322 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/320bb6aae56d327a92a27d95b38787fa.pdf 173210f851734a84695ec9b300c668db PDF Text Text ORGANIZATIONAL-PEDAGOGICAL CONDITIONS OF FORMING PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE OF TEACHERS Muhayo Umaraliyeva Uzbek Scientific-Research Institute of Pedagogical Sciences, Uzbekistan Article History: Submitted: 13.06.2015 Accepted: 25.06.2015 Abstract This article highlights the issues of development of teachers’ professional competence, the necessity of cooperation and experience exchange between teachers, and the correlation of personal interests with the requests and needs of the state and society. The author considers the main means of the development of competence of the teacher (entry into communication, the establishment of friendly relations with the participants of the educational process, creation of an enabling environment), given the emphasis to the role of external factors on the development of professional competence of teachers. Key words: Competence, cooperation, activities, communication, professional, interpersonal relationship, needs, interest, relationship, definition, objectives, innovation. 1. Introduction The implementation of reforms to strengthen the independence of our country and the achievement of the set goals, further democratization of society, modernization and development of the country, creation of conditions to provide in the short term prosperous life and creative work demanded a radical reform of the system of continuous education, as well as the constant work of teachers on themselves and the improvement of their knowledge, skills, and qualifications. In connection to this, the main task of the education system is to prepare highly qualified specialists, to develop professional competence in a teacher through the introduction of innovative technologies in the educational process, the increase of innovation activity of the teacher, and the formation and development of interest in the innovation processes and skills of scientific research. The exchange of information between teachers, effectiveness and efficiency of communication processes and relationships, on the one side, are connected to the novelty and �reliability of information. On the other, it is connected to the formation and development of concepts and competence in a particular direction in establishing a link between teachers and information exchange basic matters is what kind occurs attitude (positive or negative), which in turn affects the development of professional competence. The principal objective of cooperation between teachers is that their relationships bring mutual benefit, as do a teacher’s inherent ability and activity. If the relationship does not work for the common good and timely coordinate, they can have a negative impact on the relationship of teachers, and then pedagogical competence is formed only on the basis of understanding and perception of the teacher. The main factor to ensure efficiency, some activities, is the setting for the human with goals, objectives to achieve, preliminary planning, the choice of the ways of implementation, the selection and the distribution between tasks, based on the content robots; coordination of participants of the organized process. The purpose determines the necessity of the organization of the planned activity. That is, the main motive of the organization of an activity is the goal; at the same time, the goal of auxiliary means to the activities. In order to determine how we achieve the intended results, it is necessary to know in advance what way may be obstacles (difficulties) and how to overcome them, and to be clear, why it is necessary to take any actions to meet personal or public needs, depending on the choice of means. The needs and requests of an individual are associated with their specific life conditions. They can have both a personal and a social character. Secondly, people use for their needs the techniques and tools which are specific to their historical and social environment. Third, most of the personal needs of people require significant labor; social needs are replenished, or based on personal needs. The needs of educators become a tool for development of their professional activity, the activity level in the actions and behavior. The satisfaction of teacher’s needs has an effect on the common interest. Development of professional competence of a teacher has a significant influence on the appearance of his desires and the aspirations related to improvement of its activity. Development of professional competence of the teacher is connected first of all with the stated goal, the study of certain concepts and ideas, and the analysis of existing theories and regulations. The teacher’s role can have several purposes, depending on that in what he does and what needs currently arise. In the process of selection of ways and means to achieve their objectives and results, it is necessary to bear in mind the public interest. Defining the purpose and ways of its �implementation, should focus on the establishment of relations with colleagues, sharing of resources and information. Such exchange contributes to the effective work of teachers. We can assume that the development of professional competence of teachers of educational institutions is specific purpose in achieving high results. As a means of development of professional competence of a teacher may make it needs to guide and issues related to the management of “power” and the subordination of trainees. However, management should not be perceived as attainment of power, but as an influence on others to solve their tasks, and thus, for teachers guide serves to establish the mutual influence. The development of professional competence determines the means which are needed for communication and the establishment of friendly relations. It is necessary to take into account a number of external factors affecting the process of development of professional competence of teachers. One of the most important of these is the environment in which he lives and operates the teacher. In the educational process the teacher is in communication with all participants of this process, parents, representatives of public organizations, and on this basis is the self-development of teachers and therefore the development of professional competence. The nature of the teacher's activity is influenced by the requirements specified by the state and society to the educational system, internal regulations of the educational institution, modern requirements to knowledge and skills of the teacher, knowledge of innovative technologies. Modernization of the educational process and educational environment encourages teachers to seek answers and solutions to emerging issues, encourages them to use creative approaches, the result is the professional growth of the teacher, is formed personal interests associated with self-education and knowledge. Creative, professional development of teachers, in turn, has a beneficial effect on creating the atmosphere of an educational institution. For development of professional competence of teachers the creation of innovative environment is also important, as is the possibility of joint solution of urgent problems. When planning activities, the most important questions of life are considered, and the goal is to determine the ways of solving them, and to find effective means of achieving the goal. The coordination of activities of the teaching staff becomes important in this process. Putting before itself a problem of development of professional competence and the choice of the ways of its implementation, every teacher relies primarily on their worldview, views and concepts, personal and public inquiries, and interests. �From the above we can conclude that the efficiency of the organization, the educational process, and the process of acquiring knowledge, abilities and skills depends on the extent to which the activities of students and teachers are coordinated. Coordination creates a learning environment in the school, and it determines what techniques and tools best fir the motives and interests of the students to get knowledge. All these issues are directly related to the professional competence of the teacher. 2. Conclusion In order to organize the teaching process on a scientific basis, to manage it and create a favorable educational environment, the teacher needs to master modern methods of management, to know the priority of developing ideas, constantly examine the best practices and achievements in the development of science and technology, implementing them in teaching practice, to organize independent activity of students on the basis of enhancing their activity. The effectiveness of training highly qualified specialists at the level of modern requirements, the needs and interests of society, the state and the individual possessing the necessary knowledge, abilities and skills of high culture and competitive determined by the development of professional competence of teachers, their relationship in the process of pedagogical activity, motivation to self-improvement and self-education. References: Адизова Т.М. Бошқарувмулоқати.– Тошкент: Низомийномли ТДПУ 2000. Азизхўжаева Н.Н.Ўқитувчимутахассислигигатайёрлаштехнологияси.–Тошкент: ТДПУ,2000. Топоровский В.П. Аналитическая деятельность руководителя образовательного учреждения.– Санкт-Петербург,2000. Турғунов С.Т. Халқпедагогикасинингдолзарбмуаммолари.– Тошкент:”Ўқитувчи”,1990. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2898 Title A name given to the resource ORGANIZATIONAL-PEDAGOGICAL CONDITIONS OF FORMING PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE OF TEACHERS Author Author Umaraliyeva, Muhayo Abstract A summary of the resource. This article highlights the issues of development of teachers’ professional competence, the necessity of cooperation and experience exchange between teachers, and the correlation of personal interests with the requests and needs of the state and society. The author considers the main means of the development of competence of the teacher (entry into communication, the establishment of friendly relations with the participants of the educational process, creation of an enabling environment), given the emphasis to the role of external factors on the development of professional competence of teachers. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0b5edd4b29e3d4e49ad40e5b29e866a7.pdf 9fbc83930485485af28c80101f2dfec2 PDF Text Text 1 VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION MODEL AS A FOUNDATION FOR READING ACADEMIC ARTICLES IN THE ISRAELI ACADEMIA Ira Slabodar & Galina Gordishevsky Ashkelon Academic College, Israel Article History: Submitted: 15.06.2015 Accepted: 27.06.2015 Abstract A firm mastery of target language vocabulary is crucial for academic reading performance. Therefore, teachers should equip learners with tools that would help them understand and learn lexical items.To this end, we propose a graded instructional model, which combines strategies for decoding the meaning of novel words as well as learning and retaining them. In order to understand an unfamiliar word a student is encouraged to either guess it or consult a dictionary. Following lexical deciphering, the teacher assists the student in selecting the most frequent and useful words to be learnt. The learning process requires explicit focus on novel words. First, the learner copies the new word into his notebook alongside its dictionary definition and the context it was used in. Next, the student creates a keyword association which helps him retain the word. The learner then attempts to learn it using his preferred perceptual learning style. Since long-term retention of vocabulary requires multiple repetitions in varied contexts spaced at increasingly larger intervals, the teacher provides the learner with plentiful opportunities at novel vocabulary reinforcement. In addition, testing vocabulary progress guarantees further encounters with the target words. The graded vocabulary instruction model may be successfully integrated in versatile pedagogical frameworks aimed at lexical expansion. Key words: vocabulary learning strategies, vocabulary retention, guessing, dictionary use, perceptual learning styles, mnemonics �2 1. Introduction Vocabulary is one of the key components in reading comprehension at any level. Successful comprehension largely depends on the knowledge of word meanings. (August et al., 2005; Hiebert&Kamil, 2005; Koda, 2005; Sidek, 2013). Vocabulary plays a critical role in understanding reading materials in both L1 and L2 (Alderson, 2000; Goh, 2007; Joshi, 2005; Sidek, 2013; Qian, 2002; Ricketts et al., 2007). Research reveals that a firm mastery of target language vocabulary is crucial for academic reading performance (Harmon et al., 2006; Kelley et al., 2010; Qian, 2002). Several studies demonstrate that the threshold for reading comprehension is lexical (Golkar&Yamini, 2007; Kameli, 2013; Qian, 2004; Zhang & Annual, 2008). Reading and comprehending authentic texts requires knowledge of at least 95% of the vocabulary, which means one unknown word in every twenty running words (Adolphs& Schmitt, 2003; Hu & Nation, 2000; Laufer, 1992). As each word derives and contributes meaning from and for its context, learner’s vocabulary size is also a critical factor in successful guessing. According to Nation (2001), “Incidental learning via guessing is the most important of all sources of vocabulary learning.” (p. 232). However, Nation argues that unless the text is purposefully structured to provide clues for the meanings of unknown words, most guesses will not be 100% correct. The odds of accurately predicting a word’s meaning from written context is very low—ranging from 5 to 15% for both native English speakers and English language learners (Beck et al., 2002). According to Nation (2001), “Learning by guessing from context is a cumulative procedure by which learners gradually develop their knowledge of words.” (p. 234). Moreover, Folse (2004) and Laufer (1997) argue that L2 learners are not able to notice vocabulary through context, and, thus, do not learn new words when reading. Due to the insufficient nature of learning vocabulary solely through guessing, direct vocabulary learning has been proposed as a more viable alternative for lexical enrichment. Research has shown that when learners’ attention is explicitly focused on learning vocabulary, the uptake is stronger than in incidental learning (Hunt &Beglar, 2005; Laufer, 2005; Marzban&Kamalian, 2013; Schmitt et al., 2011). Explicit vocabulary learning and teaching includes a number of strategies. One of these is dictionary consultation. Knight (1994) found that learners who consulted a dictionary acquired more vocabulary in both immediate and long-term tests compared with students who did not. �3 Moreover, students with deficient vocabulary benefit the most from dictionary use (Huang&Eslami, 2013). The major reason for superior word retention following dictionary consultation is that noticing language is the prerequisite for acquisition (Schmidt, 2001). Therefore, looking up a word in the dictionary and identifying the correct definition calls more attention to the word, which increases the chances of lexical retention (Peters, 2007; Pulido, 2007). That being said and notwithstanding, looking up a new word in the dictionary should supplement the initial contextual inference rather than provide decontextualized meaning (Hayati & Fattahzadh, 2006; Huang & Eslami, 2013). Advocates of dictionary use suggest that teachers should encourage students to use a dictionary to find the precise meaning of an unfamiliar word in a specific context. Moreover, dictionary use needs to be selective, i.e. readers should check the meanings of words “that cannot be readily guessed from context and that are either useful to learn or relevant to the main points of the passage or the task at hand.”(Prichard, 2008, p. 220). Despite the remarkable utility of dictionary consultation for vocabulary learner, many studies addressing dictionary users’ behavior reported failed look-ups caused by insufficient dictionary skills of the learners(Chan, 2011; Laufer, 2010). This deficiency calls for the necessity to explicitly teach dictionary consultation skills as part of vocabulary instruction (Chan, 2011). Another vocabulary expansion strategy is familiarity with morphemes, i.e. knowledge of word formation. By recognizing the morphemes and deconstructing the new words into their constituent components learners of English are able to infer the meaning of unknown words and learn the novel lexical items (Larson et al., 2013; Mountain, 2005). The optimal efficacy of vocabulary learning strategies relies on theutilization of the student’s individual perceptual learning style. Learning style is “the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process, absorb, and retain new and difficult information.” (Dunn & Dunn as cited in Pashler et al, 2008, p. 107). Versatile learning style models and inventories have been created in the past few decades. Learning styles that seem to be the most relevant for vocabulary learning are visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile. Visual learning style refers to perceiving and retaining the word and its meaning by seeing. Students with auditory learning style rely on hearing the word pronounced, while kinesthetic and/or tactile learners experience with the word through touching and manipulation. �4 One of the most widely discussed vocabulary learning strategies associated with perceptual learning styles is the keyword method (Fritz et al, 2007; Guey & Chun-li, 2014). This approach, which is based on pictorial memory, was devised in 1970s to expand vocabulary. The keyword method comprises three strategies: First, an L1 or L2 word is chosen based on acoustic/orthographic similarity with the L2 target word. Second, a strong association between the target word and the keyword is constructed, so that the learner, when seeing or hearing the word is immediately reminded of the keyword. Third, a visual image is created combining the referents of the keyword and the target word, preferably in a bizarre fashion in order to increase its memorability. Since the mnemonic association is either phonemic or morphemic, this strategy might cater for both visual and auditory learners. Keyword method was proven effective for both immediate and delayed recall of L2 vocabulary (Atay & Ozbulgan, 2007; Sagarra & Alba, 2006; Shapiro & Waters, 2005). Aside from the use of strategies to promote learning and retention of new words, rich and varied exposure to the new vocabulary is vital (Lawrence, 2009; Nation, 2001). An average of ten repetitions is needed to learn novel words (Webb, 2007). According to Nation (2001), repetitions spread over a long period of time are more effective than massed repetitions at one time point. Vocabulary rehearsals should be spaced at increasingly larger intervals. Such spaced repetitions result in enhanced long-term word retention (Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 2000). 2. Vocabulary Instruction Model “I am so exhausted by looking up numerous words in the dictionary that I don’t have any energy for understanding the text and the questions”, reported a frustrated student in an EAP (English for Academic Purposes) course. College and university students in Israel need to be able to read and comprehend academic articles written in English both in the compulsory EAP courses and in the courses of their academic discipline. This requirement entails having enhanced knowledge of vocabulary in the target language. Unfortunately, many learners have insufficient lexical reservoir and are, thus, unable to adequately cope with written texts. Therefore, concerted pedagogical efforts are made to enlarge the vocabulary of the EAP learners. The emphasis in the EAP courses in the Israeli academia is on receptive vocabulary knowledge, i.e. the ability to understand a word when it is encountered in an academic article. The model outlined below is aimed at helping the English language learners increase their �5 vocabulary. Our model comprises several graded instructional stages targeted at assisting the student in comprehension, learning and retention of novel words. The vocabulary work is always contextual and is related to a particular academic article. Stage 1: Guessing in Context The student encounters a new word in the text and attempts to guess it applying the following guessing strategies: performing word structure analysis; determining the part of speech of the word; using context clues. For example, in the sentence “Two factors prevent settling the debate about whether to decriminalize drugs.” the learner performs word structure analysis dividing the word “decriminalize” into prefix, stem and suffixes (de-crimin-al-ize). In the sentence “The term globalization evokes strong positive and negative feelings.” The learner guesses the meaning of “evokes” using his knowledge of parts of speech as well as relying on contextual clues. Stage 2: Consulting a Dictionary However, as some words are not amenable to adequate understanding by means of guessing the reader needs to use a dictionary. Therefore, specific dictionary consultation strategies are taught to guarantee that it is used efficiently. These include: omitting the prefix and the inflectional suffix; deciding what part of speech the word is; choosing the meaning that suits the context; looking up the base form of the irregular verbs in passive/ in past form; looking up phrasal verbs and collocations.While guessing and dictionary consultation strategies facilitate the reader’s understanding of the unknown vocabulary, a different set of strategies is used to help the student learn and retain novel lexical items. Stage 3: Preparation for Word Learning After the student has attempted understanding the novel words using guessing and dictionary skills, the teacher helps him choose the most vital words to be learned. The student copies every novel word into his notebook along with its translation and part of speech in the particular context. In addition, he copies the sentence containing the new item. If possible, the learner creates a mnemonic association for the word and a picture illustrating the connection. This triple reference to the word guarantees a meaningful representation of the word in the learner’s “personal dictionary”. For example, Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs may cause poverty in the long-term. �6 -Poverty (n.) -‫עוני‬. Mnemonic device-Pavarotti. In this example the key word bears an auditory (as well as some visual) semblance to the target word. Sentence: Pavarotti used to live in poverty. Stage 4: Learning the Word Early on in the course the learner is introduced to the concept of learning styles. The learner receives a vocabulary-oriented learning styles questionnaire to help him determine his optimal manner of word learning and retention. The following word learning strategies are introduced: For visual learners: Read the word several times in its context; read the word from the notebook; perform word analysis; create a visual mnemonic association; use flashcards; hang posters containing the word. For auditory learners: listen to the word pronounced; say the word out loud; record yourself/ your teacher pronouncing the word and listen to it; devise an acoustic key word; sing the word. For tactile/kinesthetic learners: write the word several times; write the word with your finger in the air/ on your friend’s back etc.; prepare a flashcard containing the word; prepare a poster with the word; draw/find a funny picture illustrating the mnemonic association; jump/ jump rope/ tap the number of syllables the word contains. Stage 5: Vocabulary Reinforcement Exercises Since an average of ten repetitions spread over increasing time intervals is needed for the learner to retain the novel word in the long-term memory, the learner is repetitively exposed to the new vocabulary and experiences with it. The following lexical exercises are used in the classroom to guarantee sufficient exposure to the target words. In the first four types of exercises the new words are first used in the familiar context of the article read and later applied to a new context. 1) Word completion exercise with or without word bank; 2) Sentence continuation exercise; 3) Question answering exercise- the learner is presented with questions containing the target vocabulary and needs to answer them either in English or Hebrew; 4) Sentence/ paragraph �7 translation exercises; 5) Synonyms/ antonyms exercises 6) Writing independent sentences containing the new words; 7) Vocabulary games. In addition to vocabulary reinforcement exercises, vocabulary quizzes are given on a weekly basis. Vocabulary testing ensures that the learner gets multiple repetitions of the target words while preparing for the quiz as well as provides an indication for the teacher which words have been internalized and which ones need further attention. Lexical exercises and quizzes are cumulative, i.e. once the novel words have been given a sufficient independent emphasis they are repeated together with previously learned lexis. 3. Conclusion The graded vocabulary instruction model may be successfully integrated in versatile pedagogical frameworks aimed at lexical expansion. The model may be easily implemented both in the EAP classrooms around the globe and by independent academic readers. In addition, it can be adapted for other educational settings such as profession-oriented institutions, immigrant courses and school English courses by adding a productive lexical component. References Adolphs, S., & Schmitt, N. (2003). Lexical coverage of spoken discourse. Applied Linguistics, 24, 425-438. Alderson, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Atay, D., &Ozbulgan, C. (2007). Memory strategy instruction, contextual learning and ESP vocabulary recall. English for Specific Purposes,26 (1), 39-51. August, D., Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. (2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20, 50-57. Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., &Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruction. New York: Guilford Press. Chan, A. Y. W. (2011). The use of monolingual dictionary for meaning determination by advanced Cantonese ESL learners in Hong Kong. Applied Linguistics, 33, 1-27. Folse, K. S. (2004). Myths about teaching and learning second language vocabulary: What recent �8 research says.TESL Reporter, 37 (2),1-13. Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., Acton, M., Voelkel, A. R., &Etkind, R. (2007). Comparing and combining retrieval practice and the keyword mnemonic for foreign language learning. Journal of Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 499-526. Goh, H. S. (2007). The effects of think-aloud in a collaborative environment to improve comprehension of L2 texts.The Reading Matrix,7 (2), 29-45. Golkar, M., &Yamini, M. (2007). Vocabulary, proficiency and reading comprehension.The Reading Matrix, 7 (3), 88-112. Guey, C., & Chun-li, C. (2014). Learning styles and keyword association variations on vocabulary retention.British Journal of Education, Society and Behavioral Science, 4 (1), 19-33. Harmon, J. M., Hedrick, W. B., & Wood, K. D. (2006). Research on vocabulary instruction in the content areas: Implications for struggling readers.Reading and Writing Quarterly, 21, 261-280. Hayati, M., &Fattahzadh, A. (2006). The effect of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries on vocabulary recall and retention of EFL learners. The Reading Matrix, 6(2), 125-134. Hiebert, E., &Kamil, M. (2005). Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Huang, S., &Eslami, Z. (2013). The use of dictionary and contextual guessing strategies for vocabulary learning by advanced English-language learners.English Language and Literature Studies, 3 (3), 1-7. Hunt, A., &Beglar, D. (2005). A framework for developing EFL reading vocabulary.Reading in a Foreign Language,17(1), 23-59. Joshi, R. M. (2005). Vocabulary: A critical component of comprehension.Reading & Writing Quarterly,21, 209-219. Kameli, S. (2013). The impact of vocabulary knowledge level on EFL reading comprehension. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature,2 (1), 85-89. Kelley, J. G., Lesaux. N. K., Kieffer, M. J., & Faller, S. E. (2010). Effective academic vocabulary instruction in the urban middle school.The Reading Teacher,64, 5-14. Knight, S. (1994). Dictionary use while reading: The effects on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition for students of different verbal abilities.The Modern Language Journal, 78, �9 285-298. Koda, K. (2005).Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Larson, L., Dixon, T., & Townsend, D. (2013). How can teachers increase classroom use of academic vocabulary? Voices from the Middle,20 (4), 16-21. Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don’t know,words you think you know, and words you can’t guess.” In J. Coady& T. Huckin(Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). England: Cambridge UP. Laufer, B. (2002). How much lexis is necessary for reading comprehension? In J. Coady& T. Huckin (Eds.),Vocabulary and applied linguistics (pp.126-132). London: Macmillan. Laufer, B. (2005). Focus on form in second language vocabulary learning. In S. H. Foster Cohen, M. P. Garcia-Mayo & J. Cenoz (Eds.),EUROSLA Yearbook, 5(pp. 223-250). Benjamins. Laufer, B. (2010|). The Contribution of dictionary use to the production and retention of collocations in a second language.International Journal of Lexicography,24, 29-49. Lawrence, J. (2009). Summer reading: Predicting adolescent word learning from aptitude, time spent reading, and text type.Reading Psychology, 30(5), 445–465. Marzban, A., &Kamalian, K. (2013). Effects of implicit versus explicit vocabulary instruction on intermediate EFL learner’s vocabulary knowledge. ELT Voices-India International Journal,3 (6), 84-95. Mountain, L. (2005). Rooting out meaning: more morphemic analysis for primary pupils.The Reading Teacher, 58, 742-749. Nation, I.S.P. (2001).Learning vocabulary in another language. New York: Newbury House Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning styles: Concepts and evidence.Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105–119. Peters, E. (2007). Manipulating L2 learners’ online dictionary use and its effect on L2 word retention.Language Learning &Technology, 11, 36–58. Prichard, C. (2008). Evaluating L2 readers’ vocabulary strategies and dictionary use.Reading in a Foreign Language, 20 (2), 216-231. Pulido, D. (2007). The relationship between text comprehension and second language incidental �10 vocabulary acquisition: A matter of topic familiarity?Language Learning, 57, 155–199. Qian, D. D. (2002). Investigating the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and academic reading performance: an assessment perspective.Language Learning, 52 (3), 513-536. Qian, D. D. (2004). Establishing parameters for assessing vocabulary. Language Assessment Quarterly,1 (1), 57-61. Rickets, J., Nation, K., &Bishop, D. (2007). Vocabulary is important for some, but not all reading skills.Scientific Studies of Reading, 11 (3), 235-257. Sagarra, N., & Alba, M. (2006). The key is in the keyword: L2 learning vocabulary learning methods with beginning learners of Spanish. The Modern Language Journal,90, 228243. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3-32). Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Schmitt, N., Jiang, X., &Grabe, W. (2011). The percentage of words known in a text and reading comprehension.Modern Language Journal, 95 (1), 26-43. Shapiro, A. M., & Waters, D. L. (2005). An investigation of the cognitive processes underlying the keyword method of foreign vocabulary learning.Language Teaching Research,9 (2), 129-146. Sidek, H. M. (2013). A cross-linguistic study on vocabulary knowledge and second language reading comprehension performance.Frontiers of Language and Teaching,4, 178-185. Wang, A.Y., & Thomas, M.H. (1995). Effect of keywords on long-term retention: help or hindrance? Journal of Educational Psychology, 87, 468-75. Zhang, L. G.,& Annual, S. B. (2008). The role of vocabulary in reading comprehension: The case of secondary school students learning English in Singapore.RELC Journal,39, 51-76. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2890 Title A name given to the resource VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION MODEL AS A FOUNDATION FOR READING ACADEMIC ARTICLES IN THE ISRAELI ACADEMIA Author Author Slabodar, Ira Gordishevsky, Galina Abstract A summary of the resource. A firm mastery of target language vocabulary is crucial for academic reading performance. Therefore, teachers should equip learners with tools that would help them understand and learn lexical items.To this end, we propose a graded instructional model, which combines strategies for decoding the meaning of novel words as well as learning and retaining them. In order to understand an unfamiliar word a student is encouraged to either guess it or consult a dictionary. Following lexical deciphering, the teacher assists the student in selecting the most frequent and useful words to be learnt. The learning process requires explicit focus on novel words. First, the learner copies the new word into his notebook alongside its dictionary definition and the context it was used in. Next, the student creates a keyword association which helps him retain the word. The learner then attempts to learn it using his preferred perceptual learning style. Since long-term retention of vocabulary requires multiple repetitions in varied contexts spaced at increasingly larger intervals, the teacher provides the learner with plentiful opportunities at novel vocabulary reinforcement. In addition, testing vocabulary progress guarantees further encounters with the target words. The graded vocabulary instruction model may be successfully integrated in versatile pedagogical frameworks aimed at lexical expansion. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4e9e89ef3370f32d5dbdb24caf40acc6.pdf 2e37532ef6a51ad7e09e5efa6a3aa2a1 PDF Text Text CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS AND THEIR CORRESPONDENTS IN ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Jeta Rushidi South East European University, Macedonia Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 23.06.2015 Abstract Contrastive analysis or contrastive linguistics is related to the field of applied contrastive studies which predicts and clarifies the difficulties in the process of second language acquisition. It is also claimed that a comparison of different levels between the mother tongue and the target language (phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis, culture) would identify points of difference or difficulty and provide results that would be important in language teaching. This paper aims at describing and analyzing the similarities, dissimilarities, and identities between the English and Albanian compounds by form and meaning. Considering the fact that the dissimilarities are the main cause of difficulty in the learning of the second language or a foreign language, the paper will look at the most common errors Albanian university students make whilst translating compounds from Albanian to English and vice versa. The research presents a combined methodological design, both quantitative and qualitative approach. Correspondingly, English and Albanian grammar books were used as the primary sources in this contrastive study. The research also included the conducting of a test run questionnaire and the subsequent analysis of its results. Consequently, the results gave some insightful ideas or indications regarding implications in teaching and learning compounds in an ELT context. Key words: contrastive analysis, compounds, English, Albanian, EFL. 1 �1. Introduction Contrastive analysis (CA) has been firstly introduced by Charles Fries in (1952), and fully described by Lado in his book Linguistics across Cultures (1957). Contrastive analysis is a systematic branch of applied linguistics which deals with the linguistic description of the structure of two or more different languages. Despite the fact that there are ‘linguistic universals’ shared among languages (Lado,1957:239) i.e. all languages have something in common. It is also claimed that this comparison would identify points of difference or difficulty and provide results that would be important in language teaching. Compounding is a universal word formation device (Libben, 2006), but different languages make use of compounding to different extents. However, compounding as a word formation process is one of the most productive processes in both English and Albanian language. This paper will contribute to: the theoretical linguistics, to the general theory of contrastive linguistics, to the development of contrastive studies in Albanian. Moreover, from a practical view, it aims to facilitate the teaching and the learning process of compounds. 2. Previous Studies Much research has been conducted on morphological contrastive analysis between English and Albanian language. Researchers have come up with appealing findings and useful suggestions regarding methodological implications in teaching English lexis to EFL students. Shqerra, N & Shqerra, E (2015) examine the role of derivation and compounding in the process of English language acquisition and claim the following: Since each language has its own characteristics, there are always differences, which hamper the foreign language acquisition. In such cases, theory and practice should be considered necessary for students. Consequently, additional focus should be given especially to derivational rules (p.117). Kurani & Muho (2014) compare English and Albanian compounds in terms of their plural form. Based on their analysis, it is found that the plural of compound nouns in Albanian language is formed by changing only the second part of the compound nouns, by changing only the first part of the compound nouns, and by unchanging form in the plural (the same as the 2 �singular). Nevertheless, the majority of English compound nouns have one basic head, with which they end, and are pluralized in typical way in English. Additionally, a compound that has one head, with which it begins, usually pluralizes its head. Furthermore, two-headed compounds in which the first head has a standard plural form, however, tend to pluralize only the final head (p.33). The first written document in Albanian is Meshari i Gjon Buzukut in 1555. The lack of materials regarding Albanian language has made it difficult to tell about the first time compounds have been used and noticed in this language. Correspondingly, compounding as a word formation process has been analyzed relatively late in Albanian grammar books. However, Kostallari (1972) has come up with a list of 17 compound nouns from the period 1304 – 1431. Compounding is one of the most productive word formation processes in English and Albanian. In both languages, compounding is almost present in all parts of speech. Sherko (2014) in her study, based on the statistical results, concludes that there is a difference in terms of productivity. The statistical difference between the productivity of compounds is the following: Albanian language consists of 11.8 % compounds whereas English consists of 4.48%. So the number of compounds in Albanian is higher than in English. This analysis is conducted by analyzing two dictionaries. The Albanian dictionary analyzed is Fjalori i Gjuhës së Sotme Shqipe (1980) consisted of 41.000 words and the English dictionary analyzed is Oxford Student’s Dictionary (OSD) consisted of 41.000-40.000 words. 3. Present Study The theoretical approach consisted of form and meaning was appropriate for this research work since patterns of compounds can be expressed in different forms and have different meanings between these two languages. For instance, patterns of English adjective compounds (noun + adjective & adverb + adjective) can correspond to adverb compounds in Albanian language. The empirical approach consisted of conducting a test run questionnaire where EFL students were asked to identify patterns of given compounds and translate them from English to Albanian and vice versa. 3 �3.1. Research Questions 1. Are there similarities, dissimilarities and identities between English and Albanian compounds by manner of formation? 2. Are there similarities, dissimilarities and identities between English and Albanian compounds by meaning? 3. Which are the most common errors EFL students make whilst identifying patterns of compounds and translating them from English to Albanian and vice versa? 3.2. Participants Twenty-six EFL university students from the Law Faculty at South East European University (SEEU) in Tetovo - Macedonia participated in this study. They all attended English for Specific Purposes 2 – Legal Studies at the Language Center at SEEU. 3.3. Instruments The instruments used were Albanian and English Grammar Books, a test run questionnaire on English compounds (Appendix A), and a test run questionnaire on Albanian compounds (Appendix B). 3.4. The Procedure The procedure conducted for the data collection regarding the 1st and 2nd research question The primary sources (grammar books) were used in order to provide a description on compounding in English and in Albanian. Patterns of compounds consisted of two roots were listed only. Afterwards, a morphological analysis was conducted by comparing and contrasting the two languages in order to detect the similarities, dissimilarities, and identities between the classification of compounds in these two languages. The procedure conducted for the data collection regarding the 3rd research question The first test run questionnaire conducted for the third research question consisted 26 compounds in English (see Appendix A). Students were asked to translate the English 4 �compounds in Albanian and they were required to classify the English compounds according to their components to the given patterns. The second test run questionnaire conducted for the third research question consisted of 26 compounds in Albanian (see Appendix B). Students were asked to translate the Albanian compounds into English and classify the Albanian compounds according to their components to the given patterns. 4. Analysis and Discussion of the Findings 4.1 Findings Contributing to the Research Question 1 & 2 Results regarding the similarities, dissimilarities and identities between English (Jackson, Ze Amwela, 2005:79-85) and Albanian (Sherko, 2014:65-84; 138-185; Albanian Language Grammar 1, 2002) compounds by manner of formation and meaning are the following: The classification of English patterns The classification of Albanian patterns of of noun compounds noun compounds 1.Noun + Noun: 1.Noun + Noun: ash-tray, arm-chair, test-book bukëpjekes, kryeparlamentar, kryeministër, 2. Verb + Noun: 2. Verb + Noun: dare-devil, pick-pocket No case 3. Adjective +Noun: 3. Adjective +Noun: black-bird, blue-collar, hard-cover bukurshkrim, mirëmëngjes, 4. Adverb + Noun: 4. Adverb + Noun: after-thought, back-talk, down-grade. nënkryetar, nëntoke, drejtshkrim Table 1. Comparison of the classification of English and Albanian noun compounding patterns After the detailed comparative and contrastive analysis conducted in terms of the formation of noun compounds, English and Albanian grammar are similar/identical regarding the following compounding patterns: N+N (1), Aj + N (3), Adv + N (4) however they are different in terms of V + N compounds (2). It means that the pattern V + N does not exist in Albanian 5 �language as a noun compound pattern because noun compounds are not formed by joining a verb and a noun in Albanian language. Regarding verb compounds, English and Albanian grammars are similar/identical regarding the following compounding patterns: N+V (5), V + V (6), AJ + V (7), and Aj + V (8). There are no dissimilarities in terms of manner of formation between English and Albanian verb compounds: The classification of English patterns of The classification of Albanian patterns verb compounds of verb compounds 5. Noun +Verb: 5. Noun +Verb: baby-sit, brain-wash, house-keep Buzeqesh 6. Verb + Verb: 6. Verb + Verb: dive-bomb, drop-kick Shtypshkruaj 7. Adjective + Verb: 7. Adjective + Verb: dry-clean, sweet-talk, white-wash keqkuptoj, mirëkuptoj, keqadministroj 8. Adverb + Verb: 8. Adverb + Verb: down-grade, over-do bashkëbisedoj, mbingarkoj, nënvlerësoj Table 2. Comparison of the classification of English and Albanian verb compounding patterns In terms of adjective compounds (Table.3), English and Albanian grammars are similar/identical regarding the following compound patterns: N + Aj (9), V + Aj (10), Aj + Aj (11), and Av + Aj (12). It is worth of emphasizing that both languages do not have the pattern V + Aj in forming verb compounds whereas the three other patterns are present in both languages. The classification of English patterns of The classification of Albanian patterns adjective compounds of adjective compounds 9. Noun +Adjective: 9. Noun +Adjective: earth-bound, ox-eyed, sea-sick syzi, mjekërzi, zemërmirë, shpirtmirë, 10. Verb + Adjective: 10. Verb + Adjective: No case No case 6 �11. Adjective + Adjective: 11. Adjective + Adjective: blue-green, metallic-green, south-west shqiptaro-amerikan, kërkimor-shkencor 12. Adverb + Adjective: 12. Adverb + Adjective: near-sighted, off-white gjysmështrire, gjysmëfjetur, bashkëlidhur Table 3. Comparison of the classification of English and Albanian adjective compounding patterns Regarding adverb compounds (Table 4), there is one similarity only. The pattern Av + Av (16) is noticed in both languages whereas Aj + Av (15) does not exist in both languages as a pattern. However, the differences between these two languages is the one of N + Av (13) which does not exist in English but it exists in Albanian language. Moreover, the pattern V + Av = N (14) is present in English whereas does not exist in Albanian language: The classification of English The classification of Albanian patterns of patterns of adverb compounds adverb compounds 13. Noun +Adverb: 13. Noun +Adverb: No case gojehapur, balleçelur 14. Verb + Adverb= Noun: 14. Verb + Adverb= Noun: drive-in , lift-off No case 15. Adjective + Adverb: 15. Adjective + Adverb: No case No case 16. Adverb + Adverb: 16. Adverb + Adverb: in-to, through-out gjysmemajtas, gjysmeshtrire, gjysmefjetur, Table 4. Comparison of the classification of English and Albanian patterns adverb compounding patterns After presenting the similarities and dissimilarities between English and Albanian compounding patterns by form, it can be noted that in terms of meaning, English and Albanian compounding patterns such as N+N and Aj + Aj are noticed to be similar and identical whereas the rest are dissimilar between these two languages. This can be seen in Appendix A, Part I and Appendix B, Part I where the correct answers are highlighted in grey. 7 �4.2 Findings contributing to the 3rd research question Results regarding the most common errors EFL students make whilst identifying patterns of English compounds ((Appendix A, Part I) where the correct answers are highlighted in grey) and translating them from English to Albanian (see Appendix A, Part II) show that the most common errors made by students regarding the classification are made with these patterns: N+ N, V +N, V+V, Aj + V, Aj + Aj, Aj+ V, Av +V, Aj + Av. However, in terms of translation, the pattern V + Av = Noun is mostly incorrectly translated. Results regarding the most common errors EFL students make whilst identifying patterns of Albanian English compounds ((Appendix B, Part I) where the correct answers are highlighted in grey) and translating them from English to Albanian (see Appendix B, Part II) imply that the most common errors made by students regarding the classification are made with these patterns: N+N, V+N, Aj + N, Av + N, N+V, Aj+ Aj, Av+ Aj, N+Av, Av + Av. However, in terms of translation, the errors are noticed in the following patterns: N+ Aj, N+Av , Aj + V, Av+V, and Aj+ N. 5. Conclusions This paper examined the similarities, dissimilarities and identities between English and Albanian compounding patterns and analyzed the mistakes that students make whilst translating and classifying the given compounds according to their components. The main findings of this research showed that the difference between English and Albanian in terms of the number of patterns is that there are 13 patterns of compounds in English whereas there are 12 patterns of compounds in Albanian. In terms of the similarities, dissimilarities and identities between English and Albanian compounds by manner of formation, it was concluded that the following patterns are similar in English and Albanian language: 1. N+ N 3.Aj +N 4. Av + N 5. N+V 8 �6. V + V 7. Aj + V 8. Av + V 9. N +Aj 11. Aj + Aj 12. Av+ Aj 16. Av + Av Whereas, the dissimilarities in terms of form are noticed in the following patterns: 2. V + N 13. N +Av: No case 14. V+ Av = Noun Regarding the similarities, dissimilarities and identities between English and Albanian compounds by meaning, it was concluded that the following patterns are similar in English and Albanian Language: 3. Aj +N 4. Av + N 8. Av+ V However, the dissimilarities in terms of meaning are noticed in the following patterns: 1. N + N 5. N +V 6. V + V 7. Aj + V 9. N +Aj 11. Aj + Aj The analysis regarding the most common errors EFL students make whilst identifying patterns of compounds and translating them from English to Albanian and vice versa show/imply that the most common errors made by students regarding the classification are made with these patterns: N+ N, V +N, V+V, Aj + V, Aj + Aj, Aj+ V, Av +V, Aj + Av, Aj + N, Av + N, 9 �N+V,Av+ Aj, N+Av, Av + Av. However, in terms of translation, the following patterns are mostly incorrectly translated: N+ Aj, N+Av , Aj + V, Av+V, Aj+ N, and V + Av = Noun. References: Akademia e Shkencave e Shqiperise,(2002). Instituti I gjuhesise dhe letersise. Gramatika e Gjuhes Shqipe 1. Kompozimi (70-73). Jackson, H., Ze Amwela, E., Words, Meaning and Vocabulary, An introduction to Modern English Lexicology, Continuum, 2005 (79-85) Kostallari, A. (1972). Parimet themelore për hartimin e “Fjalorit të gjuhës së sotme shqipe”, në “Studim e mbi leksikun dhe mbi formimin e fjalëve në gjuhën shqipe” II, Tiranë, 1972, f. 3. Kurani,A & Muho,A (2014). A morphological comparative study between Albanian and English language. European Scientific Journal. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Libben, Gary. (2006). Why study compound processing? In Libben, G, Jarema, Gonia (eds.), The representation and processing of compound nouns. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 1-22 Sherko, E (2014). Perngjitja, perberja, dhe lokucionet ne gjuhen shqipe dhe ne gjuhen angleze. . retrieved 05.29.2015, from file:///F:/Dokturatura-Esmeralda-Sherko-Fakulteti-i-Histori- Filologjise-Departamenti-i-Gjuhesise.pdfKostallari A., Mbi disa terma te klasifikimit te fjaleve sipas perberjes strukturore dhe sipas fjaleformimit, ne: Studime Filologjike 1/1972 (65-84; 138185). Shqerra, N & Shqerra, E (2015). The Role of Derivation and Compounding in the Process of English Language Acquisition. Journal of Educational and Social Research MCSER Publishing, Rome-Italy Vol. 4 No.2 April 2014.p.117 10 �Appendices Appendix A Part I. Classify the English compounds according to their components 7 3 1 4 3 4 6 2 5 7 5 2 1 5 Liftoff Southwest Seasick Bluegreen Earthbound Overdo 1 22 7 18 1 1 2 3 2 2 6 1 1 13 2 3 5 3 10 6 Whitewash 3 5 14 26 Dryclean 4 20 19 21 Backtalk Afterthought Hardcover Bluecollar 6 23 2 1 Blackbird Pickpocket Dropkick Divebomb Housekkep 6 20 26 6.V + V 7.Aj+ V Brainwash 5 3 5.N+V 8.Av + V Babysit 22 1 4.Av + N Testbook Throughout Into 25 2.V+ N 3.Aj +N Offwhite 25 Nearsighted 1.N + N Armchair Student classification of English Compounds Ashtray Appendix A 13 1 6 3 4 19 9.N +Aj 19 18 5 10.V+ Aj = No case 11.Aj + Aj 2 12.Av + Av 7 2 15 13 5 18 4 4 13.N +Avb =No case 2 3 14.V + Av= Noun 2 15.Aj + Av= No case 2 2 5 16.Av+ Av 2 24 13 17 1 3 1 11 �Part II. Translate the English compounds into Albanian language. English Compounds Students’ translation in Albanian 1. ash-tray (N + N) 1.tavëll,shpuzore, 2. arm-chair (N+ N) 2. kolltuk 3. near-sighted (Av + Aj) 3. miop,shkurtpamës 4. off-white ( Av + Aj) 4, i/e përhimte,ngjyrë qumshti 5. in-to (Av + Av) 5. në 6. through-out (Av + Av) 6.gjate, përmes, 7. test-book N+ N 7.libër testesh 8. baby-sit N + V 8.kujdesem per femije, 9. brain-wash N + V 9. ndërroj pikëpamjen e dikujt/larje truri 10.house-keep N + V 10.mirëmbajtje shtëpie 11. dive-bomb V + V 11.hedhje e bombës nga lartë, bombë pikiate, 12. drop-kick V + V 12 goditje,shkelmos 13. pick-pocket V + N 13. xhepist,vjedhje xhepash 14. black-bird Aj + N 14. korb, zog i zi, mellenjë, 15. blue-collar Aj + N 15. jakë e kaltërt 16. hard-cover Aj + N 16.kopertinë e fortë 17. after-thought Av + N 17. mendim i mëvonshëm,rishqyrtim,pishman 18. back-talk Av + N 18. flas prapa shpine, përgojoj 19. dry-clean Aj + V 19. pastrim kimik, pastrim I thate, pa ujë 20. white-wash Aj + V 20. zbardh, fshehja e te këqijave, 21. over-do Av + V 21.teproj 22. earth-bound N +Aj 22.tokësor, 23. sea-sick N +Aj 23. semundje deti, 24. blue-green Aj +Aj 24.e kaltert në te gjelbert 25. south-west Aj +Aj 25. jugperëndim 12 �26. lift-off V + Av = Noun compound 26.nisje, ngritje, Appendix B 1.N + N 6 3 2.V+ N 1 2 3.Aj +N 1 1 1 3 1 3 1 4 2 3 5 5 1 23 3 1 1 3 18 18 16 16 15 16 1 18 12 6 2 5 10 15 2 9 17 7 3 3 1 23 7 1 11 2 3 Gjysmëmajtas Bashkëlidhur 2 1 1 1 1 4 3 4 1 3 3 3 1 17 8 3 1 5 10.V+ Aj = No case 1 11.Aj + Aj 1 3 1 2 1 12.Av + Aj 3 9 1 13.N+Av 4 4 2 15.Aj + Av= No case 3 3 1 3 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 3 14.V + Av= Noun 16.Av + Av 3 1 3 15 Gjysmëfjetur 3 1 3 Kërkimor-shkencor Syzi 4 3 12 2 Shtypshkruaj Buzëqesh Drejtshkrim Nëntoke Nënkryetar Mirëmengjes Bukurshkrim Hekurudhë Bregdet 10 21 3 8.Av + V 9.N+Aj Frymëmarrje 3 6.V + V 7.Aj+ V Kryeminister Nënvlerësoj Mbingarkoj 14 3 1 4 Bashkëbisedoj 22 4.Av + N 5.N+V Mirëkuptoj Shqiptaro-amerikan Kokëfortë Shpirtmire Zemërmire Gojehapur Student classification of Albanian Compounds Keqkuptoj Part I. Classify the Albanian compounds according to their components 4 4 2 1 4 1 2 4 1 3 7 1 3 9 7 13 �Part II. Translate the Albanian compounds into English. Albanian compounds Students’ translation in English 1. keqkuptoj Aj+v 1. misunderstand 2. gojehapur N+Aj, n+av 2. 3. zemermire N+Aj, 3. generous/goodhearted/kindhearted 4. shpirtmire N+Aj 4. kind soul/good soul/ 5. kokeforte N+Aj 5. stuborn 6. shqiptaro-amerikan aj + aj 6. albanian-american 7. mirekuptoj aj + v 7. understand/well understand 8. chit chat/have a conversation/co- 8. bashkebisedoj av + v conversation 9. mbingarkoj av + v 9. overload 10. nenvleresoj av + v 10. underestimate/discredit 11. kryeminister n+n 11. primeminister 12. frymemarrje n+ n 12. breathing 13. bregdet n+n 13. seashore/coast/bay 14. hekurudhe n+ n 14. railway 15. calligraphy/good writing/penmaship 15. bukurshkrim aj + n 16. miremengjes aj + n 16. good morning 17. nenkryetar adv + n 17. viceprecident 14 �18. nentoke av + n 18. underground 19. drejtshkrim adv + n 19. orthography/right writing/correct spelling 20. buzeqesh n+v 20. smile 21. shtypshkruaj v + v 21. type/written press/typewriting 22. syzi N+Adj 22. black eyed 23. kerkimor-shkencor Aj + Aj 23. scientific-research 24. gjysmefjetur Av+ Aj,Av+ Av 24. half asleep 25. bashkelidhur Av+ Aj, Av+ Av 25. bounded/attached/annexed 26 gjysmemajtas Av+ Av 26. half left/half on the left 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2892 Title A name given to the resource CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS AND THEIR CORRESPONDENTS IN ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Author Author Rushidi, Jeta Abstract A summary of the resource. Contrastive analysis or contrastive linguistics is related to the field of applied contrastive studies which predicts and clarifies the difficulties in the process of second language acquisition. It is also claimed that a comparison of different levels between the mother tongue and the target language (phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis, culture) would identify points of difference or difficulty and provide results that would be important in language teaching. This paper aims at describing and analyzing the similarities, dissimilarities, and identities between the English and Albanian compounds by form and meaning. Considering the fact that the dissimilarities are the main cause of difficulty in the learning of the second language or a foreign language, the paper will look at the most common errors Albanian university students make whilst translating compounds from Albanian to English and vice versa. The research presents a combined methodological design, both quantitative and qualitative approach. Correspondingly, English and Albanian grammar books were used as the primary sources in this contrastive study. The research also included the conducting of a test run questionnaire and the subsequent analysis of its results. Consequently, the results gave some insightful ideas or indications regarding implications in teaching and learning compounds in an ELT context. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/417b5d28379477c5c25e2c929d0909c6.pdf 2f03371545e7eb0bb9cd0e36a1ec30a4 PDF Text Text ADULT L2 ACQUISITION OF REFLEXIVE VERBS IN RUSSIAN AND POLISH A.V. Peeters-Podgaevskaja & Alicja Verhagen University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Article History: Submitted: 07.06.2015 Accepted: 21.06.2015 Abstract From previous research, perceptual saliency and morphophonological and morphosyntactic regularity significantly contribute to a successful acquisition of morphemes (Goldschneider & DeKeyser 2001). This pilot study investigates if and to what extent these features are predictors in the acquisition of reflexive verbs in adult L2 Polish and Russian. Despite these languages being closely related, their reflexive verbs differ dramatically. Polish uses a particle siẹ that has a high sonority value and can be freely placed in a sentence. Russian uses a reflexive affix which is placed directly after the finite verb ending and has two phonetically reduced variants -sja and -s’ that depend on the phonological context. In this pilot study, we hypothesized that i) perceptual saliency (understood as higher sonority and a prominent position in a sentence) facilitated perception and sentence repetition; ii) morphosyntactic regularity and predictability positively affected written production. Two groups of Dutch first-year students learning Russian and Polish respectively as L2 at the University of Amsterdam were recruited. Russian and Polish native speakers served as controls. In order to test perception/comprehension and (re)production of reflexive verbs in L2, a sentence repetition task (SRT) was used. The task consisted of 15 target sentences and 10 distractors for each language (syllable length: 17–22), and was administered in e-prime. The sentence position of the target structure and semantic categories of reflexive verbs were controlled. In order to test written production, a sentence translation task (STT) was developed that contained 15 Dutch items. For the controls, accuracy in both tasks was at ceiling. The Dutch-L2 groups performed significantly worse. The accuracy scores on target structures in SRT were better in Polish (61% vs. 40%). In the STT, the Russian L2 students outperformed the Polish L2 participants (84% vs. 58%). The results of this study support the idea that perceptual saliency and morphophonological uniformity affect perception and 1 �(re)production, while morphosyntactic regularity and predictability (boundness) is relevant for written production. 1. Introduction L2 acquisition of reflexive verbs in the Slavic languages is a challenging issue, given the fact that there is much more variation in form and meaning as compared to languages, such as English, German, or French. From teaching experience we know that acquisition of reflexive verbs is problematic in bilingual children as well as in adult foreign language learners. However, it is not yet clear which properties slow down or even impede a successful learning process. It takes sometimes years before the most basic reflexive verbs are acquired, and even highly proficient Slavic L2 learners still have difficulty with automatized production of target verbs: reflexive markers are frequently omitted when needed, or added to verbs when dispensable and redundant. 2. Reflexivity in Slavic languages According to the most recent classification of reflexive verbs (Knjazev 2007: 260), the Slavic languages are dealing with two types of reflexivity: heavy reflexivity expressed by means of reflexive personal pronouns (sebja or siebie ‘oneself’); and light reflexivity coded by reflexive particles and affixes. Reflexive affixes which are placed directly after a finite verb ending (bound morphemes) are characteristic for the East-Slavic languages, whereas reflexive clitic particles (free morphemes) occur in other Slavic languages. Moreover, all reflexive verbs can be divided into two major groups of Subject reflexives and Object reflexives (Knjazev 2007: 265). Subject reflexives are connected to the notion of agentivity which always involves causation and volition. Object reflexives lack the idea of a willing causer with his energy, control and intentions, and are hence related to inanimate objects, processes etc. Within these two groups Knjazev (2007: 268-297) distinguishes ten semantic categories which are not necessarily present in all Slavic languages. The Subject reflexive verbs contain proper reflexives (co-referential), reciprocal, possessive, causative, absolutive and autocausative reflexives, whereas the Object reflexive verbs include decausative, conversive, modal quasi-passive and passive reflexives. Next to it, there are different impersonal reflexive constructions which remain beyond the scope of this paper. As concerns the relationship between reflexive verbs and verbs they are originally derived from, two groups can be distinguished: reflexiva tantum (such as bojat’sja ‘to be scared’ or skitat’sja ‘to wander’ in Russian), and motivated reflexive verbs that are formed on 2 �the basis of transitive counterparts by adhering a reflexive marker (sometimes together with a prefix) that creates a new meaning, which can be either transparent (consider vstrečat’ ‘to meet’ and vstrečat’sja ‘to meet each other’, or myt’ ‘to wash’ and myt’sja ‘to wash oneself’ in Russian), or idiomatic (e.g. naxodit’ ‘to find’ and naxodit’sja ‘to be situated’, or torgovat’ ‘to deal/trade in’ and torogovat’sja ‘to bargain’ in Russian). A combination of grammatically marked reflexivity and new semantics causes difficulty in learning process. 2.1 Reflexivity in Polish and Russian Although the semantic range of reflexive categories in Russian and Polish show considerable overlap, they are not identical. Moreover, morphological coding of reflexivity in both languages is completely different. First of all, there is no passive reflexivity in Polish. Therefore, Russian sentences as exemplified in (1) have no Polish equivalents: 1) Dom stroitsja izvestnym arxitektorom. house build-PRS-3SG-REFL famous-INSTR architect-INSTR ‘This house is being built by a well-known architect.’ Secondly, reciprocity is insufficiently distinctive in Polish. For example, verbs, such as bawić siȩ ‘to amuse oneself/each other’ or wynagrodzić siȩ ‘to award oneself/each other’, can be interpreted either as possessive reflexive or as reciprocal. Thirdly, the Polish particle siȩ is a free morpheme and can relatively freely move in the sentence. In contrast, the Russian affix -sja is a bound morpheme, and its position in the sentence is fixed which makes it syntactically more predictable. Finally, the Polish reflexive particle consists of one syllable with a nasal vowel that has a high sonority value (see Goldschneider & DeKeyser 2001: 22), while the Russian affix is always unstressed and has a smaller phonetic substance by virtue of the post-tonic vowel reduction of /ja/ to a schwa or even to a zero phoneme in certain finite forms.1 Thus, the Russian reflexive affix has two phonetically weak allomorphs (-sja [s’ә] occurring after consonants, and -s’ [s’] after vowels),2 whereas the Polish siȩ is morphophonologically regular and salient. 3. The current study 3.1 Research goals and predictions Previous research has shown that perceptual saliency, morphophonological regularity, morphosyntactic predictability, semantic complexity, and frequency significantly contribute 3 �to a successful acquisition of morphemes (Goldschneider & DeKeyser 2001). Although Polish and Russian are quite similar with respect to semantic categories and functions of reflexive verbs, they differ dramatically regarding perceptual saliency and morphosyntactic regularity and predictability of their reflexive markers. This study aims at determining whether or not the abovementioned features affect L2 acquisition of reflexive verbs, and if so, which linguistic tasks this concerns. In the study, we predicted that (i) perception and sentence repetition would be favored by higher sonority and morphophonological uniformity of the reflexive marker and by a prominent position of a reflexive verb in the sentence; (ii) morphosyntactic predictability of the reflexive marker would positively affect written production. 3.2 Method Subjects For this study, two groups of Dutch first-year students learning Russian (n=10) and Polish (n=6) respectively as L2 at the University of Amsterdam were recruited. Both groups were at the end of their first year (an intermediate level), had no previous knowledge of Russian or Polish, received the same amount of input and worked with comparable language courses. Russian (n=5) and Polish (n=5) native speakers were used as controls. Experimental tasks Two tasks were developed to test perception/comprehension and (re)production of reflexive verbs in L2. A sentence repetition task (SRT) was used to test perception and oral (re)production of reflexive verbs. In a paper-and-pencil translation task (STT) written production of reflexive verbs was tested. The choice of the SRT was determined by its high reliability as an indicator of overall language proficiency (see references in Marinis & Armon-Lotem 2015). If sentences are long enough to disallow ‘parroting’, participants must rely on their knowledge of lexicon and grammatical system to be able to repeat the sentences verbatim. Therefore, structures which are not fully acquired will not be reproduced. In our study, if the participants would have some trouble with perception and processing of verbal semantics, and the basic grammar was not automatized yet, it would be measurable in their responses. Because we needed to control for target structures, other types of tasks were not appropriate. In retelling, for instance, the students would be free to choose any structures they wanted and might make use of an avoidance strategy. 4 �Stimuli The items were selected from the study books used in the language courses, and controlled for semantics of the reflexive verbs: they must be frequent and belong to one of the following five semantic categories: proper reflexive, possessive, autocausative, decausative, and reciprocal. The SRT consisted of a set of 15 target sentences and 10 distractors for each language, and was administered in e-prime. All items were well-known and slightly adjusted with respect to syntactic complexity and sentence length varying between 17 and 22 syllables. The target structure was in the beginning, in the middle, or in the end of the sentence (as exemplified in 2-7). The Polish się was used in a pre-verbal (as in 5) and post-verbal position (as in 6-7), and with distant placement with respect to the main verb (as exemplified in 8). Russian items: 2) Ja poproščalsja s nej i povtoril obeščanie prislat’ ej I say.goodbye-PST-REFL with her and repeated promise send lekarstvo. her medicine ‘I said goodbye to her and repeated my promise to send the medicine to her.’ 3) Vozle školy naxoditsja nebol’šoj park attrakcionov. next.to school find-PRS-3SG-REFL small park amusements ‘A small amusement park is (situated) next to the school.’ 4) Esli ty if ne perestaneš’ rugat’ menja, ja obižus’. you not stop scold me I get.offended-PRS-1SG-REFL ‘If you don’t stop with scolding me, I will get offended.’ Polish items: 5) Kiedy się when REFL poznaliśmy, miała długie warkocze i meet-PST-1PL had long różową sukienkę. hair braids and pink dress ‘When we met each other she had long hair braids and a pink dress on.’ 6) Zamykam oczy, kiedy już I.closed chcę położyć eyes when already I.want lie.down-INF ‘I close my eyes when I want to go asleep and przytulić się do ciebie cuddle-INF to you REFL to cuddle with you.’ 5 się spać i REFL sleep and �7) W tej sytuacji radzę wyjechać do domu i in that situation rather depart nie martwić się to house and not worry-INF studiami. REFL lessons ‘In this situation you should rather go home and should not worry about your study.’ 8) Chciałem się I.wanted REFL z najładniejszą japońską konkubiną żenić, with most.beautiful Japanese concubine marry-INF ‘I wanted to marry a beautiful Japanese concubine, to ona nie chciała. but she not wanted but she did not want to.’ In the STT, the participants were given ten Dutch target sentences and five distractors for each language. Every sentence contained five to seven content words. By virtue of the task we could not control for the position of the verb and the reflexive particle in the sentence. In order to avoid the effect of positive language transfer no Dutch reflexive equivalents were used that could be interpreted as a cue for reflexivity in the target language. Procedure For the SRT, each student was tested individually. Every sentence was played twice without any interval between two trials. Then, the students had to repeat what they heard. All coding for accuracy was done automatically in e-prime. Two practice items were administered to familiarize the students with the task and the electronic equipment. Including instructions and practice items, the task took approximately 20 minutes to administer. The STT was taken in a classroom setting. Before the test started, the students were given a list with all (both reflexive and non-reflexive) verbs used in the task. They had three minutes to refresh their knowledge of the target verbs, after that the list was withdrawn, and the students started with the translation task. The task took approximately 25 minutes. Accuracy scores were used as a measure of students’ ability to correctly perceive and (re)produce sentences and target structures. No reaction time was measured. 4. Results Sentence Repetition task For the controls, accuracy in both tasks was almost at ceiling, whereas both Dutch-L2 groups performed significantly lower. There was almost no difference observed between the two languages on full sentence repetition accuracy: 33% for Polish vs. 31% for Russian. Two 6 �thirds of the sentences were either not completed, or contained grammatical errors, or were repeated with omissions and lexical substitutions. In Russian, only 47 out of a total of 150 items were target-like repeated. In Polish, 30 out of 90 sentences were correctly reproduced. The results on target structure accuracy in the SRT were, however, higher: with an average of 57% in Polish vs. an average of 43% in Russian. Table 1 Position of the target structure in the sentence (SRT) Beginning target without verb other Middle target without End other target without other reflexive lexemes verb reflexive lexemes verb reflexive lexemes Russian 48% 0% 2% 49% 24% 2% 32% 4% 12% Polish 3% 3% 53% 0% 8% 44% 17% 11% 75% From table 1, the Polish L2 participants were much better in reproducing the target structure than the Russian L2 students. The Russian scores on the fronted position and the position in the middle of the sentence of the target structure were almost alike. In the middle of the sentence, however, the Russian L2 students attempted to repeat the verb stem, while forgetting the reflexive affix in 24% of all items. Thus, trying to capture the meaning they failed to reproduce the correct morphological form. In Polish, a clear decline of the scores was observed, with the highest score on fronted position, and the lowest on final position. Interestingly, the Polish L2 participants repeated the verb stem without reflexive particle in the end of the sentence considerably more often than the Russian L2 students did. As regards the position of the Polish reflexive się, a slight difference between the preverbal and post-verbal placement was observed. The distant placement caused more difficulty which led to many lexical substitutions (see table 2). Table 2 Position of the Polish reflexive się (SRT) 7 �Target verb Without reflexive Other lexemes Pre-verbal 60% 3% 7% Postverbal 64% 6% 0% Distant placement 54% 4% 17% Sentence Translation task In the STT, on the contrary, the Russian L2 students significantly outperformed the Polish L2 students on full sentence accuracy (77% vs. 15%), and scored much better on target structure accuracy (84% vs. 58%). 5. Discussion and conclusions In this pilot study, we investigated which linguistic properties could be seen as good predictors of accurate acquisition of reflexive verbs in Russian and Polish. We also investigated for which tasks these features could be of importance. The most striking outcome of the study was a very low score on full sentence repetition accuracy in both language groups. Some plausible explanations can be found for this fact. First, it might have to do with a relatively low proficiency of the students. Although the items were extracted from the learning materials which were extensively used in the course, the cognitive load of the task was obviously too high for this proficiency level. The knowledge of grammar and semantics was proceduralized but not automatized yet which led to a poor performance. Second, the mean length of sentences possibly exceeded the memory span of most students. While a mean utterance length (MUL) for young (bilingual) children is established between 7 to 13 syllables (Marinis & Armon-Lotem 2015), the information on a MUL for adult foreign language learners is contradictory (see Munnich, Flynn & Martohardjono 1994; Bley-Vroman & Chaudron 1994). We determined a MUL on our own that seemed to be too demanding for the participants involved. Third, poor performance might have to do with a lack of training in memorizing and recalling verbal information in a foreign language. These skills were not specifically trained during the course. Fourth, the participant’s own perception of the nature of the task cannot be excluded: some students tried to repeat as verbatim as possible, while other students probably tried to convey the approximate meaning only. When comparing the accuracy scores on target structures one can see that the results were certainly dependent on the position of the target verb in the sentence: fronted position 8 �facilitated accuracy. The students were able to recall the beginning of the sentence better than the end which is not so strange. However, this tendency was much more clear in Polish than in Russian. In Polish, the target structure in fronted position was perceived and reproduced in 75% of all responses, whereas in Russian only in 48%. Despite the lower scores on final position, the percentage of the target-like responses was still higher in Polish than in Russian, where final position in combination with reduction led to an extremely poor performance: the reflexive verb as given in (4) was reproduced only once. The distant placement of the Polish particle with respect to the main verb also affected the scores. The target structure as given in (8) was correctly reproduced only twice. However, the phonological context also played a role, as in Russian example (2). Despite the fronted position in the sentence, and because of consonant assimilation and contraction with the preposition s ‘with’, the target verb was correctly repeated only by one student. In contrast to Russian, an adjacent position of the reflexive particle and the preposition z ‘with’ had less effect on target structure accuracy in Polish. These facts can be explained by a higher sonority value of the reflexive particle się that was easier perceived than the Russian reduced affix -sja. Importantly, full sentence accuracy in the translation task was significantly higher in Russian than in Polish. The Russian L2 students were five times as good as their Polish L2 peers. Although the procedure was the same for both language groups, the Polish L2 students showed very poor proficiency in written skills which can partially be explained by insufficient practice. (This was also emphasized by the students themselves.) However, morpheme boundness and morphosyntactic predictability of reflexive verbs cannot be ignored. Russian verbs have to be learnt as one whole, while Polish verbs are seen as two words, whereby the grammatical marker is of less importance. Although we controlled for positive language transfer by avoiding Dutch reflexive verbs, negative language interference was observed. Posture verbs, decausative verbs, and reflexive verbs expressing emotions that correlated in Dutch to not-reflexive or ambitransitive verbs, or to a combination of a state verb with an adjective/a participle, repeatedly missed the reflexive marker in the STT. To conclude, the results of this pilot study support the idea that perceptual saliency, understood as a combination of phonetic substance and a prominent position in the sentence, and morphophonological uniformity are relevant in acquisition of morphemes with respect to perception and repetition, while morphosyntactic regularity and predictability are influential in written production. Still, we need more statistical power to confirm our observations. 9 �Endnotes 1 Russian is a stress-based language which has systematic vowel reduction in unstressed syllables. This concerns the vowels /a/, /o/, and /e/. In contrast, Polish has a fixed stress pattern on the penultimate syllable and no qualitative vowel reduction. 2 Moreover, the [s’] of -sja is incorporated into an affricate [c] after /t/ that is found in the palatalized infinitive suffix -t’ (borot’sja ‘to fight’) and in the non-palatalized -t of the 3 singular and plural forms (boretsja ‘he/she fights’, borjutsja ‘they fight’). This makes perception even more complex. References Bley-Vroman, R. & Chaudron, C. (1994). Elicited Imitation as a Measure of Second Language Competence. In E.E. Tarone, S.M. Gass & A.D. Cohen (Eds.), Research Methodology in Second Language Acquisition. Hillsdale – Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum, 245-261. Goldschneider, J.M. & DeKeyser, R.M. (2001). Explaining the “Natural Order of L2 Morpheme Acquisition” in English: A Meta-analysis of Multiple Determinants. Language Learning 51:1, 1-50. Knjazev, Ju.P. (2007). Grammatičeskaja semantika. Russkij jazyk v tipologičeskoj perspektive. Moscow: Jazyki slavjanskix kul’tur. Marinis, T. & Armon-Lotem, S. (2015). Sentence Repetition. In S. Armon-Lotem, J. de Jong & N. Meir (Eds.), Assessing Multilingual Children: Disentangling Bilingualism from Language Impairment. Bristol – Buffalo – Toronto: Multilingual Matters, 95-150. Munnich, E., Flynn, S. & Martohardjono, G. (1994). Elicited Imitation and Grammaticality Judgement Tasks: What They Measure and How They Relate to Each Other. In E.E. Tarone, S.M. Gass & A.D. Cohen (Eds.), Research Methodology in Second Language Acquisition. Hillsdale – Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum, 227-243. Verhagen, A.Z. (2014). T2 acquisitie van Poolse en Russische reflexieve werkwoorden. MA thesis, University of Amsterdam. 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2883 Title A name given to the resource ADULT L2 ACQUISITION OF REFLEXIVE VERBS IN RUSSIAN AND POLISH Author Author Peeters-Podgaevskaja, Alla Verhagen, Alicja Abstract A summary of the resource. From previous research, perceptual saliency and morphophonological and morphosyntactic regularity significantly contribute to a successful acquisition of morphemes (Goldschneider & DeKeyser 2001). This pilot study investigates if and to what extent these features are predictors in the acquisition of reflexive verbs in adult L2 Polish and Russian. Despite these languages being closely related, their reflexive verbs differ dramatically. Polish uses a particle siẹ that has a high sonority value and can be freely placed in a sentence. Russian uses a reflexive affix which is placed directly after the finite verb ending and has two phonetically reduced variants -sja and -s’ that depend on the phonological context. In this pilot study, we hypothesized that i) perceptual saliency (understood as higher sonority and a prominent position in a sentence) facilitated perception and sentence repetition; ii) morphosyntactic regularity and predictability positively affected written production. Two groups of Dutch first-year students learning Russian and Polish respectively as L2 at the University of Amsterdam were recruited. Russian and Polish native speakers served as controls. In order to test perception/comprehension and (re)production of reflexive verbs in L2, a sentence repetition task (SRT) was used. The task consisted of 15 target sentences and 10 distractors for each language (syllable length: 17–22), and was administered in e-prime. The sentence position of the target structure and semantic categories of reflexive verbs were controlled. In order to test written production, a sentence translation task (STT) was developed that contained 15 Dutch items. For the controls, accuracy in both tasks was at ceiling. The Dutch-L2 groups performed significantly worse. The accuracy scores on target structures in SRT were better in Polish (61% vs. 40%). In the STT, the Russian L2 students outperformed the Polish L2 participants (84% vs. 58%). The results of this study support the idea that perceptual saliency and morphophonological uniformity affect perception and (re)production, while morphosyntactic regularity and predictability (boundness) is relevant for written production. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e37f86ade2a8462961a42f4cb65c7318.pdf 9ec4df353fdac26b81deea107e2bf1b6 PDF Text Text DEVELOPING A BLENDED-LEARNING MODEL IN AN L2 CLASSROOM Alla Nedashkivska University of Alberta, Canada Article History: Submitted: 12.06.2015 Accepted: 25.06.2015 Abstract The study analyzes the pedagogical model of the blended-learning delivery format that may be incorporated in an L2 classroom. The study begins with the introduction of current developments in the area of blended-learning in higher education and in second-language acquisition research in particular. The focus is on scholarship that empirically informs the instruction and acquisition of language competence in an L2 classroom with an added computer-assisted language-learning component, blended-learning in particular. The model studied is a combination of face-to-face instruction as the basis of learning experience and an online teaching and learning tools. The focus is on specific tasks to be incorporated into the design of activities for both methods of learning and instruction. Five types of tasks, interactive, adaptive, communicative, productive and instructional, are studied as the main building blocks of an L2 learning environment. The discussion focuses on ways the blended-learning model allows reconfiguration of specific tasks in the two, face-to-face and online, components, leading to changes in the dynamics of an L2 classroom, shifting also the role of student and instructor in the studied blend. The analysis shows that the incorporation of the studied model may contribute to the increase of students’ engagement in the learning process at both learning spaces, face-to-face and online, fosteringa learner-centered L2 environment. The study concludes with a discussion of benefits the blendedlearning approach offers in an L2 classroom and suggests directions for further empirical investigations. 1 �1. Introduction The world today is undoubtedly technologically enhanced in every aspect of our being. Technology has become inseparable from day-to-day routines, including education. Our students are e-generation learners, who need to be provided with e-learning opportunities within the fast paced transformations in learning and teaching environments. They are rejecters of passive learning, who strive for active learning experiences, in which “technological sophistication is perceived as an opportunity rather than a challenge” (Chakraborty, 2015, p. 137). This study discusses the incorporation of e-learning into an L2 classroom. Specifically, the focus is on the pedagogical considerations of a blended-learning model for L2 teaching and learning at the post-secondary level. Blended learning1 is understood as “the continued use of face-to-face teaching as a basic building block of the learning experience, enriched and enhanced by the integration of the Internet and other teaching and learning technologies into studies undertaken both in and out of the classroom” (Marsch, 2012, p. 3). More specifically, the blended model2 is a combination of traditional, in class, face-to-face [FTF] instruction, and online teaching and learning tools. The FTF component naturally includes social interaction and the physical presence of an instructor, while the online components constitute a computerassisted language-learning mode, in which students self-engage in the learning process and occasionally with each other or an instructor in virtual space. The blended method of instruction has become quite popular in education and the number of blended-courses continues to grow. 2. Blended-learning in an L2 Classroom The incorporation of blended-learning models in higher education and in second-language acquisition in particular, has been considerably well researched. Studies that empirically inform the instruction and acquisition of language competence in an L2 classroom with an added computer-assisted language-learning component, indicate that when properly designed and applied, blended learning models can significantly improve students’ learning experiences (Marsch, 2012; Pena-Sanchez and Hicks, 2006; Stracke, 2005; Stracke, 2007). Several studies “The term ‘blended learning’ first gained widespread currency in corporate training situations to describe the combination of teaching and learning approaches that included coaching, mentoring, online interactions, face-toface classes and on-job training” (Gruba and Hinkelman, 2011, p. 1). 