320 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f87e18d6034c6e542bfcaa15d2c51fd.docx afdd3efbd321f0e8e5df4b97a1c28f4d https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/76dd1f3f99d5e0afa00a9658938cd538.pdf aa0eb49b6a01f0072f013982b9d0bda3 PDF Text Text Autor: Mr. sc. Ajla Škrbić, viši asistent Institucija: Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Travniku E-mail: ajla.skrbic@pfk.edu.ba TRANZICIONA PRAVDA KAO USLOV PRISTUPU EVROPSKOJ UNIJI Sažetak Tranziciona pravda je termin koji označava različite načine postupanja prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava u društvima u tranziciji, a koji dovode do postkonfliktnog pomirenja u društvu. Ne podrazumijeva samo suđenja osobama koje su prekršile pravo u sukobu, već prvenstveno izgradnju odrţivog mira u postkonfliktnim društvima. Sastoji se od niza inicijativa kojima je cilj utvrđivanje istine o onome što se desilo u sukobu koji se zbio u prošlosti - a što, svakako, obuhvata i utvrđivanje odgovornosti počinioca i naknadu štete ţrtvama zločina. U radu će poseban naglasak biti na vansudskim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde. Pokušat će se odgovoriti na pitanje da li bi uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde trebalo biti uslov za pristup Evropskoj uniji, kao i šta su drţave bivše SFRJ učinile po tom pitanju. Poseban akcenat bit će na drţavi Bosni i Hercegovini i njenim dostignućima na ovom polju. Ključne riječi: Evropska unija, tranziciona pravda, mehanizmi tranzicione pravde. �1. Uvod Acquis (pravna tečevina Evropske unije) uslov je o kojem drţava potencijalna članica Evropske unije (u nastavku teksta: EU) prilikom pregovora o pristupanju uopšte ne moţe raspravljati. Svaka drţava koja podnosi zahtjev za članstvo u EU mora biti spremna prihvatiti acquis u potpunosti. Sadrţaj acquis-a podijeljen je na 35 poglavlja pregovora. U kontekstu ovog rada značajna su poglavlja broj 23 i 24 – „Pravosuđe i temeljna prava“ i „Pravda, sloboda i sigurnost“. U radu ćemo pokušati ustanoviti da li EU mora više insistirati na ovoj oblasti, odnosno šta je na tom polju učinjeno na Balkanu te, posebice, u Bosni i Hercegovini (u nastavku teksta: BiH). Prilikom pisanja ovog rada koristili smo zvanične dokumente EU i stručnu literaturu koja se bavi ovom tematikom, ali i pisanja nevladinih organizacija i branitelja/ica ljudskih prava koji se zalaţu za postizanje tranzicione pravde na Balkanu, te web portale koji raspravljaju o ovoj tematici. 2. Značaj tranzicione pravde Tranziciona pravda je termin koji označava različite načine postupanja prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava u društvima u tranziciji, a koji dovode do postkonfliktnog pomirenja u društvu. Ispravno „postupanje prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava“ ne podrazumijeva samo suđenja počiniocima tih zločina, već mnogo više. „Prema Međunarodnom centru za tranzicionu pravdu, postupci tranzicione pravde obuhvataju:  pozivanje kršilaca ljudskih prava u prošlosti na odgovornost putem krivičnog gonjenja i vansudskih oblika istrage (kao što su mehanizmi za utvrđivanje istine);  reparacija za ţrtve i napori da se zadovolje njihove potrebe;  transformacija sistema bezbednosti, tako da odgovaraju za kršenja ljudskih prava u prošlosti i potencijalno uklanjanje kršilaca ljudskih prava iz javnih ustanova;  i reformisanje javnih institucija da bi se sprečilo ponovno kršenje ljudskih prava iz prošlosti.“i Slaţemo se sa Refikom Hodţićemii kada kaţe da pogrešna tumačenja pojma tranzicione pravde uglavnom dolaze zbog prefiksa „tranziciona“.iii On u intervjuu datom GlobalX portalu navodi definiciju tranzicione pravde, prema kojoj ovaj pojam obuhvata društvenu strategiju bavljenja posljedicama sistematskih zločina i kršenja ljudskih prava, strategiju koja ima dva osnovna cilja: 1. pruţanje pomoći i obeštećenja ţrtvama, kako bi se, koliko je to moguće, ublaţile posljedice pretrpljene boli, štete i nepravde; 2. sprečavanje da se takva sistematska kršenja ljudskih prava ponove.iv Dakle, cilj tranzicione pravde nije samo krivično gonjenje onih koji su prekršili ljudska prava u prošlom sukobu, nego i apsolutna reforma cjelokupnog društva koje je takva kršenja ljudskih prava omogućilo, podrţalo ili zataškalo. Navedeno podrazumijeva reforme institucija, širenje istine o počinjenim zločinima, lustraciju u drţavnim i akademskim krugovima, uključivanje istine u obrazovne programe u školama, pomoć ţrtvama i sl. Ustanovljavanju pravnog okvira za uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde u velikoj mjeri pomogla je presuda Međuameričkog suda za ljudska prava u slučaju Velásquez-Rodríguez protiv Hondurasav. Ista naglašava pet osnovnih obaveza drţave u borbi za zaštitu ljudskih prava: BIRN. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/balkanska-tranziciona-pravda/sta-jetranziciona-pravda (27.11.2015.) ii Refik Hodţić je novinar i aktivista iz Prijedora čiji je stručni rad vezan za tranzicionu pravdu. Radio je kao glasnogovornik Međunarodnog krivičnog suda za bivšu Jugoslaviju (The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia; u nastavku teksta: ICTY) i Suda BiH, a danas je direktor komunikacija Međunarodnog centra za tranzicionu pravdu u New Yorku. iii GlobalX. (2015, juli 6.). Intervju: Refik Hodţić – Srebrenica je najprofitabilnija moneta najljigavijim manipulatorima. GlobalX. Preuzeto sa: http://globalx.ba/intervju-refik-hodzic-srebrenica-je-najprofitabilnija-moneta-najljigavijim-manipulatorima/ (27.11.2015.) iv Ibid. v Velasquez Rodriguez v. The State of Honduras, Međuamerički sud za ljudska prava, 29.7.1988. i �1. 2. 3. 4. preduzimanje neophodnih mjera kako bi se spriječila kršenja ljudskih prava; efikasno istraţivanje svih navoda o zločinima ukoliko do njih ipak dođe; imenovanje ţrtava i počinioca zločina; procesuiranje svih osoba za koje postoji osnovana sumnja da su naredile ili lično počinile zločine, kao i organizovanje efikasnog i fer sudskog postupka; 5. izrada programa reparacija za ţrtve.vi Sve suprotno od navedenog ide ka stvaranja zaborava. A ako zaboravimo našu prošlost, ona će upravljati našom budućnošću.vii Nemoguće je izgraditi zdravo društvo - ako je to društvo zasnovano na laţima i zataškivanju zločina. Ako napisano prenesemo na BiH: neophodno je da se identifikuje i prepozna istina o onomo što se dogodilo devedesetih godina. Ţrtvama je potrebno javno priznanje da je ono što im se desilo neprihvatljivo, te podrška drţavnih institucija i društva, i to prvenstveno u vidu rehabilitacije, psihosocijalne pomoći i resocijalizacije – dakle, onih vansudskih mehanizama tranzicione pravde. Mišljenja smo da ţrtve prvenstveno trebaju moralnu satisfakciju, a zatim i utvrđivanje odgovornosti počinioca i naredbodavaca zločina, ali i same drţave za nepravdu koju su doţivjele. Na kraju, dakako, neophodno je i sistemsko rješenje neadekvatnih pravosudnih procesa, koje je danas prisutno u svim drţavama u regionu. Sve navedeno zajedno stvara klimu koja onemogućava da se isti ili slični zločini ponove u budućnosti. Sve navedeno, dakako, nije moguće ukoliko se u proces ne uključi i obrazovni sistem drţava koje su u fokusu. 3. Podrška EU u postizanju tranzicione pravde na balkanu EU je definisala uslove koje svaka drţava koja ţeli postati članica EU mora ispoštovati.viii Acquis (pravna tečevina EU) predstavlja skup prava i obaveza koje sve drţave članice obavezuju i povezuju unutar EU.ix EU je sredinom novembra usvojila akt Okvirna politika EU za podršku tranzicionoj pravdi.x Time je naglasila svoju posvećenost podrţavanju ovih procesa, i postala prva regionalna organizacija koja ima namjensku strategiju spram tranzicione pravde. Sve navedeno ukazuje da EU smatra da međunarodna zajednica mora raditi zajedno kako bi razvojno podrţala postkonfliktna društva.xi Politika proširenja EU zasnovana je na ulaganju u mir, sigurnost i stabilnost u Evropi. Izgledi za članstvo u EU imaju snaţan efekat transformacije na potencijalne drţave članice, odnosno ti izgledi podrazumijevaju pozitivnu demokratsku, političku, društvenu i ekonomsku promjenu u drţavama.xii Kako se iz prethodnog poglavlja dā zaključiti, nema mira, sigurnosti i stabilnosti na Balkanu bez tranzicione pravde. EU mora insistirati na ovoj tematici ako ţeli u svoje članstvo primiti drţave Balkana Popović, D. M. (2009). Vodič kroz tranzicijsku pravdu u Bosni i Hercegovini. Razvojni program Ujedinjenih nacija u BiH, str. 15. i 16. Navedena rečenica je glavna vodilja u radu: Škrbić, A. (2015, oktobar). The role of young scientists in post-conflict societies. Rad prezentovan na Baku Forumu 2015. Baku, Azerbejdţan. Rad je trenutno u pripremi za objavljivanje u zborniku radova sa naznačene konferencije. viii Pristupanje novih drţava članica EU regulisano je članom 49. Ugovora o EU. Osnovni uslov je da drţava mora biti evropska te da mora poštovati principe slobode, demokratije, zaštite ljudskih prava i osnovnih sloboda, kao i vladavine prava, odnosno vrijednosti na kojima je zasnovana EU (čl. 6 (1) Ugovora o EU). No, tokom perioda 1973–2007. postepeno su razvijani i utvrđivani i novi kriteriji. Pristupanju drţave EU prethode pregovori o članstvu, a predmet tih pregovora su uslovi, dinamika i način preuzimanja acquis-a. Direkcija za evropske integracije. (2010, juli 1.). Pristupanje novih drţava članica u EU. Direkcija za evropske integracije. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dei.gov.ba/dokumenti/default.aspx?id=4813&langTag=bs-BA (20.11.2015.) ix Ibid. x European Union. (2015). The EU’s Policy Framework on support to transitional justice. Preuzeto sa: http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/pdf/the_eus_policy_framework_on_support_to_transitional_justice.pdf (29.11.2015.) xi European Union External Action. (2015, novembar 16.). EU adopts its policy framework on support to transitional justice. European Union External Action. Preuzeto sa: http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/2015/191115_eu_transitional_justice_en.htm (29.11.2015.) xii Navedeno je istaknuto i u Strategiji EU za proširenje Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the regions Evropske komisije od 10.11.2015. (str. 2.). vi vii �koje predstavljaju stabilna društva.xiii Ipak, svjedoci smo poprilično nekonzistentnog odnosa spram tranzicione pravde od strane aktera uključenih u procese EU integracija. Primjerice, nedavno je negativno iznenadila Kancelarija za evropske integracije Vlade Srbije kada nije imala primjedbi na Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca, vojnih invalida, civilnih invalida rata i članova njihovih porodica u Republici Srbiji. Naime, već duţe se vode ţestoke rasprave oko ovog Nacrta zakona između vladinih tijela, s jedne strane, i nevladinih organizacija koje se bave zaštitom ljudskih prava, sa druge strane. Kancelarija za evrposke integracije Vlade Srbije je ta koja bi trebala posmatrati usklađenost propisa Srbije sa acquis-em te sugerisati da se nacrti zakona izmijene u skladu sa evropskim smjernicama. Stalno se ističe da je jedan od osnovnih ciljeva EU: zaštita prava i interesa drţavljana drţava članica te razvoj EU kao prostora slobode, sigurnosti i pravde, no ovako se moţe steći dojam da EU nije stalo do svih njenih (potencijalnih) drţavljana. Nacrtom zakona na koji Kancelarija za evropske integracije Vlade Srbije nije imala primjedbe većina civilnih ţrtava koje danas ţive u Srbiji neće biti prepoznate kao ţrtve, niti će dobiti podršku drţave. xiv Njime se krše brojne međunarodne norme o zaštiti ţrtava kršenja ljudskih prava, ali i ustavno načelo koje propagira jednaku zaštitu građana pred zakonom.xv Pozitivnih primjera, ipak, ima. Zvaničnici često izjavljuju da drţave Balkana neće ući u EU dok ne uspostave tranzicionu pravadu, odnosno da treba igrati na privlačnost ulaska u EU da bi se pomoglo drţavama na putu prema demokratiji, vladavini prava i normalizaciji odnosa sa susjedima – što je 2011. izjavljivao francuski ministar za evropske poslove Jean Leonetti.xvi Nadalje, djeluje se i praktično. U BiH je pokrenut projekat „Osiguranje pristupa pravdi za svjedoke/ţrtve, kroz jačanje postojećih i uspostavljanje novih mreţa podrške svjedocima u BiH“, za koji je najveći donator upravo EU (sa 1,7 miliona eura).xvii Cilj projekta je unapređenje pristupa pravdi i rehabilitaciji za svjedoke, i to kroz pruţanje blagovremene multidisciplinarne podrške kako bi se doprinijelo odrţivom miru u BiH.xviii Prilikom predstavljanja projekta šef Odjela kooperacija u Delegaciji EU u BiH Melvin Asin naglasio je da bi vlasti na svim nivoima trebale prepoznati vaţnost ovog pitanja, dok je britanski ambasador Edward Ferguson istakao vaţnost institucionalnog rješenja za pitanje ţrtava seksualnog nasilja.xix Putem Evropskog instrumenta za demokratiju i ljudska prava osigurava se dugoročna pomoć za organizacije koje promovišu krivičnu pravdu, ali i druge mehanizme tranzicione pravde.xx Podrška procesima vettinga, kojima bi se iz javne sluţbe uklonili prekršioci ljudskih prava, nazire se u programskom dokumentu kojim se misije EU u svijetu usmjeravaju da ohrabruju procese koji raskidaju sa kulturom nekaţnjivosti.xxi Istraţivanja su pokazala da porast kriminala i siromaštvo idu pod ruku sa nesuočavanjem sa prošlošću, odnosno nesuočavanjem sa masovnim kršenjima ljudskih prava u prošlosti. Freeman, M. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. Fond za humanitarno pravo, str. 1. Preuzeto sa: http://www.mreza-mira.net/wp-content/uploads/Sta-je-tranziciona-pravda.pdf (23.11.2015.) xiv Prema procjenama Fonda za humanitarno pravo - radi se o najmanje 15.000 osoba. Diković, J. (2015, novembar 20.). Bez primedbi na Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca i ţrtava. Danas. Preuzeto sa: http://www.danas.rs/danasrs/drustvo/bez_primedbi_na_nacrt_zakona_o_pravima_boraca_i_zrtava_.55.html?news_id=311508 (26.11.2015.) xv Primjerice, Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca, vojnih i civilnih invalida rata i članova njihovih porodica ne prepoznaje porodice nestalih kao civilne ţrtve rata te za njih predviđa manje beneficije u odnosu na beneficije koje uţiva rodbina srpskih vojnika i policajaca koji su nestali van teritorije Republike Srbije. xvi Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. (2011, oktobar 5.). Leonetti - Srbija neće u EU dok se ne pomiri sa susjedima. Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. Preuzeto sa: http://www.helsinki.org.rs/serbian/eu_t01.html (29.11.2015.) xvii Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina & European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. (2015, novembar 13.). EU podrţava pristup pravdi za svjedoke i ţrtve u Bosni i Hercegovini. Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina & European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.ba/?p=37896 (29.11.2015.) xviii Ibid. xix Ibid. xx Ministarstvo za ljudska prava i izbjeglice BiH i Ministarstvo pravde BiH. Strategija tranzicijske pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini 20122016., str. 115. Preuzeto sa: http://www.mpr.gov.ba/aktuelnosti/propisi/konsultacije/Strategija%20TP%20%20bosanski%20jezik%20fin%20doc.pdf (29.11.2015.) xxi Ibid. xiii �Ipak, većina istraţivanja o tranzicionoj pravdi u drţavama bivše SFRJ u zaključku ističe spor napredak u ovoj oblasti. Gotovo svi istraţivači slaţu se da se većina djelovanja, pa i djelovanja EU na ovom polju, svodi na sudske mehanizme tranzicione pravde, dok su ostali mehanizmi, uglavnom, zanemareni.xxii Tendencija i lokalnih i međunarodnih političara je svođenje tranzicione pravde na formalne događaje kao što su potpisivanje raznih ugovora, zvanične posjete i sl. Takođe, u taj proces uključeni su samo političari koji idu u te posjete i daju izjave, dok nema dubinskog pomirenja između institucija i građana.xxiii Postoje razni mehanizmi tranzicione pravde pokrenuti u regionu, kao što su domaći centri za utvrđivanje činjenica, regionalna komisija za utvrđivanje istine RECOM (Regionalna komisija za utvrđivanje činjenica o ratnim zločinima i drugim teškim povredama ljudskih prava počinjenim na teritoriju nekadašnje SFRJ od 1. januara 1991. do 31. decembra 2001. godine) te nekoliko inicijativa za utvrđivanje činjenica preko različitih centara za istraţivanje i dokumentaciju.xxiv No, za sada na promociji tranzicione pravde u regiji najviše rade nevladine organizacije.xxv Dobro je što iste pokazuju interes za ovu tematiku, ali vladina tijela su ona koja bi trebala insistirati na tranzicionoj pravdi. Da bi do toga došlo, mora postojati politička volja, koja u regionu, realno, ne postoji. Upravo zbog toga potreban je jači pritisak institucija EU. One moraju prisiliti vladina tijela (odnosno političke aktere) da institucionalno doprinesu suočavanju ovih drţava sa prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava. Mora se onemogućiti utjecaj političara (direktan ili kroz podobne funkcionere) na sudske i vansudske mehanizme tranzicione pravde, posebno na suđenja. Podrška EU (odnosno podrška vladinih tijela drţava Balkana) moţe se izraziti kroz povećanje finansijskih ulaganja kako bi se stvorili bolji uslovi za procesuiranje ratnih zločina, uvođenjem posebnih obuka za sve koji učestvuju u procesuiranju ratnih zločina, ukidanjem diskriminatornih zakonodavnih akata koji nisu u skladu sa međunarodnim aktima – odnosno ulaganjem u sve druge mehanizme koji doprinose tranzicionoj pravdi. EU mora vršiti pritisak na političare u drţavama bivše SFRJ kako bi akteri koji procesuiraju ratne zločince mogli raditi bez pritiska. Do sada smo bili samo svjedoci „nedostatka resursa i javne podrške“xxvi u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. Navedeno je potvrđeno u kosovskom Izvještaju o napretku za 2015. godinu. Istaknuto je da tuţioci na Kosovu nemaju ni volje ni kapaciteta istraţivati slučajeve ratnih zločina u koje su umiješani pripadnici Oslobodilčke vojske Kosova.xxvii Navedeno je potvrdio i šef delegacije EU u Srbiji Michael Davenport prilikom predstavljanja posljednjeg izvještaja Misije Organizacije za evropsku sigurnost i saradnju u Srbiji. Istakao je da će nezavisnost pravosuđa biti ključni kriterij prilikom pregovora Srbije za članstvo u EU.xxviii Šef delegacije EU u Srbiji je takođe izjavio da EU ni zbog kakvih političkih i ekonomskih pitanja i ozbiljnih reformi sa kojima se Srbija suočava neće tokom pregovora staviti van Sporazum o stabilizaciji i pridruţivanju za drţave Zapadnog Balkana specifičan je jer je saradnja sa ICTY osnova pristupa EU na Balkanu. xxiii Ristić, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Političari na Balkanu pomirenje ne shvataju ozbiljno. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/politi%C4%8Dari-na-balkanu-ne-bave-se-ozbiljno-pomirenjem-11-16-2015 (29.11.2015.) xxiv BIRN. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/balkanska-tranziciona-pravda/sta-jetranziciona-pravda (27.11.2015.) xxv Pojedine nevladine organizacije veoma profesionalno djeluju na ovome polju. U vezi sa temom radom moţemo istaknuti TRIAL u BiH, Fond za humanitarno pravo u Republici Srbiji, Documenta u Republici Hrvatskoj... Fond za humanitarno pravo je, primjerice, pripremio komentare na Akcioni plan za Poglavlje 23 i dostavio ga Ministarstvu pravde (dostupno na: http://www.hlcrdc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Komentari-FHP-na-3.-nacrt-Akcionog-plana-za-poglavlje-23.pdf, 26.11.2015.) Djelovanje nevladinih organizacija posebno je bitno sa aspekta dokumentovanja i ukazivanja na kršenja ljudskih prava, nakon čega bi zvanične institucije trebale reagovati. No, ponekad reakcija vlasti čak i tada izostane (primjerice, pogledati tzv. dosijee koje redovno objavljuje Fond za humanitarno pravo u Republici Srbiji, a u kojima se javnosti pruţa uvid u različita kršenja ljudskih prava, sa jasnim dokazima protiv pojedinaca koji, opet, nakon objavjivanja izvještaja često ne budu procesuirani). xxvi Navedeno je naznačeno u posljednjem izvještaju Misije Organizacije za evropsku sigurnost i saradnju u Srbiji, ali isti je slučaj i sa ostalim drţavama u regionu. Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-10-27-2015 (27.11.2015.) xxvii Čolaku, P. (2015, novembar 10.). EU kritikuje Kosovo zbog procesuiranja ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/eu-kritikuje-kosovo-zbog-procesuiranja-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-11-10-2015 (29.11.2015.) xxviii Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-10-27-2015 (27.11.2015.) xxii �fokusa pitanja tranzicione pravde.xxix Takve izjave predstavnika EU su neophodne, ali potkrijepljene njihovim djelovanjem u skladu sa izjavama. EU promiče i štiti ljudska prava, demokratiju i vladavinu prava. Ljudska prava čak čine samu srţ odnosa ove Organizacije sa drugim drţavama.xxx U njenim javnim istupima ističe se da promicanje napora u zaštiti ljudskih prava moţe pomoći i u sprečavanju i u rješavanju sukoba. Takođe se naglašava da politika EU posebno obuhvata napore u promicanju prava ţena, djece, manjina i raseljenih osoba, borbu protiv diskriminacije, te zaštitu građanskih, političkih, ekonomskih, socijalnih i kulturnih prava. Svi ugovori o trgovini ili saradnji sa drţavama koje nisu članice EU sadrţavaju klauzulu o ljudskim pravima, u kojoj se ističe da su ljudska prava ključna za odnose sa EU.xxxi Da navedeno ne bi bilo samo slovo na papiru, EU mora proširiti djelovanje u potencijalnim drţavama članicama. Pitanje tranzicione pravde na prostoru Balkana je od krucijalne vaţnosti za razvoj drţava na ovome prostoru, posebno kad se uzme u obzir i trenutno postojanje rasprava o uzrocima rata, broju ţrtava, odnosno toku rata uopšte. Utjecaj EU mora biti još jači, kako bi se stanje na ovome polju promijenilo nabolje. Trenutno stanje u svim drţavama na Balkanu na polju tranzicione pravde je, manjeviše, jednako. Ne otvara se dovoljno novih predmeta ratnih zločina i ne procesuiraju se visoko rangirani osumnjičeni za zločine. Institucije koje se bave ratnim zločinima podvrgnute su političkom pritisku. U medijima, ali čak i ispred zvaničnih institucija kritikuju se tuţilaštva za ratne zločine zbog toga što podiţu optuţnice protiv svojih građana. Kritike su tuţilaštvima usmjerene i zbog toga što mali broj slučajeva obuhvata „naše“ ţrtve, dok se mnogo govori o „njihovim“ ţrtvama.xxxii Političari u svim drţavama bivše SFRJ zalaţu se za prestanak priče o prošlosti i upućivanje na razmišljanje o budućnosti. Ukoliko i pričaju o prošlosti, govore o istoj sa aspekta vlastitih „istina” – posebice jer među njima ima i onih koji su saučestvovali u prošlim zločinima.xxxiii 4. Tranziciona pravda u kontekstu pristupanja bih u EU Inicijativa za monitoring evropskih integracija BiH objavila je u julu ove godine Alternativni izvještaj o napretku 2015.xxxiv Između ostalog, ovaj Izvještaj obrađuje i napredak ostvaren u BiH na polju tranzicione pravde, i to u posebnom poglavlju (Poglavlje 4). Ukazuje da je u BiH neophodno jačanje krivične pravde, kao glavnog mehanizma tranzicione pravde, ali da je neophodno korištenje i drugih mehanizama tranzicione pravde, prvenstveno mehanizma prava na istinu (kazivanje istine). Preporuke u Izvještaju su da se efikasno procesuiraju i kazne počinioci ratnih zločina, i to u sudskim postupcima koji će biti dostupni javnosti i gdje će svrha kaţnjavanja biti zadovoljena. Nadalje, Izvještajem se naglašava vaţnost pruţanja podrške članovima udruţenja preţivjelih ţrtava i pojedincima u ostvarivanju njihovih prava. Posebice se sugeriše usvajanje zakona o ţrtvama torture u BiH.xxxv U „pravom“ izvještaju o napretku BiH 2015xxxvi kaţe se da je BiH ostvarila određeni nivo pripremljenosti za provođenje acquis-a u oblasti pravde, slobode i sigurnosti. Izvještaj ističe da je postignut određeni napredak BiH na ovome polju.xxxvii Izvještaj, koji se dostavlja Vijeću EU i Evropskom parlamentu, kao i drţavi o čijem napretku Izvještaj govori, utvrđuje da se BiH vratila na reformski put i počela rješavati prioritete na putu pristupanja EU. No, ističe se da tek treba unaprijediti saradnju Fond za humanitarno pravo. (2015). Kroz pristupanje ka pravdi. Broj 8, str. 4. Europska unija. Ljudska prava. Europska unija. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.eu/pol/rights/index_hr.htm (28.11.2015.) xxxi Ibid. xxxii Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-10-27-2015 (27.11.2015.) xxxiii Gruhonjić, D. (2012, april 20.). Pomirenje kao politička tabu-tema. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/pomirenje-kao-politicka-tabu-tema (29.11.2015.) xxxiv Alternativni izvještaj o napretku predstavlja izvještaj o aktuelnom stanju evropskih integracija u BiH iz ugla organizacija civilnog društva. Cilj mu je da utječe na zvaničan Izvještaj o napretku koji sačinjava Evropska komisija. xxxv Inicijativa za monitoring evropskih integracija BiH. (2015). Alternativni izvještaj o napretku 2015: politički kriteriji. (Sarajevo, juli 2015.) Preuzeto sa: http://eu-monitoring.ba/site/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Alternativni-izvje%C5%A1taj-o-napretku-BiH2015.pdf (20.11.2015.) xxxvi Evropska komisija. (2015, novembar 11.). Izvještaj za Bosnu i Hercegovinu za 2015. godinu. xxxvii Ibid., 61. Boldirana slova dodata od strane autora ovog teksta. xxix xxx �zakonodavnih tijela na nivou drţave, entiteta i Brčko Distrikta.xxxviii Pored ostalog, Izvještaj, govori i o problematičnom radu skupštinskih odbora Brčko Distrikta, uključujuci i Odbor za evropske integracije, iz razloga čestog nedostatka kvoruma na sjednicama, kao i ograničenih kapaciteta sluţbi Skupštine Distrikta.xxxix Naglašava se da je Predsjedništvo BiH usvojilo Izjavu za preduzimanje reformi i unapređenje procesa evropskih integracija, i da tekst te Izjave u potpunosti odraţava zaključke Vijeća za vanjske poslove EU iz decembra 2014. godine. Pohvalno je dodato i da je Parlament BiH usvojio ovu Izjavu.xl Dalje u Izvještaju ističe se da je Vijeće ministara usvojilo Plan rada za 2015. godinu, koji obuhvata usvajanje oko 65 zakona koji se tiču procesa evropskih integracija. Ovaj izvršni organ je u julu usvojio i Reformsku agendu.xli Ovakvi i slični zaključci Evropske komisije mnogo su korišteni od strane visokih funkcionera i u medijima kako bi se u javnosti stekao utisak da BiH napreduje na polju ljudskih prava i da se krupnim koracima pribliţava članstvu u EU. Malo ko je javno (barem od vladinih sluţbenika) ukazao na zaključak Evropske komisije da u BiH još uvijek nije uspostavljen efikasan mehanizam koordinacije između različitih nivoa vlasti za usklađivanje, provedbu i primjenu propisa EU. A takav mehanizam je potreban kako bi zemlja mogla efikasno komunicirati sa EU.xlii Većina političara istakla je ogroman društveno-politički napredak BiH - koji se moţe izvući iz Izvještaja ako se istom gleda „kroz prste“. Malo ko je spomenuo da Ured Vlade Federacije BiH za evropske integracije nema dovoljno administrativnih kapaciteta da koordinira poslove evropskih integracija sa ostatkom drţave i između različitih nivoa vlasti u Federaciji BiH, kao i zaključak Evropske komisije da Vlada Federacije BiH i kantoni do sada nisu uspješno sarađivali na pitanjima evropskih integracija.xliii Ovime ne kritikujemo EU – kritikujemo vlasti naše drţave. No, kritikujemo i pohvalne izjave zvaničnika EU koji doprinose ovakvom stavu vodećih bh. političara.xliv Naravno, nisu ni EU ni zvaničnici EU krivi što se BiH već godinama nalazi u ranoj fazi reformskih procesa gotovo u svim oblastima. Stvarnog napretka u dostizanju tranzicione pravde ne moţe biti dok u BiH (i regiji) ne dođe vlast spremna da se odrekne zločina i zločinaca. No, EU i zvaničnici EU ne smiju stvarati utisak da kretanja u BiH idu u pozitivnom smjeru, niti hvaliti bh. političare i vlast za napredak kojeg, realno, nije ni bilo.xlv „Dva su glavna faktora koja oblikuju proces tranzicione pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini koji nominalno traje u zadnjih 20 godina: nametanje različitih mjera od strane međunarodne zajednice i Ibid., 7. Ibid., 8. xl Ibid. xli Ibid. xlii Ibid., 9. xliii Ibid. xliv Primjerice, izjavu Komesara za proširenje EU Johannesa Hahna datu na press konferenciji u Briselu: „EU inicijativa sprovedena u decembru 2014. godine omogućila je novu formu koja vodi ka Sporazumu o stabilizaciji i pridruţivanju, a to su dokazali usvajanjem Reformske agende. Implementacija agende je na pravom kolosijeku, a strukturalni dijalog o pravosuđu dokazuje da se pravi sistem za rješavanje relevantnih pitanja na drţavnom nivou“. Mirosavljević, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Evropski napredak BiH koji to i nije. Al Jazeera. Preuzeto sa: http://balkans.aljazeera.net/vijesti/evropski-napredak-bih-koji-i-nije (27.11.2015.) Ili, pak, izjavu Šefa delegacije EU u BiH Lars-Gunnara Wigemarka da se, po prvi put u posljednjih nekoliko godina, BiH pribliţava EU, odnosno ostvaruje smisleni pomak, i to u provedbi reformske agende - što je jedan od uslova u pribliţavanju EU integracijama. [Ahmetašević, N. (2015, novembar 24.). “Pozitivno” nazadovanje: europske pohvale bh. elitama. Bilten. Preuzeto sa: http://www.bilten.org/?p=10347 (30.11.2015.)] xlv Kako je istakao Vedran Dţihić, viši istraţivač na Austrijskom Institutu za internacionalnu politiku i direktor Centra za napredne studije Jugoistočne Evrope u Rijeci, krucijalna je činjenica da u BiH postoje formalni institucionalni pomaci, a da u fazi implementacije, u kojoj građani trebaju osjetiti pozitivne učinke, imamo samo probleme. N1 BiH. (2015, novembar 17.). Konferencija o pridruţivanju EU: Za BiH 2016. ključna faza. N1. Preuzeto sa: http://ba.n1info.com/a70028/Vijesti/Vijesti/Vedran-Dzihic-gost-Novog-dana.html (28.11.2015.) Gotova ista situacija je i u drugim drţavama. Upoređivanje sa susjednim drţavama i slabim napretkom u istima naglašava se kao plus u vlastitoj drţavi. Tanjug. (2015, novembar 11.). Vučić: Napredak u 33 od ukupno 34 poglavlja. Dnevnik. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dnevnik.rs/politika/vucic-napredak-u-33-od-ukupno-34-poglavlja (29.11.2015.) S druge strane, ovogodišnji izvještaji o napretku u svim drţavama bivše SFRJ koje ţele pristupiti EU uglavnom prate iste smjernice koje su bile date i u prošlim izvještajima pa se dā zaključiti da ogromnog napretka - koji vlade svih drţava ističu - u pravilu i nema. xxxviii xxxix �potpuno odsustvo političke volje domaćih političara da se sistematski bave posljedicama zločina.“xlvi – izjavio je Refik Hodţić, potpuno tačno ukazujući na osnovni problem u vezi sa sprovođenjem tranzicione pravde u BiH. Zaključujemo da je za napredak BiH potreban pritisak, i to pritisak međunarodne zajednice. EU mora ojačati svoj pritisak u domenu tranzicione pravde ukoliko ţeli u svoje članstvo primiti drţavu u kojoj se poštuju ljudska prava i koja „ulaţe u mir, sigurnost i stabilnost“ te u kojoj su evidentne „pozitivne demokratske, političke, društvene i ekonomske promjene“. Istraţivanjem dostupnih dokumenata o razvoju tranzicione pravde u BiH došli smo do zaključka da se suočavanje sa prošlošću u ovoj drţavi do sada uglavnom svodilo na saradnju sa ICTY, a i to samo iz razloga što postoji obaveza drţave na ovu saradnju. Ovaj aspekt tranzicione pravde je bitan, ali ne i jedini bitan. Vaţno je da ICTY ne dozvoljava da se prošlost zaboravi. Vaţno je da ICTY omogućava pojedincima da u svim, čak i onim najzabačenijim dijelovima BiH saznaju o počinjenim zločinima. Presude koje ovaj sudski organ donosi smatramo vaţnim, i smatramo da trebaju biti obavezan dio obrazovnog sistema ne samo u BiH, nego u svim drţavama bivše SFRJ. No, ICTY nije i ne treba biti jedini mehanizam tranzicione pravde u BiH. 5. Zaključak Evropska unija mora mora jače vršiti pritisak na vladina tijela drţava bivše SFRJ u pogledu njihovog djelovanja na polju tranzicione pravde. Iz istraţivanja svih novih drţava nastalih raspadom SFRJ uočava se da iste idu korak naprijed samo ako neko vrši pritisak na njih, i ako je taj „neko“ - međunarodna zajednica. EU mora shvatiti da je jedini ispravan put balkanskih drţava-potencijalnih novih članica EU - put koji podrazumijeva suočavanje sa prošlošću. Proces suočavanja sa prošlošću i proces pomirenja trebaju biti prioritet za bivše drţave SFRJ, ali i EU. Način da se to postigne nisu samo suđenja ratnim zločincima. Taj put postiţe se i vansudskim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde: donošenjem zakona koji su u skladu sa međunarodnim aktima o zaštiti ljudskih prava, saradnjom sa civilnim društvom, pruţanjem adekvatne podrške ţrtvama ratnih zločina i sl. Usvajanje Okvirne politike EU za podršku tranzicionoj pravdi naglašava podršku EU ovoj oblasti, ali smatramo da je potreban jedan sveobuhvatniji prilaz EU tranzicionoj pravdi u regionu. EU je pokazala da prepoznaje vaţnost tranzicione pravde i da uviđa da ista doprinosi vladavini prava. No, ona mora usloviti BiH i sa drugim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde – ne samo saradnjom sa ICTY. Ova Organizacija mora istaknuti stav da je uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde uslov za evropske integracije. Od EU očekujemo da će nastaviti poticati sprovođenje tranzicione pravde u BiH. Od EU očekujemo da natjera vlasti u BiH da rade na istoj. Jer ako EU to ne učini, mišljenja smo da bi tranziciona pravda u BiH mogla ostati na nivou prazne riječi na papiru. 6. 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EU podrţava pristup pravdi za svjedoke i ţrtve u Bosni i Hercegovini. Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina & European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.ba/?p=37896 Diković, J. (2015, novembar 20.). Bez primedbi na Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca i ţrtava. Danas. Preuzeto sa: http://www.danas.rs/danasrs/drustvo/bez_primedbi_na_nacrt_zakona_o_pravima_boraca_i_zrtava_.55. html?news_id=311508 Direkcija za evropske integracije. (2010, juli 1.). Pristupanje novih drţava članica u EU. Direkcija za evropske integracije. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dei.gov.ba/dokumenti/default.aspx?id=4813&langTag=bs-BA European Union. (2015). The EU’s Policy Framework on support to transitional justice. Preuzeto sa: http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/pdf/the_eus_policy_framework_on_support_to_transitional_justice.pd f European Union External Action. (2015, novembar 16.). EU adopts its policy framework on support to transitional justice. 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Refik Hodţić: Srebrenica je najprofitabilnija moneta najljigavijim manipulatorima. Front slobode. Preuzeto sa: http://www.frontslobode.ba/vijesti/intervju/55084/refik-hodzic-srebrenica-jenajprofitabilnija-moneta-najljigavijim-manipulatorima GlobalX. (2015, juli 6.). Intervju: Refik Hodţić – Srebrenica je najprofitabilnija moneta najljigavijim manipulatorima. GlobalX. Preuzeto sa: http://globalx.ba/intervju-refik-hodzic-srebrenica-jenajprofitabilnija-moneta-najljigavijim-manipulatorima/ Gruhonjić, D. (2012, april 20.). Pomirenje kao politička tabu-tema. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/pomirenje-kao-politicka-tabu-tema Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. (2011, oktobar 5.). Leonetti - Srbija neće u EU dok se ne pomiri sa susjedima. Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. Preuzeto sa: http://www.helsinki.org.rs/serbian/eu_t01.html Inicijativa za monitoring evropskih integracija BiH. (2015). Alternativni izvještaj o napretku 2015: politički kriteriji. (Sarajevo, juli 2015.) Preuzeto sa: http://eu-monitoring.ba/site/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/Alternativni-izvje%C5%A1taj-o-napretku-BiH-2015.pdf �Ministarstvo za ljudska prava i izbjeglice BiH i Ministarstvo pravde BiH. Strategija tranzicijske pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini 2012-2016. Preuzeto sa: http://www.mpr.gov.ba/aktuelnosti/propisi/konsultacije/Strategija%20TP%20%20bosanski%20jezik%20fin%20doc.pdf Mirosavljević, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Evropski napredak BiH koji to i nije. Al Jazeera. Preuzeto sa: http://balkans.aljazeera.net/vijesti/evropski-napredak-bih-koji-i-nije Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca, vojnih i civilnih invalida rata i članova njihovih porodica u Republici Srbiji iz 2014. godine N1 BiH. (2015, novembar 17.). Konferencija o pridruţivanju EU: Za BiH 2016. ključna faza. N1. Preuzeto sa: http://ba.n1info.com/a70028/Vijesti/Vijesti/Vedran-Dzihic-gost-Novog-dana.html Popović, D. M. (2009). Vodič kroz tranzicijsku pravdu u Bosni i Hercegovini. Razvojni program Ujedinjenih nacija u BiH. Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-1027-2015 Ristić, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Političari na Balkanu pomirenje ne shvataju ozbiljno. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/politi%C4%8Dari-na-balkanu-ne-bave-se-ozbiljno-pomirenjem11-16-2015 Tanjug. (2015, novembar 11.). Vučić: Napredak u 33 od ukupno 34 poglavlja. Dnevnik. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dnevnik.rs/politika/vucic-napredak-u-33-od-ukupno-34-poglavlja Ugovor o EU (7.2.1992.) Velasquez Rodriguez v. The State of Honduras, Međuamerički sud za ljudska prava, 29.7.1988. �Author: Ajla Škrbić, LL.M., Senior Assistant Institution: Faculty of Law, University of Travnik E-mail: ajla.skrbic@pfk.edu.ba TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE AS A CONDITION FOR THE ACCESSION TO THE EUROPEAN UNION Abstract Transitional justice is a term that implies different ways of treating previous human rights violations in societies in transition, which lead to post-conflict reconciliation in society. It does not mean only trials against persons who have broken the law in the conflict, but rather building of sustainable peace in post-conflict society. It consists of a numerous initiatives aimed at establishing the truth about what happened in the previous conflict. It also includes the determination of responsibility of the perpetrators and reparation for crime victims. This paper will focus on the extra-judicial mechanisms of transitional justice. It will try to give the answer for the question of whether the establishment of transitional justice should be a condition for joining the EU, as well as what the states of former Yugoslavia did in this field. Special emphasis will be on the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its achievements in this field. Key words: European Union, transitional justice, transitional justice mechanisms. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3176 Title A name given to the resource TRANZICIONA PRAVDA KAO USLOV PRISTUPU EVROPSKOJ UNIJI Author Author ŠKRBIĆ, Ajla Abstract A summary of the resource. Tranziciona pravda je termin koji označava različite načine postupanja prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava u društvima u tranziciji, a koji dovode do postkonfliktnog pomirenja u društvu. Ne podrazumijeva samo suđenja osobama koje su prekršile pravo u sukobu, već prvenstveno izgradnju održivog mira u postkonfliktnim društvima. Sastoji se od niza inicijativa kojima je cilj utvrđivanje istine o onome što se desilo u sukobu koji se zbio u prošlosti - a što, svakako, obuhvata i utvrđivanje odgovornosti počinioca i naknadu štete žrtvama zločina. U radu će poseban naglasak biti na vansudskim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde. Pokušat će se odgovoriti na pitanje da li bi uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde trebalo biti uslov za pristup Evropskoj uniji, kao i šta su države bivše SFRJ učinile po tom pitanju. Poseban akcenat bit će na državi Bosni i Hercegovini i njenim dostignućima na ovom polju. Ključne riječi: Evropska unija, tranziciona pravda, mehanizmi tranzicione pravde. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-50-9 K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3fa9458b02b90648302831db7e7bd444.pdf 0d0000278c444cae0fe6fa9238220c21 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Travel Souvenir Author Author Miralem Mašić Abstract A summary of the resource. This project addresses the common problem of disorganized digital travel photos by developing a mobile application to automatically curate and enrich them with geographical and informational context. The primary objective was to create a "digital souvenir" experience that goes beyond simple photo storage. The "Travel Souvenir" application was built for the Android platform using a modern, modular architecture designed for stability and scalability. The methodology involved integrating a secure cloud backend for user management, real-time data synchronization, and media storage. The app utilizes the device's built-in location services for automatic city categorization, an on-device machine learning model for real-time landmark recognition, and external data APIs to add descriptive context to each souvenir. The result is a fully functional application where user photos are automatically organized into location-based albums. The app successfully syncs data across devices and includes features such as a public feed for shared albums, personal note-taking, and AI-powered landmark identification. The project concludes that by integrating modern mobile and cloud technologies, it is possible to create an engaging and automated solution to the challenge of preserving digital travel memories. Keywords Keywords. travel application, photo organization, digital journaling, location-based services, landmark recognition, machine learning, cloud sync machine learning software engineering travelling https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0f758afc67c3855f3f28ad5b55d1d631.pdf 9031366ac68156b8189c17e00aa3d319 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Travertine as Construction and Building Material Saffet YAĞIZ Pamukkale University Denizli, Turkey syagiz@pau.edu.tr Abstract An experimental study was conducted to investigate physico-mechanical properties of travertines being quarried in western Turkey as construction and buildings material. Four common type of travertine, one of the most common construction materials in the world, were collected from quarries operated around the city of Denizli in south of Turkey, and related rock property tests including both dry and saturated unit weight of travertine, effective porosity, water absorption by weight, uniaxial compressive strength, P-wave velocity, slake durability test were conducted on the samples. Consequently, the results of the performed tests were evaluated according to the national and international construction stone regulations. Concluding remark is that travertine quarrying in the Denizli Basin of Turkey satisfies the relevant natural stone standards with negligible distinction to be used for construction and building purposes. Key words: Buildings, Construction, Travertine Introduction Travertine that could be used in both interior and exterior of buildings is one of the most useable construction and buildings stones in the world. Travertine is a variety of calcium carbonate commonly formed around the hot and cold carbonate-bearing springs. Travertine consists predominantly of quartz grains that usually held together by cementing material with small percentages of feldspar and mica particles and clay. As silica and iron oxide provide the strongest bond for travertines, calcium carbonate gives weakest. Their color ranges from light white, yellow through dark brownish. Even though travertine is often called marble, simply a very pure and mostly porous form of limestone. The Denizli extensional basin in western Turkey has widespread travertine accumulation since Late Quaternary (Figure 1). The total area occupied by modern and old travertines is more than 100 km 2 and its thickness can reach up to 60 m (Özkul et al. 2000). Most of the studies performed on the Denizli travertines are generally focused on Pamukkale (one of the famous travertine deposite of the world) and mainly related to hydrogeology of hot waters, geothermal potential, wasting and conversation (Koçak, 1971; EĢder et al. 1991; Ekmekçi et al. 1995). Some studies have been subjected to dating, morphological classification and relations between travertine and active tectonic-seismicity of the region (Altunel and Hancock, 1993a and 1993b; Hancock et al. 1999). The most common lithotypes presently quarried in Denizli basin are shrub, reed and crystalline crust type travertine respectively; So far, there is no attempt made to investigate physico-mechanical properties of travertine to examine the quality of them for construction purposes. In this paper, travertine types commonly quarried in the area was investigated and results of the research are discussed herein from the scope of their usability and suitability for construction and buildings. Geological Composition of Travertine Quarried in the Denizli Basin Thermal spring waters usually contain large amounts of calcium bicarbonate. As the spring water reaches to earth surface, the water lose most of the dissolved carbon dioxide (gases) and the calcium carbonate in solution readily precipitates as a thin layer of calcite (Demirdağ, 2007). Travertine precipitated at different depositional conditions; so they exhibit variation of color, appearance, bedding, porosity, texture, strength and chemical composition in the Basin (Yağız, 2009). Mainly quarried travertine lithotype in the basin includes; shrub type travertine represented by small bush like growths are common deposit on horizontal and sub horizontal surface (Chafetz, 1984); onyx type travertine commonly forms as a result of rapid precipitation due to fast flowing water on smooth slope; reed type travertine deposited marsh-pool, mound and self built channels (Pentecost, 1990) and noche, 667 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo compact and subunit of reed type one (Guo and Riding, 1998; Akyol et al. 2005). Every travertine type has its specific texture and chemical composition because of its own depositional and environmental conditions (Figure 2). Figure 1. Location map of the sampling area, Denizli-Turkey 1 Shrub type 2 Onyx type 3 Reed type 4 Noche type Figure 2. Macro photograph of the studied rock samples collected from quarries Laboratory Testing Methods Travertine blocks were obtained from quarries operating around the city of Denizli and consequently, samples were prepared to conduct laboratory tests in accordance with the specification of the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM, 1981) and Turkish Standard Institute (TSE 699, 1987). Index Properties of Travertine The samples with 70x70x70mm dimension were used in determination of unit weight, porosity and water absorption of travertines as recommended (ISRM, 1981; TSE 699, 1987). The spacemen volume was computed from an average of several caliper readings. Dry weight of sample was obtained with a balance, capable of weighing to an accurac dry sat) was obtained from the ratio of sample weight to the volume in kg/m3. The effective porosity (n‘), pore volume and water absorption by weight (w) was determined via saturation and caliper techniques (ISRM, 1981). Rock fullness ratio (F) also computed by multiplying bulk density of rock with the ratio of water absorption by weight to void ratio. For each travertine type, the measurements were carried out on ten samples and the average values of the relevant properties with standard deviation are tabulated as in Table 5. Uniaxial Compressive Strength Test 668 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of rock was tested on cubical-samples (having dimension of 70x70x70mm) smoothly sawed from large size blocks in accordance with TSE 699 standards. The ends of the samples were cut parallel to each other and at right angle to the longitudinal axis and then smoothened to ensure that the samples were free from abrupt irregularities and roughness. The stress rate applied uniformly within the limits of 0.5-1.0 MPa/s. The test was conducted perpendicular to observed beddings or layers on a sample to get rid of anisotropy affect on obtained values. Ten samples were tested for each travertine type and the average values were recorded as the UCS of travertine (Table 5). P-Wave Velocity Test P-wave velocity of travertine was measured on the UCS samples using the Portable Ultrasonic Nondestructive Digital Indicating Tester (PUNTID plus). This tester measures the time of propagation of ultrasound pulses in a sample in the range (0.1kHz. The measurement was carried out perpendicular to visual beddings or layers by using good coupling agent necessary between rock surfaces and both receiver and transducer face for accuracy of measurement. Afterward, Pwave velocity was computed from the ratio of distance between transducer and receiver to the time that P-wave takes to travel the distance. The tests were performed on 10 samples by following ISRM methods for each travertine type and the average values were used in the dataset. As result of tests, studied travertine types show high P-wave velocity ranging from 4.5 to 5.0km/s according to P-wave classification as given in Table 1. Vp (km/s) <2.5 2.5-3.5 3.5-4.0 4.0-5.0 >5.0 Description Very low Low Moderate High Very high Shrub Onyx Reed Noche x x x x Table 1. P-wave velocity classification for studied travertine types (Anon, 1979a) Slake Durability Test (SDI) The slake durability test was carried out by using the standard testing method developed (Franklin and Chandra, 1972) and as suggested (ISRM 1981). To perform the test, ten rock lumps made blunt with chisel (ten pieces of about 40–60 g each) were taken and rotated in a drum half immersed in tap water about 20 oC for 10 min at 20rpm. Test drum was made of a standard sieve mesh of 2mm so that the products of slaking from rock samples could pass through the sieve into the water bath. The slake durability index (Id 2) corresponding to the second cycle was computed as the percentage ratio of final to initial dry weights of rock in the drum after the drying and wetting cycles. The test was performed on ten sample of each travertine type with four cycles as suggested by various researchers (Gökçeoğlu et al. 2002; Dhakal et al. 2002; Gupta et al. 2007; Yağız and Akyol, 2008). Consequently, the averaged values of slake durability indices for each travertine type with standard deviation were tabulated in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, the shrub and noche type travertine shows almost same slaking behavior while reed type gives lower durability, but onyx type demonstrates the highest durability for soaking in tap water that pH ranges from 6.75 to 7.05. 