the study, results were interpreted for statistical approach. This study shows the necessity and usefulness of statistical assessment of large datasets in order to get better information about the development trend of natural stone industry. 1. Introduction With approximately 73 million of population and 16th largest economy in the world, being a young, growing and EU candidate country, Turkey’s economic policies have shown significant differences before and after 1980. Industrialization strategies based on an important substation policy had been left and the reforms were designed to transform the structure of the economy in the direction of an open, liberal and market-oriented since 1980’s. The main components of the economic reform of turkey are diminishing government intervention and liberalizing economic sectors, implementing a floating exchange rate policy, loosening import and export regulations, encouraging foreign investments, deregulating financial markets and privatizing public entities (Anac and Tamzok, 2007). Today, Turkey is far more integrated into the global economy and the Turkish economy has experienced a mean growth rate of almost 5 percent over the past 20 years (State Planning Organization, 2007). Natural stones are an integral part of the human history in terms of ornamental and construction use. Dimensional stones are produced in more than 42 countries of the world while 12 of these procedures are dominant in the international market i.e. 6 European countries and 3 each from Asian and African. Technological advances in the last seventy years had increased the world production and consumption of dimensional stones to 49.5 million tons. Due to increase in world consumption the natural stone international trade is grows. Italy is the major player in the international market and exported 38% of the dimensional stone’s exports, while its imports were 18% of the international imports. Other major exporters include Spain, Turkey and Portugal while major importers were USA; China, Germany and Hong Kong (Url-1). Turkey has very diverse and large amounts of natural stone reserves. The total base reserves are about 13 billion m3. The important Turkish marble reserves are found Afyon, Bilecik, Burdur, Denizli, Mugla, Elazig, Balikesir and Eskisehir. Turkey is also one of the world’s most important natural stone procedures. Turkey’s natural stone production has increased and Turkey has become one of the most important natural stone procedures in the world. Production and exports of natural stones have increased substantially in recent years, reaching value of $1 billion (Anac and Tamzok, 2007). In this paper, exportation price ($) of natural stone being in the last five years in Turkey has been assessment with statistical technique including Mann-Whitney U test for two samples. 485 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Mann-Whitney U Test for Two Samples The Mann-Whitney U test for two independent samples is employed with ordinal data in a hypothesis testing situation involving a design with two samples. The Mann-Whitney U test is based on the following assumptions (Sheskin, 2000; Sprent and Smeeton, 2001): - The two samples or sample pairs are independent of one another; - The original observation values in the sample pairs are subsequently ranked; - The underlying distributions from which the samples are derived are identical in shape. Hypotheses for each of the sample pairs are derived from these assumptions. Null hypothesis ( H 0 ) claims that the sample 1 ( θ1 ) , and the sample 2 ( θ2 ) represent the same population. Alternative hypothesis ( H1 ) claims that the sample 1 ( θ1 ) and the sample 2 ( θ2 ) do not represent the same population (Canyurek and Asan, 2001). The following protocol is used for the Mann-Whitney U test for two samples: - All observation values within sample pairs are arranged in order of magnitude; - Each observation value is assigned a rank; - If two or more observations have the same value, the average of the ranks involved is assigned to all observation values tied for a given rank; - Once all of the observations have been assigned a rank, the sum of the ranks for each of the sample pairs is computed; - After determining the sum of the ranks for both sample pairs, the values U is computed employing equation 1.  × ( + 1)  U = (n1× n 2) +  n1 n1  − ∑ R1   2   (1) where n1 is the number of observations in sample 1, n2 is the number of observations in sample 2, ΣR 1 the sum of the ranks for sample 1. Interpretation of the test results; the smaller of two values is determined as the computed U statistic value. The value of U statistic is evaluated in accordance with the table of critical vales for the Mann-Whitney U test for two samples ( U α ; n1 ; n 2 ) . 3. Case Study As described by Mann-Whitney U test for two independent samples protocol, year pairs of natural stone exportation price ($) in Turkey were formed for four separate probabilities for five years’ and the hypotheses were established. These data were obtained from Url-2. The hypotheses for the natural stone exportation price ($) of the 2004 and 2005, 2005 and 2006, 2006 and 2007 or 2007 and 2008 year pairs are presented below. H0 : Year pair is identical in terms of the years. H1 : Year pair is not identical in terms of the years. The total number of the exportation price ($) collected for five years is 95. The numbers of exportation price ($) for the years of the 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2008 were taken as n2004=19, n2005=19, n2006=19, n2007=19 and n2008=19, respectively. Then, U statistical value for each year pair was calculated by using equation 1 and U statistical value was determined as shown in Tab. 1. Table 1. Evaluation of U statistic for years Year pairs U(0.05;19;19) U-Statistic Remarks 2004 - 2005 124 164.00 H0 accepted 2005 - 2006 124 180.00 H0 accepted 2006 - 2007 124 168.00 H0 accepted 2007 - 2008 124 175.50 H0 accepted As presented in table, the evaluated U statistical value was compared with the critical value in MannWhitney U statistical table (U(0.05;19;19)). As all the U statistical values calculated were higher than the two-tailed 486 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo critical value, the hypothesis zero was accepted. H0 hypotheses were supported with 95% confidence interval as well. Therefore, the H1 were rejected. As a result, it was determined in statistical terms that those five years were identical in terms of exportation price ($) for natural stone. Among the exportation price, five years were found to be similarities of these years. Thus, the fig. 1 is supported the Mann-Whitney U test for two samples results. Figure 1. Exportation prices of natural stone in Turkey 4. Conclusion In this study, it was shown that the identicalness of the years (2004-2008) in natural stone exportation price ($) could be determined by using Mann-Whitney U test for two samples. After, these years were applied block diagram for investigated development trend. As a result of the block diagram of the years were supported by Mann-Whitney U test for two samples. In conclusion, it was determined that Mann-Whitney U test for two samples technique and block diagram could be used as an efficient analysis technique for determining the similarities or dissimilarities of the years. References Anac, S., & Tamzok, N. (2007). The mining industry in Turkey, Slobodan Vujic (ed). 2nd Balkan Mining Congress Book of Proceedings, VA. 37-43. Canyurek, E., & Asan, Z. (2001). Parametrik olmayan istatistiksel teknikler, T.C. Anadolu Universitesi Yayinlari No:1266, Turkey. Sheskin, D. J., (2000). Handbook of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Procedures. second ed. Chapman&Hall/CRC, United States of America. Sprent, B., & Smeeton, N.C. (2001). Applied Nonparametric Statistical Methods, third ed. Chapman & Hall/CRC, United States of America. State Planning Organization, 2007, Main Economical Indicators, Ankara. Url-1. www.smeda.org.ph Url-2. www.tuik.gov.tr 487 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 297 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Rural Finance Intermediation for Sustainable Development of Rural Areas Author Author PEDISA, Amela Abstract A summary of the resource. Rural financial services are key to enhancing rural economic development in rural areas. Rural financial services in Bosnia and Herzegovina, in many cases, have completely broken down as a result of the war conflicts, restructuring and privatization. Access to financial services such as savings, loans, payment services, trade credit, insurance and leasing is generally scarce and limited in rural areas as for households as for farm and non-farm enterprises. The development of rural and micro finance institutions with an appropriate range of high quality financial services and products tailored to specific rural needs makes the availability of financial services in rural areas permanent. Favorable policies, improved and adapted legal and regulatory framework of Bosnia and Herzegovina which support the coexistence rural and micro finance institutions with other finance providers (formal financial institutions, informal financial service providers, NGOs and member-owned organizations) promise sustainable rural financial intermediation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/439fb060701046850ef4368e85145bad.pdf c2c2a0e57837ca7f1cc0143ced5c1b25 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Functions of Local Governments for the Implementation of Sustainable Development: The Case of Turkey Ethem Kadri PEKTAŞ Assist. Prof. Afyon Kocatepe University pektas@aku.edu.tr Abstract:The term “Sustainable Development” was used for the first time in 1987 by Brundtland Report known as “Our Common Future”. Being about meeting the needs of today without diminishing the capacity of future generations to meet their needs, sustainable development is the most important common goal of human being today. There have been many international efforts to reach this common goal since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. This conference established a connection between Sustainable Development and Local Governments in its main concluding document Agenda 21. Titled as “Local Authorities’ Initiatives in Support of Agenda 21”, Chapter 28 of this document calls each local authority to enter into a dialogue with its citizens, local organizations and private enterprises and adopt “a Local Agenda 21”. In accordance with this call, the Local Agenda 21 Program has been carried out in thousands of cities all over the world, including Turkey. In this country, local governments especially municipalities provide several services to their inhabitants to ensure Sustainable Development in their cities on the basis of the related legislation. This study aims to examine the functions of local governments towards Sustainable Development. In doing so, the study depends on the case of Turkey. Keywords: Environmental Problems, Sustainable Development, Sustainable Urban Development, Local Agenda 21, Local Governments. Introduction Environmental movement which is started in 1970’s and intensified 1980’s; spread national levels to international level. Environmentalism initially considered as “pollution” later on assessed in a wider and holistic perspective. While these developments are taking place in the sense of environmental protectionism and development international solidarity and cooperation is started take place in international agendas. (Toprak Karaman, 1998: 47). It seems that the belief “economic developments, with the support of technologic developments, are an indicator of wealth of societies” does not seem like a valid belief. Multiple negative affect of economical activities in the nature and artificial environment indicates that plain economical development is not alone a factor of economical development and reminded to the mankind that the economical development should go along with the social and ecological development. Now unlimited development does not accepted and while “sustainable” economical social and environmental objectives are actualized, there is need of local, national and international strategies should be (is) embraced. (Palabıyık, 2005: 611). Sustainable Development With the discussion of global problems such as: global warming, vanishing of rain forests and hunger, sustainable development come into the global agenda. Today, sustainable development is acknowledged as along term concept with the dimensions of economical social and ecological developments. (Adaman et al, 2004: 129130). The concept of sustainable development consists of two components: “sustainability” and “development”. Sustainable development relays on the idea of sustainability. It can simply be described as: “ability of something’s to survive”. Some of the scientists describing sustainability as: a procedure which should provide minimum level of protection to social, economical and environmental (ecological) systems need. Some others mention the “edge of sustainability”. Edge of sustainability is described as: the usage of sources with a minimum balanced level which can fulfill the mankind’s need today and in the future. If this edge is crossed “unsustainability” occurs. (Bozlağan, 2002: 58). 