320 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8d03ac4c351476f29a18692609437a05.pdf 3c6843bd7b29e93a2005de2bd9884057 PDF Text Text Exploring Comprehension Strategies of Low & High Ability Listeners with a Focus on the Effect of Explicit Strategy Instruction M. Naci KAYAOĞLU School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Ali Şükrü ÖZBAY School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey ozbay@ktu.edu.tr Abstract: While acknowledging the practical value and relative merit of listening comprehension as a means of foreign language learning, the present paper argues the case for a need to teach listening strategies to enhance students’ realization of the various forms of speech. This contention is further enhanced by the fact that students’ awareness of useful listening strategies will help them understand the foreign language correctly. To this end, this data-based research was undertaken using interviews and retrospective protocols with 17 EFL students and a pretest / post- test documentation. Introduction The fact that the ability to understand others through listening plays a very important role in the lives of people is an old consensus by now. Among the four major areas of communication skills and language development-listening, speaking, reading, and writing--the one that is the most basic is listening. Particularly in a language classroom, listening ability plays a significant role in the development of other language skills. The first thing students do in order to learn a language is that they generally have to listen to the words several times before they are able to recognize and pronounce those words. Listening in this respect gains priority among other language skills since it also helps students build vocabulary, develop language proficiency, and improve language usage. Unfortunately, it was not accepted as an active skill in the development of language and that is why, until recently the skill of listening comprehension was ignored in language teaching and learning methodology. Fortunately, the ideas about language learning and teaching during the last two decades changed considerably and it is only then, listening comprehension was considered as an active process through which listeners focus on selected aspects of aural input and creates meaning from what they hear. There are not many studies made so far and those that have been made show that listeners use some mental processes while they are listening. Those who use these mental processes called as listening comprehension strategies easily and fully comprehend the aural input. Some researchers also claimed that teaching such strategies can help learners facilitate better comprehension and their studies indicated that training in the use of learning strategies helps students to become more effective learners. Based on these research findings, it can be said that there is a relationship between strategy use and language learning proficiency and ability, and learning strategies training can effectively contribute to learners’ language learning improvement when done properly. In the last 20 years or so, there have been fundamental changes in the ways language learning and language teaching are perceived. Since 1970s-1980s there have, indeed, been significant paradigm shifts in learning theory, linguistic theory, and instructional models, with an important movement from a primary focus on teaching and a teacher-centered classroom to an increasing concern with learning and a learner-centered classroom. At the same time there has been a shift from a major emphasis on structure to an emphasis that includes attention to language function and communication. (Morley, 2001). Parallel with these changes in language learning and language teaching, in particular there has been a growing interest in defining how learners can manage their own learning and become more autonomous. Thus, there is now a substantial body of research outlining learner behaviors and describing the thought processes they follow while learning a foreign language. The mental and communicative 94 �processes that directly contribute to learning are called learning strategies. Learning strategies are broadly defined as a set of operations used by learners that will facilitate the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information (Chamot, 1987). Brown and Yule (1983) categorized learning strategies into two groups, these being Cognitive Learning Strategies which are composed of inference, guessing from the context, and elaboration, or relating new information to other concepts in memory, and Meta-cognitive Learning Strategies which are composed of knowledge about cognition or applying thoughts about the cognitive operations of oneself or others, and the regulation of cognition, or planning, monitoring and evaluating learning or problem solving. In addition to these learning strategy categories, Chamot (1982) added Social-affective Learning Strategies such as cooperation and questioning for clarification. Working with one or more peers to obtain feedback, pooling information, modeling a language activity as well as asking a teacher or a native speaker for repetition, paraphrasing, explanation or examples are all Social-affective Learning Strategies. Studies in learning strategies have mostly focused on reading, writing, and speaking strategies of EFL / ESL learners. Learning strategies in listening skills have been widely ignored by researchers. However, the skill of listening comprehension has been thought to be the core of learning a language. There are a number of possible reasons for this insufficient importance that was attributed to listening comprehension. Reasons for this may lie in the lack of emphasis on teaching listening comprehension in language textbooks in general, as well as in the lack of available material specifically developed for and focused on the teaching of listening skills. Brown (1990) states that students are taught to speak slowly and clearly, and the teachers generally uses a public style language in the classroom which is also clear and slow. This speech style contrasts with the speech style of native speakers who do not speak slowly or clearly. So, it can be said that students who are from environments where English is not the language of the country have very few opportunities to hear the real language; these students therefore are not accustomed to hearing the language as it is produced by native speakers for native speakers. For that reason, students from the countries in which English is taught as a foreign language frequently have great difficulty understanding English spoken to them when they come into contact with native speakers of the language. According to the Herschenhom (1989), the fact that a student can speak a lot of sentences in a foreign language does not necessarily mean that he will understand them from a native speaker. There is a virtual chasm between the performance of native speakers engaged in a conversation and what a students expects a conversation to sound like (Herschenhorn, 1989). Another problematic point is that students are usually exposed to one accent of English, that spoken by the teacher and they have troubles when they are exposed to different accents. Belasco (1971, cited in Morley, 2001) expressed his concerns in that issue very clearly: “I was rudely jolted by the realization that it is possible to develop so-called ‘speaking ability’ and yet be virtually incompetent in understanding the spoken language... students were learning to audio comprehend certain specific dialogues and drills but could not understand the language out of the mouths of native speakers”(Belasco, 1971, cited in Morley, 2001). If these are correct and comprehension of the spoken language is not seen as a natural process, then it seems reasonable to claim that this ability should be taught in classroom environments. And since the early 1970s courses on listening comprehension have begun to be covered into curricula. Teaching listening comprehension has become a significant part of every language teaching program and teachers have started to help learners become better listeners. The Study The significant role of listening comprehension in language teaching has been accepted by researchers in the last few decades; however, little research has been given on what listeners actually do while listening to oral texts and to what extent learners’ listening comprehension proficiency can be improved. Hence, the major emphasis of this study will be on the comprehension strategies that are used by high and low ability intermediate level EFL students in the department of Western Languages and Literature, English Language and Literature , K.T.U with a focus on the effect of explicit strategy instruction. Teachers and researchers have all observed that some students approach the language learning task in more successful ways than others. That is, all other things being equal, for example, the same learning environment, the same target language, the same age group, the same native tongue, some students are more successful than others in learning a second or foreign language. Any students, for instance, may be good at speaking than writing or vice versa, or at reading comprehension than listening. This difference in the distribution of general success in the particular skills suggests that learning strategies in listening comprehension in Turkish setting need to be investigated. As stated before, high ability language learners use a variety of strategies to assist them in gaining command of new language skills and with successful training, low ability learners can apply these strategies to various language tasks. And teachers have an important role in this training by conveying strategy applications to students and thereby supporting student efforts to learn the new language (Rubin, 1987). In this paper, the following questions were asked and their answers were sought by investigating the learning strategies that students use in 95 �listening comprehension. These questions are “What are the different types of comprehension strategies employed by high & low ability listeners (EFL) in a Turkish setting?” and “Does explicit instruction in effective listening strategies help learners become better listeners?”. According to Cohen (1987), once the leaning strategies of good language learners are identified, they can be made available, and where necessary, used by less successful learners to enable them to learn a foreign language more effectively. As effective listeners use strategies more successfully than those nominated as less effective listeners, the less successful students may need assistance in becoming more strategic learners. Therefore, this study aims at investigating the effect of explicit strategy instruction in listening comprehension by identifying the listening strategies used by a group of high & low ability EFL listeners. One implication is that language teachers certainly play a crucial role in teaching and learning arena as they are supposed to create opportunities to help learners gain independent control over the learning process. With this idea, for the educationalists, the present study gains significance as the results may probably shed more light on the value of explicit listening strategy training through awareness raising tasks. Methodology In this paper, qualitative and quantitative research methods were used and quantitative data was obtained from learners’ self-reports through the procedures of small group interviews and immediate retrospective verbalizations. This was to allow us to understand the types of listening strategies used by high and low ability listeners. Between a pretest and a posttest, five principal strategies were taught explicitly for listening comprehension and a qualitative data was obtained through the comparison of participants’ pretest and posttest results. Also a quantitative analysis has been done through these results about the effectiveness of direct strategy instruction. The Findings In the analysis of protocols, both cognitive and meta-cognitive listening strategies of high and low ability listeners were examined. For both groups, cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies were identified. Cognitive strategies include inference, elaboration, recombination, imagery, contextualization, resourcing, translation, notetaking, grouping, key word and repetition and meta-cognitive strategies include self-management, selfreinforcement, selective-attention, self-monitoring, and directed attention (O’Malley and Chamot, 1990). The data was subsequently grouped under 16 representative strategies. Table 1 on the next page shows the high ability listeners’ retrospective protocols, and Table 2 shows the low ability listeners’ protocols. They also show the lists of generic strategy classifications-cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies- and their respective strategies. Cognitive strategies were used to process utterances directly by transforming them into mental representations that could be stored and recalled. Eleven such strategies were identified. Through cognitive strategies, many informants made associations between new and old information. Some of these strategies had clear benefits. When informants used ‘contextualization’, they were less preoccupied with getting the exact meanings of words. Instead they were more interested in constructing meaning in terms of the text itself and the information outside the text. The success of some strategies, however, was dependent on other factors. Elaboration strategy, though generally is helpful, was counter-productive when the wrong kind of knowledge was drawn upon. Translation actually slowed down processing and often took the informants’ attention away from clues that might have assisted their comprehension. Recombination tactics were not useful when the informants did not hear or note down a sufficient number of key words for recreating the original message. Sometimes even when many comprehended words were noted, some informants were still unable to arrive at an understanding because they lacked the relevant background knowledge to complete the gaps. Key word strategy refers to the various ways in which the informants focused all their attention on a small part of the message. Because many informants experienced poor sound-script recognition, they tried to spell familiar sounding words in the hope that they could match them with something they already knew. Some informants also stopped listening to think about the meaning of one part of the input. Other strategy included repeating and grouping words and sounds of an unfamiliar word or a phrase. The informants hoped that this would facilitate recalling and processing at the next available opportunity, such as by using a dictionary or asking someone about the meaning. Although rehearsal or repetition may strengthen an item in short-term memory, language learners generally have limited capacity in their short-term memory to retain information in the target language. 96 �Meta-cognitive tactics were used to manage complex cognitive processes before, during and after processing the information. Five meta-cognitive strategies were identified, these were self–management, selfreinforcement, selective-attention, self-monitoring, directed attention. Like cognitive tactics, some meta-cognitive tactics were more useful than others. On the whole, pre-listening preparation strategies prepared informants both, cognitively and actively. By anticipating contents, content words and rehearsing their sounds, informants avoided word recognition problems and processed the input more quickly. By actively encouraging themselves to relax during listening, they also lowered their anxiety in what many learners would agree to be a stressful activity. Another strategy used was selective attention. Informants decided in advance those aspects of the input they wanted to pay attention to. Directed attention, which helped to monitor attention, ensured that the informants perceptual processing was not interrupted. Nevertheless, some informants found the strategy of maintaining concentration to be stressful because they had not learned to vary the intensity of their concentration. To check and confirm understanding during listening, self-monitoring strategy were used. Some informants used monitoring to assess whether or not the problematic part would affect the comprehension of the input. As one noted: ‘‘In fact I know all the words specifically but one word that I couldn’t catch cause me not to comprehend the meaning’’. Self monitoring strategies gave informants the option to actively employ other strategies to facilitate understanding. High Ability Retrospective Protocols Representative Strategies Generic Strategy Class. INFERENCE COGNITIVE ELABORATION COGNITIVE DIRECTED- ATTENTION META-COGN. …‘ At first I listened to the each words and I tried to catch the words that I understood easily such as evolution, sea life, marine shelf..get the meaning.’ RECOMBINATION COGNITIVE …‘I could not figure out the words uttered by the first speaker but the second speaker’s talked clearly and I think this part is much easier than the first one. I can understand it.’ SELF-MONITORING META-COGNITIVE …‘I could understand this sentence because when the woman takes the papers, something falls down so there should be put something behind the drawer to prevent this. I create such a scene in my mind to catch the correct answer.’ IMAGERY COGNITIVE …‘In the first part, the women talks about something…I nearly understood but the structure ‘I wish I could’ made me confused and I couldn’t decide whether she has gone or not, I think I have to learn more about ‘wish clauses. RESOURCING COGNITIVE … ‘ I tried to understand the meaning the words around the word ‘ashame’ but I couldn’ t and I paid particularattention to the following sentence …’ SELECTIVE ATTENTION META-COGNITIVE SELF REINFORCEMENT META-COGNITIVE ‘… in the speech, the woman clearly refuses the invitation of the man. So I think the expression ‘I wish I could…’ helped me comprehend the talk..’ …‘About Washington. I think it is a nice place and there are many places to visit so the woman states that hot weather can’t prevent her to go there.. by this way I marked the…’ … ‘Marine shells’. I tried to concentrate on this phrase and I think I don’ t know the exact meaning of ‘marine shelf’ so I let it pass and I tried to catch the following part but…’ … ‘It was so easy because I caught all the words and I tried to concentrate like this in the following ques.. 97 �… ‘I tried to remember the words I got and then I comprehended the message.. CONTEXTUALIZATION COGNITIVE … ‘ the speech was so fast and I'm so tired, if not I am sure I can easily understand the questions..’ SELF MANAGEMENT META-COGNITIVE Table 1. Retrospective Protocols of High Ability Listeners For example, when they considered a part to be important, some informants would listen out for repetitions, for rephrasing of the same idea, or for a summary at the end. Finally, use of such strategies allowed the informants to vary the intensity of their attention, thus making listening less stressful for them. Both groups’ protocols revealed an interaction of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. There were, however, some differences in the quantity and quality of strategies used. High ability listeners managed to achieve a reasonable interpretation of the whole passage in spite of problems they faced with. They continued listening and created different strategies to understand. They not only used familiar words to infer the meaning of the passages, they also kept their attention on the input. They also used this recombination strategy again by creating an interpretation from the words they know. This time it was acceptable because they had the relevant knowledge to support their reconstruction. At the same time, high ability listeners were actively monitoring their understanding of other parts of the segment. To do this they compared their interpretation with their knowledge and they checked their interpretation with the context in the segment by paying attention to the next part of the input. In this processing sequence, high ability listeners managed to monitor their ongoing comprehension while retaining a problematic part of the input in their working memory. Whereas those high ability listeners actively monitored their comprehension and attention, low ability listeners mostly dealt the passage itself. When they noticed an unfamiliar word, they paid special attention to those words and at the same time they paid special attention to familiar ones. They tried to use these words to catch the idea but generally they had to ignore the unfamiliar words as they couldn’t understand and so their comprehension could not improve. There was also no evidence of them trying to use their prior knowledge to assist comprehension. This could be because the words they recognized were insufficient for schema activation. Low ability listeners also frequently used the repetition strategy. They repeated the words they got several times and even stopped listening to think about their meanings. Low Ability Retrospective Protocols … ‘If I listened the dialogue once, I couldn’t understand… but I listened twice and I concentrate on the word ‘distance’ and I heard it twice and this helped to fined the correct ..” … ‘I tried to translate word by word then I got confused…’ … ‘during the woman’ speech I couldn’ t catch the words but in the secon part of the dialogue I tried to write down the words of the man that I could catch..’ … ‘ I tried to combine the words that I catch easily to understand what the woman implied....’ … ‘ at the beginning of the speech, there was a word I was not sure …’ … ‘ the woman said ‘ohh!’ and I shaped the face of woman in my mind..the food was probably disgusting and she doesn’ t want to eat it … but I was not sure….’ …‘ As the words ‘museum and restaurant’ have nearly the same pronunciations in Turkish.. and I thought that these are the places probably that should be seen in Washington.. so whatever happens the woman wanted to go there…’ 98 Representative Strategies Generic Strategy Classification REPETITION COGNITIVE TRANSLATION COGNITIVE NOTE-TAKING COGNITIVE GROUPING COGNITIVE SELF-MONITORING META-COGNITIVE IMAGERY COGNITIVE KEY WORD COGNITIVE �… ‘I heard somewhere ‘community activities’ and I decided that these activities were something related to ‘projects’ and then I choose the answer… ’ … “I didn’t hear all words clearly, I just guesses the meaning…” SELECTIVE ATTENTION META-COGNITIVE INFERENCE COGNITIVE Table 2. Retrospective Protocols of Low Ability Listeners Also translation was found the most predominant strategy type employed by low ability listeners, whereas it was used infrequently by high ability listeners. In short, both groups combined several comprehension strategies to process each listening segment. There was evidence of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies working together, as well as top down and bottom-up processes interacting to achieve comprehension. High ability listeners used a wider range of cognitive and meta-cognitive tactics which interacted efficiently to facilitate comprehension. They used prior knowledge, linguistic knowledge and contextual information, three important comprehension resources, to process input and manage the processing. In contrast, low ability listeners used mostly translation, repetition, note taking, key word and only low-level comprehension monitoring strategies. However, the two groups of listeners shared some similarities. Although it was different in quantity and quality, both of the groups engaged in top-down processing wherever possible, as evidenced in their use of strategies for inference, elaboration, recombination, and contextualization, which relied heavily on prior knowledge. Both also gave attention on problematic parts but were also ready to ignore difficulties and continue listening. A possible explanation for this is that when they found a word vaguely familiar they would try to think of its meaning. If, however, they knew the word was completely new, they would ignore it and keep their attention on the input. The interaction of strategies when one segment of the input was being processed shows that although individual strategies were useful, successful comprehension also depended on whether the listeners were able to combine various mental strategies in a way that could truly enhance comprehension Eleven types of cognitive strategies and five types of meta-cognitive strategies which were used by high and low ability listeners were identified. These strategies were used by both groups in different quality and quantity. After this identification, subjects were asked some questions to get more clear information about their strategy usage, especially about the strategies ‘imagery, self-monitoring, elaboration, contextualization. First question was a general question and was about subjects’ listening subject matter preference. They were asked what kind of subject matter they would prefer to listen to, and high ability listeners said that they would like to listen to the subjects which reflect real life communication. They have reported that when the authentic listening materials are used in listening classes, they would easily and voluntarily engage in the listening tasks. The second question was about whether they use and learn the new language items by putting in context or not. High ability listeners reported that they always put the new language items in context and learn them in this way. However, low ability listeners mostly prefer to memorize these items separately or with the corresponding meanings in their native language. Another question was about whether it becomes easy for them to comprehend any listening passage if they are given any visual material related to the passage. High ability listeners said that it becomes easy because the meaning in their mind becomes more clear by the help of the picture or any scene. For this reason, they said that they find BBC or CNN news more understandable than TOEFL listening comprehension tests. On the other hand low ability listeners reported that in such situations they also comprehend the listening passages better but again not completely. The fourth question that was asked to the subjects was about whether they relate new information to the other concepts in memory. It was used more by high ability listeners than low ability listeners. And the last question was about whether they follow their comprehension level; that is, whether they monitor themselves during a listening task or not. High ability listeners reported that they monitor their comprehension and when they face with any problem, they actively employ other strategies to facilitate understanding. And low ability listeners also sometimes monitor their comprehension but they can’t use this monitoring in an effective way. The pretest / post-test which was designed to see the effectiveness of explicit listening strategy instruction showed that there is statistically a slight difference, in a positive direction, in the listening comprehension of the participants. 99 �Conclusions This study sought to better understand how a group of EFL listeners processed and managed information through specific strategies. The analysis of the informants’ retrospective protocols and interviews records showed that both groups of high and low ability listeners use cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies, however, with some differences in the quantity and quality of strategies used. High ability listeners managed to achieve a reasonable interpretation of the listening task in spite of problems they faced with. They continued listening and created different strategies to understand; on the other hand, low ability listeners couldn’ t manage to create different strategies when they faced with problems. At the same time, high ability listeners were actively monitoring their understanding. To do this they compared their interpretation with their knowledge and they checked their interpretation with the context in the segment by paying attention to the next part of the input. In this processing sequence, high ability listeners managed to monitor their ongoing comprehension while retaining a problematic part of the input in their working memory. Also translation was found the most predominant strategy type employed by low ability listeners, whereas it was used infrequently by high ability listeners. In general, high ability listeners used a wider range of cognitive and meta-cognitive tactics which interacted efficiently to facilitate comprehension. In contrast, low ability listeners used mostly translation, repetition, note taking, key word and only low-level comprehension monitoring strategies. The interaction of strategies when one segment of the input was being processed shows that although individual strategies were useful, successful comprehension also depended on whether the listeners were able to combine various mental strategies in a way that could truly enhance comprehension. The results of the pretest and post-test documentation indicated that there is statistically a slight difference, in a positive direction, in the listening comprehension of the participants. There were indications that the difficulty of the task and the explicitness of directions to perform the strategies may both be important determinants of subsequent performance References Brown, G. (1990). Listening to spoken English (2nd Ed.). London: Longman Brown, G. and Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the Spoken Language: An Approach Based on the New York: Cambridge University Press. Analysis of Spoken English. Chamot, A.U. (1987) The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Cambridge: Prentice-Hall. 71-84. Cohen, A. D. (1987). Studying Language Learning Strategies: How do we get the Information? In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 31-40). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. Morley, J. (2001). Aural Comprehension Instruction: Principles and Practices. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language, (pp.69-85). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. O'Malley, J.M., Chamot, A.U., & Küpper, L. (1989). Listening Comprehension Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10(4), 418-437 Herschenhorn, S. (1989). Teaching Listening Comprehension Using Live Llanguage. In Teaching English as a second for foreign language. Eds. M. Celce-Murcia, USA: Heinle and Heinle: 65-73 Rubin, J. (1987). Learner strategies: Theoretical Assumptions, Research History and Typology. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp.15-30). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall 100 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 347 Title A name given to the resource Exploring Comprehension Strategies of Low & High Ability Listeners with a Focus on the Effect of Explicit Strategy Instruction Author Author KAYAOĞLU, M. Naci ÖZBAY, Ali Şükrü Abstract A summary of the resource. While acknowledging the practical value and relative merit of listening comprehension as a means of foreign language learning, the present paper argues the case for a need to teach listening strategies to enhance students’ realization of the various forms of speech. This contention is further enhanced by the fact that students’ awareness of useful listening strategies will help them understand the foreign language correctly. To this end, this data-based research was undertaken using interviews and retrospective protocols with 17 EFL students and a pretest / post- test documentation. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d0d6cd53bb3627213a7f1b7e418f0a85.pdf acab1f2fa5681b60047fe657c950ff2b PDF Text Text 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Kapsamı İle Genel ve Özel Hedeflerinin Değerlendirilmesi ve Öğretmen Tutumları Aziz KILINÇ Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Filiz TURAN Canakkale Onsekiz Mart Universitesi Giriş Dil, kültürün hem taşıyıcısı hem de temel unsurudur. Bir topluma ait olan sözlü ve yazılı kültür değerleri dille aktarıldığı için, dil sosyal yapının ve kültürün aynı zamanda yansıtıcısı durumundadır. Kültür, toplumdan topluma ayırt edici bir nitelik taşıdığı halde aynı toplum içinde, fertleri birbiri ile kaynaştıran ve uyumlu kılan bir özelliğe sahiptir. Kültür, bir toplumun sosyal yapısına yön veren ve o topluma kişilik kazandıran değerler bütünüdür. Kültür, genel olarak kendisini oluşturan öğelerin nitelikleri bakımından maddî kültür ve manevî kültür olarak iki grupta ele alınmaktadır. İnsanların günlük hayatı içerisinde kullandığı ev bark şekilleri, kullandıkları çeşitli âlet ve eşyalar, giyim kuşam tarzları, yemek ve beslenme şekilleri gibi toplumların maddî yaşama düzeni ile ilgili olanlara maddi kültür; dil, tarih, gelenek ve görenek, hukuk, ahlâk gibi yaşayışın manevî yönü ile ilgili olanlara da manevî kültür içerisinde yer alır. Genel dilbilimcilerin de belirttiği gibi milletlerin sosyal yapılarından gelen manevî özellikleri, aydın karakterleri, millî şahsiyetleri ve kültür değerleri dilde kendini gösterdiği için, dil ile kültür arasında bu bakımdan sıkı bir ilişki vardır. Bu da demektir ki dil, bir milletin manevî gücünün eseridir. W.Humboldt’un deyimi ile, “Bir milletin dili ruhtur, ruhu da dildir.” Gerçekten de her dilin günlük konuşmalarından başlayarak edebî eserlerine kadar uzanan çeşitli metinlerine şöyle bir göz atılınca bile, bu manevi görmek mümkündür. Çalışmanın Amacı Çalışmanın temel amacı ortaöğretim kurumlarında 2005–2006 eğitim öğretim yılında uygulanmaya başlanan Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamı ile hedeflerinin değerlendirmesi ve Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı dersi öğretmenlerinin 2005 Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programa ilişkin görüşlerini ortaya koymak ve bulgulara dayanılarak öneriler geliştirmektir Eğitim süreci belli bir programa göre yürütülür. Programsız bir eğitim ve öğretim olamaz. Hızla gelişen ve değişen bir dünyada yaşıyoruz.2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı da eğitim sürecinde değişimin son halkasını oluşturmaktadır. Bu yönüyle bu araştırma yeni ve ilk olma özelliği taşımaktadır. Bu özellikleri ile alana katkısının olacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu araştırma ile 2005 Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programının genel ve özel hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesi yapılacak Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretmenlerinin 2005 Dil ve Anlatım Dersi Programına karşı görüşleri ortaya konulacaktır. Bu bölümde araştırma modeli, araştırma evreni, verilerin toplanması, verilerin analizi ve yorumlanması alt başlıklarından oluşmaktadır: Bu araştırma Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamı ile genel ve özel hedeflerin değerlendirilmesine ilişkin ders öğretmenlerinin görüşlerini belirlemeyi amaçlamıştır. Bu yüzden betimsel nitelikte olan bu araştırmada amaca en uygun model olan tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulguları literatür taraması ve anketin uygulanması sonucu elde edilen verilere dayanılarak oluşturulmuştur. Çalışmanın Evreni Araştırmanın evrenini Çanakkale merkez ile Biga, Bayramiç, Lapseki, Gelibolu ve Gökçeada ilçelerinde resmi liselerin 2006-2007 Öğretim yılında Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programını uygulayan öğretmenlerden oluşmaktadır. Araştırmamızda 80 öğretmene ulaşılmıştır. 319 �Örneklem grubunun oluşturulmasında Çanakkale ilinin coğrafya, nüfus ve ulaşılabilirlik özellikleri dikkate alınmış ve bu özelliklere göre ilçelere ulaşılmaya çalışılmıştır. Araştırma evrenini oluşturan okul ve öğretmen sayıları şekil 1’de verilmiştir. EVREN Çanakkale merkez ile Biga, Bayramiç, Lapseki, Gelibolu ve Gökçeada ilçelerinde resmi Ortaöğretim Kurumlarında 2006-2007 Öğretim yılında Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programını uygulayan öğretmenler OKULLAR VE ÖĞRETMEN SAYILARI Okullar MERKEZ BİGA BAYRAMİÇ LAPSEKİ GELİBOLU GÖKÇEADA Toplam 38 15 okul 8 okul 4 okul 2 okul 7 okul 2 okul Öğretmen 36 kişi 17 kişi 6 kişi 3 kişi 12 kişi 5 kişi Sayıları Toplam 80 Şekil 1. Verilerin Toplanması: Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, çalışma evreninde yer alan liselerdeki Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerine uygulanan anketten yararlanılmıştır. Anketin geliştirilmesinde öncelikle öğretimin değerlendirilmesi ile ilgili kaynaklar taranmıştır. Bunlardan yararlanılarak ankete girilebilecek maddeler taslak olarak yazılmıştır. Ayrıca sunuş yazısı, yönergeler ile kişisel bilgiler bölümleri oluşturulmuştur. Böylece ilk taslak anket danışman öğretim üyesinin görüş ve önerileri doğrultusunda düzeltilerek hazır duruma getirilmiştir. Araştırma için geliştirilmiş ve uygulanmaya hazır duruma getirilmiş anket yeterli sayıda çoğaltıldıktan sonra, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü aracılığıyla Çanakkale İl Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğünden anketin liselerde uygulanması için gerekli izin alınmıştır Araştırma amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanan ve uygulamaya hazır hale getirilen anket belirlenen okullarda 2006-2007 öğretim yılı 2. döneminde uygulanmıştır. Uygulamada katılım gönüllülük esasına dayandığından cevaplamak isteyenlere dağıtılmamıştır. Ayrıca Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı öğretmeni olduğu halde Dil Anlatı Dersi Öğretim Programının uygulamayan öğretmenlere de dağıtılmamıştır. Sonuç olarak ulaşılan 100 öğretmenden 80 tanesine anket uygulanmıştır. Anket iki bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölümde kişisel bilgiler ( cinsiyet, mesleki kıdem, eğitim düzeyi ) yer almaktadır. İkinci bölümde Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamı ile genel ve özel hedeflerinin değerlendirilmesi ile ilgili 20 soru yer almaktadır. Anketi oluşturan 20 ifadeden ilk 8 tanesi Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının hedeflerinin değerlendirilmesi ile ilgilidir.9- 17 arasındaki ifadeler ise Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının kapsamının değerlendirilmesi ile ilgilidir. 18. 19. ve 20. sorular ölçme değerlendirmeye yöneliktir. Araştırma alt amaçlar doğrultusunda hazırlanan anket sonucu SPSS programından yararlanılarak anketin güvenirlik katsayısı 0,879 olarak bulunmuştur. Anketteki maddelere ilişkin görüşlerini belirtmeleri için( 1 ) Hiç Katılmıyorum, (2) Kısmen Katılıyorum, (3 ) Büyük oranda Katılıyorum, (4 ) Katılıyorum şeklinde derecelendirilmiştir. Verilerin Analizi Anket yolu ile toplanan verilerin analizinde SPSS programı kullanılmıştır.Araştırma verilerinin analizi araştırma amacına uygun olarak aşağıda verilen sıralama ile yapılmıştır. Anketin birinci bölümünde katılımcıların kişisel özelliklerine ilişkin bilgilerin frekans (f) ve yüzde (%) dağılımları belirlenmiştir. Anketin ikinci bölümünde Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin öğretmenlerin değerlendirmelerini içeren verilerin analizinde, her bir 320 �maddeye ait frekans (f), yüzde (%), aritmetik ortalama (X) ve standart sapma (S) değerleri hesaplanarak tablolar halinde verilmiş ve bu tablolara dair yorumlar yapılmıştır. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin görüşlerinin cinsiyete, eğitim düzeyine ve kıdeme göre farklılıkları ise tek yönlü varyans analizi (one-way ANOVA) tekniği kullanılarak hesaplanmıştır.Tek yönlü varyans analizi sonucu anlamlı çıkan görüşlere yönelik farkın kaynağını belirlemek amacıyla Tukey testi uygulanmıştır. Katılım Düzeyi (4) Ölçmenin Gerekçesi (3) f f (%) (%) 9. Programın kapsamı programınhedefleri ile tutarlıdır. 28(35,0) 19(23.8) 10.Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir 16(20,0) 11. Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır. 12. Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir. 13.Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur. 14.Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir. 15. Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa,basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır. (2) (1) f Ss X f (%) (%) 30(37.5) 3(3.8) 2,9000 ,9359 25(31.3) 30(37.5) 9(11.3) 2,6000 ,9359 15(18.8) 29(36.3) 26(32.5) 10(12.5) 2,6125 ,9345 20(25.0) 38(47.5) 18(22.5) 4(5.0) 2,9250 ,8233 7(8.8) 17(21.3) 43(53.8) 13(16.3) 2,2250 ,8264 15(18.8) 26(32.5) 36(45.0) 3(3.8) 2,6625 ,8259 ,9691 17(21.3) 29(36.3) 23(28.8) 11(13.8) 2,6500 16. Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır. 11(13.8) 17(21.3) 27(33.8) 25(31.3) 2,1750 1,0284 17. Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir. 24(30,0) 28(35,0) 22(27,5) 6(7,5) 2,8750 ,9329 Tablo 1. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Kapsamına İlişkin Görüşleri * (4) Katılıyorum (3) Büyük Oranda Katılıyorum (2) Kısmen Katılıyorum (1) Hiç Katılmıyorum Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamına ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde, “Programın kapsamı programın hedefleri ile tutarlıdır.” maddesine % 58,8 oranında, “Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir” maddesine %51,3 oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır.” maddesine %55,1 oranında, “Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir.” maddesine %72,5 oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.” maddesine %51,3’ oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. 321 �“Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa, basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır.” maddesine %57,6’ oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir.” maddesine % 65 oranında katıldıkları görülmektedir. Ancak; “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine %53,8’inin kısmen katıldığı,yine “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.”maddesine % 45’inin kısmen katıldıkları görülmektedir. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.”maddesine% 33,8’inin kısmen katıldıkları ve % 31.3’ünün katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu maddede “Hiç Katılmıyorum” seçeneğinin diğer maddelere göre en yüksek oranda tercih edildiği görülmektedir. Katılım Düzeyi (4) Ölçmenin Gerekçesi 18. Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir. 19. Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir. 20. Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir. (3) f (%) (2) f (%) (1) f Ss X f (%) (%) 26(32,5) 8(10,0) 2,7500 ,9744 22(27,5) 24(30,0) 11(13,8) 29(36,3) 28(35,0) 12(15,0) 2,4875 ,9139 19(23,8) 22(27,5) 31(38,8) 8(10,0) 2,6500 ,9560 Tablo 2. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Değerlendirilmesine İlişkin Görüşleri * (4) Katılıyorum (3) Büyük Oranda Katılıyorum (2) Kısmen Katılıyorum (1) Hiç Katılmıyorum Ankette Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla sorulmuş olan sorulara verilen cevapları incelediğimizde , “Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir.” maddesine % 57,5’inin katıldığı bunun yanında % 32,5’ inin kısmen katıldığı görülmektedir. “Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %50,1’inin katıldığı bunun yanında % 35’inin kısmen katıldığı görülmektedir. “Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %51,3’ünün katıldığı ve % 38.8’ inin kısmen katıldığı görülmektedir. Bu üç maddeye yüksek oranda katılımın olmadığı genelde maddelere %50 civarının üstünde katılım sağlandığı görülmektedir. Sonuçlar 322 �Öğretmenlerin 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin görüşlerini tespit etmek amacıyla yapılan araştırmanın sonuçları şöyledir: 1. Araştırmaya katılan Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı öğretmenlerinin % 50’si bayan , % 50’si erkektir.Bayan (40 ), ve erkek (40 ) toplam 80 kişidir. Öğretmenler Meslekî kıdemleri açısından incelendiğinde % 12,5’ i 0-5 yıl , % 27,5’i 6-10 yıl , % 23,8’i 11-15 yıl , 12,5’i 16-20 yıl , % 23,8’inin 20 yıl üstü oldukları tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin eğitim düzeyleri ise şu şekildedir: Lisans mezunu % 87,5 , Yüksek lisans mezunu % 12,5’ tir. 2. Öğretmenlerin, Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Hedeflerine ilişkin verileri analiz edildiğinde; Öğretmenlerin “Programın hedefleri toplumun beklenti ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.”maddesine % 37,6 oranında katıldıkları, % 47,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 12,5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin bu madde için olumlu görüşte oldukları tespit edilmiştir. “Programın hedefleri öğrenci ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine % 40 oranında katıldıkları, % 47,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 12,5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu maddenin tamamlayıcısı niteliğindeki “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.”maddesine % 25,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 46,3 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 28.8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Bu maddeler için öğretmenlerin katılım oranlarının “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaştığı görülmektedir. Hedeflerle ilgili 8 madde içinde “Hiç Katılmıyorum” seçeneğinin en yüksek oranının % 28,8 ile “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.” maddesine olduğu tespit edilmiştir. “Hedefler konu alanının özelliklerine uygun mu? ” amacına yönelik hazırlanmış olan “Program kendi özelliklerine uygun genel amaçlar içerir” maddesine % 76,3 ile en yüksek katılımın olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Yine bu maddeye öğretmenlerin % 23,8 inin kısmen katıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Bu maddeye katılmayan öğretmenin olmadığı da tespit edilmiştir. “Hedefler konu alanının özelliklerine uygun mu?” amacına yönelik hazırlanmış olan ikinci anket maddesi “ Programın hedefleri kazandırılacak davranışları içermektedir.”e öğretmenlerin % 62,5 oranında katıldıkları, % 32,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre hedeflerin konu alanına uygunluğu konusunda öğretmenlerin olumlu görüşte oldukları tespit edilmiştir. “Hedefler birbiriyle tutarlı mı ?” alt amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanmış olan “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 70 oranında katıldıkları, % 28,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 1,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuca göre öğretmenlerin “hedeflerin birbiriyle tutarlı olduğu” konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları ortaya çıkmaktadır. “Hedef ifadeleri yeterince açık mı?” alt amacına yönelik olarak oluşturulmuş “Programda öğrencilere kazandırılacak davranışlar açıkça ifade edilmiştir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 56,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 33,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 10 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre hedef ifadelerinin yeterince açık olduğu konusunda öğretmenlerin olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları görülmektedir. “Programdaki hedefler gerçekleşebilecek niteliktedir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 58,8 oranında katıldıkları, % 30 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 11,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin hedeflerin gerçekleşecek nitelikte olduğu konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları görülmektedir. Öğretmenlerin, Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Hedeflerine İlişkin 8 maddenin 5 tanesine büyük oranda katıldıkları 3 tanesine büyük oranda katılmayıp kısmen katıldıkları tespit edilmiştir. 3. Türk Dili Ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamına ilişkin görüşleri incelendiğinde, “Programın kapsamı programın hedefleri ile tutarlıdır” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 58,8 oranında katıldıkları, % 37.5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 3,8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin programın hedeflerinin kapsamı ile tutarlılığı konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları belirlenmiştir. 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı kapsamında yer alan bilgiler önemli, dayanıklı ve geçerli mi ? alt amacına uygun olarak oluşturulmuş 3 anket maddesini tek tek ele alırsak; “Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir.”maddesine öğretmenlerin % 51,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 37,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 11,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. “Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 55,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 32,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 12,5 oranında katılmadıkları belirlenmiştir. 323 �“Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir.” maddesine %72,5 ile en yüksek katılımın sağlandığı tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin bu maddeye % 22,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu üç maddeye bakarak 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programında yer alan bilgilerin önemli, dayanıklı ve geçerli olduğu konusunda öğretmenlerin olumlu görüş bildirdikleri belirlenmiştir. 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı kapsamında yer alan bilgilerin sunuluş sırası öğrenme ilkelerine uygun mu ? alt amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanmış olan 3 anket maddesi tek tek ele alalım : “Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa, basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 57,6 oranında katıldıkları, % 28,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları, % 13,8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Bu madde için öğretmenlerin olumlu görüş belirttikleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 35,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 33,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 31,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlara göre kapsamla ilgili bu madde üzerinde düşünülmesi gerektiği ortaya çıkmaktadır. “Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 65 oranında katıldıkları, % 27,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 7,5 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin bu madde için olumlu görüş belirttikleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Programı kapsamı öğrenciler için anlamlı mı? alt amacına yönelik olarak hazırlanmış 2 anket maddesini tek tek ele alalım: “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine öğretmenlerin %30,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 53,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 16,3 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Sonuçlara göre, öğretmenlerin “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaştıkları görülmektedir. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.” maddesine öğretmenlerin % 51,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 45 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 3,8 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir.Öğretmenlerin programın içeriğini oluşturan konuların günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebileceği konusunda olumlu görüşe sahip oldukları ortaya çıkmaktadır. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamına ilişkin 9 maddenin 7’sine büyük oranda katıldıkları tespit edilmiştir. En düşük katılımın “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” maddesine %30,1 olduğu ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu maddede öğretmenlerin “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaştıkları( % 53,8 ) tespit edilmiştir. Kapsamla ilgili olarak “Hiç katılmıyorum” seçeneğinin en yüksek oranı % 31,3 ile “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.” maddesidir. 4. Ankette Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin öğretmen görüşlerini belirlemek amacıyla sorulmuş olan sorulara verilen cevapları incelediğimizde ; “Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir.” maddesine % 57,5 oranında katıldıkları, % 32,5 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 10 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. “Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %50,1 oranında katıldıkları, % 35 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 15 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. “Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir.” maddesine %51,3 oranında katıldıkları, % 38,8 oranında kısmen katıldıkları ve % 10 oranında katılmadıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu 3 maddeye yüksek oranda katılımın olmadığı genelde maddelere %50 civarının üstünde katılım sağlandığı görülmektedir. Öğretmenlerin bu maddelere % 30 civarlarında da kısmen katıldıkları ortaya çıkmaktadır.Bunu programın yeni olmasına, uygulamada daha ikinci yılı olmasına bağlayabiliriz. 5. Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının kapsamı ile genel ve özel hedeflerinin değerlendirilmesi hususunda görüşleri cinsiyete, eğitim düzeyine ve kıdeme göre değişmekte midir? Alt amacına göre sonuçları değerlendirirsek: a) Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersinin hedefleri, kapsamı ve değerlendirmesine ilişkin görüşleri ile cinsiyetleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı yapılan t-testi sonuçlarından anlaşılmaktadır. Ankete katılan 40 kadın öğretmen ve 40 erkek öğretmenin verdikleri yanıtların ortalamalarına bakıldığında, “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.”maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması; kadınlar X = 3,10, erkekler X = 3,02, “Program kendi özelliklerine uygun genel amaçlar içerir.” maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması; kadınlar X = 3,22, erkekler X = 3,17 ile yüksek düzeyde katıldıkları görülmektedir. 324 �Bu maddeler içerisinde erkek ve kadınların en düşük oranda katılımları “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.” maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması; kadınlar X = 1,97 erkekler X = 2,22 olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedefleri, kapsamı ve değerlendirilmesine ilişkin ortalamaları ile cinsiyetleri arasında farklılığın olmamasında Dil Anlatım Dersinin işlenişine ve uygulamalarına yönelik aynı düşünceye sahip olmalarından kaynaklandığını söyleyebiliriz. b) Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenlerinin Dil Anlatım Dersinin hedefleri, kapsamı ve değerlendirmesine ilişkin görüşleri ile eğitim düzeyleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı yapılan t-testi sonuçlarından anlaşılmaktadır. Tablo 6’da ankete katılan 70 lisans mezunu, ve 10 yüksek lisans mezunu öğretmenin verdikleri yanıtların ortalamalarına bakıldığında, “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.” maddesine ilişkin görüşlerinin ortalaması; lisans mezunları X = 3,02, yüksek lisans mezunları X = 3,30 ile en yüksek katılımın olduğu görülmektedir. Bu maddeler içinde lisans ve yüksek lisans mezunları olan öğretmenlerin en düşük oranda katılımları. “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.”maddesine ilişkin görüşlerin ortalaması lisans mezunu X = 2,21, Yüksek lisans mezunu X = 1,90 ‘dır. Lisans ve yüksek lisans mezunu öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedefleri ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin ortalamaları ile eğitim düzeyleri arasındaki farklılığın olmamasında dersin işlenişi ve uygulanması konusunda aynı yolu izledikleri söylenebilir. c) Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedeflerinin ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin görüşleri ile mesleki kıdemleri arasındaki ilişki one-way ANOVA testi yapılarak incelenmiş ve elde edilen bulgular her madde için ayrı olarak tablolaştırılmış ve yorumlanmıştır. Buna göre: 1) “Programın hedefleri kazandırılacak davranışları içermektedir.” ifadesini taşıyan 1. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 20 yıl üstü öğretmenlerin X = 3,15, ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. En düşük ortalamanın ise 0–5 yıl X = 2,40 olduğu görülmektedir. Bu maddeye katılımın en düşük düzeyde 0–5 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlere ait olması öğretmenlik mesleğindeki deneyimlerinin az olmasına bağlanabilir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 1’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 2) “Programın hedefleri, kendi aralarında kazandırılmak istenen özelliklerin birbirleriyle çelişmeyeceği bir tutarlıktadır.” ifadesini içeren 2. maddeye ait ortalamaların 20 yıl üstü öğretmenlerin X = 3,26, ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu görülmektedir. En düşük ortalamanın ise 6-10 yıl X = 2,90 olduğu görülmektedir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 2’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 3) “Programın hedefleri toplumun beklenti ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur” ifadesini içeren 3. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 3’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 4) “Programın hedefleri öğrenci ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.” ifadesini içeren 4. maddeye ait ortalamaların bütün kıdemlere göre orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 4’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 5) “Program kendi özelliklerine uygun genel amaçlar içerir.” ifadesini içeren 5. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin yüksek düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 5’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 6) “Programdaki hedefler gerçekleşebilecek niteliktedir.”ifadesini içeren 6. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0-5 yıl X = 3,00,ile yüksek düzeyde diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 6’ ya ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 7) “Programda öğrencilere kazandırılacak davranışlar açıkça ifade edilmiştir.”ifadesini içeren 7. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 7’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 8) “Programdaki hedefler öğrencilerin hazır bulunuşluk düzeyine uygundur.” ifadesini içeren 8. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 6–10 yıl X = 1,95 ile düşük düzeyde olduğu diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 8’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 9) “Programın kapsamı programın hedefleri ile tutarlıdır.” ifadesini içeren 9. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0-5 yıl ile 11-15yıl X = 3,00,ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde 325 �tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 9’ a ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 10) “Programda yer alan bilgiler konu alanındaki temel bilgileri içerecek özellik ve öneme sahiptir.”ifadesini içeren 10. maddeye ait ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 10’ a ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 11) Tabloya göre “Programda yer alan bilgiler göreli olarak kalıcılığa sahip ve dayanıklıdır.” ifadesini içeren 11. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0–5 yıl X = 1,80 ile düşük düzeyde olduğu, 11-15yıl X = 3,05 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 11’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olduğu ( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. Bunun 0-5 yıl kıdeme sahip öğretmenlerin öğretmenlikte tecrübe sahibi olmamalarına bağlıyabiliriz. 12) “Programda yer alan bilgiler çağdaş, bilimsel bilgileri yansıtacak kapsam ve geçerliktedir.”ifadesini içeren 12. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 16–20 yıl X = 3,20 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu, diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 12’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 13) “Programın kapsamı öğrencilerin ilgi ve ihtiyaçlarına uygundur.”ifadesini içeren 13. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 13’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 14) “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular günlük yaşamla ilişkilendirilebilmektedir.”ifadesini içeren 14. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 14’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 15) “Kapsamda yer alan bilgiler yakından uzağa, basitten karmaşığa, bilinenden bilinmeyene giden bir yolla ele alınmıştır.” ifadesini içeren 15. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 15’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 16) “Programın içeriğini oluşturan konular sınıflara göre dengeli olarak dağıtılmıştır.” ifadesini içeren 16. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 11-15yıl X = 1,68 ile düşük düzeyde olduğu , diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 16’ ya ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 17) “Programın kapsamında yer alan konular geçmişte öğretilenleri desteklemektedir.” ifadesini içeren 17. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 0–5 yıl X = 3,20, 11-15yıl X = 3,05, 16–20 yıl X = 3,10 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu, 6–10 yıl X = 2, 59, , 20 yıl üstü X = 2,73 ile orta düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 17’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 18) “Program öğrencilerde yaratıcı ve eleştirici düşünme yeteneğini geliştirici niteliktedir.” ifadesini içeren 18. maddeye ait ortalamaların; 11-15yıl X = 3,00 ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Diğer kıdemlere ait ortalamaların ise orta düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 18’ e ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 19) “Program, öğrencide Dil Anlatım Dersine karşı olumlu bir tutum geliştirecek niteliktedir.” ifadesini içeren 19. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 19’ a ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. 20) “Program, öğrencide duyma düşünme, algılama, sentez yapma ve duygu ve düşüncelerini ifade etme becerisini geliştirebilecek niteliktedir.” ifadesini içeren 20. maddeye ait kıdem ortalamaların hepsinin orta düzeyde olduğu belirlenmiştir. Öğretmenlerin Madde 20’ ye ait ortalamaları ile kıdemleri arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığı( P> 0,005) ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu sonuçlara göre öğretmenlerin Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının hedefleri ve kapsamının değerlendirilmesine ilişkin anket maddelerine ait görüşleri ile kıdemleri arasında 11. madde hariç anlamlı bir fark olmadığı ortaya çıkmıştır. Öneriler Bu başlık altında araştırmanın bulguları çerçevesinde uygulayıcılara ve benzer konularda araştırma yapmayı düşünen araştırmacılara aşağıdaki öneriler sunulabilir. 1. Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının Hedeflerinin toplumun ve öğrencilerin beklenti ve ihtiyaçlarına uygunluğu konusunda bir araştırma daha yapılarak program yeniden gözden geçirilmelidir. Çünkü öğretmenlerin programın hedeflerinin toplumun ve öğrencilerin beklenti ve ihtiyaçları konusundaki görüşleri “kısmen katılıyorum” seçeneğinde yoğunlaşmıştır. 326 �2. Dil Anlatım Dersi Öğretim Programının içeriğini oluşturan konuların sınıflara göre dağılımının dengeli olarak yapılması için program yeniden gözden geçirilmelidir. Çünkü öğretmenler programın içeriğini oluşturan konuların sınıflara göre dağılımının dengeli olarak yapılmadığı konusunda yoğunlaşmışlardır. 3. Öğretmenlerin hizmet içi eğitime alınarak programa daha hâkim olmaları sağlanmalıdır. Bu kurslarda programı uygulayan kişiler olarak öğretmenlerin gözlem ve görüşleri dikkate alınmalıdır. 4. Öğretim programı çağdaş ve bilimsel ölçülere göre hazırlansa da uygulamada etkinliğini belirlemek için programın değerlendirilmesine ihtiyaç vardır. Bilim ve teknikteki gelişmelerin, kültürel değişimin sonucu olarak eğitim programının geliştirilmesi gerekir.Bunun için eğitim programının aksaklık ve eksikliklerinin belirlenmesinde program geliştirme uzmanlarının,akademisyenlerin öğretmenlerin,velilerin, öğrencilerin görüşlerinin alınması gerekir.Programın uygulayıcısı olan öğretmenlerden programın hedefleri ve kapsamı dışında uygulama ve değerlendirme konusunda da anket ve görüşme teknikleri ile veriler elde edilmelidir. Dostane kelimesi yerine arkadaşça Realizm kelimesi yerine gerçekçilik Haller kelimesi yerine durumlar Kalbim kelimesi yerine yüreğim Kontrolü kelimesi yerine denetlemeyi Show kelimesi yerine gösteri Şarj kelimesi yerine dolum Blander kelimesi yerine karıştırıcı kullanılabilir. Aslında Türk dilinde çok fazla yabancı kelime olmasına rağmen bu kelimelerin birçoğunun Türkçe karşılığı vardır. Türk dilinin bir parçası haline gelmiş ve henüz Türkçede karşılığı olmayan bazı kelimeler için ise şimdilik yapacak bir şey yoktur. Dilin kurallarına uygun yeni kelimeler oluşturulup halk tarafından kabul edilinceye kadar eksi ve artılarıyla bu kelimeler dilimizde misafir olarak kalacaklardır. Bununla birlikte Türkçeleşmiş bazı yabancı kelimelerin dilimizden çıkarılıp atılması mümkün değildir. Çünkü Türk dili ve edebiyatı tarihi boyunca söz konusu bu kelimeler -Türkçe karşılıklarıyla- beraber asırlarca kullanılagelmişlerdir. Kaynaklar Yabancı Sözlere Karşılıklar Kılavuzu TDK yayınları Ankara 2008 Nişanyan, Sevan Sözlerin Soyağacı Adam Yayınları, İstanbul 2007 Sarı, Mustafa Türkçenin Batı Dilleriyle İlişkisi, TDK yayınları Ankara 2008 Ergin, Muharrem Üniversiteler İçin Türk Dili,Bayrak Yayınları İstanbul 1997 327 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 381 Title A name given to the resource 2005 Dil Anlatım Dersi Kapsamı İle Genel ve Özel Hedeflerinin Değerlendirilmesi ve Öğretmen Tutumları Author Author KILINÇ, Aziz TURAN, Filiz Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f33ba3e7d44e8a4b81541baa7b41a53.pdf ecc87f8ab81dfa0e062d0e17959e61d7 PDF Text Text History of Physical Education in Turkey and Development of Physical Education and Sports Fatih KIYICI Higher Education Institute of Physical Education and Sports, Ankara, Turkey fatihkiyici@gmail.com M. Yavuz KONCA Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey ykonca@hotmail.com Abstract :The purpose of this study is to evaluate the attempts made to improve the progress of the physical education and sports in the history of Turkish sports- from the period of Ottoman Empire (especially between 1839-1876) to the present- and plans made for the future. Ottoman Empire made important progress the effects of which are still evident in such fields as education and sports. The appreciation for European Systems had influences on education and sports as well as any other field. The concept of sports in Turkey acquired clear position within the social life and education in this period and improved immensely. During the early years of the Republic of Turkey, “physical education” was made a requisite course in all educational institutions, which was the first decision taken in this sense in the world. In time, many strategies have been developed and sport councils have been established. Key Words: Ottoman, Physical Education, Sport, Turk 1. Introduction During the early foundation period of the Ottoman Empire, wrestling and archery were the sports performed certain rules being applied as well as mountain climbing, fencing and hunting, (Tayga, 1990, Iscan, 1988). Orhan Bey, the second Ottoman Sultan, considered sport activities to be very important, and placed it among the state affairs. That encouraged the Sultans reigning after him to consider sports as important as he did, at least. This made sport activities take place in the educational institutions of the time known as “Medrese”, and “Enderun (Royal Palace Schools)”. In addition, Kırkpınar Wrestling Contest, which is one of the oldest sport organizations in the world, first appeared in the period of Ottoman Empire (According to Gumus, in 1349, and more commonly known, in 1361). The physical education and sports in the Ottoman Empire were practiced and organized as war games or for military training purposes. Therefore, these activities were not given theoretically but as physical exercise and practice in educational institutions. These institutions are: (Gumus, 1990) a) Tekkes (the dervish lodges): These were the centers of Turkish-Islam Sufism, which can also be called as public schools or schools of informal education, which educated and trained ordinary people in such fields as linguistics, religion, arts, philosophy, and sports (Bilge, 1988). In Ottoman Empire, some of the tekkes were structured as sport centers. Although wrestling was the inherited national sports for the Ottoman, other sports such as the archery, jereed, horse riding and iron mace using were also practiced in those tekkes. Tekkes are said to be the first Ottoman centers from which the sport associations of our time were originated. However, the feature that differs them from today’s sport associations is that they offered more opportunities and better social insurance to the athletes that they supported (Soyer, 2004). In the declining period of the Empire, “Sport Tekkes” which began losing their functions, and not serving in accordance with their purposes, existed until the beginning of the 20th century, as one, but the most important, of the three institutions that gave way the sport activities to be achieved (Fisek, 1983). b) Waqifs (The Foundations & Charity Organizations): The second kind of organization in the field of sports is “waqifs”. The waqifs associated with tekkes were structured as the institutions in the Ottoman Foundation system. Using their own means and reserves without demanding help from any institution, these waqifs served to help the needy, especially those people involved in sport activities and affairs. After the invasion of Bursa, a waqif was established by Orhan Bey’s wife, Nilufer Hatun, in Pınarbası, located in the southern part of the city, where wrestlers performed their wrestling skills in wrestling 275 �championships and thus public were entertained. At a later period of time, the waqifs associated with tekkes came to be known as “Tekkes of Wrestlers”. Such Tekkes as “Ahmet Effendi Remote Tekke” and several others, in Sıraseviler District in Istanbul stand as very good examples (Bilge, 1988). The athletes in waqifs were supported and helped by the sultans, viziers, pashas, masters, big landowners and the wealty people of the time. c) Aga System (The Lordship System): The third type of institution present in Ottoman Empire was the Aga System which stood identical with utmost generosity and hosting the Kirkpinar Wrestling Championsip which was a kind of Lordship System. This institution has existed for 650 years but, strange to say, it is still considered to be a temporary system. However, it is considered that the main goal of this system has been to support sport activities. This institution is known to have been established early in the fourteenth century. (Fisek, 1983). “Aga” is the authorized person who is responsible for inviting the wrestlers and viewers, greeting the guests, giving the feast, accommodating athletes and those accompanying them, giving the rewards, and provided all security for the wrestling championship to take place (Gumus, 1990). 2. Transition from the concept of Traditional Sport Institutions to Modern Sport Associations Associations replaced the traditional institutions which formed the sport organizations nearly in the close of the 19th century. During the period between 1839 and 1876, adaption of European System had its impact felt in the field of sports as in other grounds of life. Traditional institutions were put aside and the transition to the universal kind of organizing was accelerated. From the early beginnings of the 19th century, the modern sports began to improve and be played. In our country, Turkey, modern sports appeared in the begining of 1870s, later than the Western countries. (Atabeyoğlu) The first occasion of modern sport activities in our country was achieved by educational institutions. In the time between 1839 and 1876, in addition to the socio-economic situation and activities of missionaries, the sports became international rather than national, and European system was admired. Thus, all of these are among the factors that accelerate the process of transiting from traditional type of organizations to clubs. The first trainers of gymnastics such as Curel, Monsieur, Stangali, were brought from abroad. The gymnasiums in schools were decorated by them. The brothers, Nicola and Elibardi, educated in those private gymnasiums opened in 1904, participated in 1906 Athens Olympic Games, in the branch of gymnastics. Jorj (Yorgo) received the championship in the field of climbing up 10 m. long rope (Keten 1974) by a difference of seconds ( Kahraman 1995). In our country, the transition from traditional sport system to the system of associations took place in the period between 1839- 1876, the second half of the 19th century (Sumer, 1997). During the Tanzimat Period when the Constitutional Monarchy was first declared, football began to spread fast and became institutionalized in our country like it did all around the world. In the time of Ottoman Empire, the first act of establishing associations was achieved by foreigners. The association named “Imagene” was founded in Moda, and Kadıköy Districts in Istanbul, and,the associations named “Football” and “Rugby” were established in Izmir by Englishmen., again the association named “Elpis” was established by the Greek (Fisek, 1983). In addition, in 1867, the association named “Imperid Yatching and Boating” was established ( Kahraman, 1995). These associations are known as “The First Established Sport Associations or Clubs”. However, “The First Established Turkish Association” is Black Stocking, in 1899, according to Fisek; or is Besiktas, in 1903, according to Bilge (Fisek, 1983, Bilge, 1988). During the Ottoman Era, football was monopolized by foreigners until 1908, the year when The First Declaration of Constitutional Monarchy was announced. In this period, Turkish nationals were forbidden by the government to gather and establish associations and clubs, whereas foreigners experienced no difficulty in becoming associated. During the period between 1839- 1876, physical education and sports were considered to be subjects related to life and began to be included in the subjects taught in schools. In 1863, the tools and facilities needed were provided by military schools, and ‘ physical education and sports’ began to be involved in the subjects to be taught in the Military Academies and Military Senior High Schools ( Bilge, 1988, Fisek, 1983). The Alliance of Gymnastics of Turkey is the first national organization with many sport organizations and clubs, which left its mark on the last period of the Ottoman Empire. The Alliance of Gymnastics of Turkey, the main purpose of which was putting an end to the confusion in the leagues of Istanbul, was founded on 27th of January 1921 by 14 different sport clubs, became official in 8th of June 1922. The Alliance is important because it gathered the different sport clubs together, and unite these clubs which were run according to different write regulations (Hicyılmaz). 276 �3. The Present Status of the Sports Policy in Turkey Turkey, recording immense improvements in the field of sports in 2000s, unfortunately, came to the edge of the period of regression. Unfortunately, originating from the question of how and from where to provide financial resources, the attempts already started to improve infrastructure and all other services were replaced by cancellation of national and international contests, and many training and sport camp programs. B ut, in the last 5-year period, a great improvement has been made in the amount of the budget provided by the sport federations. Also, candidatures for big organizations were in hand, and those were achieved successfully. The most conspicuous ones are Europe Championship Leaguge, Summer Universiade, and Europe and World Basketball Championship. Turkey, which has a good place in summer games, also, was assigned to organize the 2011 Universiade Winter Games. However, new facilities for many kinds of winter games have already began to be constructed. Such work has provided opportunities to train new professional athletes for many new branches of sports such as ski- jumping, curling, short track, and ice- hockey. These investments will have immense impact in the short run, but their best contributions will certainly be benefited in the long run. In Turkey, with the youngest population of Europe, the more we get children and teenagers to engage in sport activities, the healthier generations we can have. ‘Sports’ is ‘over’ politics, and its solemn principle is to serve the public. The percentage of the youngbetween 12 years and 24 years old- in the total population of the country is about 30%, in our country while all developed countries strive to increase the percentage of the young people in their population, which is becoming lower day by day. The main objective of our country is to determine to get its potential population ready for the years to come, and to provide them with opportunities of putting these years into good use. (DPT. 2000) 3.1. Autonomous Fedarations Sport fedarations must have their own autonomous constitutions, which are made up of the representatives of clubs and the sportsmen upon whom nobody will have any influence. In the developed western countries governed by democracy, the governments organize the sport activities, and, in the time of need, they conduct support, control, and , even, provide facilities and inspect the sport organizations ( DPT, 2000) 3.2. Sponsorships All the developed countries and business companies that realize the great power of the sports, are at pains to propagandize for themselves and promote their products through sport organizations and championships, thus, to increase the amount of their trade, both in domestic and foreign markets. Because the sport has such a big power, it is considered to be beneficial to market the national and international sport contests in order to benefit from the business companies in the fields of industry, agriculture and trade. In this way, except the budget provided by the government for sport activities, the contributions of the private sector to such kind of activities will also be available and more achievements will be possible to record. In order to encourage the people to sponsor the sport activities, some arrangements are needed to provide the exemption or discount from the taxes, for the donations to the sport funds and for the owners of these donations (www.sportoto.gov.tr) In the eighth 5-Year -Development Plan of the State of Planning Organization, (in 2000), it has been noted that Turkey has not been able to reach the expected level in regards to the sport activities yet; Neither in building facilities, nor providing the enough involvement of the public is there a positive indicator. Although some individual achievements were recorded, it was also reported that the sport hasn’t become a matter of common philosophy in our society yet. 4. Conclusion and Suggestions Making people physically stronger and psychologically healthier and making sports common in society depends on establishing social relations among people. Each sector in the society has its own responsibilities for spreading the consciousness of sports, and the government must arrange the pre-services, services and laws, which have very close relation with sports accordingly. To make it possible for every member of the society to have opportunities of participating in sports is the ideal objective. To achieve this goal, the roles of the improvements needed to be made in each individual’s social and academic status, educational institutions and the devices of mass media cannot be denied. In society, with the guidance of the best skilled leaders of each and every field, some sport activities such as jogging, 277 �including the groups of the disabled and the scouts, will have unbelievably significant impact on achieving the goals first related to health and then to performance sports. The present status of sports in Turkey is somewhat worrying. Although the society is densely youngpopulated, the engagement of young people in sport activities is far from being satisfying. Some kind of a tendency to passively participate can only be seen in football and basketball. After investigating the degree of suitability of the new sports to the provisions, construction of facilities should take place. The present high schools are good in theoretical education, but there are problems in practice, and we should eliminate all these problems. In the light of the notion that professional athletes should be trained from the early years of their childhood , it should be considered to select some primary schools as pilot ones in each city and encourage them to apply pre-service programs in order to have a basis for the future high schools with sport education. The present management system should also be rearranged, and it should have a democratic and autonomous structure. However, studies of efficiency and performance should be made in addition to the radical arrangements in regard to the pre-service programs. Fedarations should be free both financially and managerially. A certain national policy, a self-governing sport organization and the objectives and plans formed accordingly should be provided. However, the financial sources gathered should be spent in a functional, productive and rational manner in order to achieve the objectives and programs. In the light of the present situation around the world, the opinions and suggestions about “Developing Strategies for Training Professional Athletes” should be discussed by the experts of the field, and the best environment should be created with the support of sponsors. References Atabeyoğlu, C. Spor Tanzimattan Önce Cumhuriyete Türkiye Ansiklopedisi, İletişim yayınları, 1474-1479. Bilge, N. (1988). Türkiye’de Beden Eğitimi Öğretmeninin Yetiştirilmesi. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları No:1095, 1736. DPT. Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, Beden Eğitimi, Spor ve İstanbul Olimpiyatları Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, DPT Yayını No: 2513, Ankara, 2000. Fişek, K. (1983). Spor Yönetimi. Ankara: A. Ü. SBF Yayınları No:515, 256-268. Gümüş, A. (1990). Kırkpınar Güreşleri. Ankara: GSGM Yayını No:90, 3,40. Hiçyılmaz E, Türkiye’de Spor, b.y.y. b.t.y., Yeni Yüzyıl Kitaplığı Türkiye’nin Sorunları Dizisi No:l 1, s.31 - 32 Kahraman, A. (1995). Osmanlı Devletin’de Spor. Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları No:1697, 638, 640, 641. Sümer, R. (1997). Türkiye’de Spor Kulüplerinin Yapıları Yönetimdeki Yerleri ve Sorunları Boş Zamanları Değerlendirme Alanları ve Toplumsal Çevreleri İle İlişkileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Beden Eğitimi ve Spor ABD, 68, Ankara. Tayga, Y. (1990). Türk Spor Tarihine Genel Bakış, 8, Ankara. Soyer F. (2004). Osmanlı Devletinde(1839-1908 Tanzimat Dönemi) Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Alanındaki Kurumsal Yapılanmalar ve Okul Programlarındaki Yeri Konusunda Bir İnceleme. Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 24; 1: 209-225 www.sportoto.gov.tr (2002). 278 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 352 Title A name given to the resource History of Physical Education in Turkey and Development of Physical Education and Sports Author Author KIYICI, Fatih KONCA, M. Yavuz Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the attempts made to improve the progress of the physical education and sports in the history of Turkish sports- from the period of Ottoman Empire (especially between 1839-1876) to the present- and plans made for the future. Ottoman Empire made important progress the effects of which are still evident in such fields as education and sports. The appreciation for European Systems had influences on education and sports as well as any other field. The concept of sports in Turkey acquired clear position within the social life and education in this period and improved immensely. During the early years of the Republic of Turkey, “physical education” was made a requisite course in all educational institutions, which was the first decision taken in this sense in the world. In time, many strategies have been developed and sport councils have been established Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f9f436102c11ef88822dc368d7a78ce.pdf 3b07192ca4df81d4931dc1e786c4fde2 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Water Governance and Sustainable Development C. Gregory KNIGHT and The World Water Team1 Department of Geography and School of International Affairs The Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA 16803 USA cgk@psu.edu Abstract: Is fresh water a truly renewable resource? This paper argues that freshwater for human use is threatened by climate change, fossil water extraction and globalization processes that will exacerbate problems of access to potable water as a human right and challenge water governance on local, regional, national and global scales. Using concept maps to examine the structure of the world water system, we argue that an emerging global water crisis can only be addressed by understanding the multiple linkages that tie individuals, institutions and issues to paradigms of water management that threaten the sustainability of fresh water use. By deconstructing the global water crisis into interlocking systems of issues and influence, we identify core questions in maintaining water as a sustainable resource. Keyword: water, sustainable development, governance Introduction It is widely recognized that fresh surface water is a rare and precious resource in comparison to world stocks of salt water, deep and shallow groundwater, and ice. These larger oceanic water stocks can be exploited to create fresh water at a high energy cost for conversion, and a significant portion of groundwater use involves mining of fossil water that is not replenished at contemporary rates of extraction. Freshwater is usually viewed as a renewable resource, but this is a misnomer. It is really a flow resource whose flux can be redirected for human use, but whose magnitude has increasingly been subject to significant human intervention. Modern mankind has indeed done the latter, with widespread regional land use change, for example, changing the volume and distribution of rainfall and evaporation (especially through consumptive, evaporative uses in irrigation and industry. Weather modification attempts rainfall enhancement. Human-induced climate change will almost certainly alter water regimes, and may already be doing so. Glaciers and winter snow accumulation vital as a warm-weather source of lowland water, water batteries in effect, are already being threatened by global warming. In addition, fresh water consumptively used, evaporated into the atmosphere as a consequence of use, diminishes water availability for downstream uses; some researchers even consider water pollution a form of consumptive use when pollution precludes productive uses downstream. Fresh Water Sustainability Fresh water sustainability includes long-term maintenance of adequate volumes of fresh water and commitments of fresh water to vital human uses, including recognition of water’s place in basket of fundamental goods and services that should be attainable by all humans as a right. Sustainability means we leave as many choices about fresh water to future generations as possible, making as few permanent, irretrievable commitments as possible. We see that sustainability is being challenged by allocation of water by socio-economic and technical processes to other competing uses before meeting basic needs, by diminished water supply through global climate change, and by reliance on sources of water that are themselves non-sustainable, most important of which is ground water mining. In addition to issues of freshwater distribution and diversion for human use, issues of sustainable water use also include processes of globalization and water governance. By globalization we refer to a multiplicity of processes that make what would seemingly be local and regional challenges into worldwide networks of 1 C. Gregory Knighta, Melissa Mayb, Audrey Broucekb, Mary E. Paskewiczc, Chongming Wangd, Regina Sagoed, Rachel Sayree, R. Scott Hillkirke, Amy Norrise and Kolby K. Nelsone (aDepartment of Geography and School of International Affairs, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA; bSchool of Forest Resources, Pennsylvania State University; cDepartment of Civil Engineering, Pennsylvania State University; dDepartment of Geography, Pennsylvania State University; eSchool of International Affairs, Pennsylvania State University). 349 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo important and interrelated issues. By governance, we refer to the many kinds of intersecting human systems that define the nature of water as a resource, that determine water allocation among human uses, and that use social, political, economic and legal systems at multiple scales to control and enforce these precepts. In this presentation, we report on-going research on the structure of the emerging global water crisis, using visualization of linkages between and among issues and entities to illustrate the emergence of threats to sustainable water use as a global, not merely local, problem. We argue that the nexus of water sustainability lies at the intersection of water availability in the physical sense and water governance. Concept Maps In the presentation, we illustrate the basic elements of concept maps (Cmaps) as developed by the Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (2009). Concept maps consist of concepts and linkages, groups of which can be combined as nested nodes. Concepts and nodes can reference website links, document links, and links to other Cmaps. The Cmaps can be stored locally, included in websites or made available on servers. Cmaps are a visual, qualitative expression of information, subject to evaluation and criticism on the same basis as other visual and non-quantitative expressions of knowledge. The Global Water Crisis Figure 1 illustrates the interconnection of elements in the global water crisis, details of which are explicated in the conference presentation. By cumulative change, we refer to changes that are local and regional in scope, but are replicated widely and significantly throughout the world. Soil erosion, deforestation and water pollution are examples. By systemic change, we mean alterations of the global system itself, including such phenomena as ozone depletion, climate change and sea level change (Turner et al. 1990). Sustainable fresh water is subject to both kinds of change. In particular, dimensions of significant cumulative water change include water shortages, cost, limited access, gender roles, hazards (floods, drought), dam building, and management (privatization of public water supplies). Water has systemic dimensions, which include the international finance and the water economy, global governance, global systems of technical knowledge, and global water action. Other important elements of the Global Water Crisis are shown in Figure 1. Place attributes include but are not limited to the role of water in culture, history, religion, politics, ideology, law, and management. Water paradigms are ways in which water is conceived and allocated. Global actors and actions include international, national, non-governmental organizations, and individuals. Geographic scale is also an important dimension, including issues of water sharing across intra-national and international boundaries and interbasin transfers. Water Paradigms Of all these dimensions and linkages creating a global water crisis, perhaps the paradigms with which water is viewed and acted upon is most important. Figure 2 differentiates among social, biological and economic perspectives on water. These somewhat complementary but more often competing paradigms recognize water as a biological need that is imbued with multiple social dimensions versus a fundamental question of water’s economic value and the role of water’s economic value in water allocation and use. Who owns water? Should water be allocated solely by market means? Is there an obligation of society (government) to provide for basic water needs as a human right? If water is, in fact, most costly for the poor, shouldn’t even the poor pay for formal water supply (public or corporate), which could be cheaper than the existing situation? What is the appropriate role of profit-making corporations vs. government? Is water planning excessively driven by technological mind-sets that view big dams, centralized piped supply systems and centralized control as obligatory? Are sewerage systems the only means to achieve sanitation? These are basic questions raised in consideration of how water is conceived or framed and how solutions to addressing water needs are sought. 350 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1: The Global Water Crisis. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. Figure 2: Paradigms in the Global Water Crisis. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. 351 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Challenges Global challenges of fresh water supply relate both to the Millennium Development Goals and to the concepts of sustainable development (Figure 3). The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (2008) include “Target 3:�Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.” We believe that issues of safe water and sanitation threaten the ways in which society can adapt to the long-term threat of climate change, and thence to achieving fresh water sustainability. The fourth report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) shows that the Mediterranean Basin may be one of the world regions most threatened by climate-change-induced aridity, so these issues are particularly salient for countries represented in this conference on sustainability being held in the Balkan Region. In its Technical Paper on climate change and water, the IPCC notes that “Observational records and climate projections provide abundant evidence that freshwater resources are vulnerable and have the potential to be strongly impacted by climate change, with wide-ranging consequences for human societies and ecosystems” (Bates et al. 2008). Figure 3: Global Challenges in the Global Water Crisis. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. Global Water Governance and Sustainability How the challenges of climate change and sustainability are met may be largely determined by the system of global water governance (Figure 4). The loci of decisions about water policy and allocation will be focal in society’s ability to adapt to climate change and to achieve a sustainable system for fresh water utilization. Will corporate interests increasingly dominate water governance, as seems evident in organizations like the World Water Council and its World Water Forums, such as the 2009 gathering in Istanbul? In that conference, participants in writing the “Istanbul Ministerial Statement” could not agree that water is a human right, only concurring that water is a human need (Fifth World Water Forum 2009; Freshwater Action Network 2009). Does it take water ministers to endorse a reality that is known in every elementary classroom? Or will public interests dominate discourse about water futures, with emphasis on making good a promise of water and sanitation as a fundamental human right? Such issues are at the core of sustainable development. 352 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4: Global Water Governance. Copyright (c) 2009 by the World Water Team, used by permission. Conclusion This brief paper and presentation can only begin to include all the nuances that concept mapping of global water issues includes. For example, we have not explored complex interrelationships among individuals, institutions and issues. We hope, nevertheless, to have established that the Global Water Crisis is a critical challenge to achieving the Millennium Development Goals and of achieving a vital component of Sustainable Development. At present there may be adequate fresh water supplies to meet basic human needs, but this is by no means guaranteed for the future, nor are socially and economically available water resources necessarily consonant in distribution with human populations. Water governance, an increasingly global issue, is at the core of fresh water availability and management and deserves increasing scrutiny and critical analysis. One simply cannot conceive of sustainable development without water being a core issue in its achievement. References Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. and Palutikof, J.P., Ed. (2008). Climate change and water. Technical paper of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva: IPCC Secretariat, Geneva. Fifth World Water Forum (2009). Istanbul ministerial statement. Istanbul: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkey and World Water Council. Freshwater Action Network (2009). 5th World Water Forum. http://www.freshwateraction.net/web/w/www_171_en.aspx , accessed 15 May 2009. Change just one word. Institute for Human and Machine Cognition (2009). IHMC Cmap Tools. Pensacola, Florida: University of Florida System. http://cmap.ihmc.us/conceptmap.html , accessed 15 May 2009. 353 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007). Working Group 1 Report, The physical science basis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Turner II, B.L. et al. (1990). Two types of global environmental change: Definitional and spatial scale issues in their human dimensions. Global environmental change 1: 14-22. United Nations. (2008). United Nations Millennium Development Goals. U. N. Department of Public Information, http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ , accessed 15 May 2009. Acknowledgements The World Water Team, an informal collaboration initiated at the Pennsylvania State University (USA) appreciates the opportunity provided by the organizers of the International Symposium on Sustainable Development, 9-10 June 2009, at International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, to present preliminary results of its examination of the global water system. Our graphics are a work in progress; permission is given to the ISSD to include them in its symposium publication and CD with the understanding that they may not be further copied nor published without written permission of the World Water Team (contact C. G. Knight, cgk@psu.edu, on behalf of the Team). The Team welcomes comments. Views expressed are not necessarily those of the Pennsylvania State University. 354 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 251 Title A name given to the resource Water Governance and Sustainable Development Author Author KNIGHT, C. Gregory Abstract A summary of the resource. Is fresh water a truly renewable resource? This paper argues that freshwater for human use is threatened by climate change, fossil water extraction and globalization processes that will exacerbate problems of access to potable water as a human right and challenge water governance on local, regional, national and global scales. Using concept maps to examine the structure of the world water system, we argue that an emerging global water crisis can only be addressed by understanding the multiple linkages that tie individuals, institutions and issues to paradigms of water management that threaten the sustainability of fresh water use. By deconstructing the global water crisis into interlocking systems of issues and influence, we identify core questions in maintaining water as a sustainable resource. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/26852fe54245380689f9aee232d5513b.pdf 8e56d887f2a26e2db88c5811359a2d1e PDF Text Text Effective Classroom Management in Relation to Classroom Routines and Rules M. Yavuz KONCA Ataturk University Kâzim Karabekir Education Faculty English Teaching Department Erzurum, Turkey ykonca@hotmail.com Rabiye OTUGEN Ataturk University Kâzim Karabekir Education Faculty English Teaching Department Erzurum, Turkey r.kitap@hotmail.com Abstract: Much research has looked at the effect of classroom management on the quality of teaching and learning activity, and set up principles of effective classroom management. However, how to put these principles into practice in a typical classroom is still a question to be answered in the minds of new teachers in profession and most of those already in the field of education. This paper which reinforces the findings and suggestions from many previous works, not only presents findings from these studies, but also includes some recommendations about how to put them into practice. Using a simple table, it organizes the mostly-known principles into usable, concise formats. Four topics are considered: (1) the need for forming rules and establishing routines in a classroom; (2) the relationship between routines and classroom management; (3) the basic principles of establishing routines in relation to classroom participation and discipline; (4) the practical ways of putting wellknown rules into practice. Introduction Classroom Management which is said to be a primary concern of teachers ever since there have been teachers in classrooms, and known to be of great importance to both new teachers in profession and those already in the field of education, is described as “the orchestration of classroom life” including planning, organizing, arranging the environment for optimum efficiency, monitoring student problems, and anticipating potential problems (Heimlich, 1988); or, as the actions teachers take to create an environment that supports and facilitates both academic and social emotional learning ( Evertson & Weinstein, 2006). However, few problems associated with teaching receive more attention than classroom management and discipline (Doyle). Classroom Management is a topic of enduring concern for teachers, administrators and the public. It consistently ranks as the first or second most serious educational problem in the eyes of general public, and beginning teachers consistently rank it as their most pressing concern during their early teaching years (Handbook of Classroom Management). The first reason why classroom management receives so much attention and ranks as a problem is considered to be the preservice programs which do not adequately stress the requisite concepts and skills needed for helping prospective teachers prevent and deal with the discipline problems. Some trainers still feel that their training leaves them underprepared for the daily realities of managing and maintaining a good standard of pupil behavior in the classroom (Jones, 2006). Secondly, classroom management is needed for the efficiency that teachers must have. If the teacher is ineffective, students under that teacher’s tutelage will achieve inadequate progress academically, regardless of how similar or different they are regarding their academic achievement (Wright, S. Paul et al., 1997). However, Good and Brophy (1984), in their investigation of teachers basic skills and efficiency, found that many teachers felt their worth as a teacher was directly related to their success of implementation of management skills. Thirdly, and, most importantly, effective classroom management should be a priority simply because effective 6 �teaching and learning can take place in a well- managed classroom. Brophy and Evertson (1976) concluded that almost all surveys of teacher effectiveness report that classroom management skills are of primary importance in determining teaching success. Because, if teachers cannot control their own classroom situation, they cannot effectively teach (Watson, Scott, et al., 2007). How to Accomplish Effective Classroom Management Despite the generally recognized importance of classroom management, it has remained a murky area of conflicting ideas and vague rules. Teachers regularly complain that they receive little practical help in facing the realities of teaching (Doyle). The reason lies in the fact that each class and each teacher is unique. Teachers have different personalities and philosophies; different objectives and strategies of teaching, as well as their students who also have different goals and personalities. Therefore, it is possible to talk about different methods for achieving effective classroom management. However, the answer to the question “Which method is the most effective one?” is, also, not clear. Teachers who are unique need to realize that they are the ones who are responsible for, choosing and applying, or, even, creating the best method for their unique class in order to achieve classroom management. Though there is not a certain way that leads teachers to effective classroom management, studies suggest the following principle to get it: create a positive working atmosphere, which is far from misbehaviors partly because students actively engage in learning activity, which make them feel special and give them a sense of achievement; and partly because a set of classroom rules, the consequences of which are also compiled by students themselves. Thus, there are two priorities to achieve classroom management: (1) minimized discipline problems and misbehaviors; (2) maximized students’ participation. Teachers can handle most misbehavior with the use of eye-contact, voice, facial expressions, and other body language, but it is recognized that the key to success is not how you deal with misbehavior but rather how you prevent misbehavior occurring to start with. A crucial aspect of pre-empting misbehavior is establishing clear rules and expectations in regard to classroom behavior. The work of forming rules may sound inappropriate and authoritarian, especially to those who always prefer to put “tolerance” at the top of their principles, but setting some rules clearly and consistently is almost “a must” to be able to function effectively in the classroom. Because, if there are no apparent rules and procedures that guide behavior, chaos becomes the norm. In these situations, both teachers and students suffer (Maranon, Robert J., et al., 2003). In order to ensure that classroom activities do not lead chaos and conflict, a number of rules and procedures need to be adopted. However, effective teaching is greatly facilitated if classroom rules are laid down and enforced. As Woolfolk-Hoy and Weinstein (2006) summarized in the Handbook of Classroom Management, the majority of teachers who tends to a “traditional” or “custodial” orientation to classroom management believe in strict adherence to rules, and the ones who tend to a “liberal progressive” or “humanistic” orientation to classroom management believe in democratic principles and the importance of self-discipline. What one can conclude from this study is that whatever the teachers with different kinds of orientations believe in, there is something mostly accepted: the need for using some principles to achieve discipline in classrooms. Generally, teachers seem to prefer neutral or positive/supportive interventions over negative / punitive actions, but control oriented strategies, such as reminders of rules of behavior, threats to punish, and actual punishment, are seen as appropriate for hostile, aggressive, disruptive, and defiant students( Brophy& McCaslin, 1992 ). However, almost all discussions of misbehavior make reference to the qualities of effective teaching which sustain pupils’ engagement in the learning activities in hand and it is the teacher’s ability to keep pupils engaged in the learning experience which is of fundamental importance for maintaining discipline (Chris Kyriacou). To a large extent, ‘participation’ which is, also, considered by both female and male students to be one of the factors related to effective learning and to result in more positive views of learning experience (Sadker&Sadker, 1994), can be maximized by the effective use of participation and evaluation sheets which can be as simple or as complex as teachers desire. Doyle noted that if students have the impression that work will not be graded or that any answer is acceptable, then involvement is low unless the activity is exceptionally interesting. Essentials of Establishing Classroom Rules Establishing the rules as early as possible is crucial. Studies have shown that experienced teachers are very clear about the classroom rules they expect to be followed when they first meet their new classes at the start of the academic year (Wragg, 1993; Wragg&Wood, 1984). Also, in an interview-based research (Jan van Tartwijk, et al., 2008) involving authoritative, tolerant-authoritative and directive teachers, it was concluded that almost all teachers 7 �emphasized the importance setting rules, especially at the start of the lesson; sticking to their own rules; being clear about rules and procedures in the classroom; making students follow these rules, as a condition for creating an orderly working climate. This research not only shows how teachers of different styles are agreed on the importance of classroom rules, but also, partly, answers the question asked above, because it emphasizes some essentials such as clarity, continuity, and consistency. The following highlights the basic characteristics of best classroom rules and how to put them into practice. A Model Putting Principles Into Practice In attempting to answer the question above, this study presents a model based on the principles confirmed by researches and suggested by experienced teachers. At the top of the model which was developed with support from an English teacher with 25-year experience, H.Ozkan, there is a classroom contract which is rearranged at the every beginning of every school year, which is called to be a critical time for achieving order in classrooms. As it was concluded in the studies of Evertson & Emmer (1982), and Sanford & Evertson (1981), early attention to classroom management at the beginning of the school year is a critical ingredient of a well-run classroom. “It is time when basic rules and procedures are established. Moreover, the teacher’s ability to manage activities is on display for the first time. Successes or failures at this stage have consequences for the rest of the year.” says Doyle . Such a contract works, especially, for building a mutual respect between teacher and pupils, the importance of which cannot be overestimated. Because, generally speaking, the most effective classroom appear to be there in which atmosphere is task oriented, but at the same time the social and emotional needs of the pupils are met by establishing mutual respect and rapport. (The Book of Essentials of Teaching) CLASSROOM CONTRACT Date:………………….. Class:…………………. This contract has been arranged by the teachers and students of …………School in order to provide an effective learning and teaching environment with mutual respect. The contract is rearranged at the every beginning of every school year, and it is signed by the teachers and students after reading the rules one by one. Then, it becomes valid throught the school year. …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… The students, teachers and parents signed the contract accept, also, to pay the consequences agreed in case the rules are disobeyed. Student ……………… Teacher ……………….... Table 1. Sample Classroom Contract A classroom contract is, also, expected by students who know that it is arranged to maximize their success and minimize confusion in which they cannot learn well. In Marsh et al.’s study (1978), pupils put the teachers whose discipline is weak among the factors that ‘provoke’ them misbehave. Doyle noted that students expect their teachers to be able to keep order and admire those who manage classrooms well. According to Chris Kyriacou, pupils are very sensitive to the teacher’s ability to establish such rules, and will often test out how a teacher will cope with an infringement in order to clarify the rules and how they will be operated. In the model mentioned above, the set of rules which forms the contract is compiled following the general principles suggested by the studies of effective classroom management. First of all, considering his/her educational philosophy and how can it be expressed through the rules, or, gathering sample rules that have worked for other teachers, the teacher compiles a list of classroom rules which should be routinized in time. “To establish an atmosphere of mutual respect, it is a good idea to provide your students with a description of the kind of the 8 �classroom environment you’d like to have”, suggests Dr.Cynthia Anderson. This description (or set of guidelines) should use a positive tone to inform your students about not only what you expect from them, but what you promise to do yourself. In addition, to increase the effectiveness, it should be firm, build mutual respect, emphasize the positive, be consistent, and avoid idle threats. On the first day of the school year, students are informed about the necessity of a classroom contract to make the classroom safe and to create a positive atmosphere that facilitates their learning. Then, as a beginning-of–year activity, the copied rules the teacher listed are discussed and rearranged. Students are involved in making up the rules with the teacher’s guidance. As a mostly-known fact, the more the class are involved in making up the rules, the more these rules and their consequences are obeyed, because of the feeling of responsibility for the actions. Throughout the process, using negatives and dictating rules without explanations are avoided, the rationales behind the rules are certainly explained. After making up the rules, the contract is signed by both the class and the teacher. Two copies of it are handed to each student. The first must be kept in their files and the other must be signed by parents and returned to the teacher to be kept. If the parents are informed of the rules their child must obey, then the teacher won’t experience much difficulty when he/she is confronted with the misbehavior of the student. The signed contract, also, puts the teacher in a good place in the eyes of parents, because a teacher with effective management skills is always desired and admired by parents. However, forming a classroom contract is just the beginning to accomplish effective classroom management. The efficiency and functionality of a classroom contract depend mostly on the teacher’s ability to apply it and two essentials to be kept in mind: ‘consistency’ and ‘continuity’. The first one, ‘consistency’, requires the teacher to deal with a misbehaving student in a very similar manner as he/she did another student. Its effect can be explained as follows: if teachers are consistent with the way they handle uncivil or inappropriate behavior in their classrooms, and if they set good examples themselves, they will find that their students will begin to follow the guidelines they have set, and may even help them to enforce the rules. The second, ‘continuity’ helps the classroom activities and rules become routines. Teachers who establish routines in their classes feel at ease, and have extra time for constructive teaching. Since events happen fast in classrooms, and, during a limited class period immediate and unpredictable events or interruptions can frequently take place, teachers are always in need of establishing routines to be able to act fast and avoid wasting time. Renee Rosenblum, calls children as ‘creatures of habit’ and stresses the need for routines, “School children work beautifully when they know what is expected of them… Homework, classroom chores, and certain structured lessons can easily be routinized. You will find that routines will provide you extra time for constructive teaching instead of spending time giving unnecessary explanations.” In addition to their positive effect on reducing confusion in classrooms, routines have also such an effect on students’ participation that the more the routines are established in a classroom, the higher the involvement is, because students are aware of procedures and their sequence, in other words, they are familiar with the classroom activities. In the system mentioned above, many activities are routinized through the rules provided in classroom contract, and their consequences are recorded on a table. Table 2, is a sample including main classroom activities to be routinized in a typical classroom. However, it should be kept in mind that the use of the table is very practical, but will need to be adopted for the age groups that teachers are teaching and/or the classroom environment in which teaching takes place. In other words, the success of the table depends on the teacher’s ability to use it effectively. MONTHLY GRADING FORM MONTH………………. No Name& Surname 1 2 3 4 5 A: Activity A3: File A1 A2 LEVEL………………………… A3 A4 A5 1 2 3 A1: Quizes and Projects A4: Participation Average General Exams 1 2 3 FINAL GRADE A2: Notebook A5: Discipline 9 �Table 2. Monthly Grading Form According to table 2, there are five main activities that can be routinized in a classroom: quizzes and projects, notebook, file, participation, discipline. Of course, teachers can change its content as they desire. However, general exams are out of “routinized” activities although they are included in the table. The reason is that they are added directly to the general average, not to the average of other activities. To function, the table also requires some sub-tables for each activity on it - different sheets for participation, homework, quizzes, etc. During each 4-week period, each student’s activities are graded by the teacher as it is agreed in the classroom contract, and they are recorded on those sub-tables or sheets. At the end of the period, the average of each activity is calculated one by one for each student and is recorded on the monthly grading form above. Though the content of the sub-tables can differ from teacher to teacher, they mainly work for achieving the same goal: keeping good records of pupils’ progress in order to provide a useful basis for (1) feedback to pupils about their progress, which is of immense importance in contributing to motivation and further progress, and (2) report on pupils’ progress on a regular basis to parents, both in the form of written reports and during meetings with them. File Grading Sheet No Name& Surname Date C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Final Grade 1 2 3 4 C: criterion C3: Quiz Sheets C1: Cover and Design C4: Correction Pages C2: Handouts C5: Signatures Table 3. Sample Sub-table: File Grading Sheet The following are some of the rules for each routinized activity, which are required by the mentioned management system. However, what is crucial here is that the rules should be modified by teachers who know the best for their students. Exams & Quizzes Students whose parents call the teacher and tell the excuse, has a right to take the exam or quiz which wasn’t taken on scheduled time. Students failed in a quiz have the same right that the students mentioned above have. But the mark they got for the first quiz is also recorded and valid. Quiz sheets are signed by parents and kept by students in their files, just after the handouts to which they are related. All students who couldn’t get full point in a given quiz prepare a “Correction Page” on which they write the right answers of the wrongly answered or not answered questions on their sheets. Correction pages are also kept in the files. At the end of the month, while grading the files, the teacher records -2 points for each correction page which is not prepared and kept in the file, or not prepared according to the rules of the agreement. ………………. Homework 10 �Homework is mostly given daily and involves about 30 minutes of work at home. The teacher checks the homework everyday regularly and records if it is done or not. The parents whose child hasn’t done his/ her homework 3 times are informed by the teacher. Homework must be free of errors as much as possible and should be written clearly to be accepted as a full one. Each homework that isn’t done, makes the student lose 2 points out of his/her monthly grade of homework. The student who didn’t do the homework given the day before is responsible for the same homework for the next day. The student who gets -2 points for not doing the homework on scheduled time, gets another -2 points if it is not done the next day. However, if it is done, the -2 points recorded the day before remains. …………………. Files Handouts are kept in files clearly and orderly. Students write their names and surnames on each handout to make the teacher sure that no student uses the other one’s handouts at the time of grading. Students are free to make some extra covers for the topics in their files. While grading files, the following are taken into consideration: Does it have a sticker on it? Is the student’s name written on each handout? Are there any missing handouts, quiz sheets, or correction pages? What about the design of the sheets inside? (Their orders etc.) Does each quiz sheet have the signature of the parent? …………….. Discipline and Participation At the beginning of every lesson, “Classroom Discipline” is written on the right side of the board. During the class period, the student whose name is written under the title of “ Classroom Discipline” gets -2 points because of misbehaving ( misbehaviors are provided in the classroom contract), missing materials such as notebook and files, not being able to answer the question that has been answered 3 times before , and so on. During each 4-week period, each student has a right to get ten “pluses”, each of which is 10 points, and the total of which is 100 points, to be recorded as the grade of participation on the monthly grading form. Each answer to each question is graded out of 10 points by the teacher according to the degree of correctness (The more the students participate and give correct answers, the higher marks of participation they get) ………………….. At the end of each month, the teacher prepares the monthly grading form according to the sub-tables. One or two class period is spent by evaluating the grades on this form. However, how the process of evaluation is also crucial. If the teacher wants to use it as an effective tool for achieving effective classroom management, it must be done in such an atmosphere that all members of the class must consider it as a breathtaking moment. The process is as follows: The student whose name is announced comes to the board and the teacher reads his/her monthly grades for each activity- except that of discipline. The student writes his/her grades one by one on the board. At the same time, another student sitting at his/her table calculates the average with the help of a calculator. It is better if the teacher calculates them before coming to the classroom to be sure the correctness of it and not to waste time. Then, the result is written on the board and after that the critical time comes. Because, it is time to announce the mark under the title of “Classroom Discipline” that shows to what extent the student obeyed the classroom discipline rules 11 �throughout the month. It is important because it makes the student lose or gain some points out of his/her monthly average. It is possible that a student with high marks of homework, participation, and even quizzes can have a low mark as monthly average because of his/her misbehaviors called as “discipline”, and vice versa. By this way, the teacher emphasizes the importance of obeying classroom discipline rules and gets stronger on the way of achieving effective classroom management for the next month. Next day, a list prepared by the teacher according to the final grades calculated the day before is put on the noticeboard. This list also shows the student who will become the chief of the classroom for the next month- as a rule, the student with the highest final grade is listed at the top and becomes the new chief. 12 �Monthly Report ENGLISH Date:…………….. Name and Surname:………………………. Quizzes and Projects Common Exams Homework Discipline Notebook and File Participation Average Frequency Dear …………, Above are all the grades the student received in the last 4-week period. For better grades and further progress in the next period, your contributions, supports and comments are always requested. Yours faithfully Teacher of English ……………………………… Head of English Department ……………………………………. Your Comments: ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …… Table 4. Monthly Report to Inform Parents 13 �The next step: to form a monthly report on student’s progress to be sent to the parents (Table-3). The report including all the marks the student got during the month and the teacher’s comments has also a part separated for parents’ comments and recommendations. Although many teachers complain that producing such reports is very time-consuming, in order to contribute to motivation, further progress and even the effectiveness of classroom management, writing reports that are fair, valid and meaningful to the reader works well. The key point here is that teachers need to make helpful and constructive comments. Where they need to be critical, their comments should usefully point to what needs to be done in future to improve matters (Kyriacou, 1998). Thus, teachers may have a chance to keep the parents informed of the progress or lack of progress of their child, and to arrange parent conferences to discuss what is better to do in the next month. Conclusion This study which has described a foundation for effective classroom management, has supported the following notion: “At all public school grade levels, effective classroom management has been recognized as a crucial element in effective teaching. In addition, poor management wastes class time, reduces student’s time on task and detracts from the quality of the learning environment.”(Emmer, Edmund, et al. 1982) Throughout the study, an attempt has been made to explain the relationship between classroom rules and effective classroom management. It has been emphasized that establishing ‘routinized’ classroom rules is an essential aspect of the effective classroom management. In addition, essentials of setting classroom rules and putting them into practice are highlighted. In the light of principles confirmed by researches and suggested by experienced teachers, a practical way of achieving classroom management is described with a model-based approach. The model which was presented wanted to answer the question: How can classroom rules be established and routinized in order to achieve effective classroom management? It has been concluded that a well-prepared classroom contract with the rules which are firm, consistent, emphasizing positive and established at the start of the academic year with the involvement of students, can be used as a tool to create a positive working atmosphere in classrooms, and build a mutual respect between the teachers and students, both of which are considered to be priorities to accomplish a well management in classrooms. However, the importance of creating routines- standard procedures for putting names on papers, seeking teacher assistance, and handling in papers, for example-was explained, and it was noted that such a kind of work provides more involvement of students, and reduces confusion in classrooms, because of the familiarity of the activities. As the basic tools for establishing routines, evaluation sheets were considered and how to use them effectively were exemplified with tables of rules, which can freely be modified by teachers according to the environment of their classes. The comprehensiveness and orderly presentation of this work which can be considered as a guide to effective classroom management achieved by establishing routines in relation to participation, discipline and even homework will be helpful to educators, and its easy-to-practice principles will help, especially, new teachers to develop their own classroom management skills. References Evertson, Carolyn M., &Emmer, Edmund T.(1982).Effective Management at the Beginning of the School Year in Junior High Classes. Journal of Education Psychology 74 (4): 485-498 Jones, Vernon.(1996).Classroom Management.Handbook of Reseach on Teacher Education. 2nd edition, ed.John Sikula. York: Simon and Shuster. New Marzano, Robert J., Marzano, Jana S.&Pickering, Debra J. (2003). Classroom Management that Works: Research-Based Strategies for Every Teacher.Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tucker,L., Plax, T.G., &Kearney, P.(1985).Prospective Teachers’ Use of Behaviour Alternative Techniques. Paper presented at the communication theory and research interest group of the Western Speech Communication Association Conference, Fresno, CA. Doyle, Walter.(1985).Recent Research on Classroom Management.Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 36, No. 3, 31-35 14 �Watson, Scott, Goodwin Michelle,&Ackerman Beth.(2007).Improving Instruction for Teacher Candidates in Classroom Management and Discipline Issues.Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA 24504. AACTE February 2007 Jones, Vernan F., &Jones, Louise S.Comprehensive Classroom Management: Creating Positive Learning Environments. Crombie, Gail, Pyke, Sandra W.,Silverthorn, Nadia, Jones, Alison,& Piccinin Sergio.(2003).Students Perceptions of Their Classroom Participation and Instructor as a Function of Gender and Context.Journal of Higher Education, Vol.74, No.1 (Jan.Feb., 2003). Published by: Ohio State University Press Van Tartwijk, J., den Brok, P., Veldman, L., and Wubbbels.T.(2009).Teachers’ Practical Knowledge about Classroom Management in Multicultural Classrooms. Journal of Teaching and Teacher Education , 25 (2009) 453-460 Rosenblum, Renee.You have to go to school …You are the teacher: Corwin Press, Inc. A Sage Hayden, Kellie (2008).Top Five Classroom Management Strategies: Article published on Oct 3, 2008 Doyle, Walter.Classroom Management. Institution Kappa Delta.West Lafayette, Ind. Pub date 80 Jones, (2006).Teacher Development Agency.(2007) Kyriacou, Chris, (1997) .Effective Teaching in Schools- Theory and Practice, second edition. Kyriacou, Chris, (1998) .Effective Teaching Skills, second edition. Scott, Wendy A. & Ytreberg, Lisbeth H. Teaching English to Children.Longman Keys to Language Teaching .(1990). 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 312 Title A name given to the resource Effective Classroom Management in Relation to Classroom Routines and Rules Author Author KONCA, M. Yavuz OTUGEN, Rabiye Abstract A summary of the resource. Much research has looked at the effect of classroom management on the quality of teaching and learning activity, and set up principles of effective classroom management. However, how to put these principles into practice in a typical classroom is still a question to be answered in the minds of new teachers in profession and most of those already in the field of education. This paper which reinforces the findings and suggestions from many previous works, not only presents findings from these studies, but also includes some recommendations about how to put them into practice. Using a simple table, it organizes the mostly-known principles into usable, concise formats. Four topics are considered: (1) the need for forming rules and establishing routines in a classroom; (2) the relationship between routines and classroom management; (3) the basic principles of establishing routines in relation to classroom participation and discipline; (4) the practical ways of putting wellknown rules into practice. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1e6a2798ef5f138d15a77b1955795da9.pdf 5274ca90b414e08e4f180df5f247ca40 PDF Text Text An Investigation into the Nature of Academic Procrastination M. Yavuz KONCA Ataturk University Kâzim Karabekir Education Faculty English Teaching Department Erzurum/Turkey ykonca@hotmail.com Öznur SEMIZ Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Letters English Department Trabzon/Turkey oznozr@hotmail.com Abstract: Academic procrastination is the voluntary delay of the completion of an academic task within the expected or desired time frame despite expecting to be worse off for the delay (Senécal et al. 1995; Steel 2007) . It is a dispositional trait that can have particularly serious consequences for students who are required to meet frequent deadlines. Research claims that 80%–95% of college students engage in procrastination (Ellis and Knaus 1977) and about 50% procrastinate in a consistent and problematic fashion (Day et al. 2000), delaying essential school-related activities. Some of the major causes of academic procrastination include fear of failure, inability to complete the task, a lack of time management or study skills, stress, or feeling overwhelmed with their work. This paper discusses the reasons why academic procrastination is a problem, why students procrastinate, and techniques for managing it. Implications for teachers will also be discussed. Keywords: academic procrastination, motivation, college performance procrastinatory behaviour, Introduction Procrastination is one of the greatest problems affecting academicians as well as students while achieving their academic performance. According to Ferrari (1995), difficulty in meeting schedules, submitting assignment late, delaying writing of notes, delaying tasks till assumed convenient time, being reluctant in performing tasks and waiting for dying minutes to accomplish a task are some of the various ways through which students procrastinate. Today, scientists all over the world agree that procrastination is an extremely complicated and influential act, which is more serious than can be imagined by those who have not experienced it themselves. Naturally, it is not so easy to help people overcome this problem of habitually postponing their work. As in other parts of society, procrastination emerges as a serious problem among university students. Some university students show the tendency to postpone the work they are expected to do. The simple excuse for their postponement is that they are trying to find convenient time to act; some of them always feel hesitant or unwilling in doing work that should be done without any delay whereas some other university students hang around until the very last moment to study for examinations. The conduct sometimes develops to become a common practice or even a habit. In the end, this habit may become a chronic behavioral disease that these students suffer from throughout their lives. 128 �What is Procrastination? The term procrastination originates from the Latin word "procrastinare" which means, "to put off until tomorrow. (“pro-“ prefix meaning “favour for” + “crastinare” derived from the Latin combination “crastinus” formed by Latin “cras” meaning “tomorrow” + “ –tinus the Latin suffix forming adjective”(Random House Dictionary, 1987; p.1543). Procrastination is the act or practice of continually, and in a sense habitually, putting significant tasks off until the last minute rather than doing them in a way that gives the individual sufficient time to complete the task without having to rush, and this practice can have unfortunate effects on an individual. Academic definitions of procrastination vary depending on the scientific field or approach. For instance, according to the approach considering procrastination as a psychological pain: “Procrastination is delay in conjunction with subjective discomfort (e.g., Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). One other approach states that procrastination is an Intended Action “when we delay beginning or completing an intended course of action (e.g., Beswick & Mann, 1994). Another view is that there is irrationality in procrastination and so “Procrastination is the illogical delay of behavior (Sabini & Silver, 1982). A common definition, in reference to the published research can be made stating that procrastination is the experience of psychological discomfort or distress as a result of failing to complete, or indefinitely postponing, a task or activity (e.g. Ferrari, McCown & Johnson, 1995; Johnson & Bloom, 1995; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). History of Procrastination Milgram (1992), claiming that societies that developed industrially need various commitments and time limits, is known to have written the first concrete historical investigation on procrastination, and this study encouraged further studies on procrastination (Steel, 2007). As a matter of fact, undeveloped rural societies are not so badly affected by procrastination. In their book, Ferrari, Johnson, and McCown (1995) took a similar although lighter position. They argued that procrastination had been present throughout history but that it only gained truly disappointing implications with the arrival of the industrial revolution in 1750s. Before then, procrastination was viewed neutrally and could be interpreted as a clever course of both action and inaction. Having considered all the facts, it may be said that, the belief that procrastination is a modern trouble may, to a certain extent, be true. Because self-reports of procrastination have indicated that it may be on the rise (Kachgal et al., 2001). Despite this increase, historical references have indicated that views about procrastination have been reasonably constant over the ages: It is and has long been a prevalent problem. (Steel, 2007). It is interesting that while searching classical texts we are shown the way to informative references to the natural perception of procrastination. Hesiod who is known to be one of the first recorded Ancient Greek poets and who is known to have written around 800 B.C., provides one of the earliest possible citations. Regarding procrastination he says: “Do not put your work off till to-morrow and the day after; for a sluggish worker does not fill his barn, nor one who puts off his work: industry makes work go well, but a man who puts off work is always at hand-grips with ruin. (Works and Days, l.413)” Considering this consistency of belief, extending to a time about three thousand years ago, we are forced to regard procrastination as a typical human weakness. Hence, the fact that procrastination was not dealt with by scientists sooner is somewhat surprising and paradoxical. Again in about 450 B.C., Thucydides, who lived between c.460-400 B.C. also remarked about procrastination. He was an Athenian general writing much on the Athenian war with the Spartans, including various aspects of personalities and strategies, Thucydides was also a historian and he considered procrastination to be the most criticized of character qualities. To him procrastination was useful only in delaying the commencement of war so as to allow preparations that speeded its conclusion to be made. (Histoires, 1.84.1). Going back to year of 44 BC, we see Marcus Tullius Cicero as the consul whose position was the highest political office of Rome and as a very well-known spokesman who spoke against several political antagonists, such as Marcus Antonius, who later had him murdered. In one of a series of speeches criticizing Marcus Antonius, Cicero declared: "In the conduct of almost every affair slowness and procrastination are hateful" (Philippics, 6.7). Roman Emperor Marcus Annius Verus Antonius Aurelius, who reigned in 161-180 A.D. and who was a Stoic philosopher, commented on procrastination saying: "Think of all the years passed by in which you said to yourself "I'll do it tomorrow," and how the gods have again and again granted you periods of grace of which you have not availed yourself. It is time to realize that you are a member of the Universe, that you are born of Nature itself, and to know that a limit has been set to your time. Use every moment wisely, to perceive your inner refulgence, or 'twill be gone and nevermore within your reach."(Meditations,2.4). The English novelist John Lyly, who was supported by Queen Elizabeth I and who was well-known for his work titled Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, a book that relied heavily on proverbs for its content and which he wrote in 1579 (as cited in Gales' quotations, 1995), wrote in that work "Delays breed dangers; nothing is so perilous as procrastination"(p.513), a comment proving that procrastination was considered to be an illness in those days. 129 �Starting from the industrial revolution, The famous English Writer Samuel Johnson (1751) described procrastination as "one of the general weaknesses, which, in spite of the instruction of moralists, and the remonstrances of reason, prevail to a greater or less degree in every mind." A contemporary of Johnson, Phillip Stanhope (1749/1968), Earl of Chesterfield, advised, "No idleness, no laziness, no procrastination; never put off till tomorrow what you can do today." (Steel, 2007). Why Do We Procrastinate? The question Why We Procrastinate is a so frequently asked. Although the answers vary greatly, some excuses included in the answers appear to be expressed more often than can be imagined. Numerous reasons may be listed to describe the excuses for procrastination. Some major ones have been proposed by various researchers. The grouping below made by Timothy Quek (2009) seems to be worth quoting : 4.1. Disorganization It is a commonly accepted truth that procrastination and disorganization are fundamentally associated. Yet not all disorganization should be admitted to be the same. In fact, procrastination-oriented disorganization occurs in four primary areas. 4.1.1. A poor distinction between urgency and priority. In the beginning of the urgency-priority phase, procrastinators tend to concentrate on "comfort" tasks that are most convenient, interesting, or within reach. Here, it is apparent that priority is sacrificed for convenience. As these tasks are being focused to, however, other tasks begin to pile up, and soon an excess of tasks come very badly to need being given attention. An untidy heap of new and old tasks becomes marked as urgent, and the procrastinator is obliged to drop current tasks to attend to the urgent ones. In a sense, what is urgent has become priority. This disorder goes on as tasks divide into three categories which become badly in need of attention and which are increasingly difficult to distinguish, that is to say, priority/urgent; priority/non-urgent; nonpriority/urgent. In the meantime, the charm of the non-urgent, non-priority comfort tasks still attracts the procrastinator to do them. What comes out as the result is that the procrastinator becomes subject to the domination of the urgent, he becomes unable to set up appropriate priorities, and constantly seeks reprieve from these stresses by attending to tasks that are neither urgent nor priority! 4.1.2. Distractibility. The problem of distractibility is closely associated with the tendency of procrastinators to attend to comfort tasks. It is not surprising to find procrastinators explaining that a task is left unattended to because "something else came up". Setting better emotional boundaries (e.g., saying "No" to yourself) in order to stay on task usually helps to limit attention to the multitude of off-task behaviours that we know as distractions. 4.1.3. Forgetfulness. Unfortunately, no amount of prioritizing or boundary drawing can prevail over disorganized forgetfulness. Characteristically, procrastinators assume that they have an exceptional memory and they often claim that they remember even though they appear to have forgotten ("Of course, I remember. I was just about to do it"). They fill up their pockets and purses with many slips of "reminder" paper, and they usually seem to be using more than one appointment book or none at all (both practices have the same effect). A step in the right direction is to acknowledge a problem with forgetfulness, although it must never be used as an excuse for inaction. 4.1.4. Lumping. Finally, a major part of procrastination- oriented disorganization comes in the form of "lumping" or "chunking", that is, the errant perception that most tasks come as an inseparable whole (a "lump") that cannot be subdivided and dealt with systematically. The harried teenager who thinks of "cleaning my room" as a massive single-lump task would likely procrastinate over cleaning his room. 130 �4.2. Fear Many researchers believe that one of the major causes of procrastination is fear. Fear-induced procrastination generally expresses itself as avoidance and the intense desire to either delay performing a task or wait for its expiration so that it no longer has to be dealt with. Most of the time, one task is related to another, and the cluster of avoided tasks grows over time. As outstanding tasks mount, the procrastinator becomes resigned, depressed and inactive. The internal struggles of fear-motivated procrastination are usually of two types: the rational versus the irrational ("I know that I should, so why can't I just do it") and discipline vs. discomfort ("I planned to do it, but when the time came, I just didn't feel like it."). Attempts at resolving these conflicts must start at the level of dealing with the fear rather than with logic or greater discipline. 4.3. Perfectionism Almost all researchers accept perfectionism as the first and greatest of all reasons for procrastination among the academicians. Most procrastinators do not think of themselves as perfectionists. "If I'm a perfectionist, I would get things done," they say. Not necessarily. In fact, perfectionism can lead to "starts and spurts" performance, meaning that an individual goes on a cleaning spree, or attacks a task with great energy and then falls back in exhaustion after having exasperated, irritated, or alienated everyone around. Perfectionism has also been found to be strongly related to depression and an extremely critical spirit (either self or other critical).What is perfectionism, then? Perfectionism is a form of rigidity or inflexibility that is marked by three major characteristics: (i) The intense desire to jump in and do things yourself because others just can't do it right; (ii) the insistent attitude that you wouldn't even start on something if you can't do it well; and (iii) the profound need for closure, indicated by agitation or discomfort should something be left "hanging". Procrastination may also be an indicator of a more serious physical or psychological problem that would respond positively to treatment. Often, such procrastination is not observed by the one procrastinating, but by others close to that person. Extreme anxiety, severe clinical depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, attention deficit disorder with or without hyperactivity, and illnesses that are related to memory loss are examples of such dysfunctions that may lead to procrastination. Each of these characteristics "forces or drives" the perfectionist to procrastinate. For perfectionist procrastinators, the first step in dealing with procrastination is acknowledging and disliking the three basic tendencies mentioned under perfectionism. Then practical solutions can be applied systematically. Types of Procrastination Considering what currently available data obtained through research conducted so far have proved, procrastination may be classified as chronic procrastination and non-chronic procrastination or temporary procrastination. Various forms of chronic procrastination have been proposed by some researchers. In general, researchers usually grouped procrastination under three titles each of which has its own set of characteristics (Ferrari et al., 1995). They are commonly known as: a) arousal procrastination, also known as thrill-seeking, where individuals wait until close to the deadline in order to promote a thrill seeking experience, and b) avoidant procrastination, also known as fear of failure, where individuals wait to complete a task in order to reduce potential disclosure of personal inabilities. c) decisional procrastination, also known as indecision, where individuals are indecisive as to whether to do the work or when to do it (Díaz-Morales & Ferrari, 2007). One specific form of procrastination occurs when a student experiences psychological distress from the postponement of school-related tasks (e.g. writing a paper, studying for an exam; Solomon & Rothblum, 1984, 1988). According to Rothblum and her colleagues, academic procrastination has been reported in a significant proportion of students tested, with up to 40% experiencing excessive levels. In addition, academic procrastination appears to be related to test anxiety, to various other symptomatology related to anxiety, and to external attributions of academic success (Rothblum, Solomon & Murakami, 1986). Depression, lack of assertion (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984), indecision, and low self-esteem (Beswick, Rothblum & Mann, 1988) have also been associated with academic procrastination. 131 �Effects of Procrastination Procrastination has a way of ruling our lives if we do not bring it under control. It may lead to extreme laziness if it is not dealt with at early stages. To be more precise, procrastination ends in laziness if it is not controlled. There are many different tests used today to measure academic procrastination. Among them are the questionnaire developed by Van Eerde (2003) which has nine questions for each of the five categories for a total of 45 questions and the test, developed by Solomon and Rothblum (1984) as cited by Onwuegbuzie (2004) called the PASS (the procrastination Assessment Scale-Students) which has six different categories, but with academic questions instead of personal ones. "Stemming from an intricate interplay of psychological variables, in its chronic form, procrastination may become maladaptive and eventually result in psychological dysfunction (Ferrari et al., 1995). Solving the Problem of Procrastination Based on her view that irrational fears form the basis of academic procrastination, Rothblum (1990) has suggested that behavioral treatment techniques be applied to treat academic procrastination such as those used in the treatment of phobias. Various ways of overcoming the problem of procrastination are recommended by many researchers (Díaz-Morales, J.F., & Ferrari, J. R., 2007; Johnson, J. L. & Bloom, A. M., 1995; Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J., 2001). For instance, choosing to do one task while temporarily putting another on hold is simply setting priorities, which allow people to cross things off their to-do lists one at a time. It is also suggested that the steps below be followed and attempts be made to overcome or at least to minimize the problem of procrastination (Timothy Quek, 2009) (a) Determine what you are afraid of In fear-motivated procrastination, it is necessary to identify the fear to begin with. For example, a person trying to find a job over an extended period of time may have developed a fear of being rejected...yet again. A high school student drags her feet in completing her class project because of a fear of obtaining another failing grade. Another example may be that an accounts analyst finds it an unpleasant task to complete even one assignment towards his certification exam because of his fear of the material itself. This last example may in fact have to do with his lack of ability in his chosen field! Briefly, both the fear and the sources of that fear must be confronted before the behaviours expressed by procrastination can be addressed. Often, a trained counsellor would be able to help in identifying the sources of fear and their effects on self-esteem, then provide some direction in dealing with these problems. (b) Get yourself an appointment book. And please...don't go overboard with this idea. Procrastinators often start ambitiously. (Remember the problem of "lumping"?) They run out and buy the most expensive bells-and-whistles appointment book, invest in an elaborate electronic daytimer, or photocopy reams of get-your-life-together organizers readily available on the market. You hear the reasoning, "Hey, if it's gotta be done, it's gotta be done right!" (Do you hear the perfectionist?) Eventually, the massive effort comes to an anticlimactic halt when they "run out of steam", and discouragement sets them three steps back after having dashed two steps forward. It is far wiser to purchase a simple appointment book, preferably one that is about the size of a small paperback that has a one week spread when the book is opened. Appointment books help to address the problems of disorganization and even poor memory. (i) First, learn to use it every day: Write down things you are going to do or that you have already done. Look ahead into the next week, if you like, but don't plan your life for the next year. To help you use the book more, write in important telephone numbers and addresses as you acquire them. Carry it around with you all day. Make its presence with you a habit. (ii) Second, learn how to plan ahead realistically: Break down tasks into tangible stage goals, and provide these goals with appropriate deadlines. Then write these deadlines into your appointment book. (iii) Third, provide yourself with daily "to do" lists that you write into your book: Even small, easy-to-do or habitual items could be added to the list. Check the items off as you go along. The point is to register accomplishment tangibly as you move through the day. (c) Dechunk Breaking a task down into manageable chunks ("dechunking") usually removes the threat of having to do a large task all at once. Sometimes, a task may be underestimated as costing very little energy and time when it really takes up a good chunk of your energies. Learn to break tasks down to 15 minute chunks to begin with. As you get more practised at it, increase the size of your chunks. It would be very helpful to use your appointment book to plan your dechunking. 132 �(d) Break Free Procrastination has a way of ruling our lives if we do not bring it under control. Many resigned procrastinators simply confess, "I'm just lazy" and hope that the explanation suffices. Not for a long time..Laziness is procrastination out of control. It takes a great deal of wisdom and effort to break the clutches of procrastination, but the results are often worth the while. Conclusion The rate of procrastination in society, especially among the university students and academicians, is high Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). This could obstruct the promotion of intellectual excellence in the academic environment. It therefore becomes necessary for the academicians to evolve effective management of their time through proper time scheduling, avoidance of procrastination and reduction of time wasters.Future research should re-examine existing evidence on correlates of procrastination in light of Council's (1993; Council et al., 1996) work on context effects. The present study reported a significant relationship between procrastination and irrational thinking when context was controlled; it is important to determine if other relationships will hold with similar controls for context. Considering the study conducted by Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M. (1997), subscale problem avoidance is seen as a key factor related to academic procrastination. Counselors’ efforts at reducing procrastination have focused on improving students’ study habits and teaching them time management skills (Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D., 1984). However, research has proved procrastination not to be merely a deficit of time organization and study skills, but it involves a complex interaction of psychological variables. Rothblum (1990) has suggested applying behavioral treatment methods in like in the treatment of phobias. The approach that psycological treatment technique be applied should be made use of not only by the therapists and counselors but also by teachers of such disciplines as language teaching as well mathematics and sience where procrastination greatly affects academic performance (Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M., 1997). This point has significant value considering the fact that procrastinatin is becoming more frequent among graduate students and academicians. References : Beswick, G., & Mann, L. (1994). State orientation and procrastination. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: Action versus state orientation (pp. 391-396). Gottingen, Germany: Hogrefe & Huber. Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M. (1997). Academic procrastination and irrational thinking: A context controlled. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 941-944. re-examination with Díaz-Morales, J.F., & Ferrari, J. R. (2007). Procrastination: Different time orientations reflect different motives. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 707–714. Ferrari, J. R., Johnson, J. L., & McCown, W. G. (1995). Procrastination and task avoidance: Theory, research, and treatment. New York: Plenum Press. Flexner, S.B.(Ed).(1987). Random House Dictionary. New York: Random House Inc. Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern Language Journal, 70, 125—132. Yonge, C. D., Clark, A. (2009) M. Tullius Cicero, Orations: Three orations on the Agrarian law, the four against Catiline, the orations for Rabirius, Murena, Sylla, Archias, Flaccus, Scaurus, etc.; Editions and translations: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Texts.html Johnson, J. L. & Bloom, A. M. (1995). An analysis of the contribution of the five factors of personality to variance in academic procrastination. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 127-133. Kachgal, M. M., Hansen, L. S., & Nutter, K. J. (2001). Academic procrastination prevention/intervention: Strategies and recommendations. Journal of Developmental Education, 25, 14-24. McClure, J. B., (2007). Pearls from Many Seas; London; Read Books 133 �Milgram, N. A., Gehrman, T., & Keinan, G. (1992). Procrastination and emotional upset: A typological model. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 1307-1313. Rothblum, E. D. (1990). Fear of failure: The psychodynamic, need achievement, fear of success, and procrastination models. Silver, M., & Sabini, J. (1981). Procrastinating. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 11, 207-221. Solomon, L. J., & Rothblum, E. D. (1984). Academic procrastination: Frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal ofCounseling Psychology, 31, 503-509. Stanhope, P. D. (1968). Bartlett's familiar quotations (14th ed.). Boston: Little, Brown. (Original work published 1749) Steel, P., (2007). The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review of Quintessential Self-Regulatory Failure Psychological Bulletin 133, 65-94. Timothy Quek (2009) The Problem of http://webhome.idirect.com/~readon/procrast.html Procrastination. Retrieved Feb. 01, 2009 from 134 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 663 Title A name given to the resource An Investigation into the Nature of Academic Procrastination Author Author KONCA, M. Yavuz Semiz, Öznur Abstract A summary of the resource. Academic procrastination is the voluntary delay of the completion of an academic task within the expected or desired time frame despite expecting to be worse off for the delay (Senécal et al. 1995; Steel 2007) . It is a dispositional trait that can have particularly serious consequences for students who are required to meet frequent deadlines. Research claims that 80%–95% of college students engage in procrastination (Ellis and Knaus 1977) and about 50% procrastinate in a consistent and problematic fashion (Day et al. 2000), delaying essential school-related activities. Some of the major causes of academic procrastination include fear of failure, inability to complete the task, a lack of time management or study skills, stress, or feeling overwhelmed with their work. This paper discusses the reasons why academic procrastination is a problem, why students procrastinate, and techniques for managing it. Implications for teachers will also be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0974ed71bce2722c4bbdccdcd7f22852.pdf 18c72ecfa3ac580c05358b45cbc82758 PDF Text Text Toplumsal Değişim Sürecinde Ahmet Mithat Efendi'nin Eğitim Anlayışı Okan KOÇ Sakarya Üniversitesi Sakarya, Türkiye okoc@sakarya.edu.tr Özet: Türk Edebiyatının en velut yazarlarından olan Ahmet Mithat Efendi, Türk roman ve hikâyeciliğinin ilk örneklerini veren isimlerdendir. Bir medeniyet değiştirme süreci olarak değerlendirilen Tanzimat Dönemi’yle birlikte birçok toplumsal algı değişikliğe uğramaya başlamış, bu süreçte Ahmet Mithat, Namık Kemal’in tiyatro için söylediği “faydalı eğlence” ifadesini roman ve hikâyeye uyarlayarak halkı eğitmeyi amaçlamıştır. Yazar, eserlerindeki çeşitli tip ve karakterler üzerinden faydalı olduğunu düşünerek toplumsal mesajlar da vermektedir. Ahmet Mithat, dönemin okuyucu kitlesini de göz ardı etmeden birçok konuya temas eder. Ele aldığı konular arasında eğitim meselesi de önemli bir yer tutmaktadır: Toplumdaki çeşitli bireylerin eğitilmesi, eğitim süreci boyunca takip edilecek yöntemler, nelerin nasıl öğretilmesi gerektiği, verilen eğitimin insanı ne derece değiştirip dönüştürebileceği, eğitim sürecince yapılan yanlışlıklar v.b. konular kimi zaman Batılı toplumlarla karşılaştırmalar yapılarak okuyucuya aktarılır. Bu bildirimizde, Tanzimat sonrası Türk Edebiyatı’nda sosyal meselelere en fazla yer veren yazarlardan olan Ahmet Mithat’ın, değişim sürecinde eğitim meselesine nasıl yaklaştığını göstermek istiyoruz. Amacımız, Ahmet Mithat örneğinden hareketle toplumun edebî eserler vasıtasıyla nasıl değiştirilmek / eğitilmek istendiğini göstermektir. Anahtar kelimeler:Tanzimat, Ahmet Mithat, Eğitim, Toplum, Değişim Giriş Türk edebiyatının Tanzimat sonrası tanıştığı edebî türlerden olan roman ve hikâye ilk yerli ürünlerini Ahmet Mithat’la verir. Batılı anlamda şiir ve tiyatrodan sonra edebiyatımıza giren roman ve hikâyenin bu dönemde birbirinden kesin olarak ayrıldıkları düşünülemez.1 Ahmet Mithat, 1870’li yıllardan itibaren Kıssadan Hisse ve Letaif-i Rivâyât başlığı altında neşretmeye başladığı eserlerinin sayısını zaman içerisinde sayı ve hacim olarak hızla çoğaltır. Denilebilir ki; ilk örneklerini Batıdan yapılan tercümelerin oluşturduğu roman ve hikâye türü, Ahmet Mithat’la birlikte edebiyatımızda adı bilinen ve kabul gören bir tür haline gelmiştir. Tanzimat Döneminin yol açıcılarından olan Şinasi; Tanpınar’ın da belirttiği gibi, şahsiyetinin durgunluğuna, hamlesinin devamsız oluşuna, üslubunun tıkızlığına rağmen tesiri büyük olmuştur( Tanpınar,1998: 190). Şinasi fikir hayatının Batılılaşmasıyla birlikte edebiyatın da yenileşmesi için mücadele eder. Döneminin bir diğer önemli ismi Namık Kemal, Meşhur “Lisân-ı Osmanînin Edebiyatı Hakkında Mülâhazâtı Şâmildir” isimli makalesi başta olmak üzere birçok yazısında eski edebiyatın eksik ve yanlış bulduğu taraflarını eleştirirken, yeni edebiyatın kendisi için doğru olarak kabul ettiği vasıflarını da saymaktan geri durmaz. Genel olarak, Tanzimat döneminin ilk isimleri edebiyatta sosyal fayda prensibinden hareket etmekteydiler. Edebiyat; halkın eğitilmesi, fikir seviyesinin yükseltilmesi için vazgeçilmez bir vasıta olarak görülmekteydi. Bu prensibin öncülüğünü yapan Namık Kemal’e göre edebiyatta sosyal fayda esastır. Namık Kemal’in özellikle tiyatro türü için söylediği eğlencelerin “en edîbanesi” , “en fâidelisi” sözünü hatırlamakta yarar vardır.2 Tanzimat Döneminde; Şinasi’nin halkı eğitmek gayesiyle gazeteye yüklediği fonksiyonu Namık Kemal tiyatroya, Ahmet Mithat Efendi’nin ise roman ve hikâyeye uygulamaya çalıştığı söylenebilir. Şinasi’nin halka inmek için yeni ve sade bir dile ihtiyaç duyması yeni bir nesrin ortaya çıkmasına yol açar. Aynı düşüncelerden hareket eden Namık Kemal de yeni bir dil ihtiyacının farkındadır. Ziya Paşa ise “Şiir ve İnşâ” makalesinde eski nesir dilinin terk edilmesi gerektiğini belirtirken Harabat adlı şiir antolojisinin önsözünde bunun tam tersi bir beyanda bulunacaktır. Tanzimat fermanında maârifle ilgili bir kayıt olmamasına karşılık padişah başta olmak üzere devletin en yüksek organlarının bu konuyla yakından ilgilendikleri ve Osmanlı Devleti’nin ancak maârifle, ilimle, mekteple 1 Halit Ziya’ya kadar problemli gözüken hikâye ve roman türü, özellikle bu dönem için edebiyat tarihçileri tarafından tek bir tür olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Örneğin Orhan Okay bu konuda: “Tanzimat devri için, bu iki türün birbirinden ayırt edilmesi mümkün olmadığından tek bir tür olarak mütalaâsı daha uygundur.” Demektedir (Okay, 1998: 51). 2 Namık Kemal’in Türk edebiyatı üzerine görüşleri için: (Yetiş,1996: 512s.)’ya bakılabilir. 387 �ayakta duracağına inandıkları görülmektedir.3 Her Ne kadar Tanzimat Fermanında bu konuya yer verilmemiş de olsa Fermanın yayınlanışını takip eden yıllarda Batı modeli eğitim kurumları faaliyete geçmeye başlamıştır.4 Tanzimat öncesi açılan Askeri okulların akabinde Rüştiye Nezaretleri, Mekteb-i Mülkiye, Mekteb-i Tıbbiye, Mekteb-i Hukuk gibi okulların yanında Sultanîler de açılmaya başlar. Tanzimat sonrası yoğun bir şekilde ortaya çıkan Batılılaşma hareketi sosyal ve kültürel hayatta birçok değişimi de beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu çabanın bir kültür medeniyet değiştirme çabası olduğu bilinmektedir.5 Edebiyat; bu dönemle birlikte hayatın, düşüncelerin değişmesinde, Batılı kültür değerlerinin topluma aktarılmasında önemli bir işlev üstlenir.6 Üslubun ve İdealizmin Kaynağı Ahmet Mithat, yazdığı eserlerle kendini adeta toplumu eğitmeye adar. Toplumu önce okumaya alıştırmak sonra da onu kültür ve ahlâk bakımından belli bir seviyeye taşımak ister. Madde ve kültür sahalarındaki terakkiyi hürriyet ve rejim meselesinden daha öncelikli gören Ahmet Mithat’ın bu yaklaşımı devrin hükümdarı II. Abdülhamid’le de örtüşmektedir (Okay, 1989: 8). O, her iki problemin de kültür bakımından Batı seviyesine eriştikten sonra ele alınması gerektiği kanaatindedir. Bu yüzden toplumu eğitmek için vasıta olarak gördüğü eserleriyle okumaktan çok dinlemeye alışmış halk kitlelerini, alışık olduğu tarzdan uzaklaştırmadan okutmak, eğitmek düşüncesindedir. “Hikâye söylemek ve dinlemek eski hayatımızın köklü bir geleneğiydi. Eski mahalle kahvelerinde, uzun kış gecelerinin eğlenceli geçmesi için yapılan toplantılarda, helva sohbetlerinde hikâyeye ayrılmış saatler vardı. Kadınların kendi aralarındaki toplantılarda da hikâyenin geniş bir yer tuttuğunu biliyoruz. İşte bu gelenekten doğan bir hikâye dinlemek sevgisi bugün bile vardır. Ahmet Mithat, hikâye anlatma sistemi olarak bizim eski meddahlar yöntemini kabul etmiştir. Meddahın konuşması, gündelik hayatın üslubudur.”( Özön, 2009: 292). Ahmet Mithat’ı döneminin yazarlarından bir adım öne çıkaran özelliği eserlerinde kullanmış olduğu bu üslupta ısrarcı olmasıdır. Bu üslubun gereği olarak okuyucusuna kimi zaman dostane, kimi zaman öğretici bir tavırla yaklaşır. Örneğin Çengi romanın girişinde Don Kişot hakkında okuyucuyu bilgilendirmek ister. “ ‘İstanbul’da Don Kişot’ denildiği zaman, İstanbul şehrinde Don Kişot denilir bir şeyin vücudu anlaşılır ise de, bu Don Kişot yenir mi? Yenmez mi? Canlı mı? Cansız mı? Buralara dair bazı mertebe izahat verilmeyince Don Kişot mahiyeti nazarlarda taayyün edemez. Ama erbab-ı mütâlâa içinde Don Kişot’un ne olduğunu bilenler dahi bulunacakmış. Mâlumdur ki, bir hikâye yalnız havas için yazılmaz. Avam için yazılır. Havas indinde pek meşhur ve maruf olan Don Kişot’un mahiyetini avama tanıttırmak lazımdır.”( Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2000:5 ). Felsefe-i Zenan isimli hikâyesinde okuyucunun bu konuda bir bilgisinin olmadığını düşünerek “ Görmez misin ki ressamlığı sanayi-i âliyenin birincilerinden addederler. Şimdi bir kere mütalâa et ki ressamlık ne demektir? Ressamlık aynen gözümüz önünde olmayan bir şeyi bize resmen göstermek değil midir?”(Ahmet Mithat, 2001: 65) deyişi sınıfta ders anlatan bir öğretmenin edasını bize hatırlatır. Yine Felâtun Bey ile Rakım Efendi romanında bazı beyitlerden sonra “Râkım bu beyti dahi şu suretle tercüme eylemişti.” diyerek beyiti açıklaması insanları eğitme konusunda ne kadar farklı yollar denediğinin küçük bir örneğidir. Ahmet Mithat’ın, Kıssadan Hisse’ isimli küçük hikâyelerinden itibaren, her hikâyesini bir hisse çıkarılması amacıyla düzenlediği bilinmektedir. Ahmet Mithat’ın birçok eseri- kendisinden önceki anlatılarda da rastladığımız- iyilerin ödüllendirilmesi, kötülerin cezalandırılmasıyla sonlanır. Yazar böylelikle okuyucuya bir ders vermek istemektedir. Ahmet Mithat’ın konuşma dilini kendisinden öncekilerden olduğu gibi almasına rağmen edebiyatı yaşanan hayatın sınırlarına kadar genişletmiştir (Tanpınar, 1995: 119). Böylelikle konusu günlük hayattan alınan hikâye, doğal olarak okuyucunun ilgisini daha çok çekeceği gibi, yazarın da anlatacaklarından okuyucuya hayat dersi vermesini kolaylaştıracaktır. Ahmet Mithat, devrinin birçok özelliğini eserlerine taşıdığı gibi, kendi kişiliğini de eserlerinde sergiler (Uğurcan, 1987: 185-199). Müşahedat romanında bizzat roman kahramanı olarak yer alırken, Pariste Bir Türk isimli romanında Nasuh Efendi’nin de yine Ahmet Mithat olduğu, Felâtun Bey ile Râkım Efendi romanındaki Râkım’ın Ahmet Mithat’tan izler taşıdığı bilinmektedir. Hikâye ve romanlarında gördüğümüz oldukça fazla idealleştirilmiş tipler yazarın yaşantısından izler taşır. Bilindiği üzere Ahmet Mithat, ömrü boyunca sürekli 3 Bayram Kodaman, Tanzimat Fermanı’nda maârifle ilgili bir kayıt olmamasını, yadırgatıcı bulsa da, bunun Tanzimat adamlarının bu konuya değer vermemiş oldukları anlamına gelmeyeceğini belirtiyor ( Kodaman, 1991: 6-9). 4 Tanzimat Fermanında maârifle ilgili hiçbir kayıt olmamasına karşılık Islâhat Fermanı’nda (1856) bu konuya yer verilmiştir. “Islahat Fermanı’nın açılmasına müsaade ettiği okullar zaten 1839’dan beri, Türkler için açılmağa devam ediyordu. Böyle olunca Fermandaki maârifle ilgili hükümler, daha çok gayr-i Müslim unsurlara kültür bağımsızlığı, okul açma hakkı, hatta fazladan Türk okullarına giriş serbestîsi veriyordu. Bu bakımdan Fermanda maârife yer verilmesini Türk maârifi yönünden önemli bir aşama olarak görmek mümkün değildir.” (Kodaman, 1991: 15). 5 Bu konuda bkz., “Medeniyet Değiştirmesi Ve İç İnsan” (Tanpınar, 2000: 34-39). 6 Tanzimat Dönemiyle birlikte Türk edebiyatındaki temalar da çeşitlenir. Hikâyelerde görülen başlıca temalar için: Daşcıoğlu, Yılmaz – Koç, Okan, “Batı Tarzı Türk Hikâyesinin Doğusu ve Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Ana Temalar” Turkish Studies, Volume 4/1-I Winter 2009, s. 799-900 388 �olarak kendini yetiştirme gayretinde olmuştur. Hayat hikâyesine baktığımızda durup dinlenmeden çalışan, yorulmak bilmeyen bir portreyle karşılaşıyoruz. Roman ve hikâyenin yanında çeviri, adaptasyon, siyasî ve iktisadî makaleler, çeşitli gazete yazıları, başta olmak üzere birçok alanda yazan ve üreten bir yazardır. Bir kısmı zorunluluktan da kaynaklansa sürekli okumak ve öğrenmek iştiyakındadır (Özön,2009: 185-197). Bu yüzden olsa gerektir, roman ve hikâyelerinde türün gerektirdiği estetik bütünlüğün dışına çıktığına şahit oluruz. Yazarın aynı anda hem doğu kültürüne hem de batıdan gelen yeni kültür değerlerine olan ilgisi eserlerinde konuyu çeşitlendirmiş, bununla birlikte bazı aksamaları da beraberinde getirmiştir. Okuma Saatlerinden Öğrenme Anlarına Tanpınar, Ahmet Mithat’ı değerlendirdiği bir yazısında : “Ahmet Mithat Efendi’nin eserleri 1870 senlerinin okuyucu kitlesinin seviyesinden başlar. Bu biraz da kendi seviyesi yâni aşağı yukarı deniz sathının seviyesidir. Büyük özleyişlerle hareket eden Namık Kemal’de daima münevver kalabalığa hitap vardır” diyerek onun eserlerindeki dil ve üslubunu küçümser. Tanpınar tespitlerini daha ileri götürür ve “onun sanatı yoktur daima halka yönelen iyi niyetleri vardır”, der.(Tanpınar, 1988: 65) Gerçekten de Ahmet Mithat bütün eserleri göz önüne alındığında iyi niyetlerin yazarı olduğu görülür. Bu iyi niyet son merhalede kendisiyle birilikte okuyucuyu da eğitmek amacı taşır. Bu yüzden de Ahmet Mithat, her eserin öğretebileceği bir şeylerin olduğu inancındadır. “Bu alafranga denilen âlemin batak köşelerini sen benden âlâ bilirsin. Bu kadar Fransız romanları okumuşsundur. Bir tiyatro aktristine alâka edip de feyiz almış bir kimsenin sergüzeştini okudun mu? Bu hikâyelerin filvaki vuku bulmuş olması lazım değildir. Muharrirler daima ihtimalattan bahsederler. Onları okuyarak hem lezzet almalı, hem de mütenebbih olmalı”( Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2005:138). Roman ve hikâyelerinde başlangıçtan eserin tamamlanışına kadar geçen sürede olgunlaşan ve kendini yetiştiren roman kahramanları adeta onun ulaşmak istediği gayeyi temsil eder. Gittikçe kendini her alanda yetiştirmiş, birçok konuda malumatı olan, kısa zaman içerisinde hızla yol alan kahramanlardır bunlar.7 Ahmet Mithat böylelikle okuyucuya ideal olanı göstermek ister. Onun anlayışında; durmaya, tembellik yapmaya müsaade yoktur. Ahmet Mithat’ın eserlerinde eğitimle ilgili üç farklı yaklaşım görmekteyiz. Bunlardan ilki belli bir bilginin, kültürün ya bir eğitici(hoca, madam, mürebbiye, dadı) vasıtasıyla verilmesidir. İkincisi ise bir eğitim kurumu aracılığıyla edinilen eğitimdir. Bunun yanında eserlerinde daha çok görmeye alıştığımız ise bunların ötesinde, bunları da kapsayan, özel çabalar sonucu edinilen bilgidir ki Ahmet Mithat’ın şahsi hayatı da daha çok böyle bir gayretin ürünüdür. İnsan her ne şekilde olursa olsun bu bilgiyi elde etse de bu onun için yeterli değildir. Bilgi ve kültür de insanı bir yere kadar getirebilir. Ahmet Mithat’a göre bilmek insanı ahlaklı ve erdemli kılmaya yetmeyebilir. Onun bazı eserlerinde bu türden karşılaştırmalara yer verdiğini görmekteyiz. Bahtiyarlık isimli eserinde Mekteb-i Sultanî’de okuyan Senai ve Şinasi isimli iki genci hayat anlayışları bakımından karşılaştırır. Senai, bir köy ağasının oğludur ve babasının da arzusu oğlunun şehirde okuyarak, görerek büyük adam olmasıdır. Senai’nin babası, oğlunun okuyarak bir devlet kapısına girmesini arzular. Şinasi ise, şehirde yaşayan ve şehrin gürültüsünden bıkmış bir babanın oğlu olması dolayısıyla bu hayatı istememektedir. Ahmet Mithat, burada aynı okulu okumuş oldukları halde ortaya çıkan tamamen farklı iki şahsiyeti ele alır. Ailenin yönlendirmesinin çocuklar üzerindeki etkisini göstermeye çalışır. Aynı okulu(Mekteb-i Sultanî)bitirmelerine karşılık Senai tam bir Avrupa hayranı, Şinasi ise kır hayatını seven bir şahsiyet olarak ortaya çıkmıştır (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 282-338). Ahmet Mithat’ın temelde eğitimi konu olarak ele aldığı eserlerinden biri Çingene isimli uzun hikâyesidir.(Okay, 1989: 314) Yazar bu hikâyede, bir İstanbul medenîsi olan Şems Hikmet Bey’in gayretleriyle bir Çingene kızı olan Ziba’nın hayatının nasıl değiştiğini ele alır. Şems Hikmet Bey, bir Kâğıthane gezisi esnasında karşılaştığı Ziba’dan çok etkilenir, onu terbiyesi altına alarak eğitmek ister. Yazar, bu hikâyede, birtakım tavır ve davranışlarını terk etmeyeceği düşünülen insanların bile eğer istenilirse belli bir eğitimin sonucunda değişebileceğini göstermek ister. Hikâye boyunca; her insanın eğitilebileceği, davranışlarının değiştirilerek belli bir seviyeye getirilebileceği fikrinin sürekli telkin edildiği görülür. Buna karşılık hikâyenin sonlarında Şems Hikmet Bey’in eniştesi Râkım Bey, insanların soy soy farklılık gösterdiğini, Ziba’nın kökeninden(soy) dolayı değişmeyeceğini, zira uzun zamandır burada bulunmalarına karşılık kökenleri olan Hindistan’ın etkisini suretlerinde taşıdıkları gibi, siretleri de cinslerinden kaynaklanan etkilerden kurtulamaz, görüşünü dile getirir. Râkım Bey’e göre mesele biraz da asaletle ilgilidir. Her şeyin bir yabanisi, ehlîsi olduğu unutulmamalıdır. Hikâyenin bu noktasında dikkat çeken ise, o zamana kadar Şems Hikmet ile özdeşleşen, onu yaptığı her şeyi onaylayan anlatıcının “Vakıa bizce Râkım Efendiyi haklı bulmak daha doğrudur. Ancak bîçare 7 Ahmet Mithat’ın Üss-i inkılâp’da dile getirdiği ‘..bir adamın bugün sırf câhili olduğu bir meselede bile iki saatcikçe tetebbu ile o meselenin â’lem-i ulemâsı olacağı behemehâl hükmolunur’ cümlesinden hareketle Orhan Okay, kısa zamanda kendini yetiştirebilen bu ve benzer tipler için: “Çok mükemmel bir kütüphane de olsa iki saatlik bir tetebbu ile echel-i cüheladan a’lem-i ulemâ olmak suretini elbette Ahmed Midhat Efendi ölçüsünde tutmak lazımdır. O Ahmed Mithad ki ilim adamı deyince ilmin prensip ve metodlarından ziyâde malûmat yığını sahibi olmayı düşünmüştür.” demektedir (Okay, 1989: 44). 389 �Şems Hikmet Bey eniştesini haklı bulmamış idi.”( Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 490) diyerek Râkım Efendinin düşüncesinde olduğunu dile getirmesidir. Bütün karşıt fikirlere rağmen hikâyede, Râkım Efendi’nin söylemiş olduğu bir cümle Ahmet Mithat’ın düşüncelerinin de özeti hükmündedir: “…bir yabani fidana aşıyı ustalıkla vururlar ise semere-i matlubeyi iktitaf mümkün imiş.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 495). Ahmet Mithat, eğitimin küçük yaşlardan itibaren verilmesinin gereği üzerinde durur. Bu yüzden de eserlerinde kahramanların küçük yaşlardan itibaren eğitilmeye başladıklarını görürüz. Buna rağmen belli bir olgunluk çağına gelmiş de olsa, insanların eğitilebileceği inancı işlenir. Çingene isimli hikâyede bir Çingene kızı olan Ziba’nın eğitimle değişip değişmeyeceği konusu uzun uzun tartışılır: “Şems Hikmet Bey, Ziba’nın eğitilebileceği konusunda ümitlidir: “—Aziz üstadım ‘Ağaç yaş iken eğilir’ derler’ ki vakıa dürubdandır. Lâkin terakkiyat-ı sanaiye kuru ağacı da ıslatıp ateşe göstermek suretiyle eğmek bükmek imkânı bulmuştur. Hele istim ile ısıtıldıktan sonra en kalın direkler bile eğiliyor. Ağacın terbiyesi hususundaki terakkiye mütenasip olarak bir de terbiye-i insaniye terakkisi tasavvur olunur ise o zaman yalnız ‘Ağaç yaş iken eğilir’demekle iktifa etmeyiz. ‘Her ağaç her zaman eğilebilir’ diye terbiye hususundaki kudretimizle iftihar ederiz.”(Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 455) Konuşmanın devamında hikâye kahramanlarından Selimcan, sözü Avrupadaki terbiye sistemine getirir: “Bilakis terbiyenin insan üzerindeki tesirinin pek büyük olduğundan bir bahis açarak şu asırda pedagoji yani talim-i eftalin bir fenn-i mahsus, bir sanat-ı müstakilde suretini aldığı ve bilhassa Almanya’da buna pek ziyade ehemmiyet verildiği hakkında tafsilata girişti.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 455). Ahmet Mithat, insanların eğitilirken yeteneklerinin, eğilimlerinin dikkate alınması taraftarıdır. Bu yüzden sesi şarkı söylemeye ve çeşitli müzik aletleri çalmaya yatkın olan Ziba’ya öncelikle yetenekli olduğu müzikle ilgili eğitim verilir. Ziba, kısa bir zaman içerisinde keman çalmayı öğrenir. Yazarın eğitim meselesini ele aldığı eserlerden biri de Diplomalı Kız ismini taşımaktadır. Hikâyede maddi durumu gittikçe kötüleşen, evinin asli ihtiyaçlarını dahi karşılayamayan ama buna rağmen kızını okula göndermekten vazgeçmeyen bir babanın kızıyla birlikte vermiş olduğu mücadele anlatılır. Hikâye kahramanlardan Madam Döpre, maddi durumlarının kötü olması sebebiyle: “Bir fakir çocuğa o kadar süslü elbiseye lüzum var mıdır? Bir demircinin kızı o kadar pahalı şekerlemeleri, gatoları filanları yer mi?” diyerekten eşine söylenir. Bu söz üzerine eşi Jan Döpre ise : “- Sen o kadar anlarsın. Çocuk beşinci altıncı yaşında nasıl yaşar ise terbiyesi, tahsili de ona göre olur. Sonradan verilen terbiye-i kibarâne her zaman insanda yabancı kalır. ‘Sonradan görme’ diye tabir ederler ya? Ama böyle çekirdekten bir terbiye alırsa kibar doğmuş sayılır, diye karısını susturur idi.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 601). Anne ile kızı arasındaki tartışmalar bir süre sonra eğitim için yapılan masrafa odaklanır: “- Hep kuru ekmek, hep kuru ekmek! -Ne şikâyet ediyorsun? Katık da ister isen ekmek dilimlerinin üzerine biraz Rasin beyitleri, Bosue nesirleri oku” - Yine mi tahsilimi başıma kakacaksın? - Hayır, doğruyu söylemekten memnuiyete dair bir kanun mu neşr olundu? Kızları bu kadar okutmak neye yarayacak diye baban ile kavgalar ettiğim zaman o bana gülüyor idi. Sen ise kızıyor idin. Şu halimize sebep ancak senin tahsilindir. Dişimizden tırnağımızdan artırdığımızı sana harcettik.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 595) Baba ise annenin aksine okumanın önemini kavramıştır. Kızı için yaptıklarını masraf olarak değerlendirmez. “ - Ziyanı yok! Ziyanı yok! Şimdi Juli için ne sarf ediyor isek onu masraf saymamalı. Yine tasarruf yine iddihar saymalı. Zira o paraları kıza ikraz ediyoruz demektir. Faizi de işliyor. O faiz ise Juli’nin terakkisidir. Juli ikmali tahsil eyledikten sonra birden aldığını ma-ziyadeten bize verecektir. İhtiyarlığımızda Juli sayesinde nail-i nimet-i refah olacağız.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 603). Ahmet Mithat, bu hikâyede babanın ağzından çocukların özellikle de kız çocuklarının okutulmasının önemine işaret etmektedir. Eserin “Hatime” kısmında yazar son söz olarak okuyucuya şöyle seslenir: “Bir kız her ne olacak olursa talim ve terbiyesini ikmal etmiş bulunmalı. ‘Bizde kızların talim ve terbiyesine lüzum yoktur.’ Demek için ‘bizde erkeklerin de talim ve terbiyesine lüzum yoktur’ diyebilmek cesaretini peyda etmelidir, ama kızların terbiyesine ‘ o kadar lüzum olmadığı dava edilecek imiş. Terbiye ve talimin o kadarı bu kadarı olamaz.” (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2001: 662). Ahmet Mithat’a göre kızların eğitime ihtiyacı olmadığını söyleyenleri gelecek yalanlayacaktır. Doğu ve Batının Arasında Ahmet Mithat’ın önemli eserlerinden biri olan Felâtun Bey ile Râkım Efendi isimli romanı iki tipin karşılaştırılması üzerine kurulmuş bir eserdir. Romanın kahramanlarından Felâtun Bey, alafranga yaşayışı benimsemiş olan babası Mustafa Merakî Efendi tarafından adet yerini bulsun diye eğitilir, bunun yanında Merakî Efendi’nin çocuğunun giyim kuşamı konusunda daha hassas davrandığı görülmektedir. Romanın bir diğer kahramanı Râkım Efendi ise yazar tarafından toplum için gerekli bir tip olarak çizilir. Eğitimine aralıksız 390 �devam eder. Bunun sonucunda isteklerine kavuşur. Felâtun Bey ise vaktini gereksiz işler peşinde geçirdiğinden babadan kalan son mirası da Polini isimli bir kadının peşinde borçlanarak yaşadığı yeri terk etmek zorunda kalır. Râkım Efendi ise ailesini ve çevresini önemsemiş, onların ihtiyaçlarını karşılamayı ise her zaman bir zorunluluk olarak gördüğü için mutlu sona ulaşmıştır. Ahmet Mithat Efendi, bu romanında da Diplomalı Kız hikâyesinde olduğu gibi babanın eğitim üzerindeki etkisini göstermeye çalışır. Felâtun Bey’in babası “Mustafa Merakî Efendi kemal derecede alaturkalıktan yine kemal derecede alafrangalığa birdenbire sıçramış bir adam olduğu” için yetiştireceği çocuk da bu terbiye altında büyüyecektir (Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2005: 3). Felâtun Bey’in babası oğluna bir Fransızca hocası tutmuş, bu hoca haftada iki defa gelip gitmektedir. Fakat Mustafa Merakî Efendi öyle tahsil görmüş biri olmadığı için çocuğun mektebe gidip gelmesini ve Fransızca hocasının dahi eve gitmesini terbiyesi için yeterli görmektedir. Öte yandan Râkım Efendi’nin aldığı terbiyeyi yazar şöyle ifade etmektedir.8 “ Lâkin Râkım Efendi’nin aldığı terbiye ve gördüğü tahsil öyle her hâl ü vakti yolunda adam evladına müyesser olamaz. Kendi hâhişi ve dadısının sevk ve teşviki sâyesinde Arabîden sarf ve nahiv filândan maada Risale-i Erbaa’yı şerhleriyle beraber lâyıkıyla gördü. Hele mantık cihetini tasdikat-ı hitâmına kadar pek kuvvetli tahsil eyledi. İlm-i hadis ve tefsirde oldukça behre kazandı. Fıkhı dahi gözden geçirdi. Farisîden Gülistan ve Baharistan ve Bostan ve Pend-i Attar ve Hafız ve Sâib’i tekmil etmekten kat’ı nazar en müntehip parçalarını ezber dahi eyledi. Fransızcaya gelince: Bir kere lisanda rüsuh peyda eyledi. Ba’de Galata’daki dostundan hikmet-i tabiye, kimya, teşrih-i menâfi-ül-âzayı oldukça tahsil edip Beyoğlu’ndaki Ermeni dostunun kütüphanesinde dahi coğrafya tarih, hukuk ve muahedât-ı düveliyeye dair lüzum derecesinin fevkinde dahi mâlumat topladı. Hele okuduğu Fransız romanlarının ve tiyatro namelerinin eş’ar ve edebiyatının âdeta nihayeti yok gibiydi.”(Ahmet Mithat Efendi, 2005: 14). Ahmet Mithat, kadınların da birçok açıdan kendini yetiştirmiş olması taraftarıdır. Devrinde bazı romancılar ahlaklarını bozacağı düşüncesiyle kadınların roman okumasını hoş karşılamamıştır(Andı, 2004: 37). Ahmet Mithat ise bu duruma itiraz eder. Ona göre roman, kimi durumlarda insana birçok şeyi öğretebilir. Felatun Bey ile Râkım Efendi romanında dikkati çeken bir başka husus ise kadınların eğitimiyle ilgilidir. Ahmet Mithat’ın bu romanda ve diğer eserlerindeki anlayışına erkek kadının eğitiminden sorumludur. Bu yüzden erkek, evleneceği kadını kendisi eğitir. Râkım Efendi, evine aldığı Canan isimli esir kızın eğitimine büyük önem verir. Râkım Efendi Canan’ı önce eğitir, azat eder ve sonunda onunla evlenir. Esaret isimli hikâyede de odalık olarak alınan küçük kız okuma yazmayı, piyano çalmayı evin beyi sayesinde öğrenir. Ahmet Mithat, Râkım Efendi benzeri karakterlere diğer hikâye ve romanlarında da yer vermiştir. Firkat isimli hikâyede, çalışkanlık, okuma ve öğrenmeye azmet gibi özellikleri dolayısıyla Râkım Efendi’ye benzeyen Memduh dört sene mektebe gider. Bu dört yıl içerisinde mantık, sarf nahiv, fıkıh gibi derslerin yanında Farisî’den Nasihat-ı Hükema’yı, Pend-i Attar, Gülistan, Hafız Divanı ve Mesnevi-i Şerif’i okumuştur. Ayrıca Ceride-i Havadis’te çalıştığı dönemde Fransızcasını ilm-i hukuku okuyacak derecede ilerletmiştir. Ayrıca İsevilik, Musevilik başta olmak üzere çeşitli dinler konusunda da bilgi sahibi olmuştur (Ahmet Mithat Efendi 2001:121-122). Bu hikâyede de Memduh’un bitmek bilmez öğrenme iştiyakı şaşırtıcıdır. Ahmet Mithat roman ve hikâyelerinde madam ve mürebbiyelerin eğitim üzerindeki etkisinden de söz eder. Bahtiyarlık isimli hikâyede Madam Terniye, yedi buçuk ve beş buçuk yaşlarında iki çocuğu eğitmektedir. Nusret ve Mansur kısa sürede madamı severler. Çocuklar zaman içerisinde Fransızcayla birlikte piyano çalıp şarkı söylemek gibi bir Fransız kibarzâde kızının öğreneceği bütün bilgileri de Madam Terniye’den öğrenir. Madam, vermiş olduğu eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklara Hıristiyanlığa ait bilgileri de öğretmeye başlar. Çocukların babası Abdülcebbar Bey’in bu durumdan haberi olmaz. Yazara göre Madam Terniye, İslam’ın karşısında olduğu için değil, kendi dini gereği olduğu için gayet iyi niyetle çocuklara dini bilgiler öğretmektedir. Çocukların bir madam tarafından eğitilmesinde bunun dışında bir sakınca görmeyen Ahmet Mithat, bu noktada suçun madamda değil, dinî ve millî değerlerimizi öğretmeyen bizde olduğunu düşünür. Bütün bu mahzurlarına rağmen, Ahmet Mithat’ın yabancı mürebbiyeyi önemsemesi dikkat çeker. 9 Sonuç Türk roman ve hikâyeciliğinin önemli isimlerinden olan Ahmet Mithat Efendi, “sosyal fayda” prensibini bir kurgusal metnin tanıdığı imkânları da zorlayarak uygulamaya çalışır. Yazar, toplumu eğitmek için bir vasıta olarak düşündüğü roman ve hikâyede okuyucuyu sıkmadan, kimi zaman dolaylı, kimi zaman ise direkt olarak çeşitli konulardaki düşüncelerini dile getirir. Onun eğitim anlayışı, iyi ile kötünün birlikte örneklenmesi metoduna dayanır. Yazar, çoğu zaman yorumu dahi okuyucuya bırakmaz, okuyucuyu yönlendirmek ister. Ahmet 8 Râkım Efendi’nin Doğu ve Batı kültürünün kaynaklarına olan ilgisi yazarın bir sentez düşüncesinde olduğunun ipucu olarak görülebilir. Orhan Okay ise, bütün Tanzimatçılar gibi Ahmet Mithat’ın da Batı edebiyatı ile Doğu edebiyatının sentezini yapmak gibi bir düşüncesinin olmadığını belirtmektedir ( Okay, 1989: 348). 9 Orhan Okay, bu durumu o devirde eğitim kurumlarının yeterli olmayışıyla açıklıyor (Okay, 1989: 322). 391 �Mithat; zihninde ideal olarak kurguladığı kişileri, eserlerinde gerek aile bireylerinin yönlendirmesiyle, gerek kişilerin kendi özel gayretleriyle olsun bir eğitim sürecinin içerisinden geçirir. Ahmet Mithat’ın eserlerinde gördüğümüz bir başka hususiyet ise geleneksel metodun dışında yeni yeni ortaya çıkan eğitim politikalarına itirazı olmadığı gibi; devrinden sonra da bugün de üzerinde durulan Fransızca öğrenmek, piyano çalmak, mürebbiyelerin eğiticiliği gibi eğitimle ilgili birtakım meselelere de ciddi bir itirazının olmadığı görülüyor. Hatta Ahmet Mithat’ın, kimi zaman bazı itirazları seslendirmekle beraber, onun eserlerindeki eğitimli insan portresinin daha çok bu özelliklere sahip şahıslardan oluştuğu görülüyor. Roman ve hikâye kahramanlarından bazılarının Tanzimat sonrası gelişen yeni eğitim kurumlarında eğitim gördükleri, yazarın da bu okullara dair faydalı kabul ettiği birtakım bilgileri okuyucuyla paylaştığı görülmektedir. Roman ve hikâyelerde isimleri zikredilen eserlere baktığımızda ise hem Doğudan hem de Batıdan kaynakların yer aldığı görülüyor. Yazarın (Batı romanına olan ilgisi bilinmekle birlikte) Batı edebiyatından çeşitli eserlerin yanında Doğu edebiyatından Gülistan Bostan, Mesnevi gibi klasik eserlerin de eserlerde yer aldığı görülüyor. Hikâye ve roman kahramanlarının yabancı dil olarak öncelik Fransızcada olmakla birlikte Fransızcanın yanında kimi zaman Arapça ve Farsçayı da hatta Çerkezce gibi dilleri de öğrenmeye ihtiyaç hissettikleri görülüyor. Aynı şekilde pozitif ilimlerin yanında dinî ilimlerin ve dine dair tartışmaların da eserlerde yer bulduğunu görüyoruz. Bütün bu yaklaşımlar metnin elverdiği şartlar içerisinde okuyucuya aktarılır. Ahmet Mithat’taki bu yönelimin, ondaki terkip düşüncesiyle ilgili olduğunu söyleyebiliriz. Ahmet Mithat’ın, o günkü şartlar içerisinde geçmişe ait değerleri tamamen terk etmeden yeniliğe de açık olması onun eğitimin anlayışının önemli bir yanını oluşturmaktadır. Kaynakça Ahmet Mithat Efendi, (2001). Letaif-i Rivayat, Firkat, Çağrı Yayınları, İstanbul Ahmet Mithat Efendi,(2000). Bütün Eserleri, Romanlar V, Çengi, Kafkas, Süleyman Muslî (hzl. Erol Ülgen- Fatih Andı), TDK Yayınları, Ankara Ahmet Midhat Efendi, (2005). Felâtun Bey ile Râkım Efendi, Akçağ Yayınları, 5. Bas. Ankara Andı, M. F.(2004). Roman ve Hayat, Türk Edebiyatı Vakfı Yay., 2. Bas. İstanbul Daşcıoğlu, Y. – Koç, O. (Winter 2009). “Batı Tarzı Türk Hikâyesinin Doğusu ve Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Ana Temalar” Turkish Studies, Volume 4/1-I, s. 799-900 Kodaman, B. (1991). Abdülhamid Devri Eğitim Sistemi, Atatürk Kültür Dil Tarih Yüksek Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara Okay, O. (1989). Batı Medeniyeti Karşısında Ahmet Mithat Efendi, M.E.G.S.B Yayınları, Ankara Okay, O. (1998). Sanat ve Edebiyat Yazıları, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul Özön, M. N. ( 2009). Türkçede Roman, İletişim Yayınları İstanbul Tanpınar, A. H.(1995) Edebiyat Üzerine Makaleler, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul Tanpınar, A. H. (1988). 19 uncu Asır Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Çağlayan Kitabevi Yayınları, İstanbul Tanpınar, A. H. (2000) Yaşadığım Gibi, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul Uğurcan, S. (1987). “Ahmet Mithat’ın Hatıratı ile Romanları Arasındaki Münasebet”, Türklük araştırmaları Dergisi, Marmara Ü. Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Yayınları, İstanbul Yetiş, K. (1996). Nâmık Kemal’in Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Üzerine Görüşleri ve Yazıları, Alfa Yayınları, 2.bas. İstanbul 392 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 427 Title A name given to the resource Toplumsal Değişim Sürecinde Ahmet Mithat Efendi'nin Eğitim Anlayışı Author Author KOÇ, Okan Abstract A summary of the resource. Türk Edebiyatının en velut yazarlarından olan Ahmet Mithat Efendi, Türk roman ve hikâyeciliğinin ilk örneklerini veren isimlerdendir. Bir medeniyet değiştirme süreci olarak değerlendirilen Tanzimat Dönemi’yle birlikte birçok toplumsal algı değişikliğe uğramaya başlamış, bu süreçte Ahmet Mithat, Namık Kemal’in tiyatro için söylediği “faydalı eğlence” ifadesini roman ve hikâyeye uyarlayarak halkı eğitmeyi amaçlamıştır. Yazar, eserlerindeki çeşitli tip ve karakterler üzerinden faydalı olduğunu düşünerek toplumsal mesajlar da vermektedir. Ahmet Mithat, dönemin okuyucu kitlesini de göz ardı etmeden birçok konuya temas eder. Ele aldığı konular arasında eğitim meselesi de önemli bir yer tutmaktadır: Toplumdaki çeşitli bireylerin eğitilmesi, eğitim süreci boyunca takip edilecek yöntemler, nelerin nasıl öğretilmesi gerektiği, verilen eğitimin insanı ne derece değiştirip dönüştürebileceği, eğitim sürecince yapılan yanlışlıklar v.b. konular kimi zaman Batılı toplumlarla karşılaştırmalar yapılarak okuyucuya aktarılır. Bu bildirimizde, Tanzimat sonrası Türk Edebiyatı’nda sosyal meselelere en fazla yer veren yazarlardan olan Ahmet Mithat’ın, değişim sürecinde eğitim meselesine nasıl yaklaştığını göstermek istiyoruz. Amacımız, Ahmet Mithat örneğinden hareketle toplumun edebî eserler vasıtasıyla nasıl değiştirilmek / eğitilmek istendiğini göstermektir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/623886844b802b5ad0f364d2abb15301.pdf 9e63cae35e31791cb78f2bd1284b856e PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Management of Historic Environment in the Context of Sustainable Development Hüseyin KOÇAK Department of Sociology , Afyon Kocatepe University kocak@aku.edu.tr Hasan KORKUT Department of International Relations, International University Of Sarejevo hkorkut@ius.edu.ba Abstract: This study examines the relation between sustainable development and the management of historic environment. The historic environment is a resource that should be sustained for the benefit of both present and future generations. The term "sustainable development" has risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. The fundamental understanding of the sustainable development is that environment and economy can not be seen separately. It can be defined as policies for economic growth which allow the needs of the present to be met without jeopardizing those of future generations. Historic environment and traditional residence patterns should not be regarded only as our cultural variables, but in accordance with the concept of “sustainable development”, as housing stocks too. They have been accepted as a “public trust”. In order to achieve a sustainable management of historic environment, changes in attitudes and behavior will be required on all levels of society. For a smooth transition, all segments of society need to be aware of and accept the need to change. Education, research, and full-scale demonstration projects with local participation will be necessary. Besides these changes, international cooperation in both technical and financial fields is crucial. Keywords: Cultural Heritage, Environment, Historic Environment, Sustainability, Sustainable Development Introduction In a world faced with the dangers entailed by rapid growth and development, depleting resources, and impairment of the historic environment, preservation-related issues have become urgent. A global world is not a uniform world for societies. But, there are threats to the global environment. So, more attention has to be paid for a global identity around environmental issues. Urbanization as such is not a problem. On the contrary, it brings considerable social and economic benefits. The problem is that the development of infrastructure and services in the towns and cities is not keeping pace with the rapid population growth. As a result, living and environmental conditions are deteriorating. There is an urgent need to plan and manage the cities in order to sustain them. Thus, sustaining cities is an imperative. Preservation of Historic environment is crucial for sustainability. Historic environment and cultural heritage are more than old monuments. If the preservation and restoration of unique historic environments should be justified on its own merits, as a universal value in itself, it may actually also plays an important and integral part in promoting sustainable social and economic development. There is a link between signs and symbols; decoration and motifs; iconographic structures and shared cultural wisdom. This is a silent language, which bonds a people together through a meaning system. The tangible and intangible relationships between man and his environment, both natural and built, are historical phenomena in human civilization. They are evident in the historic urban settlements where the reciprocating relationship between man and nature is reflected in distinctive and responsive environments, and it is related to human needs. In relatively recent times, this historical symbiosis was disregarded in the process of city making, which has caused catastrophic environmental problems in varying degrees according to the country. This has led to a growing appreciation of historic urban forms resulting in intense conservation movements and strongly influenced new urban design approaches (Özaslan, 2002). 369 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Throughout this article, we have used the word “place” to describe any immovable part of historic environment that people perceive as having a distinct identity. It can be of any scale from a milestone to a building, an historic area, a town, or a region. Sustainable management of a place begins with understanding and articulating how, why and to what extent it has heritage values-its significance. Communicating that significance to everyone concerned with a place, and particularly to people whose actions may affect it, is then essential if they are to act in awareness of those heritage values. Our country is geographically located in a cradle of humanity, history and civilization. Turkey has many clear and priceless historical treasures. We should appreciate this fact and preserve them carefully. Our people today and new generations to come must be oriented toward interest, love and respect for history. Basic Concepts and Terms Related To Historic Environment and Sustainable Management The aim of this paper is to focus on the relation between historic environment and sustainable management. But before that, initially, it is essential to explain some definitions of words in a specific or technical sense. We can talk about some of them according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Object; Anything not (now) fixed to or incorporated within the structure of a place, but historically associated with it. Place; Any part of the historic environment, of any scale, that has a distinctive identity perceived by people. Preserve; To keep safe from harm. Conservation; The process of managing change to a significant place in its setting in ways that will best sustain its heritage values, while recognizing opportunities to reveal or reinforce those values for present and future generations. Historic environment; All aspects of the environment resulting from the interaction between people and places through time, including all surviving physical remains of past human activity, whether visible or buried, and deliberately planted or managed flora. Heritage; All inherited resources which people value for reasons beyond mere utility. Heritage, cultural inherited assets which people identify and value as a reflection and expression of their evolving knowledge, beliefs and traditions, and of their understanding of the beliefs and traditions of others. Heritage, natural inherited habitats, species, ecosystems, geology and landforms, including those in and under water, to which people attach value. Sustain; Maintain, nurture and affirm validity. Sustainable; Capable of meeting present needs without compromising ability to meet future needs (www.helm.org.uk, 2009). The term “sustainable management” and the associated notion of sustainability have risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. Sustainable management refers to a form of socioeconomic advancement which can continue indefinitely without exhausting the world’s resources or overburdening the ability of natural systems to cope with pollution (Yılmaz, 2005). Sustainability requires profound changes to occur on all levels of society. UN Preparatory Committee for Habitat II stated that: Cities can be part of the world economy and be the engines for sustained economic growth and sustainable development. If present urban problems are not solved, however, they will become obstacles to stability wellbeing and the attainment of sustainable development. Definition and Analysis of Historic Environment The historic cores and quarters represent the genuine culture of their societies as they were formed by the major historical determinants that are derived from local characteristics of place, social conditions and the environment itself. The architectural quality of the pre-industrial city is often hidden in its fabric, where architecture not only forms the city but is also formed by the city. This mutual relationship between the city and its architectural language and production demands that the design principles need to be derived from the preindustrial fabric; the architectural product of that place, time and society, with its own spatial and aesthetic values (Özaslan, 2002). The historic environment is a shared resource. Our environment contains a unique and dynamic record of human activity. It has been shaped by people responding to the surroundings they inherit, and embodies the aspirations, skills and investment of successive generations. People value this historic environment as part of their cultural and natural heritage. It reflects the knowledge, beliefs and traditions of diverse communities. It gives distinctiveness, meaning and quality to the places in which we live, providing a sense of continuity and a source of identity. It is a social and economic asset and a resource for learning and enjoyment. Each generation should therefore shape and sustain the historic environment in ways that allow people to use, enjoy and benefit from it, without compromising the ability of future generations to do the same. Significant places should be managed to sustain their values. Change in the historic environment is inevitable, caused by natural processes, the wear and tear of use, and people’s responses to social, economic and technological change. 370 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conservation is the process of managing change to a significant place in its setting in ways that will best sustain its heritage values, while recognizing opportunities to reveal or reinforce those values for present and future generations. Conservation is achieved by all concerned with a significant place sharing an understanding of its significance, and using that understanding to: judge how its heritage values are vulnerable to change. Action taken to counter harmful effects of natural change, or to minimize the risk of disaster, should be timely, proportionate to the severity and likelihood of identified consequences, and sustainable. The Importance of the Sustainability of Historic Environment Nothing can be defined by itself nor has a value of its own, but always in relation to the others and to the whole. A city can be defined as a complex system consisting of different structures and relationships built up through an incremental process. Every one of these structures represents a sub-system such as social, economic, political or cultural. If we understand the city as a system of relationships then we perceive continuity in the historic urban fabric as the consequence of an unbreakable succession of its qualities. Continuity can be seen as the memory of the city but also the generator for new formations. Everyone should be able to participate in sustaining the historic environment. Everyone should have the opportunity to contribute his or her knowledge of the value of places, and to participate in decisions about their future, by means that are accessible, inclusive and informed. Learning is central to sustaining the historic environment. It raises people’s awareness and understanding of their heritage, including the varied ways in which its values are perceived by different generations and communities. It encourages informed and active participation in caring for the historic environment (www.helm.org.uk). Experts should use their knowledge and skills to encourage and enable others to learn about, value and care for the historic environment. They play a crucial role in discerning, communicating and sustaining the established values of places, and in helping people to refine and articulate the values they attach to places. It is essential to develop, maintain and pass on the specialist knowledge and skills necessary to sustain the historic environment. Sustainable conservation policies of historic environments in Turkey In many excavations of old cities in Turkey, archeologists have encountered various settlements. This is very important and exciting. Our country has much material that will provide new and original information about past and shed light on the ancient ages. Some of our caves even bear traces of the Stone Age. Anatolian cities abound with tombs, mosques and countless other historical heritages. Moreover, many nations known to us such as the Hittites, Lydian, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Persians, and Ottomans and others set their rich and diverse civilization on this land. They left us many splendid traces and monuments. The conservation of historic environment is manifest now in virtually every part of the world. In the case of the “developing” world, with special reference to Muslim countries, the introduction of the Western philosophy of conservation was largely accepted with little questions a similar attitude towards accepting the introduction of modernization. Warren indicates that conservation ideas and legislation based on Western models have been introduced without critical analysis of their social, economic and cultural contexts (Warren, 1976). On the other hand, the current tendency of conservation in the Muslim countries is seen as a cultural decision and the preservation of the cultural heritage as an insurance of the continuity of their cultural identity (Kuban, 1983) Turkey is a land where rich civilizations have flourished for thousands of years in the past and a leader among the countries which bear great universal responsibilities for the protection of the cultural heritage of humanity. The importance of preserving this cultural heritage cannot be limited only to the aim of introducing our past values to future generations, also using the remains from the past as the most important resources to create the future is a critical necessity. It is becoming significant for nations to integrate their cultural identities with their new environment of life. Modern creations in architecture and urban planning which are both carried out with no consideration for national and historical values, hasten alienation. Preserving the cultural heritage of different cultures with equal care and respect will help the feelings of peace and brotherhood to find roots in a world under globalization, while at the same time providing a propelling force towards the development of a rich and multi-colored cultural mosaic with the interaction of different cultures (Erder, 1971). Kuban says "If my observations and judgments are accurate, urban preservation especially is impossible in Turkey through the methods indicated by the teaching of orthodox preservation. We should not fool ourselves by making examples of back alley, weak, random applications. The Antalya Harbor, the Sogukcesme Street or region that were conserved without preservation in Safranbolu could not erase the memories of destruction in Istanbul, Izmir, Kayseri, Urfa, Erzurum, Gaziantep, Konya, Antakya and innumerable cities and towns”(Kuban,1983). As Kuban remarks, it is not possible to state that the preservation policies for the historical and cultural environment in Turkey have achieved their aim to date. In particular, the immigration from rural to urban areas 371 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo and the rapid urbanization following 1950, the residence and tourism aimed second wave of shore plundering following 1980, and immigration phenomena from the Eastern and South-Eastern Regions, for security and economical reasons, have reduced to tatters the balance of cities which were formed over hundreds of years ago. The illegal buildings wave, that first began at the fringes of cities (gecekondus/squatters), has, through building pardons, gradually extended the rest of the cities like a cancer, and has become one of the main urban problems today (Tunçer, 1996). In the preservation and improvement natural sites and historic environment, success can be achieved in application through the cooperation and synchronization of the Ministry of Environment and the Prime-Ministry Specially Protected Areas Department of Environmental Preservation, a long with the support and involvement of local administrations. Conclusion The idea of “preservation of environment and historic heritage” should have a more comprehensive meaning in Turkish culture than in western culture. Our culture aims to exalt its function. The idea of development and protection of intrinsic human values together with studies about the inter-relationship between man and nature can comprise the essence of the preservation approach which has appeared in recent times(Arslanoğlu,1986). Balanced and justifiable decisions about change in the historic environment depend upon understanding who values a place and why they do so, leading to a clear statement of its significance and, with it, the ability to understand the impact of the proposed change on that significance. The historic environment is constantly changing, but each significant part of it represents a finite resource. If it is not sustained, not only are its heritage values eroded or lost, but so is its potential to give distinctiveness, meaning and quality to the places in which people live, and provide people with a sense of continuity and a source of identity. The historic environment is a social and economic asset and a cultural resource for learning and enjoyment. It can be said that the point arrived at after decades of disregard and looting in the matter of the preservation of historical and cultural values, is the point of losing, if not all, most of these values. The local and central administrations, which are supposed to prevent this, are observed to be unequal to this task. It is our belief that the duty required of every educated person is to participate actively in the efforts of preservation of the cultural and historical values. Finally, we have to talk about the importance and necessity of “the heritage cycle” in the sustainable management of historic environment. By understanding the historic environment people value it. By valuing it they will want to care for it. By caring for it they will help people enjoy it. Informing the people of the region about the historic environment and giving them an awareness of it, and thus assuring their positive aid and involvement in the matter of preservation is regarded as the most important means of preservation. References Arslanoğlu, A.,(1986), The Phenomena and Concept of Protectionism in The Light of Our Architectural Characteristics and Our Human Values, Đlim ve Sanat, Sept-Oct, 28-31. Erder, C.,(1971) Introduction To The History Of Concern On The Historical Environment, Ankara. HELM, Historic Environment Local Management, http://www.helm.org.uk/, 15.05.2009. Kuban, D.,(1983), Conservation of the Historic Environment for Cultural Survival. In Architecture and Community-Building in the Islamic World Today, The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, 32-37, New York. Özaslan, Nuray.,(2002), Understanding the Historic City, Anadolu University Press, Eskişehir/Turkey. Tunçer, M.,(1996) Writings On The Preservation Of Historical Environment, Lecture Notes, Ankara. Warren, J.,(1976), Conservation in Islam, The Architect, June, 20-24. Yılmaz, M.,,(2005), Sustainable Urban Environment, WSEAS Int. Conf. on Environment, Ecosystems and Development, Venice, Italy, November 2-4, (pp-96-102). 372 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 262 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Management of Historic Environment in the Context of Sustainable Development Author Author KOÇAK, Hüseyin KORKUT, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study examines the relation between sustainable development and the management of historic environment. The historic environment is a resource that should be sustained for the benefit of both present and future generations. The term "sustainable development" has risen to international prominence following the publication of the Brundtland Report. The fundamental understanding of the sustainable development is that environment and economy can not be seen separately. It can be defined as policies for economic growth which allow the needs of the present to be met without jeopardizing those of future generations. Historic environment and traditional residence patterns should not be regarded only as our cultural variables, but in accordance with the concept of “sustainable development”, as housing stocks too. They have been accepted as a “public trust”. In order to achieve a sustainable management of historic environment, changes in attitudes and behavior will be required on all levels of society. For a smooth transition, all segments of society need to be aware of and accept the need to change. Education, research, and full-scale demonstration projects with local participation will be necessary. Besides these changes, international cooperation in both technical and financial fields is crucial. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08e1f1b88f6b1af435e93fdbaa389391.pdf 67eee59a9595f3b00753d7d68b951d42 PDF Text Text Bosna-Hersek ve Türkiye Arasındaki Kültürel Etkileşim ile Türkçeden Kalan Sözcüklerin Anlambilimi Sanja KREHIC International Burch University Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı sanja_krehic@hotmail.com Summary: Even before the times when Ottoman Empire arrived to the Balkans area, words have been borrowed through trading of goods and cultural interaction from Avarian Tatars, who have borrowed lexemes not only to Bosnian language, but also to the whole teritory of languages that have Slavic origin (Serbian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Hungarian etc.). Because of direct contact and interaction of Turks and Bosnians, majority of words were borrowed during the time of long-term existance of Ottomans on the teritory of Bosnia-Herzegovina. For native speakers of Bosnian language, those words are not felt as borrowed, but they became part of Bosnians’ national, intelectual and spiritual being. After many centuries and numerous linguistic changes that have occured, these words have gone through various processes on semantical level, which is described in this paper. Anahtar kelimeler: semantik, anlambilim, turcizam, anlam değişimleri, semantik adaptasyon, semantik değişim. Giriş Fatih Sultan Mehmet’in 1463 yılının mart ayında Bosna’yı fethetmesiyle birlikte Türkçe ve Boşnakça dilleri arasında doğrudan bir etkileşim başlamıştır. Bu etkileşim zamanla Boşnakça’ya Türkçe kelimelerin girmesini sağlamıştır. Boşnak dilinde yaklaşık 9000 Türkçe kelime günlük hayatta kulanılmaya başlanmıştır.8 Boşnakça’da Türkçe’nin etkisi sadece Osmanlı’nın bölgede hakim olduğu dönemlerde değil, Osmanlı’nın Bosna’yı terk etmesinden sonra da Türkçe etkisini devam ettirmiştir. Gerek konuşma gerek yazı dilinde Türkçe kelimeler bulunmaktadır ve Boşnaklar için milli kimliklerine önemli bir katkı olarak görülmekte birlikte bu sözcükleri kendi kültürlerinin kucağına alan Boşnaklar bu tür kelimeleri kendilerinden bir parça olarak görmektedirler. Türkçe’den Boşnakça’ya Geçen Kelimelere Genel Bir Bakış Türkiye ve Bosna-Hersek arasındaki kültürel etkileşim (burada göçmenleri, boşnak bilim adamlarının Osmanlı imparatorluğu’nun dört köşesinde okumalarını, ticaret, bilgi, kültür, gelenek, müzik ve mutfak değişimleriniö folklor vb. kast ediyoruz) ile ilgili gözlemlerimiz sırasında başlangıç hipotezimiz Boşnak dilini konuşanlar için Türkçe kelimelerin yabancı kelimeler olarak değil de onların, kültürel, ulusal ve ruhani varlıkların bir parçası olarak görüldüğüdür, ve onları bu mantık çerçevesinde anlambiliminin güneşinin ışıklarıyla ışıklandırmaya çalışacagız. Boşnakça’daki Türkçe etkilerine girmeden önce bazı teknik terimleri ifade etmek gerekmektedir. Bu terimlerin başında Turcizmi ve Oriyentalizmi kavramı gelmektedir. Orijentalizmi u književom djelu – lingvistička analiza – (Edebi Eserlerde Oriyental Kelimeler – Dilbilim analizi) adlı çalışmasında Dr. Hanka Vajzoviç yeni tarihli Türkçeden veya Türkçe aracılığıyla Arapça ve Farsça gıbi dillerden gelen tüm yabancı sözcüklerin terimi olarak Oryantalizmi (oriyental dillerinden alınmış kelimeler) olarak belirtiyor. Öte yandan, bu sözcüklerin sadece doğu dillerinden (Arapça, Farsça) değil de Yunanca (avlija) gibi diğer dillerden de geldiğini savunan Porf. Dr. Dalibor Brozoviç’in gibi farklı görüşler de var ve o görüşlerden birincisine göre bu sözcüklerin Boşnakçaya Türkçe vasıtasıyla geldiği öne sürülmüş, ve bu nedenle onlara ancak Turcizmi denilebilir. 8 Abdulah, Škaljić, Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, 1965. (Bu çalışmada Abdulah Şkalyiç 8742 Türkçe’den kalan kelime toplamış ve bu numara daha büyük olduğunu belirtmektedir. 314 �Söz konusu Bosna-Hersek ile Türkiye arasındaki iletişim olduğu ve bu tür kelimelerin Türkçe’ye ve Türçe’nin gramerine uyuduğu için daha önce üzerinde bahsettiğimiz Turcizmi terimini kabul edip destekliyoruz ve daha iyi terim olduğunu kanaatındayız. Kendimize bazı Türk kelimelerinin Bosna halkı arasında yabancı kelimeler kategorisinde mi hissedildiği sorusunu soruyoruz. Bu sorunun cevabı olumsuz olacaktır! Kesin bir örnek ve gösterge olarak da bu kelimelerin Hırvat edebiyatında, alınmış yahut yabancı kelime olarak hissedildiğini söyleyebiliriz. Budala, kašika, sevdah, mahala, šećer, sat gibi Türkçe kelimeler Boşnak edebiyatında hiç yabancı kelime gibi dikkat çekmezler, çünkü Türkçe kelimelerin çoğu yerli sözcük gibi hissedilir. Balkanlarda yaşayan bir şahsiyet günlük yaşamda daha çok Avrupa ve batı amaçlı lisan kullandığını gösterir bizlere, ama bu konuda elden gelen bir şey yoktur. Neden, çünkü hatırı sayılır sayıdaki Türk dilinden alıntıların yerli kelime haznesi olarak bilinir. Vuk9 zamanında bile dilde temizlik gibi bir amaca yönelmemiştirler. Alınan kelimeler arasında en fazla yeri, isimler alır, sonrasında da iştikak ve iki ayrı dilden alınan kelimelerle yapılan bileşik kelimeler yer alır.10 Bu kelimelerin büyük çoğunluğu ya tavsif edilmiş ya da artık kullanılmayan bir deyim olarak belirtilmiş ve kullanımdan çekilmiştir, hatta genç nesillerde bu lisan tarihinin bir bölümü olmuştur11 – ama, bu gerçekten böyle mi, yoksa artık kullanımda olmayan deyimler, tekrardan onların kullanım ihtiyacına bağlı olarak, dile geri mi dönüyorlar? Kaç kere genç bir kişiden, ait olduğu toplumala ilişkisinde farklı bir ışık koyma hevesinde olarak, o kişiden bu düşünceler altında argo söylemler, tam olarak turcizam kullandığını duyduk (örn. Kokuz)?! Yabanci Dillerinden Alinmiş Kelimelerin Semantiği Diğer her kelime hazineleri gibi özellikle de alınmış olanlarla turcizam da farklı kriterlerde en çok: alfabetik, konulara göre, kelime çeşitlerine göre, dil bilgisi seviyesine göre, tümlevleme derecesi ve yoluna göre, isteğe ve ihtiyaca göre değerlendirilmesi yapılır. Tüm bunlardan farklı olarak semantik kullanım ve kelime haznesini uygulama olarak bölümlemekteyiz, çünkü her lisani alıntıyı, dilin yapısının semantik kademesinde farklılıklar oluşumu takip eder. Semantik, bildiğimiz üzere kelimelerin anlamını inceleyen bilim dalıdır, bu şekilde bu çalışmadaki bizim hedeflerimiz alınmış ve kabul edilmiş kelimeler hazinesini semantik olguda betimlemek, tanımaya çalışmak ve semantizim ışığında aydınlatmaktır. Kelime hazinesi – semantik karışmasında alıntının iki temel ögesininin ayırmak gerekir12: 1. 2. Yeni kelime hazinesi alınımı tanışması fikrince medeni şahıslarca önceden kullanılan anlam alımıda olur, bu yeni bir mananın yer alması, konular vs., ve bununla birlikte bunu niteleyen kelime de alınır, yani hem mana hem belirti alınır. Kelimen özellikle dil alıntısı olarak düşünüldüğünde, bunu alan lisan sadece manası bulunan bir durumu isimlendirmesi açısından kelime hazinesine dahil eder, yani sadece belirtiyi alır. Prof. Dr. Filipoviç'in dediği gibi yabancı kökenli kelimelerin semantik plan doğrultusunda kaçınılmaz olarak ya temel yada ikinci derecedan değişim olarak analiz edilir13. Temel semantik adaptasyon o anda lisan konteksine ve kabul eden dilin ihtiyacına göre kendi manasında alınan yabancı kelimeler olarak anlaşılır. Bu durumlarda en sık salt düşüncedeki semantik büyümedeki kelimede mana değişimi için herhangi bir semantik değişimin olmadığıdır. Model = replik'e göre model manası replik'in içinde nihai sadece özel veya görevli olarak bulunabilir, ama mana uzatması ya da değişimi olmaz. Ikinci dereceden semantik adaptasyon, zamanla temel adaptasyon şemalarına olan, kabul eden roldeki dilde belirli alıntılar difüzyonu mühletinde gerçekleşmesidir, 9 Vuk Stefanoviç Karaciç, Osmanlı zamanında Sırpça reformu başlatan ve Početni udžbenik srpskog jezika (1814), Riječnik srpskog jezika (1818. i 1852), Srpsko epsko pjesništvo (1845) yanısıra ilk Türkçeden geçen kelimelerin sözlüğü yazan kişidir. 10 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 11 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. , sayfa 34. 12 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 13 R. Filipović, Jezici u kontaktu i jezičko posuđivanje, SL, 4, Zagreb, 1978. 315 �ayrıca kökenine bakılmaksızın bir dildeki maruz kalan kelimeleri de içine alan çok sayıda ve komplike olan süreci de kabul eder. Ikinci dereceden değişimler, mananın sayıca ve anlam alanında uzatılması, kısmi ve bütün olarak anlam değişimleri vb. durumlar olarak sayılabilecek farklı semantik büyümeleri de içine alır. Bu değişimler güçlü etkileri ile sadece lisan içinde değil, kabul eden dildeki lisan dışı gerçeklerce de vuku bulmaktadır, bunlar: sosyolojik, psikolojik, tarihi psikolojik, ayrıca sosyoligvistik ve model fonksiyonları kriterleri ve yapımlarının etkisiyle birlikte analoji, asosyoloji, etimoloji camiası vs. Prof. Dr. Petkoviç'in uyardığı gibi leksik ünitenin semantik analizi için, leksik14 ve sözün gelişi15 manasına göre ayırmalıyız.16 Bilfiil, semantik değeri tasdiklemek açısından bilhassa yabancı kökenli kelimeleri belirtilen iki seviyede de çokanlamlılık, tekanlamlılık, sinonomi, antonomi ve benzeri çok sayıda semantik süreç ve mananın tanıması bâbından üzerinde durulmalıdır.17 Yerli ve alıntı kelimelerin anlamlarını takip eden tüm leksik – semantik kategoriler ve süreçlerde bulunan, boşnak dilinin diğer leksikleri analog olarak davranmaktadır turcizma, bu yüzde de leksik – semantik değerini ispatlamak için, alınan kelimeyi (temel ve ikinci dereceden) ve anlam şekillerini (leksik ve sözün gelişi) olarak takip eden yukarıda belirtilmiş değişim seviyelerine özellikle dikkat edilmeli ve kazara18 olmamasından kesin bir manaya sevk edilmesi, semantik ölçüm derecesindeki gibi, gerekmektedir.19 Uzun süren süreçte turcizam alıntıları Türk diliyle olan doğrudan münasebet ve bu ilişkinin bitişinden günümüze uzun bir süre aralığı varlığı dil yapısındaki semantik dereceyi ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu durum bizlere, hasseten anlamlarına etki yapan zamanın büyük bir sayıda turcizamı idare altına alındığını gösterir. Boşnakça’daki Türkçe Kelimelerin Semantiği Belirtilen bu bilgileri tasdiklemek ve kuvvetlendirmek için, göstergelere ve aşağıda şekillendirilmiş örneklere geçiyoruz. Temel semantik adaptasyonda üç farklı anlam değişimi ile karşılaşıyoruz: 1. İlk olarak, kendi öz anlamını korumuş turcizam kelimeler, bunlar genelde nesnesel gerçeklikleri olan, bir konuyu bir terimi anlatan kelimelerdir. Örneğin; arslan, badem, baglama, bakar, begenisati, berićet, bešika, bez, čalma, čarapa, čekić, čelik, česma, čizma, čorba, čerpić, ćilim, dembel, deniz, denjak, dert, deva, din, direk, dost, dova, dućan, dugme, dušek, dušmanin, duvar, džamija, dževap, fajda, fetva, fukara, fursat, haber, hastaluk, hefta, hurma, iladž, insan, jangija, jemek, kadija, kajmak, kašika, komšija, kopča, kreč, kum, mehana, meraja, meram, mešćema, milet, muhur, mumin, odaja, oluk, pamuk, pejgamber, pendžer, peškir, sanduk, sapun, selam, sevap, sevlija, sirće, soj, srča, sultan, sunđer, šenluk, tahta, tapija, tefter, tespih, testera, vaz, veresija itd. 2. İkinci olarak anlam değişimi, kısmi olarak asıl ve yeni anlamı arasında bir ilişki kurulmasını göreceğimiz aşağıdaki örnekler: araba – teretna zaprežna kola; (yük taşıyan araç) bardak – zemljani ili drveni sud; (toprak veya tahtadan tas) čanak – drvena zdjela;(tahta kap) domazluk – domaćinstvo, gospodarstvo. (mesken) Yukarıda belirtilen örneklerden bu kısmi semantik değişimlerin, asıl semantik alandaki değişimlerin anlaşıldığını fark etmekteyiz 1. Tamamen semantik değişim, asıl manası ve yeni manası arasında hiçbir korelasyon olmayan yepyeni bir mananın gelişimini gösterir. Dürtü az tanınmakta ama genelde fark edilen ya da tam manasıyla tanınmamaktadır, örnek: ašlama – vrsta kalemljene trešnje / kiraz tarzı (asilamak – kalemiti); basma – vrsta tkanine / kumaş çeşidi (basmak – štampati); bašlija – pribadača / çengeli iğne (basli – s glavom); 14 Beli bir dilinin kelime hazinesinin öğesi olarak işaretın taşıdığı anlamların atomu. 15 Konuşma dizisinde beli kelimenin yerine ve kulanmasına bağlı olan leksik anlamlarından birinin kesin gerçekleşmesi. 16 N., Petković, Jezik u književnom djelu, Nolit, Beograd, 1975. 17 V. Bajraktarević, Pomeranje značenja kod riječi, KiJ, XXXI, 3-4, Beograd, 1984. 18 Aslı anlamın karşısında diğer anlamın tamamlaması düşünmektedir burada. 19 Dr. Hanka Vajzović, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 316 �čevra – rubac obrubljen vezom / oyalı mendil (cevre – okolina); parmak – letva na ogradi / çit (parmak – prst); jabana – tuđina, tuđa zemlja / gurbet (jaban – divljina). Örneklerden görüldüğü üzere ve dediğimize göre dürtüsü tanıdık (basma) veya zor tanımlanabilr (parmak) ya da tamamen gizli olabilir, bu durumda daha çok ortalamaya (jabana) temayül ederiz. İkinci dereceden semantik adaptasyona gelince, burada anlamların telafi değişimlerini telafi ediyoruz. Bunula görüyoruz ki, verilen dilde yaşayan diğer leksikler gibi, kendi değerlerinde ve semantik fonksiyonlarda değişiyor ve zamanla yok oluyorlar. Burada bir kez daha, psikolojik, eğitimsel, medeni, kültür-tarih ve diğer koşulların ikinci dereceden semantik manada büyük bir rollerinin olduğunu belirtmeliyiz Çalışmamızın giriş kısmında belirttiğimiz gibi ikinci dereceden adaptasyon hem kısmi hem de bütünüylen bir değişimi kabul eder. Kısmi değişim ise semantik alanda genişleme ve uzatma üzerinden anlam şekli ölçümünü gösterir, örneğin: ajluk: 1) plata mjesečna, 2) primanja uopće bez vremenske odredbe; 1) Aylık ödenek, 2) vakit sınırı olmadan elde edilen demir: 1) željezo, 2) gvozdene rešetke, 3) rešetke uopće; 1) Demir, 2) demirli balya 3) genel olarak balya; marifetluk: 1) vještina, 2) smicalica. 1) Kabiliyet 2) kurnazlık. İkinci dereceden adaptasyonda bütün semantik ölçümü, tebdilin çok anlamlılık içinde olduğunu, yeni dildeki bir belirti olarak anlar. Bunu, çok anlamlılık ve tek anlamlılık olarak, diğer iki leksik-semantik süreç olan sinomim ve antonomim ile birlikte göstereceğimiz iki temel manayı beyan etmektedir. Çok anlamlılık, kelime hazinesinin kabiliyeti olarak, semantik manada uyumlu olan daha fazla semantik gerçeklilik olduğunu anlatmaktadır. Türkçe kökenli kelimelerde bu durum daha çok ikinci dereceden adaptasyondaki semantik değişimler için kullanılır. Bu çalışma sırasında fark ettik ki büyük bir oranda turcizim şu şekildedir, örnek: badava: 1) uzalud,(bedava) 2) besplatno, (beleş); berićet: 1) sreća,(mutluluk) 2) rod / plod (bereket); pazar: 1) pijačni dan,(pazar günü) 2) trgovina,(pazarlık) 3) zarada (kâr). Tek anlamlılık, aynı morfem – morfolojik şekil muntazamının varlığını anlatır ve bunlar semantik manada ayrıştırılır. Alıntı kelimelerde iki çeşit tek anlamlılık bulunur: lisanlararası20 ve tek lisan21. Lisanlararası tek anlamlılık, türkçe kökenli olmayan turcizam tipi ilişkiyi gösterir. Örneğin: atlas – vrsta svilene tkanine (ipek kumaşın çeşidi) / zbirka geografskih karata (harita atlası); bešika – kolijevka (beşik)/ mokraćni mjehur (idrar tprbası); bina – zgrada (bina) / pozornica (sahne); kum – pijesak (kum)/ svjedok na vjenčanju (şahit); para – novčana jedinica (para) / gasovito stanje (buhar). İkinci grup ise yani teklisan tek anlamlılığı turcizam-turcizam modelini ortaya koyar, örneğin: alat – oruđe za rad (alet)/ konj riđe dlake (alaca at); bent – brana (bend)/ strofa (mısra); horoz – pijetao (horoz) / obarač na puškama (tüfeklerde bulunan horoz); kapak – poklopac (kapak) / dio oka (göz kapağı); top – vrsta artiljerijskog oružja (top) / vrsta igre (oyun tarzı) / figura u šahu (satrançta kale taşı) / smotak tkanine (kumaş topu). Sinonim, farklı aksanlarda seslendirilen ama aynı manayı taşıdığını gösteren leksik – semantik manadır. ahbab / dost / jaran; vakat / zeman; 20 Farklı dil kökenli aynı dil sisteminin tek anlamlı kelimeleri. 21 Aynı dil kökenli tek anlamlı kelimeler. 317 �ahmedija / čalma / saruk / turban; ibliz / šejtan / šer; kuršum / tane; minder / sećija / divan; sinonim, çoklisanlı (turcizam – Türkçe kökenli olmayan) da olabilir, örneğin; bajrak / zastava; boja / farba; alat / oruđe; cifra / brojka; peškir / ubrus / ručnik; sirće / ocat. Aynı şekilde sözlüklerde çevirilieri olan belirtiler ve örnekler de önemlidir : akšamlučenje, ćeif, dert, fursat, mahmurluk, muštuluk... Antonomi zıt anlamda kelimelerin varlığını gösterir. Tükçeden alınan kelimelerden çoğunda onu karşılayan antonomisi alınmamıştır, bu yüzden bu durum turcizamda az görülmektedir. Seyrek olmalarına rağmen, her iki durumda da bulmaktayız. Teklisan ve çoklulisan antonomisi vardır: bajat / taze; kuvet / nemoć (güçsüzlük); budala / pametan (akılı); šejtan / melek; muhtač / neovisan (müstani). Sonuç Türkçe’den Boşnakçaya geçen kelimeler semantik, morfolojik ve fonetik açıdan Boşnak diline yaklaşmıştır. Bu kelimeler Boşnakça gramer yapısına uygun olarak kullanılmaktadır. Standart ve günlük ihtiyaçta çoklukla olan örnekleri en iyi ışıkla yansıtarak tekanlamlılığı, çokanlamlılığı, sinonimi ve antonomiyi dahili, geniş ve çok yaygın olduğunu görünmektedir. Boşnakça’daki Türkçe kelimelerin bir kısmı anlam açısından Türkçedeki anlamıyla birebir örtüşmekdir. Bu kelimelerin bir kısmının anlamı kısmen değişmiştir. Diğer bazı Turcizam kelimeler ise anlam olarak tamamen değişmiş ve Boşnakça’da yeni bir anlam kazanmıştır. Kaynaklar Bajraktarević, V., Pomeranje značenja kod riječi, KiJ, XXXI, 3-4, Beograd, 1984. Filipović, R., Jezici u kontaktu i jezičko posuđivanje, SL, 4, Zagreb, 1978. Gortan-Premk, D. Polisemija i Homonimija u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, JF, XL, Beograd, 1984. Petković, N., Jezik u književnom djelu, Nolit, Beograd, 1975. Škaljić, Abdulah, Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom jeziku, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, 1965. Vajzović, Dr. Hanka, Orijentalizmi u književnom djelu – lingvistička analiza, Institut za jezik u Sarajevu, knjiga 9, Sarajevo, 1999. 318 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 377 Title A name given to the resource Bosna-Hersek ve Türkiye Arasındaki Kültürel Etkileşim ile Türkçeden Kalan Sözcüklerin Anlambilimi Author Author KREHIC, Sanja Abstract A summary of the resource. Even before the times when Ottoman Empire arrived to the Balkans area, words have been borrowed through trading of goods and cultural interaction from Avarian Tatars, who have borrowed lexemes not only to Bosnian language, but also to the whole teritory of languages that have Slavic origin (Serbian, Croatian, Bulgarian, Hungarian etc.). Because of direct contact and interaction of Turks and Bosnians, majority of words were borrowed during the time of long-term existance of Ottomans on the teritory of Bosnia-Herzegovina. For native speakers of Bosnian language, those words are not felt as borrowed, but they became part of Bosnians’ national, intelectual and spiritual being. After many centuries and numerous linguistic changes that have occured, these words have gone through various processes on semantical level, which is described in this paper. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2cd2207b8e2ba446166dcd7c3f3d7201.pdf af52faceef0c791af7bd89ef24f28594 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Genetic Diversity in the Dwarf Dry Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris l.) Populations Grown in Konya Ali Kahraman Research Assistant Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY kahramanali@selcuk.edu.tr M ustafa Onder Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Field Crops, Konya, TURKEY monder@selcuk.edu.tr, Abstract : This research was conducted to determine the genetic differences among the dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations collected from the Konya province of Turkey. Seedlings were grown in a controlled greenhouse of Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture during the year 2007. A total of 38 populations were gathered from the city center, the towns and the villages. Genetic differences were determined via ISSR method. By using 10 primers a total of 85 DNA bands were obtained of which 71 were found to be polymorphic. Our results have demonstrated that the populations used were clustered into 3 major groups. Similarity degrees were in between 0.48 – 097. Knowledge about the genetic characteristics of a population is fundamental in breeding programs and it involves the local farmers. This strategy allows to improve and, at the same time, safeguard the genetic reliability of landrace genetic resources. Keywords: Dry bean, ISSR, Phaseolus vulgaris, polymorphism. Introduction Com mon bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)is an annual, diploid (2n=22) species derived from wild ancestors distributed from Northern Mexico to Northwestern Argentina. Com mon bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important economic food legume widely grown in many countriesinthe world. Konya ranks first in Turkey in terms of the bean cultivation areas with a total area of 14.869 ha and a production level of 27.818 tons (Anonymous 2008). The necessity of preserving important germplasm has led to the construction and maintenance of very large germplasm collections. For accurate determination of the genetic relationships, DNA markers have advantages over morphological traits, such as distinguishing among accessions with similar morphology and discriminating polymorphism over far more locithan isozymes and seed proteins. Many molecular marker techniques have been developed in recent years. They started to be used successfully in molecular genetics laboratories. Those that are PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) based include SSR (Simple Sequence Repeat), AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism), RAPD (Random A mplified Polymorphic DN A) and ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeats). Cultivar lines that are morphologically similar could be separated and defined with the use of markers (Lowe et al. 1996). The relationship degree that is found in between genetic materials can be used in selection programs in order to improve the agricultural material. Polymorphism is much higher in DNA-based systems when compared to classical and biochemical markers. According to research on wheat,ISSR provides resultssimilarto RAPD and RFLP in determining genetic relationships and diversity. Additionally, ISSR markers were found to be more reliable (Nagaoka and Ogihara 1997). Like RAPDs, ISSRs are quick and easy to handle, but they seem to have the reproducibility of SSR markers because of the longer length of their primers (Bornet and Branchard 2001). Kantety et al. (1995) reported that ISSRs can be used to determine the polymorphism among species and for plant improvement. Using ISSR in maize was found to be easy and cheap, taking short time and giving more polymorphic bands when compared to RAPDs. ISSR technique have been widely applied in various plant varieties in recent years. It was successfully used in bean (Galvan et al. 2003; Marotti et al. 2007), chickpea (Iruela et al. 2002; Rajesh et al. 2002; Sudupak 2004), pea (Kuznetsova et al.2005),lentil(Duran et al. 2004) and barley (Hou et al.(2005). It is amazing to see that farmers obtain high yields from the populations without using certified lines. 13 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo There are a numerous genotypes in the hands of the farmers. Usually the farmers give differentlocal names for the same seeds. This study aims to demonstrate both the applicability of ISSR-PCR method and to reveal the D N A fingerprints belonging to the populations involved.D N A level identification of genetic diversity among dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations, which are grown in Konya province was also targetted. Material and Method Plant Material and DNA Isolation Each of 10 samples used were collected from 38 dry bean seed populations that were grown widely in the center, county and villages ofKonya (Table 1). Seeds were germinated in a glasshouse on wet sand under controlled conditions (20 C0 oftemperature and 12 h photoperiod). After 21 days,the primary leaves were harvested and DNAs were extracted. For DNA isolations 2xCTAB method was used. 14 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 1. The codes, origins and local names of the dry bean populations used in DNA isoloations Code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13* 14 15 16 17 18 19 * 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 * Certified Origin Başarakavak County Başarakavak County Başarakavak County Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Çumra (Center) Altınekin (Center) Altınekin (Center) Altınekin (Mantar Village) Çumra (Center) Konya (Center) Ereğli(Center) Ereğli(Center) Kadınhanı (Center) Kadınhanı (Center) Kadınhanı (Center) Derbent (Center) Derbent (Center) Derbent (Center) Beyşehir(Göçü Village) Seydişehir(Center) Ilgın (Beykonak Village) Ilgın (Center) Sarayönü (Center) Sarayönü (Center) Yunak (Center) Yunak (Center) Çumra (Center) Derbent (Center) Akşehir(Center) Akşehir (Sorkun Village) Akşehir(Center) Akşehir(Center) Kazım Karabekir Kazım Karabekir Local name Horoz Sarıkız Kanada Şeker (Bıyıklı) Kırgız Çalısı Horoz Beyşehir Çalısı Bombay (Bomba) Kanada A merikan Kollu Fasulye Sarnıç A merikan Çalısı Niğde Barbunyası Gina Dermason Horoz Weıhıng Kanada Akman - 98 A merikan (Beretta) Sarhoş (Washington) Şeker Horoz Sıra Beyaz Horoz Horoz (Kırk Günlük) Kanada A merikan Çalısı Üveynk (Veynk) Kanada Kırgız Yuvarlak (Kollu) Barbunya Yuvarlak Barbunya Dermason Ayşe Kadın Horoz (Oturak) Dermason (Oturak) Kanada (Kara Yaprak) Dermason (Kırgız) line Figure 1 shows the geographical origins ofthe common beans used. 15 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. The geographical origins ofthe dwarf dry bean that were used in the study PCR Amplification Genomic DNAs were extracted from leaf samples using 2xCTAB mini-prep (cetilthree metil amonyum bromid) method (Hulbert and Bennetzen, 1993).Sequences of ISSR markers used are listed in Table 2. Concentrations of DNA samples that were dissolved in 100 ul TE buffer were read by using a spectrophotometer. DNA concentrations were equalized to 20 ng/ul with sterile pure water. PCR mixture was consisted of 2.5 µl 10 X Taq buffer (Bioron), 2.5µl 25m M MgCl2, 0.4 µl dNTPs (25 m M of each) (Lavron), 0.5 µl Primer (50 pmol/µl) and 0.3 µl Taq DNA Polymerase (Bioron 5 U/µl), 14.8µl distilled water and 20 ng of genomic DNAs. The finalreaction volume was 25 µl. PCR conditions The PCR conditions included initial denaturation step for 1 min at 95°C, followed by 20 cycles with denaturation at 94°C for 1 min; annealing at 55°C for 2 min;extension at 72 °C for 2 min and final extension for 10 min at 72°C. Amplification products were fractioned in 2% agarose gel,stained using ethidium bromide and viewed under UV light. Scoring and analysis of ISSRs ISSR analysis of 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)populations was conducted with 10 primers (Table 2). DNA bands were scored fortheir presence (1) or absence (0)inthe ISSR profileof populations used. from all populations. UPG M A dendogram and Principal Coordinate Analysis (PcoA) was obtained using a commercial software named as NTSYS-PC. Results 16 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In this study, ISSR markers were used for quick, easy to practice and economic application possibilities. ISSR fragments from 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations were obtained using 10 primers. The primers used in the study and the totalfragment numbers, number of polymorphic,fragments and polymorphism ratios are given in Table 2. Base Melting Length of Polymorphic G/C Fragment Sequence (5'Tempeture the primer fragment (%) numbers 3') T m (oC) (bp) numbers G A G(CAA)5 49.1 18 38.9 7 4 F1 CTC(GT)8 56.7 19 52.6 6 6 F2 (AG)8 CG 56.0 18 55.6 5 5 F3 (AG)8 TG 53.7 18 50.0 6 2 F4 (AG)8 49.2 16 50.0 15 15 F5 C(CAC)4 CA 53.3 15 66.7 6 4 F6 (AC)8 49.2 16 50.0 9 7 F7 (GCC)5 67.0 15 100 10 7 F8 (GAA)5 39.6 15 33.3 10 10 F9 (AGC) 5 G 63.1 16 68.4 11 11 M1 Total and Mean 53.7 16.6 56.6 85 71 Table 2. Primers used in the study and the total number of fragments,number of polymorphic fragments and polymorphism ratios Primers Polymorphism ratios (%) 57.14 100 100 33.33 100 66.67 77.78 70 100 100 83.53 As itcan be seen from Table 2,intotal 85 DNA fragments were obtained, 71 of which were polymorphic, the remaining 14 being monomorphic. While fragments obtained from all populations, F5 primer was the one which yielded the highest number of fragments (15), and F3 was the one that yielded the lowest number of fragments (5). F2, F3, F5, F9 and M1 primers gave the highest polymorphism ratios (100%) while F4 primer had the lowest polymorphism ratio (33.33%). Taken into consideration all of the primers, the overall ratio of polymorphism obtained in the study was identified as 83.53%. Genetic similarity values of 38 bean populations were in between 0.48 and 0.97 based on the results of applied 10 ISSR markers. Figure 2. The UPG M A dendogram ofthe 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations based on 10 ISSR markers In the study NTSYS-pc 2.0 software was used in order to identify the genetic relationship and genotypic diversity of the populations through UPG M A method. As it can be seen in Figure 2, the populations were divided into three main groups, one of which were constituted of V8 and V21 populations that were genetically different from the other populations. The populations that constituted the other groups were also divided into sub-groups. C2 and C3 which were genetically the closest populations. The populations C2 and C3, which are found to be closestto each otherin genetic constitution on the dendogram 17 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo were also found to be genetically related in the Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) (Figure 3). In addition, genetically the most distantindividuals were found to be the populations V8 and V21. Figure 3. PCoA analysis ofthe 38 dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)interms of ISSR markers Discussion According to the resultsit can be said that the ISSR markers present high level of polymorphism in dry bean populations that were applied. Thus, they can serve as markers to be used in determination of genetic relationships. They are attractive since it is easy to apply them and they are very sensitive tools in molecular studies. They also have high level of reproducibi,lity.(Bornet and Branchard 2001; Reddy et al. 2002; Galvan et al. 2003; Duran et al. 2004; Sudupak 2004; Gonzalez et al. 2006; Kuznetsova et al. 2005; Hakkı, E. E. et al. 2007; Marotti et al. 2007). A previous study has considered the utility of ISSR markers forthe genetic diversity and to determine the relationships among thirteen cultivars of common bean, eight ofthe nine primersthat were used were same with this study (Galvan et al. 2003). In that research primers (F1-2-3-4-5-7-8-9) provided 85 amplified bands and 71 of them were polymorphic. Inter simple sequence repeats (ISSRs) may be usable and reliable genetic markers to provide accurate information forthe identification of germplasms. As a result, it can be said that these dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations have a heterogenous nature and they could be used for purposes of genetic improvement in Konya province. At the same time, with a more comprehensive study with other ISSR primers and different molecular markers the power of the analysis may be improved. Additionally, the number of populations may be extended to include additional genetic material,so that alarger genetic background may be used in further breeding programs. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the Scientific Research Coordination Center of Selcuk University, Turkey (Project No: 06401030). Support of TUBITAK (Project No: 104O547) is gratefully acknowledged. References Anonymous (2008). www.tuik.gov.tr Bornet, B. & Branchard, M. (2001). Nonanchored inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers: Reproducible and specific tools for genome fingerprinting. Plant Mol Biol Reporter 19: 209–215. 18 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bovenhuis, H., & Meuwissen, T. (1996). Detection and Mapping of Quantitative Trait Loci. Animal Genetics and Breeding Unit, University of New England Armidale. Duran, Y., Fratini, R., García, P. & Pérez de la Vega, M. (2004). An intersubspecific genetic map of Lens TAG Theoretical and Applied Genetics Volume 108. Galván, M.Z., Bornet, B., Balatti , P.A. & Branchard, M. (2003). Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers as a tool for the assessment of both genetic diversity and gene pool origin in common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Euphytica Volume 132. Gonzalez, A.M., Monteagudo, A.B., Casquero, P.A., Ron, A.M. & Santalla, M. (2006). Genetic variation and enviromental effects on agronomical and commercial quality traits in the main European market classes of dwarf dry bean. Field Crops Research 95: 336-347. Hakkı, E. E., Kayis, S. A., Pınarkara, E. & Sağ, A. (2007). Inter simple sequence repeats separate efficiently hemp from marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.). Electronıc Journal Of Bıotechnology 10 (4): 570-581. Hou, Yong-Cui, Yan, Ze-Hong, Wei, Yu-Ming & Zheng, Y. L. (2005). Genetic diversity in barley from west China based on RAPD and ISSR analysis Barley Genetics Newsletter 35:9-22. Hulbert SH, Bennetzen JL. Recombination at the Rp1 locus of maize. Mol Gen Genet. 1991 May;226 (3): 377–382. Iruela, M., Rubio, J., J.I. Cubero, Gil, J. & Millán, T. (2002). Phylogenetic analysis in the genus Cicer and cultivated chickpea using RAPD and ISSR markers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 104: 643–651. Kantety, R.V., Zeng, X.P., Bennetzen, J.L. & Zehr, B.E. (1995). Assessment of genetic diversity in Dent and Popcorn (Zea mays L.) inbred lines using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) amplification. Mol Breed 1: 365–373. Kuznetsova, O. I., Ash, O. I., Hartina, G. A. & Gostimskij, S. A. (2005). RAPD and ISSR analyses of regenerated pea Pisum sativum l. Plants Russian Journal of Genetics Volume 41. Lowe, A. J., Hanotte, O. & Guarino, L. (1996). Standardization of Molecular Genetic Techniques for the Characterization of Germplasm Collections: The Caase of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter. 107: 50-54. Marotti, I., Bonetti, A., Minelli, M., Catizone, P. & Dineli, G. (2007). Characterization of some Italian common bean landraces by RAPD, semi-random and ISSR molecular markers. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 54: 175-188. Nagaoka, T. & Ogihara, Y. (1997). Applicability of inter-simple sequence repeat polymorphisms in wheat for use as DNA markers in comparison to RFLP and RAPD markers. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 94: 597-602. Rajesh, P.N., Sant, VJ, Gupta, V.S., Muehlbauer, F.J. & Ranjekar, P.K. (2002). Genetic relationships among annual and perennial wild species of Cicer using inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) polymorphism. Euphytica 129:15–23 Reddy, M.P., Sarla, N. & Siddiq, A. (2002). Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) polymorphism and its application in plant breeding Euphytica 128: 9–17. Sudupak, M.A. (2004). Inter and intra-species inter simple sequences repeat (ISSR) variations in the genus Cicer. Euphytica 135:229– 238. 19 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 462 Title A name given to the resource Genetic Diversity in the Dwarf Dry Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris l.) Populations Grown in Konya Author Author Kahraman, Ali Onder, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. This research was conducted to determine the genetic differences among the dwarf dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) populations collected from the Konya province of Turkey. Seedlings were grown in a controlled greenhouse of Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture during the year 2007. A total of 38 populations were gathered from the city center, the towns and the villages. Genetic differences were determined via ISSR method. By using 10 primers a total of 85 DNA bands were obtained of which 71 were found to be polymorphic. Our results have demonstrated that the populations used were clustered into 3 major groups. Similarity degrees were in between 0.48 – 097. Knowledge about the genetic characteristics of a population is fundamental in breeding programs and it involves the local farmers. This strategy allows to improve and, at the same time, safeguard the genetic reliability of landrace genetic resources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)