669 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Slaking cycle Units % Shrub type x ± SD Onyx type x ± SD Reed type x ± SD Noche type x ± SD Number of test Id1 % 99.23±0.08 99.53±0.04 98.94±0.12 99.25±0.11 10 Id2 % 98.91±0.10 99.24±0.07 98.55±0.14 98.87±0.12 10 Id3 % 98.57±0.11 99.05±0.09 98.23±0.16 98.59±0.13 10 Id4 % 98.34±0.12 98.86±0.10 97.95±0.19 98.32±0.16 10 Table 2. Average slake durability indices and standard deviation of travertine types The lower value of slake durability represents the higher susceptibility for degrading. So, slake durability of travertine was classified according to first and second cycle of durability indices (Yağız, 2010) in Table 3. As mentioned previously, each test was conducted on ten samples and the average values of the results are also reported together with standard deviations herein (Table 4). Id2 Id1 Durability Shrub Onyx Reed Noche >30 <60 Very low 30–60 60–85 Low 60–85 85–95 Medium 85–95 95–98 Medium high 95–98 98–99 High >98 >99 Very high Class of travertine according to Id1 V. High V. High V. High High Class of travertine according to Id2 V. High V. High V. High V. High Table 3. Durability of travertine types according to slake durability classification (Frank and Chandra, 1972) UCS x ± SD (MPa) Vp n‘ w x ± SD x ± SD x ± SD (km/s) (%) Shrub 61±20.6 4.8±0.12 Onyx 58±15 Reed 41±16.6 Travertine type x ± SD x ± SD (%) Fullness x ± SD (%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) 1.35±0.46 0.55±0.19 98.65±0.46 2427±25.2 2440±22.2 4.7±0.19 2.05±0.88 0.76±0.34 97.95±0.88 2664±46 2683±38.1 4.5±0.11 1.89±0.50 0.80±0.22 98.11±0.50 2317±56.3 2336±54.0 dry sat Noche 64±10.9 5.0±0.08 1.59±0.89 0.66±0.38 98.41±0.89 2373±48.1 2389±42.1 x =average values and SD=Standard deviation Table 4. Engineering properties of travertine type based on average values of ten tested samples 670 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 64 TSE11143 (1987) >50 TSE2513 ASTMC97 ASTMC170 (1987) (1990) (1990) >52 41 64 >30 - - - 2318 2373 >2300 - >2305 - 0.76 0.80 0.66 <3 <7.5 <0.2 - 1.35 2.05 1.89 1.59 - <12 - - Vp Class High High High High - - - - SDI Class (Id1 and Id2) High High High High - - - - Properties of travertine Shrub Onyx Reed Noche UCS (MPa) (tile flooring) 61 58 41 (for wall covering) 61 58 2427 2663 w (%) 0.55 n‘(%) 3 dry (kg/m ) Table 5. Suitability of investigated travertine types for construction and buildings Discussions The uniaxial strength, P-wave velocity, effective porosity, slake durability index, fullness ratio, water absorption by weight and both dry and saturated unit weight of travertine that were quarried around the city of Denizli were investigated. 10 samples were prepared and the tests were performed for each type of travertine in order to obtain the best representative value for each rock property. TSE and ASTM standards were used to investigate quality of travertine types as construction materials. Further, P-wave velocity and slake durability classification were performed according to the scientific classifications recommended by various researchers (Anon, 1979a; Frank and Chandra, 1972) as represented in Table 5. Properties of investigated travertine types are very good and acceptable except effective porosity in ASTM standards that counts travertine as marble. The ASTM standard stated that the effective porosity of travertine should be more than three percent (Table 5). In fact, this range is actually impossible for travertine that is more porous and weaker than marble. In TSE, natural stone were categorized in detail according to their origin (TSE 11143, 1993; TSE2513, 1977); on the other hand, the stone were categorized as general in the ASTM standard (ASTM C97, 1996; ASTM C170, 1990); however, such a variation between two different standards is likely. Conclusions In this study, several type of travertine was investigated according to their physic-mechanical properties and usability for modern civil construction and buildings. It is fact that the travertine is categorized as sedimentary origin, porous and weak rocks; therefore, the important issue is not only its properties but also where to be used. Investigated travertine types quarried in the Denizli Basin of Turkey have reasonably good quality to be used for construction and buildings purposes in accordance with national and international standards. Further, P-wave velocity of travertine types is high meaning is that they do not have much micro crack and alteration. The slake durability of those travertine is very high according to the relevant durability classification. So, these travertine types could be used for the purposes without thinking of annual precipitation or humid environments. Concluding remark is that even though reed type travertine being porous has low density and the uniaxial compressive strength is the lowest in comparison with others, type of travertine quarried in the area have acceptable stone quality to be used for developing and constructing building and recreation environments in the modern cities. References Akyol, A., Yağız, S., Özkul, M., ġen, G., Kato, S: (2005). Physical properties of hot spring travertines related to lithotypes at Pamukkale Region in Denizli. In: Proceedings of 1st Int. Symposium on Travertine, M, Özkul, S. Yağız, B. Jones, (Eds), 286-290 Denizli, TR Altunel, E., Hancock, P.L. (1993a) Morphology and structural setting of Quaternary travertines at Pamukkale, Turkey. Geological Journal, 28, 335-346. 671 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Altunel, E., Hancock, P.L. (1993b). Active fissuring and faulting in Quaternary travertines at Pamukkale, western Turkey. Z. Geomorph. N. E. 285-302. Anon, (1979a). Classification of rocks and soils for engineering geological mapping, part 1-Rock and Soil materials. Bulletin of International Association of Engineering Geology, 19, 364-371. ASTM C97 (1996). Standard test method for absorption and bulk specific gravity of dimension stone. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 4.08. ASTM C170 (1990). Standard test method for compressive strength of dimension stone. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 4.08. Chafetz, H.S., Folk, R.L. (1984). Travertines: Depositional morphology and the bacterially constructed constituents. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 54(1), 289-316 Demirdağ, S. (2007). The effect of using different polymer and cement based materials in pore filling applications on technical parameters of travertine stone. Cnstruction and buildings materials, online. Dhakal, G., Yoneda, T., Kato, M., Kaneko, K. (2002). Slake durability and mineralogical properties of some pyroclastic and sedimentary rocks. Engineering Geology, 65, 31–45. EĢder, T., Yılmazer, S. (1991). Geothermal resources of Pamukkale and travertine forming, Tıbbi Ekoloji ve Hidroklimatoloji Dergisi, In: Special issue for the Symposium, Özer N. (Ed), 32-51. Ekmekçi, M., Günay, G., ġimĢek, ġ. (1995). Morphology of rimstone pools, Pamukkale, Western Turkey. Cave and Karst Sciences, 22,103-106. Franklin, J.A., Chandra, C. (1972). The slake durability test. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 325– 341. Gökçeoğlu, C., Ulusay, R., Sönmez, H. (2002). Factor affecting the durability of selected weak and clay bearing rocks from Turkey, with particular emphasis on the influence of the number of drying and wetting cycles. Engineering Geology, 57, 215–237. Guo, L., Riding, R. (1998). Hot-spring travertine facies and sequences, late Pleistocene, Rapolano Terme, Italy. Sedimentology, 45(1), 63-180. Gupta, V., Ahmed, I. (2007). The effect of pH of water and mineralogical properties on the slake durability (degradability) of different rocks from the Lesser Himalaya, India. Engineering Geology, 95, 79-87. Hancock, P.L., Chalmers, R.M.L., Altunel, E., Çakır, Z. (1999). Travitonics: using travertines in active fault studies. Journal of Structural Geology, 21, 903-916. ISRM, (1981). Rock characterization testing and monitoring, ISRM Suggested Methods. International Society for Rock Mechanics, 211p. Koçak, A. (1971). Hydrogeological investigation of Denizli-Pamukkale and Karahayit. Mineral Research and Exploration Institute, Report No.5670. Özkul, M., Varol, B., Alçiçek, M.C. (2002). Depositional environments and petrography of Denizli travertines, Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, 125, 13-29. Pentecost, A. (1990). The formation of travertines shrubs: Mammoth Hot Spring, Wyoming. Geological Magazine, 127, 159-168. TSE 699 (1987). Methods of testing for natural buildings stones, Institute of Turkish Standards. 75p Ankara TR TS2513, (1977) Natural stone testing methods, Institute of Turkish Standard, Ankara, TR TSE11143, (1993). Travertine as building and facing stone, Institute of Turkish Standard, 8p Ankara TR Yağız, S., Akyol, E. (2008). Investigation on the relationship between lithological features and slake durability index of travertine in Denizli. Project Report no: MHF004, (unpublished report). 672 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Yağız, S. (2009). Predicting Uniaxial compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and index properties of rocks using Schmidt hammer. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environments, 68,55-63. Yağız, S. (2010). Geomechanical properties of construction stones quarried in South-western Turkey. Scientific Research and Essays, 5(8), 750-757. 673 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 307 Title A name given to the resource Travertine as Construction and Building Material Author Author YAĞIZ, Saffet Abstract A summary of the resource. An experimental study was conducted to investigate physico-mechanical properties of travertines being quarried in western Turkey as construction and buildings material. Four common type of travertine, one of the most common construction materials in the world, were collected from quarries operated around the city of Denizli in south of Turkey, and related rock property tests including both dry and saturated unit weight of travertine, effective porosity, water absorption by weight, uniaxial compressive strength, P-wave velocity, slake durability test were conducted on the samples. Consequently, the results of the performed tests were evaluated according to the national and international construction stone regulations. Concluding remark is that travertine quarrying in the Denizli Basin of Turkey satisfies the relevant natural stone standards with negligible distinction to be used for construction and building purposes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c7166d328698e496f8c80a4adfe7b5f7.pdf 9031366ac68156b8189c17e00aa3d319 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Travertine as Construction and Building Material Saffet YAĞIZ Pamukkale University Denizli, Turkey syagiz@pau.edu.tr Abstract An experimental study was conducted to investigate physico-mechanical properties of travertines being quarried in western Turkey as construction and buildings material. Four common type of travertine, one of the most common construction materials in the world, were collected from quarries operated around the city of Denizli in south of Turkey, and related rock property tests including both dry and saturated unit weight of travertine, effective porosity, water absorption by weight, uniaxial compressive strength, P-wave velocity, slake durability test were conducted on the samples. Consequently, the results of the performed tests were evaluated according to the national and international construction stone regulations. Concluding remark is that travertine quarrying in the Denizli Basin of Turkey satisfies the relevant natural stone standards with negligible distinction to be used for construction and building purposes. Key words: Buildings, Construction, Travertine Introduction Travertine that could be used in both interior and exterior of buildings is one of the most useable construction and buildings stones in the world. Travertine is a variety of calcium carbonate commonly formed around the hot and cold carbonate-bearing springs. Travertine consists predominantly of quartz grains that usually held together by cementing material with small percentages of feldspar and mica particles and clay. As silica and iron oxide provide the strongest bond for travertines, calcium carbonate gives weakest. Their color ranges from light white, yellow through dark brownish. Even though travertine is often called marble, simply a very pure and mostly porous form of limestone. The Denizli extensional basin in western Turkey has widespread travertine accumulation since Late Quaternary (Figure 1). The total area occupied by modern and old travertines is more than 100 km 2 and its thickness can reach up to 60 m (Özkul et al. 2000). Most of the studies performed on the Denizli travertines are generally focused on Pamukkale (one of the famous travertine deposite of the world) and mainly related to hydrogeology of hot waters, geothermal potential, wasting and conversation (Koçak, 1971; EĢder et al. 1991; Ekmekçi et al. 1995). Some studies have been subjected to dating, morphological classification and relations between travertine and active tectonic-seismicity of the region (Altunel and Hancock, 1993a and 1993b; Hancock et al. 1999). The most common lithotypes presently quarried in Denizli basin are shrub, reed and crystalline crust type travertine respectively; So far, there is no attempt made to investigate physico-mechanical properties of travertine to examine the quality of them for construction purposes. In this paper, travertine types commonly quarried in the area was investigated and results of the research are discussed herein from the scope of their usability and suitability for construction and buildings. Geological Composition of Travertine Quarried in the Denizli Basin Thermal spring waters usually contain large amounts of calcium bicarbonate. As the spring water reaches to earth surface, the water lose most of the dissolved carbon dioxide (gases) and the calcium carbonate in solution readily precipitates as a thin layer of calcite (Demirdağ, 2007). Travertine precipitated at different depositional conditions; so they exhibit variation of color, appearance, bedding, porosity, texture, strength and chemical composition in the Basin (Yağız, 2009). Mainly quarried travertine lithotype in the basin includes; shrub type travertine represented by small bush like growths are common deposit on horizontal and sub horizontal surface (Chafetz, 1984); onyx type travertine commonly forms as a result of rapid precipitation due to fast flowing water on smooth slope; reed type travertine deposited marsh-pool, mound and self built channels (Pentecost, 1990) and noche, 667 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo compact and subunit of reed type one (Guo and Riding, 1998; Akyol et al. 2005). Every travertine type has its specific texture and chemical composition because of its own depositional and environmental conditions (Figure 2). Figure 1. Location map of the sampling area, Denizli-Turkey 1 Shrub type 2 Onyx type 3 Reed type 4 Noche type Figure 2. Macro photograph of the studied rock samples collected from quarries Laboratory Testing Methods Travertine blocks were obtained from quarries operating around the city of Denizli and consequently, samples were prepared to conduct laboratory tests in accordance with the specification of the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM, 1981) and Turkish Standard Institute (TSE 699, 1987). Index Properties of Travertine The samples with 70x70x70mm dimension were used in determination of unit weight, porosity and water absorption of travertines as recommended (ISRM, 1981; TSE 699, 1987). The spacemen volume was computed from an average of several caliper readings. Dry weight of sample was obtained with a balance, capable of weighing to an accurac dry sat) was obtained from the ratio of sample weight to the volume in kg/m3. The effective porosity (n‘), pore volume and water absorption by weight (w) was determined via saturation and caliper techniques (ISRM, 1981). Rock fullness ratio (F) also computed by multiplying bulk density of rock with the ratio of water absorption by weight to void ratio. For each travertine type, the measurements were carried out on ten samples and the average values of the relevant properties with standard deviation are tabulated as in Table 5. Uniaxial Compressive Strength Test 668 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of rock was tested on cubical-samples (having dimension of 70x70x70mm) smoothly sawed from large size blocks in accordance with TSE 699 standards. The ends of the samples were cut parallel to each other and at right angle to the longitudinal axis and then smoothened to ensure that the samples were free from abrupt irregularities and roughness. The stress rate applied uniformly within the limits of 0.5-1.0 MPa/s. The test was conducted perpendicular to observed beddings or layers on a sample to get rid of anisotropy affect on obtained values. Ten samples were tested for each travertine type and the average values were recorded as the UCS of travertine (Table 5). P-Wave Velocity Test P-wave velocity of travertine was measured on the UCS samples using the Portable Ultrasonic Nondestructive Digital Indicating Tester (PUNTID plus). This tester measures the time of propagation of ultrasound pulses in a sample in the range (0.1kHz. The measurement was carried out perpendicular to visual beddings or layers by using good coupling agent necessary between rock surfaces and both receiver and transducer face for accuracy of measurement. Afterward, Pwave velocity was computed from the ratio of distance between transducer and receiver to the time that P-wave takes to travel the distance. The tests were performed on 10 samples by following ISRM methods for each travertine type and the average values were used in the dataset. As result of tests, studied travertine types show high P-wave velocity ranging from 4.5 to 5.0km/s according to P-wave classification as given in Table 1. Vp (km/s) <2.5 2.5-3.5 3.5-4.0 4.0-5.0 >5.0 Description Very low Low Moderate High Very high Shrub Onyx Reed Noche x x x x Table 1. P-wave velocity classification for studied travertine types (Anon, 1979a) Slake Durability Test (SDI) The slake durability test was carried out by using the standard testing method developed (Franklin and Chandra, 1972) and as suggested (ISRM 1981). To perform the test, ten rock lumps made blunt with chisel (ten pieces of about 40–60 g each) were taken and rotated in a drum half immersed in tap water about 20 oC for 10 min at 20rpm. Test drum was made of a standard sieve mesh of 2mm so that the products of slaking from rock samples could pass through the sieve into the water bath. The slake durability index (Id 2) corresponding to the second cycle was computed as the percentage ratio of final to initial dry weights of rock in the drum after the drying and wetting cycles. The test was performed on ten sample of each travertine type with four cycles as suggested by various researchers (Gökçeoğlu et al. 2002; Dhakal et al. 2002; Gupta et al. 2007; Yağız and Akyol, 2008). Consequently, the averaged values of slake durability indices for each travertine type with standard deviation were tabulated in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, the shrub and noche type travertine shows almost same slaking behavior while reed type gives lower durability, but onyx type demonstrates the highest durability for soaking in tap water that pH ranges from 6.75 to 7.05. 669 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Slaking cycle Units % Shrub type x ± SD Onyx type x ± SD Reed type x ± SD Noche type x ± SD Number of test Id1 % 99.23±0.08 99.53±0.04 98.94±0.12 99.25±0.11 10 Id2 % 98.91±0.10 99.24±0.07 98.55±0.14 98.87±0.12 10 Id3 % 98.57±0.11 99.05±0.09 98.23±0.16 98.59±0.13 10 Id4 % 98.34±0.12 98.86±0.10 97.95±0.19 98.32±0.16 10 Table 2. Average slake durability indices and standard deviation of travertine types The lower value of slake durability represents the higher susceptibility for degrading. So, slake durability of travertine was classified according to first and second cycle of durability indices (Yağız, 2010) in Table 3. As mentioned previously, each test was conducted on ten samples and the average values of the results are also reported together with standard deviations herein (Table 4). Id2 Id1 Durability Shrub Onyx Reed Noche >30 <60 Very low 30–60 60–85 Low 60–85 85–95 Medium 85–95 95–98 Medium high 95–98 98–99 High >98 >99 Very high Class of travertine according to Id1 V. High V. High V. High High Class of travertine according to Id2 V. High V. High V. High V. High Table 3. Durability of travertine types according to slake durability classification (Frank and Chandra, 1972) UCS x ± SD (MPa) Vp n‘ w x ± SD x ± SD x ± SD (km/s) (%) Shrub 61±20.6 4.8±0.12 Onyx 58±15 Reed 41±16.6 Travertine type x ± SD x ± SD (%) Fullness x ± SD (%) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) 1.35±0.46 0.55±0.19 98.65±0.46 2427±25.2 2440±22.2 4.7±0.19 2.05±0.88 0.76±0.34 97.95±0.88 2664±46 2683±38.1 4.5±0.11 1.89±0.50 0.80±0.22 98.11±0.50 2317±56.3 2336±54.0 dry sat Noche 64±10.9 5.0±0.08 1.59±0.89 0.66±0.38 98.41±0.89 2373±48.1 2389±42.1 x =average values and SD=Standard deviation Table 4. Engineering properties of travertine type based on average values of ten tested samples 670 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 64 TSE11143 (1987) >50 TSE2513 ASTMC97 ASTMC170 (1987) (1990) (1990) >52 41 64 >30 - - - 2318 2373 >2300 - >2305 - 0.76 0.80 0.66 <3 <7.5 <0.2 - 1.35 2.05 1.89 1.59 - <12 - - Vp Class High High High High - - - - SDI Class (Id1 and Id2) High High High High - - - - Properties of travertine Shrub Onyx Reed Noche UCS (MPa) (tile flooring) 61 58 41 (for wall covering) 61 58 2427 2663 w (%) 0.55 n‘(%) 3 dry (kg/m ) Table 5. Suitability of investigated travertine types for construction and buildings Discussions The uniaxial strength, P-wave velocity, effective porosity, slake durability index, fullness ratio, water absorption by weight and both dry and saturated unit weight of travertine that were quarried around the city of Denizli were investigated. 