391 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Development is a term which has subjective elements and is difficult to describe and definitions varies in according to different people. But generally can be described as “activities which provide an increase in welfare”. But since it is difficult to measure the level of increase in welfare, in a narrow sense, it can be defined as “per capita national income”. In the literature, some of the writers mentioned the humanitarian perspective of development such as human rights, local and international democracy, reaching full employment rate, housing, health and ability to have basic infrastructure services and having enough natural sources etc., (Bozlağan, 2002, 58). Sustainable Development and Its Content In general, sustainable development is a balance between the mankind and the nature which does not exploit the sources of nature for the needs of next generations’ and existing society’ needs. These definitions puts forward certain subjects like: usage of limited sources, change, limitation of consumption, protection of land, appliance of democracy, providing justice in between the generations and providing basic needs of mankind (Palabıyık, 2005: 615). One of the most widely known definitions of sustainable development is Brundtl and Commission’s definition: “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Even though this definition is a bit short, it contains such a wide meaning in it including economical, social and ecological life’s aspects. This report mainly concentrates on balancing the needs of existing society’s needs and the needs of next generations needs without harming the nature. In Brundtland’s report the term “need” is used with a larger meaning which contains all aspects of socioeconomic life. In other words, the term “need” is used for individuals’ and society’s social, economical, ecological needs and the needs of alive and/or un-alive sources. There are two key opinions to be investigated in this definition (Bozlağan, 2002: 60): • All the needs of individuals’ should be met in a safe and suitable way. Priorities should be paid to the poor people in today’s world where many people’s basic needs have not been met. • The usage of sources should be limited in a way that would secure needs of today and future by the technologic, social organizational and limitations. Therefore, nations should give up destructive growth and development strategies and try to implement more sustainable growth strategies in a short time. Additionally, efficient participation of citizens to decision making process should be guaranteed, economical system should be developed in way that would produce technological information and stable output, social system should be able solve the problems related to tensions because of inconvenient development, manufacturing system should be able to respect to ecological protection systems, technologic system should be able to provide new solutions, international system should be able to support sustainable systems in trade and finance and finally, a system which has abilities to restructure it self, should be established. (Bozlağan, 2002: 60). Local Governments and Sustainable Urban Development Sustainable Urban Development expresses implementation of sustainable development the principle for the purpose of improving the life standards the people living in the cities (Palabıyık, 2005: 617). During the preparatory meetings for the Urban 21 Conference (Berlin, July 2000), the following definition was developed for Sustainable Urban Development: “Improving the quality of life in a city, including ecological, cultural, political, institutional, social and economic components without leaving a burden on the future generations1. On the other hand, an unsustainable urban can be defined as the places where the physical environment was destroyed and polluted so that it threats human life; the places which have an economy with inefficient and insufficient infrastructure and also not supporting the expectations of people to increase the welfare and the quality of life; the places in which there is increasing tension, crime, alienation, as a result migration (Palabıyık, 2005: 620). There are different opinions about the necessary factors for sustainable urban development or possibility to attain it. For some views, it is impossible or only a utopia, but for some others, it is an unavoidable necessity. Some people think that cities are under unsustainble conditions because of heavy consumption, unplanned growth, intensive environmental distortions, excessive use of resources, deep inequalities among social classes. Nevertheles, cities are places where people wish to live with its successfull local governments and attractive features beyond everything. Most of the cities may be much better places to live in with the available technological facilities as well as citizens’ ecological attitutes and values (Palabıyık, 2005: 617) 1 http://www.rec.org/REC/Programs/SustainableCities/What.html, 20.05.2009. 392 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Although sustainable development is seen as a global aim, each community/society needs to develop its own concrete policies in the direction of its own necessities to attain this goal. It is more rational to undertake the sustainability in harmony at the local, regional, national and international levels. Given that more than half of the world population and about 80% of European Union population live in cities, it can be easily stated that they are the most important places to implement sustainable development. In fact, with their strong cultural and economic power, cities have important advantages for reaching the sustainability goals by the societies (Palabıyık, 2005: 619). Local governments may be the most important actors to ensure the sustainable development and especially the urban sustainability or sustainable urban development. Being the closest units of public administrations to public, providing efficient and productive local public services, and improving and settling local democracy, local governments have priviliged position in the public administration system. When this position of local governments has been thought, it is basic and natural for them to undertake a dominant role in the success of urban sustainability, too. By ensuring local sustainability through the natural resource management, urban development, management of pollution, public health, public services, and education, local governments also contribute to national sustainability (Gökçeer, 1994: 27-28). Basic strategies that local governments should follow to ensure sustainable development may be listed as follows: • To use the indicators for sustainable development in the developing environmental targets, • To put the sustainable development as the main aim in designing Urban Development Policies, • To develop environmental protection and management systems to protect and improve the environment, • To develope environmental inventory approaches, • To inroduce and spread the environmental protection policies and programs to the public, • To get communicated and cooperated with international institutions about sustainable development. Local governments, which have the responsibilities in designing and implementing policies, especially in the local areas, have to mobilize their available resources towards the goal of sustainable development. It is obvious that the central governments also have to undertake various responsibilities towards the same goal. The most tops of these responsibilities include: • To give flexibility and fiscal autonomy to the local governments in their environmentally friendly enterprises and plannings, • To guide the local governments in both increasing the quality of urban life and using resources, • To support the field and transportation plans of the local governments, which are for sustainable development, • To protect the sustainable development strategy in all central planning policies, • To adopt the legislation and economic mechanism regarding the environmentally friendly enterprises, • To support and encourage the projects which take care of cleaner and rational use of resources, • To develop objective criteria and systems for all economic sectors to make the environmental inventory and monitor the developments, • To ensure relationships and partnerships among the main sectors and channel these into sustainable development and speed up the development (Gökçeer, 1994: 28): In recent years, the relationship between the global and local process related to the sustainable development is noticed, and the importance of bringing forward the sustainable development in the local and regional level as an aim is stressed. Particularly, in various formal declarations, such as in Rio in 1992, at Habitat II in Đstanbul in 1996, in Johannesburg in 2002, it is indicated that the local governments are very important in the application of sustainable development policies succesfully (Adaman and et al., 2004: 130). Sustainable Development and Local Agenda 21 Agenda 21, an output of United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, is defined as action plan which is the ultimate expression of global consensus and politic commitments towards acvieving “sustainable development” that aims to create a balance between development and environment (Kavili Arap, 2004: 163). Agenda 21 brings forward “global partnership” as an indispensable method to reach the goal of “sustainable development”. Because environmental and urban problems have the characteristics of locality, it is necessary to make efforts locally to prevent the problems before they appear or to solve them as soon as they appear. This is a natural result of both conventional decentralization approach and the principle of “providing services by administrative units closest to the public”. The declaration of Agenda 21 is a result of the efforts to build up arrangements on that sense and by this declaration, the duties assigned to local administration and compatriots have been overemphasized (Adıgüzel, 2003: 50). Local Agenda 21 (LA-21) can be defined as a participatory process with multiple agents aiming to reach the targets of Agenda 21 in local level by means of preparation of a long term strategic plan for developing solutions 393 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to the problems in front of sustainable development and for their implementation (Sağır, 2003:32). The emergence of Local Agenda 21 is related to the process of turning the balance against environment which already exists in human-environment relation. In this process people realize the changing balance between human and environment. Due to the global importance of the problem, humanity initiated solution processes by international organizations (especially United Nations). The first important step of the solution processes was the Stockholm Conference held in 1972. The historical process that lasted since then to Johannesburg Summit in 2002 can be summarized as follows (Emrealp, 2005: 13-25): The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm Conference-1972): The term of “sustainable development” was first defined in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in June 1972 in Stockholm, Sweden. Three principles stated in the Stockholm Declaration as looking after intergeneration equity in using resources, connecting economic and social development with environment and emphasizing the coexistence of development and environment have formed basis for “sustainable development”. The importance and function of participation was also mentioned for the first time in the international documents by this conference, though it was stated in a weak manner. The United Nations convened the Habitat: United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Vancouver-1976): It became apparent in the UN Habitat I Conference, held in 1976 in Vancouver, Canada, that the policy which only the central authorities can be an object of the UN has steadily bankrupted. At this stage, it came out that international solutions needs involvement of local governments and non governmental organizations. This new expansion resulted in accepting local governments and non governmental organizations as indispensable “partners” at the international level. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development “Earth Summit” (Rio de Janeiro-1992): The starting point of Agenda 21 was the UN Conference on Environment and Development, so-called “Earth Summit”. This Summit not only put the sustainable development into our life but also enabled the adoption of participatory mechanisms and processes (Toprak Karaman, 1999:60). United Nations International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), (Cairo-1994): The first important summit following the Rio Conference was held in 1994 in Cairo, the capital of Egypt. The Cairo Conference focused on Chapter 5 of Agenda 21 titled “Demographic Dynamics and Sustainability”. World Summit for Social Development Copenhagen (Copenhagen-1995): The UN Social Development Conference was held in March 1995 in Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. The conference focused primarily on the Chapter 3 titled “Combating Poverty” and other several subjects dealt with in Agenda 21. The importance of setting up “partnerships” was emphasized in the main chapters of the Action Plan adopted in the conference. A global belief that democracy and a transparent and accountable governance and administration are the indispensable basis of a social and human-centered sustainable development is expressed especially in Chapter 5. The United Nations’ Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing-1995): Chapter 24 of the Agenda 21 carries the title of “Global Action for Women towards Sustainable and Equitable Development”. In this section, the importance of participation of women in all development activities in full, equal and most useful way was underlined. To ensure this target, various action plans and agreements adopted by the international community. Fourth World Conference on Women Beijing Declaration1 argued that women participaton in the process of economic and social development, equality of opportunity and as practitioners and beneficiaries of people-centered sustainable development full and equal participation of women and man take place in this process. United Nations Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) (Đstanbul-1996): Recognization of Agenda 21 in Turkey has been largely through the UN Conference on Human Settlements (Habitat II) held in Istanbul in 1996. At the Habitat Agenda, it was indicated that the indispensable foundation of the sustainable development based on democratic, respect for human rights, transparent, participant and accountable governance features. Thus, the principles of good governance for the 21st century were formulated ib this conference. The Habitat Agenda ended with ephasis that pre-condition of the success of this agenda depends on the participation of local governments, civil society organizations and active participation of other local actors. City Summit was strengthened and riched the movement of LA-21 launched in Rio by underlining the “facilitator” role of the management, by highlighting the basic principles of good governance, and by encouraging cooperation of local governments, civil society and the private sector. United Nations Millennium (Millennium) Declaration (New York-2000): Issued on 6-8 September 2000 at the United Nations’ Headquarter in New York, the United Nations Millennium Declaration as one of the accepted document of today’s most powerful global commitment and priority was signed by the heads of state and government of 189 countries, including Turkey at the beginning of a new millennium. In this declaration, eight goals2 were set to be reached by 2015 for development and poverty 1 2 http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/declar.htm, 28.04.2009. “Eight Millenium Development Goals” are: 394 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo reduction. LA-21’s have a vital fuction in the achieveiment of these goals. The large parts of the document, namely “Development and Poverty Reduction”, “Protection of Common Environment”, “Human Rights”, “Democracy” and “Good Governance” are directly related to LA-21 processes. United Nations the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) (Johannesburg-2002): Being the first global conference of 21st century, the UN World Sustainable Development Summit was held on 26 August-4 September 2002 in Johannesburg, Republic of South Africa. It was also the first international conference that was named after the term “sustainable development”. It is known commonly as Rio+10 as it aimed to assess the Agenda 21 processes started by Rio Conference in 1992. As two main outputs (results) of the summit “Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development”1 and the “Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development” have been adopted at the summit. In Johannesburg Sustainable Development Declaration, global commitments to the goal (objective) of sustainable development are repeated, the importance of partnerships is expressed and importance of application is emphasised. Moreover, despite the “best practice” examples of world-scale and well-intentioned efforts, it is argued that very limited and inadequate achievements have been obtained in the evaluation of success of Agenda 21 from ten-year period after the Rio Summit. In various parts of the Local Governments Dialogue Report which took place among the UN documents offered to the Johannesburg Summit, the major steps taken at the local level are mentioned about implementation of Agenda 21. The Report pointed out that LA-21s were the most efficienct and stable output of the Rio Conference. Local Agenda 21: Rise and Scope Local Agenda 21 (LA-21), that aiming to reaching Agenda 21 targets on the local base via preparation and application of a long-term strategic plan which oriented primarily toward the solution of sustainable development problems, is a participatitive and multi-sectoral process (Kaya, 2007: 180). This process colored with volunteerism principle, is a loosely organized civil initiative movement and does not depend to any institution whatsoever. “City Councils”, “City General Assemblies” and the like that main vehicles of LA-21 are constituted via city public institutions NGOs and shared participatition of city-dwellers (Adıgüzel, 2003: 51). At “UN Environment and development conference” the world summit held in Rio de Janerio in 1992, in the scope of Agenda 21 that is welcomed by UN as an application program for sustainable development, LA-21 program included as well. These arguments are placed in 28th chapter of Agenda 21 titled “Local Authorities Initiativer in Support of Agenda 21”: “Because so many of the problems and solutions being addressed by Agenda 21 have their roots in local activities, the participation and cooperation of local authorities will be a determining factor in fulfilling its objectives. Local authorities construct, operate and maintain economic, social and environmental infrastructure, oversee planning processes, establish local environmental policies and regulations, and assist in implementing national and subnational environmental policies. As the level of governance closest to the people, they play a vital role in educating, mobilizing and responding to the public to promote sustainable development.”2 Four main targets are put in place in corresponding chapter: As a first target, every single local authority in all countries is supposed to start a participatitive process with their own communities and constitute a consensus regarding a LA-21 for their cities. Secondly, cooperation is encouraged between international community and local authorities as well as cooperation amongst local authorities at international scope. Thirdly, in order to enhance experience and knowledge/information sharing coordination and cooperation level are targeted to be increased between local authorities and other representatives of local authorities. The last but of course not the least, programs aiming to effective participation of women and young people to the process of decision making, planning and implementation are encouraged at all local authorities in the world. The following objectives are proposed for this programme area: Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women Goal 4: Reduce child mortality Goal 5: Improve maternal health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals, 11.05.2009. 1 http://www.un-documents.net/jburgpln.htm, 21.05.2009. 2 http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21chapter28.htm, 03.05.2009. 395 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo (a) By 1996, most local authorities in each country should have undertaken a consultative process with their populations and achieved a consensus on “a local Agenda 21” for the community; (b) By 1993, the international community should have initiated a consultative process aimed at increasing cooperation between local authorities; (c) By 1994, representatives of associations of cities and other local authorities should have increased levels of cooperation and coordination with the goal of enhancing the exchange of information and experience among local authorities; (d) All local authorities in each country should be encouraged to implement and monitor programmes which aim at ensuring that women and youth are represented in decision-making, planning and implementation processes. Every single local organization is encouraged to develop their own LA-21s in cooperation with private sector institutions, local authorities, fellow countrymen and local management authority at the framework of reaching at targets that spesified at 28th chapter of Agenda 21. Each local authority should enter into a dialogue with its citizens, local organizations and private enterprises and adopt “a local Agenda 21”. Through consultation and consensus-building, local authorities would learn from citizens and from local, civic, community, business and industrial organizations and acquire the information needed for formulating the best strategies. At the process that starting from 1992 the world summit in which LA-21 emerged, to 2002 Johannesburg UN world sustainable development summit, a number of universal UN conferences and summits are carried out. These organizations result in the widespread acceptance of LA-21s, which are local projections of “universal partnership”, and became the international pillar of this process. LA-21 is essentially a vision development aimed at city’s sustainable future and subsuquently suggests that a strategic, long-termed local action plans’ preparation and implementation that makes the vision to be carried out. LA-21 process is supposed to be open to all parts of society whether it be organized or not and stimulate participatitive policies and mechanism. Development of a governence approach based on variouss participatitive mechanism and local partnership is crucially important (Kaya, 2007: 181-182). Local Agenda 21 Practices in the World LA-21 has been implementing across the world in 135 countries since 1992. Even “LA-21” concept is directly not used; city numbers that participate to this process under similar names (Sustainable Cities Programs, Healty Cities Program etc.) are being increased day by day. UN development program, which is the coordinator of LA-21 at world scope, supports LA-21 processes that were accepted by around 85 countries that contains Turkey as well. LA-21 initiatives as of Rio and Johannessburg Summits are being accepted by UN as the most successful activities that provides local participatition. The outcome of Local Agenda 21 implementations since the Rio Summit finds its paramount expression in the report entitled “Implementing Agenda 21: Report of the Secretary-General”, prepared by the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan for WSSD - the World Summit on Sustainable Development, held in 2002 in Johannesburg, which underlines that “At the local level, the most successful umbrella for participation has been the local Agenda 21 initiatives” (UNDP, 2006: 2). In addition, at Johannessburg Summit where “Local Authorities Dialog Report” is presented to UN, it is pointed out that local authorities have answered effectively to the Agenda-21 thanks to LA-21 (Kaya, 2007: 184185) Aalborg Charter has been signed after first Europeen sustainable cities and towns conferences held in Aalborg/Denmark between May 24-27th 1994. With this charter, in the framework of LA-21, in reaching sustainable cities and towns a campaign starting point which supposed to be implemented at local and regional level in Europe has been constituted. City authorities that signed the charter have made commitments of performing actions placed in the charter in order to have more sustainable cities. The Lisboa Action Plan: from Charter to Action , that projects more tangible steps in order to reach sustainable cities and towns, and that has been held in Lisboa at October 1996, has been constituted. After the third European conference on sustainable cities and towns occurred in Hannover, Germany, on 9-12 February 2000, in June 2004 again under the hostings of Aalborg a conference, Aalborg Commitment (Aalborg+10) statement has been accepted and opened to signature. On March 21-24, 2007 at fifth conference held in Spain/Sevilla (Sevilla 2007 Fifth European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns: Taking the Commitments to the Streets) according to signature listing around 2500 local authorities in more than 40 countries (for example, 1084 municipalities in Spain, 833 municipalities in Italy) have signed Aalborg Charter. Turkey has 7 municipal signatures of it. Furthermore, Çorum Governorship and Marmara and Vicinity Municipalities Association signed it provisionally. The Aalborg Commitments declared in 2004 has not yet been signed by Turkey. 