2 Other terminology is also used in reference to blended-learning formats, for example hybrid learning, and flipped classroom, among others. 1 2 �address specifically the advantages and disadvantages of blended-learning courses. Many analyses show that a blended-learning model “offers to learners affective and linguistic advantages over both e-learning and FTF modes” (Bueno-Alastuey and López Pérez, 2013, p. 2). The advantages of blended-learning models have been noted as the following: 24 hour access to course materials (Krasnova, 2015), “greater flexibility (Macedo-Rouet, Ney, Charles, and Lallich-Boidin, 2009), reduced costs (Sanders, 2005), unlimited time outside the classroom to complete online tasks which students believe helps them meet their language learning goals (Murray, 1999), and the extension of materials and learning scenarios outside the classroom (Gimeno Sanz, 2009)”(Bueno-Alastuey and López Pérez, 2013, p. 2). With respect to linguistic benefits of blended-learning models, the following have been identified: “a positive effect on students’ performance (Scida and Saury, 2006) and language skills (Beauvois, 1998), reinforcement of students’ autonomy and reflection, the facilitation of the review and control of learning, more meaningful and individualized feedback (Gimeno Sanz, 2009), high ratings in enjoyment and usefulness (Peters, Weinberg, and Sarma, 2009) and higher time on-task (SteppGreany, 2002)” (Bueno-Alastuey and López Pérez, 2013, p. 2). Interestingly, the use of technology in an L2 classroom has been viewed as useful for communication and collaboration between students and instructors (Krasnova, 2015) and has been credited for assisting with differential learning in a classroom, with large class sizes, as well as with artificial communicative situations necessitated by a foreign language classroom setting (Bueno-Alastuey and López Pérez, 2013, p. 2). In addition, the incorporation of the blended-learning model has been shown to be successful for student’s language learning outcomes and students’ satisfaction. Bueno-Alastuey and López Pérez (2013) investigate students’ perceptions on the introduction of the blendedlearning model in Spanish and English L2 language classrooms with varying degrees of online tools used in each. Overall their results show positive perceptions of technology use in language instruction. Importantly, their results confirm that an increased introduction of technology leads to perceptions of its usefulness for productive skills, specifically the development of speaking in blended learning models (Bueno-Alastuey and López Pérez, 2013, p. 15). Students show appreciation for the use of technology, which contributes to increases in motivation towards language learning. The disadvantages of the blended-learning format have been noted as the following: a lack 3 �of connection between computer-assisted language learning tasks and those of FTF (Carrió Pastor, 2009; Chenoweth, Ushida, and Murday, 2006), a decrease of control over learning, a lesser amount of guidance and monitoring in blended environments, especially for students lacking self-discipline towards learning (Conacher, Taalas, and Vogel, 2004), a number of distractions created by technologies themselves (Gimeno Sanz, 2009), an overwhelmingly fast pace of learning (Stepp-Greany, 2002), an intensification in work-load for students, a plentitude of materials online which makes navigation through the virtual space challenging (BuenoAlastuey, 2009b), as well as students’ inadequate computer skills (Bueno-Alastuey, 2009a; Burguess, 2003). Clayton, Blumberg and Auld (2010) study factors that contribute to students’ choice of a particular learning environment: online exclusively, combined or hybrid (blended), or traditional FTF. Their results indicate that students who prefer the traditional form of instruction stress “the level of engagement of the student, the various instructional strategies used to accommodate the learning styles of participants and the opportunity for spontaneous and live discussion” (2010, p. 361). With respect to non-traditional courses, Clayton, Blumberg and Auld find that those students who choose them perceive themselves as able to academically succeed in them. The results, therefore, suggest that an online environment increases students’ self-efficacy, which has been shown to be beneficial in the learning process (Clayton, Blumberg and Auld, 2010, p. 361). Overall with respect to students’ wishes for the learning process, the results show that “learners want engaging learning environment that promotes ‘direct interaction with professor(s) and students’, ‘spontaneity’, ‘immediate feedback’ and ‘relationships with faculty and students’ ”(Clayton, Blumberg and Auld, 2010, p. 362). However, students also want to have personal control over their learning process that fits their lifestyle (Clayton, Blumberg and Auld, 2010, p. 361). The premise of the present study is that such students’ wishes may be effectively achieved by incorporating the blended-learning model into the learning process, bridging gaps that exist between an ‘online only’ or ‘FTF only’ models. 3. Analysis of the Blended-learning model in an L2 classroom The primary emphasis of this study is on the pedagogical elements of teaching and learning of L2 by post-secondary students via the blended-learning model. The analysis outlines pedagogical considerations of the designed model aimed at developing a learner’s language 4 �competence (speaking, writing, reading and listening). The discussion focuses on a reconfiguration of the teaching and learning processes in the blended model, including shifts in the instructor’s and student’s role in the blend. As noted above, the blended-learning course is a combination of FTF and online teaching and learning components. In order to illustrate the model, an elementary L2 classroom, with five instructional hours per week, is used in the analysis.3 The structure of the studied model is illustrated in Table 1: Table 1:The blended-learning module structure Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Weekend FTF: Online: FTF: Online: FTF: Online: 3 Transfer 2 1 Station 1 Stations 2 Table 1 illustrates a prototypical one-week long course module, which is a continuum of FTF and Online components, as shown in Table 1. In the discussed model, the course components are termed ‘stations’, which allows for viewing the learning process as a scaffolding journey, that is a continuum. At the end of each one-week module (over the weekend), students work at the online ‘transfer’ station before proceeding to the next module, which begins again in the following week with the FTF component. In this one-week module, the FTF component amounts to three FTF or contact hours per week, supplemented by two online ‘stations’ and one 3 The model discussed is being utilized for the development of Beginners Ukrainian as L2 language course at the University of Alberta. At this university, elementary language courses traditionally have been five contact hours per week (prior to the implementation of the blended-learning format). I am grateful to two of my research assistants who are skilled collaborators on the development of this blended-learning model for Ukrainian: Olena Sivachenko is to be credited for the contents of the FTF components, and Oksana Perets contributed greatly to the online ‘stations’ of the model discussed. 5 �‘transfer’4 (in comparison to five contact hours of instruction per week in a traditional method of L2 teaching and learning at an elementary level).5 The FTF component of the model is a teaching and learning experience in which both instructors and students are physically present in a shared space, which is a post-secondary classroom in the studied case. The online components of the model are placed in virtual space, to which students have access while not physically present in class (note that students are encouraged to follow the FTF class with a respective online station in order to ensure successive learning, as shown in Table 1 above). Any L2 learning space, FTF or online, is a combination of various activities with tasks that contribute to certain teaching and learning experience for both the instructor and the students. In the present study, the following tasks are deemed as crucial for a successful language learning experience: (1) interactive, (2) adaptive, (3) communicative, (4) productive, and (4) instructional.6 In the FTF component of the designed model, in this case an elementary L2, the following tasks are used in the design of activities: (1) interactive tasks, which are initiated by the instructor and then gradually transferred towards students individual or collaborative participation, during which they investigate and explore with the language; (2) adaptive tasks, in which students follow a model, practice and experiment with their language skills; (3) communicative tasks, in which students practice language and share results in pairs or groups, having discussions in the language; (4) productive tasks, when following an example or a model students produce their own similar texts, written, oral or visual, expressing and articulating themselves in the target language; and (5)instructional tasks, which are presentations of grammar and new vocabulary by the instructor, with students apprehending the information. Importantly, all of these FTF tasks stress the interactivity, students’ adapting the information learnt, their engagement in communicative and productive activities, creating a social process in which students learn from an instructor and, importantly, from each other. In the FTF components of the discussed model, the ‘instructional’ tasks (5) with the instructor presenting information 4 It is expected that students would spend approximately 1-1.5 hours of self-study at each of the online components. 5 Please note that the discussed model contains also various assessment components, such as quizzes and tests; these are not at focus here. 6 Terminology is partially adapted from Laurillard (2002). 6 �overtly, is downplayed (see discussion below). Please also note that in the activities that display the five tasks discussed, students have an opportunity to practice all four language skills: listening, reading, writing and speaking. At the online components, or ‘stations’ of the model, the same five types of tasks outlined above form the core of designed activities.7 For instance, an example of an interactive task (1) is a ‘scatter and match game’, in which students match words with respective images. These activities are timed, bringing a sense of a game and thrill into the online learning environment.Additionally, they promote students’ engagement and interactivity with computermediated course components.8 In order for learners to experiment with and practice their language skills, adaptive online tasks (2) are achieved, for instance, by the use of podcasts. Specifically, a podcast presents a pattern, which students need to reproduce independently (orally or in writing), thus practicing the language skills according to the provided model. Communicative tasks (3) are represented by online forums, on which students are encouraged to share their thoughts, using their target language skills, at least once per week. This communicative online activity extends the social learning community to the virtual learning space. Productive tasks (4) in the online ‘stations’ are achieved for instance with the game ‘speller’. In this type of activity, students listen to an audio recording and simultaneously see a respective image. The task for the learners is to type what they hear in the target language, that is, produce the correct spelling of a required word or phrase. The instructional tasks (5), that focus on presentations of grammatical explanations and introductions of new topics and vocabulary are incorporated into the online stations. Video and audio technology is used for these mini-lectures.Additionally, online flip-card activities are found to be efficient tools for presenting new information: the flip cards demonstrate the spelling of a word, accompanied by an audio-recording of its pronunciation with the flipping option allowing learners to visualize the meaning. Importantly, the online stations prominently feature activities with instructional tasks, allowing students to access the mini-lectures or presentations as much and as often as needed. Overall, in the online student-centered activities students engage in self-study, in a structured 7 In order to arrive at the design of online activities that capture all five types of tasks, the Moodle learning management system with an embedded Blendspace platform, Quizlet, Screencast-O-Matic and ScreenFlow technology have been utilized in the discussed model. All of these technological tools allow attending successfully to the pedagogical design of the discussed model. 8 See Sykes and Reinhardt (2013) for the analysis of the potential of digital games in L2 teaching and learning. 7 �manner, interacting with computer-mediated tools and activities, practicing and developing all four language skills. 4. Discussion In the designed model, activities from both FTF and online components demonstrate various combinations of tasks (1)-(5) employed in each component. Both FTF and online ‘stations’ display the major tasks outlined above. However, the new blended-learning model allows us to reconfigure the distribution of activities, with certain tasks being more prominent in FTF space, and others in the online components. Specifically, in the blend discussed, both FTF and online stations contain activities structured around interactive, adaptive and productive tasks. However, the instructional tasks (presentation of grammar and new vocabulary) are featured predominantly in the online components, thereby freeing the physical learning space to more communicative activities. Communicative tasks are more difficult to implement via online activities, therefore, these are given prominence in the FTF space, allowing students to maximize practice of their communication skills in an actual physical learning space and a collaborative setting. This reconfiguration, specifically with respect to instructional and communicative tasks, leads to a redefinition of roles of both students and instructors in the presented model. This redefinition contributes to the increase of students’ engagement in the learning process, which is paramount for any learning context. Over the past few decades, the traditional FTF L2 classroom has seen a move towards more learner-centered approaches. In reality, such approaches remain difficult to implement in a traditional classroom, as many instructors still believe in the need to deliver information to students during class time. The blended-learning model, by allowing the instructional tasks to be carried in the online space, assists with implementing the truly learnercentered approach. With instructions mostly online, the FTF time is freed to more learnercentered activities, with prominence on communicative tasks. The instructor’s role is therefore being fundamentally transformed from a lecturer or a source of information to that of a facilitator and mediator in the students’ learning experience in the FTF classroom. Overall, in both learning spaces students’ engagement in the learning process is maximized. The blend allows for the student-self, student-student, and student-instructor engagement in the FTF space, and student-self, student-student and student-computer-mediated task engagement in the online stations. This allows for a more efficient and increased allocation 8 �of time and space for students’ participation in both learning environments. These conclusions echo with Krasnova’s (2015) statement that “[i]nformation technologies... allow to organize the interaction between instructors and students in a different way. They transform ordinary transfer of knowledge into cooperative learning, help to bring together the positions of instructors and students, activate their creative potential” (p. 400). 5. Conclusions The present study analyzed one case of a blended-learning model for an L2 classroom at the post-secondary level. Specifically, the pedagogical considerations of the design of this model have been studied. The focus was on five different types of tasks to be considered in the design of both FTF and online components of the model. The main conclusion is that when designed and implemented successfully, both the FTF and online tasks can serve as an appropriate method of learning and instruction. An important finding of the study is the reconfiguration of tasks in the FTF and online components, which the blended-learning model allows us to achieve. Specifically with instructional tasks presented mainly in the online ‘stations’, the FTF space becomes more conductive to communicative and collaborative activities, promoting and securing learners’ greater engagement in the learning process, fostering the true learner-centered L2 environment. In other words, the model discussed has the potential of harmonizing pedagogical activities with specific tasks and maximizing the impact of each on the teaching and learning process.The shift in the redistribution of learning and teaching tasks that lead to a reconfiguration of learning spaces analyzed above contribute to maximizing students’ engagement in the blended-learning model. After launching the discussed model, an analysis of students’ engagement and motivations for learning in this new format certainly needs to be studied. Specific questions to be addressed are, but are not limited to the following: What do students think about the blended format? Which model(s) do students prefer? What could be done to improve students’ satisfaction with the blended-learning model? In what ways may the discussed model impact students’ L2 learning experience? How and in what ways does the blended-learning model contribute or not to the development of the different skills and language proficiency in different language areas? Answering these and other relevant questions will provide valuable input into the blendedlearning design, its implementation and research associated with this field of inquiry. We can 9 �therefore conclude that there is considerable anticipation and eagerness in further researching and implementing this contemporary teaching and learning model. References: Beauvois, M. (1998). Conversations in slow motion: Computer-mediated communication in the foreign language classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 54(2), 198–217. Bueno-Alastuey, M. C. (2009a). Using WebCT in a course of English for academic/specific purposes: The case of English for agriculture. In I. Gonzalez-Pueyo, C. Foz, M. Jaime, & M. J.Luzon (Eds.), Teaching academic and professional English online (pp. 127–152). Bern: PeterLang. Bueno-Alastuey, M. C. (2009b). WebCT design and users’ perceptions in English for agriculture. InR. V. Marriott & P. L. Torres (Eds.), Handbook of research on e-learning methodologies for language acquisition (pp. 480–496). New York/London: Information Science Reference. Bueno-Alastuey, M.C. and M.V. López Pérez. (2013). Evaluation of a blended learning language course: students’ perceptions of appropriateness for the development of skills and language areas. Computer Assisted Language Learning, doi: 10.1080/09588221.2013.770037. Burguess, L. A. (2003). WebCT as an e-learning tool: A study of technology students’ perceptions. Journal of Technology Education, 15(1), 6–15. Carrió Pastor, M. L. (2009). Enhancing learner-teacher collaboration through the use of online activities. In I. Gonzalez-Pueyo, C. Foz, M. Jaime, & M. J. Luzon (Eds.), Teaching academic and professional English online (pp. 107–126). Bern: Peter Lang. Chakraborty, Misha. (2015). Learner’s Perception of Engagement in Online Learning. In F.M. Nafukho and Irby J. Beverly (Eds.), Handbook of research on innovative technology integration in higher education (pp. 135-153). IGI Global, ISBN: 9781466681705. Chenoweth, N. A., Ushida, E., & Murday, K. (2006). Student learning in hybrid French and Spanishcourses: An overview of language online. CALICO Journal, 24, 115–145. Clayton, K., Blumberg, F. & Auld, D. P. (2010). The relationship between motivation, learning strategies and choice of environment whether traditional or including an online component. British Journal of Educational Technology, doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00993.x. Conacher, J. E., Taalas, P., & Vogel, T. (2004). New language learning and teaching environments: How does ICT fit in? In A. Chambers, J. E. Conacher, & J. Littlemore (Eds.), ICT and language learning: Integrating pedagogy and practice (pp. 9–32). Birmingham: University ofBirmingham. 10 �Gimeno Sanz, A. (2009). Online course design and delivery: The Ingenio authoring system. In I.Gonzalez-Pueyo, C. Foz, M. Jaime, & M. J. Luzon (Eds.), Teaching academic and professional English online (pp. 83–105). Bern: Peter Lang. Gruba, P. and Hinkelman, D. (2012). Blended technologies in second language classrooms. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(4), doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8535.2012.01347_6.x. Krasnova, T. (2015). A Paradigm Shift: Blended Learning Integration in Russian Higher Education. In Proceedings of The International Conference on Research Paradigms Transformation in Social Sciences 2014 (RPTSS-2014), Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 166, (pp. 399-403). Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching: A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies. London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer: Taylor & Francis Group. Macedo-Rouet, M., Ney, M., Charles, S., & Lallich-Boidin, G. (2009). Students’ performance and satisfaction with Web vs. paper-based practice quizzes and lecture notes. Computers and Education, 53(2), 375–384. Marsh, D. (2012). Blended learning: Creating learning opportunities for language learners. Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City: Cambridge University Press. Murray, L. (1999). Developing the pedagogical ICT competence of modern foreign languages teacher trainees. Situation: All change and plus ça change. JITTE (Journal of IT for Teacher Education – Special Edition on Modern Foreign Languages), 8(2), 165–180. Pena-Sanchez, R. and R. C. Hicks. (2006). Faculty perceptions of communications channels: A survey. International Journal of Innovation and Learning,3(1), 45–62. Peters, M., Weinberg, A., & Sarma, N. (2009). To like or not to like! Student perceptions of technological activities for learning French as a second language at five Canadian institutions. Canadian Modern Language Review, 65, 8679–8896. Sanders, R. F. (2005). Redesigning introductory Spanish: Increased enrollment, online management, costs reduction and effects on student learning. Foreign language Annals, 38(4), 523–532. Scida, E. E., & Saury, R. E. (2006). Hybrid courses and their impact on student and classroom performance: A case study at the University of Virginia. CALICO Journal, 23(3), 517–531. Stepp-Greany, J. (2002). Student perceptions on language learning in a technological environment: Implications for the new millenium. Language Learning & Technology, 6(1), 165–180. 11 �Stracke, E. (2005). Conflicting voices: Blended learning in a German university foreign language classroom. In M. Dúill, R. Zahn, and K. D. C. Höppner (Eds.) Zusammenarbeiten: Eine Festschrift für Bernd Voss (pp. 403–420). Bochum: AKS-Verlag. Stracke, E. (2007). A road to understanding: A qualitative study into why learners drop out of a blended language learning (BLL) environment. ReCALL,19(1), 57–78. Sykes, J. M. And Reinhardt, J. Eds. (2013). Language at play: Digital games in second and foreign language teaching and learning. Boston, Columbus, Indianapolis, New York, San Francisco, Upper Saddle ariver, Amsterdam, Cape Town, Dubai, London, Madrid, Munich, Paris, Montreal, Toronto, Delhi, Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Sydney, Hong Kong, Seoul, Singapore, Taipei, Tokyo: Pearson. 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2882 Title A name given to the resource DEVELOPING A BLENDED-LEARNING MODEL IN AN L2 CLASSROOM Author Author Nedashkivska, Alla Abstract A summary of the resource. The study analyzes the pedagogical model of the blended-learning delivery format that may be incorporated in an L2 classroom. The study begins with the introduction of current developments in the area of blended-learning in higher education and in second-language acquisition research in particular. The focus is on scholarship that empirically informs the instruction and acquisition of language competence in an L2 classroom with an added computer-assisted language-learning component, blended-learning in particular. The model studied is a combination of face-to-face instruction as the basis of learning experience and an online teaching and learning tools. The focus is on specific tasks to be incorporated into the design of activities for both methods of learning and instruction. Five types of tasks, interactive, adaptive, communicative, productive and instructional, are studied as the main building blocks of an L2 learning environment. The discussion focuses on ways the blended-learning model allows reconfiguration of specific tasks in the two, face-to-face and online, components, leading to changes in the dynamics of an L2 classroom, shifting also the role of student and instructor in the studied blend. The analysis shows that the incorporation of the studied model may contribute to the increase of students’ engagement in the learning process at both learning spaces, face-to-face and online, fosteringa learner-centered L2 environment. The study concludes with a discussion of benefits the blended-learning approach offers in an L2 classroom and suggests directions for further empirical investigations. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3635075d8944a5a4f9687e2b08ba68d4.pdf a1897de6622b66b96048ad89c260057c PDF Text Text CRITERIA FOR THEMATIC GROUPING OF BANKING/FINANCIAL TERMS IN THE UZBEK LANGUAGE Saodat Muhamedova & Ekaterina Shirinova Tashkent State Pedagogical University, Uzbekistan Article History: Submitted: 12.06.2015 Accepted: 24.06.2015 Abstract: The following article is dedicated to the question of thematic grouping of banking/financial terms, which take a considerable place in the lexical structure of the Uzbek language. The paper presents the criteria for the distribution of terms according to their lexical structure, their original properties, and it provides examples for the substantiation of the hypothesis. Key words: banking/financial terminology, thematic grouping, criteria for distribution of terms, criterion of relativity under the form, criterion of a semantic relativity. 1. Introduction In today's globalized world, when the progression of science and technology changes the way of life of the mankind, the shape and essence of language and its lexical structure is equally affected. Terminology, as one of the largest branches of lexicology, rapidly reacts to the social and moral changes in the society. Underlining these changes is the linguistics sphere, which is in each language and field expressed differently. Thus, in Uzbek linguistics, a number of researchers identified the terminology of various branches [1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 7; 8; 9; 10] examining mainly the semantic properties of terms such as synonymy, homonymy, antonymy, and polysemy. It is necessary to underline that the banking/financial terminology of the Uzbek language, which is the object of our research, is labeled as system [11]. However, the existence of the same paradigmatic relations is revealed in it. Due to this, some parameters, which give the chance to confirm specific lexical as terminological system are put forward. These parameters have arisen on the basis of properties of systems and criteria defining terminology as a system. The given parameters are formed based on the analysis of terms of banking/financial terminology of the Uzbek language. �In order to examine special units of any field, such as sciences and the industries, which were considered terminological system, they should answer to requirements of systematization. For this purpose, terms used in a special field should: a) have a considerable quantity, b) private value, c) sources and ways of forming and developing the terminological sphere, d) serve as a tool for dialogue in the field, e) unite in lexical sets, f) enter in paradigmatic relations with other elements of the given system (synonymy, homonymy, antonyms, paronym, polysemy) and in syntagmatic relations with the general language system. Analyzing the research of terminological systems of different fields of activity in Uzbek linguistics, it is possible to notice that in some dissertations [4; 5; 6; 8; 9; 10] the question of distribution of terms in lexical sets is considered. As it is stated, “the stage of development of system of lexicology is characterized by studying, dividing words on thematic and lexical-semantic groups and meaning on components» [13, P. 47]. In order to correctly carry out the analysis of bankingfinancial terms, we divided them in lexical sets, given that the field is based on traditional points of view. The widespread use of banking/financial terms creates certain difficulties when it comes to their classification into lexical sets. In spite of this, we have succeeded in defining the criteria for classification of terms in this field. Initially, we paid attention to the structural system of terms. If in the structures of several terms there is a general component, they are considered as a lexical set. If it is impossible to find similarity between terms based on their structure, then it is necessary to carry out a componential analysis of terms. If the results revealed that in terms of their semantic structure the terms were actively integrated, they were considered as one lexical set, whereas terms that were classified as actively differential were grouped in a variety of lexical sets. It is known that terms in any field of activity concern different lexical sets. In our opinion division of terms by the above-stated criteria give the chance to define a circle of terms use of this or that terminological system. To elaborate further, we have given more concrete criteria for classification of terms used in a banking/financial system, which are revealed based on dictionaries and sources of expertise. 1. Criterion of relativity under the form: association of terms, with the general component in structural system, under one lexical set. �2. Criterion of a semantic relativity: association of terms under one lexical set which have no similarity under the form, but have active integrated meaning in the semantic structure. It is necessary to note that in the first case the classification process is easier than in the second. That is because the components uniting terms under one lexical set are expressed in the form of the term. For example, existence of the component “bank” in all terms such as: банк вексели( the bank bill), банк операциялари (banking operation), банкнинг актив операциялари (an active operation of a bank), банкнинг пассив операциялари (a passive operation of a bank), does obvious their occurrence in a lexical set “банк иши (banking (bank business))”, and existence in terms валюта бозори (currency market), валюта конверсияси (currency conversion), валюта курси (currencycourse), валюта операцияси (currencyoperation), валюта позицияси (currency position), валюта тизими (currencysystem), валюта трансферти (currencytransfer) ... A component the currency carries them to a lexical set negotiable papers. Also, on the basis of this criterion derivative terms are defined (question, which demands careful research). Items “dealer” and “broker” in terms of form have no similarity, so they are classified by the second criterion. ДИЛЕР – молиявий активлар савдосидаги воситачи; мижознинг ҳисобига ва унинг топшириғи бўйича, шунингдек, ўз ташаббуси билан ўз ҳисобига битимларни бажарувчи, битим суммаси ва активларни сотиш ва сотиб олишдаги курс фарқланишидан тушган фойдадан мукофот ҳақи олувчи шахс [15, P. 265]. DEALER (from English dealer - the dealer, the agent) is a private person or firm, members of the stock exchange conducting operations on the stock exchange not as simple agents-intermediaries (brokers), and on their own behalf and account, putting in their own money in operating business, which carry out independent purchases and sales of bonds, currencies, precious metals, etc. Also it can be defined as the participant of business, physical or the legal body buying wholesale products, and trading them at retails or small parties. Usually a dealer is an agent of firms-manufacturers of production, playing the role of a participant in their dealer network [14, with. 131]). БРОКЕР (маклер, комиссионер, куртье) –молиявий активлар савдосидаги воситачи (даллол); мижоз топшириғига кўра ва унинг ҳисобига олди-сотди битимини амалга оширади. Мижоз билан тузилган шартнома асосида олди-сотдининг маълум бир фоизи миқдорида мукофот олади [15, P. 262]. BROKER - a person, an exchange worker, a participant of the market, the agent of market relations acting in a role of the intermediary between sellers and buyers of goods, securities, currency. Brokers promote the conclusion of commercial transactions, "connecting" the buyer and seller. Brokers operate on the instructions of the clients and at their �expense, getting payment or compensation in the form of commission fee at the transaction conclusion. The broker can be a separate person, firm, organization [14 can act, with. 59]. The given terms have no similarity in terms of their form, but in their semantic plan, there is the general meaning, like financial activity set which correlates terms to a lexical set a financial system and provides them with synonymy. 2. Conclusion: As A. A. Abdullaevoj states “Words, expressing own values, within the limits of one lexicalsemantic group at the same time appear the relations connected between themselves, not indifferent for their own values. These are relations of synonymy, antonyms, any specifications, differentiation and generalization of close or adjacent values”. Terms are a part of the lexical layer, where one lexical set can be connected to another. To prevent such situations it is necessary to define borders, which are the concrete factor of a relativity of terms. For example, for lexical set differentiation of some we define as the important factor existence in structural or semantic structure of terms a phrase currency or means of the financial reference. Therefore, it is necessary to underline that the distribution of terms in lexical sets allows us to make thematic dictionaries for a specific field, and thus solve the problem of classification of terms. Undoubtedly it is of great importance both for linguistics and for the world of banking and finance. References 1. Абдуллаева А.А. Лексика сферы международных отношений (на материале русского и узбекского языков): дисс. ... канд. филол. наук. Ташкент, 2003. 2. Базарова Д.Х. История формирования и развитие зоологической терминологии узбекского языка. Ташкент, 1978. 3. Дадабаев Х. Общественно-политическая и социально-экономическая терминология в тюркоязычных писменных памятниках XI-XIV вв.. Ташкент,1991. 4. Данияров Р. Техническая терминология узбекского языка на современном этапе: автореф. дисс. ... д-ра филол. наук. Ташкент, 1987. 5. Джамалханов Х. Из истории формирования и развития узбекской ботанической терминологии: автореф. дисс. ... канд. филол. наук. Ташкент, 1966. 6. Искандарова Ш.М. Ўзбек тили лексикасини мазмуний майдон сифатида ўрганиш (шахс микромайдони): филол. фанлари д-ри ... дис. автореф. Тошкент, 1999. �7. Йўлдошев И. Ўзбек китобатчилик терминологияси: шаклланиши, тараққиёти ва тартибга солиш: филол. фан. док. ... дис. Тошкент, 2005. 8. Касымов А.И. Фармацевтическая терминология в современном узбекском языке: автореф. дисс. ... канд. филол. наук. Ташкент, 1982. 9. Мадвалиев А. Узбекская химическая терминология и вопросы ее нормализации: автореф. дисс. … канд. филол. наук. Ташкент, 1986. 10. Мираҳмедова З. Ҳозирги ўзбек тилининг анатомик терминологияси: филол. фанлари номзоди ... дис. Тошкент,1994. 11. Мухамедова С., Ширинова Е. Системная характеристика банковско-финансовой системы узбекского языка // Перспективы развития современной филологии: материалы VI международной научной конференции. Санкт-Петербург, 2012. С.156– 161. 12. Искандарова Ш.М. Ўзбек тили лексикасини мазмуний майдон сифатида ўрганиш (шахс микромайдони): филол. фанлари д-ри ... дис. автореф. Тошкент, 1999. 13. Сафарова Р. Лексик-семантик муносабатнинг турлари. Тошкент: Ўқитувчи,1996. -47 б. 14. Словарь банковских терминов Викепидия. [Электронный ресурс] www.bank.ru. С. 131. 15. Шодиев Ҳ., Ҳамроев М. Молия статистикаси. –Т.: Абу Али ибн Сино, 2002. Б.265. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2901 Title A name given to the resource CRITERIA FOR THEMATIC GROUPING OF BANKING/FINANCIAL TERMS IN THE UZBEK LANGUAGE Author Author Muhamedova, Saodat Shirinova, Ekaterina Abstract A summary of the resource. The following article is dedicated to the question of thematic grouping of banking/financial terms, which take a considerable place in the lexical structure of the Uzbek language. The paper presents the criteria for the distribution of terms according to their lexical structure, their original properties, and it provides examples for the substantiation of the hypothesis. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c86cc9bd643e13420be0157601ac6c1.pdf 35515b7a82027cc9bc56f952529f50ce PDF Text Text THE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY OF RELATIVIZATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Richard Madsen Aalborg University, Denmark Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 22.06.2015 Abstract The accessibility hierarchy of relativization (Keenan and Comrie 1977) describes the restrictions that the grammar of a language imposes on the relativizability of clause and phrase constituents. This paper explores the applicability and validity of the accessibility hierarchy in second language acquisition and production. It has been noticed that even Danes who are fairly proficient in English (university students) seem to have difficulties with relativizing possessors despite the fact that Danish has the exact same rules for relativization as English. All the elements listed in Keenan and Comrie’s hierarchy can be relativized, and several of the relativizers in the two languages are cognates. On the one hand, the apparent difficulties of Danes defy common sense and theories on contrastivity and cross-linguistic influence (Ellis 2009, 2012, Jarvis 2011, Lado 1957), according to which Danes should not have problems with the formation of English relative clauses. On the other hand, they lend the accessibility hypothesis support since Danes seem to be challenged by the relativization of constituents that are low on the accessibility hierarchy, suggesting that the hierarchy is not only relevant for the static differences between language systems, but also for the dynamic interlanguage of language learners (Selinker 1972). This study investigates the nature of the abovementioned difficulties and attempts to place the accessibility hierarchy subsequently in the context of second language acquisition by analysing several types of data stemming from Danish students studying English Business Communication. Essays and summaries in English, translations from Danish into English and vice versa, as well as gap-filling tests and tests concerning the construction of relative clauses by merging independent clauses both in English and Danish are analysed. Key words: relativization, second language acquisition �1. Introduction The impetus for this study was the informal noticing that Danish university students of English seemed to have trouble with the use of whose as a relative pronoun. They often did not use it when the antecedent was a possessor in the relative clause, but erroneously replaced it by for instance which. It was even more surprising as Danish has the cognate pronoun hvis, which is used in exactly the same way as whose.1 According to the contrastivity hypothesis put forward by Lado (1957), Danes should therefore have no difficulties at all with using whose. One possible explanation for the apparent difficulties that has availed itself is the accessibility hierarchy in relativization (Keenan and Comrie 1977).According to this hypothesis, relativizing the possessor – precisely the function of whose/hvis – is somehow more difficult than relativizing most other syntactic positions as it is not allowed by all languages, and if allowed, then only if the other syntactic functions can be relativized as well. If one assumes that the relative rarity of languages that allow relativizing the possessor is a sign of the relativization of the possessor requiring more cognitive power than the relativization of most other syntactic functions, then it is conceivable that learning the relativization of the possessor is also more challenging even if the learner’s mother tongue allows it. From the above trail of thought, the following hypothesis is posited: The level of precision that Danes exhibit when rendering different syntactic positions in English relative clauses correlates with the accessibility hierarchy, namely in decreasing order of expected precision: subject, direct object, indirect object, oblique object and possessor (aka genitive). Relativizing the object of comparison, which is the lowest in Keenan and Comrie’s hierarchy, was not tested in this study. 2. Theory and method The theoretical standpoint of this study is that cross-linguistic variation has a cognitive basis, namely that linguistic phenomena (be they syntactic structures, individual sounds or combination of sounds) that are infrequent in the languages of the world are somehow more demanding cognitively than phenomena that are attested in many languages. (The present study does not concern itself with the question why this might be so.) Similarly, it is assumed that phenomena that are used less frequently within one language tend to be more tasking cognitively than phenomena that are used more routinely. As a logical extension of these assumptions, it is presumed that phenomena which are more arduous to use are also �harder to learn. This is why the accessibility hierarchy may be relevant for second language acquisition (SLA) even when the secondlanguage is very similar syntactically to the mother tongue, as in the case of English and Danish. For testing the hypothesis outlined above, a group of freshmen of English Business Communication at Aalborg University, Denmark have served as informants. Two types of data have been gathered: results of tests specifically developed for this study and error analysis of texts that the students had written independently of this study (Corder 1981). The tests were of two subtypes: clause-combining tests and gap-filling tests. In the clausecombining test, the students were given pairs of independent clauses with one common referent, and had to insert the second clause into the first one as a relative clause attached to the common referent: This exercise is intriguing. I investigate the accessibility hierarchy with this exercise. →This exercise, with which I investigate the accessibility hierarchy, is intriguing. In the gap-filling tests, the students had to insert the appropriate relative pronoun into matrix clauses.The reason for administering gap-filling tests as well, after the clause-combining tests, was that despite detailed instructions, quite a few students had not done the clause-combining test in the intended manner. Many a times the students disregarded the common element in the clauses and relativized another element instead, they swapped the clauses and inserted clause one into clause two instead of the other way around, or they rephrased the relative clause in such a way that the relativizer did not have the intended function. In this way, the students managed to avoid using the structure and the relativizer that the tests were meant to investigate. The gap-filling tests, on the other hand,forced the informants to consider the structures to be investigated. Nevertheless, the parts of the clause-combining tests that were not done in the intended manner by the informants are not considered lost, but actually revealing of the presupposed differences in the cognitive load of relativizing certain syntactic elements. For it is assumed that the students resorted to the above mentioned evasive actions when theseproduced cognitively less demanding structures than the ones intended by the tests. The tests were done both in English and Danish; also in Danish in order to see whether the students resort to similar evasive strategies in their mother tongue too as in their L2. If so, it will corroborate the assumption that some syntactic positions are harder to relativize even in languages that allow such relativization. In order also to have a textual base for the study, a body of texts written by freshmen in the last three academic years has been analysed for errors in the use of relative clauses with �special focus on relativizing the possessor, i.e. the relativizer serving as possessor in the relative clause. The informants participating in the tests described above form a subset of the informants contributing with texts. The texts were composed in the course Production of Written Texts and are within four genres: short compositions (e.g. business letters, ads) in English, summarising in English of an English original, translation from Danish into English and translation from English into Danish. 3. Analysis Let the analysis start with a brief descriptionof the Danish relativizers (Table 1). It is disputed whether all or in fact any of them can be called relative pronouns (Lehmann 1984, Togeby 2003); however, that discussion is beside the point of this study. Rel Antecedent Syntactic ativizer function in relative clause som any except a any except possessor any except a only subject clause der clause hvil a clause any except possessor hva a clause any except possessor and ket d subject hva a clause only subject hvil inanimate except any except possessor d der ken a clause hve animate any except possessor hvis any only possessor m Table 1: Danish relativizers Hvilken and hvem (cognates of which and who(m), respectively) are very seldom used as relativizers in modern Danish, but almost exclusively as interrogative pronouns, except in �specialised cases as described below. If hvilken is indeed used, it agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. Hvilket is the neuter singular of hvilken; however, in modern Danish it is almost only used with a clause as antecedent. Hvis is – as mentioned earlier – the genitive of hvem (the original nominative being hvo); however, it can – just as the English whose – also be used with inanimate antecedents. It has a substandard, yet especially in spoken discourse widely used alternative form hvems. Danish does not distinguish between restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses as far as the relativizer itself is concerned. Som and der, the most common relativizers in modern Danish, are also translation equivalents of as and there, respectively. 3.1. Results of the clause-combining tests Each syntactic position of the relativizer was tested by two pairs of sentences. As correct were accepted not only responses which were impeccable, but also responses that contained minor orthographic or morphological mistakes not concerning the relativizer, and/or in which the relative clause was extraposed, i.e. did not follow its antecedent immediately, but in which the extraposition could not possibly result in misinterpreting the antecedent (for instance She misses her grandma very much, who died a couple of weeks ago instead of She misses her grandma, who died a couple of weeks ago, very much). Rephrasing and reordering of the clauses were not accepted as correct no matter whether they were grammatically correct or not in and of themselves. Nor were accepted responses containing syntactic disorders, for instance pronominal repetition of the antecedent in the relative clause, or no visible attempts at relativization. 3.1.1. Clause-combining test in English Table 2 shows the aggregated results of the clause-combining test in English. This test was performed by 54 informants. Syntactic function relativizer of Average correctness Oblique object 69.4% Direct object 68.5% Subject 56.5% Possessor 39.8% �Indirect object 9.3% Table 2: Aggregated results of the clause-combining test in English This test does confirm the informal notice serving as the impetus to this study, namely that relativizing the possessor is rather problematic; however, it does not confirm the relevance of the accessibility hypothesis for SLA. The singularly miserable result for the indirect object is caused by the almost uniform lack of use of the preposition to by the informants. In Danish, the relativizer can function as the indirect object without being marked by a preposition, although the use of the cognate of to, til, is allowed. The picture is even more confusing when the test items are taken individually as shown in Table 3. Sequential Function of Functio position of antecedent in antecedent in clause n of relativizer clause 1 1 initial Level of correctness 1 subject oblique 90.7% object 2 mid direct object subject 87.0% 3 final direct object direct 77.8% possesso 61.1% direct 59.3% oblique 48.1% object 4 final direct object r 5 initial subject object 6 final direct object object 7 mid direct object subject 25.9% 8 initial subject possesso 18.5% indirect 13.0% indirect 5.6% r 9 final subject complement 1 initial object subject 0 object Table 3: Individual test items in English �It has been noted by Keenan & Comrie (1977) that the syntactic function and sequential position of the antecedent may interact with the use of the relativizer even to the degree of case assimilation, in languages that employ case (Tortzen 1993). This may explain some of the variation between the members of each pair of test items; however, the picture seems more chaotic than that. For instance, item 1 and 5 are alike with respect to the antecedent, yet the informants – contrary to expectations – score significantly higher in no. 1 than in no. 5. Conceivably, also the content of the clauses in the test items may play a role. Further research is necessary to determine whether it is so. 3.1.2. Clause-combining test in Danish Table 4 shows the aggregated results of the clause-combining test in Danish. This test was performed by 29 informants. Syntactic function of Average relativizer correctness subject 93.1% oblique object 74.1% possessor 74.1% direct object 72.4% indirect object 67.2% Table 4: Aggregated results of the clause-combining test in English Again, relativizing the possessor is relatively problematic although not so much as in the informants L2, English; and againthe relevance of the accessibility hypothesis for SLA is not corroborated. Moreover, as Table 5 shows it, there seem to be haphazard differences between the test items concerning the same syntactic function of the relativizer. Sequential Function of Functio position of antecedent in antecedent in clause n of relativizer clause 1 1 final Level of correctness 1 direct object subject 100% �2 final direct object subject 86.2% 3 final direct object oblique 86.2% possesso 86.2% indirect 75.9% direct 75.9% direct 69.0% possesso 62.1% oblique 62.1% indirect 58.6% object 4 initial subject r 5 initial subject object 6 initial subject object 7 final direct object object 8 final direct object r 9 initial subject object 1 final oblique object 0 object Table 5: Individual test items in Danish 3.2. Results of the gap-filling test The gap-filling test was used to see if the informants were able to choose the right (form of the) relativizer. It was taken by 40 informants. The focus was on relativizing the possessor, so this test was not designed to compare the relativization of different syntactic functions with each other, but to see whether the students chose whose/hvis when these were called for. Three test items in either language required the use of whose/hvis; its level of precision is shown in Table 6. Danish English Position and function of antecedent Level of precision Position function of antecedent and Level of precision initial, subject 95% initial, subject 80% final, 90% initial, subject 55% complement subject �initial, subject 80% initial, subject 35% Table 6: Level of precision of the use of whose/hvis It is clear that the students are challenged by the relativization of the possessor, especially of course in English, but to some extent even in Danish. Again, there is no obvious reason for the variation among the test items. 3.3. Results of the error analysis The error analysis of the corpus was used to see to what extent the relativization of the possessor is an issue in actual practice.860 texts in English containing some 225,000 words have been analysed. Altogether 15001 mistakes have been detected, of which 163 (1.09%) have to do with relativization. However, only 2 of these mistakes, both in short compositions, are the non-use of whose. Seen in this perspective, the improper relativization of the possessor is not a big issue in practise. However, if one considers that altogether only 7 attempts were made in the analysed texts to relativize the possessor, then getting 2 (29%) of them wrong constitutes a major source of errors. It must also be noted that whose is often misspelled in both the texts and the tests (as who’s, whos, whoes, whoms, whims), which underlines the observation that relativizing the possessor in English is a challenge for Danes.However, it must be added that this is not the main challenge for Danes as many more mistakes with, for instance, selecting the right relativizer with respect to the antecedent (who vs which)or using whom for relativizing the subject have been noticed. No attempts of and consequently no problems with relativizing the possessor have been detected in the 144 translations from English into Danish, worth nearly 38,000 words. 4. Conclusion It seems fair to conclude from the present study that the hypothesized relevance of the accessibility hierarchy for SLA is very little, at least for the L1-L2 pair of Danish and English.Even though it has been documented that relativizing the possessor is indeed on average more challenging for students of English than relativizing most other syntactic functions, the relativization of other syntactic function does not follow the accessibility hierarchy. Notably, the relativization of oblique objects seems unexpectedly easy for the students, even surpassing the relativization of the subject and direct object, which were expected to be the easiest of all. Nevertheless, this study may be useful for teachers of �English, as it has ascertained that the relativization of the possessor is indeed difficult for Danes, and its successful acquisition cannot be taken for granted just because Danish employs the exact same strategy with a cognate relativizer. The study has also revealed other areas of relativization that seem even more problematic for Danes, and which will be further investigated in a future study. 1 If one considers all the forms of the animate interrogative/relative pronoun, it is more conspicuous that hvis and whose are indeed cognates: who, whom, whose vs. hvo, hvem, hvis. Although hvo only appears in a couple of proverbs in modern Danish, replaced by hvem in all syntactic position except that of the possessor, Danes do seem to be aware that who(m) and hvem are related (see Section 3.3.). References Corder, P. (1981).Error Analysis and Interlanguage.Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (2009). Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching.Buffalo: Multilingual Matters. Ellis, R. (2012). Second Language Acquisition.Oxford University Press. Jarvis, S. (2011). “Conceptual transfer: Crosslinguistic effects in categorization and construal” in Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 14 (1), 2011, 1–8. Keenan, E. L. and Comrie, B. (1977). “Noun Phrase Accessibility and Universal Grammar”. Linguistic Inquiry, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 63-99. Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. Lehmann, C. (1984). Der Relativsatz. Tübingen: Gunter NarrVerlag. Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209–241. Togeby, O. (2003). Fungererdennesætning?Funktioneldansksproglære. [Does this sentence work? A functional grammar of Danish].Copenhagen: Gads Forlag. Tortzen, C.G. (1993). ΒΑΣΙΣ.Attiskgrammatik [Grammar of Attic].Elsinore: Helsingør Gymnasium. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2899 Title A name given to the resource THE ACCESSIBILITY HIERARCHY OF RELATIVIZATION IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Author Author Madsen, Richard Abstract A summary of the resource. The accessibility hierarchy of relativization (Keenan and Comrie 1977) describes the restrictions that the grammar of a language imposes on the relativizability of clause and phrase constituents. This paper explores the applicability and validity of the accessibility hierarchy in second language acquisition and production. It has been noticed that even Danes who are fairly proficient in English (university students) seem to have difficulties with relativizing possessors despite the fact that Danish has the exact same rules for relativization as English. All the elements listed in Keenan and Comrie’s hierarchy can be relativized, and several of the relativizers in the two languages are cognates. On the one hand, the apparent difficulties of Danes defy common sense and theories on contrastivity and cross-linguistic influence (Ellis 2009, 2012, Jarvis 2011, Lado 1957), according to which Danes should not have problems with the formation of English relative clauses. On the other hand, they lend the accessibility hypothesis support since Danes seem to be challenged by the relativization of constituents that are low on the accessibility hierarchy, suggesting that the hierarchy is not only relevant for the static differences between language systems, but also for the dynamic interlanguage of language learners (Selinker 1972). This study investigates the nature of the abovementioned difficulties and attempts to place the accessibility hierarchy subsequently in the context of second language acquisition by analysing several types of data stemming from Danish students studying English Business Communication. Essays and summaries in English, translations from Danish into English and vice versa, as well as gap-filling tests and tests concerning the construction of relative clauses by merging independent clauses both in English and Danish are analysed. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c8e4db14fafe93c83fb9faab24bebb33.pdf bf4c725326a537e5748b4affd1648ab6 PDF Text Text 1 LANGUAGE ECOLOGY RE-ORIENTATION IN A CONTEMPORARY METROLINGUAL FRAMEWORK: A CRITICAL PARADIGM SHIFT TO AN EXPANDED, COMMON STANDARD ALBANIAN Julie M. Kolgjini, PhD Rochester Institute of Technology, New York and A.U.K. Article History: Submitted: 18.06.2015 Accepted: 28.06.2015 Abstract Given present emergent trans-local new media in de-territorialized and poly-lingual milieus, an approach to the current Unified Literary Albanian (ULA) that integrates elements of Gramscianesque and Bakhtinian-esque optics on language would be more in sync with contemporary polyglossic realities of numerous Albanian speech communities in 21st century linguistic marketplaces than the language’s present standard. Such reforms could serve as partial remedies for current linguistic injustices and insecurities regarding various purported dysfluencies of marginalized and disenfranchised speakers of stigmatized Albanian varieties, thereby averting returning to past repressions. This alternative positioning allows younger generations of language learners to exercise their agency in arriving at “their own emergent orders of normativity” (Leppänen et al., 2009, p. 1080). Espousing this perspective encourages language guardians with ortholinguistic tendencies to refocus their energies from “deeply entrenched dogmas” (Del Valle, 2014, p. 370) of standard language ideology focusing on linguistic imposition and denigration, and exclusionary policies that neglected to integrate rich socio-historical realities of the languagers, to an inclusive linguistic regime that embraces the present linguistic diversity of polycentric sociolinguistic spaces. Instead of perpetuating outdated language policies involving inflexible linguistic intolerances of bygone eras that (still) attempt to hermetically seal language and prevent any leakage, cross-contamination, trans-languaging, or codemeshing from one variety (in)to another, mutual accommodation and communicability are advocated here. Given the diffusion of polycentric sociolects in various locales where Albanian is employed, “putting the toothpaste back in the tube” could be rather challenging and futile. Thus, various gatekeeping �2 pedagogies, including many current replacement and appropriateness paradigms, could be ineffectual given contemporary metrolingual realities of many Albanian languagers and learners. (Word count: 265) Key words: Albanian, critical applied linguistics, critical language pedagogies, Albanian, metrolingualism, polycentrism, heteroglossia, language ecology, linguistic diversity, linguistic variation, standard and non-standard linguistic varieties, language policy and planning, standard language ideology �3 1. Introduction Throughout the past few decades, various language scholars have commented that in order for Unified Literary Albanian (ULA) to withstand the test of time, like other normative living languages, it must be “permitted” to undergo considerable reform. Changes could involve ULA incorporating various excluded elements (e.g., Gegisms) during the 1972 standardization process at the Congress of Orthography, thereby resulting in a more cultivated language. Such modifications would distance ULA from its homogeneous and monocentric pedigree and accentuatepoly-, context-, and interlocutor-centric linguistic practices (see Byron, 1976). 2. Standard Language Ideology, Polycentrism, and Heteroglossia in Light of ULA As numerous scholars have observed, standard language ideology plays a considerable, but often implicit, role in how many languagers perceive language, especially standardization polices and planning, and thus (non-)standard(ized) forms (e.g., Ag & Jørgensen, 2012; Heller, 2008; Leeman, 2005; Milroy, 2001; Milroy & Milroy, 2012; Watts, 2010). Milroy (2001, p. 531) explains: “Standardization works by promoting invariance or uniformity in language structure…[and]…consists of the imposition of uniformity upon a class of objects...[T]his definition assumes that the objects concerned (including abstract objects, such as language) are, in the nature of things, not uniform but variable.” This inherent variability is frequently made invariable when language policies are imposed. Standard language ideology often views languages as discrete, fixed objects, consisting of “stable synchronic finite-state idealization[s]” (Milroy, 2001, p. 540), while endorsing invariance, homogeneity1, strict notions of correctness2, proper use campaigns, post-hoc justifications of legitimacy 3 , native speaker ownership, hegemony, modernist notions of “one nation/one (standard) national language” (Ricento, 2000, p. 198), language purity, and monoglot ideologies. Such agendas implicitly (and explicitly) discourage “incorrect” (e.g., non-standard) forms regularly regarded as immoral; often refuse to acknowledge (standard) (factual) variability; and endeavor to eliminate fragmentation within the standard. As Milroy (2001, p. 534) remarks, however, “There cannot be in practical use any such thing as a wholly standardized variety, as total uniformity of usage is never achieved in practice.” For Milroy (2001), standardization involves “a process that is continuously in progress in those languages that undergo the process” (p. 534). 4 Moreover, speakers who fall prey to standard language ideology and culture often attribute elevated prestige to standard dialects. �4 Prestige, however, is a sociocultural construct not inherent to language5 (Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, & Møller, 2011). Standard language ideology discussions are of relevance to ULA. In 1972 at the Congress of Orthography ULA standardizers, alongside various language guardians and gatekeepers, advocated homogeneity, invariance, strict ortholinguistic adherence, proscribed form eradication, and linguistic purism at the cost of linguistic diversity in pluricentric alternatives, similar to what Gramsci envisioned across the Adriatic for Italian (see Carlucci, 2013; Ives, 2004), so as to codify the communicative practices that likely involved flexible (passive) reciprocal bilingualism and other accommodations concerning written and spoken (literary) Albanian varieties (see Byron, 1976). Gramsci advocated an inclusive, pluricentric language regime originating and resonating with the voices of the languagers of the various dialects (of Italian); such an approach allows languagers to more cogently articulate their thoughts than when limited to imposed monocentric (unitary) systems. Gramsci understood “the importance of working towards [linguistic] unification through a careful consideration of [linguistic] diversity – not through its denigration or coercive elimination” (Carlucci, 2013, p. 200); linguistic ecology was paramount. Bakhtin’s heteroglossia 6 (multispeechedness), inclusion of multiple voices so as to represent authentic language, is also pertinent to Albanian. Heteroglossic language practices 7 involve employing different languages and/or varieties, often within and/or between spoken and/or written utterances and strings of language. Bakhtin’s heteroglossia is “governed by two opposing forces, the centripetal (toward the single ‘center’ implied in the notion of an ‘official’ or ‘national’ language), and the centrifugal (away from that ‘center’ in the direction of the regional dialect, as well as the ‘languages’ used by different classes, generations, and professions that comprise a community of speakers). Bakhtin’s work tends to stress the centrifugal…” (Hayward, 2001). Heteroglossia 8 involves myriad (linguistic) components, beyond standard versus non-standard possibilities, e.g., their interweaving (e.g., Alb. duke shku(e), tu(e/j) shkuar ‘(while) going’, cf. duke shkuar ULA/Tosk; tue/tuj shku(e) Geg); semantic plasticity (e.g., Alb. mollatarta, patëllxhan i kuq ‘tomato’, cf. domate; dru, pemë ‘wood, tree, fruit’; tamël ‘milk’, cf. qumësht; tylnë ‘butter’, cf. gjalpë,); and morphological inhibitioneasing, including frequently stigmatized forms (e.g., Geg infinitive, Alb. me shku(e) ‘to go’; cf. të shkoj ‘(that) I go’); among others. Actual language practices (e.g., sociolects of various speech communities in Tirana and Prishtina) are multifaceted, including societal and contextual elements9 (Tjupa 2009), which play �5 pivotal roles in influencing which forms (e.g., standard, non-standard, formal, casual/informal) “real life languagers” (Jørgensen et al., 2011, p. 29) employ10. Heterglossia allows multiplicities of evolving, dynamic viewpoints to be conveyed through such authentic speech acts rooted in speech diversity (Dentith, 1994), especially concerning authentic expressions of style – and self. Often the case for ULA, however, “dominant political and ideological pressures…keep ‘languages’ [and varieties11] pure and separate” (Lemke, 2002, p. 85; Heller, 2007; Jørgensen et al., 2011). Languages – including varieties – are often “politically prevented” from mixing, meshing, and blending (Creese & Blackledge, 2010)12. Various ULA gatekeepers have attempted to hermetically seal and guard it from unsanctioned leakage (e.g., of non-standard Gegisms). 3. Present Dynamics of Language, Fluid Hybridity, and Linguistic Repertoires Let’s consider the various consequences of globalization, e.g., the migration of people and ideas, on current linguascapes (Blommaert & Rampton, 2011), including Albanian languagers. As Ag and Jørgensen (2012) explain, superdiversity involves the “diversification of diversity…in which populations become increasingly ethnically and linguistically heterogeneous…and the expanding transnational as well as transborder communication over the internet or other new technological phenomena contributes to the dismantling of the idea of simple and clear communications” (pp. 527–8). This superdiversity entails the emergence of rules and norms and their observance – and the appearance of alternative norms (Blommaert, 2013), e.g., in various linguistic landscapes in the Americas and Europe, including (previously) imposed ULA confines. Multiple forms of truncated multilingualism and linguistic repertoires participate (Blommaert, 2010; Kramsch, 2014), where “intrinsic polycentricity…characterizes sociolinguistic systems” (Blommaert, 2013, p. 11), as exhibited in many ULA users’ linguistic practices. Varied linguistic elements enter into the discourse, where polylingualism 13– involving “languagers employ[ing] whatever linguistic features at their disposal to achieve their communicative aims” (Ag & Jørgensen, 2012, p. 528) – and receptive multilingualism – when each interlocutor communicates in his/her mother tongue (in the case of Albanian, “native” variety) while comprehending the utterances of the other individual – may surface, including in virtual linguistic landscapes of new and emerging media (Blommaert, 2013, 2014) involving semiotic fluidity (Kramsch, 2014), which brings us to metrolingualism. �6 Metrolingualism highlights the intersections of linguistic structures, semiotics, identity, new media, local polycentric linguistic practices, multilingualism, among others, in linguascapes that celebrate diversity, multiplicity, and hybridity. Metrolingualism14 embodies “ways in which people of different and mixed backgrounds use, play with and negotiate identities through language; it does not assume connections between language, culture, ethnicity, nationality or geography, but rather seeks to explore how such relations are produced, resisted, defied, or rearranged; its focus is not on language systems but on languages as emergent from contexts of interaction” (Otsuji & Pennycook, 2010, p. 246). When languagers blend often-divergent communicative repertoires in spoken and/or written utterances, codemeshing and translanguaging results; linguistic systems “leak” and “contaminate” others, thereby “undermining…ortholinguistic practices” (Otsuji & Pennycook, 2010, p. 245) and “challeng[ing] particular hierarchies and hegemonies” (Creese & Blackledge, 2010, p. 104). From the lens of metrolingualism 15 , the languagers are not bastardizing the language(s) or dialect(s). These disruptions and destabilizations of dominant ideologies and (re)negotiations of identity are integral components of metrolingualism16, which is “interested in the queering of ortholinguistic practices across time and space that may include urban and rural contexts, elite or minority communities, local or global implications” (Otsuji & Pennycook, 2010, p. 246). Germane to the emergent Albanian norm, this “hybridity-oriented pluralizing strategy” (p. 251) embraces “production[s] of new possibilities” (p. 247) of language as “an emergent property of various social practices” (p. 248), while rejecting rigid cultural fixity, e.g., ortholinguistic ideologies17. 4. Considering Linguistic Regime Re-orientation for ULA The current dynamics of Albanian involve codemeshing and translanguaging, among others, unsurprising given the diglossic18 reality where ULA (and the Tosk variety) enjoys overt prestige compared to often-stigmatized Geg (sub) varieties. ULA is presently undergoing speaker-motivated change (from below), where varied sub-dialects have been in the process of “leaking” into it, where multiple linguistic structures merge with others (e.g., Alb. duke shku(e); tuj shkuar ‘(while) going’). Such dialect meshing (cross-dialectal/language transfer) of linguistic elements (e.g., lexical items and structural features) is well-known in dialect contact contexts, especially when the linguistic systems have been in (intense) contact situations (Lofi, 2007). ULA’s current situation illustrates how, when the languagers are in the drivers’ seats, language �7 can exhibit fluid and dynamic characteristics, particularly given speaker-driven pluricentric and heteroglossic practices, where urban, provincial, and archaic, (un) orthodox, and innovative features are woven into the linguistic repertoires19. Such multi-dialectal (multi/polylingual) and “transidiomatic practices” (Blommaert, 2013, p. 8), including dialect ideology spurts (Watts, 2010), exemplify language choices exhibiting metrolingual speaker agency. Late modern mediascapes, metrolingual landscapes, amongst other contributing factors, have influenced and been shaped by a generation (or more) of languagers who attribute less saliency to national identity than to emerging translocal sets of shared (virtual) experiences, values, interests, and ways of life on and off the grid (Leppänen et al., 2009). Priorities are less oriented toward modernist nation-state notions than other langaugers with whom they share common understandings regarding similar notions of de-territoriality, hybrid communities, and hybrid communication practices largely navigated online. Instead of being identified by what some langaugers associate with affiliations of the modern state (e.g., rigid monocentric standard languages and monoglot ideologies), some prefer to be identified by (and identify themselves with) more dynamic and fluid (semiotic) metrics promoting perpetual malleability given the demands of the day allowing them to determine “their own emergent orders of normativity” (Leppänen et al., 2009, p. 1080), including regarding static standard languages. Some may criticize such re-orientations for lacking rigid rules and fixity. Decisions involving which “rules” to follow, however, are up to the languagers – not a handful of academicians in a conference chamber or stone tower isolated from humans who use the language and possess communicative, translingual, and symbolic competence (see Kramsch, 2014). Such positioning de-emphasizes prescriptivism, not normativity, and reinforces diversity, rather than replacement and appropriateness paradigms, thereby permitting langaugers to redraw their “final horizon[s] to fit a global world of increased semiotic uncertainty and symbolic power struggles…as an adaptive practice that interacts with its cultural and technological mediations” (Kramsch, 2014, p. 306), while recognizing decentered knowledge sources and reflective, situated choices (p. 308). 5. Implications and Conclusions: A Critical Paradigm Shift Less than five decades ago when ULA was approved by language authorities at the Congress of Orthography and had begun to be promulgated to the masses, Byron (1976, p. 120) �8 foresaw integrating alternative linguistic constructions, namely “[the] rejected alternates” (of the Geg variety), into the standard, thus reinforcing that “a standard in time becomes heterogeneous, and isolated from its initial state.” She suggested such alternative elements “be relegated to stylistic functions” (p. 120), which would facilitate “at least a minor attempt to meet the demands of humane communication” (p. 120). Such progression constitutes a paradigm “shift of Albanian language planning from a policy to a cultivation approach to language” (p. 120). Byron’s proposal is in sync with various Gramscian-esque and Bakhtinian-esque optics on language. Such re-orientations do not constitute corruptions, but (re)evolutions, generated by speakers as active agents and vectors in language change, where its social origins are also considered (Milroy, 2001; Blommaert, 2013). Genuine tolerance for this emergent, relaxed norm illuminates Haugen’s (1966) “elaboration of function” (Milroy, 2001, p. 534), while also allowing languagers “freedom to imagine, not obligation to submit” (Blommaert, 2013, p. 10); and reinforcing that “systems change irreversibly” (Blommaert, 2013, p. 13). The old rules are “replaced by a default image of openness, dynamics, multifiliar and nonlinear development, unpredictability – what used to be considered deviant and abnormal has become, in this perspective, normal” (Blommaert, 2013, pp. 13–4). This approach encourages languagers to partake in critical examinations of past and current dominant language policies “to dispel myths about the degeneracy of modern day varieties” (Leeman, 2005, p. 40); languagers “must critically evaluate the dominant norms, determine who is being assimilated and who rejected through the establishment of these norms, and analyze the implications of this standardization process” (Sanchez qtd. in Leeman, 2005, p. 41). Embracing elements of the proposed framework allows for such critical awareness to transpire. “‘Homogeneism’ [is] a fundamental non-acceptance of diversity” including where diversity is seen as a type of societal “pollution,” often involving “intolerant and anti-pluralistic measures” (Blommaert & Verschueren, 1998, pp. i, 122, 125, 126). 2 Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, and Møller (2011) explain: “[T]here is no such thing as inherently correct language. Correctness is social construction about the characteristics of specific linguistic features. Correctness has nothing to do with the linguistic characteristics of features – correctness is ascribed to the features by (some) speakers. The notion of ‘correct language’ may index specific features in (at least) two different ways… [like] native speakers…” (p. 30). 3 Milroy (2001) remarks: “The standard form becomes the legitimate form, and other forms become, in the popular mind, illegitimate…Urban forms…although probably used by a majority of the population…were at the bottom of the pile…These were not ‘dialects’ at all: they were 1 �9 seen…as vulgar and ignorant attempts to adopt or imitate the standard and were therefore illegitimate…” (p. 547). 4 That is, for Milroy (2001) language standardization does not constitute a stolid, inert state. 5 Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, and Møller (2011) clarify: “The insight of current sociolinguistics is then that ‘languages’ as neat packages of features that are closely connected and exclude other features, are sociocultural constructions that do not represent language use in the real world very well…Rather than being natural objects, comprising readily identifiable sets of features, ‘dialects’, ‘sociolects’, ‘registers’, ‘varieties’, etc. are sociocultural constructions exactly as ‘languages’ are” (p. 28). Milroy (2001, p. 532) remarks: “[P]restige…attributed by human beings to particular social groups and to inanimate objects, such as…language varieties…depends on the values attributed to such objects. The prestige attributed to the language varieties (by metonymy) is indexical and involved in the social life of speakers.” 6 Otsuji and Pennycook (2010, p. 252) write: “Heteroglossia, as Bailey (2007, p. 258) reminds us, ‘encompasses both mono and multilingual forms’ allowing a ‘level of theorising about the social nature of language that is not possible within the confines of a focus on code-switching.” Blommaert (2010) explains: “The intrinsic hybridity of utterances (something, of course, introduced by Bakhtin a long ago) is an effect of interactions within a much larger polycentric system” (p. 12). Hayward (2001) comments: “Postmodern appropriations of Bakhtin’s work are too diverse to summarize briefly. In its implication that language carries within itself ideological orientations accreted from previous usage, but also that it can be modified in and by any new speech act, the concept of heteroglossia enables queer, feminist and post-colonial theories to interrogate dynamics of power without replicating them, and to elaborate the problems as well as the possibilities for subjects attempting to assert themselves ideologically and politically.” 7 Hayward (2001) comments: “Heteroglossia is a concept denoting the stratification of the different ‘languages’ practiced by the speakers of a single (official or national) language, and the dynamic produced by their intersection and interaction.” 8 Bailey remarks: “Heteroglossia can encompass socially meaningful forms in both bilingual and monolingual talk; it can account for the multiple meanings and readings of forms that are possible, depending on one’s subject position; and it can connect historical power hierarchies to the meanings and valences of particular forms in the here-and-now” (qtd. in Creese & Blackledge, 2010, p. 106). Creese and Blackledge (2010) explain: “Bailey demonstrated that the perspective of heteroglossia allows one to distinguish between local functions of particular codeswitches and their functions in relation to their social, political, and historical contexts, in ways that formal codeswitching analysis does not. He convincingly argued that the perspective of heteroglossia ‘explicitly bridges the linguistic and the sociohistorical, enriching analysis of human interaction’ p. 269) and is ‘fundamentally about intertextuality, the ways that talk in the here-and-now draws meanings from past instances of talk’ (p. 272)” (in Creese and Blackledge 2010:106). Bahktin writes that “‘language is something that is historically real, a process of heterglot development, a process teeming with future and former languages, with prim but moribund aristocratic-languages, with parvenu-languages and with countless pretenders to the status of language which are all more or less successful, depending on their degree of social scope and on the ideological area in which they are employed’ (Baxtin 01943/35] 1981: 356– 57)” (qtd. in Tjupa, 2009, p. 124). 9 Tjupa (2009, p. 124) explains: “According to Ba[kh]tin’s understanding of language use, a ‘social person,’ who is also a speaking person, operates not with language as an abstract �10 regulatory norm, but with a multitude of discourse practices that form in their totality a dynamic verbal culture belonging to the society concerned.” 10 Bahktin clarifies that “‘language is something that is historically real, a process of heterglot development, a process teeming with future and former languages, with prim but moribund aristocratic-languages, with parvenu-languages and with countless pretenders to the status of language which are all more or less successful, depending on their degree of social scope and on the ideological area in which they are employed’ (Baxtin 01943/35] 1981: 356–57)” (qtd. in Tjupa, 2009, p. 124). 11 Jørgensen , Karrebæk, Madsen, and Møller (2011) point out: (2011) “Heller (2007: 1) explicitly argues ‘against the notion that languages are objectively speaking whole, bounded, systems,’ and…prefers to understand language use as the phenomenon that speakers ‘draw on linguistic resources which are organized in ways that make sense under specific social circumstances” (pp. 27–8). They continue: “Blommaert (2010: 102) similarly refers to ‘resources’ as the level of analysis. He observes that ‘[s]hifting our focus from ‘languages’ (primarily an ideological and institutional construct) to resources (the actual and observable ways of using languages) has important implications for notions such as ‘competence’’ (p. 28). 12 “[T]he teacher avoids, it is argued, cross-contamination, thus making it easier for the child to acquire a new linguistic system as he/she internalizes a given lesson…It was felt that the inappropriateness of the concurrent use [of two linguistic systems] was so self-evident that no research had to be conducted to prove this fact. (p. 4)” (Jacobson and Faltis 1990, qtd. in Creese & Blackledge, 2010, p. 104). 13 Similarly, poly-languaging is “the use of features associated with different ‘languages’ even when speakers know only few features associated with (some of) these ‘languages’” (Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, & Møller, 2011, pp. 33, 34). 14 Otsuji and Pennycook (2010, pp. 245–6) write: “We do not, however, want to limit the notion of metrolingualism only to the urban…[W]e want to avoid an idealization of the urban metrolingual landscapes set against the assumed narrowness of rural living. This has tow corollaries: on the one hand, metrolingualism as a practice is not confined to the city; and on the other, it is intended as a broad, descriptive category for data analysis rather than a term of cosmopolitan idealism…[M]etrolingualism may be rural, mobile, local and fragile.” 15 Otsuji and Pennycook (2010) explain: “The focus in not so much on language systems as on languages as emergent from contexts of interaction…The notion of metrolingualism gives ways of moving beyond common frameworks of language, providing insights into contemporary, urban language practices, and accommodating both fixity and fluidity in its approach to language use” (p. 240). 16 As Jaworski (2014, p. 139) remarks, metrolingualism is the “manifestation of linguistic performances,” e.g., polycentric and heteroglossic practices, “in which self-consciously deployed linguistic forms index recurrent situations of use or specific social categories” such as gender and region, thereby “creating new indexical meanings and new symbolic values (Rampton, 2009a), where none may have been hearable before (Jonstone, 2009; Silverstein, 2003).” Such linguistic behaviors entail “the recontextualization…or transplantation and relocation of linguistic resources from one domain into another, frequently with artful overtones…[S]uch manipulation of the relatively fixed,…social categories is the cornerstone of metrolingual usage which aims to challenge and destabilize traditional and fixed identity ascriptions, ‘ortholinguistic’ ideologies and practices” (Jaworski, 2014, p. 139). �11 17 Such a situation is relevant for Albanian, especially considering the migration practices of Albanian speakers. Whereas one speaker grew up speaking Swiss German or standard French at school or work and ULA/Geg at home, another speaker was raised speaking a local variety of Arabic or Italian of the community and French, Albanian and/or English at a brick-and-mortar institution of learning, perhaps even later in life as an adult language learner. 18 Ferguson defines diglossia as involving “the coexistence of two varieties of the same language, [where] a High variety (H)…describes the standardized form of the language, and a Low variety (L)…refers to its vernacular form” (Lotfi, 2007, p. 40). Contact-induced change environments tend to include the mechanisms of code-switching, code-alteration, and passive familiarity (i.e. Fasold’s ‘broad diglossia’; Lotfi, 2007, pp. 41—2, 47). When the level of competence in the other variety (or language) is extensive, the borrowing (and meshing) of elements, i.e. convergence, can result, including in regards to phonological and morphosyntactic structures, especially in cases of intense contact (see Lotfi, 2007, p. 47), where saliency (e.g., frequency of use) could play a role, as could be the case with a the meshing of high frequency non-standard constructions, e.g., the Geg infinitive (e.g., dua me shku(e) ‘I want to go’, where substratum structural borrowing which could also include a lexical component) and orthographic hypercorrections (e.g., with the schwa <ë> and the palatal stops, i.e. <q> and <gj> with the palatal-alveolar affricates <ç> and <xh>). 19 Jørgensen, Karrebæk, Madsen, and Møller (2011) explain: “The notions of ‘varieties’, ‘sociolects’, ‘dialects’, ‘registers’, etc. may appear to be useful categories for linguists. They may indeed be strategic, ideological constructs for power holders, educators, and other gatekeepers (Jørgensen 2010, Heller 2007). However, what speakers actually use are linguistic features as semiotic resources, not languages, varieties, or lects (Jørgensen 2004, 2008). It is problematic if sociolinguistics habitually treats these constructs as unquestioned facts. Blommaert & Backus (2011) have proposed the term ‘repertoires’ for the set of resources which the individual commands or ‘knows’…” (p. 29). �12 References Ag, A., & Jørgensen, J.N. (2013). Ideologies, norms, and practices in youth poly-languaging. The International Journal of Bilingualism, 17 (4), 525–539. Blommaert, J. (2014). Infrastructure of superdiversity: Conviviality and language in an Antwerp neighborhood. European Journal of Cultural Studies, 17, 431–451. Blommaert, J. (2013). Critical language and literary studies, volume 18: Ethnography, superdiversity and linguistic languages: Chronicles of complexity. Clevedon, GBR: Channel View Publications. Blommaert, J. (Ed.). (2010). Language, power and social process: Language ideological debates. Munchen:Walter de Gruyter. Blommaert, J. & Rampton, B. (2011). Language and Superdiversity. Language and Superdiversities 13 (2), 1–21. Blommaert, J. & Verschueren, J. (1998). Debating diversity: Analysing the rhetoric of tolerance. London: Routledge. Blommaert, J., Leppänen, S., Pahta, P., & Räisänen, T. (Eds.). (2012). Dangerous multilingualism: Northern perspectives on order, purity and normality. Houndsmill, GBR: Palgrave Macmillan. Byron, J. (1976). Selection among alternatives in language standardization: The case of Albanian. The Hague: Mouton. Carlucci, A. (2013). Gramsci and languages: Unification, diversity, and hegemony. Historical Materialism Book Series, Volume 59. Leiden, NLD: Brill. Creese, A. & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the bilingual classroom: A pedagogy for learning and teaching. The Modern Language Journal, 94, 103–115. Del Valle, J. (2014). The politics of normativity and globalization: Which Spanish in the classroom? Modern Language Journal, 98, 358–372. Dentith, S. (1994). Bakhtinian thought: An introductory reader. Florence, Ky: Routledge. Hayward, S. (2001). Heteroglossia. In V. Taylor and C. Winquist (Eds.). Encyclopedia of postmodernism. London, United Kingdom: Routledge. Retrieved from http://search.credoreference.com.ezproxy.rit.edu/content/entry/routpostm/heteroglossia/0 Heller, M. (2008). Language and the nation-state: Challenges to sociolinguistic theory and practice. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12 (4), 504–524. �13 Ives, P. (2004). Reading Gramsci: Language and hegemony in Gramsci. London: Pluto Press. Jørgensen, J. N., Karrebæk, M. S., Madsen, L. M., & Møller, J. S. (2011). Polylanguaging in superdiversity. Language and Superdiversities, 13(2), 23–37. Kramsch, C. (2014). Teaching foreign languages in an era of globalization: Introduction. Modern Language Journal 98 (1), 296–311. Kramsch, C. & Whiteside, A. (2008). Language ecology in multilingual settings: Towards a theory of symbolic competence. Applied Linguistics, 29 (4), 645–671. Leeman, J. (2005). Engaging critical pedagogy: Spanish for native speakers. Foreign Language Annals, 38, 35–45. Lemke, J. (2002). Language development and identity: Multiple timescales in the social ecology of learning. In C. Kramsch (Ed.), Language acquisition and language socialization (pp. 68–87). London: Continuum. Leppänen, S., Pitkänen-Huhta, A., Piirainen-Marsh, A., Nikula, T., & Peuroen, S. (2009). Young people’s translocal new media uses: A multiperspective analysis of language choice and heteroglossia. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14, 1080–1107. Lofti, S. (2007). Diglossia and contact-induced language change. International Journal of Multilingualism, 4 (1), 38–51. Makoni, S. & Pennycook, A. (2007). Disinventing and reconstituting langauges. In S. Makoni & A. Pennycook, Disinventing and reconstituting languages (pp. 1–41). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Milroy, J. (2001). Language ideologies and the consequences of standardization. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 5 (4), 530–555. Milroy, J. & Milroy, L. (2012). Authority in language: Investigating Standard English (4th ed.). Florence, Ky: Routledge. Otsuji, E. & Pennycook, A. (2010). Metrolingualism: Fixity, fluidity and language in flux. International Journal of Multilingualism, 7 (3), 240–254. Ricento, T. (2000). Historical and theoretical perspectives in language policy and planning. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 4(2), 196–213. Tjupa, V. (2009). Heterglossia. In P. P. Huhn & J. S. Wolf (Eds.). Narratologia – Contributions to narrative theory: Handbook of narratology (pp. 124–131). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. �14 Watts, R. J. (2010). The ideology of dialect in Switzerland. In J. Blommaert (Ed.). Language, power and social process: Language ideological debates (pp.67–103). Munchen:Walter de Gruyter. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2893 Title A name given to the resource LANGUAGE ECOLOGY RE-ORIENTATION IN A CONTEMPORARY METROLINGUAL FRAMEWORK: A CRITICAL PARADIGM SHIFT TO AN EXPANDED, COMMON STANDARD ALBANIAN Author Author Kolgjini, Julie M. Abstract A summary of the resource. Given present emergent trans-local new media in de-territorialized and poly-lingual milieus, an approach to the current Unified Literary Albanian (ULA) that integrates elements of Gramscian-esque and Bakhtinian-esque optics on language would be more in sync with contemporary poly-glossic realities of numerous Albanian speech communities in 21st century linguistic marketplaces than the language’s present standard. Such reforms could serve as partial remedies for current linguistic injustices and insecurities regarding various purported dysfluencies of marginalized and disenfranchised speakers of stigmatized Albanian varieties, thereby averting returning to past repressions. This alternative positioning allows younger generations of language learners to exercise their agency in arriving at “their own emergent orders of normativity” (Leppänen et al., 2009, p. 1080). Espousing this perspective encourages language guardians with ortholinguistic tendencies to refocus their energies from “deeply entrenched dogmas” (Del Valle, 2014, p. 370) of standard language ideology focusing on linguistic imposition and denigration, and exclusionary policies that neglected to integrate rich socio-historical realities of the languagers, to an inclusive linguistic regime that embraces the present linguistic diversity of polycentric sociolinguistic spaces. Instead of perpetuating outdated language policies involving inflexible linguistic intolerances of bygone eras that (still) attempt to hermetically seal language and prevent any leakage, cross-contamination, trans-languaging, or codemeshing from one variety (in)to another, mutual accommodation and communicability are advocated here. Given the diffusion of polycentric sociolects in various locales where Albanian is employed, “putting the toothpaste back in the tube” could be rather challenging and futile. Thus, various gatekeeping pedagogies, including many current replacement and appropriateness paradigms, could be ineffectual given contemporary metrolingual realities of many Albanian languagers and learners. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/812f69b95ffc0056393313dc0b97a416.pdf f731a647a93a8b2d808bf8141a729a75 PDF Text Text A YEAR OF CELEBRATIONS: RAISING CULTURAL AWARENESS IN CLASS Evgenia Koika Unaffiliated, Greece Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 24.06.2015 Abstract The multinational nature of the English speaking community as well as the increasing use of English by non –native speakers, as it has become the lingua franca of our era, may lead to the assumption that the English language is not tied to any particular culture. This paper however suggests that teachers should choose a pluralistic approach with the ultimate goal of raising their students’ intercultural communicative competence. Thus, it examines both theoretically and practically, through extensive Needs Analyses, and a posteriori students’ evaluations, the appeal of a cultural awareness approach and the success of its implementation by means of a series of organized events. The Needs Analyses prove that the students are eager to learn more about the countries which they overwhelmingly consider a possible destination for studies and/or job (mainly US, UK, Australia, Canada and to a lesser extent Ireland). Celebrations, sports, local cuisines, as well as music and the film industry are absolutely cherished. Their participation in events including British Tea Parties, Irish Saint Patrick’s Day presentations and distinctive American Thanksgiving and Halloween celebrations prove the merit of the cultural awareness approach in EFL. Thus Clarks’s objective “to learn by doing rather than by being taught” can be applied in conjunction with a modern intercultural communicative approach and a strategy of an English language contextualization. Hence, students embark voluntarily on a learning process, improving not only their language but also their research, organizational and communication skills, while achieving cultural familiarization with all English-speaking people. In order to achieve the aforementioned, the use of computer-based technology is a sine qua non since it offers flexibility and redefines the roles of the teacher and the learners as the teacher assumes the role of the facilitator/guide on the side, leading students to autonomy. 1 �1. Introduction Culture by its very nature ought to become the central axis of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching in the sense that cultural awareness facilitates language proficiency and language is a social practice; therefore language and culture are intricately interwoven. The major goal of EFL, and for that matter of any foreign language teaching, is the mastery of communicative competence. Therefore, learners of English ought to study its cultural backgrounds so as to acquire cultural frames of reference and understand the cultural contexts in which it is used (Alpetekin, 2002; Kramsch, 1993). However, the multinational nature of the English speaking community as well as the increasing use of English by non –native speakers, as it has become the de facto international lingua franca of our era, may lead to the assumption that the English language is not tied to any particular culture. In practice, we suggest that teachers should choose a pluralistic approach like the one presented in this paper that encompasses the “big five”, namely the United Kingdom, Ireland, the United States of America, Canada, and Australia with the ultimate goal to take advantage of the English’s international character so as to raise their students’ intercultural communicative competence (Mao, 2009). 2. Reasoning There are sound arguments supporting the integration of culture in language teaching. Firstly, cultural conflicts occur as a result of misinterpretations, ethnocentrism, stereotypes, and prejudice (Levine & Adelman, 1982). Secondly, meanings are lost because of cultural boundaries (Porter, 1987). Thirdly, “our students’ comprehension is frequently impeded not by linguistic features, but by cultural ones….” Thus, “language can never be divorced from culture” (Lazar, 1993). Actually, learners of English ought to be made aware that cultural awareness leads to a better understanding of the nuances of the language, of connotations, of cultural norms and contexts as well as to a better insight of native speakers’ way of thinking. Understandably, this knowledge would make them much more effective communicators (Stern, 1992 cited in Ghorbani –Shemshadsara, 2012). Furthermore, cultural learning is very effective in increasing learners’ motivation, which greatly affects every learning process. Culture classes contribute significantly to learner motivation because most learners like culturally based activities such as role playing, dancing, singing or doing research on other countries and peoples. Hammerly suggests that teaching about the target culture when teaching the target language entices and motivates students (Hammerly, 1982 cited in Purba, 2011). 2 �Unfortunately, the score and certificate-oriented teaching of English in Greece wears the energy of both the teachers and the learners in drilling the skills that are examined, namely listening, speaking reading and writing leaving them no margin to cultivate a cultural consciousness that would have made the teaching and learning of English both entertaining and highly effective (Mao, 2009). The teaching of culture remains “insubstantial and sporadic in most language classrooms” (Omaggio-Hadley, 1993, p.357) despite the fact that cultural informed English teaching would benefit the students who learn more about the target cultures through movies, songs and the internet than their English Language classes. Regarding the merits of the specific approach called “A year of celebrations” it is worth pointing out that it creates successive “Directed Motivational Currents” (DMC) which maintain and re-enforce student motivation throughout the academic year. It doesn’t perceive motivation as static and linear but as something dynamic, thus fluctuant. Therefore it strives to create motivational pathways so as students to be caught in a powerful flow of motivation that would impel them to engage in the learning process on their own volition and if possible on their own initiative (Dornyei et al, 2014). Instead of a sterile “chalk and talk” teaching method it offers a socially realistic and credible “language generating” series of activities not only for purposeful language use but also for encouragement of “acquisition” (Scrivener, 2005; Crookall, 1984). Actually a major objective is to put students in situations that they are first and foremost involved as individuals and the language is used as a tool for reaching a goal rather than a goal itself. Learning becomes personal, exploratory, and thus motivational as the principles of cooperative learning (CL), which is a highly effective instructional approach regarding small groups in order to achieve common learning goals via collaboration are utilized. Theoretically, CL has proven “superior to most traditional forms of instruction in terms of producing learning gains and student achievement, higher order thinking, positive attitudes toward learning, increased motivation, better teacher-student and student-student relationships accompanied by more developed interpersonal skills and higher self esteem on the part of the student” (Dornyei,1997, p.487). Students are divided into small groups and learning takes place through peer teaching, joint problem solving, brainstorming, varied interpersonal communication and individual study monitored by peers. All members, including the teacher, cooperate by exchanging ideas, information and providing constructive feedback. Furthermore, it exploits the “soft power” of the English speaking countries, mostly their media, the xenophilic tendencies of the students which encompass a great curiosity for these cultures and peoples, a desire to broaden their horizons so as to avoid provincialism as 3 �well as a desire for new stimuli and challenges (Dornyei, 1994; Ghorbani-Shemshadsara, 2012). Furthermore, the learners, through the various tasks and projects that this approach entails, acquire 21st century skills such as global citizenship, communication, collaboration and critical thinking for problem solving (Fullan, 2013). 3. From Theory to Practice A needs analysis questionnaire administered in the beginning of the course provides the teacher with valuable data regarding the learning profile of the particular class, the students’ likes and dislikes as well as their perceptions on a number of things. High school students may have no choice regarding their attendance of the classes but if their opinion is taken into consideration regarding the content and the form of the course even the most indifferent ones will warm up to it. The needs analyses we have administered the last ten years in different schools both in Athens and Thessaloniki show that students are eager to learn more about the English speaking countries for both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Anything that has to do with celebrations, sports, local cuisines as well as music and the film industry is an attention magnet. Furthermore, regarding their preferred method of working pair and group work come first. Moreover they enjoy variety and the use of technology to either create or to conduct research. These results correlate with research findings which confirm that cultural learning is very effective to increase learners’ motivation, something that greatly affects every learning process. Based on the Needs Analysis, every September we present our students with a calendar of celebrations from almost all English speaking countries. We have chosen to employ the “4-F” approach to teaching culture focusing on festivals, fairs, food and folk dances (Ariza, 2007). Every month there are one or two celebrations, some accompanied with relative extra-curricular events and all of them paired with proper food motivators. Soon enough the students become aware that “cultural activities and objectives have been carefully organized and incorporated into lesson plans so as to enrich and inform the teaching content” (Purba, 2011, p.51). The lesson always starts with a “teaser”; something that will attract the students’ attention and act as a motivator. For instance, the students may be presented with objects like figurines, magazines or decorative items that originate from the target culture and they are challenged to find information either by conducting research or by being given clues to investigate. The realia add to the real world credibility of the celebration and help to engage students in authentic cultural experiences (Ariza, 2007; Frank 2013). Segments of movies are 4 �used extensively as they are one of the most contemporary and comprehensive ways to encapsulate the look, feel and rhythm of a culture. Watching Jennifer Lawrence and Bradley Cooper taking a stroll while children go “trick or treating” in “Silver Linings Playbook” has proven quite attention catching. In the same vein, documentaries and advertisements are used so as students to get an insight, for instance, of the ambiance of a 4th of July parade and a Saint Patrick’s parade; they travel to the past through movies or documentaries on the Irish famine or the civil rights movement of African Americans (Purba, 2011). Students in pairs or groups are asked to research particular aspects of each celebration so as to answer questions like: What traditional dishes are served in the United States on Thanksgiving, and what is the history behind them? Or what is the historic event celebrated at Guy Fawkes Night? The accumulated data may be used for a writing task, an oral presentation in class or a role play activity. Therefore, students participate in a range of “hands on” activities so as to make a “mind map” for every celebration aiming at grouping information from different sources. All this information would comprise a knowledge repository for the group. On every lesson leading to a celebration there will be a task related to it, while every effort is made for an interdisciplinary approach with the help of colleagues (Frank, 2013). A multi-sensory approach appeals to all types of intelligence so every effort is made to include color, picture, body movement, sound and touch (During, 1997; Purba, 2011). Moreover game based learning is applied whenever possible. Two examples of this approach are the Halloween party and the Easter Egg Hunt. Regarding the Halloween Party the students have already carved pumpkins and played trick or treat during school hours so in the afternoon come to school dressed in costumes so as to have fun and play traditional games such as bobbing for apples under one condition: that they would communicate in English. The Easter Egg Hunt is a treasure hunt with clues, in English, that present linguistic and intellectual challenges that appeal to all age groups (Frank, 2013). Another example of experiential learning is the traditional tea party that the students co-host so as to celebrate the Queen’s Birthday. They do research on tea and the traditional dishes such as the scones and the salmon and cucumber sandwiches, tea’s significance on the British culture, the history behind it and they present all these to teachers and parents who attend this party. Consequently, the objective is to integrate the aforementioned cultural elements in my language teaching using culturally sensitive and informed authentic tasks as well as opportunities for firsthand experience of a variety of cultural and linguistic stimuli (Sifakis & Sougari, 2003). 5 �4. Cultural Awareness Implications At this point it is worth highlighting that we strive to compare and contrast the dark aspects of the celebrations with the bright ones. For instance, when celebrating Thanksgiving, students research the treatment of the Native Americans by the Pilgrims. These celebrations can also be the starting point for research on contemporary issues. For example, on the occasion of the Martin Luther King Day students may look into incidents like the police shootings in Ferguson and elsewhere in the US, or into other types of discrimination like Islamophobia. Therefore, all these cultural activities can give students food for thought as regards much more serious issues (Ghorbani –Shemshadsara, 2012). Another achievable result is the “cultural familiarization” with the British, Irish, American, Canadian and Australian cultures and how those cultures relate to the students’ own native culture. The learners in every occasion are asked to compare and contrast the particular celebration with a celebration or elements of their own country’s culture. Therefore, the ultimate goal is intercultural communicative competence in the sense that by raising the student’s awareness of their own culture they are also helped to interpret and understand appropriately the cultures of the English speaking countries (Frank, 2013). Thus Clark’s objective “to learn by doing rather than by being taught” (Clark, 1987, p.50) can be applied in conjunction with an intercultural communicative approach and a strategy of an English language contextualization. 5. Challenges It would be an omission not to mention the enormous challenges such an approach presents. Firstly it is difficult to convince all stakeholders of its legitimacy. Secondly, there are challenges regarding the logistics, namely the preparations for each event. Thankfully, out of experience, the parents’ association very rarely fails to grant requests for volunteers or the provision of ingredients for food preparation. Last but not least, time management is of the utmost importance and considerable time is spent on fore planning so as everything to run smoothly. At this point it is worth highlighting that the most important stakeholders, the students, are staunch supporters of this approach, despite the extra workload it entails. The vast majority of the students on an evaluation form filled anonymously on the last day of classes, comment on the level of enjoyment, knowledge and communicative confidence they acquired through this cultural journey. Furthermore, to skeptics who may argue that valuable 6 �teaching time is spent on cultural endeavors rather than the important four linguistic skills, we refer them to the language output of students during simulations, presentations and roleplaying. Moreover, all tasks assigned introduce students to relevant vocabulary. Thus, the learners use the language to achieve their goals and all this leads to implicit learning (Frank, 2013). 6. Conclusion Concluding, we should highlight that the objective of this approach is to integrate cultural elements in our language teaching using culturally sensitive and informed authentic tasks as well as opportunities for firsthand experience of a variety of cultural and linguistic stimuli. Cultural informed English teaching would benefit the students who learn more about the target culture through movies, songs and the internet than the English Language classes as the focus is more on the mastery of the four basic skills. And this has to change. Otherwise we are selling our students short in the sense that we are not preparing them adequately for the real world. All the above contribute in the acquisition of a plethora of 21st century skills as they ameliorate the students’ research, presentation, critical thinking and teamwork skills. References Alptekin, C. (2002). Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. ELT Journal, 56(1), 57-64. Ariza, D. (2007). Culture in the EFL classroom at Universidad de la Salle: An innovation project. Revist Actualidades Pedagogicas 50/9-17, 9-17. Clark, J.L. (1987). Curriculum Renewal in School Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crookall, D. (1984). The Use of Non-ELT Simulations. ELT Journal, 38/4, 262-273. Dornyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and Motivating in the Foreign Language Classroom. The Modern language Journal, 78/3, 273 – 284. Dornyei, Z. (1997). Psychological Processes in Cooperative Language Learning: Group Dynamics and Motivation. The Modern Language Journal 81, 482-493. Dornyei Z., Muir, C. & Ibrahim, Z. (2014) Directed Motivational Current. In Lasagabaster, D., Aintzane, D. & Sierra J.M. (Eds.), Motivation and Foreign Language Learning: From theory to practice. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. During, S. (1997). Teaching Culture. Australian Humanities Review 8/97, 1-15. 7 �Frank, J. (2013). Raising Cultural Awareness in the English Language Classroom. English Teaching Forum 4/13, 2-11. Fullan, M. (2012). From Great to Excellent: Launching the Next Stage in Ontario’s Education Agenda. Toronto: Government of Ontario. Ghorbani-Shemshadsara, Z. (2012). Developing CulturalAwareness in Foreign Language Teaching. English Language Teaching, 5/3, 95-99. Hammerly, H. (1982). Synthesis in language teaching. Blaine, WA: Second Language Publications. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and Language Teaching. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Levine D.R &. Adelman, M.B. (1982). Beyond Language: Cross-Cultural Communication. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Mao, W. (2009). Teaching Culture Within and Beyond Language. English Language Teaching, 2/4, 144-148. Omaggio-Hadley, A. (1993). Teaching Language in Context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Porter, E. (1987). Foreign involvement in China’s colleges and universities: a historical perspective. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 11(4), 369-385. Purba, H. (2011). The Importance of Including Culture in EFL Teaching. Journal of English Teaching 1/1, 44-56. Scrivener, E. (2005). Learning teaching. Oxford: Macmillan. Sifakis, N. C. & Sougari, A.M. (2003). Facing the globalisation challenge in the realm of English Language Teaching. Language and Education, 17/1, 59-71. Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2886 Title A name given to the resource A YEAR OF CELEBRATIONS: RAISING CULTURAL AWARENESS IN CLASS Author Author Koika, Evgenia Abstract A summary of the resource. The multinational nature of the English speaking community as well as the increasing use of English by non –native speakers, as it has become the lingua franca of our era, may lead to the assumption that the English language is not tied to any particular culture. This paper however suggests that teachers should choose a pluralistic approach with the ultimate goal of raising their students’ intercultural communicative competence. Thus, it examines both theoretically and practically, through extensive Needs Analyses, and a posteriori students’ evaluations, the appeal of a cultural awareness approach and the success of its implementation by means of a series of organized events. The Needs Analyses prove that the students are eager to learn more about the countries which they overwhelmingly consider a possible destination for studies and/or job (mainly US, UK, Australia, Canada and to a lesser extent Ireland). Celebrations, sports, local cuisines, as well as music and the film industry are absolutely cherished. Their participation in events including British Tea Parties, Irish Saint Patrick’s Day presentations and distinctive American Thanksgiving and Halloween celebrations prove the merit of the cultural awareness approach in EFL. Thus Clarks’s objective “to learn by doing rather than by being taught” can be applied in conjunction with a modern intercultural communicative approach and a strategy of an English language contextualization. Hence, students embark voluntarily on a learning process, improving not only their language but also their research, organizational and communication skills, while achieving cultural familiarization with all English-speaking people. In order to achieve the aforementioned, the use of computer-based technology is a sine qua non since it offers flexibility and redefines the roles of the teacher and the learners as the teacher assumes the role of the facilitator/guide on the side, leading students to autonomy. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c9655f08f7459055e12c78bafa523a31.pdf 21b49e835bf0054f8a4c4e8338ac3f34 PDF Text Text ARGUMENTATION AND POLITENESS STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING CRITICAL LITERACY COMPETENCE IN C1/C2 STUDENTS OF SPANISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Milena Ivanović Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain Article History: Submitted: 11.06.2015 Accepted: 22.06.2015 Abstract This work, proceeding from Ivanovic (2015), focuses on the linguistic manifestations of argumentation and politeness in expressing different points of view and how they can be applied in teaching Spanish as a FL to advanced level students according to the CEFR (2001) which suggests the critical interpretation of texts in levels B2/C. For proving this proposal, columns published in two Spanish newspapers with different political orientation: progressive, El País (Carlos Boyero and Maruja Torres), and conservative, ABC (Antonio Burgos and Ignacio Camacho) were analyzed. Both the content and the strategies used by columnists have a persuasive goal and are considered materials that encourage students to think about social issues and trigger meaningful discussions. Previous studies have shown that, on the one hand, argumentation is a way of being polite because it justifies communicative goals and is a way of collaborating with the speaker, and, on the other hand, politeness can be considered as a tool for argumentation (Fuentes, 2009: 117, 125). It is supposed that (im)politeness is an argumentative technique that can add value and convince the speaker of something (Alcoba and Poch: 2006, 2010). Therefore, the aim of this paper is to approach Critical Literacy studies and develop critical literacy competence in C1/C2 students of Spanish as a FL focusing on argumentation and politeness strategies. In order to achieve that, as proposed in Goethals (2011), it is essential to enable students to identify different components of each text (text organization), to interpret its functional exponents and functions of certain strategies. In that sense, to adopt critical approach towards media discourse and to be able to interpret the underlying messages it is necessary to emphasize the importance of the following �aspects to the B2/C students of Spanish as a FL: argumentation and politeness strategies used in columns and its significant exponents because it can allow us to show whether these manifestations of argumentation and politeness depend on ideology or rather on the personal style of each author. �1. Introduction This work, proceeding from Ivanovic (2015), focuses on the linguistic manifestations of argumentation and politeness in newspapers columns and how these techniques can be applied for enhancing critical literacy competence in teaching Spanish as a FL to advanced level students. According to the CEFR (2001), the critical interpretation of texts in levels B2/C is suggested so the aim of this work is to: • Encourage students to develop critical attitude and incorporate that competence as an additional communicative competence in foreign language learning. • Analyze techniques that can facilitate the acquisition of critical competence such as argumentation and politeness strategies. That will allow them to see text, in general, and, each component of the text, in particular, from different perspectives and to finally see whether these manifestations of argumentation and politeness depend on ideology or rather on the personal style of each author. 2. Critical Literacy in the Framework of Foreign Language Learning The world we're living in is changing and evolving at an extraordinary rate and will continue to do so at ever-increasing rates. We live in an increasingly diverse, globalized, complex and media-saturated society which partly has to do with the penetration of Internet which has provided a common platform to communicate and share information. In this context, critical literacy competence has become vital. Students must develop different literacies such as critical, multicultural, emotional, environmental, and media literacies. They need to know how to use their knowledge, information and to be able to think critically in order to grow personally and become thoughtful active citizens both on local and global levels. Critical literacy is the ability to actively read different types of discourses so as to achieve a deeper understanding of socially constructed concepts such as ideology, power, domination, political, economic and gender inequality and injustice that are reflected in media, books, everyday conversations, etc. Critical literacy encourages students to understand and question ideology and power issues, attitudes, values, and beliefs of written or spoken discourses, as well as different visual applications. To become critically literate students have to develop and master not only simple reading comprehension, but also the ability to analyze, critique, and question the �messages inherently present within any form of discourse and to challenge these issues. Only in that way they can become active agents of change because critical literacy practices can contribute to change and the development of political awareness (Freire and Macedo, 1987; Luke and Freebody, 1999). According to CEFR (2001), communicative language competence comprises several components:  Linguistic competences include lexical, phonological, syntactical knowledge and skills and other dimensions of language as system, independently of the sociolinguistic value of its variations and the pragmatic functions of its realizations.  Sociolinguistic competences refer to the socio-cultural conditions of language use (rules of politeness, norms that govern relations between different generation, sexes and social groups) which affects all language communication between representatives of different cultures even though participant may be unaware of its influence.  Pragmatic competences are concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources (production of language functions, speech acts, mastery of discourse, etc.) in interactional exchanges. Critical competence is considered in C2 level, both in case written production and visual reception (writing) (CEFR, 2001: 69)1: Can understand and interpret critically virtually all forms of the written language including abstract, structurally complex, or highly colloquial literary and non-literary writings Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle distinctions of style and implicit as well as explicit meaning. Castellà and Cassany (2005) distinguish between a critical and a non-critical reader: Critic reader Non-critic reader Seeking the unique and constant meaning Aware that there are different meanings (dynamic and contextual) �Satisfied with his personal interpretation Dialogues and seeks for social interpretations Reads all texts in the same way Reads each genre in a different way Puts emphasis on the content and looks for Puts emphasis on the ideology and looks for main ideas the intention Pays attention on the explicit aspects Draws attention to the implicit aspects Satisfied with one source of information Looks for different sources and contrasts them Perceives quotations as accurate reproductions Perceives quotations as interested reformulations Argues that understanding is like believing Argues that understanding is not the same as believing Based on this distinction, we are primarily focusing on implicit aspects of each column, the author's' intention and ideology. 3. The relation between Argumentation-Politeness Previous studies have shown that the relation between argumentation and (im)politeness in discourse is bidirectional (Fuentes, 2009; Alcaide Lara, 2014). From one point of view, argumentation is bound to politeness since it can be used in favor of (im)politeness apart from the persuasive goal which is present in different degree in almost any kind of discourse as proposed by Anscombre and Ducrot (1994)2. When we provide the speaker with arguments, we in a way justify our communicative goals. When we give reasons, we collaborate with the speaker and respect his face. Persuasion doesn't have to be concealed always. Therefore, the argumentative structure can operate as a mechanism that regulates the speakers’ face as well as a mechanism that reinforces (im)polite activity. On the other hand, (im)politeness is considered a mechanism in favor of argument and its function is purely persuasive. It is supposed that (im)politeness is an argumentative technique that can add value and convince the speaker of something (Alcoba and Poch: 2006, 2010). The argumentative goal of politeness is to get something from the other and of the impoliteness to indirectly achieve something, to transmit the position of power, to convince or cause a reaction in the other (for example in politics discourse). �In conclusion, although politeness emphasizes more the sociological and psychological aspect of communication and has other functions3 apart from persuasive, in this work we will focus on its purely argumentative goal and we consider it a persuasive technique per se. 4. Argumentation – Politeness Strategies in FLT and for enhancing Critical Literacy Critical literacy competence is fostered by analyzing different types of texts and meanings: newspapers, magazines, TV and radio programs, texts on the Internet within different social and cultural contexts. The focus should be on materials that can trigger meaningful discussions in the classroom and encourage students to thinks about social issues that are seen in their everyday lives. In that sense, critical literacy is more an attitude, a way to position towards discourses which implies the activation of previous knowledge and exchange of different points of view (Cots, 2006). That is why, as we have already mentioned, for proving this proposal, columns published in two Spanish newspapers with different political orientation: progressive, El País (Carlos Boyero and Maruja Torres), and conservative, ABC (Antonio Burgos and Ignacio Camacho) were analyzed. Therefore, we suggest organizing the reading task in different stages: before, while and after reading. Stage 1 - Before reading. Activate knowledge and vocabulary that is required for the understanding of the text by raising various questions concerning the contest, discourse genre, the author, its communicative goal and the target reader.  Cultural context o What kind of text it is? o In what kind of society it is produced?  Situational context o In which section of the newspaper are these texts published?  Communicative goals o For what purpose are these text created?  Author/Writer o Who is the writer? o Which ideology does he reflects? �o What is his/her intention?  Readers o Who´s the target reader? o What kind of reaction is the writer looking for?  Multimodality o The role and purpose of the images/videos? (if used) The answer to all these questions lies in the general knowledge of the world so it is essential to activate these general competencies4 and fully involve a learner in the comprehension of the text as the active member of the target language linguistic community. Stage 2 - While reading. Check out the interpretational hypothesis, proceed with the content, and identify different components of the text. Since the aim of this work is to approach Critical Literacy studies and develop critical literacy competence in C1/C2 students of Spanish as a FL focusing on argumentation and politeness strategies, we suggest focusing on the following aspects as we did in our analysis. The first aspect regarding argumentation focuses on the orientation of the arguments, whether they are co-oriented and lead to the expected conclusion or anti-oriented and lead to opposite conclusions; and the second one on the strength of the arguments, on two particular mechanisms: intensification and attenuation. Argumentation Orientation Strength Co-orientation Intensification Anti-orientation Attenuation Since the argumentation is bound to the intention of the speaker to influence the reader, it means that the reader is implicitly present and, therefore, it is essential to bear this dialogical character of argumentation in mind. As Plantin (1990: 232) pointed out: "La argumentación es dialéctica; su lenguaje no es un lenguaje de objetos sino un lenguaje habitado por los interlocutores y marcado por sus puntos de vista".5 Therefore, as for the columnist, the focus is on the expressions of the personal view, polyphony (the use of different voices), and the use of impersonal structures for �depersonalization of the discourse. And as for the reader, the use of pronominal forms as a way of addressing the reader (T – V distinction)6 and other types of reference to the reader that make columns more dialogical and interactive should be considered. Interlocutors Columnist Reader Personal vision T–V distinction Polyphony Reference to the reader Impersonality Finally, when it comes to politeness, our starting point was Brown y Levinson´s distinction of politeness strategies (1987). So regarding positive politeness, in our analysis we focused on two strategies in particular: claim common ground and convey that S and H are cooperators7. The aim of the first one is to attend the readers´ needs and wants by justifying intentions and reformulating; to exaggerate interest and sympathy with the reader; and, to show in-group solidarity with the use of different pronominal forms. As for the second strategy, its aim is to include both the columnist and the reader in the activity with the use of inclusive plural; and to assume and enhance reciprocity by strengthening reader´s positive face with the use of modality. In relation to the negative politeness, the focus was on two strategies as well. The first one, don´t coerce the reader aims to minimize the imposition by limiting the writer´s attitude on the personal level avoiding generalization; and give deference by using different pronominal forms for addressing the reader. The second strategy, communicate writer´s want not to impinge on the reader, seeks to impersonalize both the columnist and the reared. Politeness Positive politeness Claim ground' Negative politeness 'common Attend (interests, the H's Don't coerce H needs, Minimize imposition wants) Exaggerate approval, (interest, sympathy Give deference the �with H) Use in-group identity markers Convey that S and H Include both speaker Communicate are cooperators S's Impersonalize S and (S) and hearer (H) in want not to impinge H activity Assume on H or assert reciprocity Stage 3 - After reading. Get the global meaning and the main idea. As suggested in this work, one of the ways to construct the global meaning is by analyzing linguistic manifestations of argumentation and politeness in expressing different points of view in order to see whether they depend on the ideology or on the personal style of the columnists. Furthermore, to encourage students to exchange opinions and read multiple or parallel texts further comparison tasks may be carried out.  Compare possible interpretations of each column.  Contrast different discourses that belong to the same genre which implies comparing columns published in the same newspaper and then with the ones published in the other that reflects different ideology (El País vs. ABC).  Analyze different genres of texts dealing the same topic, for example columns and editorials, although this is just one of many possible comparisons.  Contrast different modes of communication, for example written, oral, audiovisual. In the framework of trans-cultural pragmatics, it may also imply the comparison of different linguistic tools used for a concrete purpose across different languages. In addition, these specific practices should be contrasted with the same practice in students' own culture. 5. Conclusions Critical Literacy is a way to address texts from a global perspective and it involves not only linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competencies, but also the competence to compare discourses from a critical point of view. In that sense, comparison tasks are essential. �Reading comprehension activities should be focused on specific social practices, authentic and multimodal texts. The analysis should proceed from general contextual and communicative goals aspects towards more concrete, specific, linguistic dimensions of the texts to identify discourse characteristics, components, functional exponents and strategies. In particular, the analysis of the argumentation and politeness strategies and its significant components used in columns can enhance Critical Literacy Competence because it allows to see:  Which linguistic mechanisms are commonly used to persuade a reader;  Whether these manifestations depend on ideology or rather on the personal style of each author. From the analysis we have conducted, we proved that the use of argumentation and politeness strategies is not determined by the ideology that columnists reflect, but by their own personal and expressive style. �Endnotes 1 Users of the Framework may wish to consider for what purposes and in which modes the learner will need, or wish or be required to read (CEFR, 2001: 71). 2 Anscombre and Ducrot (1994) have developed the linguistic approach to argumentation. They named their approach Radical Argumentativism because, according to their view, every form of language has an argumentative aspect. In other words argumentativity is a general feature of all language use. 3 Apart from the persuasive functions, Fuentes (2009: 140-141) distinguishes other functions both for manifestations of politeness and impoliteness. In case of politeness, the author mentions: organizational and cohesive function in an interactive level (greetings, rituals, initiation of a conversation); and social function that goes beyond the linguistic aspect because it affects the social image that a speaker wants to project about himself. In the same way, additional functions of impoliteness are the following: cohesive function to indicate the end of interaction; social function to project negative image because the speaker wants to break interactional bonds of wants to be seen in that way; and modal function when the speaker seeks to surprise the other or cause rejection. 4 "Language use, embracing language learning, comprises the actions performed by persons who as individuals and as social agents develop a range of competences, both general and in particular communicative language competences. [...] General competences are those not specific to language, but which are called upon for actions of all kinds, including language activities." (CEFR, 2001: 9). 5 The argumentation is dialectical; its language is not a language of objects, but a language inhabited by the interlocutors and marked by their views. 6 In sociolinguistics, a T–V distinction (from the Latin pronouns tu and vos) is a contrast, within one language, between second-person pronouns that are specialized for varying levels of politeness, social distance, courtesy, familiarity, age or insult toward the addressee. 7 S stands for Speaker and H for Hearer. �References: Alcaide Lara, Esperanza (2014): “La relación argumentación-(des)cortesía en el discurso persuasivo” in Diana Bravo (ed.), Pragmática Sociocultural / Sociocultural Pragmatics, Volume 8, Issue 2. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 223-261. Alcoba, S. (2013): “Cortesía y gramática de la Argumentación en las cuñas publicitarias“, en C. Fuentes (Coord.) (Des) cortesía para el espectáculo: estudios de pragmática variacionista, Madrid, Arco/Libros, págs. 39-66. Alcoba, Santiago y Dolors Poch (2006): "Cortesía y argumentación en las cuñas de radio. Español Actual, 86, pp. 7-44. Alcoba, Santiago y Dolors Poch (2010): "Argumentación, cortesía y ´poder´en las cuñas de radio" en F. Orletti y L. Mariottini (eds.), Descortesía en español. Espacios teóricos y metodológicos para su estudio. Roma/Estocolmo. Università Roma Tre-EDICE. pp. 285-314. Anscombre, J.C. y Ducrot, O. ([1983] 1994): La argumentación en la lengua. Madrid. Gredos. Brown, P. y Levinson, S. (1987): Politeness. Some universals in language use, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Cassany, D. (2005): “Literacidad crítica: Leer y escribir la ideología”, workshop at the IX Simposio Internacional de la Sociedad Española de Didáctica de la Lengua y la Literatura, SEDELL/Universidad de la Rioja, Logroño. 30-11-2005. Available at: file:///C:/Users/ub/Downloads/0046352ca74ca3a32c000000.pdf. Castellá, J. M. y D. Cassany (2010): “Aproximación a la literacidad crítica” in Perspectiva, Florianópolis, v.28, n. 2, pp.353-374. Available at: https://repositori.upf.edu/bitstream/handle/10230/21187/Cassany_PERSPECTIVA_28_2.pdf?seq uence=1. Cots, J.M. (2006): "Teaching with an attitude: Critical Discourse Analysis in EFL Teaching", ELT Jornal, 60/4, pp. 336-345. Council of Europe (2001): Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR). Available at: http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf. Freire, P. and D. Macedo(1987): Literacy: Reading the Word and World. South Hadley, Mass: Bergin & Garvey Publishers. �Fuentes Rodríguez, Catalina (2009): "La argumentación en la lengua y la cortesía verbal, ¿dos teorías distintas?" en Miguel Casas Gómez (dir.) y Raíl Marquez Fernández (ed.), XI jornadas de Linguística. Homenaje al profesor José Luis Morales. Cádiz. Universidad de Cádiz. Servicio de Publicaciones. pp. 109-148. Goethals, P. (coord.) y VVAA. (2011): Manual de expresión escrita en español. Libro de actividades para estudiantes anglófonos. Gante, Academia Press. Ivanovic, M. (2015): Manifestaciones de la opinión y de la argumentación en columnistas de El País y de ABC. PhD Thesis in submisson process. Barcelona. Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona. López Ferrero, Carmen and Ernesto Martín Peris (2010): “La competencia crítica en el aula de español L2/LE: Textos y contextos” at XXI Congreso Internacional de la ASELE, Del texto a la lengua: la aplicación de los textos a la enseñanza-aprendizaje del español L2-LE. Salamanca, 2010. Available at: http://cvc.cervantes.es/ensenanza/biblioteca_ele/asele/pdf/21/21_0507.pdf Luke, A. and P.Freebody (1999): “A map of possible practices: further notes on the four resources model”, Practically Primary, vol 4, no 2. pp. 5-8. Plantin, C. (2001 [1990]): La argumentación. Barcelona. Editorial Ariel. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2896 Title A name given to the resource ARGUMENTATION AND POLITENESS STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING CRITICAL LITERACY COMPETENCE IN C1/C2 STUDENTS OF SPANISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Author Author Ivanović, Milena Abstract A summary of the resource. This work, proceeding from Ivanovic (2015), focuses on the linguistic manifestations of argumentation and politeness in expressing different points of view and how they can be applied in teaching Spanish as a FL to advanced level students according to the CEFR (2001) which suggests the critical interpretation of texts in levels B2/C. For proving this proposal, columns published in two Spanish newspapers with different political orientation: progressive, El País (Carlos Boyero and Maruja Torres), and conservative, ABC (Antonio Burgos and Ignacio Camacho) were analyzed. Both the content and the strategies used by columnists have a persuasive goal and are considered materials that encourage students to think about social issues and trigger meaningful discussions. Previous studies have shown that, on the one hand, argumentation is a way of being polite because it justifies communicative goals and is a way of collaborating with the speaker, and, on the other hand, politeness can be considered as a tool for argumentation (Fuentes, 2009: 117, 125). It is supposed that (im)politeness is an argumentative technique that can add value and convince the speaker of something (Alcoba and Poch: 2006, 2010). Therefore, the aim of this paper is to approach Critical Literacy studies and develop critical literacy competence in C1/C2 students of Spanish as a FL focusing on argumentation and politeness strategies. In order to achieve that, as proposed in Goethals (2011), it is essential to enable students to identify different components of each text (text organization), to interpret its functional exponents and functions of certain strategies. In that sense, to adopt critical approach towards media discourse and to be able to interpret the underlying messages it is necessary to emphasize the importance of the following aspects to the B2/C students of Spanish as a FL: argumentation and politeness strategies used in columns and its significant exponents because it can allow us to show whether these manifestations of argumentation and politeness depend on ideology or rather on the personal style of each author. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics