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Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition
Marjana Šifrar Kalan
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Submitted: 15.04.2014.
Accepted: 10.11.2014.
Abstract
Vocabulary research has followed a different path in English and in Spanish applied
linguistics. Spanish applied linguistics has paid more attention to available lexicons
of speakers than to word frequency. The measure of lexical availability combines the
frequency at which a word is produced as a member of a semantic category (e.g. dog
in category Animals) and the position in the list of associations provided by a group
of individuals. It focuses on the words retrieved by speakers in response prompts
(word stimulus) related to daily situations.
This paper intends to present some of the aspects of lexical-availability research that
are interesting for L2 vocabulary acquisition. It attempts to show the potential of
lexical-availability research as an alternate approach for vocabulary planning (the use
of L1 lexical-availability measures to select the teaching vocabulary for L2) as well
as the study of some psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary acquisition, such as the
organization of learners' mental lexicons, the similarities and the differences between
response patterns, the kinds of semantic associations that learners activate in
response to prompts (semantic categories), the consideration of the most available
words obtained by lexical-availability research as semantic prototypes. Likewise, the
study of learners' lexical availability can uncover sociolinguistic and cultural issues.
Furthermore, this paper wishes to inspire researchers of languages other than Spanish
to apply this methodology to different languages.
All these aspects are hereby presented on the basis of the Slovene learners' available
lexicons in Spanish as L2 (N=200) (Šifrar Kalan, 2009; 2012; 2014b) and English as
L2 (N=20) (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a).
Keywords: foreign languages, vocabulary acquisition, lexical availability, word
associations
Lexical availability
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�Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition
Vocabulary research has followed different paths in English and Spanish applied
linguistics. In English applied linguistics, developing word frequency lists from
corpora, elaborating dictionaries containing frequency data, designing vocabulary
tests and above all, compiling corpora and using it for vocabulary research have been
the predominant research concerns. By contrast, Spanish applied linguistics has paid
more attention to the available lexicons of speakers than to word frequency, although
we could not say that the former has been totally neglected in the recent decades,
because the new technologies have enabled the creation of numerous dictionaries and
corpora of Spanish language (for more information see Almela et al, 2005; Lavid,
2005). The creation of a PanHispanic dictionary on the basis of available lexicons of
speakers from different Spanish-speaking countries and regions has been one of the
major projects in Spanish applied linguistics in the last two decades. This paper
attempts to present some of the aspects of lexical-availability research that are
interesting for L2 vocabulary acquisition and to inspire researchers of languages
other than Spanish to apply this methodology to different languages.
Studies on lexical availability have a tradition in the Hispanic world since the 1970's
when López Morales conducted the first investigation in Spanish as L1 in Puerto
Rico. But the studies began in France in 1950s with the aim of selecting vocabulary
for teaching French (in former French colonies) as a complementary approach to
basic vocabulary, which at that time meant the most frequent words. When it was
observed that some words, well known and used by French speakers, the words with
specific semantic content did not appear in the frequency list, the concepts such as
frequent, basic and usual vocabulary started to be defined as different notions. It had
become clear that some words regarded as common or everyday words were not
actually frequent and that their use was conditioned by the discourse theme; they
were therefore called thematic words. On the other hand, certain words would almost
always appear, regardless of the theme, the so-called nonthematic words. (López
Morales, 2014, p. 2) The idea of artificial gathering of associations through word
cues known as centres of interest (Parts of the body, Clothes, etc.)¹ was borrowed
from the empirical psychology of the time. "Lexical availability came to be
understood as the vocabulary flow usable in a given communicative situation.
Behind this concept lies the belief that the mental lexicon includes words that are not
realised in practice unless they are needed to communicate specific information.
Such words make up the available lexicon." (López Morales, 2014, p. 3) French took
the lead in lexical-availability research for several years, both in France and in
Canada, but in 1969 the Yugoslav Naum Dimitrijević published the results of his
lexical-availability study carried out in English as L1 among Scottish school
students. He used open lists for 11 semantic fields, as opposed to former closed list
of 20 associations. The same technique was followed closely by American linguist
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Bailey (1971), who compared available lexicons of monolinguals and bilinguals of
English and Spanish.
During the last two decades, lexical-availability studies have focused almost
exclusively on Spanish, mainly as studies of Spanish as L1 within the PanHispanic
project, but also with the students of Spanish as L2 in Finland (Carcedo González,
2000), Poland (López González, 2010), China (Jing, 2012), Island (Magnúsdóttir,
2012), Turkey (González Fernández, 2013) and Slovenia (Šifrar Kalan, 2009, 2012,
2014b). Similar studies have been carried out with foreign students in Spain (Samper
Hernández, 2002; Sánchez Gómez, 2005; López Rivero, 2008; Pérez Serrano, 2009;
Fernández-Merino Gutiérrez, 2011; Sánchez-Saus Laserna, 2011; Jiménez Berrio,
2013 as cited in Šifrar Kalan, 2014b: 64). Some studies have been conducted on
English as L1 or English as L2 (Jiménez Catalán, 2014).
The lexical-availability studies are being renewed constantly and will probably
trigger new interdisciplinary studies in addition to the main disciplines sociolinguistics, dialectology, psycholinguistics and ethnolinguistics.
Word frequency versus lexical availability
Both word frequency and lexical availability deal with the assessment of vocabulary
knowledge. In the former, the reference is always the written and/or oral text and in
the latter, it is the speaker's mental lexicon. In the first case, the words are actually
used; in the latter, the words would be hypothetically used in connection with a
certain topic. Obviously, the frequency counts as well as the available lexicons have
its limitations. A frequency count is only as good as the corpus it is based upon, and
every corpus has limitations. No corpus can truly mirror the experience of an
individual person and there are some language types that are very difficult to collect.
On the other hand, the available lexicons are always based on individual associations
that are calculated according to the frequency and the order of appearance of
responses to make collective lists. Reliability is questionable because the availability
tests would show different results on each occasion for it is not only a linguistic but
also a cognitive activity. Corpus presents the most frequent words, which are usually
those with grammatical functions; meanwhile, the most available words are usually
those that carry content or meaning. A similar distinction between function and
content vocabulary has been pointed out by Schmitt (2010, p. 54): "Corpus word
counts consistently show that function words are among the most frequent in
language, which is not surprising because they are necessary for communicating
about any topic, from daily life to astrophysics. This holds true regardless of whether
the discourse is general in nature, technical, or academic." All this speaks in favour
of the idea that these two methodologies are complementary.
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�Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition
There are many limitations in both measurements of vocabulary, but this should not
invalidate the arguments in favour of vocabulary research from these two different
methodologies. The concept of word frequency is based on some very basic and
important assumptions. First, the most important group of words is the high
frequency words of the language. Most lists of high frequency words consist of
around 2,000 word families. This number has been generally accepted as highfrequency vocabulary (Nation, 2008, p. 7; Schmitt, 2010, p. 69): "In most texts
around 80% or more of the running words are from the most frequent 2000 words of
English. In friendly conversation, over 90% of the running words tend to be from the
high frequency words of English." (Nation, 2008, p. 8). But Schmitt (2010, p. 69)
states that these traditional frequency levels have been called into question by
Nation’s recent research and that they will need to be reappraised. Second, the most
frequent words are acquired before the least frequent words. A greater knowledge of
infrequent words is related to lexical richness and therefore higher lexical
competence, more comprehension and more language production. (Nation & Waring,
1997). In contrast, "lexical availability research focuses on the words retrieved by
speakers in response to prompts related to daily situations; particularly it focuses on
an analysis of the positions of words in the ranking of elicited responses." (Jiménez
Catalán & Fitzpatrick, 2014, p. 85). The lexical-availability research in L1 and L2
has shown that the first word associations or responses are the most available in the
speaker's mental lexicon, but all responses reflect the organization of the speaker's or
learner's mental lexicon.
Can these two methodologies be studied in tandem? This novel complementary
approach has been proposed by Jiménez Catalan and Fitzpatrick (2014) by applying a
word-frequency framework to data produced in English L2 lexical-availability
studies. By means of Lexical Frequency Profile designed by Laufer and Nation (as
cited in Jiménez Catalán and Fitzpatrick, 2014) they measure lexical richness in the
words retrieved by 50 Spanish sixth- and eighth-grade learners of English as L2 in
response to nine prompts (semantic categories). One of their research hypotheses was
that a lexical-availability frequency profile reveals qualitative differences in the
output of English L2 learners in the sixth and eighth grades. An increase of lowfrequency words would be expected as learners advance in language level, but the
results of their study showed that "this increase in learners' word types does not result
automatically in a more advanced frequency profile" (2014, p. 96) although the study
has also shown that the "EFL learners' lexical availability increases as the course
grade increases." (2014, p. 98) According to the authors. a possible interpretation of
these results is that vocabulary still has room to grow in the most frequent bands.
(2014, p. 97). This study indicates a great potential for further comparative research
of lexical availability and word frequency.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Vocabulary selection and lexical availability
Another important area in which word frequency should be complemented with
available lexicons is vocabulary selection. There is no doubt that "frequency has long
informed the principled selection of vocabulary in L2 teaching pedagogy" (Schmitt
& Schmitt, 2012, p. 1). For a long period, 2,000 word families have seemed to be the
most cited initial goal for foreign language learners, but Norbert and Diane Schmitt
(2012) have now proposed an increase of high-frequency English vocabulary to
3,000 word families: "We suggest that, as a minimum, English language programs
emphasize teaching of high-frequency vocabulary up to the 3,000 frequency level."
(2012, p. 15) However, frequency is not the only criterion for choosing words to
teach explicitly. Another criterion is the words that are particularly useful in a
specific topic area, the so-called technical vocabulary recommended to be learned
after having mastered the foundation of 5,000 word families. The third category is
the words that students want to learn for various reasons. The fourth category,
especially important at the beginning of the course or language study, is the
classroom management vocabulary. (Schmitt, 2000, p. 144) To these four categories
Schmitt and Schmitt (2012) later add the importance of teaching the mid-frequency
vocabulary for proficient language use.
In the field of lexical-availability research a slightly different approach was
established on the assumption that "the fundamental vocabulary of a given
community consists of basic lexicon and the available lexicon. The identification of
this available lexicon is an essential underpinning for any planning related to the
lexicon" (López Morales, 2014, p. 7). From this perspective, the frequency words,
among which the most frequent are the grammatical words, are completed with
specific thematic words needed to address certain themes in daily life. The studies of
available lexicons among native speakers provide us with vocabulary that they would
potentially use in connection with a certain topic. Consequently these are the words
that foreign speakers should also know. For example, if in the category "Food and
drink", one of the most frequent words and first associations of Spanish native
speakers is garbanzo (chickpea) and lenteja (lentil), we should include these words
in explicit teaching regardless of their position in frequency list.² These two words
are not included among the 10,000 most frequent words in the Corpus of Royal
Spanish Academy. Another example to illustrate the necessity of taking into account
the criterion of available lexicon is taken from the category of "Professions and
jobs": ganadero (rancher) and barrendero (sweeper). The latter is not listed in the
first 10,000 Spanish word frequency list (CREA); and ganadero occupies the 8,566th
position on the same list, while they are both among the most available words in
available Spanish lexicons. These two occupations are also very rarely presented in
Spanish L2 textbooks. How can a learner get to know these words if they are neither
included in the category of frequent words nor in the specific topic category, and are
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�Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition
not the words that a learner specifically wishes to learn? In this case, the category of
available lexicons should be applied. Very often the most available words among
native speakers reflect customs and habits. Likewise, the study of learners' lexical
availability can uncover many interesting sociolinguistic and cultural issues.
Psycholinguistic aspects of lexical availability
The studies of lexical availability present an important tool for psycholinguistics
because they clearly capture the relationships the speakers establish between lexical
units. The present paper addresses some issues of the L2 mental lexicon based on the
results of the lexical-availability research carried out among Slovene secondary
(N=100) and university students (N=100) (Šifrar Kalan, 2009; 2012; 2014b) as well
as English as L2 (N=20) (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a). The results of these studies prove that
more advanced learners of Spanish and English produce a higher number of
association responses to specific domains, but still fall behind the native speakers'
production of associations. Similar conclusions were made in other L2 studies
(Schmitt, 2000, p. 42). The studies of Slovene students also show that the most
available words, both in Spanish and English, and with different levels of
proficiency, correspond to the more typical examples of the category. "This tendency
seems to confirm the universality of semantic prototypes based on human experience
regardless of the language as advocated by Aitchison (1994) and Kleiber (1995)."
(Šifrar Kalan, 2014a, p. 134) These studies also confirm the syntagmaticparadigmatic shift as a person's language matures (Schmitt, 2010, p. 40): Slovene B1
(CEFR level) Spanish students produced more syntagmatic associations than B2
students, and while B2 students produced more paradigmatic associations. The study
of individual-association chains of B1 and B2 students shows that words are mainly
related by meaning. Nevertheless, there were some form-based responses noted as
well. According to these results we agree with Singleton's claim (1999, p. 189) that
in L1 and L2 lexical units are increasingly processed by meaning rather than by form
as their integration into the mental lexicon progresses. Aitchison (1994) lists three
basic findings regarding associations that can offer important insight into the mental
lexicon. These findings strongly correspond to Slovene studies. First, the responses
are almost always items from the same semantic field, which speaks in favour of
creating dictionaries of available lexicons on the basis of semantic domains. Second,
adults usually give a response that is the same word class as the prompt word, which
is the reason for noun superiority in available lexicons. The introduction of new,
experimental semantic category entitled "Actions Carried Out Every Day" (Šifrar
Kalan, 2014b), on the other hand, resulted in 72% of verbs. Third, if a stimulus word
is part of an obvious pair, the partner word is usually given as the response. The
prevalent association pair in our results is in a coordinate relation within the same
word class, followed by synonyms, hyperonyms and antonyms, respectively.
194
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Undoubtedly, these findings help us understand the organization of mental lexicons,
yet there are still many things to be discovered. "It is important that future studies
investigate the similarities as well as the differences between L1 and L2 response
patterns, and the differences and similarities within each subject group." (Fitzpatrick
as cited in Schmitt, 2010, p. 62)
Conclusion
Originally, lexical-availability research was regarded as an alternative approach for
vocabulary selection for teaching French as L2. Some years later it was adopted by
Hispanic linguists in order to create a great PanHispanic dictionary of available
lexicon. During the years of collecting data for the available lexicons in Spain and
Latin America, the linguists started to use the data in L1 for research in
sociolingustics and dialectology. During the last two decades the research has
refocused on foreign language teaching, namely to vocabulary teaching and research.
The available lexicons provide an important tool for vocabulary planning and
material designing and should be used together with other tools, such as frequency
lists. Likewise, the association responses offer a great potential for research in
psycholinguistics. Exploring lexical availability in L1 and L2 in combination with
other study areas, such as, vocabulary tests, word frequency, CEFR levels and others,
can provide us with valuable data concerning vocabulary acquisition in the future.
1 Traditionally 16 categories or centres of interest are used in lexical-availability
studies: Parts of the human body, Clothing, Parts of the house, House furniture,
Food and drink, Objects on the table for the meal, The kitchen and its utensils,
School furniture and materials, Heating and lighting, The city, The countryside,
Means of transport, Farm and garden work, Animals, Games and entertainment,
Jobs and professions. These categories were already chosen by Gougenheim, a
French pioneer of lexical-availability study.
2 The Spanish words garbanzo and lenteja are among the most available words in the
available lexicons of different regions of Spain. For example, garbanzo is in Position
6 in Asturias's lexicon, Position 10 in Cádiz and 45 in Valencia. Lenteja is in Position
4 in Asturias, 6 in Cádiz and 26 in Valencia. Meanwhile, not even one out of 200
Slovene students of Spanish who participated in the study of lexical-availability
failed to write the word lenteja as a response. Garbanzo is among the available
words for Slovene students, but with a very low index of availability. (Šifrar Kalan,
2012)
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�Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition
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Lexical Availability and L2 Vocabulary Acquisition
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Šifrar Kalan, Marjana
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Vocabulary research has followed a different path in English and in Spanish applied linguistics. Spanish applied linguistics has paid more attention to available lexicons of speakers than to word frequency. The measure of lexical availability combines the frequency at which a word is produced as a member of a semantic category (e.g. dog in category Animals) and the position in the list of associations provided by a group of individuals. It focuses on the words retrieved by speakers in response prompts (word stimulus) related to daily situations. This paper intends to present some of the aspects of lexical-availability research that are interesting for L2 vocabulary acquisition. It attempts to show the potential of lexical-availability research as an alternate approach for vocabulary planning (the use of L1 lexical-availability measures to select the teaching vocabulary for L2) as well as the study of some psycholinguistic aspects of vocabulary acquisition, such as the organization of learners' mental lexicons, the similarities and the differences between response patterns, the kinds of semantic associations that learners activate in response to prompts (semantic categories), the consideration of the most available words obtained by lexical-availability research as semantic prototypes. Likewise, the study of learners' lexical availability can uncover sociolinguistic and cultural issues. Furthermore, this paper wishes to inspire researchers of languages other than Spanish to apply this methodology to different languages. All these aspects are hereby presented on the basis of the Slovene learners' available lexicons in Spanish as L2 (N=200) (Šifrar Kalan, 2009; 2012; 2014b) and English as L2 (N=20) (Šifrar Kalan, 2014a). Keywords: foreign languages, vocabulary acquisition, lexical availability, word associations
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2015-04-15
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Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PE English
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Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Running Rabbits and Shoulder Markings: Metaphorical
Terms in Aviation English
Ana Ostroški Anić
Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics, Croatia
Submitted: 15.04.2014.
Accepted: 14.11.2014.
Abstract
The role of metaphor as a basic cognitive mechanism in the construction and
retrieval of specialized knowledge has been well studied within cognitive
terminological theories (Faber, 2012; Tercedor Sánchez et al, 2012; Temmerman,
2000). However, the results of these analyses have mainly been applied in designing
or improving terminological resources, leaving somewhat aside the impact metaphor
has on bridging general and specialized knowledge, especially in the acquisition of
new knowledge.
This paper discusses the role of metaphor as a cognitive process in the
conceptualization of certain key concepts in the domain of aviation. A number of
terms and their collocations that reflect metaphorical mappings from the source
domains the HUMAN BODY and ANIMALS have been extracted out of a corpus of
English aviation textbooks and manuals related to the field of air traffic management.
Instances of metaphorical conceptual mapping are identified and analyzed both at the
conceptual and terminological level.
Ana Ostroški Anić is a research assistant at the Department of General Linguistics of
the Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics in Zagreb, Croatia. Her research
interests lie in the areas of terminology, specialized translation, LSP, phraseology,
and cognitive semantics. She has been working on several terminological projects
within the Croatian Special Field Terminology (Struna) program.
Keywords: ESP, LSP, terminology, Aviation English
Introduction1
1
This research has been done within the project Terminology and specialized translation in the service
of cross-cultural dialogue and specialized communication within the Croatian-French program
COGITO.
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�Running Rabbits and Shoulder Markings: Metaphorical Terms in Aviation English
The theory of conceptual metaphor has been widely researched in various fields of
linguistics over the past thirty years because its apparent simplicity allows for an
explanation of fundamental human cognitive processes such as categorization and
conceptualization. Metaphor provides insight into how we conceptualize one mental
domain in terms of another, thus transferring experience and knowledge previously
acquired and organized into another domain of human activity. A conceptual
metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, usually an abstract and a concrete one,
while the metaphorical linguistic expressions that reflect the conceptual metaphor in
language belong to the language or terminology of the more concrete domain
(Kövecses, 2010, p. 4).
The role of metaphor as one of the basic cognitive mechanisms in the construction
and retrieval of specialized knowledge has also been extensively studied within
cognitive terminological theories (Tercedor Sánchez et al, 2012; Ureña & Faber,
2010; Temmerman, 2000). The insights on metaphoric and metonymic dimensions of
specialized knowledge concepts serve as proof that specialized knowledge domains
are conceptualized in a manner similar to the cognitive structuring of our everyday
knowledge. However, the role of metaphorical conceptual mapping on bridging
general and specialized knowledge, especially in the acquisition of specialized
knowledge, has been left somewhat aside.
Aviation English is one of the varieties of Languages for Special Purposes that
requires its users to be fluent in the phraseology and terminology of the domain, but
at the same time to reach a high level of knowledge of general English. An attempt of
defining aviation lexical domains was made in the Manual on the Implementation of
ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements (International Civil Aviation
Organization, 2004), intended as a guidance material in developing an appropriate
English language training curriculum for pilots and air traffic controllers. The
somewhat random list of work related and priority lexical domains included in the
Manual presents domains such as animals and birds, causes and conditions,
geography, topographical features, nationalities or perception, senses, numbers, etc.
(ICAO, 2004, p. 3-7).2 Although not explicitly included in the Manual’s list, the
human body has served as a fruitful source domain for metaphorical mapping and the
creation of lexicalizations in various specialized domains, aviation being no
exception. Some of the “work related topics” that the Manual does list, e.g. behavior
and activities, perception and senses or causes and conditions are nevertheless
closely related to the human body and the way it shapes embodied cognition (Lakoff
& Johnson, 1999). This paper analyzes metaphorical expressions that are the
2
A more detailed inventory of domains characterizing the day-to-day communication of pilots and air
traffic controllers is provided in Appendix B, Part II.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
realizations of conceptual mapping from the source domains of the human body and
animals as two of the most common source domains in the creation of conceptual
metaphor (Kövecses, 2010, pp. 1819).
Objective
The aim of the paper is to analyze metaphorical terms that exploit general language
lexical units to designate certain key aviation concepts that are perceived according
to their resemblance to either human body parts or various animals. The analyzed
terms include single word metaphorical terms named after a general language lexical
unit (wing, tail, arm, rabbit), and multiword terms in which general language lexical
unit makes one element of the term or collocation (butterfly tail, negative arm,
downwind leg, heading bug). Lexical units taken over from general language to
designate concepts of a specialized domain are more likely to trigger the occurrence
of metaphorical expressions in texts because they are usually polysemous words in
general language, and their diversity in meaning is already the result of metaphorical
extensions of some sort. Metaphorical motivation of many terms can be found in
general or everyday concepts because experts establish an analogy between a
specialized concept that needs to be designated, and an already familiar concept in
our environment (Ureña, 2011, p. 71).
Methodology
Since aviation is a very interdisciplinary field, this analysis takes air traffic
management as the most representative part of aviation, with several of its domains
(e.g. airspace, air traffic, flight) organized around concepts that are prototypical for
the whole field. Corpus-based methods of extracting relevant metaphorical
information have been applied, focusing on the application of a target domain
oriented metaphor extraction using key terms and collocations.
A number of terms containing general language lexical units for body parts and
certain animals are extracted out of a corpus of English aviation textbooks and
manuals on the field of air traffic management, intended for training students or
novice pilots. The list of extracted terms is complemented with manually selected
terms from the Aviation English Terms and Collocations (Bratanić, Ostroški Anić &
Radišić, 2010). Sketch Engine tools are used both for corpus compilation and for the
analysis of the extracted data. After the term identification, concordances of these
terms are then extracted, and identified as either literal or metaphorical
lexicalizations.
The human body and animals as source domains
19
�Running Rabbits and Shoulder Markings: Metaphorical Terms in Aviation English
If we understand metaphor as a cognitive mechanism that helps to structure human
conceptual systems, one of its functions is to connect the cognitive structures of our
general or everyday knowledge to conceptual structures of particular specialized
knowledge domains. Metaphorical transfer between the source and target domains is
constrained by our central knowledge of the source domain, and by the invariance
principle (Lakoff, 1993; Ruiz de Mendoza, 1998). The metaphor MACHINES ARE
HUMAN BEINGS3 thus shows that the conceptual mapping from the domain of the
human body to the target domain of the aircraft systems preserves the topology of the
source domain (cylinder neck, hand pump, stressed skin, head of pressure, rotor
head, venturi throat).
The relationship between the two domains can be either of correlation or
resemblance, which has an effect on the ontology of metaphors or the type of
concepts connected as well as on the directionality, conventionality and grounding of
conceptual metaphors (Stanojević, 2009). Grady (1999) distinguishes between two
classes of metaphor: the resemblance class, and the correlation-based metaphors that
include primary metaphors. Unidirectionality in the case of correlation metaphors
means that the source domain is always a concrete one, while the target domain is
abstract. It appears that most metaphors in the domain of air traffic management can
be categorized as resemblance metaphors because both domains are concrete (e.g.
MACHINES ARE HUMAN BEINGS, AIRCRAFT IS A BIRD). As opposed to
correlation metaphors, resemblance metaphors allow for bidirectionality, meaning
that the features of both domains can be projected in either direction (Grady, 1999, p.
96), i.e. they can be equally abstract or concrete (Stanojević, 2009, p. 348).
Ureña and Faber (2010) found that Grady’s distinction between correlation and
resemblance metaphors, as well as Lakoff’s (1993) between conceptualstructural/conventional and image metaphors is lacking when it comes to the
description of metaphors the basis of which is mental imagery. They propose a
classification into resemblance and non-resemblance metaphors, with resemblance
metaphors further divided into static and dynamic. They conclude that instead of
being classified as belonging to two different categories of image metaphors and
behavior-based metaphors, resemblance metaphors should be considered as a graded
category the members of which differ according to the dynamicity of their images
(Ureña & Faber, 2010, p. 124).
3
According to standard practice, the names of all metaphors are written in capital letters.
20
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Inanimate objects are human beings
The human body is without doubt a source domain that initiates conceptual mapping
to various target domains, general and specialized knowledge alike. In the domain of
air traffic management, several conceptual metaphors related to the human body can
be observed, all of them belonging to a more general metaphor INANIMATE
OBJECTS ARE HUMAN BEINGS. Thus we find linguistic realizations of the
resemblance metaphor MACHINES ARE HUMAN BEINGS in which the parts of
the human body – both external and internal – are mapped onto the structure of
machines: body of an airplane, body station, nose of the aircraft, venturi throat, hand
controls, aircraft skin, stressed skin, cylinder head, pitot head, rotor head, cylinder
neck, etc. Machines and automatic systems are often attributed features and
qualifications of a living being, as in the following examples of metaphorical
constructions that show how the function of a body organ is mapped onto the
function of a machine, and how activities typical of humans are mapped onto the
machine’s activity or behavior:
(1) TCAS is designed to provide a set of electronic eyes (...)
(2) (...) ATC will keep an electronic eye on them (…)
(3) The heart of the airspeed indicator is a diaphragm that is sensitive to
pressure
changes.
(4) Movement of the aneroid element is transmitted through gears to the
three
hands that indicate altitude.
Terms designating certain aerodrome surfaces (runway shoulders, taxiway shoulders,
shoulder markings, apron) or aerodrome facilities (pier finger terminal) can be said
to be metaphorical expressions for the metaphor AERODROME IS A HUMAN
BEING. A pier finger terminal is a type of the terminal configuration that resembles
the position of fingers on the hand, so there is a static image evoked by this
metaphorical term. Runway shoulders and taxiway shoulders can also be considered
instances of an image metaphor because they are based on resemblance in shape.
Shoulders are paved parts of runways and taxiways that provide additional area in
case the aircraft veers off the runway, but are also used for the passage of
maintenance and emergency vehicles. Their primary function is, however, to prevent
blast and water erosion of the central area of runways and taxiways. Just as shoulders
on the body act as joints of arms and the upper part of the human body, runway
shoulders connect the runway to the rest of the movement area and provide
additional support to the main part or the body of the runway. Therefore the
resemblance to the shoulders on the body is not on shape only, but in the function as
well, which makes this image metaphor not prototypical.
21
�Running Rabbits and Shoulder Markings: Metaphorical Terms in Aviation English
Parts of the air traffic pattern (departure leg, base leg, upwind leg, downwind leg,
crosswind leg, final leg) and holding pattern (inbound leg, outbound leg) are all
designated by terms containing a polysemous general language lexical unit leg. In
specialized communication metaphor and metonymy also serve as crucial
mechanisms that lead to the creation of meaning specializations of a certain word, as
can be seen in other collocations with leg: overwater leg, navigation leg, landing
gear leg, RNAV leg, or straight leg. While the first group of terms refers to leg in the
meaning of a part of the traffic pattern and holding pattern (i.e. segments of air
traffic), overwater leg, navigation leg and RNAV leg use the term leg in the meaning
of a segment of flight. General language units that are used as terms or parts of terms
in a terminology of a certain specialized domain carry the polysemous meaning over
from the general language.
Animals in aviation
The lexical domain of animals has a particular role in the conceptualization of certain
concepts in aviation, especially in the designation of parts of machines and technical
concepts in general. Animals are an important part of the natural environment in
which airports and their infrastructure is usually located, and as such they create a
basis for the metaphorical description of many concrete concepts in the field of
aviation.
Metaphors involving mappings from the domain of animals are clearly all
resemblance metaphors, but some of them are more image, and others more
behavior-based metaphors. The terms airspeed bug, heading bug, bear paws,
butterfly valve or butterfly tail evoke mental images of a bug or a butterfly because
they resemble them in shape. The terms wing and the tail of the aircraft evoke more
dynamic images, and the resemblance with a bird is not merely based on shape, but
also on behavior and function. The metaphor AIRCRAFT IS A BIRD is thus a
dynamic resemblance metaphor according to the classification by Ureña and Faber
(2010), both a behavior-based and function-based metaphor. The aircraft acts as a
bird because it can fly, and the aircraft’s wings and the tail have the function of
generating lift and keeping the aircraft aloft in the same way they serve birds in
flight.
Other examples of expressions based on image metaphors are the terms squirrel cage
rotor and dog-tooth clutch. A dog-tooth clutch is a type of a dog clutch that
“provides non-slip coupling of two rotating members” (Manual transmission, n.d.),
the teeth of which resemble dog teeth. The squirrel cage rotor is a rotor of an AC
induction motor, and it is a term widely used in engineering. All constructions with a
22
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
squirrel cage have a cylinder mounted on a shaft, resembling a cage for catching
squirrels or other small animals.
The term running rabbit or simply the rabbit is a colloquial term referring to bluishwhite sequenced flashing lights installed along the approach lights on the runways of
many large airports. The term was derived because of the lights’ rapid flashing that
gives an effect of a white ball of light travelling towards the runway threshold about
once per second. The mental image of a rabbit is evoked because of the color of the
lights, but also because of their movement speed. This resemblance metaphor cannot
therefore be classified as either image or behavior-based metaphor, and should be
best described as a dynamic resemblance metaphor.
Conclusion
Based on the examples of metaphorical linguistic expressions extracted for this
analysis, metaphors involving terminological realizations referring to the lexical
domains of the human body and animals mostly belong to the resemblance class of
metaphors. Although not of the same relevance, both the motivation for correlation
and resemblance metaphors can be regarded as experiential motivation. Without
being able to rely on our experience, we could not have been able to recognize and
establish resemblance in form, color or function between source and target domain
elements. When specialized communication is analyzed, the interlinguistic and
interdomain variation of metaphors and metaphorical motivation is less due to
cultural differences, but rather more to differences in the conceptual systems of
domains in question. Aviation is more a multicultural professional community with
prescribed set of rules and customs applying to all of its members than it is a
community of different multicultural practices based on individual languages and
cultures. What makes the mappings from the domain of the human body applicable
to all specialized domains is the universal experiential motivation that relates our
body to the environment. Although animals create rather a homogenous lexical
domain, the members of the domain are, however, very dependent on the culture a
lexical domain is set in, and on a particular environment surrounding the professional
community using this specialized language. In that sense it is a domain more
restricted by our cultural experience as well as by our physical environment.
23
�Running Rabbits and Shoulder Markings: Metaphorical Terms in Aviation English
References
Bratanić, M., Ostroški Anić, A., & Radišić, T. (Eds.) (2010). Aviation English terms
and collocations. (An alphabetical checklist). Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu,
Fakultet prometnih znanosti.
Grady, J. (1999). A typology of motivation for conceptual metaphor: Correlation vs.
resemblance. In R. W. Gibbs, & G. J. Steen (Eds.), Metaphor in cognitive
linguistics (pp. 79100). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
International Civil Aviation Organization (2010). Manual on the Implementation of
ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements (2nd ed.). Montréal, Quebec,
Canada. Retrieved from
http://www.zhaw.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/zhaw/centre_for_aviation_langu
age/ICAO_9835.pdf.
Kövecses, Z. (2010). Metaphor – A practical introduction (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and
its challenge to western thought. New York: Basic Books.
Lakoff, G. (1993). The contemporary theory of metaphor. In A. Ortony (Ed.),
Metaphor and thought (pp. 202–251). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Manual transmission. (n.d.). In Wikipedia. Retrieved April 9, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_transmission
Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, F. J. (2003). The role of mappings and domains in
understanding metonymy. In A. Barcelona (Ed.), Metaphor and metonymy at
the crossroads (2nd ed.) (pp. 109–132). Berlin, New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Stanojević, M. (2009). Konceptualna metafora u kognitivnoj lingvistici: pregled
pojmova. Suvremena lingvistika 68, 339–369.
Temmerman, R. (2000). Towards new ways of terminology description: The
sociocognitive approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Tercedor, M., López Rodríguez, C. I., Márquez Linares, C., & Faber, P. (2012).
Metaphor and metonymy in specialized language. In P. Faber (Ed.), A
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cognitive linguistics view of terminology and specialized language (pp. 33–
72). Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
Ureña Gómez-Moreno, J. M. (2011). Metaphor in specialised language: an English
Spanish comparative study in marine biology (Doctoral dissertation).
Available from http://hera.ugr.es/tesisugr/19655095.pdf.
Ureña, J. M., & Faber, P. (2010). Reviewing imagery in resemblance and non resemblance metaphors. Cognitive Linguistics 21(1), 123–149.
doi:10.1515/COGL.2010.004.
25
�
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Title
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Running Rabbits and Shoulder Markings: Metaphorical Terms in Aviation English
Author
Author
Ostroški Anić, Ana
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The role of metaphor as a basic cognitive mechanism in the construction and retrieval of specialized knowledge has been well studied within cognitive terminological theories (Faber, 2012; Tercedor Sánchez et al, 2012; Temmerman, 2000). However, the results of these analyses have mainly been applied in designing or improving terminological resources, leaving somewhat aside the impact metaphor has on bridging general and specialized knowledge, especially in the acquisition of new knowledge. This paper discusses the role of metaphor as a cognitive process in the conceptualization of certain key concepts in the domain of aviation. A number of terms and their collocations that reflect metaphorical mappings from the source domains the HUMAN BODY and ANIMALS have been extracted out of a corpus of English aviation textbooks and manuals related to the field of air traffic management. Instances of metaphorical conceptual mapping are identified and analyzed both at the conceptual and terminological level. Ana Ostroški Anić is a research assistant at the Department of General Linguistics of the Institute of Croatian Language and Linguistics in Zagreb, Croatia. Her research interests lie in the areas of terminology, specialized translation, LSP, phraseology, and cognitive semantics. She has been working on several terminological projects within the Croatian Special Field Terminology (Struna) program. Keywords: ESP, LSP, terminology, Aviation English
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-04-15
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PE English
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c02cbef3a3400762b20b653d509739c1.pdf
a3ff34f9423fa394c63b6b75cea674a8
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Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching
Native Arabic Speakers
Reena Mathew
American University of Kuwait, Kuwait
Submitted: 15.04.2014.
Accepted: 21.11.2014.
Abstract
Native Arabic speaking students of the Gulf Middle East region are descendants of
tribes and nomadic families which may be a possible reason why they are social
constructivists when it comes to learning. Most prefer a learning environment in which
they are actively engaged learners within a group. Native Arabic speaking students are
social so best benefit from collaborative learning methods in particular from
cooperative learning. Collaborative learning is an educational approach that involves
groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a
product. (Lejeune, 1999). Cooperative Learning is a teaching arrangement that refers
to small, heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common goal
(Kagan,1994). According to Vygotsky’sSocial Development Theory; social interaction
plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. The purpose of this
paper is to illustrate why collaborative learning is an effective teaching method in
language education with non-native English speakers (with focus on native Arabic
speakers). Collaborative and cooperative learning styles are effective in the ESL
classroom with native Arabic speakers because it helps students to share ideas,
stimulates critical thinking, helps students to take control and invest in their learning
with structural guidance from their teachers, teachers take the role of learners, students
can become teachers, and every student gets to be an equal participant in the given
task. Collaborative learning is also an effective teaching style that promotes social
skills amongst students that can be used both in the classroom and outside in natural
situations. It helps introverted students feel more confident about socializing with their
peers. When I divide my students into groups or pairs using collaborative or
cooperative learning styles; work is done with deeper concentration along with higher
critical thinking skills.
Keywords: Native Arab students, language learning, collaborative learning,
cooperative learning
Introduction
�Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers
The purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of the collaborative learning
method in particular the use of cooperative learning in the English as a Second
Language (ESL) classroom among native Arabic speaking students in the Intensive
English Program at the American University of Kuwait. Arabic students are strong oral
communicators and work well when placed in groups in the classroom. Cooperative
learning is particularly helpful for students learning a second language.
Cooperative/collaborative learning activities encourage peer interaction, which aids
the development of language, sharing ideas, gender equality, equal participation from
all students, positive classroom environment, higher critical thinking skills, peer
support, and increased participation. Other benefits of collaborative learning in the
ESL classroom among native Arabic speaking students include students taking control
and investing in their education, improved social skills, building of confidence, getting
classwork done with better focus and results. Local populations in present day UAE,
Kuwait, Bahrain etc. are tribal in origin. The students in my study mainly come from
a country in the Gulf region of the Middle East called Kuwait. Gulf Arabs came from
a tribally structured highly organized culture and have managed to retain their tribal
structures and their community. To me this tribal structure can be observed when
native Arabic speaking students are placed into cooperative learning groups in the ESL
classroom.
Purpose of the study
This study examined the effectiveness of the collaborative learning method in
particular the use of cooperative learning style in the ESL classroom with native Arabic
speaking students in the Intensive English Program at the American University of
Kuwait, in Kuwait.
Research Questions
The research questions examined in this study were:
1. Is cooperative learning as a part of collaborative learning an effective method
to use in an ESL classroom with Native Arabic Speakers who are part of a
foundational pre -university English program?
2. Does collaborative learning produce better results, critical thinking, and more
focus among native Arabic speakers in the ESL classroom?
3. Does collaborative learning promote a positive learning environment among
native Arabic speakers where students develop better socialization skills with
their peers?
Literature Review
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Research relevant to the study has been divided into four sections. The first section
describes what cooperative/collaborative learning means to different theorists. The
second section describes how collaborative learning is an effective method in the ESL
classroom. The third section describes how collaborative learning produces better
results, critical thinking, motivation, and more focus. The fourth section explains how
collaborative learning is an effective instructional method that can be used to support
social development.
Section 1 - What is Cooperative/Collaborative Learning?
Whatis collaborative or cooperative learning? These terms have different meanings to
various theorists and educators. Cooperative learning is referred to as collaborative
learning or small groups of students working together. “Vygotsky viewed
collaborative learning as part of a process leading to the social construction of
knowledge” (as cited in Mueller & Fleming, 2001, p. 259). Some theorists perceive it
as “a strategy to help students improve intellectual and social skills” (Burron, James
& Ambroing as cited in Mueller & Fleming, p. 259). According to Johnson and
Johnson, cooperative learning “involves students working together in small groups to
complete shared academic tasks and is characterized by division of labor,
interdependence to reach a mutual goal and group rewards for goal attainment” (
Siegel, 2005, p. 220).
Section 2 - Effectiveness of Collaborative/Cooperative Learning in the ESL Classroom
Collaborative learning has been an effective method to use with native Arabic speaking
students in the ESL classroom of the intensive English Program at the American
University of Kuwait. Small groups are used so that students work collectively to
achieve individual and common goals. During cooperative activities, students seek
results that are beneficial to themselves and to all the group members. The results of
most studies reveal the following; academic gains, enhanced positive relationships
among students, and improved social and affective development (Johnson et al., 1998
& Kagan, 1994). According to ColorinColorado (2007) cooperative learning is
effective for students learning a second language because this method encourages peer
interaction which helps with language development, allows ELLs to pick up
vocabulary and observe how their peers learn and solve problems.
Section 3 - Collaborative learning promotes better results, critical thinking, higher
motivation and student focus
When students are placed into cooperative learning groups they share more ideas, learn
from each other, teach each other and are more actively engaged in their learning.
�Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers
When students work in pairs one person is listening while the other is discussing the
question under investigation. Both are developing valuable problem solving skills by
formulating their ideas, discussing them, receiving instant feedback and replying to
questions and comments (Johnson, D.W. 1971; Peterson & Swing 1985).
Collaborative learning promotes learner autonomy and less dependence on the
instructor. They are not simply sitting in their classroom seats passively absorbing
whatever the teacher says and it helps them to not depend on the teacher as their only
source of knowledge and understanding (Felder 1997).Through collaboration or
cooperation with their peers they are building independence, critical thinking skills,
have more motivation to learn and focus more on the content being learned.
Cooperative learning adopts higher levels of performance (Bligh 1972). Critical
thinking skills grow and retention of information and interest in the subject matter
improves (Kulik & Kulick 1979). Felder (1997) believes that cooperative learning
leads to the generation of more and better questions. Cooperative learning creates a
positive cycle of good performance building higher self-esteem which in turn leads to
more interest in the subject and better performance (Keller, 1983). Students are less
likely to be bored and are more likely to complete their assignments with greater
enthusiasm. Cooperative learning increases students' perseverance in the completion
of assignments and the possibility of successful assignments (Felder 1997).
Section 4 - Collaborative Learning and Development of Social Skills and Creation of
a Positive Learning Environment
Cooperative learning is an effective instructional strategy that can be used to support
the social development of ESL students. Social skills developed in class though
collaborative learning can be used in authentic settings. For example, these social skills
can be applied when they join the work force, during social gatherings, and while
traveling. Collaborative learning has helped my students to learn about being patient,
waiting turns to speak, to interrupt politely, not to cut a person when he/she is speaking,
to respect each person’s thoughts, to help guide each other, and to work as a team.
Students help each other and in doing so build a supportive community which raises
the performance level of each member (Kagan 1986). There is less competition and all
students have the chance to participate in class. Collaborative efforts among students
result in a higher degree of accomplishment by all participants as contrasting to
individual, competitive arrangements in which many students are left behind (Slavin
2010).
Methodology
For this study 40 of my spring 2014 students participated. The students participated by
answering survey questions, having pictures taken during cooperative group work,
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
informal teacher observations, and general feedback from questions I asked them about
group work. The students were awarded classroom participation points for completing
the survey. All participants are native Arabic speakers from Kuwait with a few
students from Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, and Palestine. The participants consisted of 20
males and 20 females with ages ranging from 17-24 years. The students were tested
into level 020 section (high-intermediate English proficiency) of the intensive English
program at the American University of Kuwait. The results in this study are based on
classroom observations of my IEP students and the survey responses. All observations
were done during class time throughout the semester and students responded to the
survey on their computers in class after completing a grammar quiz.
Activities Used for collaborative learning
A. Grammar - groups of 3-4 students were given a picture. Students
create as many sentences as possible using the present progressive
tense in 8 minutes.
B. Group Presentations- Students are given a topic based on the unit
theme and create a group presentation
C. Vocabulary- students define the word, put it in a sentence, then create
a non-linguistic representation of the vocabulary term
Survey Questions and Results
Survey Question
Response
A- Response BNumber
of Number
of
students
and students and
percentage
percentage
OtherNumber
of
students and
percentage
1. I like working
in groups to
complete
assignmentstrue/false/other
True=34,85%
False=
10%
5,
Other=
5%
2,
2. I
prefer
working alone
on classroom
assignmentstrue/false/other
3. I share and get
more
ideas
when I – work
True=9, 23%
False= 27,
68%
Other=
10%
4,
Work in
group=36,
90%
Work
alone=
10%
Other=0,
0%
a
4,
�Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers
in
a
group/work
alone/other
4. I
participate
more and feel
less left out of
class when I –
work in a
group/work
alone/ other
5. Group
work
helps
shy
students build
more
confidence –
true/false/other
6. I have more
control
over
my
learning
when I –work
in
a
group/work
alone/other
7. I concentrate
better when I –
work in a
group/work
alone/other
8. I think more
critically when
I –work in a
group/work
alone/other
9. Which do you
prefer in the
classroomgroup work or
working alone
Work in
group=27,
71%
a
Work
alone= 11,
29%
Other=0,
0%
True=38, 97%
False=1,
3%
Other=0,
0%
Work in a
group=
22,
55%
Work
alone= 18,
45%
Other=0,
0%
Work in
a
group=
17,
43%
Work
alone= 22,
55%
Other=1,
3%
Work in
group=31,
78%
a
Work
alone=7,
18%
Other=
5%
Group
work=35, 92%
Working
alone=3,
8%
NA
2,
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
on
an
assignment?
Group
work
creates
a
“friendly”
classroom
environmenttrue/false/other
I discuss more
ideas when I –
work in a
group/work
alone/other
Group
work
allows me the
chance to be
the teacher and
teach
other
members in my
grouptrue/false/other
I feel that I
learn
more
when I –work
in
a
group/work
alone/other
I have better
results
on
assignments
when I- work
in
a
group/work
alone/other
Do you prefer
mixed group of
males
and
females
or
unmixed
groups
of
males
or
females only?
True=38, 95%
False=2,
5%
Work in
group=38,
95%
Work
alone=
5%
a
Other=0,
0%
Other=0,
0%
2,
True= 34, 87%
False=3,
8%
Other=2,
5%
Work in a
group=35,88
%
Work
alone=5,
13%
Other=0,
0%
Work in a
group=
32,
80%
Work
alone=6,
15 %
Other=2,
5%
Mixed
groups=
63%
Unmixed
groups=5,
13 %
Either=9,
23%
25,
�Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers
16. Does
group Yes=25, 63%
No=9, 23%
work help you
feel
more
comfortable
when working
with
the
opposite
gender?yes/no/other
17. Has
group Yes=38, 95%
No=1, 3%
work helped
you
build
better
communicatio
n skills in the
English
language?Yes/No/Other
18. I
have Group
Working
improved my
work=37, 93%
alone=3,
use of the
8%
English
language and
sharing ideas in
English
through- group
work/ working
alone/other
19. Rate: I like 1->3, 8%
3->2, 5%
working
in 2->0,0%
4->15,
groups in class
38%
– 12345 1= it’s
ok, 5= I love it
20. Rate: I like 1->14, 37%
3->9, 24%
working alone 2->9,24%
4->3, 8&
in class -12345,
1= it’s ok, 5= I
love it
21. What is the Friends help Discuss and
main
reason
each
share new
you like group
other=11,28%
Other=6,
15%
Other=1,
3%
Other=0,
0%
5->20, 50%
5->3, 8%
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
work?- friends
help
each
other,
learn
from
other
group
members,
discuss
and
share
new
ideas,
assignment is
easier
22. From
you
experience this
semester what
is the best part
of working in
groups?-open
answer
23. List
one
activity
you
that you do
outside of the
university that
involves you
being in a
group.- open
answer
ideas=22,
55%
Assignment
is easier=1,
3%
Learn
from
other
group
members=6,
15%
Sharing
ideas
Discussing
Go to the
gym
Study group
Playing
soccer
Speaking
in
English
Learning
from each
other
Diwaniya
Soccer
Sharing
ideas on
Whatsap
p
Fixing
mistakes
Helping
each other
Family
gathering
s
Conclusion
Collaborative learning is a widely used method that has been extensively researched
and due to positive results it is a method that I believe should be used with ESL
students. From my classroom observations, survey responses, and collected classwork
assignments I can conclude that for my native Arabic speaking ESL students in the
IEP program collaborative learning is an effective teaching method that helps them to
be active learners in the classroom. From the survey responses85% of the students
prefer group work, and 78% agree that working collaboratively promotes critical
thinking through discussion, explanation and evaluation of ideas, better results and
social skills, and a positive learning environment. Based on the survey, 55% of the
students enjoy working in groups because they have the opportunity to discuss and
share ideas which in turn leads to higher critical thinking, better understanding and
�Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers
results. Using collaborative learning in the ESL classroom is also beneficial because
students have the chance to practice and think in the English language. One negative
aspect of collaborative learning according to the survey is less concentration. 55% of
the students feel that they focus better when working alone. When asked why, students
said that sometimes group work wastes time because they go off topic, certain students
are hesitant to participate, or the group gets noisy. I find it useful to shuffle students
between groups and mix male and female students so that they are comfortable with
the opposite gender. It is important to walk around, monitor students, and provide
guidance and support. Along with creating a friendly classroom environment my
students always seem happier after working in a group because they had the chance to
socialize through learning. Collaborative learning is also helpful in developing social
skills among ESL students. It helps shy and introverted students build confidence, and
it creates a sense of security among my native Arabic speaking students; especially my
female students who are shy to communicate with their male counterparts. It decreases
gender segregation in the classroom which is common in the Arab culture and
increases gender tolerance. My students feel a sense of securitythrough collaborative
learningwhich increases their class participation as well. I highly recommend ESL
teachers to incorporate collaborative learning as an effective method for teaching
nonnative Englishspeakers into their daily teaching so that we move further away from
the traditional and give way for the transformative classroom.
References
Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: An historical and conceptual perspective. Culture,
communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives, 21-34. London:
Cambridge University Press.
Colorín Colorado (2007).Cooperative learning strategies. Retrieved from ¡Colorín
Colorado!
Website:
http://www.colorincolorado.org/educators/content/cooperative
Felder, R. (June 1997). Beating the Numbers Game: Effective Teaching in Large
Classes. 1997 ASEE Annual Conference, Milwaukee, WI, viewed on the
web
05/10/2006,
URL:
http://www.ncsu.edu/felderpublic/Papers/Largeclasses.htm
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999).Learning together and alone: Cooperative,
competitive, and individualistic learning (5th Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon
Johnson, D.W. (1971). Role Reversal: A summary and review of research.
International Journal of Group Tensions, 1, 318-334
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Kagan, S. (1994).Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, California: Kagan Publishing
Keller, J. M. "Motivational design of Instruction." in C. M. Reigeluth (ed.)
Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current
Status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 386-434, 1983
Kulik, J.A., and Kulik, C.L. "College Teaching." In P. Peterson and H. Walberg
(Eds.) Research in Teaching: Concepts, Findings and Implications. Berkeley,
CA: McCutcheon Publishing, 1979
Mueller, A., & Fleming, T. (2001). Cooperative learning: Listening to how children
work at school. Journal of Educational Research, 94(5), 259–265
Peterson, P.L and S.R Swing (1985) Students’ cognitions as mediators of the
effectiveness of small group learning. Journal of Educational Psychology,
77,218-312
Siegel, C. (2005). Implementing a research-based model of cooperative learning. The
Journal of Educational Research, 98 (6), 339-349.
Slavin, R. (2010), "Co-operative learning: what makes group-work work?", in The
Nature of Learning: Using Research to Inspire Practice, OECD Publishing.
�
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Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers
Author
Author
Mathew, Reena
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Native Arabic speaking students of the Gulf Middle East region are descendants of tribes and nomadic families which may be a possible reason why they are social constructivists when it comes to learning. Most prefer a learning environment in which they are actively engaged learners within a group. Native Arabic speaking students are social so best benefit from collaborative learning methods in particular from cooperative learning. Collaborative learning is an educational approach that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. (Lejeune, 1999). Cooperative Learning is a teaching arrangement that refers to small, heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common goal (Kagan,1994). According to Vygotsky’sSocial Development Theory; social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate why collaborative learning is an effective teaching method in language education with non-native English speakers (with focus on native Arabic speakers). Collaborative and cooperative learning styles are effective in the ESL classroom with native Arabic speakers because it helps students to share ideas, stimulates critical thinking, helps students to take control and invest in their learning with structural guidance from their teachers, teachers take the role of learners, students can become teachers, and every student gets to be an equal participant in the given task. Collaborative learning is also an effective teaching style that promotes social skills amongst students that can be used both in the classroom and outside in natural situations. It helps introverted students feel more confident about socializing with their peers. When I divide my students into groups or pairs using collaborative or cooperative learning styles; work is done with deeper concentration along with higher critical thinking skills. Keywords: Native Arab students, language learning, collaborative learning, cooperative learning
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Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General),LG Individual institutions (Asia. Africa),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PI Oriental languages and literatures
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c22a2e858d97e0617edad0a7a6e8511a
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Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Culture, Identity and Foreign Language Teaching And
Learning
Tatjana A. Dumitrašković
University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Submitted: 15.04.2014.
Accepted: 06.11.2014.
Abstract
Language, culture and identity are essentially connected. But, it often happens that in
foreign language classrooms teachers give little attention to the identity of the
student. A student enters the classroom with his own identity and culture. When
learning a foreign language, it is necessary for the student to learn and understand the
culture of the foreign language, too. This is where the problem arises of culture and
identity influencing teaching and learning foreign languages. In general, students are
representatives of the identity and culture of their first language and where they come
from. In order for the student to learn the foreign language he must feel that he can
express himself freely in the classroom. However, the students are likely to become
confused when they are faced with the new culture of the foreign language. They
now have to understand and adjust this to their sense of identity and their culture, and
this can often lead to uncertainty. It can result in the student feeling unsure as to
where they belong in the community.
The teacher needs to be aware of this issue and should include it to the method of
teaching and resources used. The paper deals with the question of how the process of
teaching and learning a foreign language affects the students’ identity and sense of
belonging to a community.
Keywords: foreign language, culture, identity
Culture refers to our way of life, including everything that is learned, shared, and
passed from one generation to the next. Although culture endures over time, it is not
static. Language, values, rules, beliefs are all part of one’s culture. Culture is passed
on from one generation to the next through the process of socialization. Although
there are many aspects of everyday life that are shared by most members of society,
there are different conceptions and definitions of culture within this general
�Culture, identity and foreign language teaching and learning
approach. The dominant culture of a society refers to the main culture in a society,
which is shared, or at least accepted without opposition, by the majority of people.
Identity is a process of identifying or non-identifying with a particular position in life
and continually modifying this position and attitudes toward it (Crawshaw, 2001,
p.101). It is about how individuals or groups see and define themselves, and how
other individuals or groups see and define them. Identity is formed through the
socialization process and the influence of social institutions like the family, the
education system and the mass media. The concept of identity is an important one, as
it is only through establishing our own identities and learning about the identities of
other individuals and groups that we come to know what makes us similar to some
people and different from others, and therefore form social connections with them.
The identity of individuals and groups involves both elements of personal choice and
the responses and attitudes of others. Individuals are not free to adopt any identity
they like, and factors like their social class, their ethnic group and their sex are likely
to influence how others see them. The identity that an individual wants to assert and
which they may wish others to see them having may not be the one that others accept
or recognise.
Often, in foreign language classrooms, the teacher or curriculum pays little or no
attention to identity of the student. A student enters the classroom with his own
identity and culture. When learning a foreign language, it is necessary for the student
to learn the culture of the foreign language, too (Spackman, 2009, p.2). This is where
the question of culture and identity influencing foreign language acquisition happens.
In many ways students are representatives of the identity and culture of their first
language and where they come from.
In order for the students to learn the foreign language, they must feel that they are
comfortable in the classroom and can express themselves freely. However, they tend
to become confused when they are faced with the new culture of the foreign
language. What they often try to do is to adapt that new culture, in their sense of their
identity and their culture and this often leads to uncertainty. Additionally, it results in
the students feeling unsure as to where they belong in the community.
Culture and Foreign Language Learning
Language is something that people do in their daily lives and something they use to
express, create and interpret meanings and to establish and maintain social and
interpersonal relationships. This understanding of language sees language not simply
as a body of knowledge to be learnt, but as a social practice in which to participate
(Kramsch, 1993). It is not enough for language learners just to know grammar and
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
vocabulary. They also need to know how that language is used to create and
represent meanings and how to communicate with others and to engage with the
communication of others. This requires the development of awareness of the nature
of language and its impact on the world (Svalberg, 2007). The role of language in
learning cannot be over-emphasised. Language is the prime resource teachers have
and use for mediating learning. When learning languages, then, teachers and students
are working with language simultaneously as an object of study and as a medium for
learning. In teaching languages, the target language is not simply a new code – new
labels for the same concepts; rather, when it is effectively taught, the new language
and culture being learned offer the opportunity for learning new concepts and new
ways of understanding the world.
Gunderson suitably describes language and culture: “Language and culture are
inextricably linked. Unlike the Gordian knot, nothing comes from separating them
because they have little or no meaning apart from each other. And English has
become a world language, one that dominates business and science. In many respects
it is hegemonic. To participate in the world economy and to benefit from the
advances of science, it is believed, one must know English” (Gunderson, 2000,
p.694). It is suggested that social class can also affect identity in language learners.
This is due to a particular aspect such as financial matters. For instance, if a language
learner does not have similar financial access, he will be somewhat left out or feel
like an outsider to an extent. He will feel that he is not socially equal to his colearners. Another aspect affecting identity may be the personal abilities of the
student. A personal ability is the competence to do something well. Those two
factors can harm the students' sense of belonging to a community (identity) and
perhaps obstruct their learning. "Although identity is conditioned by social
interaction and social structures, it conditions social interaction and social structures
at the same time. It is, in short, constitutive of and constituted by the social
environment" (Block, 2007, p. 866).
On the other hand, being successful in school means that students must "surrender
great parts of their language and culture" and that "culture is part of identity, and
identity relates to how well a student does in school and in society" (Gunderson,
2000, p. 693). There are several factors to think about within culture, identity and
language that indicate how they are mutually connected. This is due to the country
and its people uniting through language. It is implied that language is a way of
expressing one’s culture and identity, among other things.
An approach to language teaching that has intercultural language learning at its heart
involves developing with students an understanding of their own culture, and the
recognition of the same in others. It also involves understanding the way in which
this recognition influences the process of communication within their own language
�Culture, identity and foreign language teaching and learning
and culture, and across languages and cultures. Through intercultural language
learning, students engage with and learn to understand and interpret human
communication and interaction in increasingly sophisticated ways. They do so both
as participants in communication and as observers who notice, describe, analyse and
interpret ideas, experiences and feelings shared when communicating with others. In
doing so, they engage with interpreting their own and the meanings of others, with
each one's experience of participation and reflection leading to a greater awareness of
self in relation to others. The ongoing interactive exchange of meanings, and the
reflection on both, the meanings exchanged and the process of interaction is an
integral part of life in our world. As such, intercultural language learning is best
understood not as something to be added to teaching and learning but rather
something that is integral to the interactions that already takes place in the classroom
and beyond.
Identity and Second Language Acquisition
More often than not, the identity and culture of the first language are quite different
from the culture of the foreign language. This may lead to the students' identity
changing or leaving them feeling lonely and isolated. Some teachers are not aware of
this effect and thus make the problem even bigger. The curriculum contains cultural
components and the teacher transmits this either wittingly or not. Learning a foreign
language will theoretically demand the learner to adapt his/her values and behaviour
(Jund, 2010). This implies that there is a strong connection between the language and
culture and that it is represented in the culture of the speakers. It includes aspects
such as beliefs, values and needs.
The sociolinguistic aspect of communication refers to the attributes of speech, which
rely on social, pragmatic, and cultural elements. This is notable, as language and
interaction might depend on the social status of the speaker or hearer, as well as on
social factors. It is essential to develop an awareness of socio-cultural and
sociolinguistic differences between the first language of the student and foreign
language. Such awareness may help both the teacher and the student understand
issues of accidental failure and difficulties of communication (Cakir, 2006, p.158).
Additionally, it may result in the discovery of a suitable solution. When individuals
face new social cultures, they find that their sense of identity is weakened and that
they suffer and are somewhat confused until a balance is reached. A transformational
phase happens in the identity of the learner. It is a notion regarding identity and the
essential idea that it revolves around is uncertainty. The feeling of uncertainty comes
from being a part of something and feeling apart from it. It is at the same time
confirmation and withdrawal of these feelings. This issue is important as it can create
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
an uncomfortable, unconfident learner, or if developed in the classroom, may result
in a 'positive', well-balanced identity in a foreign language learner.
The classroom environment can play a crucial part in the development of a learner's
foreign language identity. This idea focuses on the learner as an active participant in
the language learning process, and by extension, identity construction (Van Lier,
2008). Identity construction happens whenever learners are cognitively, emotionally
and physically engaged. Learners begin to understand the complexities of their own
language through classroom study of the target language. They also begin to select
and use functional language that supports their new communicative needs. The
process of integrating a new language into one's cognitive and psychological base
requires time.
Although the foreign language classroom defines a boundary between itself and the
target language community, learner interactions within this context still influence the
development of their foreign language identity. The classroom itself is a rich
environment where learners display evidence of academic and social orientations.
Whether interested in earning a particular grade or preparing for interactions in the
target culture, identity work is part of the foreign language classroom. So, the
acquisition process is dialectical. The learner discovers, deconstructs and analyzes
both the first and the foreign language at the same time.
It can be said that most students learn a foreign language thinking about it as an
advantage that will allow them to fit in and access certain parts of the community to
which they wish to belong. This reflects on the practices of language teaching. In the
process of learning a language, language is a method by which one can express
himself and his identity. It is also a means to challenge this socially constructed
identity, and express the learner’s prejudices. Regarding language learning, it is
important to take into consideration and understand how language is "constructive of
social formations, communities, and individual identities" (Luke, 1996, p.9). This
emphasises the importance of language learning when a student is trying to construct
an identity while at the same time being influenced by external factors such as
society and culture.
McCarthy, Fischer & Penny conclude that it is crucial for teachers to realise and
begin to discuss the issue of "cultural identity, cultural difference, and cultural
community" (McCarthy, 2003, p.445). In the meantime, it is crucial for curriculum
to develop and become more effective, as well as to construct forms of instructional
practice that accommodate and reflect images of self among foreign language
learners. This should begin with the realisation and acceptance that the students'
multilingual and multicultural backgrounds are important and admired as a necessary
instrument of learning. Moreover, it may even include new abilities to understand
�Culture, identity and foreign language teaching and learning
what the curriculum should provide. As a suggestion, the role of the school in this
context is to help, adapt and adjust the student population differences during the
learning process. It should concentrate on using the learners' needs, motivation and
affinities, among other things.
Conclusion
For meaningful and successful communication, students need to be aware of both the
subtle and obvious differences that exist between their first and foreign cultures. The
importance of interpreting speech styles and speech acts appropriately to
communicate effectively is a critical component of foreign language teaching and
learning. Confusion related to the appropriate and correct interpretation of speech
styles and speech acts in the foreign language can arise from differences between
their native language and the language they are learning.
Language-learner identity is socially and individually constructed. Learners place
themselves in relation to the situation at hand and take an active role in seeing
themselves and others around them. Identity work happens during the process of
language acquisition, no matter what the context. Language develops along with
cognitive and emotional development (Granger, 2004), and learning a foreign
language gives learners a new sense of who they are and their place in the world.
Various contexts provide models for learners to imitate, and, if they choose,
appropriate. The informal meetings language learners have with other learners,
whether they be experts or novices, help them to control their own linguistic
development, evaluate their communicative competence and (re)define their identity
within the context.
Our understanding of sociolinguistics has influenced our thinking about the way we
teach a foreign language by emphasising the importance of knowing the relationship
and the purpose of the exchange between speakers (Canale, 1983; Bachman, 1989)
As teachers, we need to value not only our students' native culture and language, but
also how and why their educational background might influence their foreign
language interpretation, acquisition, and production. Teachers need to consider the
social and affective aspects of learning and using a foreign language. When this
happens, new and better ways for students to relate to foreign language learning may
be provided.
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
References
Bachman, L.F. (1989). Learning testing - -SLA research interferences. Review of
Applied Linguistics, 9, 193-209.
Block, D. (2007). The rise of identity in SLA research post. The Modern Language
Journal. 91, 863–876.
Cakir, I. (2006). Developing Cultural Awareness In Foreign Language Teaching.
Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education. 7 (3) 12, 154-161.
Canale, M. (1083). From communicative competence to communicative language
performance. In J, Richards and R. Schmidt (Eds). Language and
communication, 2-27. New York: Longman
Granger, C. A. (2004). Silence in second language learning: A psychoanalytic
reading
Crawshaw, R., Callen, B., & Tusting, K. (2001). Attesting the self: Narration and
identity change during periods of residence abroad [Electronic version].
Language and Intercultural Communication, 1(2), 101-119.
Gunderson, L. (2000). Voices of the teenage diasporas. Journal of Adolescent &
Adult Literacy, 43 (8), 692-706.
Jund, A. (2010). Toward a pedagogy of intercultural understanding in teaching
English for Academic Purposes. The Electronic Journal for English as a
Second Language, 14 (1), 1-13.
Kramsch, Claire. (1993). Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford
University Press.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral
participation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Luke, A. (1996) Text and discourse in education: An introduction to critical
discourse analysis. In M.W. Apple (ed), Review of Research in Education
(pp. 3-48). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association
McCarthy, C. et al (2003).Contesting Culture: Identity and Curriculum Dilemmas in
the Age of Globalization, Postcolonialism, and Multiplicity. Harvard
Educational Review, 73 (3), 449 - 465.
�Culture, identity and foreign language teaching and learning
Spackman, Christopher L., (2009) Culture and Second Language Acquisition. Ohio:
Dominican University.
Svalberg, A. (2012). Language Awareness in language learning and teaching: A
research agenda. Language Teaching, 45/3, 376-388.
Van Lier, L. (2008). Agency in the classroom. In J. Lantolf & M. Poehner (Eds.),
Sociocultural theory and the teaching of second languages (pp. 163-186).
London: Equinox Publishers.
�
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2826
Title
A name given to the resource
Culture, Identity and Foreign Language Teaching And Learning
Author
Author
Dumitrašković, Tatjana A.
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Language, culture and identity are essentially connected. But, it often happens that in foreign language classrooms teachers give little attention to the identity of the student. A student enters the classroom with his own identity and culture. When learning a foreign language, it is necessary for the student to learn and understand the culture of the foreign language, too. This is where the problem arises of culture and identity influencing teaching and learning foreign languages. In general, students are representatives of the identity and culture of their first language and where they come from. In order for the student to learn the foreign language he must feel that he can express himself freely in the classroom. However, the students are likely to become confused when they are faced with the new culture of the foreign language. They now have to understand and adjust this to their sense of identity and their culture, and this can often lead to uncertainty. It can result in the student feeling unsure as to where they belong in the community. The teacher needs to be aware of this issue and should include it to the method of teaching and resources used. The paper deals with the question of how the process of teaching and learning a foreign language affects the students’ identity and sense of belonging to a community. Keywords: foreign language, culture, identity
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-04-15
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/df375b2eb4f4b2d6c641ca40a327573c.pdf
0eec75207b0409271a7d90d7d1d180a4
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the
context of Croatian and German
Snježana Babić
Tanja Gradečak-Erdeljić
Josip Juraj Strossmayer University, Croatia
Submitted: 15.04.2014.
Accepted: 02.11.2014.
Abstract
The aim of this research is to establish the relevance of the results from a survey
conducted among university students of English and German at the University of
Osijek. The survey was construed in order to establish the degree of awareness
among non-native users of English on how anglicisms are treated in the context of
Croatian and German language systems and what strategies are used to cope with
the pervasive influence of English vocabulary. Preliminary results show that
English lexical borrowings from the field of IT technology are used very
frequently in their communication via computers and mobile phones and the
students are rather slow to acquire the suggested Croatian and German equivalents
and neologisms in the IT terminology.
Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological
adaptation, and neologisms will be researched by applying a questionnaire with
both lexical and visual prompts for the students. The goal is to elicit responses that
will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function
as a "language of identification" or a "language of communication" (House, 2003).
Keywords: Anglicism, borrowings, neologisms, Croatian, German
Introduction
The process of language change is an essential and natural part of the development
of every language and in this sense it abides by the principles of a descriptive
approach to the study of (a) language. By its very nature, the process of describing
the changing and fluctuating characteristics of language must rely on describing
the external factors of change, namely, its speakers and their linguistic production
such as it is. Approaching the language as it is spoken by its users follows the
�How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German
tenets of the usage-based model of language (Langacker, 1987), which seeks to
ground language structure in the actual instances of language – the usage event.
Following the approach to language change as a natural process that spreads from
the domain of historical linguistics into the area of sociolinguistics, pragmatics,
linguistic anthropology and cognitive sciences in general (Aitchinson, 2004),
linguistic changes can be studied at their micro and macro levels. Relevant in that
sense are the length of the research period, which is usually labelled as a
diachronic (longitudinal) approach, as opposed to the synchronic approach within
a shorter period and at several sociolinguistic levels.
In the case of the research conducted in the classes of German and English as a
second language, we adopted the synchronic approach of testing the current state
of affairs with reference to a particular sociolinguistic group of young people,
students at the Department of English and the Department of German at the
University of Osijek, Croatia. Our aim was to establish how the most up-to-date
lexical units from the field of IT technology, in our case lexemes, abbreviations
and acronyms used in texting, chatting, emailing and social networking break the
barrier of English as a source language and enter students' Croatian and German
as mother tongue and other second language, respectively. We wanted to establish
the degree of their awareness of potential equivalents to English terms and
abbreviations and thus suggest some preliminary guidelines for the treatment of
anglicisms in both Croatian and German language classes.
Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological
adaptation, and neologisms were researched by applying a questionnaire with both
lexical and visual prompts for the students. Their responses will be analysed and
put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a ‘language of
identification’ or a ‘language of communication’ (House, 2003). As a ‘language of
communication’ English has established its firm leading position as a useful
instrument for communicating in international encounters with others who do not
speak one’s own native language. Croatian has been recognized as a ‘language of
identification’ by the participants in the survey and the elicited results in the use of
English terms and their Croatian equivalents clearly point in that direction. The
affective stance of Croatian students toward their mother tongue defines it as a
‘language of identification’, possessing the necessary affective-emotive quality
necessary for the identification of an individual with a larger linguistic-cultural
community. In our research German straddles a fine line between those two types
because it is neither the students’ mother tongue, nor the imposing lingua franca,
but a second language taught at a tertiary level. Precisely thus, the results from the
research conducted among the students of German as L2 show the most
interesting results, pointing to a current battle between anglicisms, German
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
counterparts and Croatian equivalents as a potential buffer zone between the two
camps. Due to the limitation of space, the affective element in the process of
deciding between the counterparts has been left out and will probably be part of
some further analysis.
English as a global language and a lingua franca
As Crystal observed (1997:2): ”A language achieves a genuinely global status
when it develops a special role that is recognized in every country.” The ways in
which it may achieve its special status is either for it to become ‘a second
language’, an official language of government and media and where the speakers
learn it form an early age along with their mother tongue, or when it achieves
priority status in foreign-language teaching in schools. English long ago acquired
its status as the global language, mostly due to the phenomenon described by
Crystal as the closest of links between language dominance and cultural power.
The British political and industrial imperialism of the 19th century gave way to the
American economic supremacy of the 20th century, which is now extending into
the third millennium. Suffice it to say that the brunt of both types of power types
produced a strong cultural revolution, mostly based on the ever-present
entertainment industry and technological advancements.
The means of communication involving the keyboard-to-screen (KTS) channel
(Jucker & Dürscheid, 2012) indeed put a spin on the famous description of
English as ‘the language on which the sun never sets’ (Crystal, 1997: 67) since the
virtual space of electronically powered devices enables its users to communicate
day and night, spanning the reach of English both in space and time.
Every consideration about the extent to which English influences other languages
and other cultures must keep in mind the limitations of its linguistic system, or,
rather, lack thereof, because, as House (2003:557) points out, some of the major
characteristics of today’s global English are its functional flexibility and its spread
across many different domains. The typological mixture of English and its relative
morphological simplicity is a basis on its own for the internal adaptability to new
concepts to be linguistically encoded. Native speakers of English are themselves
continuously producing innumerable examples of new, inventive lexical and
idiomatic structures adjusting their vocabulary to the given linguistic system of
English, but, at the same time, slightly shifting the boundaries of the already
existing system in haphazard, but persistent processes of lexicalization and
grammaticalisation. English has thus earned its role as a legitimate lingua franca
of the modern world and more recently a strand of EFL research suggested a new
term of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF). According to House (ibid.), ELF can't
be treated as either a pidgin or a language for specific purposes, or as a form of
interlanguage in Selinker's terms, but as a type of a contact language for speakers
�How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German
sharing neither a native tongue or national culture, who use English as their
chosen language of communication. The position of the English language as a
potential threat for native languages is thus defied by a free-willing approach to its
use by a heterogeneous group of speakers from all strands of life and all around
the globe. Rather than acting as a killer language, ELF can also give rise to the
following paradoxical situation: using ELF as a language for communication often
strengthens the use of native languages for identification purposes and as a vehicle
of protest against ELF dominance.
We therefore witness today strong and healthy counter-currents, not only in
particular language policies by different state authorities trying to promote
vocabulary of a national language, but even among different generations of
speakers of national languages, i.e. even among the members of the young
generation who treat their national language as a first line of defence in the
struggle for their personal identification.
The treatment of jargon and slang in SLA
As noted by Birdsong (2004: 86) the conceptualization of the mature state in the
process of L1 or L2 acquisition presupposes incremental progress, and thus no
absolute finality, in learning. This lack of finality subsumes all the aspects of
language change mentioned above, particularly additions of novel lexical items
(along with idioms, slang, dialectal variants, technical jargon, etc.) and occasional
changes in surface morphological or phonetic forms, but not re-representation of the
underlying grammar.
The classroom treatment of jargon (business jargon, medical jargon etc.) is, of
course, a necessary element for any studiously created curriculum of English for
Specific Purposes course, but in the cases of more general SLA class, when the use
of terminology includes elements of a particular professional jargon (in our case IT
terminology or KTS communication jargon), and the fluctuating basis of slang
expressions, the teaching attitude should be approached from a more tentative angle
and the advantages and disadvantages.
Methodology
The corpus consists of 20 electronic RAs in the field of general psychology
consisting of 105 307 running words selected from two online journals available in
PsychInfo base: Motivaton and Emotion (IF=1,339) and Cognition and Emotion
(IF=1,901)2. The RAs were selected according to the following criteria. They were
all original research reports of correlational studies published between 2008 and
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
2009. Additionally, they followed a standard IMRD framework and were
approximately of the same length, ranging from 4,000-6,000 words. As for the data
analysis procedure, the corpus was divided into four sub-corpora, each consisting of
one of the four obligatory sections of RAs3. The text analysis was done by means of
the lexical analysis software WordSmith Tools 5.0 (Scott, 1996), in particular its
analytical tool Concordancer. The raw frequency counts were normed to a basis per
1,000 words, using the following method: raw frequency count/a total length of a text
x 1,000 words= normed frequency count4.
Results
Fig.1. presents the distribution of three categories of epistemic modality markers
selected for frequency analysis across IMRD structure of RAs. As can be seen, the
Method section shows the lowest incidence of epistemic markers, unlike the
Discussion section with the highest frequency of epistemic modality markers. The
most frequent type of epistemic markers used in Introductions includes epistemic
modals, followed by epistemic lexical verbs, whereas in Discussions these two
categories seem to be quite evenly distributed. The overall use of epistemic adverbs,
adjectives, and nouns is the lowest in frequency although they show rather even
distribution across Introductions and Discussions. Relative frequency of most
commonly used epistemic markers across IMRD structure is given in Fig.2.
Discussion
As can be seen in Fig.1. the distribution of epistemic modality markers seem to
match well with the rhetorical functions of each RA section. According to Nwogu's
(1997) schemata of RA moves in medical RA, the Method section deals with the
conventionalized descriptions of data collection and data-analysis procedures. This
implies that writers generally do not need to qualify their claims in this section,
which is reflected in low frequency of epistemic occurrences. The Result section is
rhetorically different in that it generally refers to the presentation of the results of
statistical analysis. The higher frequency of evaluative language in this section
indicates that while presenting the research results, writers seem to simultaneously
comment on them and to some extent qualify their claims tentatively, implying that
there might be alternative explanations for the results obtained. (e.g. It is possible
that co-variation among the variables may account for this result.). As is evident in
Fig. 1, epistemic lexical verbs were used most frequently compared to the other two
categories under study. Their overall use across IMRD tends to be largely
conventionalized in academic discourse (see Fig.2), especially as constituents of
frequently occurring lexical bundles such as: Results suggest. However, due to their
polysemous nature, the pragmatic interpretation of their epistemic status demands a
larger-scale study and is therefore beyond the scope of this paper.
�How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German
The second highest epistemically modalized section is Introduction, which is also in
accordance with its rhetorical purpose. In this section writers primarily present the
current state of knowledge taking positions towards them where relevant. Also they
offer interpretations of the previous research in an attempt to establish a niche for
their own (Swales, 1990). Unlike the Discussion section, where writers are more
often the sources of epistemic judgments that make them more subjective in their
evaluations, the epistemic judgments presented in Introductions are more descriptive
(Nuyts, 2000), i.e. they are frequently reports of other people's evaluations. (e.g.
Ickes et al. (2000) proposed that women’s typical advantage on tests of interpersonal
sensitivity might be due to motivational differences stemming from the stereotypically
female nature of such tasks.). The results suggest the highest incidence of epistemic
modal verbs, although the use of other categories does not seem to be significantly
lower. Among the modal verbs, the findings indicate the predominant use of the
modal verb may, which matches its chief semantic role as a hedging device (Coates,
1983), followed by might, indicating an even higher degree of tentativeness and
indirectness.
Finally, the densest section regarding epistemic qualifications is the Discussion with
the highest overall incidence of epistemic markers, which is motivated by its
information structure. It is in this section that writers interpret their results, draw
tentative conclusions, admit limitations of their research that might have contributed
to the nature of their findings, and suggest possible implications of their research,
which are some of the chief reasons why greater caution is required when presenting
claims. The distribution of modal verbs (f/1000=5.61) and epistemic lexical verbs
(f/1000=5.92) seems to be relatively close, which suggests their conventional use by
psychology writers when making epistemic judgments. (e.g. Indeed, it may be that
self-discrepancies predict emotional distress predominantly among those individuals
who believe that one’s discrepancies are unlikely to change./This seems to indicate
that dispositional pessimists neither plan nor prepare the task to be undertaken,
which suggests they are in a state of helplessness.)
Based on the research findings, the most salient pragmatic aspects of epistemic
markers in the corpus indicate their hedging function. Authors hedge the strong,
assertive claims, admitting, among others, that their findings can be considered
plausible given the limited nature of the research conducted (Hyland, 1998). The
reliability and plausibility of the research findings are to be viewed as the logical
inferences of the research rather than as individual speculations. To sum up, the
results of the corpus-based analysis point to some of the most salient aspects
regarding the distribution and use of selected epistemic modality markers. However,
this picture is far from complete and might be considered as the first step in
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
exploring the complexity of epistemic modality and its pragmatics in the field of
psychology.
Figure.1. Distribution of anglicisms and their Croatian and German equivalents
100
80
60
English
40
Croatian
20
0
Input 1
Input 2
Input 3
Input 4
Input 5
Input 6
Figure 2. Relative percentage of most commonly used Croatian and German
equivalents
English
Croatian
favorites
2.05
71
1.35
47
0.37
13
0.80
28
0.66
23
0.28
10
download
password
attachment
update
paste
file
refresh
edit
German
0.04
1
0.24
6
0.40
10
0.08
2
0.04
1
0.25
5
0.60
12
1.80
36
0.10
2
0.45
9
0.35
7
3.03
79
2.57
67
1.19
31
1.69
44
0.96
25
0.65
17
1.48
156
1.25
132
0.85
90
0.72
76
0.54
57
0.33
35
�How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German
record
Implications for classroom teaching
The second section of the paper outlines the classroom tasks designed to acquire
some information about the extent to which the undergraduates understand the
concept of epistemic modality and use of epistemic markers in their field of study. It
should be noted that the students were made familiar with the basic aspects of this
linguistic category prior to the completion of tasks. The undergraduates are first-year
students of psychology at the Faculty of Philosophy in Osijek. Given the length of
the paper, the task instructions and only one example per task are outlined followed
by a summarized discussion of students' responses.
Conclusion
Overall, the responses suggest that the majority of first-year students understand the
concept of epistemic modality and can recognize its typical exponents in the
authentic sentences extracted from a specialized RA corpus. We find that the
inclusion of epistemic modality should be an integral component of EAP courses,
due to the complexity of the concept which, however, has been proved to be one of
the most characteristic elements of written academic discourse. At this level of
language learning the students should be guided by being exposed to the highly
frequent epistemic markers through awareness-raising tasks. These tasks should be
based on authentic material, bringing students’ attention to the actual language in
use. Still, the production should be guided in the manner of providing prompts in the
form of hedging devices (see Discussion point 3). Only at the higher level of
language learning could we expect a greater degree of independent use of structures
containing epistemic markers leading to the development of more advanced
academic writing skills.
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
References
Birdsong, D. (2004). Second Language Acquisition and Ultimate Attainment. In
Davies, Alan and Catherine Elder (Eds.). The Handbook of Applied
Linguistics. (pp. 82-105). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Jucker, A. H.& C. Dürscheid. (2012). The Linguistics of Keyboard-to-screen
Communication. A New Terminological Framework. Linguistik online 56,
6/2012
Langacker, R.W. (1987). The Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Vol. 1.
Stanford: Stanford University Press.
�
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2825
Title
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How much is too much? – The treatment of anglicisms in the context of Croatian and German
Author
Author
Babić, Snežana
Gradečak-Erdeljić, Tanja
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The aim of this research is to establish the relevance of the results from a survey conducted among university students of English and German at the University of Osijek. The survey was construed in order to establish the degree of awareness among non-native users of English on how anglicisms are treated in the context of Croatian and German language systems and what strategies are used to cope with the pervasive influence of English vocabulary. Preliminary results show that English lexical borrowings from the field of IT technology are used very frequently in their communication via computers and mobile phones and the students are rather slow to acquire the suggested Croatian and German equivalents and neologisms in the IT terminology. Three basic strategies of direct borrowing, phonological and morphological adaptation, and neologisms will be researched by applying a questionnaire with both lexical and visual prompts for the students. The goal is to elicit responses that will be analysed and put in the context of whether Croatian and German function as a "language of identification" or a "language of communication" (House, 2003). Keywords: Anglicism, borrowings, neologisms, Croatian, German
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-04-15
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PD Germanic languages,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PT Germanic literature
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/193f2509e547effd21bd12f5fca8923a.pdf
d189bc6e4d6d8ae6e22e71f9fe0a08d7
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia
Magdalena Nigoević & Koraljka Pejić & Trišnja Pejić
University of Split, Croatia
Submitted: 16.04.2014.
Accepted: 19.11.2014.
Abstract
It is a general belief that students need to receive substantial input of authentic
materials in FLT. The combination of verbal information with full visual
experiences, such as films, has been found most appealing. Not only a large amount
of natural language, but also a rich variety of cultural forms and expressions are
mediated by this kind of “comprehensible input” (Krashen 1985). Various studies
have demonstrated the ways in which intralingual subtitled audio-visual material can
improve the effectiveness of general foreign language comprehension (Caimi 2002,
Vanderplank 1988) and how it can be a useful tool in foreign language teaching and
foreign language acquisition (Neuman & Koskinen 1992).
Most foreign television and cinema programs distributed in Croatia have always been
accompanied by interlingual subtitles; therefore the viewers are accustomed to them.
Consequently, such a habit can be efficiently exploited in foreign language learning
among Croatian students who will certainly more easily develop strategies to derive
benefits from subtitled films.
The main aim of this study was to examine whether and to what extent film subtitles
(captions) increase learners’ ability to process languages. Our hypothesis was that
subtitles facilitate general comprehension of a film, provided that the linguistic
difficulty of the authentic film material has been carefully selected in order to match
the students’ overall competency in L2. Our research was conducted among students
of B1/B2 level of English L2. Students were divided into two groups: one group
watched a sequence of a feature film without subtitles, while the other was shown the
same material with subtitles. Both groups were given a specially designed test to
assess their general comprehension of the viewed material. The findings revealed that
the group of students viewing the subtitled film showed better results than the other
group.
Keywords: FLT, authentic audio-visual material, intralingual film subtitles, Croatian
learners
181
�Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia
Introduction
Learners of a foreign language do not always have an opportunity to communicate
with ‘native speakers’. Therefore, it is exceptionally important that they are
continually exposed to interactional and speech patterns of L2. This can easily be
achieved by using audio-visual materials. The role of audio-visual materials as a
stimulating and facilitating tool in the process of teaching and learning a foreign
language has been widely acknowledged. “They can provide (a) the motivation
achieved by basing lessons on attractively informative content material; (b) the
exposure to a varied range of authentic speech, with different registers, and (c)
language used in the context of real situations, which adds relevance and interest to
the learning process” (Carrasquillo 1994:140). Through such materials students
become acquainted with various sorts of verbal and non-verbal behaviour in L2,
conversational strategies (opening and closing, turn taking) and various cultural
patterns.
Among other audio-visual materials, film is probably the most authentic, that is,
“authentic, in the sense that the language is not artificially constrained, and is, at the
same time, amenable to exploitation for language teaching purposes” (MacWilliam
1986: 134). It is an excellent medium for introducing various aspects of the foreign
language in the classroom. Furthermore, films allow teachers and learners to explore
the nonverbal and cultural aspects of language as well as verbal. It can also be highly
motivating since it shows real-life situations and characters, thus giving an authentic
and often amusing way to get acquainted with the (extra)linguistic and cultural
aspects of the target reality.
Subtitles in foreign language learning
Various studies have been carried out on the ways in which intralingual1 subtitled
audio-visual material can improve the effectiveness of general foreign language
comprehension (Caimi 2002, Markham 1993 and 1999, Vanderplank 1988) and how
it can be a useful tool in foreign language teaching and foreign language acquisition.
Among others, Garza (1991) studied the way in which subtitles (captions) affect the
study of vocabulary at higher level learners and concluded that the use of subtitles
increases the comprehension and acquisition of vocabulary. Neuman & Koskinen
(1992) obtained similar results in their study with advanced EFL students and came
to a conclusion that students who watched subtitled (captioned) videos demonstrate
better comprehension and vocabulary acquisition results. Baltova (1999) conducted
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
an experiment with French students in Canada whose native language was English.
The purpose of her study was to find out how the learning and retention of content
and vocabulary in French were affected by different authentic video formats. She
also proved that the retention of the video content was superior under the subtitled
conditions. The special edition of R.I.L.A. (Rassegna Italiana di Linguistica
Applicata), edited by Annamaria Caimi in 2002, contains the proceedings of a
scientific conference on subtitled films and several papers are focused on the role of
subtitles in foreign language teaching and learning.
Most the studies have focused on short-term effects of text aids, although some
authors advocate the systematic collection of long-term data (Danan 2004: 75-76).
The insight into both short- and long-term effects of subtitling can be seen in the
experiment done by Bianchi e Ciabattoni (2008) in a broad-range investigation
among the Italian adult learners of English. There were also past experiences and
projects which encouraged the use of foreign language learning methods based on the
creation of subtitles by students and pupils.2
All the findings agree that subtitling can contribute to language learning and that in
formal learning contexts, subtitling can reduce the anxiety experienced by foreign
language learners. The use of subtitled audio-visual material has the advantages of
providing simultaneous exposure to spoken language, printed text and visual
information, all conveying the same message (see: Baltova 1999: 33). Moreover,
subtitles can function as an important element that bridges the gap between reading
and listening skills (see: Borrás & Lafayette 1994).
Most foreign programs distributed in Croatia, as in other so-called “subtitling
countries”3, have always been accompanied by interlingual subtitles; therefore the
viewers are exposed to subtitled foreign television and cinema programs from a very
young age. As the viewers are accustomed to the logic of subtitling, they can easily
switch to the use of intralingual or same-language subtitles. Consequently, such a
habit can be efficiently exploited in foreign language learning among Croatian
students who will certainly more easily develop strategies to derive benefits from
subtitled films.4 However, the integration of film subtitles into language learning and
teaching practice in Croatia has so far been unsatisfactory and few studies (Strmečki
Marković 2003) investigated the use of film subtitles.
Method of the Study
The main objective of this study was to examine whether and to what extent film
subtitles increase the language-processing ability of the learners. We wanted to
determine whether watching a subtitled film facilitates general comprehension
among Croatian learners. For the purpose of this study the opening sequence (7’50’’)
of the feature film About a Boy (2002, directed by Paul Weitz) was chosen. The
183
�Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia
actors in the sequence are native speakers and use contemporary, standard variant of
the English language. The topics of their conversations and monologues are common
and deal with everyday situations, well known to the learners. The vocabulary and
structures used in the sequence are already familiar to upper-intermediate level
students.
Our research was conducted among Croatian secondary school students of English
L2 at B1/B2 level of the Common European Framework. The students were divided
in two groups. The groups were homogenous in terms of the number of hours of
studying English in secondary school (380), in terms of age (17-18) and accordingly,
in terms of general culture and cineliteracy. The Treatment group viewed the selected
sequence with subtitles, while the Control group watched the same sequence without
subtitles.
The general comprehension of the viewed material was tested by a particularly
designed test. The test consisted of fifteen (15) open questions that the participants
had to fill in, based on the information they heard in the sequence. Some questions
required several elements in the answer, so the total score was 19. For each correct
answer the participants scored one point. Each test was corrected by two
independent, experienced English language teachers. Synonyms were also accepted
as correct answers, provided that participant’s comprehension was confirmed.
The experiment was conducted among secondary school students in Split (Croatia) in
March 2014. The total number of students was one hundred (100), divided in two
groups of fifty (50) participants each. They were given precise instructions for the
activity: first they had to read the comprehension test questions, then carefully watch
the sequence and afterwards answer the questions. They were not allowed to look at
the questions while watching the sequence. Immediately after watching it, they were
asked to complete the previously designed test and were given ten minutes (10’) for
the task.
The collected data were processed using t-test (SPSS programme) in order to
determine the statistical difference between the Treatment group and the Control
group.
Our hypothesis was that the group that watched the film sequence with subtitles
(Treatment group) would have a higher score in the comprehension test than the
Control group that had watched the same sequence without subtitles.
Discussion and findings
184
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
After the answer sheets were collected and corrected, the score for each group was
calculated. We ran these data through t-test to assess whether the means of the two
groups were statistically different from each other. This analysis is appropriate
whenever it is important to compare two groups. As can be seen in Figure 1: the
Treatment group had a mean score of 13.06, while the Control group had 6.58.
The mean of the Treatment Group minus that of the Control Group equals -6.48.
Given the 95% confidence interval, the difference is from -7.94 to -5.02. The
standard error of difference was 0.736 (see Table 1).
Table 1. Results of the comprehension test
Control Group
Mean
6.58
Standard deviation
3.85
N (number of participants) 50
Treatment Group
13.06
3.45
50
By conventional criteria, the t-test showed that the difference is considered to be
extremely statistically significant. All the participants watched the same film
sequence and the comprehension was tested by the same test. All the participants
were equal in terms of all relevant criteria (age, numbers of hours of studying
English, general culture and cineliteracy). The only difference between the groups
185
�Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia
was the intervention with subtitles, in that the Treatment group had the opportunity to
listen to the speech and simultaneously read the uttered words in the form of
subtitles, while the participants of the Control group based their understanding only
on the spoken utterances. Since all participants were equal and tested in equal
conditions, the difference in the scores can be attributed exclusively to the presence
or absence of subtitles.
Conclusion
The findings are in accordance with previously conducted studies and these results
lead us to the conclusion that subtitled film strategies have a positive impact to
students’ overall comprehension skills. Because of its realistic use of language, its
undemanding grasp and its attractiveness, watching a foreign language film as an
activity has an encouraging effect. Not only is film an important source of different
themes and topics, it also offers audio-visual stimulation for developing listening,
speaking reading and general comprehension skills in foreign language learning. It is
important, however, to take into account that a film may be an assisting medium in
covering a topic and that it has to be adequate to the level of students’ language
competences.
If used appropriately, such exposure to film subtitles with Croatian students should
definitely strengthen their foreign language comprehension and acquisition of
language functions and structures.
Nevertheless, the authors are aware of the fact that this study was conducted on a
relatively small sample, homogenous in their age and education level. These data
were collected exclusively from learners of English as L2 in a country where foreign
TV and cinema programmes are usually subtitled and rarely dubbed, so viewers are
accustomed to subtitles. Therefore, these data should be applied with caution when
making inferences about other types of L2 learners.
Notes
1
This refers to audio-visual material subtitled in the same language as the original.
Same-language subtitles are also labelled captions or bimodal, unilingual, or
intralingual subtitles in scholarly literature (Danan 2004: 68). Captioning was
initially intended for individuals who are hearing impaired, but later was used in all
spheres of life, both as didactic material and as an assisting tool in daily watching
video programmes and films. On the other hand, interlingual (or interlinguistic)
subtitling refers to audio-visual material in a foreign language subtitled in the
learner's language and it is the most common way of translating a medium into
186
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
another language so that speakers of other languages can follow it. For the purpose of
this study we will use the term ‘subtitles,’ which has become a common term in
Europe referring only to intralingual subtitles.
2
Such as the LeViS (Learning via Subtitling) project, was coordinated by Hellenic
Open University in Greece within the framework of Socrates Programme, LINGUA
2 (2006-2008) which developed the educational material for active foreign language
learning based on film subtitling. (see: http://levis.cti.gr/)
3
Subtitling is the language transfer practice used most widely in Europe. It concerns
28 countries (26 countries plus two regions in two countries): Belgium (Flemishspeaking), Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Sweden, Switzerland (German-speaking), Turkey and United Kingdom. (Retrieved
13
April
2014
from:
http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/llp/studies/documents/study_on_the_use_of_subtitling/rapp
ort_final-en.pdf)
4
Some American authors even emphasise “the incidental language learning
occurring in Europe with spectators of American films” (Danan 2004: 68).
References
Baltova, I. (1999). Multisensory language teaching in a multidimensional curriculum:
The use of authentic bimodal video in core French. The Canadian Modern
Language Review, 56 (1), 32-48.
Bianchi, F. & Ciabattoni, T. (2008). Captions and Subtitles in EFL Learning: an
investigative study in a comprehensive computer environment. In: Baldry A.,
M.Pavesi, C.Taylor Torsello & C.Taylor (eds) From Didactas to Ecolingua: an
ongoing research project n translation, 69-90. EUT, Edizioni Università di
Trieste.
Retrieved
from
www.openstarts.units.it/dspace/bitstream/10077/2848/1/bianchi_ciabattoni.pdf
Borrás, I. & Lafayette, R. (1994). Effects of multimedia courseware subtitling on the
speaking performance on college students of French. The Modern Language
Journal, 78 (1), 61-75.
Caimi, A. (ed.) (2002). Cinema: Paradiso delle lingue. I sottotitoli
nell’apprendimento linguistico. Special issue of RILA – Rassegna Italiana di
Linguistica Applicata, 34 (1-2).
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�Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia
Carrasquillo, A. L. (1994). Teaching English as a second language: A resource
guide. New York: Garland Publishing.
Danan, M. (2004). Captioning and subtitling: Undervalued language learning
strategies. Meta, 49(1), 67-77.
Garza, T. (1991). Evaluating the use of captioned video materials in advanced
foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 24 (3), 239-258.
Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. London:
Longman.
MacWilliam, I. (1986). Video and language comprehension. ELT Journal, 40 (2):
131-135.
Markham, P. (1993). Captioned TV videotapes: Effects of visual support on second
language comprehension. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 21 (3),
183-191.
Markham, P. (1999). Captioned videotapes and second-language listening word
recognition. Foreign Language Annals, 32 (3), 321-328.
Neuman, S.B. & Koskinen, P. (1992). Captioned TV as comprehensible input:
Effects of incidental word learning from context for language minority students.
Reading Research Quarterly, 27 (1), 94-106.
Strmečki Marković, S. (2003). Igrani film u nastavi jezičnih vježbi u sklopu studija
germanistike u Zagrebu. Strani jezici, 32 (3), 59-68.
Vanderplank, R. (1988). The value of teletext subtitles in language learning. English
Language Teaching (ELT) Journal, 42 (4), 272-281.
188
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Using Film Subtitles in FLT in Croatia
Author
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Nigoević, Magdalena
Pejić, Koraljka
Pejić, Trišnja
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
It is a general belief that students need to receive substantial input of authentic materials in FLT. The combination of verbal information with full visual experiences, such as films, has been found most appealing. Not only a large amount of natural language, but also a rich variety of cultural forms and expressions are mediated by this kind of “comprehensible input” (Krashen 1985). Various studies have demonstrated the ways in which intralingual subtitled audio-visual material can improve the effectiveness of general foreign language comprehension (Caimi 2002, Vanderplank 1988) and how it can be a useful tool in foreign language teaching and foreign language acquisition (Neuman & Koskinen 1992). Most foreign television and cinema programs distributed in Croatia have always been accompanied by interlingual subtitles; therefore the viewers are accustomed to them. Consequently, such a habit can be efficiently exploited in foreign language learning among Croatian students who will certainly more easily develop strategies to derive benefits from subtitled films. The main aim of this study was to examine whether and to what extent film subtitles (captions) increase learners’ ability to process languages. Our hypothesis was that subtitles facilitate general comprehension of a film, provided that the linguistic difficulty of the authentic film material has been carefully selected in order to match the students’ overall competency in L2. Our research was conducted among students of B1/B2 level of English L2. Students were divided into two groups: one group watched a sequence of a feature film without subtitles, while the other was shown the same material with subtitles. Both groups were given a specially designed test to assess their general comprehension of the viewed material. The findings revealed that the group of students viewing the subtitled film showed better results than the other group. Keywords: FLT, authentic audio-visual material, intralingual film subtitles, Croatian learners
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2015-04-16
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P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ebd20cc4420a4ea16d67532e27b9f240.pdf
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Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Emotion and colour:
conceptualisation
Physiology,
lexicalisation
and
Draženka Molnar
University of J.J. Strossmayer, Croatia
Submitted: 16.04.2014.
Accepted: 22.11.2014.
Abstract
In English and in many other European languages, Croatian included, it is quite
common to use colour terms as an indicator of different emotions. When we talk
about colour and humans, we areactually referring to the colour of their skin, more
precisely their face.
The main goal of this study is to investigate the correlation between the primary
colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions in English and
Croatian. Since most of the current research on emotion concepts has focused on
English, we would like to provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of
emotions. A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis of the two language corpora (the
British National Corpus and the Croatian National Corpus) in the first part of the
paper should offer a better insight into the salience of basic emotion categories in
reference to basic colour categories. The second part of the paper investigates the
motivation behind some of the linguistic expressions within the framework of
cognitive linguistics. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system
of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic
patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under
study.
Key words: emotion, colour, collocational units, conceptual metaphor, metonymy
Introduction
The present paper investigatesthe reasons why colour terms and emotions are
frequently associated in the different languages of the world.Within the confines of
this study, it will be possible to show what corpus data of two unrelated languages,
English and Croatian, reveal about the correlation between the colour terms in
collocational units and their corresponding emotions. Since most of the current
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�Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation
research on either emotion or colour concepts has focused on English, the present
study will provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions.
The cross-linguistic overlap between the colour terms and emotion terms and the
salient nature of their basic categories is investigated within the framework of
cognitive linguistics. In line with the bulk of recent cognitive developments(Lakoff,
1987; Kövecses, 1990, 1991), the findings suggest two relevant sources of
conceptual motivation – conceptual metaphor and metonymy. Despite the obvious
cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language
links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force,
are likely to appear in both languages under study. Furthermore, it will be suggested
that universality would be assigned to the bodily bases of language and cognition,
whereas cultural variation to the interaction between body and culture (Gibbs, 1999,
2003).
Although this paper is not a direct contrastive study with English, we believe it is a
small but important contribution regardingthe similarities and differences between
the two languages.
The main questions to be answered in this study are (i) to what extent do the corpus
data support the claim of preferable colour-emotion co-occurrence and (ii) what do
contextualised linguistic instantiations reveal about the sources of conceptual
motivation and their productivity in regard to the integration of universality and
culture?
Basic-Level Emotion and Colour Concepts
Emotions and colours are a natural part of human experience. Even though we
constantly experience and talk about them, the interrelations between the experience,
concepts and lexicalisation is far from obvious.Over the past few decades, there has
been a growing interdisciplinary interest in the universalities and specificities of
emotions and emotion concepts. Several theorists (Kövecses,1986; Shaver et al.,
1987) have discussed, and in some cases began to explore empirically, the concept of
emotion with respect to the notions of basic-level categories and prototype theory
(Rosch, 1973). Despite the cross-linguistic differences in the range and scope of
specific emotion terms, the very principles of conceptualising emotions have been
claimed to be universal (Wierzbicka, 1999). Hupka et al, 1997 made an attempt to
demonstrate the universal development of emotion categories in 64 natural
languages.
Similarly, Berlin and Kay's contrastive study into colour semantics proposesthe
evolutionary universality of basic colour terms by claiming that “a total universal
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
inventory of exactly eleven basic colour categories exists from which the eleven of
fewer basic colour terms of any given language are always drawn” (Berlin and Kay,
1969: 2). Whereas a great deal of theoretical progress was made by adopting the
notion of basic in colour semantics, no such progress was achieved in the case of
emotions. However, for the purpose of this study, we have adopted Shaver et al.
(1987) five basic-level emotion terms: fear, sadness, anger, joy and love.
Facial Colour and Mood
When we talk about colour and humans, we actually refer to the colour of their skin.
Since we would be primarily concerned with the fuzzy territory between literal and
figurative use of colour, we only take into account those occasions in which the
colour term refers to skin, more precisely the face. As we already know, skin colour
is susceptible to change under the influence of several factors: sun exposure,
emotions and sickness.
The flexible nature and fuzziness of emotion categories point to the existence of
many emotion words that denote emotional blends that are related to more than one
prototype. Polysemous nature of colour terms, on the other hand, makes them equally
productive, with meaning variants not primarily related to colour properties. The
following section aims to attest the possible systematicity of the emotion-facial
colour co-occurrence and offer some explanations regarding their salience.
Colour Terms and Emotions in the BNC and the CNC
In this study, we have taken into account 136 highest ranked emotion words in
Shaver et al. (1987). However, the fact that all the emotion words are nouns might
somewhat affect the final results. The emotion words were searched for in the British
National Corpus (BNC) and the Croatian National Corpus (CNC) in combination
with eleven basic colour terms(which exist in both languages) and two additional
elaborate colour terms. TheCroatian National Corpus, although limited in size (30
million words) and considered a work in progress, is the only avalilable source of
text for the present analysis. Aware of its limitations and different structure, we made
an effort to retrieve and use the data to the best of our abilities.The amount of context
taken into account for the search was a span of 5:5, which means that to be
registered, the colour word had to appear within five words on either side of the
emotional words. On the completion of the search, all the data were examined
manually since a large number of the retrieved examples with colour terms had no
relation to the emotion term. Additionally, numerous examples, such as black
thoughts / crne misli were excluded from the search becausethere is no explicit
connection between the colour term and the emotion term.
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�Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation
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Corpora analysis
Results of the English and Croatian data analysis are presented in the Table 1 and are
discussed in greater detail below. The table is divided into three parts that represent
three different foci in the colour domain. Individual colours are therefore mentioned
twice, but only for expository reasons. The number of occurrences is distributed
along the five major clustersLOVE, JOY, ANGER, SADNESS and FEAR.The subcategory
names suggested by Shaver et al. (1987: 1067) are slightly altered by the author of
this paper.
The total number of emotion terms co-occurring with a mention of skin colour was
relatively high, namely 25. However, the number of colour terms referring to the skin
colour connected to the emotion was surprisingly low. Only 10 colours were
recorded in this context (white, pink, red, scarlet, crimson, purple, black, yellow,
green and grey).
Some colours, such as brown, orange and surprisingly blue were completely missing
from the search in both language corpora. Whereas the association of blue with the
melancholic character survives in Englisheveryday expressions to feel blue, to have
the blues, there are no such attested corpus findings.
Similarly, black is traditionally associated with sadness and sorrow in both cultures,
but the concept itself does not seem to be transferred into any linguistic expression.
While the association of blue and melancholy might be initially motivated by facial
colour (Niemeier, 1998), black seems to be less accurate indicator of the exact skin
colour, but rather metaphoric in nature.
Much larger in size, the BNC offered a consequently greater number and variety of
the retrieved data (121). Versatility is shown in the range of both colour terms and
emotion terms. In both languages the most attested, although not exclusive, language
structureis 'colour term with emotion term', as in red with anger / crven od
ljutnje;white with fear / blijed od straha; green with envy / zelen od muke.
Table 1 clearly illustrates some colour preferences regarding the positive and the
negative emotional concepts. Emotional domains of LOVE and JOY are only vaguely
associated with facial expressions. The colour terms with such a reference are pink,
red, scarlet and occasionally white. The colour pink, standing in the midway between
red and white, can temper the fiery passion of red and intensify the clarity of white.
However, it is only attested in the BNC, in the fixed expressions such as in the pink,
pink with pleasure, pink with excitement.
63
�Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation
The negative emotional concepts of ANGER and SADNESS illustrate a rather similar
distribution of colour terms in both languages under study. Without a doubt, the
category red functions as the most dominant centre of gravity, especially cooccurring with the subcategoriesRAGE, SHAME and EMBARRASSMENT). Red has a
very long and powerful historical background, from by far the largest number of
meaning extensions over the years, to the highest increase in lexis nowadays. Due to
its stability over time, it has received a prominent status among speakers of different
language communities. It is not surprising that it has easily found its way into the
language in the form of numerous and very colourful collocational units (red in the
face, to be red with anger, to see red). In comparison to English data, which exhibit a
strong connection between the colour term red and the emotion term anger, Croatian
expressions with red are much more inclined to the subcategory of SHAME and
EMBARRASSMENT.
While English prefers the pink-red-scarlet-crimson-purple range to express variation
in intensity of anger (e.g. pink-red-crimson-black with anger, red-scarlet-crimsonpurple with rage), and white (mostly related to fear and shock) as the emphatic form,
Croatian exhibits no such ranges in the subordinate level of the category.
Slightly different in motivational interpretation is the association of the colour term
green with the emotion concept ENVY. Underlying cognitive mechanisms employed
as the motivational force behind most of the previously mentioned expressions would
not explain whether the colour green actually refers to facial colour. One of the
possible interpretations might bring us back to an ancient cultural model of "humoral
pathology" (primarily ascribed to Hippocrates), the doctrine that is still effective in
the analysis of the contemporary metaphoric expressions of emotions. According to
this theory, combinations of the four fluid humours of the body—blood, phlegm,
black bile and yellow bile—determined the four prototypical temperaments, namely
the sanguine, the phlegmatic, the melancholic and the choleric temperament. In order
to reach the appropriate interpretation of the expressions to feel green or to be green
with envy, envy as an intense feeling should be associated with the bile which
subsequently causes a person to feel unwell and manifests itself in the facial colour
green.
The lack of a clear-cut boundary between yellow and green in historical sources has
often resulted in their overlap regarding the emotional concepts they refer to – ENVY,
JEALOUSY, WORRY, ANGER and SUFFERING. Despite the rising tendency of their
interchangeable connection and the existence of similar expressions in different
languages, no clear corpora evidence would support the claim.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Table 1. Emotional terms co-occurring with colour terms in the BNC and the CNC
65
�Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation
The final emotional concept FEAR is predominantly associated with the colour white.
The connection is based on the experience of people turning pale and blood leaving
people's face when exposed to shock or danger. As was true of black, the apparent
positive associations of white are not fully reflected in language. The number of
collocational units in Croatian is substantially lower than in English. The reasons for
it may lie in the co-existence of another lexical term – blijed (pale).
Conceptual Motivation
In line with the bulk of recent cognitive developments and the bodily bases of
language and cognition, the findings suggest two relevant sources of conceptual
motivation – conceptual metaphor and metonymy. The major tenets of the usagebased model (Langacker, 2000) will help us analyse some of the linguistic
instantiations retrieved from the corpora.
Niemeier (1998) suggests metonymically based metaphors as primal examples of
colour associations and natural prototypes. As already mentioned, blood is a wellknown standard of redness and therefore often cited as a metaphorical motivation to
describe emotions, e.g. anger (red in the face, go red, red with anger, see red, make
someone red-hot, red-headed, be a red flag to someone). If we take a look at the
linguistic unit to go red, we can see that its complex meaning cannot be reduced to
just a facial colour.Moreover, we know that this colour is a symptom of
physiological reaction to feelings of shame, anger or physical exertion. The initial
categorisation of the colour red against the complex colour category behind the
adjective red will not help us detect the right hue. However, if we consider the
redness of the face as an instance of EFFECT FOR CAUSE metonymy, we could
simultaneously activate our knowledge of the related emotions and complete the final
stage of categorisation in our attempt to detect the right hue of red. It is also a part of
general knowledge structures that the exact redness of the face behind the linguistic
expression is far beyond its prototypical designation. Due to the essential sameness
of human beings and their physiological functioning across cultures, this body-based
conceptual metonymy has been regarded as ubiquitous in all cultures, if not
“universal”. Most of the retrieved corpus data are consistent with the
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION/EFFECT FOR CAUSE
metonymic mapping. These types of metonymy seem extremely productive in
everyday life, partly because they are associated with our folk model understanding
of human body symptoms and feelings. In order to avoid the dilemma of the
"appropriate" interpretation as either the conceptual metonymy physiological
EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION, or the conceptual metaphor CHANGE OF
COLOUR IS A CHANGE OF STATE, we would try to suggest Kövecses' (2000) line of
reasoning concerning metaphor-metonymy relationship, and the newer version of
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
conceptual metaphor theory that acknowledges the integration of universality and
culture (Gibbs 1999, 2003).
Thus, both speakers of English and Croatian might be green with envy, red with
anger, or white with fear, but hardly ever would Croatians feel blue or be purple with
rage. A large body of other research has shown that such expressions are somewhat
problematic because, aside from their universal character (as a result of
psychological and physiological processes), they are also conceptual structures
cultural in origin (Kövecses 2000).
Conclusion
The aim of this paper was twofold. First, we explored the salience of some colour
terms in their co-occurrence with the emotional terms based on the available
empirical data. Secondly, we offered some cognitive mechanisms as the underlying
motivational force in creation and interpretation of the individual linguistic
expressions.
The research into two national corpora point to the following conclusions: (i) the
highest cluster of emotional categories is organised around three basic colour terms:
red, white and green, (ii) the colour term red is highly dominant in both languages,
(iii) English prefers larger variety of colour range and offers subtler nuances in order
to depict the exact intensity of emotions, (iv) colour words go well beyond their
perceptual quality, (v) there is a wide discrepancy between the scope of human
conceptual categories and the amount of linguistic units rendered to communicate
them, (vi) the findings suggest that cross-linguisticsimilarities originate in universal
human experiences, whereas differences and in culture-specific variables, (vii) it is
inevitable to employ cognitive mechanisms such as metaphor and metonymy to
extend the meanings of the existing linguistic expressions, (viii) the most productive
metonymic mapping among the retrieved data isPHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN
EMOTION FOR EMOTION/EFFECT FOR CAUSE, (ix) although the fruitful interplay of
both cognitive mechanisms – metaphor and metonymy – account for majority of
meaning extensions, knowledge of the world, knowledge of the language and
relevant cultural factors should not be ignored.
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�Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation
References
Berlin, B.& Kay, P. (1969). Basic Color Terms. Their Universality and Evolution.
Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
Gibbs, R. W. (1999). Taking metaphor out of our head and putting it into the cultural
world. In R. Gibbs & G. Steen (Eds.), Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics (pp.
145-166). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Gibbs, R. W. (2003). Embodied experience and linguistics meaning. Brain and
Language, 84, 1-15.
Hupka, R.B., Zaleski, Z., Otto, J., Reidl, L. & Tarabrina, N. V. (1997). The colors of
Anger, Envy, FEAR, AND Jealousy: A Cross-Cultural Study. Journal of
Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28(2), 156-171.
Kövecses, Z. (1986).Metaphors of anger, pride, and love: A lexical approach to the
structure of concepts. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kövecses, Z. (1990). Emotion Concepts. New York: Springer Verlag.
Kövecses, Z. (1991).Happiness: A definitional effort. Metaphor & Symbolic
Activity, 6(1), 29-46.
Kövecses, Z. (2000).Metaphor and emotion: Language, culture, and the body in
human feeling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Langacker, Ronald W. (2000b). “A dynamic usage-based model.” Barlow, Michael,
Suzanne Kemmer, eds. (2000). Usage-Based Models of Language. Stanford: CSLI
Publications, 1-63.
Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal
about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Niemeier, S. (1998). Colourless Green Ideas Metonymise Furiously. In Ungerer, F.
(Ed.), Kognitive Lexikologie und Syntax. Rostock: Universität Rostock
(Rostocker Beiträge zurSprachwissenschaft: 5), 119-146.
Rosch, E. (1973). Natural Categories. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 328-350.
68
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D. & O'Connor, C. (1987). Emotion Knowledge:
Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061-1086.
Wierzbicka, A. (1999). Emotions across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and
Universals. Cambridge: University Press.
Webpages
British National Corpus BNC.Retrieved from http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk. (Access
March 30, 2014)
Croatian National Corpus HNK. Retrieved from http://www.hnk.ffzg.hr. (Access
March 30, 2014)
69
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Title
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Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation
Author
Author
Molnar, Draženka
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In English and in many other European languages, Croatian included, it is quite common to use colour terms as an indicator of different emotions. When we talk about colour and humans, we areactually referring to the colour of their skin, more precisely their face. The main goal of this study is to investigate the correlation between the primary colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions in English and Croatian. Since most of the current research on emotion concepts has focused on English, we would like to provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis of the two language corpora (the British National Corpus and the Croatian National Corpus) in the first part of the paper should offer a better insight into the salience of basic emotion categories in reference to basic colour categories. The second part of the paper investigates the motivation behind some of the linguistic expressions within the framework of cognitive linguistics. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Key words: emotion, colour, collocational units, conceptual metaphor, metonymy
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015-04-16
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
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328c9afa7d71530989109946b9531310
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Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to
stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the
classroom
Azra Jakupi, Neda Radosavlevikj & Milica Matoska
South East European University, Macedonia
Submitted: 16.04.2014.
Accepted: 01.11.2014.
Abstract
Whether you have been teaching for 20 years or have just started your teaching
career, there’s always a possibility you will have a student in your classroom with
disruptive behavior. This behavior can go beyond the limits of what is considered to
be acceptable in a learning environment. An obvious example of disruptive behavior
is when the student verbally attacks, is late for class, experiences angry outbursts,
social problems, etc. or simply rebels against something that is happening beyond the
classroom door. However, very rarely are we, as teachers, aware of the possibility
that the student might be having a mental health crisis. We, the Language Centre at
South East European University, have encountered various stressful situations, while
at the same time we struggle for balance and try to find appropriate responses for
students’ complaints about grades, “unfair” treatment, the policy of the faculty, etc.
In an effort to resolve this dilemma, we will conduct research within the Language
Centre through interviews with the academic and administrative staff as well as the
students and their supervisors. In our presentation, we will present several strategies
to deal with stressful situations that affect the entire learning environment, including
the teachers themselves, such as: defining the problem, the reason behind it, the time
of occurrence, its impact, introducing meta-communication and early communication
by setting early expectations, ways to stay calm when responding to a crisis event
and setting limits. We will also explore basic principles related to classroom
management and a variety of strategies for early intervention in order to create a
dynamic learning environment that promotes learning safety.
Keywords: Disruptive behaviour, strategies, safe learning environment
Introduction
33
�Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom
Students’ disruptive behavior may be resolved by selecting effective classroommanagement strategies. One of the best management strategies is to prevent
disruptions before they occur. In this paper we will discuss effective strategies
applied at the Language Centre at South East European University for creating and
sustaining a dynamic learning environment, as well as effective methods that we as
teachers find appropriate for early intervention and how we deal with these problems
when they occur.
The idea for this study emerged from the stressful situations that teachers were
exposed to, always struggling for balance as we seek appropriate strategies to answer
to students’ problems such as “complaints about grades”, “unfair treatment” and
other difficulties. Language Centre teachers use different management strategies to
deal with disruptive behavior, some of which are not very effective. The aim of this
research is to investigate the effective management strategies that teachers at the
Language Centre use and what they do when a student’s behavior disrupts their
classes. Furthermore, the research investigates teachers’ reactions towards the
success or the failure of their methods as well as the most frequent types of
disruptive behavior and the reasons that students engage in such behavior.
Discipline problems are listed as the major concern for most new teachers. What can
teachers expect and how can they handle disciplinary problems effectively? The key
is classroom management combined with an effective discipline plan.
This step-by-step look at classroom discipline will help you see some important steps
in dealing with discipline problems that may arise in your classroom.
Here is a list of strategies for responding to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom:
1. Begin each class period with a positive attitude and high expectations. If you
expect your students to misbehave or you approach them negatively, you will
get misbehavior. This is an often overlooked aspect of classroom management.
2. Come to class prepared with lessons for the day. In fact, over-plan your lessons.
Make sure you have all your materials and methods ready to go. Reducing
downtime will help maintain discipline in your classroom.
3. Work on making smooth transitions between lesson segments. In other words,
as you move from group discussion to independent work, try to minimize
disruption to the class. Have your papers ready to go or your assignment already
written on the board. Disruptions frequently occur during lesson transitions.
Watch your students as they come into class. Look for signs of possible
problems before class even begins. For example, if you notice a heated
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
discussion or problem before class starts, try to deal with the problem there and
then. Allow the students a few moments to talk with you or with each other
before you start your lesson to try and work things out. Separate them if
necessary and try to get them to agree to drop whatever issue they have during
your class.
Have a posted discipline plan that you follow consistently for effective
classroom management. This should ensure that students will receive a warning
or two before punishment begins, depending on the severity of the offense.
Your plan should be easy to follow and also should cause a minimum of
disruption in your class. For example, your discipline plan might be - First
Offense: Verbal Warning, Second Offense: Detention with teacher, Third
Offense: Referral.
Meet disruptions that arise in your class with in kind measures. In other
words, don't elevate disruptions above their current level. Your discipline plan
should provide for this; however, sometimes your own personal issues can get
in the way. For example, if two students are talking in the back of the room and
your first step in the plan is to give your students a verbal warning, don't stop
your instruction to begin yelling at the students. Instead, have a set policy that
simply saying a student's name is enough of a clue for them to get back on task.
Another technique is to ask one of them a question.
Try to use humor to defuse situations before things get out of hand. Note:
Know your students. The following example would be used with students whom
you know will not escalate the situation: If you tell the class to open their books
to page 51 and three students are busy talking, do not immediately yell at them.
Instead, smile, say their names, and ask them kindly if they could please wait
until later to finish their conversation because you would really like to hear how
it ends and you have to get this class finished. This will probably get a few
laughs and also get your point across.
If a student becomes verbally confrontational with you, remain calm and
remove them from the situation as quickly as possible. Do not get into yelling
matches with your students. There will always be a winner and a loser which
sets up a power struggle that could continue throughout the year. Further, do not
bring the rest of the class into the situation by involving them in the discipline
or the writing of the referral.
If a student becomes physical, remember the safety of the other students is
paramount. Remain as calm as possible; your demeanor can sometimes defuse
the situation. You should have a plan for dealing with violence that you discuss
with students early in the year. You should use the call button for assistance.
You could also designate a student to get help from another teacher. Send the
other students from the room if it appears they could get hurt. If the fight is
35
�Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom
between two students, follow your school's rules on teacher involvement, as
many want teachers to stay out of fights until help arrives.
Keep an anecdotal record of major issues that arise in your class. This might
be necessary if you are asked for a history of classroom disruptions or other
documentation.
Let it go at the end of the day. Classroom management and disruption issues
should be left in class so that you can have some down time to recharge before
coming back to another day of teaching.
Analysis and Evidence/Findings
In order to find out about teachers’ and students’ views on disruptive behaviors and
how to deal with such situations, we constructed two surveys. One was teacherspecific and the other was student-oriented. We asked both groups the same
questions.
The findings from the student-oriented survey are as follows:
1. Both female and male students generally think (98%) that the overall
atmosphere in the classroom is positive.
2. 25% of the male students think that discipline is not important and that the
current disciplinary methods are utterly inefficient and 20% of female
students think that the rules of conduct should be more flexible.
3. The male students (5%) state that the teachers are unable to manage the
classroom and deal with undisciplined students, while the female students
(2%) think it is due to the lack of a psychologist at the university.
4. 90% of students from both genders think that, in order to deal with disruptive
behaviors, teachers should increase students’ obligations. While female
students (50%) do not hold teachers responsible for disruptive behaviors,
saying they cannot possibly know and be responsible for ‘everything’ in the
classroom, the male students (90%) state the opposite.
5. 15% of female and male students think that the students should be involved
in designing the curriculum and 90% of them think that students should be
involved in setting the rules of conduct.
In conclusion, generally speaking, male students place greater responsibility
on the teachers; question their competence to manage the classroom and
emphasize the importance of the students’ role. On the other hand, female
students emphasize the students’ responsibility to control their own behavior.
Both groups agree that there should be a co-operation between teachers and
students in order to improve and eliminate disruptive behavior. While female
students think that behavior is more important than students’ inner thoughts
and feelings, male students state the opposite.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
The findings from the teacher specific survey were the following:
1. Both female and male teachers (98%) describe the overall classroom
atmosphere as positive.
2. All teachers agree that discipline is very important. 5% of teachers think
disciplinary methods are utterly inefficient and recommend penalties.
3. All teachers agree that they are responsible for shaping the desired behavior
in the classroom; it is their responsibility to design the curriculum and to
motivate and engage the students. Moreover, they all agree that they cannot
possibly be responsible for ‘everything’ in the classroom.
4. 99% of the teachers think that students can control their behavior, but that
they should take their students’ needs into consideration.
5. 100% of the female and 50% of the male teachers think that students’ inner
thoughts and feelings are more important than their evident behavior.
The teachers reject the notion that they could ‘know everything’ in the classroom at
all times. However, they emphasize their own responsibility for managing the
classroom and dealing with disruptive behavior (5% of them suggest the introduction
of penalization is an efficient method). All of the teachers agree that they should
have background knowledge when dealing with infractions. Although the students
can control their own behavior, the teachers agree that it is their responsibility to
motivate the students, get their co-operation and create a positive atmosphere. The
teachers must decide what the students will learn, but they should take the students’
needs into consideration. While the male teachers think that students’ inner thoughts
and feelings are less important than their evident behavior, 100% of the female
teachers state the opposite.
Literature review
Reasons for and types of disruptive behavior
There is no specific definition for disruptive behavior since the definition differs
according to its relevance to the specific case of each study (Arbuckle & Little,
2004). Nevertheless, many studies identify some types such as self-reported data
from schoolteachers that help identify types of the most frequent disruptive
behaviors. Ranking which behavior is more frequent differs in Western and Eastern
cultures. In China, some studies report that “day dreaming (also called non-attention
and off task) behavior” is the most frequent disruptive behavior in some of their
schools (Ding, Li, Li, & Kulm, 2008; Shen et al., 2009). Other studies report
that “talking out of turn” is the most frequent disruptive behavior in some schools in
England (Arbuckle & Little, 2004) and Australia (Ross, Little, Kienhuis, 2008).
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�Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom
Teachers and students have different perceptions of the reasons behind disruptive
behavior. Some students view disruptive behavior as a result of bad teaching skills.
Other students mention that they use this behavior to deal with their problems against
the whole school system; in other words, they choose to act against teachers’ power
in order to assert their own power (Verkuyten 2002). On the other hand, some
schoolteachers believe that some students use disruptive behavior as a way of
rejecting work and drawing attention to themselves. They also think students use
such behavior to defy teachers’ power (Axup & Gersch, 2008; Shumate & Wills,
2010). Further, other teachers mention that students may practice disruptive behavior
to establish an identity in order to belong to a “peer group” (Axup & Gersch, 2008).
Sometimes the injustice of teachers and the vulnerability of students can be the main
causes of disruptive behavior (Miller, Ferguson and Byrne, 2000).
The relation between disruptive behavior and the learning and teaching
process
Inappropriate behavior impacts learning and teaching. It wastes classroom time,
distracts students from learning and teachers from teaching, lessens students’
motivation and causes stress for students and teachers (Charles and Senter cited
in Ding et al., 2008). Many studies have investigated the stressors that lead to
teachers’ burnout and annoyance, which could hinder the teaching process. In a study
done on 1,386 secondary teachers working in Spanish schools, disruptive behavior
was identified as a major source of teachers’ stress and annoyance (López et al.,
2008). Furthermore, students’ disruptive behaviors can provoke negative feelings in
teachers such as frustration and lack of confidence. As a result, teachers become too
stressed to make the right decisions (Arbuckle & Little , 2004; Ross et al., 2008;
Thompson & Webber, 2008). For instance, teachers sometimes give up on disruptive
students, remove them from their classes and let others deal with them (Egyed and
Short, 2006). What is more, some teachers, especially inexperienced ones, decide to
quit teaching and change their careers (Ross et al., 2008;Tsouloupas et al., 2010).
Teachers’ selection of management strategies and disruptive behaviors
Some teachers do not always realize that they are repeatedly using ineffective
management strategies in order to handle disruptive behaviors in their classes. Before
deciding which management strategies to apply, teachers could first try to understand
why students are practicing this kind of behavior (Stoughton, 2006). Recognizing
how disruptive students think can help teachers decide on which management
strategies to apply in order to deal with disruptive students (Ding et al., 2008).
Furthermore, it is advisable for some teachers to realize that if they want to reduce
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
disruptive behaviors, they have to abandon their authoritative identity and maintain a
strong relationship with their students (Lee and Powell, 2006). Some teachers lack
knowledge of the kind of management strategies that they need to select in order to
handle disruptive behavior. Therefore, it is always important to provide teachers with
the necessary consultation on this kind of information (Egyed & Short, 2006;
Thompson & Webber, 2010). Consultation can help teachers feel more capable of
and knowledgeable about handling disruptive behaviors. This may also help increase
teachers’ confidence and reduce their stress (Egyed & Short, 2006; Reinke, Palmer &
Merrell, 2008).
Effective management strategies can help reduce disruptive behaviors and improve
the learning process (Reinke et al., 2008). Some teachers believe that positive
management strategies such as praise and engaging students in decision-making are
the best management strategies for handling students’ disruptive behaviors. Other
teachers believe that negative management strategies such as punishment and
reprimands are more effective than the positive ones. Some studies show that
teachers who lack patience, confidence and the necessary consultation skills tend to
use more negative management strategies to control disruptive behavior (Axup &
Gersch, 2008). On the other hand, some studies show that students’ disruptive
behaviors decrease when teachers apply positive management strategies and avoid
using the negative ones (Reinke et al., 2008). Applying positive management
strategies to classrooms is also found beneficial as it increases on-task behavior and
enhances students’ learning identity (Arbuckle & Little, 2004; Lee & Powell, 2005;
Ross et al, 2008).
Most studies that investigated teachers’ perceptions of effective classroommanagement strategies and students’ disruptive behaviors used either questionnaires
or surveys in collecting the necessary data. In spite of the limitations of these
methods, they remain the most frequent methods of reflecting teachers’ real practices
in classrooms (Ross et al., 2008). For this reason one of these methods, a
questionnaire, was used as the method of collecting data in this small-scale study.
Conclusions
Every teacher should have a set of tips for managing teacher burnout and
effectively deal with unforeseen disruptive situations.
Here are some tips to get you started:
1. Recognize the warning signs of disruption. Obviously this comes with practice
of classroom management. However, some signs are fairly obvious.
2. Sarcasm should be used sparingly if at all. If you do use it, make sure you know
the student who you are using it with well. Many students do not have the
capacity to know that sarcasm is not meant to be taken literally. Further, other
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�Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom
students could find your sarcasm as inflammatory, which would defeat your
purpose of greater classroom management.
3. Consistency and fairness are essential for effective classroom management. If
you ignore disruptions one day and come down hard on them the next, you will
not be seen as consistent. You will lose respect and disruptions will probably
increase. Further, if you are not fair in your punishments, making sure to treat
all students fairly then students will quickly realize this and lose respect for you.
You should also start each day fresh, not holding disruptions against students
and instead expecting them to behave.
4. It's easier to get easier. Start the year very strict so that students see that you are
willing to do what it takes to have your classroom under control. They will
understand that you expect learning to occur in your room. You can always let
up as the year goes on.
5. Classroom rules must be easy to understand and manageable. Make sure that
you don't have such a large number of rules that your students can't consistently
follow them.
Appendix
Questionnaire for the Teachers
Please mark (a) Male (b) Female, Teaching Experience: (a) 0
(b) 1-5 yrs.
(c) 6- 10 yrs
(d) 11 - 15 yrs. (e) 16+ yrs.
Degree Earned :
(a) BA (b) Master's (c) EdS (d) Doctorate (e) Undergraduate
Directions: On the following scale how much do you agree with the following
statement?
1. How would you describe the overall atmosphere in the classroom?
1-very negative
2- barely positive
3- somewhat positive 4- mostly positive
5- very positive
2. It is important for students to be disciplined. (Circle one)
1-strongly agree
2- agree
3-neither agree nor disagree
4-disagree
5strongly disagree
3. How efficient do you think the discipline strategies are right now?
(Circle one)
1-very efficient
2- efficient
3-neither efficient nor inefficient
4-inefficient
5-very inefficient
4. If you could change one thing about the behavior management in the
school what would it be? Please specify.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Directions: Please read the following carefully and select one answer from the
scale below.
SA=Strongly Agree
A = Agree
N = Neither Agree nor Disagree
D = Disagree
SD-Strongly Disagree
1. Teachers must have knowledge of group dynamics.
SA
A
N
D
SD
2. Teachers need to have background information when dealing with rule
infractions.
SA
A
N
D
SD
3. Teachers are responsible for knowing everything that goes on in the
classroom at all times.
SA
A
N
D
SD
4. Teachers should create a "democratic” classroom.
SA
A
N
D
SD
5. Teachers should “invite” student cooperation.
SA
A
N
D
SD
6. Teachers are responsible for "shaping" desired behavior in the classroom.
SA
A
N
D
SD
7. Teachers must take student needs into consideration.
SA
A
N
D
SD
8. Teachers are responsible for controlling the behavior of their students.
SA
A
N
D
SD
9. Students are able to control their behavior.
SA
A
N
D
SD
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�Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom
10. Conflict resolution should be employed in the school setting.
SA
A
N
D
SD
11. Teachers must deal with all students in the same manner when using
disciplinary measures.
SA
A
N
D
SD
12. A "sense of belonging" needs to be created by the teacher within the
classroom setting.
SA
A
N
D
SD
13. Rules of conduct must be set by the teachers.
SA
A
N
D
SD
14. What students must learn and the tasks to be performed must be
determined by the teacher. And, a specific sequence of instruction to accomplish
these goals must be followed.
SA
A
N
D
SD
15. If a student disrupts class, I would ignore the disruption if possible and/or
remove the student to the back of the room as a consequence for his/her
behavior.
SA
A
N
D
SD
16. If a student disrupts class, I would express discomfort to the student about
being disrupted from my task and then continue on with the lesson.
SA
A
N
D
SD
17. Rules are never written "in stone," and can be renegotiated by the class;
consequences will vary with students.
SA
A
N
D
SD
18. Teachers should intervene quickly when misbehavior occurs.
SA
A
N
D
SD
19. Inner thoughts and feelings of students are more important than evident
behavior.
SA
A
N
D
SD
20. Student autonomy is very important in the classroom.
SA
A
N
D
SD
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
21. Extrinsic “rewards” may decrease intrinsic motivation.
SA
A
N
D
SD
Questionnaire for the Students
a. Gender (check a box)
___ Female
___Male b. Age____________
Ethnicity _________________
d. Faculty ____________________
c.
Directions: On the following scale how much do you agree with the following
statement?
1. How would you describe the overall atmosphere in the classroom?
1-very negative
2- barely positive
3- somewhat positive 4- mostly positive
5- very positive
2. It is important for students to be disciplined. (Circle one)
1-strongly agree
2- agree
3-neither agree nor disagree
4-disagree
5strongly disagree
3. How efficient do you think the discipline strategies are right now?
(Circle one)
1-very efficient
2- efficient
3-neither efficient nor inefficient
4-inefficient
5-very inefficient
4. If you were a teacher and you could change one thing about the
behavior management in
the school what would it be? Please specify.
Directions: Please read the following carefully and select one answer from the
scale below.
SA=Strongly Agree A = Agree N = Neither Agree nor Disagree D = Disagree
SD-Strongly Disagree
1. Teachers must have knowledge of group dynamics.
SA
A
N
D
SD
43
�Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom
2. Teachers need to have background information when dealing with rule
infractions.
SA
A
N
D
SD
3. Teachers are responsible for knowing everything that goes on in the
classroom at all times.
SA
A
N
D
SD
4. Teachers should create a "democratic” classroom.
SA
A
N
D
SD
5. Teachers should “invite” student cooperation.
SA
A
N
D
SD
6. Teachers are responsible for "shaping" desired behavior in the classroom.
SA
A
N
D
SD
7. Teachers must take student needs into consideration.
SA
A
N
D
SD
8. Teachers are responsible for controlling the behavior of their students.
SA
A
N
D
SD
9. Students are able to control their behavior.
SA
A
N
D
SD
10. Conflict resolution should be employed in the school setting.
SA
A
N
D
SD
11. Teachers must deal with all students in the same manner when using
disciplinary measures.
SA
A
N
D
SD
12. A "sense of belonging" needs to be created by the teacher within the
classroom setting.
SA
A
N
D
SD
13. Rules of conduct must be set by the teachers.
SA
A
N
D
SD
44
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
14. What students must learn and the tasks to be performed must be
determined by the teacher. And, a specific sequence of instruction to accomplish
these goals must be followed.
SA
A
N
D
SD
15. If I were a teacher, if a student disrupted my class, I would ignore the
disruption if possible and/or remove the student to the back of the room as a
consequence for his/her behavior.
SA
A
N
D
SD
16. If I were a teacher, if a student disrupted my class, I would express
discomfort to the student about being disrupted from my task and then continue
on with the lesson.
SA
A
N
D
SD
17. Rules are never written "in stone," and can be renegotiated by the class;
consequences will vary with students.
SA
A
N
D
SD
18. Teachers should intervene quickly when misbehavior occurs.
SA
A
N
D
SD
19. Inner thoughts and feelings of students are more important than evident
behavior.
SA
A
N
D
SD
20. Student autonomy is very important in the classroom.
SA
A
N
D
SD
21. Extrinsic (external) “rewards” may decrease intrinsic (internal) motivation.
SA
A
N
D
SD
45
�Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive
students in the classroom
References
Arbuckle,C.,
&
Little,
E.
(2004).
Teachers’
perceptions
and
management of disruptive classroom
behavior
during
the
middle
years. Australian Journal of Educational & Developmental Psychology, 4,
59-70.
Axup, T.,& Gersch, I. (2008). The impact of challenging student behavior upon
teachers’ lives in a secondary school: teachers’ perceptions. British Journal
of Special Education, 35(3), 144-151.
Ding, M., Li, Y., Li, X., & Kulm, G. (2008). Chinese teachers’ perceptions
of students’classroom misbehavior.Educational Psychology, 28(3), 305-324.
Egyed,C. J., Short, R. J. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy, burnout, experience
and decision to refer a disruptive student. School Psychology International, 27(4),
462-474.
Lee, S., Powell,J. V. (2005). Using computer-based technology to determine
emergent classroom
discipline
styles
in
preservice
teacher
education. Educational Technology Systems,34(1).
López, J. M., Santiago, M. J., Godás, A., Castro, C., Villardefrancos, E., & Ponte,
D. (2008). An integrative approach to burnout in secondary school teachers:
examining the role of student disruptive behavior and disciplinary
issues. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy,
8(2), 85-96.
Reinke, W. M., Palmer, T., & Merrell, K. (2008). The classroom check-up: A
classwide teacher consultation model for increasing praise and decreasing
disruptive behavior. School Psych Rev., 37(3), 315–332.
Ross, P., Little, E, & Kienhuis, M. (2008). Self-reported and actual use of proactive
and reactive classroom management strategies and relationship with teacher
stress and student behavior. Educational Psychology, 28(6), 693–710.
Shen, J., Zhang, N., Zhang, C., Caldarella, P., Richardson, M. J., & Shatzer, R. H.
(2009). Chinese elementary school teachers’ perceptions of students’
classroom behavior problems. Educational Psychology, 29(2), 187-201.
46
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Shumate, E. D., & Wills, H. P. (2010). Classroom-based functional analysis
and intervention for disruptive and off-task behaviors. Education and
Treatment of Children, 33(1), 23-48.
Stoughton, E. H. (2006). ‘‘How will I get them to behave?’’: Pre service teachers
reflect on classroom management.Teaching and Teacher Education, 23,
1024-1037.
Thompson,A. M., & Webber, K. C. (2010). Realigning student and teacher
perceptions of school rules: A behavior management strategy for students
with challenging behaviors. Children &Schools, 32(2), 71-79.
Tsouloupas, C. N., Carson, R. L., Matthew, R., Grawitch, M. J., & Barber, L. K.
(2010). Exploring the association between teachers’ perceived student
misbehaviour and emotional exhaustion: the importance of teacher efficacy
beliefs and emotion regulation. Educational Psychology, 30(2).
Verkuyten,M.(2002). Making teachers accountable for students' disruptive
classroom behavior. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 23(1), 107122.
47
�
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Strategies for appropriate and helpful teacher response to stressful situations caused by disruptive students in the classroom
Author
Author
Jakupi, Azra
Radosavlevikj, Neda
Matoska, Milica
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Whether you have been teaching for 20 years or have just started your teaching career, there’s always a possibility you will have a student in your classroom with disruptive behavior. This behavior can go beyond the limits of what is considered to be acceptable in a learning environment. An obvious example of disruptive behavior is when the student verbally attacks, is late for class, experiences angry outbursts, social problems, etc. or simply rebels against something that is happening beyond the classroom door. However, very rarely are we, as teachers, aware of the possibility that the student might be having a mental health crisis. We, the Language Centre at South East European University, have encountered various stressful situations, while at the same time we struggle for balance and try to find appropriate responses for students’ complaints about grades, “unfair” treatment, the policy of the faculty, etc. In an effort to resolve this dilemma, we will conduct research within the Language Centre through interviews with the academic and administrative staff as well as the students and their supervisors. In our presentation, we will present several strategies to deal with stressful situations that affect the entire learning environment, including the teachers themselves, such as: defining the problem, the reason behind it, the time of occurrence, its impact, introducing meta-communication and early communication by setting early expectations, ways to stay calm when responding to a crisis event and setting limits. We will also explore basic principles related to classroom management and a variety of strategies for early intervention in order to create a dynamic learning environment that promotes learning safety. Keywords: Disruptive behaviour, strategies, safe learning environment
Date
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2015-04-16
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),P Philology. Linguistics,PE English
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7cadb6c3bee094cdb43e45b321df9770.pdf
a6775da6ed55fc70ab5f7a1cdc98a842
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in
an Asian context
Alastair Graham-Marr
Department of Liberal Arts, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science,
Tokyo
Submitted: 16.04.2014.
Accepted: 05.11.2014.
Abstract
In EFL curricula where language is taught as a knowledge set, links between
pedagogical theory and practice can be quite strong. However, links between
pedagogical theory and practice seems more tenuous when applied to the teaching of
skills, in particular, L2 listening skills which are often left to develop as by-products
of a student’s grammatical and lexical understanding. And, in many contexts, this
oversight can have serious consequences. Given that English is a stress-timed
language, learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages, such as
Japanese or Korean, can be robbed of learning opportunities when listening skills are
deficient. The crucial role of comprehensible input in second language acquisition is
well established, so when learners have developed listening skills, all language that
is basically understood is available as a learning opportunity as comprehensible
input. However, when learners have incipient listening skills, learners are often
unable to comprehend auditory input containing words that are largely understood,
thus losing opportunities for L2 language development. Learners coming from
syllable-timed or mora-timed languages often lack a natural understanding of
suprasegmental phonology, impeding comprehension. It is well established in the
research literature that listening skills are best taught as a set of sub-skills to help
students develop a basic phonetic awareness, however such research findings have
not always made it into practice. This qualitative study reports on a set of first year
university students at a Japanese university where listening was taught as a set of
sub-skills. An overwhelming majority felt this type of instruction helped to improve
their listening skills, suggesting that this fundamental pedagogy needs greater
emphasis in countries with syllable-timed or mora-timed native languages. The
results of this study are described and interpreted in the context of the English
education system in Japan.
Keywords: listening skills, EFL curricula, comprehensible input
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�Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context
8
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Introduction
The ability to comprehend spoken forms of a target language is a crucial factor for
second language development and yet in many EFL curricula, the explicit teaching of
listening skills draws little pedagogical attention. As noted by Nunan, (2002)
listening is the Cinderella skill in second language learning, always overlooked for
its elder sister— speaking. Teachers and curricula tend to focus on grammar or
vocabulary, leaving listening skills to develop on their own. And, in many contexts,
this deprives language learners of many opportunities to further learn.
Comprehending auditory input requires an understanding of the target language
sound system. However, the phonologies of human language are not universal
constants. English, for example, is a stress-timed, or foot-timed language, and has a
regular rhythm pattern. As Halliday points out, salient syllables tend to occur at
regular intervals as “generally speaking, speakers of English like their feet to all be
roughly the same length.” (Halliday, 1994: 293) The tendency for salient syllables to
be prominent at regular intervals, irrespective of the actual number of syllables
between prominence, results in function words being reduced to accomodate the
regular spacing of syllable prominence. The tendency to have salient syllables at
regular intervals is known as isochrony and is a feature of stress timed languages
such as English. Isochrony is the mechanism that governs such suprasegmental
phonological features as vowel reduction, elision, elipsis and so on.
However, not all language are isochronous. Syllable-timed languages such as
Korean, where the time needed to pronounce each syllable is roughly equal, and
mora-timed languages such as Japanese, where the time needed to pronounce each
mora is roughly equal, are phonologically distinct from English. As a result, syllabletimed and mora-timed languages often lack many of the common suprasegmental
phonological features found in English. For Japanese learners, the phonological
structure of Japanese can interfere with the comprehension of naturally spoken
English.
Listening skills can broadly be divided into two categories: bottom-up decoding and
top-down interpretation. Bottom-up decoding refers to the process of decoding and
assigning meaning to auditory input. Top-down interpretation describes the process
of using knowledge of grammar, discourse, context and culture to assign meaning,
both filling in the gaps of understanding and augmenting meaning.
Received pedagogy, based on numerous empirical studies, has been to explicitly
teach learners about the sound system, both its segmentals and suprasegmentals,
together with a regime of top-down strategies. (see for example Richards, 1983,
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�Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context
1990; Peterson, 1991; Goh 1997, Field 1998; Vandergrift, 1999) Although, well
found in the research literature, this aspect of teaching is frequently overlooked.
In Japan, listening is very much subservient to grammar. One likely reason is that
most Japanese universities do not have a listening component on their entrance
exams. As a result, there is little incentive for high schools to add listening to their
curricula. Yet, when many students struggle with listening comprehension, this
omission puts students at a disadvantage.
It is well understood that comprehensible input is crucial for language acquisition
(see for example, Krashen, 1985; Long 1985). Students need massive amounts of
input to acquire an understanding of a target language. The more comprehensible
input one gets, the more one will learn. So when learners from a mora-timed
language background are not taught about the English sound system, they are often
unable to comprehend auditory input that would otherwise be comprehensible, and
thus lose vital opportunities for L2 language acquisition.
The development of listening skills should be a priority from early education on to
maximize learning opportunities. That it is subservient is perhaps one reason for the
chronically low English abilities that the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science
and Technology is currently seeking to change in time for the 2020 Olympics.
Purpose of Study
A weakness in previous studies has been a lack of awareness that learners from
different phonological backgrounds might be different. Studies tend to treat L2
learners as being part of a great monolithic category, L2 learner. There have been
many empirical studies which have repeatedly found that explicitly pointing out the
phonological features of English can facilitate gains in listening comprehension,
however most of these studies have been done with students from mixed
phonological backgrounds. This study brings the voice of students coming from a
mora-timed phonological background to the table. This study investigates student
opinion about whether explicit guidance is needed to help develop listening skills,
and secondly, if students feel that such guidance contributes to improved listening
comprehension.
Participants
The participants in the study were 94 first year university students (79 males and 15
females) in three different classes studying English as a required first-year course in
the engineering faculty at a well regarded science university in Tokyo. Most of the
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
students in the class were quite motivated to learn English, seeing English as
important for their futures. Although the English proficiency level of the students
was not directly measured during the course of the study, the entrance exam system
in Japan acts to level students, in that all of the students in the study had to pass an
English exam to enter the university. As a result, most of the students in the
engineering department could be said to be at an intermediate or threshold level
(CEFR B1) of English proficiency. Although there were 94 students registered in the
three classes, survey data from only 80 students was used due to either incomplete
data or student absences.
Class Procedure
The class was typical of many first year English courses in Japan. It was taught by a
native speaker of English, the writer, with a focus on oral communication. According
to the school handbook, the purpose of the course was to develop a basic foundation
in communicative English by giving students exposure to natural, raw English and
develop the students’ listening and speaking skills.
All the classes were 90 minutes long. Typically each class started with a basic warmup activity which was usually an easy, unchallenging speaking activity. This was
usually followed by a listening activity where students were asked to answer a few
basic comprehension questions. Following this activity, the listening was
deconstructed with a listening activity that focused student attention on a particular
suprasegmental feature that was present in the initial listening. Students were made
aware of the phonological feature and given opportunities to listen to other short
sentences where the target feature was present. After the listening focus, the rest of
the class time was spent working on speaking activities and obviously such activities
also featured listening, in that students had to listen to each other to complete the
speaking activities.
The material used for the class was based on CEFR standards for B1 level classes.
Listening activities in the class took many forms. There were comprehension
listenings where students had to listen to a passage and then answer comprehension
questions. There were analytical listenings where students were introduced to a
particular phonological feature, then had to identify that feature in a follow-up
listening. Lastly, there were teacher sourced dictation activities that were used to
either review a particular suprasegmental feature or introduce it. All three listening
types were used routinely.
The concept was to introduce students to natural, connected speech through exposure
to reduced form English with a reduced lexical load. With such material students
would often struggle to answer the questions, reporting that they had understood only
11
�Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context
50% to 60% of the listening. However, when asked to check the scripts, students
constantly found that knew close to 100% of the words used in the listening. The
analytical listenings were based on the main comprehension listenings, as the audio
material consisted of single sentences that had been pulled from the comprehension
listenings in order to give students a closer look at the phonological features.
For homework students were asked to listen to the comprehension listenings
repeatedly, until they could understand each listening with 100% comprehension.
The teacher referred this activity as perfect listening.
Instrumentation
A questionnaire was administered at the end of the course. The questions were asked
in Japanese and students were encouraged to make further comments in either
English or Japanese. Relevant to this study, the following questions were asked:
1. Do you feel that your listening ability has improved this year?
2. Do you feel knowing about stress, weak vowels, dropped sounds and so on, has
helped you to
improve your listening ability?
3. Do you think perfect listening is a good way to improve your listening skills?
4. Do you feel it is necessary for students to receive explicit instructions on how to
improve their
listening skills?
The Results
Most students in the study felt that their listening abilities had improved over the
course of the school year, with 80% reporting some improvement. Asked if
knowledge about phonology was helpful in improving one’s listening skills 92.5%
answered in the affirmative. Many students commented that knowing about the
phonological features made it easier to catch the meaning. Quite clearly, most
students felt that knowledge of the English sound system contributed to the
development of their own listening abilities.
With respect to the perfect listening technique described above, listening to a
particular passage repeatedly until it can be perfectly understood, again the
overwhelming view was that this was a useful technique with 93.75% of students
answering positively. However, even with this positive rating, when asked if they
actually tried this technique, just over half of the students reported actually doing
this, as many students reported that they did not have the spare time needed to this,
12
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
which possibly suggests that this has to be worked into the curriculum more
effectively.
With respect to guidance, 80% of students felt that guidance was necessary to help
students develop their listening abilities. The most popular reason given was that
guidance made learning more efficient. In addition to efficiency gains, most of the
others reasons given were was that having guidance helped sustain motivation and
that guidance made it easier to tackle the difficult task of learning to comprehend
naturally spoken English.
The results of the questionnaire are shown in Table 1.
Strong
Yes
1. Did your listening improve?
2
2.
Does knowledge of phonological 20
features help?
3. Do you think perfect listening is 16
helpful?
4. Is guidance necessary?
24
Yes
No
62
54
15
5
Strong
No
1
1
59
4
1
40
14
2
Discussion
Many theories on listening take a global focus on how learners apply meaning to
auditory input, postulating that learners use textual schemata—knowledge of
discourse, and content schemata— knowledge of the world and its contextual clues,
to assign meaning to the incoming auditory input. In these schema-theoretic
perspectives learners draw on schema to provide a frame of reference by which
listeners assign meaning to auditory input. (see for example Long, 1989). As a result
many pedagogies have focused on stimulating and developing these top-down
schemata. However, for learners from a mora-timed phonological background, the
more problematic area of listening is not appending meaning to decoded input, but
rather the decoding process itself. Meaning that pedagogies that focus on the more
global processes, tend to assume that the decoding skills are naturally picked up.
However, in a Japanese context where learners struggle to decode input, an
information processing model might be more helpful to identify and understand
where listening comprehension impediments exist. In such a model, learners decode
auditory input in an ascending order of complexity, from phonemes, to syllables, to
words and lexical chunks, on to a syntactic level where intonation is factored in.
Meaning is finally rendered referencing the context, at the apex of this processing
stream. (see for example Field, 2008) Suprasegmental decoding difficulties result in
many learners getting stuck at the lower levels of this model. However, European13
�Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context
based pedagogical models often focus on higher-level processing, leaving lowerlevel processing to develop as a felicitous by-product of simple exposure, something
not so suited for many Asian contexts.
However, even in Japan lower-level listening skills are often neglected. There are
numerous reasons for this. First of all, pedagogy is often guided by what is done in
Europe and America. Secondly but perhaps more importantly, listening is rarely
tested in university entrance exams. These influential entrance exams tend to focus
on difficult aspects of vocabulary and grammar. As a result, teachers tend to focus on
the grammar that will likely come up on these exams.
When attention is focussed on test preparation, skills development becomes ancillary.
As a result, students with weak listening skills are not often recognized as having
weak listening skills. And, given that listening comprehension is a key component of
second language acquisition, this inattention to skills development can result in years
of lost learning opportunities, opportunities which cannot be replaced.
Moreover and somewhat sadly, empirical research shows that listening skills can be
taught, meaning that these lost opportunities need not be lost. In an Asian context,
Goh (1997) found that an increased learner metacognitive awareness in listening was
positively correlated with better listening skills. Tsui and Fullilove (1998) found that
bottom-up processing was an important factor for listening performance. The
students in this study agreed.
Were a pedagogical choice to focus on listening made and listening skills
development made a priority, more learning opportunities could be given to language
learners during the early stages of their language development. Listening
comprehension is a teachable skill. And in the context of Japan, with a mora-timed
L1, students can benefit from such instruction.
Conclusion
Listening is central to learning. It is the foundation of a formal education and it is the
foundation of language acquisition. As teachers, perhaps our number one
responsibility, irrespective of what we teach, is the responsibility to prepare our
students to act in the greater world beyond the classroom, both in the present and in
the future. The world is full of learning opportunities and for language learners, there
are numerous linguistic resources waiting to be found and exploited to one’s best
advantage. Teaching our students how to listen will help them to access the world
outside the classroom.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
15
�Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context
References
Field, J., (1998). Skills and strategies: towards a new methodology for listening.
ELT Journal, 52, 110 - 118.
Field, J. (2008). Listening in the Language Classroom, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Goh, C., (1997). Metacognitive awareness and second language listeners. ELT
Journal, 51, 361-369.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd ed.).
London: Arnold.
Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London:
Longman.
Long, D.R. (1989), Second Language Listening Comprehension: A schema-theoretic
perspective. Modern Language Journal, 73(1), 32-40.
Long, M. (1985). lnput and second language acquisition theory. In S. Gass & C.
Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 377-393). Rowley,
MA; Newbury House.
Nunan, D., (2002). Listening in Language Learning, Methodology. In J. Richards &
W. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of
Current Practice (pp. 238-241). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Peterson, P., (1991). A Synthesis of methods for interactive listening. In M. CelceMurcia, (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (2nd ed.)
(pp.106-122). New York: Newbury House.
Richards, Jack, (1983). Listening Comprehension: Approach, Design, Procedure.
TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 219-240.
Richards, Jack, (1990). The Language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
Tsui, A., & J. Fullilove. (1998). Bottom-up or top-down processing as a
discriminator of L2 listening performance. Applied Linguistics, 19(4), 432451.
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Vandergrift, L, (1999). Facilitating second language listening comprehension:
acquiring successful strategies. ELT Journal, 53(3), 168-176.
17
�
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Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context
Author
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Graham-Marr, Alastair
Abstract
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In EFL curricula where language is taught as a knowledge set, links between pedagogical theory and practice can be quite strong. However, links between pedagogical theory and practice seems more tenuous when applied to the teaching of skills, in particular, L2 listening skills which are often left to develop as by-products of a student’s grammatical and lexical understanding. And, in many contexts, this oversight can have serious consequences. Given that English is a stress-timed language, learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages, such as Japanese or Korean, can be robbed of learning opportunities when listening skills are deficient. The crucial role of comprehensible input in second language acquisition is well established, so when learners have developed listening skills, all language that is basically understood is available as a learning opportunity as comprehensible input. However, when learners have incipient listening skills, learners are often unable to comprehend auditory input containing words that are largely understood, thus losing opportunities for L2 language development. Learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages often lack a natural understanding of suprasegmental phonology, impeding comprehension. It is well established in the research literature that listening skills are best taught as a set of sub-skills to help students develop a basic phonetic awareness, however such research findings have not always made it into practice. This qualitative study reports on a set of first year university students at a Japanese university where listening was taught as a set of sub-skills. An overwhelming majority felt this type of instruction helped to improve their listening skills, suggesting that this fundamental pedagogy needs greater emphasis in countries with syllable-timed or mora-timed native languages. The results of this study are described and interpreted in the context of the English education system in Japan. Keywords: listening skills, EFL curricula, comprehensible input
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International Burch University
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2015-04-16
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L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PL Languages and literatures of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania,PR English literature
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Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive
History of Science
David Dunér
Lund University, Sweden
Submitted: 16.04.2014.
Accepted: 23.11.2014.
Abstract
The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can
inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis is that abstract ideas
rest on experiences of the concrete world. In this paper I will explain the use of
conceptual metaphors in science, with examples from the mechanistic worldview of
the 17th and 18th century. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their
mental abilities, reason and cognition, we could get close to an understanding of how
scientists during the scientific revolution shaped their ideas about the invisible
geometry of matter. This is a cognitive history of ideas. What is called the ‘cognitive
turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research, for example, in
cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. These approaches try
to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is
also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology
and history of science. The aim of the cognitive history of science is to reconstruct
scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories. The starting point for a
cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and
mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in
social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the
subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We
humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our
thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create
a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of
reasoning, not least in metaphors.
Keywords: metaphors, cognition, cognitive history, Sweden
Introduction
Cognitive history concerns how humans in the past used their cognitive abilities in
order to understand the world around them and to orient themselves in it, but also
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�Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science
how the world outside their bodies affected their way of thinking. The objective of
this paper is to lay the theoretical basis for a cognitive approach to history, providing
the tools for a cognitive history that can be tested on the historical sources in order to
providing new insights into how people in history perceived their world as a result of
an interaction between mind and its environment. This approach has also
interdisciplinary consequences. A cognitive history can provide empirical historical
data to the research into the biocultural co-evolution of human cognition.
There are three steps towards a cognitive history. First, we have to lay the theoretical
foundations for a cognitive approach to history, a new historical theory and method
enlightened by cognitive science. If cognitive science is right in its claims concerning
human thinking, then its theories must also be valid for people in history with whom
we share same cognitive abilities. The second step would be to test the theories of
cognitive science on the historical sources to ascertain whether they lead to new
explanations and a deeper understanding of human cognitive creativity in history. By
these cognitive theories we can open up the hidden thought processes of humans in
the past and come closer to an understanding of how people thought, not only what
they thought, and further study the interaction between the human mind and the
surrounding world. The most ambitious step, the third step, is in the long run also to
inform the research on the cognitive evolution of the human mind. History can, I
believe, contribute to cognitive science and provide empirical historical data
concerning how human cognition is a result of time, of history, personal and
collective memories, and as a result of the human mind’s interaction with its specific
environment in time and space.
The first step, that of identifying plausible theories for a cognitive history, is not
enough.These theories should also begin doing some work; it must be possible to
implement themon the historical sources. A new theory for historical research is of
no use if it cannot show any new results, give new explanations and enhance our
understanding of the human past. In the long run, this enterprise can contribute to the
research on the evolution of cognition, and, as it were, connect Palaeolithic man with
the postmodern by studying the cultural evolution and its impact on human
cognition.
In order to exemplify the concepts involved, I have chosen examples from the early
modern period, that especially was crucial for the emergence of modern scientific
thought, but I believe that it could and should be possible to implement a cognitivehistorical method on any kind of historical period, topic or material. The early
modern period was a time in human history when modern science began to take
shape. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, human beings showed a
growing interest in the world around them. A new knowledge of nature was acquired,
50
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
efficient mathematical tools were constructed and inexorable mechanical laws were
introduced. The labyrinths of the human body were mapped; merchants and explorers
set foot in foreign lands, and plants and animals were classified in an allencompassing system. Humankind sought an order in the world, an assumption that
the effect followed the cause, and that nothing happens arbitrarily. In order to
understand the world around them, they used their cognitive capacities that had
gradually been evolving for millions of years.
Metaphors of the mind
The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can
inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis, proposed in
cognitive semantics, is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world.
If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and
cognition, in other words, if we consider how people think, not just what they think,
we could get close to an understanding of how they shaped their ideas about the
world. This is a cognitive history of ideas, a history of thinking. What is called the
‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research into
different cognitive explanatory models of human expressions and cultural evolution,
for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. 1
These approaches are combined in a theory of cognitive science in order to arrive at
an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a
growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and
history of science.2 The aim of the cognitive history of science suggested here is to
reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories.3 Research in
1
Scott Atran, Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science
(Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990); Michael Tomasello, The Cultural Origins of Human
Cognition (Cambridge MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1999); Mark Turner, ‘The Cognitive Study of Art,
Language, and Literature’, Poetics Today, 2002, 1:9–22; Alan Richardson & Francis F. Steen,
‘Literature and the Cognitive Revolution: An Introduction’, Poetics Today, 2002, 1:1–8; Michael
Tomasello, ‘Uniquely Human Cognition Is a Product of Human Culture’, Evolution and Culture: A
Fryssen Foundation Symposium, eds. S. C. Levinson & P. Jaisson (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2005),
p. 203–217; Scott Atran & Douglas L. Medin, The Native Mind and the Cultural Construction of Nature
(Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2008); Brian Boyd, On the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition, and
Fiction (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009); Denis Dutton, The Art
Instinct: Beauty, Pleasure, and Human Evolution (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009).
2 Steven Mithen, The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion, and Science
(London: Thames & Hudson, 1996); Colin Renfrew, Chris Frith & Lambros Malafouris (eds.), The
Sapient Mind: Archaeology Meets Neuroscience (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009).
3 Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘How do Scientists Think? Capturing the Dynamics of Conceptual Change in
Science’, Cognitive Models of Science, ed. R. N. Giere (Minneapolis MN: Univ. of Minnesota Press,
1992), p. 4–7, 36–38; Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘Opening the Black Box: Cognitive Science and History of
Science’, Osiris, 1995, p. 194–211; Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘Interpreting Scientific and Engineering
Practices: Integrating the Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Dimensions’, Scientific and Technological
51
�Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science
cognitive history has generally dealt with the fundamental cognitive practices such as
reading and counting, as well as scientific and religious perceptions.4
There are at least three assumptions about thought that a cognitive history of ideas
can rest on. In cognitive science it has been ascertained, firstly, that our concepts and
reason are associated with and structured by the body, the brain, and our everyday
action in the world.5 Mind is embodied, situated and distributed. Space, the
environment in which we live, the registration of the senses, and the movement of the
body through the physical landscape, all are significant for thought. Secondly, it has
been shown that most of our thinking takes place without us being aware of it. There
are unconscious cognitive processes to which the conscious mind has no access, such
as memories, mental images, conclusions, and perceptions of meanings. The
unconscious conceptual system structures our conscious thought. Thirdly, reason is
metaphorical, that is, abstract concepts are understood in terms of concrete ones, as
conceptual metaphors allow us to think about one thing with the aid of something
else. Based on a knowledge of the known, we draw conclusions about the unknown.
Thinking, eds. M. E. Gorman et al. (Mahwah NJ: L. Erlbaum, 2005); see also E. Thomas Lawson,
‘Counterintuitive Notions and the Problem of Transmission: The Relevance of Cognitive Science for the
Study of History’, Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historique, 1994, 3:481–495; David Gooding,
‘Cognitive History of Science: The Roles of Diagrammatic Representations in Discovery and Modeling
Discovery’, Theory and Application of Diagrams (Berlin: Springer, 2000); Ryan D. Tweney, ‘Scientific
Thinking: A Cognitive-Historical Approach’, Designing for Science: Implications from Everyday,
Classroom, and Professional Settings, eds. K. Crowley, C. D. Schunn & T. Okada (Mahwah NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001), p. 141–173; Peter Carruthers, Stephen Stich & Michael Siegal
(eds.), The Cognitive Basis of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002); Christophe Heintz,
‘Introduction: Why There Should Be a Cognitive Anthropology of Science’, Journal of Cognition and
Culture, 2004, 3:391–408; E. Thomas Lawson, ‘The Wedding of Psychology, Ethnography, and
History: Methodological Bigamy or Tripartite Free Love?’, Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology,
History, and Cognition, eds. H. Whitehouse & L. H. Martin (Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira Press, 2004),
p. 1–5; Harvey Whitehouse, ‘Cognitive Historiography: When Science Meets Art’, Historical
reflections/Réflexions historiques, 2005, 2:307–318.
4 David R. Olson, The World on Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implications of Writing and
Reading (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996); Reviel Netz, The Shaping of Deduction in Greek
Mathematics: A Study in Cognitive History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999); Hanne
Andersen, Peter Barker & Xiang Chen, The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006); Luther H. Martin & Jesper Sørensen, Past Minds: Studies in Cognitive
Historiography (London: Equinox Publishing, 2011).
5 George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to
Western Thought (New York NY: Basic Books, 1999), p. 3, 7, 10; Mark Johnson, The Body in the
Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason (Chicago IL: Univ. of Chicago Press,
1987); Francisco J. Varela, Evan Thompson & Eleanor Rosch, The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science
and Human Experience (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1991); John Krois et al. (eds.), Embodiment in
Cognition and Culture (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2007); Paco Calvo & Toni Gomila (eds.),
Handbook of Cognitive Science: An Embodied Approach (Oxford: Elsevier Science, 2008).
52
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that
philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language,
in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the
world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts,
and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are
dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images,
when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by
our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors.
In cognitive semantics, as represented by George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, and others,
certain conclusions have been drawn from assumptions in cognitive science about the
way humans think. One feature that has been seized on is the fact that humans think
metaphorically. Our basic concepts do not function beyond our everyday
experiences. To conceptualize non-everyday phenomena or abstract thoughts
requires conceptual metaphors. Metaphor can then mean understanding and
experiencing something with the aid of something else, or that a structure in one
domain is transferred to another, from a source (the sensorimotor domain) to a target
(subjective experience) which simultaneously preserves the deductive structure.
Metaphors entail conceptualizing something in terms of some other thing, and
function in a way as models for less well-known areas. We transfer knowledge about
the known to the unknown, from the familiar to the unfamiliar, from the
commonplace world, society, human life, engineering and handicraft, to the invisible
particle world, to the soul and God. One could say that metaphorical thought means
finding similarities between things, but also forgetting dissimilarities, being able to
generalize and abstract. The creation and use of metaphors requires creativity and
imagination.
Many of our fundamental concepts are organized on the basis of one or more spatial
metaphors.6 There are metaphors that transfer a structure, or proceed from a spatial
orientation that arises from the action of the body in physical reality. Our experiences
of physical objects give rise to ontological metaphors, that is, seeing events,
emotions, ideas, and states as objects, entities, substances, or containers. They can be
metaphors such as imagining life as a journey or intellectual influence as a physical
force. Time can be understood spatially as something flowing along a line or in a
circle. Thinking can be described in terms of movement, moving forward step by
step without skipping any stages, or taking the straightest course to the conclusion
without going in circles or getting away from the subject. To think is to travel. It is a
walk along a path, a voyage on the sea, a journey with or without a goal. The
6George
Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago IL: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980), p.
14, 17, 25, 30; cf. Peter Gärdenfors, Conceptual Spaces: The Geometry of Thought (Cambridge MA:
MIT Press, 2000), p. 2, 255.
53
�Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science
researcher can get lost in the labyrinth of reality. He cannot find the narrow trail out
of the jungle, he can be driven off course on the ocean of knowledge, or after much
searching he may find the straight road towards the goal, ‘truth’. The landscape with
its settlement, habitability, shifts of light and shade, also gives conceptual patterns.
Wilderness and darkness are ignorance and irrationality. Fortified castles and light
represent sure knowledge and wisdom. To think is also to see. Knowledge is vision.
What is unknown, difficult to comprehend, is obscure darkness. Without knowledge
we grope in the dark. To acquire knowledge is to shed light on things, a knowledge
that enables us to see and allows new findings to see the light of day. Knowledge
brings enlightenment, we see, feel, everything is clear. What is significant and
important is of greater weight or size. Similarity is understood as physical nearness,
difficulties are burdens, and organizational structures are like physical structures.
These metaphors are used unconsciously, automatically in everyday life and arise
from our quotidian experience. Without metaphors, abstract reasoning would be
impossible.7
Metaphorical concepts have their origin not just in our physical but also in our
cultural experience. The more layers of metaphors we employ, the more abstract and
culturally specific the concept becomes.8 Some metaphors proceed from some
special cultural knowledge, for example metaphors based on Euclidean geometry.
People who live in cultures with no knowledge of Euclidean geometry would not
understand such metaphors. Euclidean geometry gives the world a specific visual
metaphorical structure, a world of relations between points, lines, and circles. In
many cases, then, scientific theories and concepts about the world are founded on
spatial metaphors with a physical and cultural origin. Philosophers and natural
scientists use the same conceptual system as ordinary people in their own culture. In
philosophical theories they incorporate the concepts available in the historical
context and the general theories, models, and metaphors that are common and typical
in the culture to which they belong, but they also rework these basic concepts, see
new links, and draw new conclusions. It is the shared concepts and ideas that make a
specific philosophical theory comprehensible to people within a particular culture.
Philosophical theories can be interpreted as attempts to refine, expand, clarify, and
make consistent certain common metaphors and ‘popular’ or ‘general’ theories
shared by people in a culture. What a particular philosophical theory also does is to
select the ‘right’ metaphors. Differences between philosophical views thus depend on
different choices of metaphors. Each philosopher’s metaphysics has its origin in what
7
Lakoff & Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, p. 59; George Lakoff & Rafael E. Núñez, Where
Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being (New York NY:
Basic Books, 2000), p. 41.
8 Marcel Danesi, ‘The Dimensionality of Metaphor’, Sign Systems Studies, 1999, 27:60–87, on p. 73–
74, 78.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
he takes as central metaphors. A ‘world-view’ can therefore be regarded as a
consistent constellation of concepts, especially metaphorical concepts, over one or
more conceptual domains.9 The world-view is the reality for the people of its time.
In philosophical analysis and scientific theory formation, then, metaphors play an
important part. Philosophical and scientific texts are more or less strewn with
metaphors, analogies, metonymies, similes, and comparisons. In the history of
science they have often been dismissed as unscientific and uninteresting adornment.10
They have mostly been regarded as poetic whims, educational and rhetorical devices,
or simply as superfluous linguistic expressions that obscure the view of the true
logical structure of the scientific arguments, the purely rational scientific and
mathematical. Against this I claim that metaphors, the linguistic form, the tropes that
modify the basic meaning of a word, are of crucial importance. They are not mere
external ornament, but a major part of creative thought by establishing visual
analogies and abstract ideas. For this reason they also provide valuable clues to how
scientists think. Scientific reasoning uses metaphors to a great extent as conceptual
tools or as theoretical models of the external world. Structural metaphors and process
metaphors are particularly common in scientific reasoning, metaphors that try to get
away from the emotional and subjective. In science one must form new concepts for
the new phenomena one is describing, and this is often done with the aid of
metaphors related to what is already known.
Conclusion
We can divide the cognitive-historical agenda into three undertakings: i) to delve into
the current theories of cognitive science, to evaluate and select the most useful
theories for historical research; ii) to collect historical data that is representative,
challenging and relevant; and iii) to implement the cognitive theories on the collected
data, and through this produce new interpretations and theories, that push the field
forward.
If this fails, then either (i) the theories and results of cognitive science are false, or
(ii) the theories and results of cognitive science are not relevant for historical
research. An answer to the first option is that the theories and results of cognitive
science are well grounded; there are many experimental proofs that have been
carefully checked. If we believe in the scientific enterprise, we can rule out the first
explanation. If cognitive science turns out to be completely wrong in its
9
Lakoff & Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, p. 338–341, 511.
There are of course exceptions, see Alistair C. Crombie, Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European
Tradition: The History of Argument and Explanation Especially in the Mathematical and Biomedical
Sciences and Arts II (London: Duckworth, 1994), part IV; Marta Spranzi, ‘Galileo and the Mountains of
the Moon: Analogical Reasoning, Models and Metaphors in Scientific Discovery’, Journal of Cognition
and Culture, 2004, 3:451–483.
10
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�Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science
proclamations, human beings still use categories, metaphors and objects, etc. in their
daily lives and in science. This fact still needs an explanation. Turning to the second
option; if these theories and results of cognitive science are universal and valid for all
humans, this must also include our immediate ancestors in our own species (they
must reasonably have had brains). If this is not so, I cannot find any explanation for
this other than that the cognitive historian has not yet convinced other historians
about it by showing new results that inspire new research on other topics.
My conclusion is that cognitive history is a promising approach for future historical
research. First, a cognitive approach to history will give us new tools for analyzing
and interpreting ideas in history, explaining events and historical change, and enable
us understand in greater detail how people thought, felt and believed as historical
beings situated in time and space, and by this enlighten the interaction between the
mind and its surroundings. In all, it will let us enter the black box of hidden cognitive
processes of human minds in history.
Secondly, with a new cognitive-historical method, new sources will be sought and
discovered; material that before seemed to be hard to use will now be useful, and
well-known sources must be re-interpreted. Successful new methods provide not
only new interpretations and explanations, they discover new facts, use known
sources in a new way and discover new sources that can be used in historical
research. An empirical cognitive history will explain the cognitive processes behind
human encounters with the surrounding world, what happened to the mind in
unknown environments, how mental images in science and technology were used,
how objects and techniques enhanced thinking in science, and unveiling the
metaphorical thinking behind concept formation and the categorization strategies in
systematics and taxonomy. In all, such cognitive-historical studies will give new
explanations to the emergence of human thinking as an interaction between the mind
and the world.
Thirdly, with a cognitive theory, history will contribute to the ongoing research in
cognitive science and on cultural evolution. We will arrive at an interdisciplinary
historical theory integrated with our collected knowledge. History cannot only
borrow and learn something from other disciplines; it will also contribute to the
them, and provide important data that will give the clues as how our distant ancestors
thousands of years ago gradually enhanced their cognitive abilities and techniques
and finally gave birth to us, we postmodern thinking, feeling, and living beings.
The cognitive history outlined hereinrepresents an open field of possibilities. It will
take time to explore its vast territory, that is for sure, and the enterprise will require
hordes of historians to be occupied for decades. But this endeavor must begin
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
someday. A cognitive history of ideas relates to the basic human conditions; it unites
people in history that we have the experience of living, that we register and
participate in the world around us – the flowing in the veins, the storms of emotions,
and the escaping thoughts. It provides an understanding of the thoughts and lives of
people in history, as sentient and reflective beings. It unveils the hidden thought
processes in the past.
57
�
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2806
Title
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Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science
Author
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Dunér, David
Abstract
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The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. In this paper I will explain the use of conceptual metaphors in science, with examples from the mechanistic worldview of the 17th and 18th century. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, we could get close to an understanding of how scientists during the scientific revolution shaped their ideas about the invisible geometry of matter. This is a cognitive history of ideas. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. These approaches try to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science. The aim of the cognitive history of science is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories. The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. Keywords: metaphors, cognition, cognitive history, Sweden
Date
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2015-04-16
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Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PR English literature