396 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1994 Aalborg Charter that charter of European cities and towns towards sustainablitiy and similar attemps are strong evidence that LA-21s are very important in Europe. European Union carefully supervises cantidates countries practises about LA-21. So, activities in Turkey that are undertaken in the framework of LA-21 bears vital importance. Local Agenda 21 Practices in Turkey As a response to the call made to local governments in Chapter 28 of the Agenda 21, LA-21 Program have been implemented in thousands of cities around 14 countries since 1992. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the coordinator organization for Agenda 21 over the world supports LA-21 processes in 85 countries, including Turkey. Today, LA-21 practices in Turkey are being carried out by the support of UNDP and under the coordination of United Cities and Local Governments, Middle East and West Asia (UCLGMEWA). The priority and importance should be given to the openness of LA-21 for the participation of both organized and non-organized social sectors and to the development of policies and mechanisms encouraging participation. Turkey LA-21 Program is open to all local governments, except for village administrations. A total of 71 local governments1 from different geographical regions are partners to this program as of April 2009, including 10 metropolitan municipalities, 1 special provincial administration, 21 provincial municipalities, and 39 town and district municipalities. Phases of Local Agenda 21 (LA-21) Programme in Turkey2 Turkey LA-21 Program has been carried out in four phases since 1997 when it started. The developments in each phase can be summarized briefly as follows. Phase I - Promotion and Development of Local Agenda 21s in Turkey (1997-1999) This is the phase on which the LA-21 processes in Turkey were launched in late 1997 via the project entitled “Promotion and Development of Local Agenda 21s in Turkey”, with the support of UNDP and under the coordination of International Union of Local Authorities Section for the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East (IULA-EMME). This project was successfully completed in December 1999. Phase II - Implementing Local Agenda 21s in Turkey (2000-2003) In this phase, following the success of the first project, a new project entitled “Implementing Local Agenda 21s in Turkey” started in January 2000. The overall purpose of the Project is to strengthen local “governance” by ensuring that civil society participates in decision making and influences local investment. In a short time, a number of sub-projects and over 50 new partners from local authorities are included into the project. As a result of this, the name of the project was changed into the “Turkey Local Agenda 21 Program”. The Program had five basic objectives: The first objective was to increase the number of local authorities engaging in Local Agenda 21, and to promote and develop participatory processes in new partner cities. The second objective was to prepare local action plans in new partner cities and to implement them in these cities. The third objective was to launch campaigns to inform the public, as well as to work for increasing international support. The fourth objective was to ensure long term sustained support for the Local Agenda 21 processes. The fifth and final objective was to give a facilitating role for Local Agenda 21 in the recovery and reconstruction process of the Marmara earthquake3. Phase III - Localizing the UN Millennium Development Goals and WSSD4 Plan of Implementation through the Turkey Local Agenda 21 Governance Network (2004-2006) The project carried out during this phase had two main objectives: The first objective was to institutionalize LA-21 processes and mechanisms at the local and national levels through campaigns and capacity building initiatives. The second objective was to launch a Local Agenda 21 Small Grants Program to promote and substantiate the MDGs and WSSD Plan of Implementation at the local 1 http://www.la21turkey.net/`http://www.la21turkey.net/dl/yg21/IV_Asama/JanuaryMarch2009Progress.pdf, 13.05.2009. http://www.la21turkey.net, 21.04.2009. 3 http://www.la21turkey.net/index.php?pages=topic&op=cat&cid=118, 08.05.2009. 4 WSSD: World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002), http://www.un.org/events/wssd, 09.05.2009. 2 397 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo level1. In order to attain these objectives, there had been several projects supporting each other. In this connection, by the support of UNDP-TTF Program and through the project entitled “Establishment of Sustainable Networking to Encourage Democratic Local Governance in Turkey”, the available web site renewed to be more interactive and the “Local Agenda 21 Governance Network” was developed (IULA-EMME, 2006: 14). In addition, by the support of the MATRA Program of the Government of Netherlands, another project entitled “Enhancing the Role of the Women and the Youth in Local Partnerships and Networking for Transparency” was carried out to increase the participation of women and youth to local decision-making procedures as well as to all fields of local governance2. The third project carried out in this phase was entitled “Localizing the UN Millennium Development Goals and WSSD Plan of Implementation through Turkey Local Agenda 21 Governance Network”. The project envisaged to increase the interest and support of central government and to promote better. By this project, “Supporting the Local Projects Program” was also started to institutionalize LA-21 processes (Kaya, 2007: 186-187). Phase IV - Localizing the UN Millennium Development Goals in Turkey through the Local Agenda 21 Governance Network (2006-2008) In this phase, the project entitled “Localizing the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in Turkey through the Local Agenda 21 Governance Network” was designed to localize the Government’s MDGs commitments by advocating the prioritization of the UN MDGs in local action. It depended on participatory local governance as the basic means for achieving these goals (UCLG-MEWA, 2009: 21). The specific targets of the project included to launch a campaign at the national and local levels under the name of “Our City Supports the UN Millennium Development Goals”; to build monitoring capacities for local authorities and City Councils; to develop and internalize local governance practices; to establish the support, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms for localizing the MDGs; to promote “best practices” of partnerships between local governance actors and the private sector (UNDP, 2006: 4). This project is still ongoing. The City Councils as One of the Basic Components of Local Agenda 21 The primary decision-making and “enablement” mechanisms for the LA-21 Program are the participatory platforms, namely the City Councils. These councils are supported and complemented by a number of different stakeholders in the city, such as working groups, women and youth councils, and platforms of children, elderly and disabled. Owing to the LA-21 Program, the “City Councils”, along with other participatory mechanisms and processes, are given a legal basis by the Article 76 of the new Law on Municipalities (No. 5393) (UNDP, 2006: 6). City Councils are the forms of governance mechanisms that meet central government, local government, and civil society under a partnership approach. These councils provide democratic and effective platforms for discussions among the participants whose number depends on the size of the cities about development priorities, urgent problems and possible solutions to them. The basic functions of city councils include identification of priorities and targets as well as basic strategies and areas of action for “sustainable development” and forming a common vision for their cities (Emrealp, 2005: 65). In addition they monitor all activities of local governments and prepare reports to be discussed by the public, thus they fulfill the task of democratic follow-up (Palabıyık ve Görün, 2004: 263). Citizens take part in working groups in accordance with their field of interest on the basis of voluntariness. There is no hierarchical relationship in these groups whose main aim is to work in harmony and efficiently (Kayan, 2005: 31). Conclusion Ensuring sustainable development is the common goal of all humanity. To achieve this goal, only the efforts of the central government of course can not be enough. It also requires efforts from local governments, international, supranational, private sector, professional, civil society organizations as well as citizens. Having a dynamic structure, local governments are successful units within the public administration system. Their basic characteristic of being the closest administrative unit to citizens provides them with the opportunity to make local services in an efficient and effective way. This characteristic also makes them to be the driving 1 2 http://www.la21turkey.net/index.php?pages=topic&op=cat&cid=117&tid=365, 10.05.2009. http://www.la21turkey.net/index.php?pages=topic&op=cat&cid=120&tid=328, 07.05.2009. 398 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo force in local and regional development. Finally it provides local governments with leading roles in promoting the culture of local democracy among the citizens. Undoubtedly one of the most successful products of LA-21 process is the establishment of city councils as platforms for local participation and democratic debate. In Turkey, the Law on Municipalities of 2005 makes the establishment these councils obligatory not only in the partner cities to LA-21 Program but also in all districts that have got a municipality. In spite of many shortcomings in legal and practical terms, city councils have become important units in Turkish Local Administrative System. Their importance derives basically from the functions of determining priorities and targets as well as basic strategies and areas of actions for “sustainable development” and forming a common vision for their cities. Despite these effective functions of the city councils, the number of the partner local governments to LA-21 Program is extremely inadequate (71) as of April 2009. Moreover, with a few exceptions, Turkish local governments seem uninterested or unwilling to sign the European Urban Charter (1992), Aalborg Charter (1994), Aalborg Commitments (2004) and similar texts. Therefore it is necessary for local governments to give more importance to LA-21 processes like their counterparts in Europe. Similarly, it is also necessary for central government to continiue its leading, encouraging, and to some extend forcing, supports. Considering European Union member states’ attitudes to LA21 processes, this becomes a more urgent need for Turkey’s compliance in this field. References Adaman, F., et al (2004). Sürdürülebilir Kentleşme: Yalova Örneğinde Bir Yöntem Önerisi, Yerel Yönetimler Kongresi, Dünden Bugüne Yerel Yönetimlerde Yeniden Yapılanma, Bildiriler Kitabı, Çanakkale. Adigüzel, Ş. (2003). Yerel Düzeyde Yönetime Katılım ve Yerel Yönetim Sürecindeki Đşlevleri Açısından “Yerel Gündem 21: Malatya Belediyesi Yerel Gündem 21 Örneği, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, Cilt 12, Sayı 1, Ocak 2003. Bozlağan, R. (2002). Sürdürülebilir Gelişme Düşüncesi, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, Cilt 11, Sayı 1, Ocak 2002. Emrealp, S. (2005). Yerel Gündem 21 Uygulamalarına Yönelik Kolaylaştırıcı Bilgiler El Kitabı, Yerel Gündem 21 Programı, IULA-EMME Yayını, Đstanbul. Gökçeer, F. (1994). Şehirlerimizde Sürdürülebilir Gelişmenin Değişim Yönleri, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, Cilt 3, Sayı 2, Mart 1994. Göktürk, A., & Kavili, S. (2000). Yerel Gündem 21 ve Katılım…!, Yerel Yönetimler Sempozyumu Bildirileri Kitabı, Ankara. IULA-EMME-Uluslararası Yerel Yönetimler Birliği Doğu Akdeniz ve Ortadoğu Bölge Teşkilatı (2006); “Türkiye Yerel Gündem Yönetişim Ağı Yoluyla BM Binyıl Bildirgesi Hedefleri ve Johannesburg Uygulama Planı’nın Yerelleştirilmesi” Projesi Gelişme Raporu. Kavili Arap, S. (2004). Yerel Gündem 21 ve Yerel Yönetişim, Yerel Yönetimler Kongresi, Dünden Bugüne Yerel Yönetimlerde Yeniden Yapılanma, Bildiriler Kitabı, Çanakkale. Kaya, E. (2007). Kent Yönetiminde Yeni Yaklaşım, Yerel Kalkınma Yönetimi, Genişletilmiş Đkinci Baskı, Okutan Yayınevi, Đstanbul. Kayan, A. (2005). Yerel Gündem 21, Belediyelerin Personel Sorunları ve Yerel Gündem 21’in Belediyelere Sağlayacağı Bazı Katkılar - I”, Yerel Yönetim ve Denetim, Cilt 10, Sayı 12, Aralık, 28-31. Orhan, G. (2005). Yerel Yönetimler ve Çevre, Yerel Yönetimler Üzerine Güncel Yazılar 1 Reform, Nobel Yayınları, Ankara. Palabiyik, H. (2005). Sürdürülebilirlik ve Yerel Yönetimler: Uygulanabilirliği ve Ölçümü Üzerine, Yerel Yönetimler Üzerine Güncel Yazılar 1 Reform, Nobel Yayınları, Ankara. Palabiyik, H., & Görün, M. (2004). Belediye Meclislerinde Temsil ve Katılım: Çanakkale Belediye Meclisi Örneği, Yerel Yönetimler Kongresi, Dünden Bugüne Yerel Yönetimlerde Yeniden Yapılanma Bildiriler Kitabı, Çanakkale, 257-272. Sağir, M. (2003). Küreselleşme Süreci ve Siyasal Katılımda Yeni Arayışlar: Yerel Gündem 21 Antalya Kent Konseyi Kadın Meclisi, Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, Cilt 12, Sayı 4, Ekim 2003, 28-41. Toprak Karaman, Z. (1999). Yerel Siyasetin Dinamikleri ve Yerel Gündem 21, Đzmir Yerel Gündem 21 Siyasette Kadınlar ve Gençler, Đzmir, 53-71. Toprak Karaman, Z. (1998). Çevre Yönetimi ve Politikası, Anadolu Matbaacılık, Đzmir. UCLG-MEWA - United Cities and Local Governments Middle East and West Asia Section (2009). Progress Report, No: 10, 1 January 2009 to 31 March 2009. 