10 samples were prepared and the tests were performed for each type of travertine in order to obtain the best representative value for each rock property. TSE and ASTM standards were used to investigate quality of travertine types as construction materials. Further, P-wave velocity and slake durability classification were performed according to the scientific classifications recommended by various researchers (Anon, 1979a; Frank and Chandra, 1972) as represented in Table 5. Properties of investigated travertine types are very good and acceptable except effective porosity in ASTM standards that counts travertine as marble. The ASTM standard stated that the effective porosity of travertine should be more than three percent (Table 5). In fact, this range is actually impossible for travertine that is more porous and weaker than marble. In TSE, natural stone were categorized in detail according to their origin (TSE 11143, 1993; TSE2513, 1977); on the other hand, the stone were categorized as general in the ASTM standard (ASTM C97, 1996; ASTM C170, 1990); however, such a variation between two different standards is likely. Conclusions In this study, several type of travertine was investigated according to their physic-mechanical properties and usability for modern civil construction and buildings. It is fact that the travertine is categorized as sedimentary origin, porous and weak rocks; therefore, the important issue is not only its properties but also where to be used. Investigated travertine types quarried in the Denizli Basin of Turkey have reasonably good quality to be used for construction and buildings purposes in accordance with national and international standards. Further, P-wave velocity of travertine types is high meaning is that they do not have much micro crack and alteration. The slake durability of those travertine is very high according to the relevant durability classification. So, these travertine types could be used for the purposes without thinking of annual precipitation or humid environments. Concluding remark is that even though reed type travertine being porous has low density and the uniaxial compressive strength is the lowest in comparison with others, type of travertine quarried in the area have acceptable stone quality to be used for developing and constructing building and recreation environments in the modern cities. References Akyol, A., Yağız, S., Özkul, M., ġen, G., Kato, S: (2005). Physical properties of hot spring travertines related to lithotypes at Pamukkale Region in Denizli. In: Proceedings of 1st Int. Symposium on Travertine, M, Özkul, S. Yağız, B. Jones, (Eds), 286-290 Denizli, TR Altunel, E., Hancock, P.L. (1993a) Morphology and structural setting of Quaternary travertines at Pamukkale, Turkey. Geological Journal, 28, 335-346. 671 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Altunel, E., Hancock, P.L. (1993b). Active fissuring and faulting in Quaternary travertines at Pamukkale, western Turkey. Z. Geomorph. N. E. 285-302. Anon, (1979a). Classification of rocks and soils for engineering geological mapping, part 1-Rock and Soil materials. Bulletin of International Association of Engineering Geology, 19, 364-371. ASTM C97 (1996). Standard test method for absorption and bulk specific gravity of dimension stone. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 4.08. ASTM C170 (1990). Standard test method for compressive strength of dimension stone. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 4.08. Chafetz, H.S., Folk, R.L. (1984). Travertines: Depositional morphology and the bacterially constructed constituents. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 54(1), 289-316 Demirdağ, S. (2007). The effect of using different polymer and cement based materials in pore filling applications on technical parameters of travertine stone. Cnstruction and buildings materials, online. Dhakal, G., Yoneda, T., Kato, M., Kaneko, K. (2002). Slake durability and mineralogical properties of some pyroclastic and sedimentary rocks. Engineering Geology, 65, 31–45. EĢder, T., Yılmazer, S. (1991). Geothermal resources of Pamukkale and travertine forming, Tıbbi Ekoloji ve Hidroklimatoloji Dergisi, In: Special issue for the Symposium, Özer N. (Ed), 32-51. Ekmekçi, M., Günay, G., ġimĢek, ġ. (1995). Morphology of rimstone pools, Pamukkale, Western Turkey. Cave and Karst Sciences, 22,103-106. Franklin, J.A., Chandra, C. (1972). The slake durability test. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 325– 341. Gökçeoğlu, C., Ulusay, R., Sönmez, H. (2002). Factor affecting the durability of selected weak and clay bearing rocks from Turkey, with particular emphasis on the influence of the number of drying and wetting cycles. Engineering Geology, 57, 215–237. Guo, L., Riding, R. (1998). Hot-spring travertine facies and sequences, late Pleistocene, Rapolano Terme, Italy. Sedimentology, 45(1), 63-180. Gupta, V., Ahmed, I. (2007). The effect of pH of water and mineralogical properties on the slake durability (degradability) of different rocks from the Lesser Himalaya, India. Engineering Geology, 95, 79-87. Hancock, P.L., Chalmers, R.M.L., Altunel, E., Çakır, Z. (1999). Travitonics: using travertines in active fault studies. Journal of Structural Geology, 21, 903-916. ISRM, (1981). Rock characterization testing and monitoring, ISRM Suggested Methods. International Society for Rock Mechanics, 211p. Koçak, A. (1971). Hydrogeological investigation of Denizli-Pamukkale and Karahayit. Mineral Research and Exploration Institute, Report No.5670. Özkul, M., Varol, B., Alçiçek, M.C. (2002). Depositional environments and petrography of Denizli travertines, Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, 125, 13-29. Pentecost, A. (1990). The formation of travertines shrubs: Mammoth Hot Spring, Wyoming. Geological Magazine, 127, 159-168. TSE 699 (1987). Methods of testing for natural buildings stones, Institute of Turkish Standards. 75p Ankara TR TS2513, (1977) Natural stone testing methods, Institute of Turkish Standard, Ankara, TR TSE11143, (1993). Travertine as building and facing stone, Institute of Turkish Standard, 8p Ankara TR Yağız, S., Akyol, E. (2008). Investigation on the relationship between lithological features and slake durability index of travertine in Denizli. Project Report no: MHF004, (unpublished report). 672 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Yağız, S. (2009). Predicting Uniaxial compressive strength, modulus of elasticity and index properties of rocks using Schmidt hammer. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environments, 68,55-63. Yağız, S. (2010). Geomechanical properties of construction stones quarried in South-western Turkey. Scientific Research and Essays, 5(8), 750-757. 673 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 261 Title A name given to the resource Travertine as Construction and Building Material Author Author YAĞIZ, Saffet Abstract A summary of the resource. An experimental study was conducted to investigate physico-mechanical properties of travertines being quarried in western Turkey as construction and buildings material. Four common type of travertine, one of the most common construction materials in the world, were collected from quarries operated around the city of Denizli in south of Turkey, and related rock property tests including both dry and saturated unit weight of travertine, effective porosity, water absorption by weight, uniaxial compressive strength, P-wave velocity, slake durability test were conducted on the samples. Consequently, the results of the performed tests were evaluated according to the national and international construction stone regulations. Concluding remark is that travertine quarrying in the Denizli Basin of Turkey satisfies the relevant natural stone standards with negligible distinction to be used for construction and building purposes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc0631ee1fa9fc7518671d046252d26f.pdf 2507cebbc83a3d00013856740966b6af PDF Text Text Treatment Trials Of Parasites Of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and Sea Bream (Sparus Aurata) in Turkey Erol TOKŞEN Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 Đzmir, TURKEY erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr T. Tansel TANRIKUL Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 35100 Đzmir, TURKEY tansel.tanrikul@ege.edu.tr Fikri BALTA Rize University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, 53100 Rize, TURKEY fikribalta@hotmail.com Erkin KOYUNCU Mersin University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases,Yenişehir 33169 Mersin, TURKEY ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr Abstract: With over 8300 km of coastline and 25 million square hectares of useably sea, Turkey has particularly bright future in aquaculture. Interest has centred on two major species sea bream, sea bass, Those are most favourable have been the Aegean and Western Mediterranean coasts. Sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 75,000 tons in Turkey. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Thus, focus has been placed on fish diseases in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Especially, parasitical diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. In this study, various studies were carried out in different time about parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Turkey and their treatment were investigated. Different species such as Trichodina spp., Costia spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Ceratothoa oestroides were reported on the gills of sea bream and sea bass in these studies. In this review, the parasites observed on sea bass and sea bream, and their epizootiology, clinical signs, pathogenicity of the parasites and their treatment were given, separately. Keywords: Sea bass, sea bream, parasite, diagnosis, control, treatment Introduction Turkey is a country of which three sides have been surrounded by the seas. Its coastline is 8333 km and 25 million square hectares of useable sea. There is a great aquaculture potential in Turkey. Therefore, Turkey is a most important aquaculture producer in the Mediterranean. The Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) are the main cultured fish specieses in the Mediterranean area. Recently, it is shown in Table.1 that sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 80,940 tons in Turkey (TUIK, 2009). The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Health problems have two fiscal consequences on the industry: loss of productivity due to animal mortality and morbidity, and loss of trade due to food safety issues. Thus, disease is undoubtedly one of the major constraints to production, profitability and sustainability of the aquaculture industry. Vibriosis, pasteurellosis and tenacibaculosis are serious threatening bacterial infections of sea bass and sea bream. The most important parasites for cultured sea bass and/or sea bream are Trichodina spp., Ichthyobodo spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus 667 �minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Meinertia oestroides. This research presents the individual parasies types producing probles in sea bream and sea bass. Each section is presented with 1. aetiyology, the parasitic organism responsible for the disease, 2. epizootiology, the transmission of the diseases and life cycle of the parasite, 3. pathogenicity, how the parasite produces diseases in the fish, 4. symptoms, clinical signs of the diseases, 5. diagnose, how the infection can be identificated, 6. treatment, how the infection can be controlled. Type of fish Inland water Trout Carp Marine water Trout Sea bream Sea bass Mussel Prawn Other Total 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 43 432 683 48 033 571 56 026 668 58 433 600 65 928 629 1 650 20 435 26 297 1 513 - 1 249 27 634 37 290 1 500 2 000 1 633 28 463 38 408 1 545 2 200 2 740 33 500 41 900 1 100 1 600 2 721 31 670 49 270 1 772 196 94 010 118 277 128 943 139 873 152 186 Table.1. Aquaculture production of Turkey (TUIK, 2009) 1. Trichodina Spp. Trichodinid protozoans are cosmopolitan aquatic parasites, common on gills and skin of fish in both the freshwater and marine environments. Trichodinids are peritrich ciliates (order Mobilina, family Trichodinidae) that glide on the surface of the fish. They normally feed on bacteria and mucus and are often considered as ectocommensal nuisances rather than true parasites. 1.1. Aethiology: Trichodina spp. are a group of dorsal-ventrally flattened oval ciliated protozoan parasites of marine and freshwater species of finfish. The diameter of the ciliate is mostly about 50 to 100 µm. A readily distinguishable characteristic of these organisms is the presence of a prominent denticular or “tooth-like” internal cytoskeleton ring. There are four additional genera of trichodinids (Trichodina, Trichodinella, Paratrichodina, Tripartiellea, Hemitrichodina) which are similar in description and life cycle. 1.2. Epizootiology: Trichodinids reproduce by simple binary fission under conditions that are usually optimal for the host fish. Most species are host specific and presumably spread from fish to fish by incidental contact between susceptible host fish, as well as through contact with the organism in the water column. Transmission is direct, from fish to fish. Within 8 to 10 h’s of the host’s death, trichodinids leave the host but, depending on the temperature, may survive for several days in the water (Lom, 1995). 1.3. Patogenicity: While small numbers of these organisms on a fish generally do not cause much of a health problem, large numbers can cause moderate to serious pathology and ultimately, death of fish. Small fish and fry are especially susceptible, and mortality can occur quickly if undiagnosed (Toksen, 2004). Trichodina spp. cause irritation by feeding on the epithelial layer of cells covering the surface of the gills and skin of the fish. This can result in hyperplasia (proliferation) of the epithelial cells, clubbing of the gill filaments and even fussion of the gill filaments. This affects the ability of the gills to maintain optimal respiratory and excretory activities, and the ability of the skin to maintain proper homeostatic osmoregulatory properties. Massive infestations of these parasites on fish can also directly result in superficial to deep ulcerative skin lesions which then allow for secondary bacterial and fungal infections to develop at the affected site (Lom 1995). Trichodina spp can cause extensive fish mortality in an aquaculture system. The ability of this parasite to quickly multiply under certain environmental conditions or when the fish are stressed by other factors makes early detection of this parasite a high priority in an aquaculture facility. Once diagnosed, an appropriate treatment or management response is essential to prevent rapid loss of fish stocks (Samartin-Duran et al., 1991). 668 �1.4. Symptoms: Heavily infected fish may have a greyish-blue coat, which is formed by excessively secreted mucus and peeled epithelia. The fins may be frayed (Lom, 1995). 1.5. Diagnose : The following measurements and counts are of primary diagnostic value; diameter of the adhesiv disc, diameter of the denticulate ring, number and size of denticles. The diameter of the horseshape macronucleus and position of the micronucleus in relation to the macronucleus is also of diagnostic value. 1.6. Treatment: There are several methods by which Trichodina spp. may be controlled in the aquaculture of foodfish. These include chemical treatments, freshwater baths, and flushing. UV is generally considered ineffective due to the high dosage rates required to kill the organism. A formalin bath of 170-250 ppm for 60 minutes is applied effectively (Toksen, 2004). However, experience has shown that a single formalin bath may not completely remove all of the parasites from fish, especially marine fish, and long term or periodic treatments may be needed to keep this parasite under control. Therefore a continuous bath of 25 ppm formalin is also approved for use on foodfish. Another common method for controlling Trichodina spp. on marine finfish is to utilize periodic fresh water dips. Though stressful on fish due to increased handling and the osmotic stress, this method can be very effective in reducing the overall number of parasites on fish. This is an effective method for treating individual fish such as broodstock, but may not be a viable option in a production facility due to the logistics associated with handling and treating large numbers of fish (Brown and Markus, 1998). Flushing of production systems (i.e., the removal of system water prior to treatment) is another means of reducing infestation levels of Trichodina spp. This method may be effective by physically removing any dislodged parasites in the water column from the system. 2. Ichthyobodo Spp. Ichthyobodo necator (former Costia necator) is a common parasite that infects a wide range of freshwater fish species. The parasite is found on the skin and gills of fish, most commonly attaching to the edges of the gills. Infected fish have a disease called ichthyobodosis. The first observation of Ichthyobodo spp. infection in cultured seabream in Turkey carried out by Toksen. Fifty to sixty percent of mortality was observed in a farm of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata L.) (1g) which were trasferred from Yumurtalık, South-East Mediterranean Sea to Kokar Bay, Western Coast of Aegean Sea (Toksen, 2000). 2.1. Aetiyoloy: Free swimming form is ovoid to spherical and measures 5-18 µm. It has two flagella, one of them longer than the other. It uses flagella for motility and to attach to the host fish (Lom, 1995; Toksen, 2000). 2.2. Epizootiology: Both free swimming and parasitic stages multiply by longitudinal binary fission. The parasit is not host spesific. Malnourished and young fish are more secerely affected then healthy adults (Robertson, 1985; Toksen, 2000). 2.3. Pathogenicitiy: These parasites do not cause distinctive lesions on the fish but do block the flow of oxygen when heavily loaded on the gills. As with most protozoa, environmental degradation and crowded conditions cause them to become more damaging. However, prevention measures such as reducing stocking densities and lowering feeding rates may make fish production unprofitable. But stocking and feeding rates should be kept reasonable. Contact a qualified aquaculture or fisheries scientist for advice on proper stocking densities for the fish species you are raising skin and fins. The base of the stalk attaches to a hard, calcified surface such as scales and fin rays or spines. Ichthyobodo occurs on the skin and gills (Lom, 1995). . 2.4. Symptoms: Ichthyobodosis causes damage to the gills and skin of fish. Infected fish can lose condition, become emaciated and be very lethargic. These symptoms can be seen in fish with only a light infection. The attachment and feeding of Ichthyobodo necator causes severe damage to skin and gill cells. Hyperplasia can occur within the gills, reducing respiratory efficiency. The gills may also swell with fluid, and fish often die as they are unable to control the movement of water in and out of their bodies. The parasite also causes irritation and infected fish produce excess mucus (Lom, 1995). 2.5. Treatments: Formalin is used against to Ichthyobodo spp. effectiveliy (Toksen, 2000). Bithionol (25 ppm for 3 h or 2 consecutive days) is very effective in eliminating the paraiste from rainbow trout (Tojo et al., 1994). 669 �3. Amyloodinium Ocellatum 3.1. Amyloodinium ocellatum is an important and the most common dinoflagellate that infects the gills and skin of both marine and brackish water fishes (Lauckner, 1984). A similar organism, Oodinium spp., is found in freshwater fish. The disease caused by these organisms has been referred to as "velvet," "rust" and "gold dust disease" because of the shiny sheen the parasite imparts to heavily infected fish. 3.2. Amyloodinium spp. can cause great losses of aquarium fish or fish held in high-density culture systems and has caused serious problems in public aquaria, aquaculture facilities and home aquaria (Montgomery-Brock et al, 2001). If allowed to become established in high-density recirculating systems, it can be difficult to control. For example, cultured red drum have been shown to be extremely susceptible to this infection. Amyloodinium infects a wide variety of fish and has been reported to occur in more than 100 species in North America. In Turkey, first Amyloodinium enfestation was observed on cultured 15-20 g of sea bass in pond with 100% mortality (Cagirgan and Toksen, 1996). 3.3. Aetiyology: The trophont is pear-shaped to ovoid and up to 350 um long. An osmophilic ring encircle the basal region, and an attachment plate bearing numerous filiform rhizoids exista through the break in the theca. Divisions withina common cyst wall produce up to 256 dinosporea. Dinospores are 8-13.5 µm long by 10-12.5 µm wide (Lom, 1995). 3.4. Symptoms: Often, the first indication of an amyloodinium infection is dead or dying fish. Amyloodinium should always be considered as a possible cause of mortality when a disease outbreak involving marine or brackish water fish occurs. Behavioral signs may include a decrease in or complete lack of feeding activity, flashing (rubbing against objects in the tank or on the bottom substrate) and coughing (backflushing water across the gills). The skin of heavily infected fish may have a dull gold or brown sheen. Closer examination of the skin may reveal scale loss and patchy accumulation of mucus (Reed and Francis-Floyd, 1994). Diseased fish shows sluggishness and asphyxia symptoms with darkened pigmentation of the skin and V shaped loss by the reason of necrosis of tail. The gill is pale and haemorrhagic in infected fish. Extensive necrotic areas are observed in macroscopycally on the gill (Cagirgan and Toksen, 1996). 3.5. Epizootiology: Amyloodiniosis is limited to warm waters. The optimal temperature for tomont division and sporulation ranges from 23-27 ºC. Completion of tomont division is limited to 16-30 ºC (Paperna, 1984). Infections do not occur at less than 17 ºC. The minimum effective salinity varied from 1 to 20 ppt, depending upon the isolate (Paperna, 1984). Tomonts or infective dinospores can be introduced directly with incoming seawater, becoming a source of infection for fish in the system. Obviously, introducing fish infected with trophonts into a culture system will serve as a source of infection as soon as the throphonts detach and begin the reproductive process. 3.6. Diagnosis: The only sure way to diagnose an amyloodinium infestation is by identification of the parasite in infected tissue. Preparations of gill, fin and skin (scrapings of mucus and scales) can be examined with a light microscope. The trophont attaches to the tissue of the fish by means of an attachment plate, which may be visible with a light microscope. Trophonts are removed brushing the fish gently, followed by microscopic examination of the sediment, which contains detached parasites (Noga, 2000). 3.7. Treatment: The most commonly applied treatment for control of amyloodinium is copper. In marine recirculating systems, which do not contain invertebrates, copper is added to the system gradually over a period of several days until the free copper ion (Cu2+) is at a concentration of 0.12-0.15 mg/l; this level is then maintained for up to 3 weeks (Cardeilhac and Whitaker, 1988). This standard procedure, observed for many years, is moderately effective but requires repeated testing of the copper concentration to ensure that amyloodinium is being controlled without killing fish. This treatment will kill all invertebrates present in the system and certain groups of fish. Freshwater dips are effective in killing free-swimming stages of amyloodinium; however, since encysted stages are protected, a single freshwater dip is not an effective treatment. Decreasing the salinity in a system has been suggested as a method for controlling amyloodinium epizootics, but because the organism flourishes in brackish water, the effectiveness of this strategy is doubtful. Given the lack of a safe, effective therapeutant for the control of amyloodinium, avoidance is an extremely important means of preventing outbreaks of this parasite. All incoming fish should be quarantined for a minimum of 3 weeks before being introduced into an existing system. Do not feed live or frozen food items 670 �that may be infected with amyloodinium. Do not introduce water into a system that may be contaminated with amyloodinium dinospores without using effective filtration or sanitation procedures (Reed and Francis-Floyd, 1994). 4. Furnestinia Echeneis The monogenean was found on the gill of sea bream Chrysophrys aurata by Wagener in 1857 and formerly named as Dactylogyrus echeneis Euzet ve Audouin (1959) renamed as F. echeneis (Oliver, 1969). 4.1. Aetiyology: F. echeneis is 560-890 µm in length, 140-230 µm in width in ovary level. Parasite has a haptor 190-270 µm in diameter and lamellar shaped squamodisc 180-220 µm in diameter in haptor. 