399 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo UNDP - United Nations Development Programme (2006); Localizing the UN Millennium Development Goals in Turkey through the Local Agenda 21 Governance Network Project. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/urban/pdf/aalborg_charter.pdf, 03.05.2009. http://www.aalborgplus10.dk/default.aspx?m=2&i=307, 19.05.2009. http://www.bnpparibas.com/en/sustainable-development/text/EN_txt12_lisboa%20action%20plan.pdf, 03.05.2009. http://www.la21turkey.net, 21.04.2009. http://www.la21turkey.net/dl/yg21/OrtaklarListesi.pdf, 13.05.2009. http://www.la21turkey.net/index.php?pages=topic&op=cat&cid=118, 08.05.2009. http://www.la21turkey.net/index.php?pages=topic&op=cat&cid=120&tid=328, 07.05.2009. http://www.mimarlarodasi.org.tr/UIKDocs%5Caalborgsarti.pdf, 02.05.2009. http://www.rec.org/REC/Programs/SustainableCities/What.html, 20.05.2009. http://www.sevilla2007.org, 19.05.2009. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/english/agenda21chapter28.htm, 03.05.2009. http://www.un.org/events/wssd/, 09.05.2009. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/declar.htm, 03.05.2009. http://www.un-documents.net/jburgdec.htm, 21.05.2009. http://www.un-documents.net/jburgpln.htm, 21.05.2009. 400 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 280 Title A name given to the resource Functions of Local Governments for the Implementation of Sustainable Development: The Case of Turkey Author Author PEKTAS, Ethem Kadri Abstract A summary of the resource. The term “Sustainable Development” was used for the first time in 1987 by Brundtland Report known as “Our Common Future”. Being about meeting the needs of today without diminishing the capacity of future generations to meet their needs, sustainable development is the most important common goal of human being today. There have been many international efforts to reach this common goal since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. This conference established a connection between Sustainable Development and Local Governments in its main concluding document Agenda 21. Titled as “Local Authorities’ Initiatives in Support of Agenda 21”, Chapter 28 of this document calls each local authority to enter into a dialogue with its citizens, local organizations and private enterprises and adopt “a Local Agenda 21”. In accordance with this call, the Local Agenda 21 Program has been carried out in thousands of cities all over the world, including Turkey. In this country, local governments especially municipalities provide several services to their inhabitants to ensure Sustainable Development in their cities on the basis of the related legislation. This study aims to examine the functions of local governments towards Sustainable Development. In doing so, the study depends on the case of Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c6ecbaa83ae52e8d30f949aaae12a130.pdf 7b8aae72bcd127fdd967738bbb2d2619 PDF Text Text Language, Culture and Communication Erdinç PARLAK Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Department of English Language erdincparlak@hotmail.com Abstract: Man is born with an ability which distinguishes him from the rest of the creatures in the world; an ability which means the evidence of his life and existence. He starts to get accustomed to his environment and begins to communicate. Together with his biological and spiritual development he reacts and gains experience and finally learns a language totally. He is included in the system of his environment by this language. Gradually the parameters that reflect the culture and language structure of the society in which he lives becomes apparent in the mind of individual. Now, the individual has gained the ability to communicate with his environment and opens up his feelings, thoughts and beliefs to other people. Today, also called the age of globalization, the effect of information technologies on the societies is among the most common issues. Beyond having a function of providing communication among people, language is at the same time one of the milestones of the process of logical basis of the thinking activity. The most abstract thoughts turn into concrete form together with the words of a language. On the otheer hand, language may be regarded as a vessel nourishing the cultural originalities of the society it is spoken in. Culture, on the other hand, is closely related to the richness of vocabulary of a language. Technological developments that contributed greatly to the formation of globalization have also constituted some new forms of relations. The most effective one in this process has been the information technology. Because information technologies have created a dynamic system which indicates that there exists no faraway place in the world and almost everyone could reach one another without any difficulty. Particularly television has had great effect on teaching peoples and societies the “universal culture” in their daily lives. The relationship of language, culture and education by means of intercultural communication is multidimensional and this multi-dimensional communication occupies a prominent ground in education. Intercultural phenomenon is of great importance in interlanguage communication for the simple reason that there exist cultural features within the core of a language. Differences within and out of language may cause conflicts and likewise misunderstandings in the communication of men from different cultures and so result in preoccupied attitudes. Language, by the way, may be considered as a method to eliminate those misunderstandings and as a way to develop intercultural dialogue. Different societies may be brought closer to each other and effective communication may be made possible by teaching a common language. Within this context, language, which has enabled man different from other creatures throughout the process of existence, should be defined properly. Language, which provides communication and which contains a cultural tissue with its vocabulary, is a means of communication since the existence of mankind. Since language has its own rules and laws, it should be handled as an institutional system. As men get use of language as an institution, they should at the same time master the cultural and linguistic aspect of the language which constitute the cornerstones of this system. Otherwise, language may cause various conflicts and preoccupations besides being constructive and benefical in the process of communication. No doubt, language is a living thing and because of this characteristics it always undergoes certain transformations. The most important factor constituting the dimensions of thought is language and one one develops his/her ability of thought by the store of vocabulary he/she has in that language. Things turn into vivid pictures in the mind by the words and the process of thinking starts. So, one cannot mention about thinking without the very existence of a language. The close relationship between language and thought is a prominent factor contributing to the social process of man directly. The man who thinks has always directed intersocial relations by directly contributing to his environment and by having a much more wealthy life. Language, a much more important characteristics, which distinguishes men from the rest of creatures, has played and still plays vital role in the formation of individuals and societies. By means of language both individuals and societies can have the chance of having communication with each other. Since language is the means of communication of every society, using language does not solely depend on the level of development or technological advances because even the most primitive societies have their own language as the most advanced societies. And since a language contains the culture of the society where it is spoken, it would be mistaken to handle communication apart from culture. Because communication and language are integrated to each other and they are, in a sense, an inseperable part of a whole. 81 �On the other hand communication will, no doubt, contain fewer and fewer misunderstandings and contraversies among those who share the same culture. The cornerstones of the culture of a society contain some basic elements within itself as mythology, beliefs, religion, science and art etc. So the culture of a society may be resembled to a mosaic. Culture, which contains very many elements within itself, should be dealt with on the social ground. Because the vital elements of society may be claimed to exist in the culture of that society. In the light of such a definition, the concept of culture can be examined on two grounds: national and universal ( international) culture. As national culture can be defined as a set of collective social values of a society, universal culture, on the other hand, may be defined as cultural cliches that can be accepted and shared by every society in the world. So, universal culture that may also be defined as a common culture of all nations signifies a way of guidance in having international culture and dialogue. Universal culture, in a sense, is the product of a cultural interaction. Elements of different cultures are needed to to have that sort of product. The relationship between language and culture depends mainly on communication and is a matter of communication. Now a question may arise here: Has language created culture or culture created language? In fact both of these are truein a sense. If we consider culture as a way of life of a community, naturally, culture may come first. In short, men has formed certain rules, principles, beliefs, opinions as they have started to live together. One of the forecoming features of language may be said to transfer the common values of societies from one generation to another. Culture has a national characteristics since the lifestyle, traditions, worldviews, works of art, religion and language of a society differ greatly from the others. For this very reason various cultures belong to various nations. Though some cultures contain certain similarities, all cultural elements can not be the same as to contain all nations. There can exist neither a common world literature, world language, world way of thought, in short a common world culture. Because one of the prominent features of culture is its historical aspect. Culture, which emerges as a result of the common way of life of the members of a nation gains a historical value as it is transferred to the future generations. Members of a nation come to face the experiences of thousands of years formed by their ancestors and get use of these experiences. At that point comes the crucial step: that the transfer of experiences from one generation to another may be realized only by language. Language is both a carrier of culture, a cultural means of transfer and history, music, art, literature, science and technology, that is, all common values can only be transferred to future only by the language of the society in question. Throughout centuries, nations have dealt with mutual interactions and these interactions have resulted in cultural transfers. Those nations with close relationships with each other have created common civilizations by joining some values of their cultures. So it is crystal clear that language is of the greatest importance in having a national government, national culture and national identity. Every individual has, no doubt, a mother tongue and that mother tongue determines both way of feeling, thinking and the nationality. The use of language means the use of thinking. One who uses language effectively at the same time thinks effectively or vice versa and this generally results in good communication and interactions between different societies. The success in communication with others will be closely related and directly correlated with the success in using the language. So if language is considered not only as a set of signs but also as culture , then it would be easily recognized that language and culture cannot be seperated from each other. So the element of “culture” should not be overlooked in learning and teaching a language. Otherwise, language will inevitably be much more monotonus, mechanic and boring. Communication is realized mainly by language and culture. For example, without language, being one of the basic cultural elements, communication will, of course, be impossible. Likewise, language that we have formed among friends or jobs lets us to realize communication in a special way. We come to know which metaphors to use and when to use. In certain circumstances we choose certain words and use them. But in doing so, we take into consideration what the listeners or the others do understand from these. Culture, language and communication have become much more phenomena both due to the dense interactions among themselves and the spread of globalization. Culture, on the other hand, consists of the life styles, social orders, beliefs of the societies and makes its existence much more dynamic related to the activities of these elements. For this very reason culture is of greater importance in providing communication in the society. Communication, on the other hand, may be said to be a forecoming activity expressing methods and principles of culture and at the same time an important means having a role of spreading culture both in its own society and among the other societies. Communication can be fulfilled one sided or mutually and is effective in activating and using the cultural potential. Today, at the very beginning of 21st centuryculture can find its real value by means of the basic tools of communication. Language constitutes the most practical and common dimension of communication. Language has been existent since the very firs emergence of communication. Culture, as multi dimensional and important phenomenon, becomes much more common and develops by the basic methods of communication and this 82 �function is realized by language. So there should always be a unity between language, culture and communication. These three constitute a whole and the lack of any of these elements may, most probably, result in poor communication. For instance younger generations gain the necessary knowledge by communication. It can be claimed that there will not be culture without communication or language. Culture and society, as a concept, may be defined differently from each other but there is always an inseperable relationship between these two. Culture consists of common products shared by the members in the society. Society, on the other hand, consists of individuals sharing that common culture and having interactions among themselves. There can be no society without culture and culture can not find life without a society which protects and develops it.So society and culture live dependent to each other. Due to the vast technological developments, new types of lifestyles and international relations have emerged throughout the world. The importance of economic and political relations have been felt deeply. Because of this, communication has become a multi-dimensional factor in the lives of both individuals and societies. While communication was fulfilled only by orally and written forms in the past, it has become much more rapid by technological advances. Communication technologies have turned the whole world into a small village. And in this village language and communication have gained much more importance. References: Ağaçsapan, Asuman (2002) : Dil Üzerine, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları, No: 3, Eskişehir Barthes, Roland (1996) : Göstergebilimsel Serüven, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, Cogito 12 Chomsky, Noam (2002) : Dil ve Sorumluluk, Etkin Yayınları Güvenç, Bozkurt (1979) : İnsan ve Kültür, Remzi Kitabevi Yayınları, İstanbul Han, Turgay (2008) : Kültürlerarası İletişim ve Diyaloğun Gelişimine Dil Öğretiminin Katkısı, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Erzurum Yıldız, Şerife (2005) : Dil Kültür İletişim ve Medya, Sinemis Yayınları, Ankara 83 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 655 Title A name given to the resource Language, Culture and Communication Author Author Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. Man is born with an ability which distinguishes him from the rest of the creatures in the world; an ability which means the evidence of his life and existence. He starts to get accustomed to his environment and begins to communicate. Together with his biological and spiritual development he reacts and gains experience and finally learns a language totally. He is included in the system of his environment by this language. Gradually the parameters that reflect the culture and language structure of the society in which he lives becomes apparent in the mind of individual. Now, the individual has gained the ability to communicate with his environment and opens up his feelings, thoughts and beliefs to other people. Today, also called the age of globalization, the effect of information technologies on the societies is among the most common issues. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/68a146321b51ccd878cd57463e1cc495.pdf 8ab71f08257f7082d8774e467dc33f02 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Effect of IBA and Bacteria (Agrobacterium rubi ve Bacillus OSU 142) on the Rooting of M9 Apple Rootstock Cuttings Lütfi Pirlak Selcuk University, Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Horticulture, Konya, Turkey lpirlak@hotmail.com Yüksel Baykal Celal AKIN Primary School,Yakutiye Erzurum, Turkey yukselbaykal@hotmail.com Abstract: This study was carried out to investigate the effects of IBA and bacteria (Agrobacterium rubi ve Bacillus OSU 142) applications on the rooting of M9 rootstock cuttings. The cuttings treated with IBA alone at different concentrations (2000, 4000 and 6000 ppm) and in combinations of three Agrobacterium rubi (A1, A16, A18) and Basillus OSU 142 strains. The treated cuttings were placed mist propagation system including perlite medium. After three months the cuttings were uprooted and evaluated for rooting percentage (%), callusing (%) and viability rate (%). There were determined inadequate results about rooting of cuttings. Rooting in cuttings was observed in 2000 ppm IBA (6.66 %), 4000 ppm IBA (13.33 %), and 2000 ppm IBA + Basillus OSU 142 combination (6.66 %), respectively. Callus were observed in all treated. Callus rate was 66.66 % in control while the rate was 84.61 % in A16 + A18 applications. Callus rate decreased depending on increasing of IBA doses. There were determined significantly differences in bacteria alone applications. According to application of bacteria combinations, the highests callus rate was A16 + A18 while the lowest was A1 + OSU 142. The best result of hormones + bacteria combinations were taken from 4000 ppm IBA + A18 application. Cutting living rate was similar to callus rating results. Many of the cuttings were live after application. Living rate was low at alone IBA application compared to that of the control. Introduction Apple is one ofthe most commonly cultivated produces around the world. Today, commercial apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) production is carried outthrough outtemperate regions of both north and southern hemispheres. To date, world’s apple production is 64 255 520 t(Anon. 2009). Such a widespread cultivation potential would be attributed to rich germplasm diversity ofmalus species in both cultivarand rootstock genotypes. Besides,recentimprovementsin utilitation of dwarf rootstocks in intensive cultivation contributed to enhance apple production. In orderto match present reguirements of modern apple orchards,rootstocks with high potentialin clonal propagation apptitude are recommended to use. Dwarf and semidwarf rootstocks, particularly, provide easyness in cultivation practices,reduce production cost and increase the proportionalincome. M9 is the most frequently used apple rootstock in the world to obtain dwarf plants. Malling 9 has for a long time been used as apple rootstock in Europe. Trees grafted on M9 do not exceed 2.7 m and are the 20-40% size of those grafted on seedling. Cultural processes are made without using a ladder. Thanks to excellent light exposure it provides, fruits are often well-colored and of high quality. However, it needs a backing for life because itsroot system is weak. Under available conditions,itsroots grow up well on beds, butitis quite hard to provide root formation via woody cuttings. Production of M9 apple rootstock is usually conducted with the “Stool Bed Layering” layering method (Howard 1985; Ferree & Carlson 1987; Hartmannn et al. 1990). M9 rootstock can be produced withlayering method, but can hardly be increased with cutting (Ferree & Carlson 1987). Increasing with cutting is an increasing method of great importance for all fruits as it is economical and fast. Despiteits all positive features,the biggest problem thatrestrictsitsuse isthat cuttings can not take root because regenerating abilities of some species are very deficient (Rugini & Fedelli 1990; Webster 1997). The cuttings belonging to the fruit species found in temperate climate group do not easily rooting. Thereby, cuttings are subject to various applications (plant growth regulators, different chemicals, bacteria 129 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo applications, carbohydrates etc.), one of which isthe use of plant growth regulator,in orderto remove problems about rooting in the kinds of these species (Dubeiovsky et al. 1993; Wiesman & Lavee, 1995; Grange et al. 1998; Eşitken et al. 2003). The most common application to increase the rooting ratio in cuttings is the use of auxins and especially of IBA (Hartmann et al. 1990; Howard 1985). In a study on determining the effects of IBA application with doses of 3000 and 8000 ppm on rooting properties of M9 apple root-stocks,it was reported thatthe maximum rooting (29.63%) was obtained from apple cuttings treated with 8000 ppm IBA (Ülger & Baktır 1995). In recent years, bacteria applications to cutting rootings have gained greatimportance. A. tumafaciens, E. milletiae, P. syringae pv. savastanoi, and P. syringae pv. myricae bacteria encourage cell divisions or gal formations in plants. These bacteria except A. tumafaciens are produced on intercell surfaces as indole-3acetamide and indol-3-pyruvate from oxine group by IAA (Goto 1990). These bacteria produce hormones in colonized areas on planttissues or encourage hormone production in plants. Therefore,these types of organisms cause cell divisions growth as depending on hormone production. Recently, especially some strains of A. rhizogenus (Bassilet al. 1991; Hatta et al. 1996) and A. rubi strains have been successfully been used for cutting rooting (Eşitken et al. 2003). In a study, 2000, 4000 and 6000 ppm IBA and three different types (A1, A16, A18) of Agrobacterium rubi bacteria were applied for determining cutting rooting of Kütahya sour cherry. W hile no rooting was determined in the control group, the highest rooting rate (70%) was obtained with application of 2000 ppm IBA+A16 (Ercisli et al. 2000).In a similar study, Ercisli et al.(2000a) applied 2000, 4000 and 6000 ppm IBA and three differenttypes (A1, A16, A18) of Agrobacterium rubi bacteriato rose hip and the highestrooting rate (95%) was obtained with 2000 ppm IBA + A18 application. Eşitken et al. (2003) applied IBA (250, 500, 750 ppm), Agrobacterium rubi and Bacillus OSU-142 to wild cherry, and reported that the best rooting rate (80%) was obtained with 250 ppm IBA + OSU 142. The objective ofthis study wasto determine the individual and combination effects of IBA, Agrobacterium rubi and Bacillus OSU 142 applications on rooting rate of M9 apple rootstock cuttings. Material and Methods Material This study was carried out at Atatürk University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture to investigate the effects of different applications on the rooting of hardwood M9 cutting. By this aim, twenty six different applications were performed using various doses ofIBA alone and/or distinct strains of Agrobacterium rubi and Bacillus OSU 142 bacteria. Applications are listed in Table 1. Bacteria strains were obtained from Atatürk University Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Plant Protection. 1. Kontrol 8. OSU 142 15. 2000 ppm IBA + A1 2. 1000 ppm IBA 3. 2000 ppm IBA 4. 6000 ppm IBA 5. A1 9. A1 + A16 16. 2000 ppm IBA + A16 17. 2000 ppm IBA + A18 18. 2000 ppm IBA + OSU 142 19. 4000 ppm IBA + A1 6. A16 7. A18 130 10. A1 + A18 11. A16 + A18 12. A1 + OSU 142 13. A16 + OSU 142 14. A18 + OSU 142 20. 4000 ppm IBA + A16 21. 4000 ppm IBA + A18 22. 4000 ppm IBA + OSU 142 23. 6000 ppm IBA + A1 24. 6000 ppm IBA + A16 25. 6000 ppm IBA + A18 26. 6000 ppm IBA + OSU 142 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Methods Cuttings were collected from M9 clone root stocks and one-year shoots at dormancy stage. The bottom of cuttings was submitted into IBA solutions for 3-5 seconds, following evaporation then submitted into Agrobacterium rubi strains and Bacillus OSU 142 bacteria suspension with a concentration of 1x108 bacteria per milliliter. The bottom of control cuttings was submitted into distilled water only (Eşitken et al. 2003).In orderto smear bacteria on cutting bottoms,they were mixed for 30 minutes at 75 rounds per minute. Then cuttings were planted in fogging area in greenhouse (Figure 2.1). The growing media is automatically controlled for heating (26 o C) and relative humidity (90-95%). Perlite was used as growing media. Rooting rates (%), callus formation rates (%) and survival rates (%) of cuttings were determined at the end of 3 month growing period. The experimental design was completely randomized design with 3 replications (10 cuttings at each replication). Duncan’s multiple comparison tests was used for mean comparisons after arcsine transformation of raw data (Düzgüneş et al. 1987). Results The findings on the effects of IBA and bacteria applications on rooting, callus formation and survival cuttings percentages are presented in Table 1. Root formation did not ocur in cuttings of most treatments including control. However, 2000 ppm IBA, 4000 ppm IBA and 2000 ppm IBA + OSU 142 treatments resulted in root formations, 6.66, 13.33 and 6.66 %, respectively. Differences among the treatments were statistically significant. 131 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Applications Rooting (%) Control 2000 ppm IBA 4000 ppm IBA 6000 ppm IBA A1 A16 A18 OSU 142 A1 + A16 A1 +A18 A16 +A18 A1 + OSU142 A16 + OSU142 A18 + OSU142 2000 ppm IBA + A1 2000 ppm A1 + A16 2000 ppm IBA + A18 2000 ppm IBA + OSU142 4000 ppm IBA + A1 4000 ppm A1 + A16 4000 ppm IBA + A18 4000 ppm IBA + OSU142 6000 ppm IBA + A1 6000 ppm A1 + A16 6000 ppm IBA + A18 6000 ppm IBA + OSU142 0b* 6.66 ab 13.33 a 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 6.66 ab 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 0b 12.85 LSD .01 LSD .05 Callus Formation (%) 66.66 b 46.66 bcd 20.00 ef 13.33 f 21.42 ef 26.66 def 53.33 bc 53.33 bc 53.33 bc 60.00 bc 84.61 a 40.00 cde 46.66 bcd 46.66 bcd 20.00 ef 13.33 f 13.33 f 21.42 ef 26.66 def 46.66 bcd 60.00 bc 40.00 cde 0g 0g 0g 0g Survival Ratio (%) 60.00 c 13.33 ef 13.33 ef 13.33 ef 21.42 de 40.00 cd 60.00 c 66.66 bc 66.66 bc 86.66 ab 92.30 a 66.66 bc 53.33 cd 53.33 cd 13.33 ef 13.33 ef 21.42 de 40.00 cd 40.00 cd 73.33 bc 93.33 a 73.33 bc 0f 0f 0f 0f 18.29 4.78 • Statistical analysis have been carried out using arc sin values. Table 3.1. The effects of IBA and bacteria applications on the rooting, callus formation and survival ratio on M9 apple rootstock cuttings. Callus formation occured in cuttings of most applications, except forthe combinations of6000 ppm IBA with bacteria. There were statistically significant differences between the applications for callusing. The highest callusing rate was obtained from A16 + A18 (84.61%), followed by control(66.66%). The findings relevant to survival percentages of cuttings are generally similar to those of callus formation rates.In most cases the cuttings maintained their survives up to the end of study. However,there was no surviving cutting in combination of 6000 ppm IBA with bacteria as was seen in callusing rates. Differences in survival percentages were statistically significant. The highest percentage on this criterion was observed in 4000 ppm IBA + A18 treatment (93.33 %), while control group demonstrated considerably higherrate (60.00 %). Discussion Considering the overallrooting percentages,the results appear dissatisfactory. This results conform the previous statement of Parmar & Aier (1989) who clarified the general difficulties in rooting of temperate fruits as a results of their hard tissues. Besides this, rooting ağabeylity of apple cuttings as well as other temperate fruits, are solely affected by external treatments along with genotypic apptitude and environmental conditions. Auxin treatments, out of externalfactors, have a specialinterest(Goto 1990). Literatureinvestications revealthat 132 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo auxin application do not have significantinfluence on rooting of M9 cuttings (Ülger & Baktır 1995). Callus development was observed in mosttreatments. Cutting ratio with callus was found as 66.66% in control and increased up to the 84.61% after A16 + A18 applications. When the cuttings are placed to the suitable media for rooting, callus layer occurs at the lower part of the cuttings. Protective layer resulted from callus tissue delays the rot formation at the lower part of the cuttings. In some cases, callus layer helps water uptakes ofthe cuttings (Hartmann et al. 1990). On the other hand,there has been different information related to the effect of callus layer on root formation. Hartmann et al. (1990) reported that callus formation and rooting formation are independent from each other. Kantarcı & Ayfer (1989) reported similar result in one study conducted in hazelnut plant. Similarly, Tayfon (1995) obtained low rooting in hard wood cuttings of kiwi, but callus formation was high in same conditions. In general,the results obtained from being alive ratio of cutting look like almost the callus formation ratios. Most cuttings were observed alive aftertreatments. For example, after pull offthe cuttings, alive cutting ratios for control and 4000 ppm IBA+A18 application were 60% and 93.33%, respectively. By evaluation of the results of alive cutting ratios, it can be observed that alive cutting ratio and callus formation ratio were close to each other. The result was also supported by Hartmann et al.(1990)thatthe protective layerresulted from callus tissue delays the rotformation atthe lower part ofthe cutting and in some cases, calluslayer helps water uptake of cutting. In result,the study performed to research the effects of IBA and bacterium applications on rooting ratio of cuttings in M9 apple rootstock showed that sufficient rooting ratio was not obtained. The present study was mainly focused on recentthe effect of bacterium on cutting rooting thatis very popularin recently. The increase or decrease in rooting may be determined properly with use ofthe different bacterium races or cuttings taken in different period by future studies. References Anon., (2009). www.fao.org Bassil, N.V., Proebsting, W.M., Moore, L.W., & Lightfoot, D.A. (1991). Propagation of hazelnut stem cutings using Agrobacterium rhizogenes. HortScience, 26(8), 1058-1060. Dubeikovsky, A.N., Mordukhova, E.A., Kochetkov, V., Polikarpova, F.Y., & Boronin, A.M. (1993). Growth promotion of blackcurrant softwood cuttings by recombinant strain Pseudomonas fluorescens BSP53a synthesizing an increased amount of indole-3-acetic acid number. Soil Biology-Biochemistry, 25(9), 1277-1281. Düzgüneş, O., Kesici, T., Kavuncu, O., & Gürbüz, F. (1987). Araştırma ve Deneme Metodları (Đstatistik Metodları-II). Ankara Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Yay: 1021, Ders Kitabı: 295, Ankara, 381 s. Ercişli, S., Eşitken, A., & Şahin, F. (2000). IBA ve bakteri (Agrobacterium rubi) uygulamalarının Kütahya vişne çeşidi çeliklerinin köklenmesi üzerine etkisi. Bahçe, 29(1-2), 75-80. Ercişli, S., Eşitken, A., & Şahin, F. (2000a), IBA ve bakteri (Agrobacterium rubi) uygulamalarının kuşburnu çeliklerinin köklenmesi üzerine etkisi. II. Ulusal Fidancılık Kongresi, 25-29 Eylül 2000, Bademli /Ödemiş-Đzmir, www.agr.ege.edu.tr/fitekno Eşitken, A., Ercişli, S., Şevik, Đ., & Şahin, F. (2003). Effect of indole-3-butyric acid and different strains of Agrobacterium rubi on adventive root formation from softwood and semi-hardwood wild sour cherry cuttings. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 27, 37-42. Ferree, D.C., & Carlson, R.F. (1987). Apple Rootstocks. Rootstocks for Fruit Crops, Rom, C.R. and Carlson, R.F. (eds). John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, U.S.A., pp 107-144. Goto, M. (1990). Fundamentals of Bacterial Plant Pathology. Academic Press. Inc, 339 pp. Grange, O., Bartschi, H., & Gay, G. (1998). Effect of the ecto-mycorrhizal fungus Hebeloma cylindrosporum on in vitro rooting of micropropagated cuttings of arbuscular mycorrhiza forming Prunus avium and Prunus cerasus. Trees: Structure and Function, 12(1), 49-56. Hartmann, H.T., Kester, D.E., & Davies, F.T. Jr. (1990). Plant Propagation, Principles and Practices. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey, 647 p. Hatta, M., Beyl, C.A., Garton, S., & Diner, A.M. (1996). Induction of roots on jujube softwood cuttings using Agrobacterium rhizogenus. Journal of Horticultural Science, 71(6), 881-886. Howard, B.H. (1985). The contribution to rooting in leafless winter plum cuttings of IBA applied to the epidermis. Journal of 133 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Horticultural Science, 60(2), 153-159. Kantarcı, M., & Ayfer, M. (1989). Bazı önemli fındık çeşitlerimizin çelikle çoğaltılmaları üzerine araştırmalar. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 13(3b), 1096-1109. Parmar, S.D., & Aier, N.B. (1989). Seasonal rooting behaviour of cuttings of plum cultivars as influenced by IBA treatments. Scientia Horticulturae, 40, 297-303. Rugini, E., & Fedelli, E. (1990). Olive (Olea europaea L.) as an oilseed crop. Ed. J.P.S. Bajaj, Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, Vol. 10: Legumes and oilseed crops. I. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heiderberg. Tayfon, A. (1995). Kivi’nin Çelikle Üretilmesi Üzerine Araştırmalar. Ege Üniv. Fen Bil. Ens. (Y.Lisans Tezi). Ülger, S., & Baktır, Đ. (1995). Bodur M9, J9 ve Colt anaçlarının fog serasında köklenme özelliklerinin saptanması. Türkiye II. Ulusal Bahçe Bitkileri Kongresi, Cilt I (Meyve):21-24. Webster, A.D. (1997). A review of fruit tree rootstock research and development. Acta Horticulturae, 451(1), 53-74. Wiesman, Z., & Lavee, S. (1995). Relationship of carbohydrate sources and Indole-3-Butyric Acid in olive cuttings. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 22(5), 811-816. 134 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 492 Title A name given to the resource Effect of IBA and Bacteria (Agrobacterium rubi ve Bacillus OSU 142) on the Rooting of M9 Apple Rootstock Cuttings Author Author Pirlak, Lütfi Baykal, Yüksel Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was carried out to investigate the effects of IBA and bacteria (Agrobacterium rubi ve Bacillus OSU 142) applications on the rooting of M9 rootstock cuttings. The cuttings treated with IBA alone at different concentrations (2000, 4000 and 6000 ppm) and in combinations of three Agrobacterium rubi (A1, A16, A18) and Basillus OSU 142 strains. The treated cuttings were placed mist propagation system including perlite medium. After three months the cuttings were uprooted and evaluated for rooting percentage (%), callusing (%) and viability rate (%). There were determined inadequate results about rooting of cuttings. Rooting in cuttings was observed in 2000 ppm IBA (6.66 %), 4000 ppm IBA (13.33 %), and 2000 ppm IBA + Basillus OSU 142 combination (6.66 %), respectively. Callus were observed in all treated. Callus rate was 66.66 % in control while the rate was 84.61 % in A16 + A18 applications. Callus rate decreased depending on increasing of IBA doses. There were determined significantly differences in bacteria alone applications. According to application of bacteria combinations, the highests callus rate was A16 + A18 while the lowest was A1 + OSU 142. The best result of hormones + bacteria combinations were taken from 4000 ppm IBA + A18 application. Cutting living rate was similar to callus rating results. Many of the cuttings were live after application. Living rate was low at alone IBA application compared to that of the control. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9ce6eb73c1b8f0dfce95271762b0c827.pdf 186c3754a2c782fb422664c957312b9e PDF Text Text Democratic Parents from the Point of View of Pupils Osman SAMANCI Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Erzurum/Turkey E-mail: osman-samanci@hotmail.com Çağrı Tuğrul MART International Burch University Education Faculty Sarajevo/Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mail: tugrulbey@hotmail.com Abstract: During the primary school period pupils acquire a great deal of skill , knowledge and attitude about life. The skill , knowledge and attitude pupils acquire during this period affects their lifelong behaviors. For individuals the most important institution where attitude and behaviors are established is family. Family affects all development processes of prime importance for a child. It is expected that knowledge and skills given to a child by means of education is to be consolidated in the family. Parents who set a good example for their children through their behaviors, at the same time help their children acquire a great deal of attitude and skills. Key Words : Primary School , Democracy , Behaviors of Democratic Parents Through this research , from the point of view of pupils what the democratic parental behaviors are have been studied. Three different primary schools, in total 120 pupils , have participated in this research in Erzurum. In this research descriptive method is preferred. In order to gather data, by researchers the data gathering form is used. The accumulated data has been analyzed through the content analysis technique. Introduction : The importance of the primary school period is huge to lay the foundations of democratic attitude and skills. During this period children are confronted with the concept of democracy for the first time. Unlike their families and circles of friends in primary schools children encounter various rules and they develop a lot of skills and behaviors by joining intensive interaction in school environment. In primary school we not only make pupils acquire knowledge but also help them to gain behaviors to adapt to life conditions. One of the most important goals of the Turkish Education system is to enable pupils to use their rights according to democratic principles and to help them to acquire consciousness to carry out their responsibilities. To constitute a democratic community depends on creating a democratic education system. Research ( Evans & Rose, 2006; Harber & Serf, 2006; Mc Cowan, 2006; Neuberger, 2007) has shown that there is a close relationship between education and placing democracy in community consciousness. Democracy , which is defined as a way of life by educators (Başar, 2003; Büyükkaragöz, 1989; Gözütok, 1995; Gülmez, 1994; Kepenekçi, 2003; Tezcan, 1994) , at home by parents , at school by educators , in environment by all community members cannot be turned into a way of life without internalization. In order for democracy to be turned into a way of life , in the first place it must be accepted in the family and must be seen in the attitude and behaviors of family members. Because children face community life at first in family. For children social life commences with family and carries on in a school and friendships. A child who grows up in a democratic family environment and receives democratic education is liable to be a democratic member of a community. In the family, attitude and behaviors of parents affect children’s opinions and belief in democracy. Aim The aim of this study is to establish what the democratic parental behaviors are from pupils’ point of view. 42 �Method In the study descriptive method is preferred. So as to gather data by researchers data gathering form is used. The gathered data has been analyzed through the content analysis technique used in qualitative research data analysis. From three different primary schools in Erzurum 64 female and 56 male fourth and fifth graders , totaling 120 pupils participated in the research. Findings When answers of the pupils in the data gathering form are analyzed , democratic parental behaviors from pupils’ point of view are grouped in three main themes : personal liberty , life at school , communication in family. 1. Personal Liberty When answers of the pupils who have participated in the research are analyzed, the pupils have defined democratic parental behaviors from their personal liberty point of view. The pupils pertaining to improving the personal liberty area in their families expressed the following parental behaviors as democratic behaviors. These behaviors are shown in chart 1 in percentage and frequency terms. According to Pupils Democratic Parental Behaviors Theme: Personal Liberty To permit children to make their own decisions To permit children to play games To permit children to watch TV and play computer games To permit children to choose their friends To permit children to express their ideas Total f 33 28 21 20 14 116 % 28 24 18 17 12 100 Chart 1. From point of view of pupils democratic parental behaviors When Chart 1 is examined in terms of having personal liberty in their families it is viewed that pupils have emulated behaviors of their parents. One of the most indispensable elements of democratic life is freedom provided for members of the community. Naturally pupils in primary schools according to their social life in terms of augmenting their personal liberty have assessed behaviors of their parents in view of democracy. Democracy is individuals making their own decisions in relation to feelings , opinions and skills. Pupils regarded these parental behaviors which permit them freedom as democratic behaviors. Again in the lives of pupils games and making friends take and important place. In the research according to data gathered pupils have viewed the parents who have permitted them to play games and make their own friends as democratic parents. Another priority for pupils in terms of personal liberty is to take advantage of technological tools at home. According to pupils parents who let them watch TV and play computer games are democratic parents. 2. Communication in Family Another theme comes into prominence as a result of qualitative analysis of the answers pupils have given related to democratic parental behaviors, is communication in family. The percentage and frequency distribution of democratic parental behaviors under the theme of communication in family is shown in Chart 2. According to Pupils Democratic Parental Behaviors Theme: Communication in family Equal treatment by parents to the siblings Parents valuing the ideas of children Not only is the father but also everyone in the family is influential Respecting to each other in the family Paying attention to the opinions of children Total f 36 28 26 15 12 117 % 31 24 22 13 10 100 Chart 2. Democratic parental behaviors according to pupils 43 �When Chart 2 is examined pupils have emulated a part of democratic parental behaviors in terms of communication in family. In this theme pupils have considered parental behaviors relating both directly to themselves and to other members of the family as democratic. The concepts of equality and justice , the indispensable elements of democratic life are seen as the equal treatment of parents to siblings from pupils’ point of view. It is widely known by everybody that democracy doesn’t depend on absolute authority. Pupils expressed this situation as the father is not the only authority in the family whereas all members in the family must be influential. Moreover from the point of view of pupils respecting to each other in the family and taking opinions of children into consideration is also perceived as democratic behaviors. 3. Life at School When answers of the pupils relating to democratic parental behaviors are examined it has been viewed that pupils centered on parental behaviors relating to their life at school. For this reason democratic parental behaviors expressed by pupils are collected under the theme of life at school. Parental behaviors pertaining to life at school are shown in Chart 3. According to Pupils Democratic Parental Behaviors Theme: Life at School Rewarding accomplishments of pupils Being understanding about exam results of pupils Not compelling pupils to study Not comparing achievements of pupils Not interfering with friends of pupils Total f 29 26 23 19 14 111 % 26 23 21 17 13 100 Chart 3. Democratic parental behaviors according to pupils As seen in Chart 3 parental behaviors which are viewed as democratic are closely connected with school life of pupils. Many parents evaluate their children according to school success. One of the areas where most conflicts between parents and children arise, is in a child’s life at school. As seen in the chart pupils perceive positive parental behaviors pertaining to school success , exam results , studying , comparing them with other pupils and not interfering with school friendship as democratic behaviors. Result and Discussion As a result of qualitative analysis of research data , in terms of parental behaviors pupils have centered on three main themes: personal liberty , communication in family and life at school. This situation exhibits that pupils approach the concept of democracy in terms of their lives and liberty. Under the theme of personal liberty, parental behaviors accepted as democratic by pupils are mainly about widening the areas of liberty. Playing games and freedom of using computers at home expressed under this theme highly reflect the point of view of pupils. Through the communication in family theme, children have emphasized the importance of social life. In this theme , by emphasizing the concepts of justice and equality, which must exist in social life, children have viewed behaviors of their parents relating to this area as democratic behaviors. Furthermore pupils, by expressing that not only the father but also all members in the family must be influential , have pointed out that democratic life is to start primarily in the family. Primary school is one of the most important elements that affect the lives of the pupils. School life at this age for pupils is sometimes a source of bliss and success , sometimes a source of fear and failure. School life becomes the most prevailing current issue and interactive area between pupils and parents. In this research pupils associated democratic parental behaviors with school life. Pupils see parents who reward their achievements , are understanding about exam results , don’t compare them with others as democratic parents. Pupils in their own opinions have described democratic parental behaviors by centering on their own lives and their relations with their families. In order for democracy to turn into a way of life in social life at first we have 44 �to know the opinions of pupils and by concentrating on them both in family and at school we have to give importance to democratic education. References Başar, H. (2003). Classroom Management. Ankara: Anı Press. Büyükkaragöz, S. (1989). Ortaöğretimde Demokrasi Eğitimi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Yayınları, Konya. Evans, G., & Rose, P. (2007). Support for democracy in Malawi does schooling matter? World Development 35 : 904-919. Gözütok, F. D., (1995). Öğretmenlerin Demokratik Tutumları. TÜDAV Yayınları, Ankara. Gülmez, M. (1994). İnsan Hakları ve Demokrasi Eğitimi. Ankara: TODAİE. No: 256 İnsan Hakları Araştırma ve Derleme Merkezi. No: 8 Harber, C., & Serf, J. (2006). Teacher education for a democratic society in England and South Africa. Teaching and Teacher Education 22 : 986-997. Kepenekçi, Y.K. (2003). Demokratik Okul. Eğitim Araştırmaları. Sayı 11.Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Mc Cowan, T. (2006). Educating citizens for participatory democracy: A case study of local government education policy in Pelotas, Brazil. International Journal of Educatinal Development 26: 456-470. Neuberger, B. (2007). Education for democracy in Israel: Structural impediments and basic dilemmas. International Journal of Educatinal Development 27: 292-305. Tezcan, M. (1994). Eğitim Sosyolojisi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayınları, Ankara. 45 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 317 Title A name given to the resource Democratic Parents from the Point of View of Pupils Author Author SAMANCI, Osman MART, Çağrı Tuğrul Abstract A summary of the resource. During the primary school period pupils acquire a great deal of skill , knowledge and attitude about life. The skill , knowledge and attitude pupils acquire during this period affects their lifelong behaviors. For individuals the most important institution where attitude and behaviors are established is family. Family affects all development processes of prime importance for a child. It is expected that knowledge and skills given to a child by means of education is to be consolidated in the family. Parents who set a good example for their children through their behaviors, at the same time help their children acquire a great deal of attitude and skills. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)