4.2. Epizootiology: Infestation is successfully transmitted to naïve gilthead seabream by egg exposure. Parasite occure in all seasons of year but the number of parasite increase in spring (Revarsat et al., 1992). Furnestia echeneis caused high mortality in Siganus auratus (Paperna, 1978). 4.3. Symptoms: Infested fish showing severe signs of asphyxia due to necrosis on the gill and mass mucuos secretion. Myxobacterium spp. is found in necrotic lessions on the gill (Paperna et al., 1977). 4.4. Pathogenicity: No pathological signs are referred to F. echeneis infections, also with 50 specimens/gill arch infection intensity (Quaglio et al., 2007). But in heavily infestation shows hyperplasia of gill epithelium with thickening of lamellae up to fusion.The gills show diffused degeneration and necrosis in the filament epithelial tissue (Reversat et al., 1992). It has been reported to cause mortalities in natural sea bream in Red Sea and Acabe Bay (Paperna and Baudin Laurencin, 1979). 4.5. Treatment: Formalin bath 200 ppm 1 h is effective (Paperna et al., 1977; Toksen, 1999). 5. Microcotyle Chrysophrii S. chrysophrii Euzet and Noisy 1981, originally called Microcotyle chrysophrii (van Beneden and Hesse 1863) (Microcotylidae: Polyopisthocotylea), is a common parasite of cultured Gilthead sea bream which has caused lethal epizootics in sea cages (Alvarez-Pellitero 2004). 5.1. Aetiyology: The parasite belong to genus Microcotyle (Microcotylidae, Polyopisthocotylea) comprising 17 recognized species in European waters. Monogenean is 3-5 mm in length, 0.5-0.7 mm in width in ovary level (Euzet et Noisy, 1979). 5.2. Epizootiology: Sparicotyle chrysophrii is successfully transmitted to naïve gilthead seabream by egg exposure and cohabitation with parasitized fish (Sitjà-Bobadilla and Alvarez-Pellitero, 2009). Parasite occure in all seasons of year (Reversat et al., 1992). 5.3. Pathogenicity: S. chrysophrii shows a high pathogenicity at low infection intensity (8 parasites/gill arch) with gross lesions such as gill and systemic anaemia already noticeable at necropsy. In this case histology shows severe hyperplasia of gill epithelium with thickening of lamellae up to fusion, and heavy sloughing off of the epithelial cells. Moreover the gills show diffused degeneration and necrosis in the residual epithelial tissue. The hematophagous attitude of S. chrysophrii is evident for the presence of several erythrocytes in the parasite gut (Quaglio et al., 2007; Reversat et al., 1992). It has been reported to produce mortalities in farmed fish (AlvarezPellitero, 2004), and it is frequently found in mixed infections with other parasites and bacterial infections (Padros and Crespo, 1995). 5.4. Symptoms: Infested fish swim near the water surface, showing severe signs of anemia as lethargy, emaciation, anoreksi and excessive mucus production (Padros and Crespo, 1995). 5.5. Treatment: Formalin bath of 250 ppm for 60 minutes is applied effectively (Toksen, 1999). 671 �6. Diplectanum Aequans Diplectanum aequans (Wagener, 1857) Diesing, 1858 is a common parasite of both wild and cultured European sea bass D. aequans is considered to be potentially harmful in intensive sea bass farming (GonzalezLanza et al., 1991; Toksen, 1999). 6.1. Aetiyology: Monogenean parasite is 650-1.700 µm. in length and 260-500 µm. in width in ovary level. There is a haptor in the posterior end of body. The diameter of haptor is 0.11-0.30 µm. and has a squamodisc (180 µm. in diameter), two pairs of hamuli and 14 marginal hooks (Oliver, 1980; Toksen, 1999). The adult of D. aeqauans is observed on the gills of sea bass (Cecchini et al., 1991; Toksen, 1999) but larval stages of parasites can be also observed on the skin. parazitin genç evrelerine deride de rastlanılmaktadır (Cognetti, et al., 1992; Gonzales et al., 1991). 6.2. Epizootiology: The life span of D. aequans at 20°C is estimated to be 30 days. The parasites are oviparous and produce the eggs on the gill of sea bass. The diameter of egg is 59.14±6.96 µm. The parasite has 5 stages in ith life cycle; larval stage (oncomiracidium), post larval stage, 2. post larval stage, intermedier stage and adult stage (Silan and Maillard, 1989). The adult parasite is exhibiting hermaphroditism. The contamination is occured bye means of eggs between hosts. 6.3. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: D. aequans attaches to the gill lamellae and cause hyperplasia of the epithelium and mucuos cells, with resulting deformation and fusion of the secondary lamellae. Heavily infected fish exibit lethargy, anorexia and asphyxia symptoms (Oliver, 1977; Toksen, 1999). 6.4. Diagnosis: D. aequans is easiliy distinguished on the basis of the shape and size of the haptor, hamuli and hooks on the haptor, and male copulatory organ of adult parasite (Silan and Maillard, 1989; Lambert et Maillard, 1974). 6.5. Treatment: Rafoxanid bath of 6 ppm for 48 hours is applied effectively (Cognetti et al., 1992), trichlorfon bath in dose 0.15 ppm for 2 days is effective (Cognetti et al, 1991). Formalin has not good effect against D. aequans affect the parasite (Toksen, 1999). 7. Caligus Minimus Caligus sp. or ‘sea lice’ are common copepod parasites in the family Caligidae, infesting a wide range of fish species in the coastal zones and cultured fish. 7.1. Aetiyology: Caligus minimus is seen in the mouth cavity and on the gill of sea bass in Mediterranean Sea, Adriyatic Sea and Atlantic ocean. Adult parasites show sexual dimorphism, the female is larger then the male. The female 3-5.5 mm in length, the male parasite is 8 mm in length with 4. legs (Radujkovic and Raibaut, 1989). 7.2. Epizootiology: Caligid copepods have direct life cycle, consisting of a free-living planktonic I. nauplii stage, II. nauplii stage, copepodid stage, I-VI chalimus stages, pre-adult stage and adult stage, and last 17 days at 2224°C after hatchig (Hallett and Rroubal, 1995). The intensity of copepod infestation generally increases after rainfall and late spring and decline in winter and summer due to the lack of recruitment and parasite death. This is a major problem in cage cultured fishes (Jithendran et al., 2008). 7.3. Clinical Sings and Pathogenicity: The main lesions are observed on the skin of the head region, the buccal cavity, the palate, the tongue and the base of the gill arch (Ragiasa et al., 2004). The integument where parasites are located showed ulceration of the epidermis with marked inflammatory of the dermis as a result of the attachment and feeding activity of the parasites. The attachment is achieved by means of second pair of the antennae which were inserted into the host epidermal tissue. A marked reactive epidermal hyperplasia is observed at those areas as well as at the periphery of ulcerated lesions. Many epidermal cells around the damaged area show signs of necrosis, the vacuolar degeneration of basal cells was prominent and epidermis is also characterized by diffuse areas of spongiosis. In many cases, increased fibroplasia and spongiosis is noticed within dermal collagenous connective tissue (Ragiasa et al., 2004). 7.4. Treatment: Trichlorfon bath of 300 ppm at 20 minutes (Pike, 1989), dichlorvos 1 ppm 1 h (Branson, 1996), hydrogen peroxide 1500 ppm 20 minutes (Branson, 1996; Hodneland et al, 1993) and freshwater bath (Landsberg et al., 1991) are effective. 672 �8. Ceratothoa Oestroides Ceratothoa oestroides (Cymothoidae) is a ubiquitous fish parasite. It has been reported in 6 different fish families, Sparidae, Carangidae, Clupeidae, Maenidae, Scorpaenidea and Mugilidae, and has been most frequently isolated from the bogue bream Boops boops and sea bream Sparus aurata (Sparidae) (CharfiCheikhrouha et al., 2000; Toksen, 1999). 8.1. Aetiyology: The body of parasite is dorso ventrally flattened and is lacking a carapace. The isopod thorax consists of 7 free segments with 7 pairs of thoracic legs. As a result of the well-sheltered environment of the buccal cavity, species that establish there have evolved a thinner cuticular mineralisation and the pleopods of the three last pairs have transformed into respiratory organs. Paired eyes consist of numerous eyelets. On its ventral side, between the swimming legs, the female bears a brood pouch or "marsupium", shielded by special plates, called "oostegites", to carry the eggs and the larvae for some time after hatching. 8.2. Epizootiology: Female C. oestroides bear embryonated eggs in the brood pouch that develop first into stage I pullus, and then into pulli II and III (with rudimentary periopods of VII pairs), and finally into pullus IV, at which stage postlarval evolution begins (Mladineo, 2002). As a protandric hermaphrodite, the parasite passes through different developmental stages: male puberty, prolonged male puberty, transitory stage, female puberty and finally prolonged female puberty (Trilles 1969). During the male puberty stage, the parasite loses its swimming capacity and, once settled in the buccal cavity of a fish, it is incapable of active migration to another host. This fact is important in the epizootic evaluation of the route of infection. After settlement in the host, the parasite begins hematophagic nourishment, which comprises alternating cyclic periods of blood-sucking and blood absorption by the intestine (Trilles, 1969). As a consequence of its sedentary life in the wellsheltered buccal cavity, the parasite has evolved some structural changes, e.g. a thinner cuticle, the last 3 pairs of pleopods transformed into respiratory organs and a thinner-walled incubation chamber (Trilles, 1969). 8.3 Symptoms and Pathogenicity: Heavy infestations of parasitic larvae may kill smaller fish when they first infect them seeking permanent attachment. Pulli II larvae and juveniles attack relatively younger fish, about 5g20g of weight and cause considerable damage to the skin around the head, the eyes and the gill epithelium by injuring the gill lamellae. Their voracious haematophagy and the mechanical damage of their hooks lead to severe inflammation and necrosis of head, eye and gill tissues. The infested fish are usually apathetic and anorexic and may show respiratory distress. The haemorrhagic and necrotic head tissues are evident when observing the fish in their cage. When the sick fish are removed from the water, several isopod larvae may be seen in their buccal and gill cavities and/or on the skin near the opercula (Varvarigos, 2003; Mladineo, 2002; Toksen, 1999). Injured tissues are frequently invaded by secondary bacterial pathogens, such as Aeromonas spp., Tenacibaculum spp., Vibrio spp. and this may lead to severe escalation of mortality. In young stocks, the cumulative mortality due to parasitism by the pulli II larvae may run as high as 15% even without any bacterial implications (Varvarigos, 2003). The adult isopods are haematophagus and cause anaemia. The parasitised fish have significantly lower erythrocyte counts as well as haematocrit and haemoglobin values. The leukocyte counts are increased, obviating the host's immune response to the presence of the isopods. In addition, the established adult isopods can cause considerable damage to the mouth tissues with their biting and sucking mouth parts, or their copulation activity. Their large size (up to 6 cm in length) may cause atrophy of the tongue, dysplasia of teeth and slackening of the cartilagenous tissues leading to a "bag-shaped" lower jaw. Invariably, the presence of large adult parasites in the buccal cavity interferes with feeding, causes chronic stress and results in growth retardation and a predisposition to bacterial and/or endo-parasitic invasions (Varvarigos, 2003). Isopod infestation is confirmed by gross observation of the parasites on the skin, mouth, or in the gill chamber of the fish. In addition, they often produce the lesions described above that characterise 8.4. Treatment: Cypermethrin and deltamethrin are effective in dose of 10 ppb for 60 minutes (Martinsen et al., 2001) 9. Lernanthropus Kroyeri Lernanthropus is the most common genus of parasitic copepods. So far, more than 100 species isolated from gills of different marine teleosts have been described. Some species of Lernanthropus are strictly host specific, but many are parasitic on several species of fish within one or several genera (Sharp et al., 2003). 673 �9.1. Aetiyology: Female parasite body is elongate, 2,9 mm including fourth legs 3.7 mm in length (Toksen et al., 2008). 9.2. Symptoms and Pathogenicity: Fish infected with L. kroyeri spp. show signs of respiratory distress, enhanced mucus secretion, congestion, haemorrhages associated with the feeding activity of the parasite, primary gill lamella erosions and lethargy, dark coloured skin and surface swimming (Toksen, 2007). Histologically, erosion, desquamation and vacuolar degeneration occurred near the site of attachment. Lamellar fusion in the distal ends of the filaments was observed. Compression of gill tissue by the head and second antennae of female parasite resulted in erosion of the branchial lamellar epithelium and lacerate tissue. Second antennae and maxilliped of parasite has caused partial occlusion and ruptures in capillary (Toksen, 2007) . 9.3. Treatment: Emamectin benzoate of 100 µg kg-1 in feed is effective (Toksen, et al., 2006). Conclusion The intensification of aquaculture and globalization of the seafood trade have led to remarkable development in the aqauculture industry. The industry has been plagued with disease problems caused by viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic pathogens. In recent years, disease outbreaks are becoming more frequent in he aquaculture and associated morbidity and mortality have caused substantial economic losses. Toksen (2000; 2004) reported that Ichthbodosis and trichodiniasis caused fifty to sixty percent of mortality in different two farm of gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.). Recently, almost 400,000 gilt head bream died in a single night on fish farms located in the southwestern province of Muğla's Güllük Gulf this week. But the reason of death could not determine. Sustainable development of aquaculture relies on disease prevention. In summary, parasitic diseases are economically important parasites in marine aquaculture. Disease outbreaks and subsequent mortalities caused by parasite are now rare due to the development of a variety of effective treatments. However, large economic losses still occur as the result of reduced feed conversion and growth, indirect mortality, loss of product value, and treatment costs. Although it is well understood that parasites have a major impact on sea bream and sea bass aquaculture, there are relatively few published reports of disease and/or disease treatments. There are no reports of economic costs associated with these infections. Husbandry practices as well as a variety of engineering, environmental, and biological factors can have an impact on the level of infection by parasitic copepods. However, the relative importance of these factors in controlling parasite abundance varies between sites. 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Incidence of an intense Caligus minimus Otto 1821, C. pageti Russel, 1925, C. mugilis Brian, 1935 and C. apodus Brian, 1924 infection in lagoon cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Greece, Aquaculture, 242, 727–733. Reed, P.A. and Francis-Floyd, R.T. (1994). Amyloodinium Infections of Marine Fish, Fact Sheet VM-90, a series of the College of Veterinary Medicine, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611. Reversat, J., Silan, P., Maillard, C. (1992). Structure Of Monogenean Populations, Ectoparasites Of The Gilthead Sea Bream Sparus aurata. Marine Biology, 112, 43-47. Robertson, D.A. (1985). A review of Ichthyobodo necator (Henneguy, 1883) an important and damaging parasite. In: L.F. Muir and R.J. Roberts, Editors, Recent Advances in Aquaculture (2), Croom Helm, London, 1–30. Sanmartin Duran, M.L., Fernandez Casal, J., Tojo, J.L., Santamarina, M.T., Estevez, J. and Ubera, F. (1991). Trichodina sp. effect on the growth of farmed turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 11:89. Sharp, N.J., Poortenear, C.W., Diggles, B.K. and Willis, T.J. (2003). Metazoan parasites of yellowtail kingfish, Seriola lalandi lalandi in New Zealand: prevalence, intensity and site preference, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 37 (2), 273-282. Silan, P. and Maillard, C. (1989). Biologie comparee du developement et discrimination des Diplectanidae ectoparasites du Bar (Teleostei). Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie, Paris, 13 (10), 31-45. Sitjà-Bobadilla, A. and Alvarez-Pellitero, P. (2009). Experimental transmission of Sparicotyle chrysophrii (Monogenea: Polyopisthocotylea) to gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) and histopathology of the infection, Folia Parasitologica, 56(2): 143–151. Tojo, J.L., Santamarina, M.T., Leiro, J., Ubeira, F.M. and Sanmartin, M.L. (1994). Pharmacological treatments against Ichthyobodo necator (Henneguy, 1883) in rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), Journal of Fish Diseases, 17, 135–143. Toksen, E. (2004). The effect of formaldehyde baths on Trichodiniasis of juvenile Sea Bream (Sparus aurata L., 1758). E.U. Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Sciences, 21,(1-2): 31 – 33. Toksen, E. (1999). Metazoan gill parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Aegean Sea coast and their treatment. PhD Thesis, 10.7777.10000.000, Ege University, Institute of Science and Tecnology, Đzmir, Turkey. Toksen, E. (2000). The first observation of Ichthyobodo spp. ınfection in a farm of Sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) in Izmir and Its Therapy, Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 24 (3), 321-325. 676 �Toksen, E. (2007). Lernanthropus kroyeri van Beneden, 1851 (Crustacea: Copepoda) infections of cultured sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.), Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 27, 49-53. Toksen, E., Çağırgan, H., Tanrıkul, T. and Saygı, H. (2006). The Effect of Emamectin Benzoate in the Control of Lernanthropus kroyeri (van Beneden, 1851) (Lernanthropidae) Infestations in Cultured Sea Bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758)”, TUBĐTAK, Turkish Journal of Veterinary and Animal Science, 30, 405-409. Toksen, E., Nemli, E. and Değirmenci, U. (2008). The Morphology of Lernanthropus kroyeri van Beneden, 1851 (Copepoda: Lernanthropidae) Parasitic on Sea Bass, Dicentrarchus labrax (L., 1758), from the Aegean Sea, Turkey, Acta Parasitologica Turcica, 32 (4), 386-389. Trilles, J.P. (1969). Recherches sur les Isopodes Cymothoidae’ des cotes fracaises. Apercu general et comparatif sur la bionomie et la sexualite de ces Crustaces. Bulletin de la Société zoologique de France, 94 (3),433. TUIK (2009). Fisheries Statistics, Ankara, Turkey. Varvarigos, P. (2003). Parasitic Isopods (Suborder Flabellifera) Affecting The Farmed Marine Fish In Greece, With Special Reference To Ceratothoa Oestroides (Family Cymothoidae), Vetcare, Veterinary Services To Aquaculture And Distribution Of Fish Health Products, http://www.vetcare.gr/Pathogenic_isopoda.htm. 677 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 615 Title A name given to the resource Treatment Trials Of Parasites Of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and Sea Bream (Sparus Aurata) in Turkey Author Author TOKSEN, Erol TANRIKUL, T. Tansel BALTA, Fikri KOYUNCU, Erkin Abstract A summary of the resource. With over 8300 km of coastline and 25 million square hectares of useably sea, Turkey has particularly bright future in aquaculture. Interest has centred on two major species sea bream, sea bass, Those are most favourable have been the Aegean and Western Mediterranean coasts. Sea bass and sea bream pruducts have reached to 75,000 tons in Turkey. The gradually increase of this production of fish resulted in serious pathological problems in all countries where intensive aquaculture is practiced. Thus, focus has been placed on fish diseases in these enterprises and their economic and ecological impact. Especially, parasitical diseases have become increasingly visible during the latest decades in connection with the development of aquacultural industries troughout the world. In this study, various studies were carried out in different time about parasites of cultured gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) in Turkey and their treatment were investigated. Different species such as Trichodina spp., Costia spp., Amyloodinium ocellatum, Furnestinia echeneis, Microcotyle chrysophrii, Diplectanum aequans, Caligus minimus, Lernanthropus kroyeri and Ceratothoa oestroides were reported on the gills of sea bream and sea bass in these studies. In this review, the parasites observed on sea bass and sea bream, and their epizootiology, clinical signs, pathogenicity of the parasites and their treatment were given, separately. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7f8e7aa1a07c609ce7450dd9f5425031.pdf 3484db3db523d1b130ec1a30c09e93bb PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Remzije Rakipi Faculty of Business and Economics South East European University in Tetovo Republic of Macedonia r.rakipi@seeu.edu.mk Shpresa Syla Faculty of Business and Economics South East European University in Tetovo Republic of Macedonia s.syla@seeu.edu.mk Abstract: The Republic of Macedonia has since its independence made great progress in terms of economic reform and social development; prompted often by the county’s aspiration to become part of the European Union. However, in spite of these advances, weak labour market indicators in particular among females remains a great concern and a persisting challenge for the country. Based on official data from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) conducted by the State Statistical Office (SSO) for the case of the Republic of Macedonia, the aim of this study is to examine the development of female unemployment in the past decade (2004-2013) in the Republic of Macedonia from a multi-dimensional perspective. This while comparing national trends with other Balkan countries already in the EU using LFS data provided by Eurostat. Findings show that the female unemployment rate in the R. Macedonia is moving in the right direction with a decreasing trend throughout the observed period with drop of 8.8 percent point from 2004 to 2013 (observed at 29% in 2013). Compared to Balkan countries in the EU, findings show that the R. Macedonia has been performing relatively better than these countries, who have all experienced negative fluctuations in female unemployment rates in the observed period with rates at higher levels compared to 2004. Furthermore, the findings show no evidence of inequality between male and female unemployment rates in the country, however notable disparities are evident when observing unemployment among various age groups and the level of education attainment.The paper concludes with clear policy recommendations for boosting female employment to include increasing female access to education and entrepreneurial programs, increased access to childcare, etc. Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 Keywords: Labour market, female unemployment; unemployment, employment JEL Classification: J01, E24 Article History Submitted: 17 December 2015 Resubmitted: 12 August 2016 Accepted: 24 August 2016 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JEC OSS16619 57 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla Introduction Issues related to the labour market are the heart of social and political debate in the Republic of Macedonia. The country has since its independence made great progress in terms of economics reforms and social development. However, in spite of these advances, weak labour market indicators in particular among females (15-64 years) remains a great concern and a persisting challenge for the country. High unemployment amongst females is however not a recent phenomenon in the country, nor is the country an exception in this regards. As argued by MojsoskaBlazevski, Najdova, Stojkov, and Asenov (2009), the labour market in the Republic of Macedonia is considered insufficiently inclusive of females similar to other Western Balkan countries, this despite legislation being in place on labour relations, gender equality, anti-discrimination and equal employment opportunities. Job creation for the most vulnerable groups in society, and especially women, is a key component in the fight against social exclusion, and the most effective way to provide vulnerable groups such as females a sense of independence, financial security and a sense of belonging. Women represent a category in society that is traditionally excluded or underrepresented in the labour market not only due to discrimination and inequality in the labour market, but significantly also due the role they play within the household which makes it often more difficult for them to enter the job market and pursue careers. In this context, it is the aim of this study to shed some light on the development and challenges of female unemployment in the past decade (2004-2013) in the Republic of Macedonia from a multi-dimensional perspective. This while comparing national trends with trends in other Balkan countries, more specifically with Balkan countries in the European Union. Literature Review Gender based unemployment in general does not present a new or an unexplored area. However not much study exists on this particular topic that is specific to the R. of Macedonia. At the least no known studies exist covering trends in female unemployment for the observed period that additionally compares female unemployment trends with Balkan countries already in the EU. Available studies on female unemployment specific to the R. of Macedonia is predominately found in non-scientific studies and reports (European Training Foundation, 2013; United Nations, 2013; World Bank, 2008 and 2013) where female unemployment is usually covered lightly as part of a more general studies of labour market indicators in the R. of Macedonia; serving primarily policy making objectives. The closest 58 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study scientific research in this field can be attributed to a few (Mojsoska-Blazevski et al., 2009; Lehmann, 2010; Mojsoska-Blazevski, 2012; Mojsoska-Blazevski and Kurtishi, 2012; Avlijaš, Ivanović, Vladisavljević and Vujić, 2013; Mickovska-Raleva and Dimitrijevska, 2013) who try at various levels to depict a picture of female unemployment in the R. of Macedonia; sharing the common understanding that women in the R. of Macedonia are traditionally underrepresented in the labour market. Mickovska-Raleva and Dimitrijevska (2013) further arguing that special attention needs to be given to policies for greater inclusion of women. This in particular women from rural areas and young women. Mojsoska-Blazevski and Kurtishi (2012) argue to greater depth in this context and state that the main reason why the female unemployment rate is not much higher is the relatively high willingness of women to take low-paid, secure public sector jobs, or jobs in newly created small private firms, since by tradition, they are second-income family earners. Methodology To properly understand female unemployment, it is essential to consider the development of the labour market from a much broader perspective and to also observe changes in the labour market in general. A close look at other labour market indicators such the rate of economically active and inactive population and employment trends is deemed warranted in this case. This in respect to both gender gaps and aggregate level (National Level) rates. A valuable source in the capturing of events in the labour market is the Labour Force Survey (LFS), which is executed annually by the State Statistical Offices of various EU countries and EU candidate countries. Hence, for the sake of harmonised labour market data, in particular for comparison purposes, data analysis of trends in female unemployment in Republic of Macedonia is based on official Labour Force Survey data published by the State Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia and Labour Force Survey data of selected Balkan countries published by Eurostat. Data Analysis Female Labour Market Participation and Inactivity Labour force participation rate (Economic Activity Rate - EAR) of women in the Republic of Macedonia has shown a slight increase in the last decade (2004-2013). The participation of women in the labour market has increased in the observed period by 12.8% (Figure 1) which is slightly higher than the increase experienced in Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 59 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla the case of male labour force participation (8.9%) in the same period. Noteworthy, is that a noticeable gap exists when comparing activity rates amongst females and males. As shown in Figure 1, female activity rates are significantly lower than male activity in each year of the observed period. According to the World Bank (2008), lower female participation rates are believed to be mainly driven by very low levels of participation of young-rural-unskilled women. Furthermore, according to the same report, most women who are not in the labour force are either in school or undertaking household activities. While, according to Mojsoska-Blazevski et al. (2009), the main factors influencing low participation of women in R. of Macedonia include the tradition and cultural habits in the country, the low level of education and skills, ethnicity in combined with the education, the availability and cost of child care services and care for older family members, labour market discrimination towards females, etc. Mojsoska-Blazevski et al. (2009) further state that young, rural and unskilled females are less likely to be active in the labour market. Another important aspect to consider in this context is women’s participation in the informal economy. As stated by Huyer (2014), the low labour force participation rate of women in the labour market may also indicate a much greater reliance by women on the informal economy. This particular in the case of rural women, and of women with Albanian and Roma origin (Lehman, 2010). Female labour force participation slightly increased during the global economic crisis opposite to what could have been expected. As stated by Avlijaš et al. (2013) this could be understood as a coping mechanism of households facing income shocks by adding a family member to the labour market or replacing a family member who lost their employment. From an educational attainment perspective, female participation in the labour market is highest among women with tertiary education which saw a slight but steady increase until 2010 (89.4%) following a slight decrease in the following years reaching 87.6% in 2013. 60 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Figure 1: Labour Force Participation in R. of Macedonia 2004-2013 by Gender and Level of Education Attained Among Females (%) Source: LFS, State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia Compared to Balkan countries in the European Union (Figure 2), data show that R. of Macedonia has had the lowest female labour market participation rate throughout the observed period followed by Croatia and Greece with slightly higher rates. R. of Macedonia lies significantly below the average participation rate of these countries collectively, however noted with the highest increase in rates in the study period with 12.8% followed by Bulgaria with 10.4%. Women in Slovenia are much more active compared to other Balkan countries with an activity rate of 66.6% in 2013, which is 13.9% higher than the R. of Macedonia (52.7%) in the same year. Figure 2: Female Labour Force Participation in Selected Balkan Countries 20042013 (%) Source: LFS, State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 61 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla The inactivity rate of females depicted in Figure 3 as a percentage of the total population in R. of Macedonia show that female inactivity is twice as high as male inactivity in the country. Looking at the period 2006-2013, data show that inactivity amongst both females and males is on the way down, but with a very slow and marginal downwards trend and an overall fall of app. 7% in both cases from 2006 to 2013. Figure 3: Inactive Population as a Percentage of the Total Population in R. of Macedonia by Gender (%) Source: Author’s own work based on LFS data, State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia According to data, female inactivity in R. of Macedonia is mostly resulting from household responsibilities and secondly as a result of undergoing education and training (Table 1). While, female inactivity in benchmark countries (Table 1) can be explained primarily due to education and training and secondly to retirement; indicating a much older female population in these countries compared to R. of Macedonia. As reported by the World Bank (2008), who has studied female inactivity at sub-group level in R. of Macedonia, the large share of females who are inactive due to household activities can mainly be attributed to a large number of full-time housewives among women who are less educated and live in rural areas. 62 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Table 1: Inactive Female Population - Main Reasons not Seeking Employment in Selected Balkan Countries in 2013 (%) Awaitin Own Other Looking Pursuing Retire Believes Other g recall illness family/ after education/traini d no reason to work or personal children or ng work is s (on lay- disabilit responsibiliti incapacitate availabl off) y es d adults e Bulgaria 0.9 11.9 10.2 13.3 28.4 19.4 11.6 4.2 Greece : 4.3 18.0 7.8 27.7 16.0 2.2 24.0 Croatia 0.5 6.8 17.8 7.3 31.7 26.1 7.7 2.1 Slovenia 0.3 8.9 9.1 3.4 32.6 38.4 3.7 3.5 : 3.1 38.7 11.2 26.8 11.9 5.2 3.1 Macedoni a Source: Author’s own work based on LFS data from the State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat Female Employment Looking at female employment in the R. of Macedonia in the study period, data show that the female employment rate is slowly but constantly on the rise with an 8.4 p.p. increase from 2004 to 2013. Positive and noteworthy in this context is that no spill-over effects seem to have been observed on both female and male employment following the global economic crisis in 2008/09. On the adverse side, noteworthy is that data show female employment rates to be significantly below male employment rates with a gap of 1.5 time higher male employment rate compared to the female employment rate in 2013. Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 63 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla Figure 4: Female vs. Male Employment Rates (15-64 years) in R. of Macedonia 2004-2013 (%) Source: Author’s own work based on LFS data from the State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia In a semi regional perspective, data show (Table 2) that the R. of Macedonia is not the only country to struggle with low female employment rates. A similar problem is observed in Greece with a slightly higher female employment rate; 39.9% compared to 37.3% in the case of R. of Macedonia in 2013. Looking at the trend over the study period, all countries included in the study have observed increases in female employment except for Greece and Slovenia who registered a decline of 5.6 p.p. and 2.1 p.p., respectively, from 2004 to 2013. The R. of Macedonia is the only country that has observed a relatively consistent increase in rates throughout the study period; reaching an 8.4 p.p. increase from 2014-2013. Table 2: Female Employment Rates (15-64 years) in Selected Balkan Countries 2004-2013 (%) 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Macedonia 28.9 30.1 30.7 32.3 32.9 33.5 34.0 35.3 35.3 37.3 Bulgaria 51.6 51.7 54.6 57.6 59.5 58.3 56.4 55.6 56.3 56.8 Greece 45.5 46.0 47.3 47.7 48.6 48.9 48.0 45.0 41.7 39.9 Croatia 47.8 48.6 49.4 51.6 52.7 53.7 52.1 49.5 48.5 48.5 Slovenia 61.3 61.3 61.8 62.6 64.2 63.8 62.6 60.9 60.5 59.2 Source: Author’s own work based on LFS data from the State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat 64 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Based on available data (since 2006 only), from an educational attainment perspective (Figure 5), female employment in R. of Macedonia shows a decreasing trend for educated women with a 4.2 p.p. decrease from 2006 to 2013. An opposite trend for women with lower levels of education is however observed. Observed data show that female employment amongst women with primary and lower secondary education (levels 0-2) has increased by 18.4% in the study period and 12.8 % in the case of women with upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary education (levels 3 and 4). Figure 5: Female Employment Rate in R. of Macedonia by Education 2006-2013 (%) Source: LFS, State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia Compared to benchmark countries (Table 3), the R. of Macedonia lies significantly below each of the countries and across all educational levels. While looking specifically at female employment with tertiary education attainment a similar trend is seen with declining rates across all countries, but with Greece experiencing the most notable decline by 14.1 p.p. Opposite to other countries, R. of Macedonia is the only country that has observed an increase from 2006-2013 in female employment amongst lower education levels. Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 65 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla Table 3: Female Employment Rate by Education (Highest Level Attained) in Selected Balkan Countries (%) 2006 Bulgaria Greece Croatia Slovenia Macedonia Level 0-2 23.6 33.2 27.9 37.5 15.2 Level 3-4 62.6 47.9 54.4 63.5 40.6 2013 Level 5-8 79.7 76.7 79.6 86.6 68.3 Level 0-2 23.7 27.7 23.7 27.2 18.0 Level 3-4 59.2 36.4 50.9 58.8 45.8 Level 5-8 79.1 62.6 75.1 80.8 64.1 Change from 2006 in Percent Point Level Level Level 0-2 3-4 5-8 0.1 -3.4 -0.6 -5.5 -11.5 -14.1 -4.2 -3.5 -4.5 -10.3 -4.7 -5.8 2.8 5.2 -4.2 Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from the State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat One of the ways to boost employment is through fostering entrepreneurship. In this context, R. of Macedonia shows progress. As can be seen from the number of selfemployed females in the country (Table 4), the number is on the rise going from app. 19.500 cases in 2008 to app. 27.900 cases in 2013. Approximately, one third of self-employed females are at the same time also employers, and although this category has increased, the highest increase in the observed study period (20082103) has been observed among self-employed females without employees (app. 6500 persons). The study period has in this case been reduced to include only observed figures from 2008-2013 due to missing data for period 2004 to 2007. Table 4: Female Self-Employment in R. of Macedonia from 2008 - 2013 (in thousands) Self-employment Type/Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Self-employed Total Self-employed persons with employees (employers) Self-employed persons without employees (own-account workers) 19.5 17.8 20.2 23.9 24.0 27.9 7.1 7.3 8.5 9.1 8.2 9.0 12.4 10.5 11.7 14.8 15.8 18.9 Source: LFS, State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia Compared to benchmark countries (Table 5), the R. of Macedonia is the only country with increasing trends throughout the period 2008-2013, while all other countries have had an interruption in their positive trends following 2010; registering decreasing number in both 2011, 2012, and 2013. 66 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Table 5: Female Self-Employment in Selected Balkan Countries from 2008 - 2013 (in thousands) Country/Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Bulgaria 124.3 121.2 124.9 110.3 103.2 109.2 Greece 370.9 371.7 379.4 368.1 351.8 341.9 Croatia 104.0 104.4 115.6 106.4 90.5 83.4 Slovenia 24.0 24.8 32.0 31.8 30.3 28.9 Macedonia 19.5 17.8 20.2 23.9 24.0 27.9 Source: LFS, State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat Female Unemployment The female unemployment in the R. of Macedonia stands at a high level, but moving in the right direction (Figure 6). According to data for the observed period, the female unemployment rate shows a decreasing trend and has dropped by 8.8 p.p. in the study period to reach 29% in 2013. This rate coincides with the level of male unemployment in the same year. The Female unemployment has been slightly higher than male unemployment rate until 2010, but on occasions also slightly lower than male unemployment as observed in 2011 and 2012. The discrepancy in gender based unemployment trends in the period 2009-2012 should be seen in light of increased employment in the public sector, and notably in education, which have been favouring women more than men (European Training Foundation, 2013). While labour force participation and employment rates of women are much lower than those of men, unemployment rates are almost equally distributed between the genders. Hence no gender gap is evident. Mojsoska-Blazevski and Kurtishi (2012) argue that this may reflect the relatively high willingness of women to take low-paid, secure public sector jobs, or jobs in newly created small private firms, since by tradition, they are second-income family earners. Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 67 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla Figure 6: Unemployment rate in Macedonia by gender 2004-2013 (%) Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia Observed data for 2013 show (Table 6) that R. of Macedonia has the second highest female unemployment rate (29%) compared to the benchmark, surpassed in this context only by Greece (31.6%) who registered a higher female unemployment rate in the same year. Slovenia (11.1%) and Bulgaria (11.9%) represent the two countries in this context with lowest female unemployment rates in 2013. The lowest female unemployment rate in the observed period has been registered in Slovenia in 2008 at the rate of 4.9% and the highest rate in the R. of Macedonia back in 2004, which registered a female unemployment rate approximate six times higher than Slovenia (lowest in 2004) and approximately twice the rate of Greece registering the second highest female unemployment rate in the same year. Looking at the trend in the observed period, all countries have experienced fluctuations in female unemployment rates, and notable fluctuations in the period 2009-2013, due to particular to the spill-over effects of the global economic crisis. The R. of Macedonia is the only country registering an uninterrupted decrease in rates throughout the period. 68 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Table 6: Female Unemployment Rates in Selected Balkan Countries 2004-2013 (%) Country/Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Macedonia 37.8 38.4 37.2 35.5 34.2 32.8 32.2 30.8 30.3 29.0 Bulgaria 11.7 9.9 9.3 7.3 5.8 6.7 9.5 10.1 10.9 11.9 Greece 16.1 15.6 13.9 13.0 11.6 13.4 16.5 21.7 28.4 31.6 Croatia 15.8 14.3 13.2 11.6 10.6 11.0 12.6 14.0 16.3 17.0 Slovenia 6.5 7.2 7.4 6.0 4.9 5.9 7.2 8.3 9.5 11.1 Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat Looking at female unemployment from an age perspective (Figure 7), data clearly suggests that female youth are much more vulnerable to unemployment than other age groups. Although female youth unemployment is showing a decreasing trend (dropped by 9.9 p.p. from 2006 to 2013), it is almost twice as high as females age 25-49 and more than to time higher than females in the 50-64 age group. This can partly be explained by the fact that young people are more vulnerable to economic downturns and the first to be cut from employment. Young people tend to be ‘last in’ and ‘first out’ - last to be hired, and the first to be dismissed. This, together with the challenges they face in making the transition from education and training to the labour market, makes younger generations generally subject to higher rates of unemployment than older generations (United Nations, 2013). Figure 7: Female Unemployment Rate in Macedonia by Age Group (%) Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from the State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia The vulnerability of female youth towards unemployment is according to data (Table 7) a phenomenon applicable for all benchmark countries. Due to missing Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 69 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla data for 2004 and 2005, the observed period has been reduced to cover only the period 2006-2013. Similar patterns to the R. of Macedonia are observed also in the case of Bulgaria, Greece, Croatia and Slovenia when observing female unemployment rates by age group. The highest female youth unemployment rate in 2006 was observed in R. of Macedonia (60.9%) followed by Greece (34.2%). Although the R. of Macedonia registered a decrease in female youth unemployment in the following years (app. 9.9 p.p.), it still remains among the countries with the highest female youth unemployment rate (51%) compared to the benchmark. Greece observed a great increase in the female youth unemployment rate (app. 30 p.p.) reaching 63.8% in 2013, surpassing thus the R. of Macedonia and registering the highest female youth unemployment among Balkan countries in the EU. Table 7: Female Unemployment Rate by Age in Selected Balkan Countries (%) 15-24 Yrs. Change from 2006 in Percent Point 2006 2013 25-49 50 - 64 15-24 Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. 25-49 50 - 64 15-24 Yrs. Yrs. Yrs. 25-49 50 - 64 Yrs. Yrs. Bulgaria 20.3 8.3 8.3 25.7 11.1 10.9 5.4 2.8 2.6 Greece 34.2 13.2 5.9 63.8 32.0 19.7 29.6 18.8 13.8 Croatia 31.1 12.0 8.6 50.2 16.2 9.6 19.1 4.2 1.0 Slovenia 16.8 6.8 4.3 23.7 10.8 8.2 6.9 4.0 3.9 Macedonia 60.9 35.9 25.1 51.0 27.9 23.1 -9.9 -8.0 -2.0 Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from the State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat Female unemployment in R. of Macedonia, observed from an education attainment perspective (Figure 8), show a decreasing trend over the years for less educated women (Level 0-2), dropping altogether 27.4% from 2006 to 2013. A similar pattern was evident also for level 3-4, which dropped 24.5% in the same period; decreasing from 38.4% in 2006 to 29% in 2013. Whereas, in the case of females with tertiary education (Levels 5-8), an opposite trend is observed throughout the study period with an overall increase of 16.5% (from 23% in 2006 to 26.8% in 2013). 70 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Figure 8: Female Unemployment Rate in R. of Macedonia by Highest Level of Education Attained (%) Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia Compared to benchmark countries (Table 8), a somewhat different pattern is observed when looking at female unemployment by educational attainment. All countries, except for R. of Macedonia have registered an increase in unemployment rates among women with lower levels of education. Greece and Slovenia have registered the highest increase in the case of education attainment level 0-2 calculated at 18 p.p. and 12.3 p.p. respectively from 2006 to 2013. Greece also stands out when observing levels 3-4 and levels 5-8, registering respectively an increase of 20.9 p.p. and 14.2 p.p. from 2006 to 2013. While, all other benchmark countries have registered more moderate increases across all levels in comparison. Table 8: Female Unemployment Rate by Education (Highest Level Attained) in Selected Balkan Countries (%) 2006 Bulgaria 2013 Level 0-2 Level 3-4 Level 5-8 Level 0-2 Level 3-4 Level 5-8 23.2 8.4 4.1 29.5 11.8 6.4 Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 Change from 2006 in Percent Point Level Level Level 0-2 3-4 5-8 6.3 3.4 2.3 71 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla Greece 13.8 16.3 10.3 31.8 37.2 24.5 18.0 20.9 14.2 Croatia 14.0 15.2 7.0 21.2 18.5 11.9 7.2 3.3 4.9 Slovenia 7.9 8.9 3.9 20.2 12.3 7.1 12.3 3.4 3.2 Macedonia 45.3 38.4 23.0 32.9 29.0 26.8 -12.4 -9.4 3.8 Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from the State Statistical Office of R. of Macedonia and Eurostat According to data presented in Table 9, the number of female unemployment is highest among urban women and more than two times higher than registered rural female unemployed. This is due to particular low activity rates and high inactivity rates among rural females (World Bank, 2008). However, a positive trend is observed. The number of urban female unemployment decreased by app. 9.800 persons from 2008 to 2013, roughly 12%. While, the number of unemployed females in rural areas decreased by 3.7% in the same period (app. 1400 persons). The largest decrease in registered unemployed females in urban areas is noted among females with primary and lower secondary education (in absolute terms), which dropped from 19545 to 11900 (decrease of 7645). To which extend this decrease is related to these women finding employment is subject to further research. Noteworthy in this context is however that opposite to females with lower levels of educations, females with university level education have both in the case of rural and urban women experienced an increase in numbers with registered unemployed rural women with university education going from 2743 in 2008 to 7873. This is an increase of more than 250%. Registered unemployed urban women with university education has increased likewise notably from 10599 in 2006 to 18030 in 2013. Table 9: Number of Unemployed Females in R. of Macedonia by Educational Attainment, Rural vs. Urban, 2008 & 2013 Level of Education Total 2008 2013 Rural Urban Rural Urban 38 686 83 501 37 260 73 665 287 2 300 : 1 358 Without education Incomplete primary and lower secondary education Primary and lower secondary education 2 917 3 920 963 3 063 13 221 19 545 8 849 11 900 3 years of secondary education 5 005 8 622 4 471 6 523 4 years of secondary education 14 309 35 887 14 605 31 365 72 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Higher education 205 2 628 : 1 426 1 University level education 2 743 10 599 7 873 18 030 1) University level education includes: university level education, Master's degree and Doctorate (Ph.D.) Source: Authors’ own work based on LFS data from State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia Female unemployment is mostly long-term in nature, as is the case of men (Table 10). Hence, no gender difference is observed in this respect. Due to missing data, the observed period has been reduced to the period 2009-2013. Long-term female unemployment rates have slightly decreased from 2009-2013 by 2.7 p.p. While, the share of long-term female unemployment in total female unemployment is on the rise and increased from 80.8% in 2009 to 82.2% in 2013. Table 10: Long-Term Unemployment by Gender in R. of Macedonia1) % of long-term unemployment 2) Long-term unemployment rate3) 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Women 80.8 82.7 81.0 80.7 82.2 26.5 26.7 24.9 24.5 23.8 Men 82.5 83.7 83.6 83.0 82.7 26.2 26.7 26.6 26.1 24.0 Total 81.9 83.3 82.6 82.1 82.5 26.3 26.7 25.9 25.5 23.9 1) Long-term unemployment - unemployed persons for one year or more. % of long-term unemployment - share of unemployed persons for one year or more in the total number of unemployed persons. 3) Long-term unemployment rate - share of unemployed persons for one year or more in the total labour force. 2) Source: LFS, State Statistical Office of the R. of Macedonia Causes and Challenges of Female Unemployment in R. of Macedonia Gender based unemployment is vastly studied and discussed in literature, and does as such not present a new or unexplored area, and high unemployment levels is rarely attributed to a single factor regardless of the study perspective such as based on gender, age, and so on. Hence, the causes of unemployment are relatively known and widely accepted, and often characterised as being, frictional, structural, voluntary, etc. Having said that, and without going into much detail on this, it is from available Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 73 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla material clear that limited understanding and research is available to really understand the nature and causes of female unemployment in the specific context of the R. of Macedonia. This area is perceived still as unexplored to the detail that it can be addressed properly and efficiently. Much further research is needed to understand the causes and challenges of female unemployment in the R. of Macedonia, especially from a more holistic perspective including also regional and ethnic disparities given the cultural, religious, and ethnic diversity upon which the R. of Macedonia is founded. However, in general, the high of unemployment in R. of Macedonia, including that of women, can essentially be explained in the absence of significant labour supply constraints and the limited labour demand, stemming especially from the private sector (Micevska, 2008). Although the high level of unemployment among females in the R. of Macedonia can be vastly explained by the general causes of unemployment, the demanding role of women in the household and the difficulty in entering and remaining in the labour market is one aspect that is often underestimated. The World Bank (2013) reported that the opportunity cost of work for most women is higher than their potential wage in the labour market. While this does not explain the reason for the high unemployment in R. of Macedonia, it touches some key aspects hindering women to enter the labour market and actively pursue jobs such as access to child care, pay gaps, etc. Another aspect is the industries/sectors and the field of study often characterising women. Women are i.e. very much underrepresented in the construction industry and in study fields representing this industry, and female employment is vastly oriented towards manufacturing (i.e. garment and textile) and in the human health and social work sectors (World Bank, 2013). While this is a structural issue emphasising skill mismatch, the point herein lies more in the context of the lack, or the type and quality, of career support, orientation, Active Labour Market Measure, etc., rather than on the supply and demand aspects. Hence, the high female unemployment in the country can partly, but rather significantly, be explained also by the failure of the institutional framework governing the labour market to provide the necessary support to unemployed and incentives to stimulate female labour market participation and ultimately employment. While higher education institutions are quite rigid and rather slow or reluctant to adapt to changing industry needs given the high unemployment in general. From a general standpoint, it is clear that in addition to focusing on boosting the economy to create more jobs in areas where women are strong, a deeper recognition that female unemployment is 74 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study multidimensional concept with both quantitative and qualitative challenges is imperative to address this issue properly. Conclusions and Recommendations Female labour market indicators show that the Republic of Macedonia is performing poorly in most aspects in comparison to more advanced countries in the Balkan region. More and more women have entered the labour market in the past decade in the Republic of Macedonia, and especially educated women. Still, the female labour force participation is significantly below Balkan countries integrated in the European Union such as Bulgaria, Greece, Slovenia and Croatia; and the female inactivity rates are despite a slow downwards trend still twice as high than that of males in the country. Female employment rates have been on the rise in the study period, but at a much slower pace compared to male employment rated and lies still below most Balkan countries. The increase in female employment is mainly stipulated by increases in employment among lower educated women, while a downward employment trend is observed for women with tertiary education. Female self-employment is on the rise, but still at a very low level to other more developed Balkan countries. Female unemployment in the R. of Macedonia is slowly, but consistently moving in the right direction. The female unemployment rate has dropped by 8.8 p.p. from 2004 to 2013, but remains still at a very high level (at 29% in 2013). The country has the second highest rate compared to benchmark countries, surpassed only by Greece with a higher rate. However, when compared to male unemployment rates in the country, observed data show that no gender gaps seem to exist due to marginal differences in female and male unemployment rates in the study period (20042013). The decreasing trend in female unemployment is mainly witnessed among urban females. Female unemployment is long-term in nature, as observed also with the opposite gender, and a large number of women (app.50%) are unable to enter the labour market due mainly to household responsibilities. Hardest hit by unemployment are especially female youth and lower educated women. Data show a decreasing trend for both categories in the study period, but still both categories display extremely high unemployment rates, especially among female youth. Higher educated women seem to be less vulnerable to unemployment than other categories, but this category Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 75 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla displays an increasing trend in unemployment which is worrisome as this might be a cause to further discouragement among females to enter labour market in the future or/and pursue higher education. Similar trends are witnessed across the countries compared in the context of higher educated women with Greece and Croatia experiencing higher increases in unemployment rates than R. of Macedonia in this category. However, with opposite trends when observing at lower educated women, where the country is performing much better in the period 2006-2013 comparison to the more developed Balkan countries who have all registered growing unemployment rates in this category. In the case of the R. of Macedonia, a downwards trend is observed in the study period with a decrease of 12.4 p.p. from 2006 to 2013. A high level of complexity is involved in reducing female unemployment and it should be recognized that there is no easy or quick way to do this. Recognition that female unemployment is multidimensional concept with both quantitative and qualitative challenges is imperative to address this issue properly. Further recognition is also needed in terms of the causes and effects of female unemployment in the country. Female unemployment manifests, not only a loss to society in terms of forgone achievement, lost tax income, added expenditure and slower economic growth. Above and beyond all, it causes individual suffering, a loss of personal dignity and material hardship on the part of the jobless and their families which makes it difficult to develop into a socially cohesive society and achieve the kind of sustainability needed to ensure future European integration and general well-being. The Government of the R. of Macedonia should increase efforts to ensure that the institutional framework governing the female labour market addresses and formulates policies and measures in the future in a way that they effectively and inclusively address female employment across all regions and ethnic groups through intervention in key areas impacting female unemployment. Macroeconomic development is the key in this context to ensure job creation, but equally important are also tailored, inclusive, and reasonably funded Active Labour Market Measures (ALMM). To include also promotion and support of female entrepreneurship, reasonable access to child care facilities, improved access to high quality education and training to reduce skills mismatch and the competitiveness of women in the labour market. Key in this context is also the need for improvement of the capacities of the National Employment Agency to be able to better support unemployed females. 76 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study References Avlijaš, S., Ivanović, N., Vladisavljević, N., & Vujić, S. (2013). Gender pay gap in the Western Balkan countries: Evidence from Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia (Research Project). Foundation for the Advancement of Economics Brunnbauer, U. (2000). From equality without democracy to democracy without equality? Women and transition in southeast Europe. South-East Europe Review, 3/2000, 151 – 168. European Training Foundation (2013). Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Review of Human Resources Development. Publications Office of the European Union. EUROSTAT (2015). Labour Force Survey 2014-2013. Retrieved from: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/lfs/data/database. Huyer, S. (2014). Gender and Climate Change in Macedonia. Report. Third National Communication on Climate Change (TNC). Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning of R. of Macedonia. Kjosev, S. (2007). Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia - Specifics and possible solutions. Economics and Organization, 4/2, 153 – 160. Lehmann, H. (2010). Macedonia’s Accession to the EU and the Labor Market: What Can Be Learned from the New Member States (Policy Paper). Bonn: Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit. Micevska, M (2008). The Labour Market in Macedonia: A Labour Demand Analysis. Labour, 22/2, 345–368. Mickovska-Raleva, N. & Dimitrijevska T. (2013). Gender equality in EU: How does Macedonia compare? Center for Research and Policy Making. Mojsoska-Blazevski, N., Najdova, J., Stojkov, A. & Asenov, L. (2009). Labour Market in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. A Study for the European Commission Employment. Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities DG. Volume 6 | Number 2 | Fall 2016 77 �Remzije Rakipi, Shpresa Syla Mojsoska-Blazevski, N. (2012). Challenges to successful employment policy in the region: Towards more jobs, quality labour force and greater competitiveness. Discussion Paper for the Western Balkans Investment Framework. Mojsoska-Blazevski, N. & Kurtishi N. (2012). The Macedonian Labour Market: What makes it so different? Journal of Social Policy, 5/.9. State Statistical Office (2008). Labour Force Survey 2008. Retrieved from: http://www.stat.gov.mk/PublikaciiPoOblast_en.aspx?id=3&rbrObl=14. State Statistical Office (2013). Labour Force Survey 2013. Retrieved from: http://www.stat.gov.mk/PublikaciiPoOblast_en.aspx?id=3&rbrObl=14. United Nations (2013). Report of the World Social Situation 2013. Inequality Matters, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Woman for Economy - Economy for Women (2013). Being a Woman in the Balkans (Project). Southeast Europe and the EU – Leadership Development Programme 2012/13. World Bank (2008). FYR Macedonia Labour Market Profile 2004-2007. Policy Note. Human Development Sector Unit, Europe and Central Asia. World Bank (2013). FYR Macedonia: Gender Diagnostic - Gaps in Endowments, Access to Economic Opportunities and Agency. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Unit Europe and Central Asia Region. 78 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3325 Title A name given to the resource Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Author Author RAKIPI, Remzije SYLA, Shpresa Abstract A summary of the resource. The Republic of Macedonia has since its independence made great progress in terms of economic reform and social development; prompted often by the county’s aspiration to become part of the European Union. However, in spite of these advances, weak labour market indicators in particular among females remains a great concern and a persisting challenge for the country. Based on official data from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) conducted by the State Statistical Office (SSO) for the case of the Republic of Macedonia, the aim of this study is to examine the development of female unemployment in the past decade (2004-2013) in the Republic of Macedonia from a multi-dimensional perspective. This while comparing national trends with other Balkan countries already in the EU using LFS data provided by Eurostat. Findings show that the female unemployment rate in the R. Macedonia is moving in the right direction with a decreasing trend throughout the observed period with drop of 8.8 percent point from 2004 to 2013 (observed at 29% in 2013). Compared to Balkan countries in the EU, findings show that the R. Macedonia has been performing relatively better than these countries, who have all experienced negative fluctuations in female unemployment rates in the observed period with rates at higher levels compared to 2004. Furthermore, the findings show no evidence of inequality between male and female unemployment rates in the country, however notable disparities are evident when observing unemployment among various age groups and the level of education attainment. The paper concludes with clear policy recommendations for boosting female employment to include increasing female access to education and entrepreneurial programs, increased access to childcare, etc. Keywords: Labour market, female unemployment; unemployment, employment. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-11 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bc4e95ff715874240b2f459d266b2fa2.docx 96bf7518a64808b8296f7bed1415d931 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3304 Title A name given to the resource Trends and Challenges of Female Unemployment in the Republic of Macedonia: A Regional Comparative Study Author Author Rakipi, Remzije Syla, Shpressa Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The Republic of Macedonia has since its independence made great progress in terms of economic reform and social development; prompted often by the county’s aspiration to become part of the European Union. However, in spite of these advances, weak labour market indicators in particular among females remains a great concern and a persisting challenge for the country. Based on official data from the Labour Force Survey (LFS) conducted by the State Statistical Office (SSO) for the case of the Republic of Macedonia, the aim of this study is to examine the development of female unemployment in the past decade (2004-2013) in the Republic of Macedonia from a multi-dimensional perspective. This while comparing national trends with other Balkan countries already in the EU using LFS data provided by Eurostat. Findings show that the female unemployment rate in the R. Macedonia is moving in the right direction with a decreasing trend throughout the observed period with drop of 8.8 percent point from 2004 to 2013 (observed at 29% in 2013). Compared to Balkan countries in the EU, findings show that the R. Macedonia has been performing relatively better than these countries, who have all experienced negative fluctuations in female unemployment rates in the observed period with rates at higher levels compared to 2004. Furthermore, the findings show no evidence of inequality between male and female unemployment rates in the country, however notable disparities are evident when observing unemployment among various age groups and the level of education attainment. The paper concludes with clear policy recommendations for boosting female employment to include increasing female access to education and entrepreneurial programs, increased access to childcare, etc. Keywords: Labour market, female unemployment; unemployment, employment. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c2ceb70d068e3f8cd2c70948621140e.pdf 501a49b00f352f7bdf53fbda152f2c67 PDF Text Text Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education Caglayan ACIKGOZ, Alev A.BORAZAN Department of Chemical&Process Engineering, Faculty of Engineering , Bilecik University, Bilecik, TURKEY Email: caglayan.acikgoz@bilecik.edu.tr Abstract: With worldwide demand for energy increasing every day, the development of new, clean, renewable energy sources is critical to Earth's environment. To use clean-energy technology to help developing countries improve their quality of life and economies. Turkey is an energy importing country. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. The use of renewable energy as a topic to study energy and its forms permits a novel way to motivate students, particularly those who energy topics taking conscience with the environment. We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and energy management methods in Universities and Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors. Key words: Renewable Energy Education, Teaching Learning Material, Motivation Introduction Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life in all countries. Availability of cheap and abundant energy with minimum environmental and ecological hazards associated with its production and use is one of the most important factors for economic growth and also for the desired improvement in the quality of life of the people living in developing countries. Because environmental problems result from energyrelated factors, energy and environment are closely related concepts. Studies in last 2 decades have predicted that energy education will be a new discipline in both developed and developing countries. It is therefore especially developing countries that should take into account those studies and make some decisions about their energy, environment, and educational policy. Two important strategies are being adopted by a number of countries around the globe. The first strategy calls for energy demand management, which effectively means promotion of various energy conservation and efficiency measures, and the second approach is the development and large-scale dissemination of renewable energy technologies. Many countries around the world took initiatives for the development and dissemination of renewable energy technologies immediately after the first oil crisis. However, in spite of ambitious programmes of many countries in this direction, the dissemination of these technologies has not met the expectations of the planners and implementing organizations. There have been only a few successful cases of the adoption of renewable energy technologies. The poor dissemination of renewable energy technologies may be attributed to several factors. One of the important inhibiting factors is the lack of a structured framework for providing energy education, in general, and renewable energy education, in particular. For example, in many countries, the lack of indigenous technology development capacity in the area of new and renewable sources of energy has often resulted in the promotion of very expensive and inappropriate designs. Similarly, in some other places, owing to the unavailability of local technical manpower of proper repair and maintenance of the initially installed systems, the users have decided to use some other energy resource – technology combinations. Some of the renewable energy technologies were not accepted by the end-users as they were unaware of their potential benefits and associated requirements. These and several other such problems are merely manifestations of the same root cause - lack of proper renewable energy education. 145 �Many developed and developing countries have changed their energy policies to find and develop new, clean, and renewable energy sources. These countries have also been aware of the importance of formal and informal energy and environmental education to make their citizens aware of the problem. Therefore they have been planning to make required changes in their educational programs to integrate some energy and environment-related concepts, units, activities, etc. into their curricula at different levels. As mentioned above, investments in the energy sector and development of this sector are vital for Turkey. For this purpose, several new policies have been continuously produced and changed according to new growing economic requirements in this sector. During this process, it is also important to take into consideration environmental and educational factors. It is obvious that one of these policies produced must be related to studies dealing with energy education to supply qualified employees to the sector, to increase energy efficiency, to prevent energy extravagancy, and to make citizens aware of the need to protect their environment. It should not be ignored that formal education institutions play the most important role in achieving all of these goals. Because energy is closely linked to concern for the environment, energy education should also include environmental issues(Garg 2006, Keser et al. 2003, Dinçer 1991). Renewable Energy Education in the World The need for energy education increases depending on war and economic turmoil day by day. What is important is to decide how teaching about energy education should be done and what should be taught without such crises. However, the problem is that sources and studies on energy education are limited. For instance, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, energy curriculum-development projects were underway in the US. A search of the ERIC database, using the key words “energy-education and local-studies,” reveals that in 1981 eleven documents or articles met that criteria and the next year the number jumped to 19. The same ERIC search that identified almost 2 dozen articles in 1982 located no articles on those topics in either 1989 or 1990(Keser et al. 2003, Marker 1991). In the last decade, besides a few studies dealing with energy education, it can be seen that the number of web sites on this topic has been increasing due to developing technologies. Energy in itself has not been regarded as a separate discipline of education since the students in other disciplines (e.g., mechanical, chemical, electrical engineering, as well as physics) are just exposed to the relevant aspects (of energy extraction, conversion, transmission and distribution, utilization, etc.) as a part of their curricula. In these disciplines, the subject of energy is not pictured with all its own aspects. Thus independent courses dealing with energy-related issues are not offered to the students at any level of formal education. This has necessitated that energy be considered a very special topic and all its relevant dimensions be studied in considerable detail. Hence the need to establish a separate educational discipline for energy is urgent as well made some suggestions for this purpose (Garg 2006). In their study, they offered levels and desirable features of energy education programs. For creating awareness and interest among the public and also for providing first-hand exposure to the basic concepts and their applications, relevant inputs will have to be introduced at the school level. Short-term courses and the use of mass media techniques can also help in achieving the above objectives. Diploma level courses will have to be introduced for training of personnel in fabrication, installation, and maintenance of energy technologies and systems. Regular four-year bachelor degree courses in energy engineering with specialization in the area of renewable energy and energy conservation may be required for providing the required manpower for design development and evaluation of emerging technologies. Teaching and training programmes at the postgraduate level can be useful in imparting advanced level inputs to engineering graduates or science students preferably with certain specialization options. Finally, short-term mid-career training of scientists, engineers, policy-makers, and administrators in certain specific aspects may also be required. It must be emphasized that for effective and large-scale dissemination of Renewable Energy Technologies initiating and strengthening efforts at all the above levels is equally important. In some developing countries, especially in rural areas, a primaryschool focus is particularly important, for this may be the only formal education children receive. The attitudes about energy inculcated at this time might have a profound effect, not only on the students, but also on their parents if they follow their children’s schoolwork. This can have a direct impact on the improvement of understanding among the general public, for example of the fuel wood problem and the need for innovation in stove design and solar cropdrying techniques, and such other renewable energy issues. In many developing countries, secondary education is used to impart job-related trade skills, as well as to prepare for college. Programmes on the maintenance and repair of renewable-energy devices and the adaptation of non-local designs to local needs and materials should be introduced into high-schools and technical schools. This will not only provide societies with the skilled technical manpower needed to make introduction of renewable-energy 146 �technology feasible, but it will also impart income-earning skills for a new era of energy use. Here again, training materials and equipment are needed and teachers must be trained in their use. It is probably desirable throughout the educative process, but particularly at the university level, that renewable-energy considerations be presented as part of the complete energy picture, and that energy considerations in general be placed in the development context, both rural and urban. There are several reasons for this. Renewable energies are more likely to receive their proper due if they are considered on a par with other supply options so as neither to exaggerate nor to underestimate their potential importance to any locals. Beyond this, the impact of energy issues on each economic sector and on intersectional coordination needs to be made clear and even emphasized. Desirable features of an energy education program are as follows: It should include all energy resources (renewable and non-renewable) with particular emphasis on some specific ones depending upon the local needs and characteristics. It should cover all aspects of energy technologies such as resource assessment, technology, economics and energetic, socio cultural issues, and ecological and environmental impacts. Separate curricula should be developed for different levels (school, polytechnic, university) and for different audiences. Although to some extent the energy education programs may cater to the local, site-specific needs, they should at the same time be consistent with national, regional, and international priorities and requirements. It should be flexible and dynamic, thus allowing for improvement in the future, if desired. It should provide a balance between theory and practical aspects and should involve all aspects of teaching/training including lectures, laboratories, demonstrations, hands-on skills training, design, manufacture, trouble-shooting, etc. It should be capable of providing energy education to all in a minimum amount of time and should be economically viable so that the maximum number of people may be educated within the existing financial resources. Energy education should also ensure employment/self-employment for the students and should thus have a direct link with job requirements and responsibilities of the manpower required in the area of energy. It should be compatible with the global efforts in this direction and should allow effective and mutually beneficial experience sharing and interaction. Renewable Energy Education in Turkey The eighth Five-Year Development Plan of Turkey reports that the main objective in the energy sector is to meet the increasing demand for energy, in line with economic development targets, population growth rate, transition to industrialization, and taking into account the environment The options related to some energy and environmental policies are the following General Policies: • Measures to encourage wider use of natural gas • Support the utilization of clean and renewable energy sources as well as passive solar energy applications • Decentralization in energy generation • Optimizing sustainability of energy supply and environmental costs • Setting integrated energy consumption targets for organized industrial zones Education and Training: • Organization of energy conservation training at adult education centres • Introducing energy conservation in formal education • Organization of training for households in mass housing and rural areas (WECTNC 1999). As mentioned above, investments in the energy sector and development of this sector are vital for Turkey. For this purpose, several new policies have been continuously produced and changed according to new growing economic requirements in this sector. During this process, it is also important to take into consideration environmental and educational factors. It is obvious that one of these policies produced must be related to studies dealing with energy education to supply qualified employees to the sector, to increase energy efficiency, to prevent energy extravagancy, and to make citizens aware of the need to protect their environment. It should not be ignored that formal education institutions play the most important role in achieving all of these goals. Because energy is closely linked to concern for the environment, energy education should also include environmental issues. During the past decades or so, Renewable Energy Education efforts have primarily focused on postgraduate level teaching / training programmes. Several other undergraduate engineering degree programmes on Renewable Energy are offered. Short-term training and refresher courses are also being offered besides a large number of seminars, workshops, symposia and conference being organized on Renewable Energy and related topics every year. Some work has recently been initiated towards the development of vocational courses and courses for technicians and mechanics. 147 �To Motivate Renewable Energy Education We aims at improving the environmental and renewable energy awareness of young people for a sustainable development, and also, at the development of innovative approaches for the analyses and solution of problems. We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and energy management methods in Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors. Teachers are profoundly consulted and accompanied in the field of web-didactics. An environmental and energy management system is a professional management instrument, which systematically directs the school organization as well as the processes and activities in the schools towards an environmentally friendly acting. All environmental media and material flows in the schools become transparent and the environmental awareness of those involved is improved. Previous experiences with Environmental and Energy Management System have shown that the consumption of resources and therefore costs can be reduced at the schools. In their every-day surroundings the young people learn about an environmentally friendly handling of resources and by means of out-of-school training forms they come to a positive attitude towards active citizenship engagement. All students have undertaken the steps for the introduction of an environmental and energy management system. Each step is described in detail and illustrated on the internal Learning Management System. The implementation has been realized by environmental teams consisting of both students and teachers. The necessary management skills have been transmitted in special compulsory optional environmental and energy classes or in optional environmental and energy trainings. Moreover, the schools have been realizing environmental projects involving different stakeholders such as students, teachers, parents and local organizations (environmental organizations and experts, energy suppliers etc.). Thus for example renewable energy resources were introduced to the students, whereby the environmental and energy groups provided necessary documentation and presented and explained the new concept in school meetings to all members of the school. In order to establish the comparability in the approaches, the teachers provided exemplary training units on the basis of a common pattern, which show how an environmental and energy management system can be introduced with students. The development of the blended learning approach (a mixture of face-to-face lessons and e-Learning) and the information-technological development is realised by the Training and Project Network. The Pedagogical Seminary of the University accompanies and evaluates the pedagogical development in the framework of the project on a European level. The environmental and energy contest will be developed by Environmental and Energy Management. These Joint Actions are about the possibility to do projects together in order to achieve synergy effects as it is intended in the resolutions of the programmes Socrates (general education), Leonardo da Vinci (vocational training) and Youth. In general these Joint Actions have to deal with subjects, which not exclusively are part of one of the areas general education, vocational training or youth. They favour an increasing cooperation between stakeholders of different sectors and fields of knowledge. The learning material might be all kinds of office-files, like Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Pack and gopresentations, Access-data bases and other, but also small subprograms that do automatically start as web-basedtraining units on students computer, like flash-files. One further option to give illustrations is the provision of photofiles in all current formats, like jpg, gif-files. Further often used file-formats are PDF-files. Even small video sequences can be enclosed attached, like mpg-files. By clicking the particular file symbol you open the material online. In general it is advisable to save the learning material on PC, if necessary to print it as well. Conclusion It is essential to develop and implement a well-designed energy education program, including environmental issues oriented to formal and non-formal education in cooperation with all foundations dealing with energy before it is too late. A careful analysis of the course contents of many teaching / training programmes on new and renewable sources of energy reveals that more often than not the curriculums are strongly driven by the expertise 148 �of available teachers rather than the inputs to be given to the students. A proper balance between theoretical and practical inputs is crucial for any renewable energy education programme. The laboratory component of renewable energy courses must ensure enough hands-on training of the students. There is an urgent need to develop suitable experiments which can be offered at different levels. References H.P. Garg, Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education IX. World Renewable Energy Congress, Aug 2006, Florence, ITALY Kandpal, T. C., and H. P. Garg., Resources materials for renewable energy education. Renewable Energy 5:2362–2366, 1994. Kandpal, T. C., and H. P. Garg, Energy education. Appl. Energy 64:71–78, . 1999. Ömer F. Keser, Haluk Özmen, Fikret Akdeniz, Energy, Environment, and Education Relationship in Developing Countries’Policies: A Case Study for Turkey, Energy Sources, 25:123–133, 2003 WECTNC, Web site of World Energy Council Turkish National Committee, Energy Report and Statistics of Turkey-1999, dated searching from www.dektmk.org.tr/ Dinçer, I. Environmental issues: 1 Energy utilization, Energy Sources 23:69–81. 2001. Marker, G. W., Has the time come to revive energy education? Social Studies 82(5):183–187, 1991. 149 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b735fbab22c147e2b65c12a7e311a6aa.doc 2e4383064a7bbc2ee4458e33bfffc95b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 366 Title A name given to the resource Trends and Issues in Renewable Energy Education Author Author ACIKGOZ, Caglayan BORAZAN, Alev A. Abstract A summary of the resource. With worldwide demand for energy increasing every day, the development of new, clean, renewable energy sources is critical to Earth's environment. To use clean-energy technology to help developing countries improve their quality of life and economies. Turkey is an energy importing country. Turkey presently has considerable renewable energy sources. The most important renewable sources are hydropower, wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. The use of renewable energy as a topic to study energy and its forms permits a novel way to motivate students, particularly those who energy topics taking conscience with the environment. We would like to achieve this by looking beyond the schools’ curricula and by introducing modern environmental and energy management methods in Universities and Vocational High Schools. This increases the methodological competencies of students and facilitates their change from school to professional life. Students play an active role in the systematic improvement processes of the schools and are even eligible to be trained to become environmental auditors. The modern internet-based learning methods and instruments are highly attractive for the students and instructors. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3c89d22b74538d3fee0a76be10ae12e2.pdf 5a2d7db8a4aa489038b606c736b70001 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Trends in New Drug Launches Abdulkadir Civan Gediz University, Izmir, Turkey abdulkadir.civan@gediz.edu.tr Mai Lan Thanh Nguyen Fatih University, İstanbul, Turkey kestar09@gmail.com Pharmaceutical drugs have contributed to people’s improved health and prolonged life for the last several decades. New drugs, hence, are believed to be beneficial. Standard textbook analysis suggests that new drugs to be launched in as many countries as possible. However, in our study, we find that not all new drugs are introduced to every part of the globe; although many health problems could be prevented, cured, or managed effectively through the use of those novel drugs. We have found that there are certain trends to new drug launches. With data from IMS New Product Focus, we are able to track historical pharmaceutical launches of all drugs for most countries that have major pharmaceutical markets. We also analyzed the speed of drug companies to market (launch) their new drugs in different countries. New drugs are launched sooner in the advanced countries than developing and underdeveloped countries. However the difference is getting smaller. We run basic regressions to study the influences of different factors on the launch speeds for different countries. Our analysis indicate that new drugs are launched sooner in the countries where income, population and property rights protection levels are higher, and we come across the significant role of patent laws for drugs innovation in diffusion and trends of pharmaceutical drug launches. Keywords: Health Economics, Drugs, Turkey. 4 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1465 Title A name given to the resource Trends in New Drug Launches Author Author CIVAN, Abdulkadir THANH NGUYEN, Mai Lan Abstract A summary of the resource. Pharmaceutical drugs have contributed to people’s improved health and prolonged life for the last several decades. New drugs, hence, are believed to be beneficial. Standard textbook analysis suggests that new drugs to be launched in as many countries as possible. However, in our study, we find that not all new drugs are introduced to every part of the globe; although many health problems could be prevented, cured, or managed effectively through the use of those novel drugs. We have found that there are certain trends to new drug launches. With data from IMS New Product Focus, we are able to track historical pharmaceutical launches of all drugs for most countries that have major pharmaceutical markets. We also analyzed the speed of drug companies to market (launch) their new drugs in different countries. New drugs are launched sooner in the advanced countries than developing and underdeveloped countries. However the difference is getting smaller. We run basic regressions to study the influences of different factors on the launch speeds for different countries. Our analysis indicate that new drugs are launched sooner in the countries where income, population and property rights protection levels are higher, and we come across the significant role of patent laws for drugs innovation in diffusion and trends of pharmaceutical drug launches. Keywords: Health Economics, Drugs, Turkey. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4abed05cf12f9c339eeb95c4add90018.pdf d8c2ca1574cff486ce7f2345240744c7 PDF Text Text Trends in Teaching and Learning of Mother Tongue and English as a Foreign Language in Kosovo Xhavit Rexhaj & Blerim Saqipi AAB University,University of Prishtina / Prishtina, Kosovo Key words: language learning and acquisiton, constructivism ABSTRACT Theories of language acquisition and learning show the differences and similarities in picking up mother tongue and second or foreign languages. As a result of differences in traditions, cultures, technologies, economic and social aspects, these differences and similarities are then reflected in various ways in difefrent countries. We have carried out a research into the Albanian and English language teaching and learning in Kosovo to fidn out how are the similarities ad differences between acquisition and learning reflected in the reality and practices of Kosovo schools. We have observed English and Albanian lessons of 15 teachers in 10 schools and five municipalities. The sample of schools and and municipalities was selected to be representative mainly of the geographic areas and social backgrounds. The preliminary results show that for most different reasons there is a mix of nativist and constructivist approaches translated in respective methods and strategies in today’s teaching and learning of languages in Kosovo schools. In the small Kosovo, students are exposed to both communicative and grammar based approaches, teachers are sometimes facilitators and in other times all-knowing teachers, textbooks vary from most up-to-date to surprisingly old (sometimes older than the students using them!). Technology ranges from black-board-and-chalk to lap-tops with ,multimedia applications and internet access'. In the end the study identifies points for cross-language exchanges in order to mutually benefit from strengths and to overcome weaknesses in both systems. Results and reccomendations of the study will be made available to the education authorities to use for the improvement of teaching and learning of languages in general in Kosovo. They will also be used to design an in-service teacher training module supported by the GIZ. � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d5f1f0097c52b354c211631e509a7355.docx 926237894a021fe0c4987b16b529aa32 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2108 Title A name given to the resource Trends in Teaching and Learning of Mother Tongue and English as a Foreign Language in Kosovo Author Author REXHAJ, Xhavit SAQIPI, Blerim Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: language learning and acquisiton, constructivism ABSTRACT Theories of language acquisition and learning show the differences and similarities in picking up mother tongue and second or foreign languages. As a result of differences in traditions, cultures, technologies, economic and social aspects, these differences and similarities are then reflected in various ways in difefrent countries. We have carried out a research into the Albanian and English language teaching and learning in Kosovo to fidn out how are the similarities ad differences between acquisition and learning reflected in the reality and practices of Kosovo schools. We have observed English and Albanian lessons of 15 teachers in 10 schools and five municipalities. The sample of schools and and municipalities was selected to be representative mainly of the geographic areas and social backgrounds. The preliminary results show that for most different reasons there is a mix of nativist and constructivist approaches translated in respective methods and strategies in today’s teaching and learning of languages in Kosovo schools. In the small Kosovo, students are exposed to both communicative and grammar based approaches, teachers are sometimes facilitators and in other times all-knowing teachers, textbooks vary from most up-to-date to surprisingly old (sometimes older than the students using them!). Technology ranges from black-board-and-chalk to lap-tops with ,multimedia applications and internet access'. In the end the study identifies points for cross-language exchanges in order to mutually benefit from strengths and to overcome weaknesses in both systems. Results and reccomendations of the study will be made available to the education authorities to use for the improvement of teaching and learning of languages in general in Kosovo. They will also be used to design an in-service teacher training module supported by the GIZ. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed