319 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/34bd4f0a3384cfab917c4e5da896f8dd.pdf 77ff6210e8ebd0e2d93b255f92a9b9b3 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Taxation Role in Sustainable Development Hayriye IŞIK Pamukkale University, Turkey Abstract: The concept of sustainable development is about ensuring that the costs of onegeneration’s activities do not compromise the opportunities of future generations. It stresses the long term compatibility of the economic, social and environmental dimensions of human well-being. There are tax aspects of various significances in these four dimensions, some of which are under the primary responsibility of developing countries. These are; (a) Providing a fiscal environment that is favourable to Foreign Direct Investment and international trade in developing countries, (b) At the international level, cooperation between developed and developing countries to ensure that developing countries get a fair allocation of tax base in relation to the Foreign Direct Investment they attract, (c) Helping developing countries to develop efficient and fair tax policies and tax collection mechanisms that allow their governments to effectively fund sustainable policy measures in the economic, social and environmental fields, and (d) At the international level and in particular in investors’ home countries, involving civil society by encouraging taxpayers and in particular MNEs(Multinational Enterprises) to behave in a responsible way when managing their taxes. The key challenge for for countries especially for developing countries is to establish a strong policy and institutional framework that will help developing countries to attract increased trade and investment and to ensure that these flows benefit their societies and promote sustainable forms of development. The most important features for a tax system in terms of sustainability would be: transparency in administrative decisions; stability of tax rules / reasonable certainty for taxpayers; and availability of fair jurisdictional recourses. This paper aims to investigate tax and tax system role on the sustainable development. Finally gives some detailed example for developing and developed countries. Keywords: taxation, sustainable, foreign direct investment 1.Tax System and Sustainable Development The key challenge for for countries especially for developing countries is to establish a strong policy and institutional framework that will help developing countries to attract increased trade and investment and to ensure that these flows benefit their societies and promote sustainable forms of development. The most important features for a tax system in terms of sustainability would be: - transparency in administrative decisions; - stability of tax rules / reasonable certainty for taxpayers; and - availability of fair jurisdictional recourses. A partial re-orientation of taxes from taxation of income to taxation the use of natural resources and pollution of nature. The broader goal of the tax reform concept is to improve the competitiveness in lot of country, support the economic development and reduce unemployment. Another basic principle is that the overall tax burden has to remain the same – this means that the rise of environmental taxes and fees has to be balanced with decreasing of income tax Tax System Role; a) Collection From Business: Collecting taxes from businesses, rather than individuals, makes use of the economies of dealing with a smaller number of larger units, many of which have sophisticated accounting systems.It is morecostly, as a fraction of revenue raised, to collect taxes from compared to larger busiensses. b) Trade off - Raising taxes from entails high collection costs per revenue. 195 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo - Collection costs include both administrative and compliance costs, but the former should beweighted more heavily. - But taxing SMEspreferentially creates inefficient incentives for resources to flow to them (where they are difficult to tax). - Thus, economizing on the costs of collection may exacerbate the distortion costs of taxation. c) Distortion types - a size-related exemption discourages businesses from getting big, a production inefficiency. -It also favors goods and services whose production technology involves small businesses, a consumption inefficiency. d) Cost-benefit framework The potential collection costs savings and the distortion costs depend on to which tax the preferences apply, and on the nature of the preferences. -Special treatment can take many forms, including exemption, a lower rate schedule, a simplified base, and relatively lax enforcement. -Key question: what about a tax system delivers lower collection costs? e) Tax system problems - Administration - Competitiviness - Impact to wealth distribution - Measurement (indicators) - Political fluctuations f) Poverty Considerations Assessing equity issues requires careful consideration of the ultimate incidence of tax policies. -Both tax liability and compliance costs can be shifted away from the apparent beneficiaries via market adjustments. -For example, not necessarily owned by people with small incomes. 2. Tax System Role Special tax regimes for may be appropriate policy instruments for minimizing the cost of collection.The objective should be to achieve collection cost savings while minimizing the revenue loss, disruption to the economy, and the inequity and capriciousness of the tax burden. 3. Conclusions The role of taxation in sustainable development covers many aspects. The most commonly discussed ones are the use of taxes or tax incentives designed to encourage or discourage specific behaviour that affect economic, environmental or social sustainability. However, there is a more fundamental, although less often advocated, dimension to thisissue. Taxation is essential to sustainable development in that it provides governmentswith the necessary finance to effectively implement development policies. Objectives interms of improving infrastructures, education, health, or environmental protection, cannotbe achieved at no cost. There is a joint responsibility for developing economies, wealthycountries, investors and international organisations to promote fair and efficient taxsystems, administrations and attitudes that will ensure each country derives the fruits ofits own economic growth. This contributes to the wider objective of policy coherence. 196 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Anonim Agenda 21 Rio Deklarasyonu Caroline Silberztein “sustainable development a shared responsibility for developing and developed countries,Institutional Approaches to Policy Coherence for Development OECD Policy Workshop Dommen, Edward, Editör, Fair Principles for Sustainable Development. Edward Elgar, 1993. Minibaş, Türkel ; “Çok Taraflı Yatırım Anlaşması (MAI) ve Dünya Ticaret Örgütü (WTO), Đktisadın Dama Taşları, Đ.Ü. Đktisat Fakültesi Mezunlar Cemiyeti, 2001-1 OECD (2001:a), Strategies for Sustainable Development-Practical Guidance for Development Cooperation Pearce, David, "New Environmental Policies: The Recent Experience of OECD Countries and its Relevance to the Developing World." Environmental Management in Developing Countries. Editor Denizhan Öcal. OECD 1991 içinde. Pearce, David, "New Environmental Policies, Environment and Economics: A Survey of OECD Work" Environmental Management in Developing Countries. Editor Denizhan Öcal. OECD 1991 içinde. World Bank, National Environmental Strategies: Learning from the Experience, Mart 1995. Tanzi, Vito&Davodi, Hamid R.; Corruption, Growth, and Public Finances, IMF Working Paper WP/00/182 197 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 176 Title A name given to the resource Taxation Role in Sustainable Development Author Author IŞIK, Hayriye Abstract A summary of the resource. The concept of sustainable development is about ensuring that the costs of onegeneration’s activities do not compromise the opportunities of future generations. It stresses the long term compatibility of the economic, social and environmental dimensions of human well-being. There are tax aspects of various significances in these four dimensions, some of which are under the primary responsibility of developing countries. These are; (a) Providing a fiscal environment that is favourable to Foreign Direct Investment and international trade in developing countries, (b) At the international level, cooperation between developed and developing countries to ensure that developing countries get a fair allocation of tax base in relation to the Foreign Direct Investment they attract, (c) Helping developing countries to develop efficient and fair tax policies and tax collection mechanisms that allow their governments to effectively fund sustainable policy measures in the economic, social and environmental fields, and (d) At the international level and in particular in investors’ home countries, involving civil society by encouraging taxpayers and in particular MNEs(Multinational Enterprises) to behave in a responsible way when managing their taxes. The key challenge for for countries especially for developing countries is to establish a strong policy and institutional framework that will help developing countries to attract increased trade and investment and to ensure that these flows benefit their societies and promote sustainable forms of development. The most important features for a tax system in terms of sustainability would be: transparency in administrative decisions; stability of tax rules / reasonable certainty for taxpayers; and availability of fair jurisdictional recourses. This paper aims to investigate tax and tax system role on the sustainable development. Finally gives some detailed example for developing and developed countries Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/557334d764e3847755e87caaa57854b0.pdf 67e6dac49a7c67c04641e29cb14ade12 PDF Text Text Games in the Teaching of Foreign Languages Mehmet KARA Gazi University, Faculty of Educatıon, Departman of Turkish Language Teaching, Ankara, Turkey, mehkara@gazi.edu.tr Abstract: The use of games in teaching of foreign languages is that students learn the foreign languages easier, the students enjoy this method, they participate classes with love and willingly and the stuff that they learn seams to be much more permanent. Games in the process of teaching foreign languages seem to be a forward key for the teachers. Moreover, the teaching of the languages through the games, will learn the students to share, to have a friendship, to socialize and to communicate among others. The most important thing for the teacher is to know which games is propper for the basic language skills, to choose the game for the purpose and to applicate it correctly. One of the principles of foreign language teaching is to develop the four basic language skills. These skills are listening, speaking, reading and writing which consists of the functional integrity. Teaching of foreign languages includes a lot of games and a lot of researches have done about these issue. Since I have personaly applied these games in TÖMER Gazi University (Gazi University the Turkish Language Teaching Center) I can tell that I was getting exellent results. Most important thing is to be able to applicate it and at the end to have possitive results. Key Words: Games, Teaching of the language with games, Foreign language teaching, The techniques of teaching the language, Language teaching Introduction "Children should grow with the game." Plato One of the most important functions in training is that the students uncover the existing capabilities and develop. The traditional way of education system is teaching the students not to be that active, teachers are using the teacher-centered methods and techniques. Now, training and education in our age is that the students are the center as assets that adds many new class of methods and techniques which are beginning to be used. Foreign language teaching can only be taught by the student-centered methods and techniques used with the appropriate technologies which have to be effectively performed. Not to explain and not to be able to express the true feelings and thoughts, is the same as not to be able to understand and effectively explain without thinking, as a result of the effectiveness of the class, summarize. (Kavcar et al., 2004:59). Success of foreign language teaching practices, based on the principles and methods in the classroom depends on the operating conditions. Basic principles, language and education of scientists of various research is created by the results reached by the findings suggest. These are recommended basic principles of proper planning and implementation in the classroom interaction that may be about the effectiveness of foreign language teaching. One of the principles of foreign language teaching is to develop the four basic language skills. These skills are listening, speaking, reading and writing consists of the functional integrity. Language as a communication tool to use these four basic skills of teaching should be carried out (Demirel, 1990: 23). Developments of the four basic skills are many events. In foreign language teaching; specified goals of the activities within the classroom, the plan can be applied. To teach certain subjects in order to put these issues, starting from simple to complex, concrete and abstract concepts should be taught correctly, and thus issues a call to find language teaching program that forms the basis of the other is a policy (1990:24 Demirel; 1997: 123). A good foreign language teacher is the one who develops the skills towards the work in the classroom. The content of foreign language courses should include on one hand, the continuity, availability and other issues provided by teaching again and again. With this aim, for teaching foreign language classes students should use 16 �above mentioned four basic language skills to enhance photographs, pictures, poems, stories, tales, drama, film, music and games and getting benefit from the thinking skills in line with the activity which can be done. In recent years, education in mother language is required in the foreign language teaching, being used widely as a student centered and active teaching methods in language teaching with games. Because the game is fun for students providing rest and joy as a training method. I briefly would like to talk about the benefits of the games. The Benefits of the Games 1. The game allows children the freedom of movement. 2. The game teaches children to respect social rules. 3. An interesting game should increase interaction between people, it consists specific and constructive power. Games are providing the children's mental and psycho-social developments. 4. Games are providing children's self-managed and controlled creating a fantasy world. 5. The game is challenging research, curiosity and adventure. 6. The basis of language developments process occurs during the game. 7. Care collection, developed with the game. 8. Games for children, to recognize aspects of the real nature, the research allows. 9. To learn the game and method provides the most dynamic live environment. 10. Children's making of decisions and execution logics are developing through the games 11. The program can be educational teachings through the game. Shortly, games are helping in children's character development, earning trust, to ensure compliance, to develop observation skills, enhance the activity of body and brain. This event also are related to education of individuals' social. Their sensitivity to environmental development, learning to listen, sense and feel when using their own internal sense of direction as well as sound thinking to develop. So far we have stand on the different topics about how games are effecting the children. I wonder what are their contributions to influence on language skills? Beyond the listening, speaking, reading and writing skills games are improving the supporting skills as well such as basic skills of words and grammar. Language means interaction. All of this can be only functional if the language spoken between individuals is at the understandable level. Specially if during the interaction between individuals in the game, encourage the individual to full fill interaction with fun and educational activities. In particular, teaching the students with the game as soon as possible most effective and most meaningful in a way words can be provided with. Foreign language teaching each skill (listening, speaking, reading and writing) can be applied to game events. But here in the class not only the implementation of the games are important but also reaching good results with it, which is on the other hand the aim of the teaching. Otherwise, hundreds of games can be produced on paper, but only few of them will have the results. As a result of our experience the games should have these features: 1. The game should be fun and instructive, 2. The game should be loved by students, 3. The game should be easy to understand and to perform should not be messed up, 4. Since the students don’t prefer the games with much material, the games should not include much material. 5. The goal of the game should be appropriate 6. The game should not be to long or to short 7. The games should be appropriate to students' level 8. Games should be competitive. 9. The game should be suitable for individual or group work. Now I would like to inform you about the games which we, my colleges1 and myself, apply in TÖMER Gazi University (Turkish Education Application and Research Center) which are very enjoyable and made more efficient course. 1. Saying new words according to the last letter of word. A student is telling a word, after which a next student has to say according to the last letter of the previous word a new word which begins with that letter. The game is going on that way until all the students have sad the words. For example: the first word is “play”, next student is saying “young”, since the last letter of the word play is “y”. If the student doesn’t remember any word with the particular letter or if the student is saying the same word which was already used he has to leave the game. These easy game is very loved by students. The purpose of this game is to check out if the students are spelling and pronouncing the words correctly. During this game students have the capability to learn new words and to remember the forgotten ones. The most useful time to play this game are the last 15 minutes of the class, because it will help 1 Expert Hatice Parlak, Gazi University, TÖMER, Instructor of Turkish Language; Expert Neslihan Delice, Gazi University, TÖMER, Turkish Language Instructor, Ankara. 17 �out the students to repeat the words that they have learned that day or before and it will bring joy to the last part of the class. This game can be performed to the middle – level students, but not to the higher level students (advanced) because it might be boring and to easy for them. 2. The teacher should read a comprehension from the unit that they have worked out before. A class should be divided into two groups. Teacher before reading the comprehension should write some words from the text on the board. From each group one student is comming in front of the board, every group has a different colour to mark the words which they hear while the teacher is reading. Teacher has to reads the text loud and slowly, and the students listen good and when they recognize a word which is on the board they have to mark it and next student from that group has to continue. The students who marked more has won the game. This game is a good practice for listening, and to repeat a unit at the end of the class. Students will have fun as well as new information and possibility to repeat the unit. This game can be applied to middle-level students. For advanced students is simple and boring. 3. This is the different version of the previous game. The teacher should read a comprehension from the unit that they have worked out before. A class should be divided into two groups. Teacher before reading the comprehension should write some words about the text on the board. From each group one student is coming in front of the board, every group has a different color to mark the opposite words which they hear while the teacher is reading. Teacher has to reads the text loud and slowly, and the students listen good and when they recognize a word which is on the opposite of the word on the board they have to mark it and next student from that group has to continue. The students who marked more has won the game. This game is a good practice for listening, recognizing and to repeat a unit at the end of the class. Students will have fun as well as new information and possibility to repeat the unit. This game can be applied to middle-level and a little bit advanced students. For advanced students and those who are really good this game can be simple and boring. This game can be performed also with the similar words or something that might be the grammar topic of that unit such as adjectives, adverbs, pronouns… 4. The teacher has to write into the board some synonim words from the unit that they have done same day. Students should look to the board 5 minutes and try to remember the words which are written on it. Then from each group at the same time a student comes to the board. Students are given different colored pencils. When the teacher is reading students should try to find the synonims on the board. For example, the teacher is reading "pc" and the student has to recognize the word “computer” on the board, mark it with the color of his group. The students who marked more has won the game. This game is a good practice for listening, recognizing and to repeat a unit at the end of the class. Students will have fun as well as new information and possibility to repeat the unit. This game can be applied to middle-level and a little bit advanced students. For advanced students and those who are really good this game can be simple and boring. This game can be performed also with the similar words or something that might be the grammar topic of that unit such as adjectives, adverbs, pronouns… 5. Teachers can perform the same game as number four but only with the opposite words. 6. The teacher is writing the words one by one on the small papers from the unit they have had before and putting them into a bag. Teacher is dividing the class into two groups. A student takes a paper from the bag and trying to explain it in Turkish using similar words, opposite words and so one. The student is trying to describe it to the both groups. The group that the first knows gets a point. This game is helping the teacher to understand the students skills for explanation, how the student is using his knowledge in practice, how good are his sentences, his knowledge about synonyms and opposite words. This game can also be performed to the individuals without dividing the class into two parts. This game can also be performed to the advanced level students using "expressions" instead of “words”. 7. In this game most important thing is to know how to describe a person with physical and character features. Teacher should divide the class into two. The student in front of the board should without giving a name describe a person in the class only using words. The opponent group should guess the name of the asked person, they have the right to ask questions about the person, but they also have only one chance to guess it right. If they know they get a point, if not than the opposite group gets a point. If there are less students then the person which they have to explain doesn’t necessarliy has to be from the classmates. It can also be someone from the neighbour class, some stars… The goal of this practice is to check up the students knowledge about the grammar. This game can be applied to students in middle level and a little bit forward ones. This game can apply in writing courses. This time student has to describe a friend and the character of the physical properties in paper and later on perform it to the classmates which have to guess about who is the topic. The goal of this game is to check up the knowledge of the students in writing accurate, meaningful and writing the sentences and adjectives grammatical proper. 8. The teacher divides into two groups the class. Removes some words from the text and prepares two different texts. The missing words from the group A he writes it to the group B. The missing parts of the group B writes to the group A. after the teacher reads the original text teacher will check up who has the most right words and 18 �his group is going to be a winner. This game can be performed also for the individuals. At the end the student who has the most right words is the winner. This game is good for teaching of foreign language so that the students will develop listening and writing skills. This game can be adapted to language skills, the teacher can ask only for grammar words like pronouns. This game can be applied to advanced students. 9. This game is very similar to the eighth game. Can be applied to the entire class or groups. Teacher should give a text with some missing words to the students and then while listening to the song the students should fulfill the missing words. This game will improve students' listening skills. 10. While working the dictate teacher has to divide the group into two. Also he has to divide the text into two parts and hang them to the classroom but the students should not see it. From every group a student goes and reads one sentence and tells it to the friends from the group quickly. Each time a different student has to do it. At the end of the game two text parts will be read again. The group who has a less mistakes is a winner. This is a very teaching game who is improving the students to remember the sentences and to write it quickly. This game can be played with the middle level students. 11. This game, and in oral expression and written expression is a game that can be implemented. Teachers bring to class a small ball. Teacher starts a sentence by saying the story and the ball goes into a student. Add a sentence to the story the students at the ball. Then he wants the ball at one and continues until students. Students will have to pay attention to structure and editing. Students can enjoy a game that is played. This game can be applied to advanced students. 12. Teacher country, city, place, environment to promote the unit after telling pictures of famous places is cut and pasted to cardboard. Divides the class into two groups again. Students from each group in turn will show one of these places and students of this place (without saying where it is) to tell you which group knows more and better explain the name if he wins. Students to describe this game (the title) to learn about. Students will increase their vocabulary. This game can be applied to students in the middle a little more advanced. 13. Another game we played very often is the silent cinema. Teacher movie names, book names, words, or a bag put it on paper wise words said. Teacher class divides into two groups again. A student from the group a paper bag and pull without ever talking with Mark, with gestures sometimes classified as an object to show through or on paper by de facto, a friend of movement on the bag by applying the word taken from a group of friends at a certain time to try to explain. The first consists of few words and tell which word with the finger shows. Here you say all the words that evoke the students in the group for them, students will review the vocabulary for. Sometimes students do not know if the words out, then the teacher tells the meaning of those words silently to the narrator or a particular time will allow to select the other words from the bag. Most who know the game will win the group. This game can be applied to advanced students. 14. Classified into two groups of teachers in grammar lessons will take. Written on paper in the hands of each group has a list of verbs. A student against a student group and a verb tells him to this act passivity, or want to bring. (for example: hair cut-factual the other is cut-to-order in) know if students ask questions during and in the same way that the group goes to a question he asks. Group knows the most wins. This game, teachers, students without verbs list of verbs to tell whether the students also can apply by requesting. We can adapt to the many issues grammar this game. Conclusion Dear colleagues it has been determined that in the teaching of foreign language threw the use of the games are making the students to learn foreign language more easy, students enjoy this method, they willingly participate and learn more. Dear colleagues, teaching has only a meaning with the learning. If there is no willing for learning teaching and the education can’t only be of use. I can tell you about hundreds of games, but if I tell you about something that I don’t know, something that I haven’t tried there won’t be benefits of it. I have informed you about the games that my colleagues and myself have tried in Gazi University Turkish Language Teaching Center. At the end I would like to respectfully thank you for listening patiently. References 19 �Y., (2002). Türkçe Öğretim Yöntemleri: Yeni Yaklaşımlar, Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. Alemdar Andrew Wright et al. (1979), Games for Language Learning, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Cahit Kavcar, (2004), Türkçe Öğretimi, Engin Yayınları. Ercan T., Nesrin B., Hüdai C., (2004), Pratik Türkçe Öğretim Teknikleri, Dilset Yayınları, İstanbul. http://www.oyunlarlaingilizce.net/grammar-games/151-can-cant-flash-game-new.html http://www.education-world.com/a_lesson/archives/learninggame.shtml http://www.curtin.edu.au/curtin/dept/smec/iae N. Aykaç, (2005), Aktif Öğretim Yöntemleri, Naturel, Ankara. N. Aykaç, Aydın, H., (2006), Öğrenme ve öğretme sürecinde Planlama veUygulama. Naturel. Ankara Maley & Duff, 1978 repr 1980 Draman Techniques in Language Learning. CUP. M. Kutay İzgören, (1999), Oyunlarla Dil Öğretimi, Academyplus, Ankara. Özcan Demirel, (1993), Yabancı Dil Öğretimi İlkeler, Yöntemler, Teknikler, Usem Yayınları, Ankara. Özcan Demirel, (2002). Türkçe Öğretimi, Ankara: PegemA Yayıncılık. Perkins David N, (1999) “The Many Faces of Constructivısm.” Educational Leadership, Novenber 199:6-11 Sedat Sever; KAYA, Zekeriya ve ASLAN, Canan. (2006). Etkinliklerle Türkçe Öğretimi. Morpa Yay. İst. Shelagh Rixon, (1981), How to Use Games in Language Teaching, The Macmillan Press Ltd., London. William Rowland Lee, (1996), language Teaching Games and Contents, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 20 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 313 Title A name given to the resource Games in the Teaching of Foreign Languages Author Author KARA, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The use of games in teaching of foreign languages is that students learn the foreign languages easier, the students enjoy this method, they participate classes with love and willingly and the stuff that they learn seams to be much more permanent. Games in the process of teaching foreign languages seem to be a forward key for the teachers. Moreover, the teaching of the languages through the games, will learn the students to share, to have a friendship, to socialize and to communicate among others. The most important thing for the teacher is to know which games is propper for the basic language skills, to choose the game for the purpose and to applicate it correctly. One of the principles of foreign language teaching is to develop the four basic language skills. These skills are listening, speaking, reading and writing which consists of the functional integrity. Teaching of foreign languages includes a lot of games and a lot of researches have done about these issue. Since I have personaly applied these games in TÖMER Gazi University (Gazi University the Turkish Language Teaching Center) I can tell that I was getting exellent results. Most important thing is to be able to applicate it and at the end to have possitive results. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/17a084e728eacb77d968252ce3a00ad6.pdf 516a5c5f924a9315b2395c8582c5ade8 PDF Text Text The Capacity of the evaluation of linguistic abilities of FLE examinations applied in Turkey by OSYM ∗ Şeref Kara Uludag University, Bursa/Turkey serefk@uludag.edu.tr Melih Karakuzu Atatürk University, Erzurum/Turkey karakuzu@atauni.edu.tr Abstract : Since the ultimate object of the assessment and the evaluation in foreign language is the communication competence, it remains custom to determine the parameters and the performance criteria of the foreign language users. However, the multiple choice items used in Turkey generally do not allow us to measure different types of learners such as oral communication. It is limited only to the measurement of mental processes such as knowledge comprehension and application. En the contrary, the multiple choice items are still mostly preferred. Within the framework of this research, our aim is to analyze the multiple choice tests prepared and applied in Turkey by the OSYM in various examinations such as the OSS, the KPDS and the UDS. Key words: evaluation, competence, communication, test, validity. 1. Introduction The evaluation means certain number of various things in various contexts. Sometimes, as teachers, we evaluate our classes as spaces of study and as in teaching; other times, we evaluate the tests or written work that our learners produce. By many theories of language evaluation the institutional character of the evaluation means is taken into account rather than the learners needs. It is well known that evaluation is an extremely complex field where there are various human and teaching variables. The evaluation helps an educational system to provide the data which is needed to renew itself. So what to evaluate: knowledge or competence? Which type of evaluation use: formative/summative, direct/indirect? How to evaluate: questions/responses, free expression/expression, open questionnaire/questionnaire with multiple choices? It should be noted that it is very difficult to be able to find a real answer miracle, because each teaching method privileges such or such type of evaluation with a precise aim. However, it is not impossible to set up referents to recognize the learners’ acquisitions according to equivalences of levels. The convergent validity with existing tests should not be significant. According to Morrow (1979), it is significant to consider 1) the validity of the contents (items of which the test made up constitute a representative sample for a linguistic capacity?), 2) validity of the psycholinguistic concepts (does the test reflect with precision the principles of a valid theory of a foreign language learners?) and 3) predictive validity (can one determine by the result of the test foreseeable success in a given discipline). False objectivity will not be determining any more, even if, in certain situations it is advantageous to have formats of possible tests corrected by using a machine. Gary Buck (2001) is among the most known specialists for construction and the evaluation in tests in written comprehension. He quotes Bachman and Palmer (1996) by saying that the most significant characteristic of a test is its utility. According to their definition, this concept includes the following features: validity of psycholinguistic concepts, interactivity, authenticity, reliability, practice and impact. Buck adds the effectiveness to it. To build a test and to evaluate it, it is necessary to start firstly by defining the "pattern" or psycholinguistic concept: aptitudes and the capacities on which must carry the test and what it must measure. In the curricular area of the languages, particularly in programs of FLE, there are many proposals on the way of applying evaluations to the activities of class and the evaluation of program. The teachers and learners can objectively look at their work and their execution during the course. In the second place, they can understand the progression of the course and its relation with the goals of the program ∗ The center of selection and placement of the students to the higher education in Turkey 135 �more thoroughly. Thirdly, the teachers and learners can benefit from the evaluation to modify their teaching or study strategies whilst improving their achievements. By taking part in the continuing programme of evaluation, teachers and learners become more implied in the program. In short, the project of evaluation can help to create a good relationship between the teachers and learners. Continual evaluation is a systematic and reflective process to measure the program. With the difference in other evaluations, this approach comprises only teachers it and learners. One can regard it as a process of auto evaluation. 2. Scales of levels In this study, we will present the principal tests, certifications and scales of levels used in foreign language (LT) in Turkey. There are three types of tests in FLT prepared and applied by the OSYM which is the OSS, the KPDS and the UDS. Intended to choose candidates and historically to place them in the sections of FLE of the universities according to the points obtained and the preferences, oldest of these tests is that of the OSS which is more than 20 years old. The OSS is a test of French language, conceived and created to evaluate the people of an intermediate level. It validates about 250 hours of formation. One can qualify it like a diagnostic test which has a paramount objective to classify and to select the participants. The second, KPDS has existed for 12 years. The third, most recent, the UDS is addressed to those who want to make academic studies after the diploma of licence at the end of 5 years. The test of the KPDS follows the same format as the test of the OSS and measurement mainly knowledge in general language It covers subjects accessible to the candidates concerned. It should be noted that the idea of the creation of the KPDS comes from the request of the official institutions for the living languages. The KPDS and the OSS consist of multiple choice questions which last 3 hours, divided into six sections from 20 to 15 questions each one. The three hours of the test prove indeed often long and discouraging. It is presented in the form of a multiple-choice questionnaire, comprising 100 questions for which only one answer is possible among the 5 choices suggested. The questions are conceived according to a principle of progressive difficulty. But the test of the UDS is composed of 80 questions for which 3 hours also allocated Though reliable the KPDS is not a reference recognized on an international scale. The total objective is thus well targeted: linguistic abilities in writing. The certificate given to each candidate indicates a total score spreading out between 0 and 100. But the disadvantage is that none of these three tests provides detailed certificate of linguistic competences in grammar, vocabulary, or written comprehension in order to accompany progress and to personalize the teaching course. As we announced above the obligatory tests appear as a multiple-choice questionnaire of 100 questions, for a fine evaluation of linguistic competences. The first part of the tests treats the words of the lexicon: (comprehension of the words according to their usual or rare character); of morphosyntax: (the agreement of the adjectives, the substantives, the past participle, simplest); elements of the nominal group: (determinants, adjectives, possessive phrases), the pronouns in general, relate to the relative ones (differences who/which); the most current times; adverbs of time, place, the prepositions; of syntax: construction negative, interrogative, the simple sentence. In 2003, there were 100 questions with multiple choices as in the preceding tests. The tests, built by the commission of the OSS, were distributed to the schools with the optical cards of answers and then they were sent to the OSYM in Ankara for the final evaluation. The answers of the participants are corrected and recorded on computers and the results of all the participants are announced on the Internet. Then the test of the KPDS which aims to evaluate candidates the linguistic level in foreign language in an occupational context is intended to the civil servants, to professionals who would like to know their linguistic level, to companies who would like to determine French level of their current or future employees, it is also intended to organizations of formation for the installation of homogeneous groups or continuous or final evaluation. At the end of the test candidate obtains a certificate of level. The texts of questionnaire relate to the social sciences, economic and legal, mathematical sciences and sciences of the matter, life sciences. These tests are a measuring instrument of general knowledge in French. They make it possible to get a detailed vision of the learner or employees level in writing and operation of the language. But oral competence is not evaluated. As KPDS is the validation of knowledge, the certificate is valid only for 5 years, knowledge being able to undergo positive or negative changes. In fact tests give little information would enable us to comprehend the candidate’s difficulties. The opinions and interpretations must be changed, and their exchange and evaluation are an essential part of the interactive training, comprising the development of the language, the cultural conscience and the increase of learners in general terms of education. Because very often there is not only one correct answer to a question. 136 �While preparing this work we were relied on our experiments as well as well as on testimonies of the participants of various levels at the exit of the examination rooms. Although a large audience is concerned with these tests, unfortunately we did not find a serious study which relates to them. Normally a tool for evaluation in FLE must measure all the linguistic abilities. But unfortunately the tests of languages of the OSYM completely neglect the oral competence which is of primary importance for the linguistic communication. Within the framework of this work our objective is to highlight some axes which could help the decision makers and the inspectors to change their policy and their approach simply by taking account the communicative function of the language. Rather than to analyze and highlight the gaps or the weaknesses of these tests about which we spoke here, let us try to propose some ways for their future improvement. 3. Stages in the evaluation The teacher and learners should carry out continuous evaluations periodically. First continuous evaluation can be carried out in the first week. In a language program, there are many factors which must be considered and studied in order to obtain an objective sight of the process of teaching (Braskamp and others, 1984). These factors can be classified in four categories. 4. Gathering of the data Manners of gathering data are changed. In our own practice, we employed questionnaires of the tests of the OSYM. 5. Feedback and advantages The continuous evaluations should not ever be means of sanction for the teacher or learner. They should rather help the two parts in their practices. The teachers and learners them should adopt positive attitudes and concentrate on the achievement of the objectives of the texts, but they can also get information about the models of study and the strategies of learners. In addition, learners find out about teaching style of the teacher and can understand why certain methods are employed. By mutual observations and the exchange of the ideas learners and teachers help each other to improve the learning. Learners can also profit from different studying strategies and the teachers will be able to see learner models and can adjust their methods to satisfy learner needs. A continuous evaluation is a systematic examination of a language program. By changing the roles of teacher and learner in a program, teaching and the study can be improved. The process should include teachers and learners and various kinds of activities at the various stages of the evaluation. The evaluation also benefits the teacher who becomes a researcher. All the methods of evaluation have some disadvantages, and it is essential to determine which MCQ can play an essential role in the strategy of total evaluation by examining the results of the study envisaged by module. However it should be remembered that any form of valid evaluation is likely to require learner to show a certain form of the basic knowledge which is acquired by memorisation. The questions based on basic knowledge are also a formative evaluation tool to check if learner has comprehended it. The preparation of MCQ which tests the knowledge in depth of the learner is more difficult to realize than traditional questions. 6. Comprehension and the application It is necessary to formulate as clear and concise questions as possible, while avoiding the complex language and the composition of the axes which give more than one indication. It is better also to concentrate on common errors of learner like sectors for questions and/or options. One must accept both answers as correct if two of the choices are possible. But if necessary, if the question requires it, it should be specified that there is only one correct answer. How can one provide effective feedback for the MCQ? The assistance of feedback can be desirable in the sommative and essential evaluation in the formative evaluation. Contrary to the traditional evaluations where feedback depends on various answers, the closed range of response for MCQ means that the tutors know the possible errors which can be made before the test. Thus the proposal of a MCQ is an excellent chance for the tutor to get focused generic feedback. This can be in the form of oral test of the answers following a written test or feedback on the questions, where learners can identify their errors by themselves. The effective feedback does not indicate simply to learners where they were mistaken but also gives the reasons as to why. 137 �7. Useful indicators for feedback: In the best of the cases, it is to better to write feedback while writing the questions. The principal strengths and the weaknesses of the multiple choice questions are as follows: they examine a wide range of subjects in little time. The evaluation is not affected by a capacity of writing or orthography of learner. They can be surely pointed while all the answers are predetermined. They can also quickly be marked by computer. The inscription on computer gives the easy access to an analysis of article of the questions in the specific problematic fields for learners. A large bank of the questions which reduces the future preparation time can be made up. They can be employed for the fast revision at the beginning or the end of a class and to be marked by learners. 8. Conclusion One of the advantages of MCQ is the documentation of the statistics on the tests which are easily accessible, especially if these tests are marked by a computer. Multiple choices questions can be employed to examine the comprehension of a reading passage. Inscription of the MCQ, as mentioned above, is often difficult. As for true/false items, they should not directly quote the words of the passage and they should reflect a certain possible ambiguity of the text. None of the possible answers should stand out for example in comparison, having one longer or shorter than the others. None of the possible answers should be the opposite of correct answers. (as that states that usually one of the opposites is the correct answers). The distracters should not have similar meaning, since they can not both be correct, they must both be false. On the other hand the items should equally examine the information which can be implied from reading passage and require the candidates to reassemble the information from more than one place in the passage. The pre-tests are always significant but in particular with MCQ because obtaining a fresh prospect about the test is significant. The effectiveness is a feature added by Buck, which stresses the importance to be able to draw from a test as mach information as possible on the capacities of written comprehension of the participants within the limited time. Thus it could be possible to avoid it by making easier tests. In MCQ, it is very significant to write good correct and incorrect replacement choices. The correct choice in question should not come directly from the text. It should be reformulated, so that participant can understand the significance of the text and not simply to identify the repeated words. Incorrect replacement choices should be based on a possible misunderstanding of the text. They should be clearly incorrect, but not illogical. If they are illogical, tested will eliminate them, even if they do not understand the text. The problem in writing goods items is often that it is difficult to write three or four good replacement choices which are logical and clearly incorrect. By writing MCG, one should avoid giving indications for the correct response the multiple choice test preparers have a tendency to put the correct response to the medium, C-to-D., if there are four choices, they prefer B or C, or if there are five choices C is preferred. One must make sure that the correct answers are not prevalent matter in the medium of the solutions of replacement. As mentioned above, one must also avoid employing the opposites of the correct answers as incorrect alternative, and it is better to employ two incorrect replacement choices with very similar significances. While preparing the items, one must consider carefully which qualifications or knowledge are necessary to answer the question. If a competence other than that that we want to examine is necessary, this type of item is probably not a good item. By considering what we said about our test, we can conclude that the test functions relatively well in its context. Principal criticism comes owing to the fact that the written text does not represent the authentic spoken language clearly enough and that the texts could be varied with regard to the topic and the type of text. But one also needs radical changes so that these tests have conformity and an international validity Finally, there are two significant points that we want to draw from this discussion. First of all, considering the established concept in the specifications of the test, MCT can be useful at least as a part of written comprehension tests. It can show the validity even according to communicative approaches. What is significant and what constitutes a challenge for the specialists. From which our second point comes, is to be able to build a valid test which measures the targeted concept. The difficulty lies in other factors; finding a representative sample of texts and tasks, having as result a degree of interactivity and satisfactory effectiveness. Especially by building a big relatively significant test like the test of the OSS for about of 45000 participants, it is necessary to analyze and check the results before and after the test with people similar to the target group of the test and with the specialists of the discipline, considering the answers and the results obtained. Conceived and developed by the OSYM, the tree tests of evaluation of French language in Turkey allow testing only competences in written comprehension and completely neglecting competences in oral and written expression in non specialized French language. This causes a great weakness with regard to the reliability and the validity of these tests. 138 �"How can I evaluate myself?", "I am not a teacher!″ The traditional school culture does not encourage the learners taking responsibility in the evaluation, the only person who really knows if you understood something is you! At school and university you can often pass from the examinations if you know only 50% of a subject. If you carry out your own test, you can discover what you really know. The evaluation is the responsibility of the teacher at the school and the university partly "yes". However, after the university you’ll have to learn from new things for your profession. You’ll have to be evaluated yourself to discover what you do not know, so that you can project what you have to learn. That is called "needs analysis”. For what is known as in the evaluation of oneself, one needs many supports and counselling from the teachers The examinations are not a goal but they are means. They measure simply the degree of what learners know. If education has ten essential objectives the examinations and their result constitute simply one of them. But in Turkish education system, the examinations became the only objective in itself. The other objectives lost all their importance. All the actors of education concentrated only on the examinations. The children grow up simply with examinations. They are completely isolated from everyday life and they lost their creativity because of the memorisation system. Everything is evaluated and relied on the result obtained from one examination. The state as well as the parents does not see anything beyond the examinations. The results are not questioned. On the other hand the results are worse for the participants as well as the educational establishments. We insist on something wrong just because of the increase in number of students at the university gates. Because of the examinations the life of the parents is upside down as that of the thousands of youngsters. Here is a debate for the awakening of the utility of the evaluation and the validity of the written comprehension test. It is clear that there is still a lot to do make in this field, to arrive at the interesting but complex process of written comprehension, and at its valid measurement. This is why the tests should rather be conceived so as to encourage the recourse to activities of acquisition. The tests of use must measure before all the competence of communication of the learners. For this reason they are especially the abilities of comprehension and communication of the ideas which must be tested. Contest of selection and placement of the students. 1 Examination of competence of foreign language of the employees of state. 1 Examination of foreign language of the council interuniversitaire. 139 �References: Bachman, L., Palmer, A. (1996). Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Buck, G. (2001). Assessing Listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bolton, S.(1991). Évaluation de la compétence communicative en langue étrangère. Paris: Les Éditions Didier. Cadre européen commun de référence pour les langues:apprendre, enseigner, évaluer (2001) Didier. Chapelle, C.A.(1998). Construct definition and validity inquiry in SLA research. In: Bachman L.F, A.D. Cohen: Interfaces Between Second Language Acquisition and Language. Cornaire, C. (1998). La compréhension écrite. CLE International. Galisson, R,D.Coste (1986). Dictionnaire de didactiques des langues Hachette Germain,C.(1993). Evolution de l’enseignement des langues: 5000 ans d’histoire Cle Int. Hilton,S C.Veltcheff (2003). L’évaluation en FLE Hachette. Hymes D., (1984). Vers la compétence de communication, CREDIF-Hatier. Hutchinson, J.A. et Pauline M. Rankin (1987). “Employement profiles and compensation for educational technologists:1983-86” Educational Media and technologie yearbook:1987. Littleton, Co: Librairies Unlimited. Landsheere, G. (1992). Dictionnaire de l’évaluation et de la recherche en éducation, PUF Lhote, E. (1995). Enseigner l’écrit en interaction. Paris: Hachette. Lussier, D.(1992). Évaluer les apprentissages dans une approche communicative. Paris, Hachette. Nimier, J. (1996). La formation psychologique des enseignants: Collection Formation Permanente en Sciences Humaines. Edition: E.S.F Morrow, K. (1979). Communicative Language testing: revolution or evolution? in: Brumfit. Porcher, L. (1995). Le français langue étrangère Hachette. 140 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 664 Title A name given to the resource The Capacity of the evaluation of linguistic abilities of FLE examinations applied in Turkey by OSYM Author Author KARA, Seref Karakuzu, Melih Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the ultimate object of the assessment and the evaluation in foreign language is the communication competence, it remains custom to determine the parameters and the performance criteria of the foreign language users. However, the multiple choice items used in Turkey generally do not allow us to measure different types of learners such as oral communication. It is limited only to the measurement of mental processes such as knowledge comprehension and application. En the contrary, the multiple choice items are still mostly preferred. Within the framework of this research, our aim is to analyze the multiple choice tests prepared and applied in Turkey by the OSYM in various examinations such as the OSS, the KPDS and the UDS. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/34048bab28a0cc099fad37b8bb8d2173.pdf 4c8e75c473c84491dd6cce9aff918ede PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Consumer Approach to New Product Development Policies against Global Warming’s Effects Yusuf KARACA Assist. Prof. Dr. Department of Business Administration, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey karaca@aku.edu.tr Tuğrul KANDEMĐR Assist. Prof. Dr. Department of Business Administration, Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey Abstract: Global warming and global problems caused by global warming is one of the most discussed issues in all over the world. Beside consumers accepting this problem as a serious threat, there are consumers who are insensitive and don’t perceive it as a threat. From starting this point, main aim of this study is to determine how consumers perceive this issue and how these perceptions affect buying behavior of them. Especially to determine demand of goods which were developed against the effects of global warming. Study focused on two main research questions. First one is what is the level of consumers’ global warming threat perception and second one is does this threat perception create an effect about products developed to decrease effects of global warming. By casting access, cost and time sample in this study was chosen from consumers living in Ankara and in this respect a survey was made to 388 consumers by using face to face interview technique. Data was evaluated by the help of SPSS program. In evaluation, frequency and chi-square tests were made. At the end of the analysis, while there is not any important relationship between consumers’ global warming perception and consumers’ demographic variables, there is a relationship between consciousness level of consumers on this subject and global warming threat perception. Additionally, a relationship between consumers’ global warming perception and demand for the products in this area was found. Key Words: Global Warming, Consumer Perception, Consumer Buying Behavior 1. Introduction The present study aims to evaluate a current universal issue, global climate change, or commonly referred to as global warming and its prospective effects in marketing from the consumers’ standpoint. Marketing is an area to be considerably affected by the aforementioned warming, Marketing remains a field that may change depending on time, place, and conditions, and firmly sticks to social structures. Global warming also appears to be a development which can potentially transform the social structure and shape the future of the world. The goal of our study was to understand the viewpoint and sensitivity of the society as well as individuals who are also consumers towards global warming, and within this framework, to provide businesses with the gained perspective. The world’s social structures have undergone periodic transitions. Among stages of transitions in human history stand out the inhabitation of hunter-gatherer and nomadic societies, and formation of agricultural communities. Another key transition has been the shift from agricultural society to an industrial one, which still affects the modern life. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, we witness many tasks, normally done with manual labor, being accomplished by machines. The onset of machinery and increase in emissions of carbon dioxide and similar gases into the nature and atmosphere in a way to interrupt natural cycle of climatic conditions have led to varying changes on earth. 2. Global Warming and Its Historical Development Many factors add to global warming, but increase in the amount of greenhouse gases appears to be one of the most important. Carbon dioxide gases are of particular importance because while this gas is transparent to the incoming shortwave, solar radiation, it absorbs the outgoing longwave, infrared radiation. The most frequently cited abrupt cause for global warming is the increase of carbon emissions due to the burning of fossil fuels. (Dutta and Radner, 2008, p:3) 469 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo One must attribute the climatic changes which occurred between the appearance of humans on the scene and the Industrial Revolution to natural causes. From the latter half of the 19th century onwards, It stays certain that human intervention also contributed to these natural changes. (Öztürk, 2002, p:48–49) In the last 100-150 years, carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases, presumed culprits of global warming, have substantially modified the chemical composition of the earth’s atmosphere. (Akbulut, 2000, p:25) While some portion of the radiation from the Sun is reflected back into space by the earth's atmosphere, another portion is absorbed by the earth. A considerable amount of the longwave radiation emitted from the heated Earth is re-absorbed by the atmosphere. While atmospheric gases are very transparent to shortwave solar radiation, they prove to be less transparent to longwave terrestrial radiation as a result of the accumulated greenhouse gases. Thus, when the build-up of heat near a planet's surface is more than expected, the phenomenon is called atmospheric greenhouse effect. An elaborate explanation for the greenhouse effect might be: (Öztürk, 2002, p:53) 1. 51 % of the shortwave solar radiation remains trapped by the Earth: Through this energy, the Earth is heated. 2. A portion of the energy absorbed by the earth is redirected back to the atmosphere. 3. Some of the solar energy is re-radiated from the atmosphere into the space, without reaching the Earth. 4. Some energy from the warmed Earth is emitted to the atmosphere in longwave radiation. Some of this longwave energy is intercepted by atmospheric greenhouse gases. This trapped energy heats the lower layers of the atmosphere, which is the atmospheric greenhouse effect. 5. Some of the energy absorbed by greenhouse gases is emitted back to space. 6. Some of the energy emitted from the Earth directly escapes to space. Global warming seems to be a process where heat in atmospheric layers near the Earth surface and on the Earth surface itself rises artificially as a result of various human activities which culminate in an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases. (Doğan, 2005, p:58, Akbulut, 2000, p:25, Türkeş, 2001, p:1) Warming which emerged on the Earth’s surface in the latter half of the 19th century has markedly intensified after the 1980’s, becoming warmer and warmer in the subsequent year, and warmest years on record have occurred globally. 1998 has been the warmest year in the historical record dating back to 1860, both in terms of global mean temperature and mean temperatures of the northern and southern hemispheres. Most sensitive climatic models which handle the impact of greenhouse gases and aerosols together suggest a 1–3.5 C° increase in global mean surface temperature and a 15–95 cm sea-level rise by 2100. (Türkeş, 2001, p:1) Likewise, record-breaking warmest temperatures were observed across the globe in January, 2007, as announced by the Meteorology Agency of Japan. It was further noted by the authorities that the record temperatures were considered to be the impact of global warming, and temperatures across the planet were 0.45 degrees Celsius above average in January, the highest since figures were first compiled in 1891. (www.milliyet.com.tr) With its prospective effects, global warming remains an issue capable of shaping not only our lifestyles but the future generations’ as well. Though not yet fully experienced in every corner of the globe, global warming commits the earth irreversibly to further global climatic change and consequent ecological, economic and social disruption. (Doğan, 2005, p:59) All individuals, institutions and organizations must undertake the mission to mitigate the problems that are causing global warming around the world. With regard to design, planning, and construction phases of cities, and utilization of goods and services, utmost sensitivity on global warming must be a 'core criterion' for individuals and institutions alike. Decreasing the use of fossil fuels by switching to renewable energy resources Advances in the technology of renewable energy sources, including wood-derived fuels, might reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and thus reduce global emissions of carbon dioxide significantly. If we are to avoid the effects of a global climate change triggered by global warming, we must develop new systems of renewable energy resources. To that end, new technologies have been devised which combine the utilization of heat and energy, reduce carbon emissions up to 60-80 %, and offer much more effective energy options. In particular, importance of policies which aim to rapidly introduce renewable energy resources and co-processing technologies into markets has been made clear. (Doğan, 2005, p:69) 3. Turkey’s Approach to Global Warming To better understand the reflections on global climate change in our country, a project entitled “Climate Change Scenarios for Turkey”, sponsored by TÜBĐTAK, is underway. During the simulations under the scheme, projections were achieved as to what kind of climate lies ahead of us in the 21st century. The results showed that most dramatic changes would occur in the summer in southern Turkey and in countries like Iraq, Syria, Iran, and Jordan. Naturally, most striking changes are expected to occur during the spring and summer, the two seasons when highest temperatures can be observed. Another projection is that in some regions 14-15 more days will be added to the number of hot days above 35 C° in the past 30 years. In a similar vein, amount of precipitation is 470 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo expected to change. Total mean precipitation falling in Turkey is predicted to decrease towards the end of the current century, The Kyoto Protocol was signed under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to tackle the global climate change. Turkey signed the convention later than the other European countries with the stipulation that her industry would be adversely affected. It suffered long hesitation to sign the convention. Turkey later joined the Kyoto Protocol by passing a law on February 5, 2009. The core idea in the Kyoto Protocol is to gradually reduce world greenhouse gas emissions to slow the progress of global warming. For this purpose, it entails a set of preventive measures to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to such a level that will prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. (Akoğlu, 2009, p: 37) From Turkey’s viewpoint, many urgent investments must be made in industries like energy, automobile, logistics, and aviation. The protocol doesn’t impose any limitation on greenhouse gas emissions on Turkey by the year 2013. From then onwards, however, Turkey will be subject to an addendum agreement to the protocol, not bypassing our country’s interests. Kyoto Protocol stipulates the following sanctions on the topics below: (Akoğlu, 2009, p: 37) o Legislation will be introduced to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases resulting from various industrial activities, vehicles, and heating. o Energy efficiency must be enhanced by means of mechanisms such as heating with less energy, using vehicles burning less gas, and utilizing technological systems consuming less energy. o Wastes will be recycled to the maximum extent possible. When they are dumped to a landfill, they must be rendered harmless. To this end, modern facilities will be constructed. o Alternative energy sources will be a target for the reduction of methane and carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere. o Utilization of solar energy will be extended. Despite being a controversial issue, nuclear power plants will be encouraged since they don’t cause any carbon dioxide emission. o Waste management and treatment in plants which consume huge amounts of energy, like in cement, steel, and lime factories, will be re-organized. o Systems and technologies emitting less carbon dioxide to the atmosphere will be adopted. Since coal based thermal power plants prevail in our country, systems in these facilities need to be renewed. o More tax will be levied on whoever consumes more fuel and produces more carbon dioxide. 4. Products against the effects of global warming and consumers’ approaches Humans have been thoughtlessly and irresponsibly destroying the earth for thousands of years with a desire to dominate and exploit it as much as possible. In many respects, the issue of global warming differs from other climatic events and changes occurring naturally for thousands or millions of years. Above all, global warming is not a phenomenon which occurs in the nature’s own cycle. It is wholly the result of human intervention and a combination of cumulative and incremental events triggered by humans. It first emerged with the dawn of Industrial Revolution when people interfered with the environment and started to alter its circumstances. With the advancements in technology, nature and the environment were thoughtlessly abused, without thinking the hazardous outcomes it could cause towards human and living life, thereby bringing about global warming which has occurred as a consequence of these irresponsible behaviors. It was only in the 1970’s that the entire world came to recognize the dangerous borders of global warming. (Kadıoğlu, 2001; Öztürk, 2002). Global warming is changing consumption habits, too. While some industries are being affected by global warming more than others, it is forcing firms to make amendments in their future plans, and shaping human lifestyle beyond expectation. Hot sunny days have caused biggest disappointments for the textile industry, and various businesses which look forward to winter seasons to sell winter products have been adversely affected. Goods of companies keeping their assets in stock have remained in their warehouses. Manufacturers have suffered a 30 % capital loss. ( www.inepo.com ). Whatever business you're in, your company will increasingly feel the effects of climate change. Investors already are discounting share prices of companies poorly positioned to compete in a warming world. Many businesses face higher raw material and energy costs as governments around the globe increasingly enact policies placing a cost on emissions. Consumers are taking into account a company’s environmental record when making purchasing decisions. There’s a burgeoning market in greenhouse gas emission allowances (the socalled carbon market), with annual trading in these assets valued at tens of billions of dollars. Firms that manage and mitigate their exposure to the associated risks while seeking new opportunities for profit will gain a competitive advantage over rivals in a carbon-constrained future. (Lash-Wellington, 2007:95) . This situation seems to be inevitable in the near future with respect to consumer preferences. In other words, businesses must “create values for the customer” as well as “create values to protect the environment”. Therefore, all activities 471 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo must be categorized according to whether or not they create further added value for the products of the business and the environment. As humans have been instrumental in global warming, we need to find the solution not in nature’s own cycle and balance, but in raising awareness to do things. 90 % of people have gained knowledge about global warming. This knowledge assigns them some tasks to do individually. First of all, we must read nature very well. We must use products which saves us all kinds of means. We must inspect the properties of products we are using and consider their impact on nature. We must particularly keep away from fossil fuels. We must enhance the utilization of environment-friendly alternative energy resources. We must cooperate with NGOs which exert efforts on the issue. (www.indeksiletisim.com ). 5. Methodology The present study has been undertaken to determine the extent of consumers’ grasp of global warming and whether or not any change has occurred in their choices of products based on this grasp. Our study chose Ankara, capital of Turkey, as the main mass. Geographically, it is located in the middle of Turkey and has continental climate. In recent years Ankara has been one of the cities where effects of global warming have proved to be evident. It has experienced water shortage due to inadequate rainfall. Ankara has been the choice because it offers a suitable population for the study and it falls within easy reach. We drafted a questionnaire for data collection. By means of convenience sampling we conducted the survey with 388 persons with whom we had face-to-face meeting. The questionnaire drafted consisted of three sections. The first section comprised five-point Likert scale type of questions which tried to determine consumers’ understanding of global warming and their approach to the phenomenon. The second section contained questions aimed to make out consumers’ source of information regarding global warming and their preferences for environment-friendly products against its effects. Questions regarding consumers’ demographic properties took place in the third section. The questionnaire used was first applied to a limited mass, and was later used as a data-collection means after its reliability was justified. 6. Research Findings and Analysis First of all, the reliability analysis for the questionnaire is done. According to the results of the analysis, the questionnaire is found as reliable (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0,807). Table 1: Demographic Feature of the Sample Age 18-25 26-30 31-40 41-50 51 and above Overall Education Not literate Literate Elementary education Middle school University Graduate Overall Marital Status Married Single Overall Frequency 103 71 90 76 47 387 Frequency 4 18 34 125 189 18 388 Frequency % 26,6 18,3 23,2 19,6 12,1 100 % 1,0 4,6 8,8 32,2 48,7 4,6 100 % Occupation Public Officer Worker Bureaucrats Teacher Free Profession Student Overall Gender Female Male Overall Income 0-500 501-1000 1001-1500 Frequency 58 42 13 29 84 63 385 Frequency 155 233 288 Frequency 37 75 % 15,1 10,9 3,4 7,5 21,8 16,4 100 % 40 60 100 % 9,6 19,5 94 24,4 221 163 384 57,6 42,4 100 1501-2000 2001-2500 2501-3000 3001 and above Overall 74 53 25 27 385 19,2 13,8 6,5 7,0 100 When we examine the features of the sample, it is seen that the data is not equally distributed but it does not show a trend of gathering in a certain point. In other words, we see that there are sufficient data on each group for the analysis in terms of demographic features. When we examine the data in Table 1, it seems that 472 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo youngs in age group, graduates in educational group, married persons in marital status group, 1000-1500 Turkish Liras gap in income group, males in sex group, and independent business owners in profession group become important. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Mean 8 Standard deviation 7 I strongly agree 6 I agree 5 Global warming is a threat to our world. Global warming is a threat to our country. Global warming is a threat to the region where we live The effects of global warming are not only on climate. In global warming, the products work with solar energy should be used more widely. Products that may reduce damage of global warming must be increased to use Products on the market are not quality products to reduce these global warming effects More products are needed to reduce these global warming effects In this regard, I think in the future many new products will be generated. Businesses must make their products available to the solution of this problem now. When I buy these products, over price difference is not important Informed(conscious) consumers should follow these issues and must use these products Consumers in the fight against global warming, have responsibilities too. I use products to reduce the effects of global warming in my home. There is no such thing as global warming, climate change, this situation is temporary. Global warming is a game invented by the developed countries to sell more goods. I do not find sufficient activities of states and international organizations to reduce the effects of global warming in the world. States and international organizations should seek an urgent solution for global warming issue. Business organizations thoroughly understand the results of global warming and should develop products that prevent global warming. Businesses have not yet fully understood about the results of global warming bring. Businesses must develop new products for the effects of global warming. Businesses need to do market research to understand problems of global warming in their business field. Global warming will affect consumers' consumption preferences no idea 1 2 3 4 I disagree QUESTĐONS (Factors) I strongly disagree Table 2: Threat Perceptions Againist Global Warming and Attitudes to New Products % 4,9 4,7 4,1 4,2 % 7,6 4,9 6,2 3,1 % 4,3 3,4 5,7 10,6 % 27,6 35,4 37,2 37,9 % 55,6 51,6 46,8 44,2 1,14 1,05 1,05 1,01 4,15 4,24 4,15 4,13 2,6 4,4 11,5 40,6 40,9 0,96 4,11 3,9 3,4 7,5 35,1 50,1 1,00 4,24 4,4 3,9 17,3 38,0 36,4 1,04 3,97 2,6 3,1 8,8 43,0 42,5 0,91 4,19 2,1 10,1 18,6 39,9 29,3 1,02 3,84 3,4 6,5 12,4 42,4 35,3 1,02 3,99 6,4 25,5 13,1 35,6 19,4 1,23 3,35 3,6 8,5 4,9 49,0 34,0 1,02 4,01 2,6 2,8 5,7 45,6 43,3 0,88 4,24 4,9 20,3 14,8 41,0 19,0 1,15 3,48 44,4 27,1 8,5 12,4 7,6 1,29 2,11 45,1 28,9 12,9 6,7 6,4 1,19 2,00 12,7 12,7 16,3 35,7 22,6 1,30 3,43 3,1 3,6 9,8 43,7 39,8 0,95 4,13 3,4 2,6 7,7 47,4 38,9 0,92 4,15 3,9 5,7 16,5 45,1 28,8 1,00 3,88 2,3 3,1 9,6 47,5 37,5 0,88 4,14 3,1 3,6 9,8 48,3 35,2 0,93 4,08 4,6 6,2 10,1 43,6 35,5 1,06 3,99 When we examine threat perception as well as attitudes in relation to global warming, it strongly seems that a consciousness among consumers has become visible in regard to global warming. In addition to this, we see that consumers believe that everybody should do something about global warming. It is strongly believed in this regard that companies should make contribution to the solution by developing new products. The second question, global warming a big thread for Turkey, the sixth question, the products which will reduce global warming and its negative effects should be produced more, and the thirteenth question, consumers should take responsibilities in fighting against global warming, get the highest value with the average of 4,24. These tree questions summarize the main idea of the study. 473 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 3: Which types of products diminishing the effects of global warming are you using at your home? Frequency % Energy saving products 185 47,8 Products that reduce harmful gas production 22 5,7 Does not contain harmful chemical products 32 8,3 Water saving products 40 10,3 Fuel saving products 37 9,6 I do not have a specific preference in this matter 71 18,3 Overall 387 100,0 It seems that consumers prefer energy saving products with a ratio of 47,6% within product groups which will diminish effects of global warming. It also seems that other products are preferred by consumers’ fairly low rates. In this case it could be said that consumers think that they will make contribution to the solution of global warming by using energy saving products. Table 4: How does your attitude toward products developed against global warming in your shopping Frequency % This is not an issue that I notice in my shopping 84 21,6 After that, I pay attention to these issues 106 27,3 Sometimes, it takes my attention 116 29,9 Definitely I consider these issues 37 9,5 I both consider and recommend my environment 45 11,6 Overall 388 100,0 It is clearly shown that when consumers do shopping, their product preferences are not very sensitive and careful about global warming. Table 1 indicates that consumers are very sensitive to global warming, but when they do shopping they are not. In this regard, we can say that the level of consciousness of consumers is not as expected. Table 5: How is your Information level On Global Warming Frequency % I have not enough information about this issue 100 25,8 I have information about this issue is limited with the media. 173 44,6 I have enough information on this issue. 80 20,6 In this regard, I've reviewed a lot of sources to inform 25 6,4 In this regard, I can say I am an expert. 10 2,6 Overall 388 100,0 It seems that consumers do not have adeqaute knowledge about global warming or a much part of their knowledge is limited with the information provided by the media. 7. Hypotheses and Results of the Research When planning the research, we formed the main research questions as follow: What kind of perception do consumers have on global warming? Does the perception of consumers ensure their preference to the products reducing global warming effects or not? The hypotheses and their evaluation results as follow: H1: The perception of global warming threat affects the demands of consumer’s product development. H2: There is a correlation between consciousness level and consumers’ demand for the products developed. H3: There is a correlation between consumers’ demographic features and consciousness level in relation to global warming. H4: There is a correlation between consumers’ demographic features and the demand for the products developed against to the threat of global warming. The regression analysis for the first hypothesis reveals significant results (F =216, 55 and P = 0,000). According to the obtained linear model, the perception of global warming threat explains 35.8 % of the demand for product 474 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo development (Adjusted R2 = 0,358). The intercept of the model is 2,30 (Beta = 2,307, t = 15,288 and P = 0,000). The perception of global warming threat in the model is also found statistically significant (t =14,716 and P = 0,000). The coefficient of demand for the perception of global warming threat against new product development is 0.494. The regression model is as follow: Y = 2,30 +0,494 x The Attitude Against Product Development Ki-square tests done for H2, H3, and H4 hypotheses are not statistically significant. 8. Concluding remarks Global warming is a threat and can lead to vital problems for the world. Even though the public is informed about the scope of the problem, it is clear that initiatives and policies about the problem is not enough. Developing new products diminishing the negative effects of global warming can be a solution for the problem. Developing a new product is a long and costly process, and requires R-D. That is why it is important that consumers should demand for these newly products. The demand for the new product depends primarily on how consumers perceive global warming as a threat. The purpose of this study is to answer questions mentioned above. The results of the study verify the first hypothesis. Based on this result, it can be said that the consumers selected as sample have a very high perception of global warming threat. As a result of this perception, consumers demand for developing products which diminish effects of global warming. In short, the perception of global warming threat supports attitudes directed toward developing new products sensitive to global warming. In order to test H2 hypothesis, Ki-square test statistic is used. However, the results are not statistically significant. This means that there is no correlation between the consciousness level in regard to global warming and products demand which sensitive to global warming. This result may be explained in two different ways: Firstly, an error is done in the research. Because at least theoretical level, consumers’ consciousness level affects the demand of products which are sensitive to global warming. Secondly, consumers perceive having consciousness about global warming as the same demanding for products sensitive to global warming. It is obvious that there is a need for new studies and research in order to find clear answers to these questions. Ki-square test statistics does not verify H3 and H4 hypotheses. In other words, there is no correlation between demographic features of consumers and their approaches to the subject of global warming, and product demands sensitive to global warming. Based on this result, we can say that, all the consumers consisted of the sample, regardless of demographic features, approach consciousness to the issue of global warming. It can be seen in frequency table, the perception in all consumer groups is quite high. As a conclusion it can be said that people is quite sensitive to global warming issue. And it is expected that they will demand for the new products developed by companies which are sensitive to global warming. It is possible for companies by taking into consideration this demand that they can try to develop new products and thus they can both make contribution to the solution of global warming and make profit. Undoubtedly, this approach will get benefit for everybody at institutional, individual, and social level. References Abulut, S. (2000). Küresel Isınmanın Böcek Popülâsyonları Üzerine Muhtemel Etkileri, Ekoloji Çevre Dergisi Cilt: 9 Sayı: 36. Akoglu, A. (2009). Türkiye Kyoto Protokolüne Katılıyor, Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi, TÜBĐTAK, Mart 2009, Yıl: 42, Sayı: 496. Dogan, S. (2005). Türkiye’nin Küresel Đklim Değişikliğinde Rolü Ve Önleyici Küresel Çabaya Katılım Girişimleri, Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi, Đktisadi ve Đdari Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 6, Sayı 2, 2005 Dutta, P. K., Roy Radner,. (2009). A Strategic Analysis of Global Warming: Theory and Some Numbers, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization (2008), doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2009.01.013. Gözcelioglu, B. (2009). Türkiye Đçin Đklim Değişikliği Senaryoları, Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi, TÜBĐTAK, Mart 2009, Yıl: 42, Sayı: 496. Kadioglu, M. (2001). Bildiğimiz Havaların Sonu Küresel Đklim Değişimi ve Türkiye. Güncel Yayıncılık. Đstanbul. Lash, J. & Wellington, F. (March 2007). Competitive Advantage On A Warming Planets. Harvard Business Review. P.30 http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/02/09/son/sonyas21.asp. Öztürk, K. 2002). Kemal, Küresel Đklim Değişikliği ve Türkiye’ye Olası Etkileri, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi Cilt 22, Sayı 1. 475 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Turkes, M. (2001). Küresel Đklimin Korunması, Đklim Değişikliği Çerçeve Sözleşmesi ve Türkiye. Tesisat Mühendisligi, TMMOB Makina Mühendisleri Odası, 2001. Süreli Teknik Yayın 61 www.indeksiletisim.com/images/Makale/Kuresel%20Isınma%20ve%20dogaya%20etkileri.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 06.08.2008 www.inepo.com/basin_haber_ekle/uplFiles_resim/KÜRESEL%20ISINMA-%20AA%20HABERĐ.doc 31.01.2007 476 Erişim Tarihi: � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 294 Title A name given to the resource Consumer Approach to New Product Development Policies against Global Warming’s Effects Author Author KARACA, Yusuf KANDEMiR, Tuğrul Abstract A summary of the resource. Global warming and global problems caused by global warming is one of the most discussed issues in all over the world. Beside consumers accepting this problem as a serious threat, there are consumers who are insensitive and don’t perceive it as a threat. From starting this point, main aim of this study is to determine how consumers perceive this issue and how these perceptions affect buying behavior of them. Especially to determine demand of goods which were developed against the effects of global warming. Study focused on two main research questions. First one is what is the level of consumers’ global warming threat perception and second one is does this threat perception create an effect about products developed to decrease effects of global warming. By casting access, cost and time sample in this study was chosen from consumers living in Ankara and in this respect a survey was made to 388 consumers by using face to face interview technique. Data was evaluated by the help of SPSS program. In evaluation, frequency and chi-square tests were made. At the end of the analysis, while there is not any important relationship between consumers’ global warming perception and consumers’ demographic variables, there is a relationship between consciousness level of consumers on this subject and global warming threat perception. Additionally, a relationship between consumers’ global warming perception and demand for the products in this area was found. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/85a0f353462b765161afba55debe7cc6.pdf 2cd8f30d032dc1f7f0eb95796db2a07c PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Impact of Macroeconomic Factors on Stock Market: Evidence from Istanbul Stock Exchange Kadir KARAGÖZ Inonu University – FEAS, Malatya – TURKEY kkaragoz@inonu.edu.tr Suzan ERGÜN Inonu University – FEAS, Malatya - TURKEY sergun@inonu.edu.tr Murat KARAGÖZ Inonu University – FEAS, Malatya - TURKEY mkaragoz@inonu.edu.tr Abstract: In contemporary economic world, financial markets in general and stock markets in particular play a vital role in financing the investments and to extent credit to the entrepreneurs. This fact has opened a new avenue of research into the relationship between stock market and macroeconomic structure that is development/reaction/impact of stock market across macroeconomic fluctuations. This paper analyzes long-term equilibrium relationship between macroeconomic factors and Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) Index. The macroeconomic factors are represented by a set of variables which include interest rate, inflation (consumer price index), industrial production index, money supply (M1), growth (GDP) and real exchange rate. We employ Johansen co-integration method to explore the above mentioned relationship among these variables in a span of time between 1998:1 and 2008:12. Keywords: Macroeconomic factors, Stock market, Istanbul Stock Exchange, VECM. 1. Introduction The issue of finance has gained considerable importance around the world in last few decades. So the finance and banking sectors have developed rapidly and finance literature as well, both in theoretically and empirically. Causal relationship between economic growth and financial development, and impact of macroeconomic as well as catastrophic shocks on financial institutions has been investigated for the samples of developed and developing countries. Stock markets are one of the most important components of modern economic structure. Macroeconomic condition may have significant impacts on both prices of stocks and volume traded. With this respect, understanding the interaction between stock prices and macroeconomic variables gains importance. By knowing these relationship, investors can earn profits by exploiting past information of the variables. In addition, they may be used as indicator to formulate current economic stabilization policies. Therefore, the issue of whether stock prices and macroeconomic variables are related or not have received considerable attention. Many works have been done in past few decades to examine the relationship between stock prices and financial futures as well as the currency exchange (Hen et al., 2006). However, there is no empirical or theoretical consensus on the issue of whether these variables are related and the direction of causation if they are related or, at least, different studies which have been conducted for different markets may give diverse findings. In the finance literature, asset pricing models have been developed from 1960s, such as Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM), multi-factors models and Arbitrage Pricing Model (APM), in order to explain the movements in prices of financial assets and hence to determine the effective factors on their returns. Factor models and APM has been developed as alternatives to CAPM which considers only one risk factor (β). Despite the its some theoretical deficiencies, it is accepted that APM is superior to CAPM due to its more realistic assumptions and taking into consideration more variables those may affect asset returns. The APT literature suggests that macroeconomic variables may proxy for pervasive risk factors. This paper aims to shed some light on interrelation between macroeconomic variables and stock market performance through time series methods, i.e. co-integration and error correction model. The paper proceeds as follows. The next section provides an overview of the stock market development in Turkey. The 122 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo subsequent section presents the variables and data used, and empirical evidence. The final section contains concluding remarks 2. Stock Market Development in Turkey Financial markets in Turkey were strictly regulated until a financial liberalization program which was introduced at the beginning of 1980. The program included the liberalization of the foreign exchange regime, deregulation of interest rates, and establishment of financial markets including the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) which was established in 1986. ISE has gained large momentum since then and its development became highly representative of an emerging market with rapid growth in terms of market capitalization, trade volume and number of listed companies as well as high volatility in returns (Odabaşı et al. 2004, 510). In 1986, there were 80 listed companies in ISE and annual volume of trade was only $ 13 million. Up to 2000 the number of listed companies steadily increased as well as the trade volume, at a great pace. Due to the consecutive financial crises on November 2000 and February 2001, general performance of the ISE halted (Tab. 1a, below). Table 1a. Development of Istanbul Stock Exchange (in numbers). Volume of Trade Number of companies Total market capitalization (Million $) Year (End of Year) (Total) (Daily) (Million $) 1986 80 13 0.05 938 1990 110 5,854 23.70 18,737 1995 205 52,357 208.59 20,782 2000 315 181,934 739.57 69,507 2001 310 80,400 323.78 47,189 2002 288 70,756 281.22 33,773 2003 285 100,165 406.89 68,624 2004 297 147,755 593.03 97,354 2005 304 201,763 794.33 161,630 Source: Odabaşı et al. (2004), TSI (2006). As is seen in Tab. 1b, ISE has realized important and rapid improvements since its commencement. Table 1b. Development of Istanbul Stock Exchange (main events). 1980 – 1990 – Launch of liberalization program, deregulation in financial structure – Inauguration of Istanbul Stock Exchange – Commencement of stock trading – Commencement of daily calculation of ISE Indices which had so far been calculated on a weekly basis – Establishment of Settlement and Custody Center 1991 – 1995 – Commencement of the calculation of Financials and Industrial Indices in addition to the ISE Composite Index – Initiation of the Repo/Reverse Repo Market – Extending daily trading hours to 4 hours and the commencement of stock trading in two sessions – Launch of the Regional Markets and the Wholesale Market – Establishment of the Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges with 12 members, which ISE was one of the founder members 1996 – 2000 – Launch of the Watch List Companies Market – ISE International Bonds and Bills Market started its operations – ISE became the project leader of Southeast European Cooperation Initiative 2001 – – ISE Derivatives market was introduced – ISE Corporate Governance Index was launched – The ISE International Market and its submarkets were closed Source: www.ise.org 123 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ample of empirical studies are implemented on various aspects of ISE hitherto. Odabaşı et al. (2004) has analyzed the evolution of prices on the ISE for the period of 1988-1999 and concluded that, as an emerging market, the ISE has shown some differences from other emerging markets. In the sample period, they found that expected returns, as approximated by sample means, have not declined and no significant change in volatility is observed during the decade. The move towards normality also seems to be more pronounced than in other countries. Odabaşı et al. attribute this to the unique characteristics of the ISE. 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 ISE-100 Figure 1. Development of ISE-100 index over the time. Müslümov et al. (2003) tested weak-form market efficiency hypothesis in ISE using time series covering 19902002 years. Their findings reveal that the stock returns of the individual stocks that constitute 65% of the sample space do not show random walk behavior whilst remaining part exhibit significant random walk behavior. The findings for the ISE-100 national index provide support the evolving market efficiency hypothesis. They also found that there was no discrimination between stocks those whose returns do follow and do not follow random walk behavior. In another study, Taş and Dursunoğlu (2005) also tested the weak form efficiency of ISE using Dickey-Fuller and runs test procedures, and found out that ISE was not efficient over the period from 1995:1 to 2004:1. Turkey has experienced severe financial crises in last two decades. In 1994 due to heavy appreciation of the currency current account a balance presented a significant deficit which created financial distress in the economy. In the year 2001, the financial crisis stemmed from the banking sector and high domestic repayment of the treasury. Political instability also contributed to deepening the crisis. Doğan and Salman (2004) examined the behavior of ISE during these financial crises using dummy variables. They found that dummies for year 2001, all for 5, 15 and 30 days before the shock, observed to be highly significant where dummies for year 1994 are not. This result implies that the 1994 crisis was unexpected. When they further examined the coefficient of year 2001 dummy, realized that coefficient gets smaller over longer horizons. Tüzüntürk (2009) aimed to find out empirically whether there was any insider trading on ISE in 2003 using the panel data method. His estimations show that the average trade size sign is negative and the trade frequency sign is positive, the result which can be interpreted as an evidence of insider trading occurred at the ISE in 2003. 3. Review of Related Literature A significant literature exist which investigates the relationship between stock market and a range of macroeconomic and financial variables, across a number of different markets and over a range of different time horizons. Existing financial economic theory provides various models to test this relationship. Most of the research has focused on the developed countries (see for example, Poon and Taylor, 1991; Mukherjee and Naka, 1995; Gjerde and Saettem, 1999; Hondroyiannis and Papapetrou, 2001; Chen, 2008; Bordo et al., 2008). 124 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In last decade, researchers have begun to turn their attention to examining similar relationship in developing countries. Chen et al. (1986) is one of the pioneering papers to empirically investigate the impact of macroeconomic variables on stock price returns. They concluded that interest rates, inflation rates, bound yield spreads, and industrial production level have risk that is priced in the stock market. Campbell and Ammer (1991) focus on the relationship between changes in expectations of future stock dividends, short-term real interest rate, inflation, and excess returns on stock and bonds. Using a log-linear asset pricing framework and a vector autoregression (VAR) model approach, they found that in monthly post-war U.S. data, excess returns are to be driven by news about future excess stock returns, while excess 10-year bond returns are driven largely by news about future inflation. Real interest rate changes seem have little impact on either stock or 10-year bond returns, although they do affect the short-term nominal interest rate and slope of the term structure. Hamilton and Lin (1996) investigate the joint time series behavior of monthly stock returns and growth in industrial production and find that stock returns are well characterized by year-long episodes of high volatility separated by longer quite periods. Real output growth, on the other hand, is subject to abrupt change in the mean associated with economic recessions. They employ a bivariate model in which these two changes are driven by related unobserved variables, and conclude that economic recessions are the primary factor that derives fluctuations in the volatility of stock returns. Sadorsky (2003) uses monthly data from July 1986 to April 1999 to investigate the macroeconomic determinants of the US technology stock price volatility. Te empirical results indicate that the conditional volatilities of industrial production, oil prices, the federal funds rate, the default premium, the consumer price index, and the foreign exchange rate each have a significant effect on the conditional volatility of technology stock prices. Industrial production and the consumer price index each have the largest direct impact. Gunasekarage et al. (2004) estimates an error correction model with monthly data to study the relationship between macroeconomic variables and stock market equity values, in Sri Lanka. In their analysis VECM provide some support for the argument that the lagged values of macroeconomic variables such as the consumer price index, the money supply and the treasury bill rate have a significant influence on the stock market. It was found that treasury bill rate play most important roles in affecting stock returns compared to other variables. Maysami et al. (2004) investigate the relationship between macroeconomic variable s and sector stock market returns, using Johansen’ VECM, in the case of Singapore. They conclude that the Singapore stock market and the SES All-S Equities Property Index formed significant relationships with all macroeconomic variables identified, while the SES All-S Equities Finance Index and SES All-S Equities Hotel Index form significant relationship only with selected variables. Nishat and Shaheen (2005) analyze long-term equilibrium relationships between a group of macroeconomic variables and the Karachi Stock Exchange Index. The macroeconomic variables are represented by the industrial production index, the consumer price index, money supply (M1), and the value of an investment earning the money market size. By employing a VECM, they examined the relationship during 1973:1 to 2004:4, and they found that these five variables are co-integrated and two long-term equilibrium relationships exist among them. Results of the analysis indicate that industrial production is the largest positive determinant of stock prices, while inflation is the largest negative determinant. They also found that while macroeconomic variables Granger-caused stock movements, the reverse causality was observed in case of industrial production and stock prices. Padhan (2007) aims at to find out the causal linkages between stock market and economic activity in India. To this end he applies recently developed Granger non-causality tests by Toda-Yamamota, Dolado and Lutkephol (TYDL model). The notable finding of the paper is that both the stock price and economic activity are integrated of order one and the Johansen-Juselius co-integration tests confirm the existence of one long-run relationship. The TYDL model suggests that there is bi-directional causality between stock price and economic activity during the post-liberalization period. Kyereboah-Coleman and Agyire-Tettey (2008) aims at examining how macroeconomic indicators affect the performance of stock markets by using the Ghana Stock Exchange as a case study. Using the quarterly time series data covering the period 1991-2005, they ascertain both short- and long-run relationships via co-integration and the error correction model techniques. Findings of the study reveal that lending rates from deposit money banks have an adverse effect on stock market performance and particularly serve as major hindrance to business growth in Ghana. Again, while inflation rate is found to have a negative effect on stock market performance, the results indicate that it takes time for this to take effect due to the presence of a lag period; and that investors benefit from exchange-rate losses as a result of domestic currency depreciation. Osei (2006) also examined the case of Ghana Stock Exchange somewhat different variable set and concluded that in terms of Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH), the Ghana stock market is informationally inefficient particularly with respect to inflation, treasury bill rate and world gold price. 125 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Al-Sharkas (2004) researches the impact of selected macroeconomic variables on Amman Stock Exchange. The variables are the real economic activity, money supply, inflation, and interest rate. His empirical findings reveal that the stock prices and macroeconomic variables have a long-term equilibrium relationship. 3. Empirical Analysis and Results 3.1. Variables, Data and Methodology Engle and Granger (1987) and Johansen (1988) proposed to determine the existence of long-run equilibrium among selected variables through co-integration analysis, paving the way for a preferred approach to examining the economic variables-stock market relationship. A set of time series variables are co-integrated if they are integrated of the same order and a linear combination of them is stationary. Such linear combinations would then point to the existence of a long-term relationship between the variables. An advantage of cointegration analysis is that through building an error correction model (ECM), the dynamic co-movement among variables and the adjustment process toward long-term equilibrium can be examined (Maysami et al. 2004; 49). Variables: We selected six macroeconomic variables based on their hypothesized effect on either the cash flows or the required rate of return (or both) in the basic valuation model. These variables are: stock index (represented by monthly average of daily closing value of ISE-100 index; ISE), exchange rate (represented by real TL/ 19 foreign currencies basket; RDK), inflation (represented by consumer price index; CPI), money supply (represented by M1; MS), real economic activity (represented by industrial production index; IPI), interest rate (represented by three month term weighted deposit interest rate; INT). Inflation: A negative relation between inflation and stock prices has been hypothesized. Although real stock returns and inflation have been negatively correlated historically, the correlation is widely seen as an anomaly resulting from the simultaneous impacts of real economic activity on inflation and stock returns (Fama, 1981; Fama and Schwert, 1977). This negative relationship between stock returns and inflation is called as the proxy hypothesis. The proxy hypothesis refers to the fact that the negative relationship between stock returns and inflation is not direct; but rather inflation negatively impacts the real economic activity, which in turn directly impacts equity returns. In other words, real economic activity is the channel by which inflation influences stock returns in most countries. The investigation of the proxy hypothesis for emerging market economies may be especially crucial in light of high past inflation rates that most economies of that region have experienced (Adrangi et al., 1999). Exchange rate: The interaction between the exchange rate and stock prices is uncertain. When the Turkish Lira (TL) depreciates against the foreign currencies, Turkish products become cheaper in the external markets. As a result, if the demand for these goods is elastic, the volume of Turkish exports should increase, causing higher TL-denominated cash flows to Turkish companies. The opposite should hold when the TL appreciates against the foreign currencies. On the other hand, as an alternative investment instrument for Turkish investors, any depreciation in TL against foreign currencies may cause a withdrawal in stock markets. Money supply: The effect of money supply on stock prices is an empirical question. Since the rate of inflation is positively related to money growth rates, an increase in the money supply may lead to an increase in the discount rate. The negative effects on stock prices, however, may be countered by the economic stimulus provided by money growth. Such stimulus, often referred to as a corporate earnings effect, would likely result in increased future cash flows and stock prices (Mukherjee and Naka, 1995). Real economic activity: The level of real economic activity (proxied in this study by the Industrial Production Index), through its effect on expected future cash flows, will likely affect stock prices in the same direction. Fama (1981), Chen, Roll, and Ross (1986), and Geske and Roll (1983), among others, suggest a positive relation between stock returns and real activity. Interest rate: Finally, changes in interest rate are expected to affect the discount rate in the same direction via their effect on the nominal risk-free rate. Therefore, we hypothesize a negative relation between these rates and stock prices. Required data have been compiled from Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey on-line database (EDDS). The sample period consist of 132 monthly observations for each variable, from January 1998 to December 2008. All variables have been expressed in their logarithms. Prior to the analysis all variables have been seasonally adjusted through the ratio to moving average method. 3.2. Examination for Stationarity Properties of the Variables As is well known, most of the macroeconomic variables have a nonstationary nature and hence a regression relation set on them will not be far away from spuriousness. So, to ensure that the variables are stationary, and that shocks are only has temporary impact and revert to their long-run mean level, it is a standard exercise to apply an unit root test procedure. 126 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Augmented Dickey – Fuller (ADF) and the Phillips – Perron (PP) test are employed to determine the presence of a unit root in the series. Results of ADF and PP unit root tests show all six of the variables are nonstationary in their levels but become stationary after one time differenced (Tab. 3). ISE IPI INF INT MS RER 1 c+t 2c 1c 3c 2c 1c Table 3. Results of ADF and PP unit root tests. ADF Type P τ(ρ) int. + trend 0.4741 − 2.2203 int. 0.7554 − 0.9906 int. 0.8986 − 0.4348 int. 0.3524 − 1.8554 int. 0.7556 − 1.6777 int. 0.4731 − 1.6128 ∆ISE ∆IPI ∆INF ∆INT ∆MS ∆RER 0c 1c 0 c+t 2 c+t 1 c+t 1c int. int. int. + trend int. + trend int. + trend int. lags (k) − 8.2771 − 12.1605 − 6.6728 − 6.1104 − 11.2684 − 8.3180 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 PP z(tα) p − 1.7656 − 1.6948 − 1.3362 − 1.9825 − 1.7119 − 1.7382 0.3961 0.4315 0.8744 0.2943 0.7407 0.4097 − 8.3247 − 19.4055 − 67822 − 13.4762 − 15.2475 − 7.1460 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 3.3. Research for Co-integrating Relationships In this part of the paper, co-integration relationships among variables are investigated through Johansen VAR framework. Co-integration refers to the possibility that non-stationary variables may have a linear combination that is stationary. Such a linear combination, the co-integrating vector, implies that there is a long-run equilibrium relationship among variables, i.e., variables will not wander off apart from one another over extended periods of time. Therefore, co-integration between the stock index and the macroeconomic variables implies a long-run relationship between these variables. To analyze the long-term equilibrium relationships between stock market index and macroeconomic variables, co-integration analysis is more appropriately compared to the VAR model because the co-integration method can explore the dynamic comovements among the variables (Mukherjee and Naka, 1995). In order to use the Johansen test, a VAR representation of a set of n variables (n ≥ 2) which are under consideration that are I(1), needs to be turned into a vector error correction model (VECM) of the form, ∆y t = Π y t − k + Γ1 ∆y t −1 + Γ2 ∆y t − 2 + K + Γk −1 ∆y t −( k −1) + u t where Π= (∑ β )− I k i =1 i n and Γ= (∑ i j =1 ) β j − In This VAR contains n variables in first differenced form and k – 1 lags of the dependent variables (differences), each with a Γ coefficient matrix attached to it. The test procedure centers around the examination of Π matrix. Π can be interpreted as a long-run coefficient matrix, since in equilibrium, all the ∆yt-i will be zero, and setting the error terms (ut) to their expected value of zero will leave Πyt-k = 0. The test for co-integration between the ys is calculated by looking at the rank of the Π matrix via its eigenvalues (denoted λi). The rank of a matrix is equal to the number of its characteristic roots (eigenvalues) that are different form zero. There are two test statistics for co-integration under the Johansen approach, which formulated as λtrace (r ) = −T ∑i =r +1 ln(1 − λˆi ) n and λmax (r , r + 1) = −T ln(1 − λˆr +1 ) where r is the number of co-integrating vectors under the null hypothesis and λi is the estimated value for the ith ordered eigenvalue from the Π matrix. λtrace is a joint test where the null is that the number of cointegrating vectors is less than or equal to r against an unspecified or general alternative that are more than r. λmax conducts separate tests on each eigenvalue, and has as its null hypothesis that the number of co-integrating vectors is r against an alternative of r + 1 (Brooks, 2008; 350,351). 127 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The results of the tests which conducted based on both the λtrace and λmax are reported below. Examining the trace test, the test statistic exceeds the critical value (of 95) up to the second row which shows that there is at least two co-integration equations among the variables. The λmax test, shown in the second panel, confirms that there are at least two co-integrating relationships. 128 observations are included after adjustments and quadratic deterministic trend is assumed in co-integration relations. Table 4. Results of Johansen co-integration test. Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Trace) Hypothesized No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue r=0* r≤1* r≤2 r≤3 r≤4 r≤5 0.862516 0.332972 0.134915 0.049591 0.034704 0.003285 Trace Statistic 0.05 Critical Value Prob. 343.6881 83.75142 30.70646 11.72096 5.057933 0.431005 83.93712 60.06141 40.17493 24.27596 12.32090 4.129906 0.0000 0.0002 0.3186 0.7281 0.5595 0.5749 Unrestricted Cointegration Rank Test (Maximum Eigenvalue) Hypothesized Max-Eigen 0.05 No. of CE(s) Eigenvalue Statistic Critical Value Prob.** r=0* r≤1* r≤2 r≤3 r≤4 r≤5 0.862516 0.332972 0.134915 0.049591 0.034704 0.003285 259.9367 53.04496 18.98550 6.663026 4.626927 0.431005 36.63019 30.43961 24.15921 17.79730 11.22480 4.129906 0.0001 0.0000 0.2152 0.8424 0.5314 0.5749 * denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05 level Normalized co-integrating coefficients for the ISE index (INDX) are (standard errors in parentheses): ISE INF INT IPI MS RER -5.436 1.000 - 3.604 2.638 - 1.019 2.126 (1.176) (0.345) (1.732) (0.981) (1.507) These values represent long-term elasticity at the same time, due to logarithmic transformation of the series. So, the long-run equilibrium relationship can be expressed as: ISEt = t – statistic 3.604 INFt – 2.638 INTt (3.065) (– 7.646) + 1.019 IPIt (0.588) – 2.126 MSt (– 2.167) + 5.436 RERt (3.607) It appears from the results that all variables have a statistically meaningful impact on the stock index except the real economic activity (IPI). The empirical results suggest that the Turkish stock market prices do not rationally signal changes in the macroeconomic activity in terms of industrial production index. It also seems that inflation has a positive effect on stock prices. This result is not in line with the theoretical expectation and general finding of related literature and can be attributed to distinctive feature of the Turkish stock market which Ceylan and Başçı (2005) pointed out. The results show that interest rates (INT) have a negative relationship with stock prices. Money supply has also same effect on stock prices, indicating that any extending in money supply did not cause to an increase in stock prices through its demand enhancing effect. This result coincides with the finding of Akkum and Vuran (2003). The relationship between exchange rate and stock prices is expected to be positive in the literature. We have found evidences of this positive relationship, that is, real exchange rates affect the ISE index positively which means that a depreciation of the currency leads to higher real stock market returns. 128 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion Stock prices are generally believed to be determined by some fundamental macroeconomic factors. Several studies have attempted to investigate the interrelationship between economic factors and stock returns in different countries. Two methods which have been used for this purpose were capital asset pricing model and arbitrage pricing model. The development of co-integration analysis provided another tool as to examine the relationship between the macroeconomic variables and stock returns. In this paper, we aim to shed some light on the relationship between a group of macroeconomic variables and stock market performance. To this end we have employed the index of Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) and macroeconomic aggregates such as CPI, interest rate, industrial production index, money supply, and real effective exchange rates. Using the Johansen VAR method, the empirical evidence we found shows that these macroeconomic variables are co-integrated i.e. there exist a long-run relationship between these variables. Further, the results reveal that all variables have a statistically meaningful impact on the stock index except the real economic activity (IPI). It seems that consumer prices (INF) has a positive effect on stock prices. The results show that interest rates (INT) have a negative relationship with stock prices. Money supply (MS) has also same effect on stock prices. Real exchange rates also affect the ISE index positively which means that a depreciation of the currency leads to higher real stock market returns. References Adrangi, B., Chatrath, A. and Raffiee, K. (1999). Inflation, output, and stock prices: Evidence from two major emerging markets. Journal of Economics and Finance, 23 (3), 266-278. Akkum, T. and Vuran, B. (2003). Analysis od macroeconomic factors by arbitrage pricing model which affect stock returns in Turkish capital market. Malî Çözüm Dergisi, 65, 65-90. Al-Sharkas, A. (2004). The dynamic relationship between macroeconomic factors and the Jordanian stock market. International Journal of Applied Econometrics and Quantitative Studies, 1 (1), 97-114. Bordo, M. D., Dueker, M. J. and D.C. Wheelock, (2009). Inflation, monetary policy and stock market conditions: quantitative evidence from a hybrid latent-variable VAR, Federal Bank of St. Louis, Working Paper No. 2008-012B, available at http://ideas.repec.org/p/fip/fedlwp/2007-020.html Brooks, C. (2008). Introductory Econometrics for Finance, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, NY. Campbell, J.Y. and Ammer, J. (1991). What moves the stock and bond markets? A variance decomposition for long-term asset returns, NBER Working Paper No. 3760, Cambridge, MA. Ceylan, N. B. and Başçı, S. (2005). Effects of crises on the relationship between macroeconomic variables and the stock market: a case for Turkey, International Conference on Business, Management and Economics, Yasar University, 16-19 June, 2005. Chen, N. F., Roll, R. and Ross, R. A. (1986). Economic forces and the stock market. Journal of Business, 59, 383 – 403. Chen, S. S. (2008). Predicting the bear stock market: macroeconomic variables as leading indicators, National Taiwan University, March 2008, Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1106100 Doğan, D. and Salman, F. (2004). Structural breaks and stock market behavior: Evidence from Istanbul Stock Exchange. unpublished paper, http://fsalman.googlepages. com/structuralbreaks.pdf Engle, R. F. and Granger, C. W. J. (1987). Co-integration and error correction: representation, estimation and testing. Econometrica, 55, 251-276. Fama, E. F. (1981). Stock returns, real activity, inflation, and money. American Economic Review, 71 (4), 545-565. Fama, E. F. and Schwert, G.W. (1977). Asset returns and inflation. Journal of Financial Economics, 5, 115-146. Geske, R. and Roll, R. (1983). The fiscal and monetary linkage between stock returns and inflation. Journal of Finance, 38, 7-33. Gjerde, O. and Saettem,F. (1999). Causal relations among stock returns and macroeconomic variables in a small, open economy, Journal of International Financial Markets Institutions and Money, 9, 61-74. Gunasekarage, A., Pisedtasalasai, A. and Power, D.M. (2004). Macroeconomic influence on the stock market: evidence from an emerging market in South Asia. Journal of Emerging Market Finance, 3 (3), 285-304. Hamilton, J.D., and Lin, G. (1996). Stock market volatility and the business cycle, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 11 (5), 573-593. 129 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Hen, C.L., Arzad, Z., and Hasan, H. (2006). Causal relationship between stock price and macroeconomic variables in Malaysia. Proceedings of the 2nd IMT-GT Regional Conference on Mathematics, Statistics and Applications, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, June 13-15, 2006. Johansen, S. (1988). Statistical analysis of co-integrating vectors. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 12, 231-254. Kyereboah-Coleman, A. and Agyire-Tettey, K. F. (2008). Impact of macroeconomic indicators on stock market performance: the case of the Ghana Stock Exchange, Journal of Risk Finance, 9 (4), 365-378. Maysami, R.C., Howe, L.C. and Hamzah, M.A. (2004). Relationship between macroeconomic variables and stock market indices: co-integration evidence from stock exchange of Singapore’s ALL-S Sector Indices, Jurnal Pengurusan, 24, 47-77. Mukherjee, T. K. and Naka, A. (1995). Dynamic relations between macroeconomic variables and the Japanese stock market: an application of a vector error correction model, Journal of Financial Research, 18 (2), 223-237. Muradoğlu, G., Metin, K. and Argae, R. (2001). Is there a long-run relationship between stock returns and monetary variables: evidence from an emerging market, Applied Financial Economics, 7 (6), 641-649. Müslümov, A., Aras, G., and Kurtuluş, B. (2003). Evolving market efficiency in Istanbul Stock Exchange. Istanbul Technical University Selected Articles, 271 – 291. Nishat, M. and Shaheen, R. (2005). Macroeconomic Factors and Pakistani Equity Market, The 20th Annual General Meeting and Conference, 10-12 January, 2005, Pakistan Society of Development Economics. Odabaşı, A., Aksu, C. and Akgiray, V. (2004). The statistical evolution of prices on the Istanbul Stock Exchange. The European Journal of Finance, 10, 510 – 525. Osei, K. A. (2006). Macroeconomic factors and the Ghana stock market. African Finance Journal, 8 (1), 26-38. Padhan, P.C., (2007). The nexus between stock market amd economic activity: an empirical analysis for India, International Journal of Social Economics, 34 (10), 741-753. Poon, S., and Taylor, S.J. (1991). Macroeconomic factors and the U.K. stock market, Journal of Business Finance and Accounting, 18, 619-636. Sadorsky, P. (2003). The macroeconomic determinants of technology stock price volatility. Review of Financial Economics, 12, 191 – 205. Taş, O. and Dursunoğlu, S. (2005). Testing random walk hypothesis for Istanbul Stock Exchange. 15th International Conference of International Trade and Finance Association, Đstanbul. TSI – Turkish Statistical Institute (2006), Statistical Indicators, 1923 – 2005, Ankara. Tüzüntürk, S. (2009), “The relationship between volatility and volume on the Istanbul Stock Exchange”, International Journal of Sustainable Economy, 1 (3), 289 – 304. 130 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 141 Title A name given to the resource Impact of Macroeconomic Factors on Stock Market: Evidence from Istanbul Stock Exchange Author Author KARAGÖZ, Kadir ERGÜN, Suzan KARAGÖZ, Murat Abstract A summary of the resource. In contemporary economic world, financial markets in general and stock markets in particular play a vital role in financing the investments and to extent credit to the entrepreneurs. This fact has opened a new avenue of research into the relationship between stock market and macroeconomic structure that is development/reaction/impact of stock market across macroeconomic fluctuations. This paper analyzes long-term equilibrium relationship between macroeconomic factors and Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) Index. The macroeconomic factors are represented by a set of variables which include interest rate, inflation (consumer price index), industrial production index, money supply (M1), growth (GDP) and real exchange rate. We employ Johansen co-integration method to explore the above mentioned relationship among these variables in a span of time between 1998:1 and 2008:12. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/49be3b62bbeb998ad808e92b64a6cbb9.pdf 142d9ff4f09b6aa84772c23e2f17da92 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Corporate Governance and Sustainable Development, A Comparative Analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina Mete KARAYEL Res. Assist. , Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, mkarayel@aku.edu.tr Assist. Prof. Dr. Halil SAYLI Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, hsayli@aku.edu.tr Assist. Prof. Dr.Alparslan Şahin GÖRMÜŞ Uşak University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, alparslansahin.gormus@usak.edu.tr Abstract: Corporate governance is the system by which business corporations are directed and controlled. This concept is getting more attention in the recent years after many corporation scandals and financial crises. But it has many benefits to companies and countries. When we look at the country side, according to literature, there are several channels through which corporate governance affects growth and development in countries, these channels are: increased access to external financing by firms, a lowering of the cost of capital and associated higher firm valuation, better operational performance through better allocation of resources and better management, reduced risk of financial crises, and better relationships with all stakeholders. In this study we aim to show importance of corporate governance on sustainable development in developing countries. In this direction we will use data acquired from reports and data prepared by World Bank, OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) and governmental organizations in these countries. Corporate governance levels and performances of companies and countries and effects of these on growth and sustainable development will be acquired from data. At the conclusion part, we will conclude our study with a comparative country analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina and with some suggestions to countries and future researches. Key Words: Corporate Governance, Sustainable Development, Growth. 1. Definition of Corporate Governance There are many different definitions of corporate governance. But in literature we can mention the definition of some academicians and organizations. The term “corporate governance” was firstly used in a report prepared by Sir Adrian Cadbury. In this report; Corporate governance was defined as the system by which companies are directed and controlled. In this definition board of directors has a key role. Boards of directors are responsible for the corporate governance of their companies. The shareholders’ role in governance is to appoint the directors and the auditors and to satisfy themselves that an appropriate governance structure is in place. The responsibilities of the board include setting the company’s strategic aims, providing the leadership to put them into effect, supervising the management of the business and reporting to shareholders on their stewardship. The board’s actions are subject to laws, regulations and the shareholders in general meeting (Cadbury 1992). From the perspective of World Bank, corporate governance refers to the structures and processes for the direction and control of companies. Corporate governance concerns the relationships among the management, Board of Directors, controlling shareholders, minority shareholders and other stakeholders. In addition to this definition, it can be said that good corporate governance contributes to sustainable economic development by enhancing the performance of companies and increasing their access to outside capital. (Worldbank) Monks and Minow (2007) defined corporate governance as the structure that is intended to make sure that the right questions get asked and that checks and balances are in place to make sure that the answers reflect what is best fort he creation of long-term, sustainable value. When the structure gets subverted, it becomes too easy to succumb to the temptation to engage in self-dealing (Monks & Minow 2007). 74 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Deakin (2005) defined corporate governance as a concept concerning in essence, with issues of ownership and control of the enterprise. ‘Ownership’ refers in this context to the legal allocation of property rights among the principal stakeholders or corporate constituencies (shareholders, creditors and employees), and ‘control’ to the way in which legal rules and social norms interact to determine the balance of power among these groups (Deakin et al. 2005). According to Ulgen &Mirze (2004) corporate governance contains relationship between board of directors, which is assigned and responsible for strategic management and direction of the corporation, and shareholders, employees, suppliers, customers and other society corporations, which has a stake and interest in corporation’s business results. Several studies have been made in the area of corporate governance. These studies emphasize the fact that no single corporate governance model is valid for every country. However, the concepts of equality, transparency, accountability and responsibility appear to be main concepts in all international corporate governance approaches that are widely accepted (CMBT 2003). Equality means the equal treatment of share and stakeholders by the management in all activities of the company and thus aims to prevent all possible conflicts of interest. Transparency, on the other hand, aims to disclose company related financial and non-financial information to the public in a timely, accurate, complete, clear, construable manner and easy to reach at low cost, excluding the trade secrets and undisclosed information. Accountability means the obligation of the board of directors to account to the company as a corporate body and to the shareholders. Finally, responsibility defines the conformity of all operations carried out on behalf of the company with the legislation, articles of association and in-house regulations together with the audit thereof (CMBT 2003). 2. Corporate Governance Systems The term corporate governance has been used in many different ways and the boundaries of the subject vary widely. In the economics debate concerning the impact of corporate governance on performance, there are basically two different models of the corporation, the shareholder model and the stakeholder model. In its narrowest sense (shareholder model), corporate governance often describes the formal system of accountability of senior management to shareholders. In its widest sense (stakeholder model), corporate governance can be used to describe the network of formal and informal relations involving the corporation. More recently, the stakeholder approach emphasises contributions by stakeholders that can contribute to the long term performance of the firm and shareholder value, and the shareholder approach also recognises that business ethics and stakeholder relations can also have an impact on the reputation and long term success of the corporation. Therefore, the difference between these two models is not as stark as it first seems, and it is instead a question of emphasis (Maher & Andersson 1999). There are two polar systems of corporate governance: the market-based system(Shareholder Model) and the realtionshipbased or blockholderbased system. The former prevails in the UK, USA, and the Commonwealth countries, and relies on legal rules largely resulting from case law and on the effective legal enforcement of shareholder rights. The blockholder-based system of Continental Europe relies on codified law and emphasizes rules protecting stakeholders such as creditors and employees. The two systems differ not only in terms of the rationale behind their legal rules, but also in terms of their ownership and control. Most Continental European companies are characterized by majority or near-majority stakes held by one or few investors. In contrast, the Anglo-American system is characterized by dispersed equity. Increasing economic globalization has fuelled the debate on the best corporate governance system and the barriers to the development of a single system of corporate governance (Goergen 2005). 2.1. Market Based(Shareholder Model) Corporate Governance System According to the shareholder model the objective of the firm is to maximise shareholder wealth through allocative, productive and dynamic efficiency i.e. the objective of the firm is to maximise profits. The criteria by which performance is judged in this model can simply be taken as the market value (i.e. shareholder value) of the firm. Therefore, managers and directors have an implicit obligation to ensure that firms are run in the interests of shareholders. The underlying problem of corporate governance in this model stems from the principal-agent relationship arising from the separation of beneficial ownership and executive decision-making. It is this separation that causes the firm’s behaviour to diverge from the profitmaximising ideal. This happens because the interests and objectives of the principal (the investors) and the agent (the managers) differ when there is a separation of ownership and control. Since the managers are not the owners of the firm they do not bear the full costs, or reap the full benefits, of their actions (Maher & Andersson 1999). Therefore, although investors are interested in maximising shareholder value, managers may have other objectives such as maximising their salaries, growth in market share, or an attachment to particular 75 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo investment projects, etc. An effective corporate governance framework can minimise the agency costs and holdup problems associated with the separation of ownership and control. There are broadly three types of mechanisms that can be used to align the interests and objectives of managers with those of shareholders and overcome problems of management entrenchment and monitoring (Maher & Andersson 1999): − One method attempts to induce managers to carry out efficient management by directly aligning managers interests with those of shareholders e.g. executive compensation plans, stock options, direct monitoring by boards, etc. − Another method involves the strengthening of shareholder’s rights so shareholders have both a greater incentive and ability to monitor management. This approach enhances the rights of investors through legal protection from expropriation by managers e.g. protection and enforcement of shareholder rights, prohibitions against insider-dealing, etc. − Another method is to use indirect means of corporate control such as that provided by capital. 2.2. Relationship Based (Stakeholder Model) Corporate Governance System The stakeholder model takes a broader view of the firm. According to the traditional stakeholder model, the corporation is responsible to a wider constituency of stakeholders other than shareholders. Other stakeholders may include contractual partners such as employees, suppliers, customers, creditors, and social constituents such as members of the community in which the firm is located, environmental interests, local and national governments, and society at large. This view holds that corporations should be “socially responsible” institutions, managed in the public interest. According to this model performance is judged by a wider constituency interested in employment, market share, and growth in trading relations with suppliers and purchasers, as well as financial performance (Maher & Andersson 1999). However, we should keep in mind that the effectiveness and form of different corporate governance systems may be influenced by a number of factors, including product market competition, the structure of capital and labour markets, and the regulatory and legal environments (Maher & Andersson 1999). 3. Why Is Corporate Governance Important For Emerging Markets? For emerging market countries, improving corporate governance can serve a number of important public policy objectives. Good corporate governance reduces emerging market vulnerability to financial crises, reinforces property rights, reduces transaction costs and the cost of capital, and leads to capital market development. Weak corporate governance frameworks reduce investor confidence, and can discourage outside investment. Also, as pension funds continue to invest more in equity markets, good corporate governance is crucial for preserving retirement savings. Over the past several years, the importance of corporate governance has been highlighted by an increasing body of academic research. Studies have shown that good corporate governance practices have led to significant increases in economic value added of firms, higher productivity, and lower risk of systemic financial failures for countries (World Bank). 4. Corporate Governance, Growth, Development and Sustainable Development McGee & Preobragenskaya (2004) mentioned the importance of corporate governance in transition economies. They showed the importance in by using these sentences in their paper: “Corporate governance has become an important topic in transition economies in recent years. Directors, owners and corporate managers have started to realize that there are benefits that can accrue from having a good corporate governance structure. Good corporate governance helps to increase share price and makes it easier to obtain capital. International investors are hesitant to lend oney or buy shares in a corporation that does not subscribe to good corporate governance principles. Transparency, independent directors and a separate audit committee are especially important. Some international investors will not seriously consider investing in a company that does not have these things” When we review the literature, we can say that there are several channels through which corporate governance affects growth and development (Claessens 2003): • The first is the increased access to external financing by firms. This in turn can lead to larger investment, higher growth, and greater employment creation. • The second channel is a lowering of the cost of capital and associated higher firm valuation. This makes more investments attractive to investors, also leading to growth and more employment. • The third channel is better operational performance through better allocation of resources and better management. This creates wealth more generally. • Fourth, good corporate governance can be associated with a reduced risk of financial crises. This is particularly important, as financial crises can have large economic and social costs. • Fifth, good corporate governance can mean generally better relationships with all stakeholders. This helps improve social and labor relationships and aspects such as environmental protection. 76 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo When we arrive the relationship between corporate governance and sustainable development, we can see it firstly by looking at the definition of sustainable development. The term sustainable development (SD) was used for the first time at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972. However, a working definition of SD was coined in 1987 with the publication of ‘Our Common Future’, popularly known as the “Brundtland Report”of the World Commission on Environment and Development. The Commission’s definition, since widely adopted, was: “Development as the means to satisfy the needs of present generations without compromising the resources of future generations”. Sustainability, the Commission argued, includes not only economic and social development, but also a commitment to the needs of the poor and recognizing the physical limitations of the earth (Khalkho 2007). Corporate governance has different effects on sustainable development. By satisfying different needs of stakeholders, by using earth’s resources effectively, and for long-term profit by behaving in a socially responsible way, corporations are having very positive effects on sustainable development. So after we saw the importance of corporate governance, now we can see the corporate governance qualifications and applications from the countries; Turkey and Bosnia & Herzegovina. 5. Corporate Governance Applications in Turkey and Bosnia&Herzegovina 5.1. Corporate Governance in Turkey Corporate Governance is a new and very important concept for Turkish economy. Many governmental organizations, civil society organizations, dernekler and businessmen associations are working on this concept to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of different sectors and to increase development level of Turkey. Now we can see Turkish corporate governance development step by step. - Turkish Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association published first report on Corporate Governance in 2002. - In July 2003 the CMB issued corporate governance principles with the aim of enhancing the corporate governance regulations in Turkish listed companies. By recognizing the fact that no single model is valid for every country, the CMB examined the regulations of many countries and generally accepted and recommended corporate governance principles, primarily the OECD Principles of 1999 and revision drafts have been taken into consideration during the preparation of these principles. Corporate Governance Principles of the CMB were revised in 2005 to become compatible with revised OECD principles. The corporate governance principles issued by the CMB (CMB Principles) were developed on the basis of ‘‘comply or explain’’ approach meaning that the implementation of the CMB Principles is optional. - Capital Market Boards of Turkey published Turkish Corporate Governance Code in 2003 by modelling the Corporate Governance Principles in 1999 and it revised the code in 2005. - ISE Corporate Governance Index has been started to be computed on August 31, 2007. Index is composed to measure the price and return performances of the companies traded on the ISE markets (excluding the Watch List Companies Market) having corporate governance rating grades determined according to the "Corporate Governance Principles" issued by the Capital Markets Board. Corporate governance rating grade implies the rating grade that shows compliance with corporate governance principles as a whole and should be given by the rating agencies which are in the rating agencies list of Capital Markets Board. In order to be eligible for corporate governance index, corporate governance rating grade of a company should be granted upon the request of that company and revised or confirmed annually by the rating agency. - Nowadays, new regulations are being made by policymakers in trade law to making use of corporate governance more effectively. 5.2. Corporate Governance in Bosnia and Herzegovina We can see the corporate governance qualifications and applications by analyzing the report “Corporate Governance Country Assessment, Bosnia and Herzegovina” prepared by World Bank in 2006. This report assesses Bosnia and Herzegovina’s (BiH) corporate governance policy framework and enforcement and compliance practices. It highlights recent improvements in corporate governance regulations, makes policy recommendations, and provides investors with a benchmark against which to measure corporate governance in BiH. Since the 1995 Dayton Agreement, BiH’s two entities, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and the Republic Srpska (RS), have each put in place the basic legal and institutional framework for functioning capital markets. Privatization has created hundreds of companies available for trading on two stock exchanges. Recent reform includes laws to improve the governance of state-owned companies, the creation of a new state commission for accounting and auditing, the development of a common electronic platform for local 77 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo business registers, the drafting of new securities laws and laws on investment funds, and the recent decision in each entity to publicly disclose the top ten owners of each publicly traded company. However, challenges remain. The two regimes have a number of basic weaknesses: investors have insufficient redress; key information for many companies is not available or is of poor quality, the duties of board members are unclear, and their liabilities limited. The securities commissions in each entity have limited authority and resources to oversee the large number of issuers. There is no corporate governance code and awareness of corporate governance is limited. There are also significant differences between the corporate governance regimes of each entity, which can be a source of additional cost and confusion for both foreign and domestic market participants. Improving corporate governance to better protect investors, enhance company oversight, and increase confidence in capital markets will require broad-based reform. Recent reforms should be fully implemented, and the law on enterprises in each entity fundamentally revised and harmonized with each other and with EU requirements. These efforts should be combined with training and other programs to raise awareness of corporate governance across BiH each including the development of a Code of Corporate Governance. The authority of securities commission should be enhanced, and (as with banking and auditing regulation) consideration should ultimately be given to moving securities regulation to the state level. The process of privatization in each entity has led to hundreds of publicly traded companies and made hundreds of thousands of citizens shareholders. However privatization is not yet complete, and many companies, including most large companies, retain significant state ownership. The legal framework in each entity has largely been developed since 1998, with frequent amendments, and significant guidance from the donor community. Overall, while many elements of a fully functioning capital market are in place, awareness of corporate governance is limited and important legal and institutional gaps remain. 5.3. Comparison of Corporate Governance in Bosnia and Turkey We can summarize the comparison of corporate governance applications in Turkey and Bosnia & Herzegovina in this table. Table 1: Comparison of Turkish and Bosnia & Herzegovina’s Corporate Governance Applications Turkish Corporate Governance It has state level code of Corporate Governance. Importance of Independent board members was mentioned in the code. Bosnia and Herzegovina divided into two entities –The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic Srpska plus the autonomous Brcko District. So there are two distinct corporate governance regime in Bosnia. Privatization process is not yet complete, many companies including most large companies, retain significant state ownership. Awareness of corporate governance is limited. Legal and institutional gaps remain in Bosnia. Foreign ownership is growing. Companies produce basic financial statements, other reporting is minimal. Ownership disclosure is limited. Companies in Bosnia have a variety of board structures. The limited duties and liabilities of board members are not effectively implemented. Bosnia&Herzegovina’s Corporate Governance There is no state level code of Corporate Governance. There is no definition of requirements for independent board members. Turkey has only one corporate governance regime. Privatization process is more advanced in Turkey, but still there are some state ownership in large companies. Awareness level of corporate governance is getting better in everyday. There are still legal and institutional gaps in Turkey. Foreign ownership is growing. Financial reporting is much better in Turkey. Ownership disclosure is limited. There is only one type board structure in Turkish Companies. The limited duties and liabilities of board members are not effectively implemented. When wee look at the table, we can say that Turkey’s awareness of corporate governance is higher than Bosnia&Herzegovina. Since on December, 2002, Turkish Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association introduced the first corporate governance report in Turkey. It has been seven years. During seven years conferences, congresses, executive training programs and researches by academics increased the awareness level of corporate governance. In Bosnia, the only active actor on increasing awareness is World Bank and corporate governance is a very new concept for Bosnia as a transition economy. So, World Bank’s recommendations must be noticed by Bosnia&Herzegovina. 5.4. Recommendations to Bosnia For Having Good Corporate Governance The World Bank had some recommendations to Bosnia&Herzegovina, so we can see the recommendations and what can be done by looking at the table. 78 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2: World Bank’s Recommendations to Bosnia&Herzegovina To Have Better Corporate Governance CORPORATE GOVERNANCE RECOMMENDETIONS BY WORLD BANK TO BOSNIA Recommendation Institution Building Strengthen the institutional capacity & competence of the Securities Commissions. Prepare recommendations to improve corporate governance of stateowned enterprises. Raise awareness of corporate governance. Give Securities Commissions the authority to levy sanctions and take direct action against issuers (with appeals to courts). Prepare a phased-in program to move securities, and related supervision to state-level regulators. Legislative Framework Develop a strategy for the introduction of closed companies and other elements of a new Law on Enterprises. Introduce a new state-level or tightly harmonized Law on Enterprises based on EU requirements and guidelines. Upgrade and harmonize the Law on Securities and Law on Investment Funds. Boards and Oversight Introduce a single BiH Code of Corporate Governance covering traded companies, PIFs, stateowned enterprises & banks. Increase training for management and supervisory board members. Establish a domestic governance institute. Encourage independent members of boards. Introduce common board structure for all traded companies, Đncluding banks and state-owned enterprises. Introduce board member duties in light of practice in EU countries. Transparency and Disclosure Fully implement the new regime for accounting and auditing. Introduce a standard annual report format. Improve direct disclosure through central registries. Require disclosure of significant indirect ownership in line with EU Transparency Directive. Improve access to company information, including online court register & web portals. Introduce “one window” for company information. Investor Protection Adopt common and improved procedures for major and related party transactions, shareholder redress & changes in share capital. Adopt common provisions for tenders, control transactions, and company conversion. Facilitate shareholder participation in shareholders’ meetings. Consider “mandatory tender offer” and “squeezeout” rights. Require investment funds to disclose and develop policies on ownership and conflicts of interest. How To be Introduced Priority/Status Securities Commissions prepare & adopt Institutional Development Plans. Diagnostic of state owned enterprise corporate governance based on OECD Guidelines. Corporate governance seminars, discussions, and relevant training (ex. through IFC PEPSE). Revisions to Securities and related law. Immediate Immediate Immediate Medium-Term Review of costs and benefits of program. Possible revisions to Securities and related law. Long-Term Establish a state-level working group supported by local and international consultants. Through broad based, state-wide consultation with relevant international support. Immediate Through broad based, state-wide consultation with relevant international support. Medium-Term Extensive consultations with private sector including SASE and BLSE, building on current standards. Private initiatives, including those led by IFC PEPSE. Immediate Part of Corporate Governance Code. New Law on Enterprises, revisions to Law on Public Enterprises, Law on Banks. Immediate Medium-Term New Laws on Enterprises. Medium-Term Based on current efforts. Immediate New regulation based on current efforts. Initiative by securities registrars based on current efforts. Revisions to Securities and related laws. Revisions to Securities and related laws. Immediate Immediate Medium-Term Immediate Medium-Term Based on current efforts. Develop integrated interface covering both SASE & BLSE. State and entity-level legal changes and the commissions, central registries, and stock exchanges. Long-Term New Laws on Enterprises. Medium-Term Revisions to Securities and related laws. Harmonized Law on Takeovers. New Laws on Enterprises with additional guidance from the Code. Revisions to Securities and related laws. Medium-Term Revisions to Securities and related laws based on current efforts with additional training and support. Medium-Term Medium-Term Long-Term Long-Term 79 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. Conclusion At conclusion part, in addition to World Bank’s recommendations, we can say that for growth, development and also sustainable development Bosnia and Herzegovina needs good corporate governance. Because corporate governance make socially responsible and long-term focused companies. They would serve the needs of different stakeholders like customers, employees, suppliers, media, government, competitors in the same industry and society as a whole. After reviewing the recommendations of World Bank, having a national level corporate governance code seems the priority for Bosnia and Herzegovina. By having this, country can shape its own corporate governance model. As mentioned before, there are two types of corporate governance models and both of them their own pros and cons. Bosnia can choose one of these models and can adapt its system compatible to it. Or it can benchmark Turkey, which benchmarked OECD Corporate Governance Principles, and it can adapt the principles to its own country. After that, laws and regulations must be prepared immediately and corporate governance awareness tried to be increased. Amendments and improvements on laws and regulations is the total responsibility of policy makers in Bosnia. Turkish government and governmental organization now working on a new trade law, and the law is being designed to companies for using corporate governance more efficiently and effectively. For increasing corporate governance awareness Bosnia has a long way to go. In Turkey, many private and public organizations and universities are working to increase corporate governance awareness level. In Bosnia, many corporate governance researches and conferences are being prepared by World Bank. The most important one of these is “The South East Europe Corporate Governance Roundtable”. It was established in September 2001, in response to growing awareness among policy-makers and donors in the region regarding the importance of corporate governance. This Roundtable includes participants from nine countries in the SEE region, namely Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania. The Roundtable has seen some progress in corporate governance, since it issued its White Paper on Corporate Governance in South East Europe in 2003, including a number of legislative and regulatory reforms undertaken in recent years. Corporate governance codes have been developed with the support of the business sector, and stock exchanges have introduced special listing segments requiring higher corporate governance standards. The Roundtable has contributed to this progress not only through policy dialogue and development of recommendations at its meetings, but also through the ongoing efforts of its participants – representatives of stock exchanges, regulators, corporate governance institutes and other reformoriented stakeholders – to raise awareness and support reform initiatives in individual countries. When we look at the studies made by universities, we found that many studies made by the academics from abroad like this study. Domestic universities in Bosnia must increase researches and papers on corporate governance. And future researches must be made on “Corporate Governance Applications and Applicable System in Bosnia and Herzegovina” and corporate governance studies can be made by academics from different disciplines like management, accounting, finance and law. References: Cadbury, A., Cadbury Report, (1992), Financial aspects of corporate governance. Capital Markets Board of Turkey(CMBT), (2003), Corporate governance principles. Claessens, S., (2003), Corporate Governance and Development, Global Corporate Governance Forum. Deakin, S. & Hobbs, R., & Konzelmann, S. J. & Wilkinson, F.,(2005) Anglo-American Corporate Governance and The Employment Relationship: A Case To Answer, Socio-Economic Review, p.155-174, Goergen, M. & Martynova, M. & Renneboog, L. (2005), Corporate governance convergence: Evidence from takeover regulation reforms in europe, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 21, No. 2. Khalkho, K. (2007), Sustainable Development and Corporate Social Responsbility, Global Press Release Distribution. Maher, M. & Andersson, T.(1999) Corporate governance:Effects on firm performance and economic growth, Organization for economic co-operation and development(OECD) working paper. Mcgee, R. W. & Preobreganskaya, G. G. (2004), Corporate governance in transition economies:Theory and pratice of corporate governance in eastern europe, Global Conference on Business Economics, Amsterdam, July 9-11. Monks, R. A. G. & Minow N.,(2007) Corporate Governance, Blackwell Publishing. The World Bank, Report on the observance of standarts and codes (ROSC), (2006), Corporate governance country assessments: Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ulgen, H.& Mirze, K. (2004), Đşletmelerde stratejik yönetim, Literatür Yayıncılık. 80 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 144 Title A name given to the resource Corporate Governance and Sustainable Development, A Comparative Analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina Author Author KARAYEL, Mete SAYLI, Halil GÖRMÜS, Alparslan Sahin Abstract A summary of the resource. Corporate governance is the system by which business corporations are directed and controlled. This concept is getting more attention in the recent years after many corporation scandals and financial crises. But it has many benefits to companies and countries. When we look at the country side, according to literature, there are several channels through which corporate governance affects growth and development in countries, these channels are: increased access to external financing by firms, a lowering of the cost of capital and associated higher firm valuation, better operational performance through better allocation of resources and better management, reduced risk of financial crises, and better relationships with all stakeholders. In this study we aim to show importance of corporate governance on sustainable development in developing countries. In this direction we will use data acquired from reports and data prepared by World Bank, OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) and governmental organizations in these countries. Corporate governance levels and performances of companies and countries and effects of these on growth and sustainable development will be acquired from data. At the conclusion part, we will conclude our study with a comparative country analysis on Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina and with some suggestions to countries and future researches. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1b1eb5b866662e74ffc6a15e73e9806b.pdf 130fea0b2f262639dac366147cd4249c PDF Text Text Geçmişten Günümüze Türk Dünyasında Alfabe Gelişimi Vedat KARTALCIK Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Özet|:Türklerin metinlerle belgelenebilen tarihte kullandıkları ilk alfabe Köktürk işaretleridir. Köktürklerin Ötükendeki hâkimiyetleri sona erdikten sonra, Uygurlar döneminde farklı dinleri kabul eden Türk toplulukları tarafından Mani, Soğut, Uygur, Süryani, İbrani alfabeleri; Brahmi, Tibet yazıları gibi farklı alfabe ve yazı sistemleri kullanılmıştır. Grek alfabesi de Hristiyan Türkler ile misyoner rahip ve tüccarlar tarafından Türkçenin yazımında kullanılmıştır. X. yüzyılda İslâmı kabul eden Türkler uzun bir süre Arap alfabesini kullanmışlardır. 19. yüzyılda başlayan yenileşme hareketleriyle birlikte, Arap alfabesinin Türkçe sesleri karşılamada yetersiz kaldığı ve başka gerekçelerle Arap alfabesinin ıslah edilmesi gerektiği fikri tüm Türk dünyasında dile getirilmeye başlamıştır. XX. yüzyılın başında neredeyse çeyrek asırlık bir sürede Türk dünyası alfabe ıslahı ve yeni bir alfabe kabulü meselesi üzerinde durmuş, bu konuyla ilgili kurultaylar düzenlemiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk, Alfabe, Türk Alfabeleri Grek alfabesinin ilk işaretleri olan alfa ve betanın birleşmesinden oluşan alfabe çok eski ve uzun bir oluşum sürecinden sonra, her sese bir işaretin karşılık geldiği bugünkü fonetik biçimine kavuşmuştur. Alfabenin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olan bugün resim yazısı (pictography) olarak bilinen, mağara duvarlarına kazılmış resimler M.Ö. 2500-2000 yıllarına tarihlendirilen ilk yazı örnekleri olarak bilinirler. Bu resim yazısı zamanla fikir yazısını (ideogram) oluşturmuştur. Fikir yazıları olarak bilinen Mezopotamya, Mısır, Girit ve Hitit yazıları aslında resim, fikir ve bu yazıların daha ileri şekilleri olan fonetik yazıyı da içlerinde barındırıyorlardı.94 Fonetik yazının ilk örnekleri olarak bilinen çivi yazısı Sümerler, Akadlar, Babiller, Asurlar, Hititler, Huriler, Elamlar, Mitanniler, Luviler, Urartular ve Persler tarafından kullanılmıştır. Çivi yazısı, içinde hareketi ifade eden sembolleri, ideogramları, fonetik işaretleri ve determinatifleri barındırmaktadır. M. Ö. VII-VI. Yüzyıllarda Aramice’nin ortak iletişim dili olması çivi yazısının kullanımdan kalkmıştır.95 Antik dönemin en önemli yazı sistemlerinden biri olan Mısır yazısı (hiyeroglif) M. Ö. 4000 –M. S. 400 yılları arasında Mısırda kullanılmıştır. Bu yazının işlenmiş biçimine hieratic ve demotic adlarını alır. Hiyeroglifi ilk olarak Champollion tarafından 1822 yılında çözülmüştür.96 Ege Bölgesi yazıları da antik dönemde kullanılan yazılardandır. Resim yazısı, Linear A ve Linear B olarak adlandırılan bu yazılar M. Ö. 2800 ila M. Ö. 1600 yıllarında Kıbrıs, Girit ve Ege Bölgelerinde kullanılmıştır.97 Hindistan’ın İndus vadisinde, sonradan Brahmi yazısına kaynaklık ettiği bilinen ideografik, çivi ve hece yazıları karışımı bir yazı sisteminin M. Ö. 2500 civarında kullanıldığı bilinmektedir.98 Alfabe yazısına girmeyen bir yazı da Çin yazısıdır. Çin yazısının en eski örnekleri M. Ö. XVIII-XII. yüzyıla aittir. Bu yazının eski zamanlardaki ideogram karakterleri bugüne logogram olarak gelmiştir.99 Bugünkü bilgimiz eski çağlardaki yazı sistemlerinin zamanla yerini fonetik alfabeye bırakmıştır. Alfabenin de en eski örnekleri M. Ö. 1700-1330 yıllarında Mezopotamya ve çevresinde bulunmuştur. Alfabenin ortaya çıkışı ve yayılışıyla ilgili olarak bazı teoriler ileri sürülmüştür.100 Bu teorilerde bugünkü alfabelerin ilk ve sonraki şekilleri arasında bağlar kurulmaya çalışılmıştır. Proto Sina yazısının Mısır hiyerogliflerine ve devamında Kuzey Sami alfabesine; proto Sami alfabesinin Güney Sami, Kuzey Sami (Arami ve Kenan), İbrani, Palmira, Nasturi, Mani, Brahmi, Haroşti, Soğut, Ermeni, Gürcü, Uygur ve Tibet alfabelerine; Punik veya Pön olarak da adlandırılan Fenike yazısının Eski Libya, İberya, Grek, Slav, Etrüsk, Likya, Frigya, Pampilyon, Lidya, Karya, Kıpti, Arap ve Latin gibi alfabelerin oluşumuna kaynaklık etmiştir.101 94 Hatice Şirin User, Başlangıcından Günümüze Türk Yazı Sistemleri, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2006, 15-16. s. Hatice Şirin User, age., 16-17. s. 96 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 97 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 98 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 99 Hatice Şirin User, age., 17. s. 100 Hatice Şirin User, age., 18. s. 101 Hatice Şirin User, age., 18-21. s. 95 363 �Bugün bile kaynağı tam olarak belirlenememiş, üzerindeki tartışmaların hâlâ devam ettiği Hint alfabeleri ve Runik alfabe gibi yazı sistemleri mevcuttur.102 Eski Türkçe Döneminde Kullanılan Alfabeler Türkçenin yazılı kaynaklarından takip edebildiğimiz ilk örnekleri Köktürk/Orhun yazısı ile yazılmıştır. Bu metinler ve yazıldıkları alfabe, Batılı Türkologlar tarafından, İskandinav bölgesinde bulunan Runik alfabeyle yazılmış belgelere benzediği için, Sibirya Run harfleri, Yenisey Run harfleri, Runik alfabe ve Türk Run yazısı olarak adlandırılmıştır. Köktürk işaretlerinin nerede ve ne zaman ortaya çıktığı üzerinde pek çok araştırma yapılmıştır. İlk olarak VII ila X. yüzyıllara tarihlendirilen Orhun ve Yenisey abidelerinde karşılaştığımız bu yazıların, Issık Köl yakınındaki Esik kurganında bulunan M. Ö. IV-V. yüzyıla tarihlendirilen gümüş bir tasın üzerinde Köktürk işaretleriyle yazılı 26 harflik bir metin yer almaktadır. Bu gümüş tas bize Köktürk işaretlerinin Milattan önceki yıllarda da kullanıldığını göstermiştir.103 Ancak tas üzerindeki 26 harflik yazının Türkologlar tarafından farklı okunması, bu yazının henüz açıklığa kavuşturulamadığını göstermektedir. Bu nedenle şimdilik kaydıyla Türkçenin en eski yazılı belgesi olarak Çoyrın yazıtı (687-692) kabul edilmektedir. Köktürk işaretleri yalnızca Köktürklerin yaşadığı Ötüken bölgesinde değil, farklı coğrafyalarda metal veya taş eşyalarla, kaya, ağaç kabuğu ve kağıt üzerlerine yazıldığını yapılan çalışmalardan öğrenmekteyiz.104 Köktürk işaretlerinin kullanımı 30 milyon km2lik bir alana yayılmıştır.105 Köktürk işaretlerinin kökeni hakkında pek çok teori ileri sürülmüştür. Köktürk işaretlerinin İskandinav Runik yazısından doğduğunu kabul eden görüş bunların ilkidir. Bu görüşün temsilcisi Heikel’dir. Daha sonra Köktürk yazısı ile Grek yazısı, hatta eski Sami yazısı ve Likya, Firikya, Hitit yazıları arasında ilgi kuran görüşler dahi ortaya atılmıştır. Bu görüşler Otto Donner, Heinrich Julius von Klaproth ve Altay Amanjolov tarafından kabul görmüştür.106 Köktürk işaretleriyle yazılmış Orhun Abidelerini ilk çözen Türkologlar V. Thomsen ve W. Radloff Köktürk işaretlerinin Aramî veya Soğut alfabelerinden geliştiğini savunmuşlardır.107 Türk millî şuuruna en yakın olan Köktürk işaretlerinin Türk damgalarından doğduğunu ileri süren görüştür. Bu teori ilk olarak Aristov ve Mallitskiy tarafından ileri sürülmüş, Ahmet Caferoğlu, Ahmet Cevat Emre, Hüseyin Namık Orkun gibi Türkologlar tarafından da kabul görmüştür.108 Bunlardan başka E. D. Polivanov, V. A. Livşiç, Köktürk işaretlerinin Türk damgalarından oluştuğunu fakat Soğut, Aramî, Pehlevî gibi yazılardan da etkilendiği görüşüne sahiptir.109 O. Pritsak ve A. Rona Tas gibi Türkologlar da Köktürk yazısının hece yazısından geliştiğini düşünmektedirler.110 Köktürk işaretleri hangi kökten gelirse gelsin Türkçenin yazımında en elverişli alfabelerden birisi olmuştur. Köktürk alfabesi 38 harften oluşmaktadır. Bu harflerden 4’ü ünlü, 31’i ünsüz 3’ü de çift ünsüzdür (ligatür). Ünsüzlerin 20 tanesi kalın ve ince olmak üzere ikili şekillere sahipken, 7 tanesi tek şekillidir. 4 harf de ünlülerle çift oluşturmaktadır. Köktürk Kağanlığı yıkıldıktan sonra yerine kurulan Uygur Kağanlığı döneminde Türkler Köktürk işaretlerinin yanı sıra, pek çok alfabe kullanmışlardır. Eski kültürlerde yazıyı icat eden toplumların ticaret yoluyla kazanç sağlama ve din misyonerliğiyle nüfus kazanma111 olmak üzere iki amacı vardır. Uygurlar konargöçer (nomad) yaşam tarzlarını değiştirip yerleşik hayata geçip şehirlerde yaşamaya başlamışlardır. Ticaret ve tarımla uğraşmaya başlamışlardır. Yeni hayat tarzından dolayı Maniheist Soğdak tüccarların ve dinî misyoner faaliyetlerin etkisiyle Bögü Kağan 692 yılında Maniheizmi devlet dini olarak kabul etmiştir.112 Yeni dinin öğretileri, dinî metinlerin yazılı olduğu alfabeyi de Uygurlar arasında kullanılır hâle getirmiştir. Maniheist 102 Hatice Şirin User, age., 22-23. s. Nejat Diyarbekirli, “Kazakistan'da Bulunan Esik Kurganı", Cumhuriyetin 50. Yılına Armağan, Edebiyat Fakültesi, İstanbul 1973, 291-304. s. 104 İsmail Doğan, Kafkasyadaki Göktürk Runik İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2000.; İsmail Doğan, Doğu Avrupadaki Göktürk (Runik) İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2002.; Semih Tezcan, “En Eski Türk Dili ve Yazını”, Bilim, Kültür ve Öğretim Dili Olarak Türkçe, Ankara 1994, 277; 283. s.; Talat Tekin, Irk Bitig Eski Uygurca Fal Kitabı, Öncü Kitap, Ankara 2004.; Hatice Şirin User, age., 31. s. 105 Namık Açıkgöz, “Türklerin Kullandığı Alfabelerden Göktürk Alfabesi”, Yeni Türkiye, Mayıs-Haziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 236. s. 106 Hatice Şirin User, age., 31. s.; Ahmet Caferoğlu, Türk Dili Tarihi I-II, Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul 1984. 120. s. 107 V. Thomsen, Orhon ve Yenisey Yazıtlarının Çözümü İlk Bildiri, (Çev: Vedat Köken), TDK Yay., Ankara 1993, 49-55. s.; Hatice Şirin User, age., 33. s.; Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 120. s. 108 Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 121. s.; Ahmet Bican Ercialsun, Türk Dili Tarihi, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2005, 169. s. 109 Ahmet Bican Ercilasun, age., 169. s. 110 Hatice Şirin User, age., 35. s. 111 Hatice Şirin User, age., 37. s. 112 Şinasi Tekin, “Mani Dininin Uygurlar Tarafından Devlet Dini Olarak Kabul Edilişinin 1200. Yıldönümü Dolayı İle Birkaç Not (762-1962)”, TDAY-B 1962, 6. s. 103 364 �Uygurların ve Uygur olmayan Türklerden kalan yazılı metinler Turfan ve Dunhuang bölgelerinde bulunmuştur. Mani alfabesiyle yazılan metinlerde noktalama işaretlerinin113 kullanılması dikkate çekicidir. Bu alfabeyle şiirler, hikâyeler, dua ve ilahiler, dinî kitaplar gibi eserler yazılmıştır.114 Mani inancındaki Uygurlar Mani alfabesinin yanı sıra Köktürk işaretleri, Uygur, Brahmi, Tibet ve Süryani alfabelerinin de kullanmışlardır. Mani alfabesi IX. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar Moğolistan ve Doğu Türkistan bölgelerinde kullanılmıştır.115 Soğut alfabesi, Türkler arasında yaşayan Soğut tüccarların etkisiyle kullanılmaya başlanmıştır.116 Soğutça ve Soğut alfabesinin I. Köktürk Kağanlığı döneminden itibaren kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Çünkü 5. Köktürk Kağanı Muhan’ın mezar taşı Bugut yazıtının üç yüzü de Soğutça yazılmıştır. Bu alfabe Türkler arasında çok kısa bir süre kullanılmıştır. 117 Uygurlar döneminde IX. yüzyılda yazıldığı tahmin edilen Çince, Uygurca ve Soğutça yazılan Karabalgasun yazıtında da Soğut alfabesini görmekteyiz.118 Güney Gobi’deki Sevrey yazıtının da Köktürk işaretli Uygurcanın yanı sıra Soğut alfabeli Soğutça olarak yazıldığı bilinmektedir.119 Eski Türkçe döneminden kalan en zengin edebiyat ürünleri Uygur alfabesiyle yazılmıştır. Uygur alfabesinin Türkler arasında ne zaman kullanılmaya başlandığı konusunda net bir sonuca ulaşılamamıştır. Gabain’e göre ilk Uygur harfli metinler 750-827 yıllarında yazılmıştır. S. Çağatay kesin bir tarih belirtmenin mümkün olmadığı; S. G. Clauson, bu alfabenin VIII. yüzyıldan önce tasarlandığı; S. Tezcan Uygur alfabesinin IX. yüzyıl sonlarında kullanılmaya başladığı görüşündedirler.120 Bu görüşlerden hareketle Uygur alfabesinin VIII. yüzyıldan XVIII. yüzyıla kadar Sibirya-Yenisey, Kuzey Moğolistan, Türkistan’ın tamamı, İdil nehri kıyıları, Transkafkasya, Azerbaycan, Gürcistan ve Osmanlı topraklarını içine alan sahada kullanılmıştır. Uygur alfabesi Soğutlardan alınmış fakat Türkçe ses yapısına uydurularak millîleştirilmiştir.121 Hitay ve Moğol Devletleri Uygur alfabesini resmî alfabe olarak kullanmışlardır. Mançu, Kalmuk ve Buryat alfabelerini oluşturan din adamları, söz konusu alfabeleri Uygur alfabesinden adapte etmişlerdir.122 Uygur alfabesi sağdan sola doğru yazılır. 18 harften oluşan alfabede üç işaret ünlüleri, 15 işaret de ünsüzleri göstermektedir. Harfler seslerin içte, ortada ve sonda olmalarına göre üç şekilde yazılmışlardır. Brahmi yazısı hakkında, Sami yazısının Aramî koluna ait olduğu ve Fenike alfabesiyle bazı ortaklıkları olduğu görüşü yaygın olmakla beraber, Brahmi alfabesinin Dravidyen bir icat ya da Hintli din adamlarının resimlerden icat ettiği bir yazı sistemi olduğu yönünde de görüşler vardır.123 Bu yazı M. Ö. VIII-VII. yüzyıllarda Hindistan’da kullanılan bu yazı M. S. III-IV. yüzyıllarda Barahma adıyla anılmıştır. Uygurlar bu alfabeyi tıpkı Toharlarda olduğu gibi Budizm’e ait dinî metinlerden öğrenmişlerdir. Bu alfabeyle yazılan metinleri Gabain X. yüzyıla dayandırıken, G. Clauson bu alfabenin daha öncelerde kullanılmaya başlandığını belirtmiştir. I. Köktürk Kağanlığına ait Bugut yazıtının bir yüzünün bu alfabeyle yazılması bu düşünceyi desteklemektedir.124 Soldan sağa doğru ve alta alta devam eden bu alfabeyle yazılan 79 parçalık metinler tespit edilmiştir. Uygur Türkleri bu alfabeyi Türkçeye uygun hâle getirmek için bazı değişiklikler yapmışlardır. Brahmi alfabesinde yapılan değişikliklerle (a ünlüsü ve ya hecesi birleştirilerek aya; u ünlüsü ve yu hecesi birleştirilerek uyu) gibi ünlülerin okunmasındaki karışıklığı engelleyen bazı ligatürler ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Brahmi yazısında bulunan 28 hece işaretine Uygurlar yedi işaret daha eklemişlerdir.125 Bu yazı Türkler arasında uzun bir süre kullanılmamıştır. Bugün kütüphanelerde bu yazıyla yazılmış 100 metin bulunmaktadır. Tibet yazısının Türkler arasında yayılması, Budizm’in yanı sıra, Tibet’in Doğu Türkistan bölgesini işgal etmek istemesi gibi dinî ve siyasî nedenlere bağlanabilir.126 VIII-IX. yüzyıllarda Uygurlarla Tibetlilerin iç içe yaşadıkları Gansu bölgesinde Uygurlar Budizm’in de etkisiyle Tibet yazısını kullanmışlardır. Tibet yazısı hece ve alfabe sistemlerinin karışık olduğu bir yazıdır. Tibet yazsısında 30 ünsüz, beş ünlü, bir ters çevrik i, üç tane de harf altı ünsüz içerir.127 Bu yazı Türkler arasında çok yayılmamış, kullanım sahası da Doğu Türkistanın bazı bölgeleriyle sınırlı kalmıştır. Dunhuang’daki Bin Buda mağaralarından çıkan 14 bin parçadan oluşan koleksiyonda Tibet yazısıyla yazılmış mahdut sayıda metinler bulunmaktadır. Bunlar Paris Biblioteque National’de bulunmaktadırlar. 113 Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 173. s. Ahmet Bican Ercilasun, age., 230-242. s. 115 Hatice Şirin User, age., 45. s. 116 Ahmet Caferoğlu, age., 165. s.; Hatice Şirin User, age., 48. s. 117 Hatice Şirin User, age., 48. s. 118 Hatice Şirin User, age., 49. s. 119 Hatice Şirin User, age., 49. s 120 Hatice Şirin User, age., 53. s. 121 R. Rahmeti Arat, “Uygur Alfabesi”, Makaleler I. C., 679. s. 122 Hatice Şirin User, age., 57. s. 123 Hatice Şirin User, age., 62. s. 124 Hatice Şirin User, age., 63. s. 125 Hatice Şirin User, age., 64. s. 126 Hatice Şirin User, age., 67. s. 127 Hatice Şirin User, age., 68. s. 114 365 �M. S. II. yüzyılda Türkler arasında misyoner faaliyetlerine başlayan Hristiyan misyonerler, ancak VII. yüzyılda amaçlarına ulaşmışlar ve Türkler arasında Süryani koluna dayalı Nasturî mezhebi yayılmaya başlamıştır. Nasturîliğe ait bazı dinî metinler sınırlı sayıda da olsa bu dönemde Uygurcaya çevrilmeye başlanmıştır. Turfan bölgesinde bulunan Nasturî kilisesinde Estrangelo yazısıyla yazılmış bazı metinler bulunmuştur. Bir de Öngüt mezar taşları bu alfabeyle yazılmıştır. Estrangelo alfabesi Suriye ve bugünkü Urfa bölgesinde yaşayan Süryaniler için geliştirilmiştir. Bu yazının en önemli kolu V. yüzyılda ilk örnekleri görülen Estrangelo alfabesidir. Estrangelo alfabesi Nasturiler tarafından Türkistan ve Çin içlerine kadar yayılmıştır. Türkçenin ses sistemine uydurulan bazı yeni harf şekiller oluşturulmuştur. İbrani alfabesi, Harun Reşid devrinde (786-809) Museviliğin Karay mezhebine giren Hazarlar tarafından kullanılmıştır.128 Fakat bugün için elimizde Hazarlara ait yazılı bir belge bulunmamaktadır. İbrani alfabesiyle yazılı metinler Hazarların bugünkü devamı olduğu düşünülen Karaylardan kalmadır. Bu metinlerin ilki XVI. yüzyıla kadar uzanmaktadır. Bugün Litavanya, Ukrayna, Kırım ve Polonya gibi ülkelerde dağınık olarak yaşayan dinî metinlerini içeren eserlerde kullanılan İbreni alfabesi, Karay Türkçesinin sözlü olarak yaşamasından dolayı kullanım alanı oldukça daralmıştır. İbrani alfabesi köken itibariyle Sami yazısının Kenan kolundan gelmektedir. Yakın Dönemde Türk Alfabeleri Grek alfabesi yakın çağda Hristiyanlığın Ortodoks mezhebine bağlı olan ve Anadolu’nun iç kesimlerinde Nevşehir, Kayseri ve Karaman gibi bölgelerde yaşayan Karamanlılar tarafından kullanılmıştır. Karamanlılar bu dönemde oldukça zengin bir yazılı edebiyat eserleri bırakmışlardır. Bu eseler arasında dinî metinler ağırlıklı olmakla beraber, gazete, dergi, ders kitabı, gramer kitabı gibi basılı eserlerin yanı sıra kilise, mezar kitabeleri gibi kutsal mekânlarda kitabeler yer almaktadır. Grek yazısı Kuzey Sami yazısından gelişen bir yazı sistemidir. Asıl gelişimini Fenike alfabesi etkisi altında tamamlamıştır.129 Alfabe, Suriye’nin Kuzeyinde kurulan Yunan sahil kolonisi tarafından geliştirilmiştir. Grek alfabesi Karamanlı Türkçesini tam olarak karşılayamıyordu. Türkçedeki ı, ü, ö, c, ç, j, ş gibi sesler farklı harf birlikleriyle ve diakritiklerle gösterilmiştir.130 Türkler, Emevi Devleti döneminden beri İslâm devletleriyle temas kurmuşlardır. Bu ilişki özellikle Abbasiler döneminde askerî güç sağlamak amacıyla paralı asker ve askerî köle edinme yoluyla devam etmiştir.131 Bu askerle İslâm dinini Bulgar, Karahanlı ve Oğuz Türklerine tanıtmışlardır. Bundan sonra Samanîler döneminde Maveraünnehir tamamen İslâmiyetin yerleştiği bir bölge olmuştur. Horasan bu bölgenin Tasavvuf düşüncesinin merkezi olmuştur. İslâmiyetin kabulü İslâm medeniyetinin taşıyıcısı olan alfabeyi de beraberinde getirmiştir. İlk zamanlar Uygur alfabesiyle yan yana kullanılan Arap alfabesi sonraları bütün Türk unsurlar tarafından tercih edilmiştir.132 Uygur alfabesinin terk edilmesi uzun yıllar almıştır. Çünkü Miraçnâme, Tezkiretü’l-Evliya, Muhabbet-nâme gibi eserler XIV-XV. yüzyıllarda Uygur harfleriyle yazılmışlardır.133 Arap alfabesinin Estrangelo yazısından geliştiğini kabul edenlerin yanında, Sami asıllı Nebati kavminin yuvarlak hatlı yazısından geliştiğini düşünenler de vardır.134 Arap alfabesi pek çok bölgede farklı milletler tarafından kullanılan yaygın bir alfabe olmuştur. Bu yaygınlığın sonucu olarak Arap alfabesini kullanan milletler alfabeye bazı sesleri ekleme yoluna gitmiştir. Farslar alfabede olmayan ç, ş ve j sesleri için (œ, © ve ¦ ) işaretlerini alfabeye eklemişlerdir. Türkçede bulunan nazal ŋ için de g sesini işaretlemede kullanılaní harfi kullanılmıştır. XI. Yüzyılda Arap alfabesinin, temel olarak 29 harfle yazıldığını görmekteyiz. Hem Türkçe hem de alıntı sözlerin imlasında kullanılan bu harfler şunlardır: [,’, –, ˜, š, ³, °, ¢,£ ¤, ¥, ¦, §, ©, «, -, ¯, à, á, å, é, ë, í, ñ, ô, ö, ø, û, ý. Arap alfabesindeki ˜, ³, £, «, -, ¯, à, á harflerinin ses karşılıkları Türkçenin ses sisteminde olmadığı için, bu harfler Türkçe kelimelerde kullanılmamıştır. Ancak « ve ¯ ilk başlarda Türkçe seslerin işaretlenmesinde kullanılmazken, sonraları kalın ünlülü sözlerde kullanıldığını görmekteyiz. Hatta Batı Türkçesi için –, §, ¯, « harfleri kalın ve ince sıradan kelimeler için kullanılırken Doğu Türkçesi için böyle bir ayrım olmamış kelime kalın da olsa ince de olsa hep –, § harfleriyle gösterilmiştir. Arap alfabesi Yakut, Çuvaş, Karay gibi Türk gruplar ayrı tutulduğunda bütün Türk Dünyası tarafından XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine kadar kullanılmıştır. Bu süre içinde ünlü tabanlı bir yazı sistemine sahip olan 128 Hatice Şirin User, age., 81. s. Hatice Şirin User, age., 91. s. 130 Hatice Şirin User, age., 91. s. 131 Hatice Şirin User, age., 93. s. 132 Kutadgu Bilig, Atabetü’l-Hakayık gibi Karahanlı Türk kültür tarihinin en önemli eserlerinin bazı nüshaları Uygur alfabesiyle istinsah edilmiştir. 133 Hatice Şirin User, age., 95. s. 134 Hatice Şirin User, age., 95. s. 129 366 �Türkçenin yazımında ünsüz tabanlı bir yazı sistemine sahip olan Arap alfabesinin yetersizliği hiç tartışılmamıştır. XIX. yüzyılın başlarında başlayan yenileşme hareketleri ile birlikte Osmanlı, İdil-Ural ve Kafkasya aydınları tarafından 1850-1880 yıllarında alfabenin yetersizliği ve ıslah edilmesi gerektiği fikri tartışılmaya başlanmıştır. Bu konuda Türk dünyasının farklı coğrafyalarında ayrı tecrübeler yaşanmıştır. Türkçenin ünlülerini göstermede yetersiz kaldığı, bu yüzden eş yazılı durumların ortaya çıktığı, Arap alfabesinin zor öğrenilmesinden dolayı okuma yazma oranının düşük olduğu gibi nedenlerle dilimizdeki ünlülerin hepsinin yazılması yoluna giden; basım işlerinin ve okumayı kolaylaştırmaya yönelik ıslah çalışmaları yapılmıştır.135 Arap alfabesi bugün İran’da yaşayan Güney Azerbaycanlılar ve Doğu Türkistan’da yaşayan Uygur Türkleri tarafından kullanılmaktadır. Aziz Cyrill e kardeşi Methodius tarafından IX. yüzyılda Grek alfabesinden oluşturulan Kiril alfabesi136 Türk dünyasında Çuvaş ve Yakut Türkleri tarafından XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren kullanılmaya başlanmıştı. Diğer Türk halkları ise Arap alfabesini kullanmaya devam etmekteydiler. Arap alfabesinin ıslah edilmesi fikrinin dillendirilmeye başlandığı XIX. yüzyılda Arap alfabesinin yanı sıra Kiril veya Latin alfabesine geçilmesini savunan aydınların sayısı az değildir. Sait Halfin, Mirza Kazem Bek, İbray Altınsarin, Çokan Velihanov ve başka Türk aydınlarının yanı sıra P. M. Melioranski, N. İ. İlminski ve S. E. Malov gibi Rus bilim adamları tarafından bu düşünce desteklenmektedir.137 XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine kadar Rusya Müslümanları ve Osmanlı aydınları Arap alfabesinin ıslahı üzerine tartışırken 26 Şubat-6 Mart 1926 tarihleri arasında Bakü Türkoloji kongresi toplanmıştır. Burada görüşülen konulardan birisi de alfabe meselesidir. Türk Dünyasından bu kongreye katılan aydınların çoğu Latin alfabesine geçilmesi fikrinde birleşmişler, Tataristan delegasyonundan olan Alimcan İbrahim Arap alfabesinin muhafaza edilmesini savunmuştur.138 Ama kongrenin sonunda bütün Türk halklarının Latin alfabesine geçmesi kararı alınmıştır. Ancak Türk halklarının Latin alfabesini kullanmaları çok kısa sürecektir. 22 Haziran 1938 yılında SSCB’de çıkarılan bir kararla SSCB’deki Türk topluluklarının tamamen Rus Kiril alfabesinin kullanılması kararı alınmıştır.139 Bu kararın alınmasının ardından Azeri, Tatar, Yakut, Hakas 1939; Kazak, Kırgız, Başkurt, Karakalpak, Özbek 1940; Tuva 1943; Gagavuz Türkleri 1957 yılında Kiril alfabesiyle yazmaya başlamışlardır. Bugün Çuvaş, Yakut, Altay, Hakas, Şor, Tuva, Nogay, Kumuk, Karaçay-Balkar, Karakalpak, Kazakistan, Kırgızistan, Başkurdistan, Tataristan Türk cumhuriyetleri Kiril alfabesini kullanmaktadırlar. Latin alfabesinin en eski metinleri M. Ö. VII-VI. yüzyıllara ait olup Grek alfabesinden geliştiği fikri ağır basmaktadır. Latin alfabesi Türkler tarafından ilk defa XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğine rastlar. Ama Türkçenin Latin alfabesiyle yazılan ilk eseri 1303 yılında Fransiskan rahipleri tarafından yazıya geçirilen Codeks Cumanikus’dur.140 Bu eserden sonra yazılan Latin alfabeli Türkçe metinler de vardır. Macar Johann Schildtberger Ankara savaşında Aksak Timura esir düşmüş ve esaretin sonunda gezi notlarını yayınladığı eserinin arkasına Hristiyan Tatarlardan derlediği düşünülen Tatarca dua metninin transkripsiyonunu yazmıştır. Georgius adlı bir Macar esiri de 1481’de yazdığı Tractatus de moribus, conditionibus et nequitia Turcorum adlı eserde, aralarında Yunus Emre’nin manzumelerinin de bulunduğu Türkçe şiirler yazmıştır. 141 Bunlardan başka Türkçenin öğretilmesi amacıyla Batılı Türkologlar tarafından yazılmış kısa gramerler yazmışlardır. Filippo 135 Arap alfabesinin ıslahıyla ilgili pek çok çalışma yapılmıştır. Bunlarla ilgili geniş bilgi için şu eserlere bakılabilir: Hatice Şirin User, age.; Bilal Şimşir, Türk Yazı Devrimi, Ankara 1992; M. Şakir Ülkütaşır, Atatürk ve Harf Devrimi, TDK Yay., Ankara 1973; A. S. Levend, Türk Dilinde Sadeleşme ve Gelişme Evreleri, Ankara 1972; Fevziye Abdullah Tansel, “Arap Harflerinin Islahı ve Değiştirilmesi Hakkında İlk Teşebbüsler ve Neticeleri (1862-1884)”, TTK- Belleten 1953, c. XVII, Ankara 1950; Mustafa Öner, “Ortak Türk Alfabesi” Hakkında Bazı Notlar”, Yeni Türkiye, Türk Dünyası Özel sayısı I, Mayıs-Haziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 207-233; Mustafa Öner, “I. Bakû Türkoloji Kongresinde İdil-Ural Türkleri”: 1926 Bakû Türkoloji Kongresi’nin 70. Yıl Dönümü Toplantısı, TDK Yay., Ankara 1999, 13-25.s.; Mustafa Öner, “Islah Edilmiş Tatar Alfabesi ve Huca Bediî’nin Derlediği Tatar Ata Sözleri”, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Araştırmaları Dergisi X (Üzbek Bayçura Özel Sayısı), Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fak. Yay., İzmir 2001, 213-313.s.; Mustafa Altun, “Alfabe Değişiminin Tarihsel Gelişimi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, Cumhuriyetimizin 81. Yılına Armağan, (Editör: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Enis Şahin), Sakarya Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılâp Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Müdürlüğü, Adapazarı, Aralık 2004, 57-63. s.; Ümit Özgür Demirci, “Arap Harfli Özbekçenin İmla Özellikleri”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_ozbekce_imla_ozellikleri.pdf; Ümit Özgür Demirci “Türk Dünyasında Arap Harflerinin Islah Edilmesi ve Latin Harflerine Geçiş Tartışmaları”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_harf.pdf; Mehmet Kutalmış, "Tarihte ve Günümüzde Kazakistan'ın Alfabe Meselesi", Bilig, Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2004, 1-21. s.; 1926 Bakü Türkoloji Kurultayı Tutanakları, (Çev: Kâmil Veli Nerimanoğlu, Mustafa Öner), TDK Yay., Ankara 2008. 136 Hatice Şirin User, age., 143. s. 137 Hatice Şirin User, age., 149. s. 138 Mustafa Öner, “Bakû Türkoloji Kongresinde İdil Ural Türkleri”, Sanal Türkoloji Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2 Ocak 1999, 5. s. 139 Hatice Şirin User, age., 153. s. 140 Talat Tekin, “Avrupalılar ve Türkçenin Latin harfleriyle Yazımı”, Türk Dili, Kasım 1978, S. 326, 590-594. s.; Annemarie von Gabain, “Codex Cumanicus’un Dili” (çev. Mehmet Akalın): Tarihî Türk Şiveleri, Ankara 1988, 67-109.s. 141 Hatice Şirin User, age., 361. s. 367 �Argenti tarafından 1533’ te yazılan Regola del parlare turcho’ adlı eser Osmanlı Türkçesinin öğretilmesi amacıyla yazılmış bir kılavuzdur. Guillaume Postel 1522’de De la République des Turcs adlı eserini yazmış; esere 1575’te “Instruction des mots de la langue turquesque les plus communs” başlıklı bölümü eklemiştir. Türkçenin öğretimi için hazırlanan bu ekte, Türkçe sözlerin Latin harflerine transkripsiyonu da bulunmaktadır. 1611’de İtalyan Cizvit papazlarından Pietro Ferraguto, Grammatica turchesca adlı Türkçe gramer kitabını yazmıştır. 1612’de, yine bir papaz olan Hieronymus Megiser Leipzig’de Institutionum linguae turcicae libri quatuor adındaki Türkçe gramer kitabını yayımlar.142 Türkçenin Latin alfabesiyle yazıldığı örnekler, Türk aydınlarını Arap alfabesinin yerine Latin alfabesinin kullanılabileceği fikrine götürmüştür. Latin alfabesinin Türkler arasında kabul edilmesi süreci Türk Dünyası için iki farklı yolla olmuştur. Bunlardan birincisi SSCB’nin, Rusya Müslümanları ve Osmanlı Devleti arasında önemli bir kültür bağı sağlayan Arap alfabesinin değiştirilerek yazı birliğini Rusya Türkleri lehine değiştirme siyasetidir. Bu nedenledir ki Stalin 1926 Bakû Türkoloji Kurultayında alınan “Latin alfabesine geçişin her cumhuriyetin kendi iç işidir” sonucuna varılmasını desteklemiştir. Türk halkları açısından da bu karar, toplu olarak Latin alfabesine geçiş hem yazı birliğini koruyacak hem de eğitimi kolaylaştırarak okuma yazma oranın artmasına katkı sağlayacaktı. Bu sayede Rusya Müslümanlarının çağdaşlaşması da mümkün olacaktı. İkinci yol ise Osmanlı Devletinin yıkılması sonucu her yönüyle yeni ve modern bir devlet oluşturma çabalarıdır. Diğer bir nedeni de toplu olarak Latine geçen Türk Dünyası ile ortak alfabeyi sağlama düşüncesidir. Bakû kurultayının ardından 11 Mayıs 1927’de Yeni Alfabe Bütün Birlik Merkez komitesi kurulur.143 Tüm Türk halklarının ortak bir alfabe oluşturma çalışmaları için her cumhuriyetten temsilciler seçilir ve alfabe projeleri yapılır. 34 işaretten oluşan ortak Türk-Latin alfabesine geçiş süreci 1945 yılına kadar tamamlanacaktır. Ama durum hiç de öyle olmaz Stalin yönetimi daha 1938 yılından itibaren her Türk halkına farklı olacak şekilde Kiril alfabeleri hazırlatmaya başlar. Yakutlar tarafından 1917 yılından beri kullanılmaya başlanan Latin alfabesinin Rusya Türkleri arasında kullanılması, 1938’de başlayan Kirilleştirme süreciyle son bulmuştur. Bu kısa süre içinde: Yakut 1917-1939; Azerbaycan 1922-1938; Hakas 1229-1939; Şor 1930-1939; Gagavuz 1932-1957; Türkmen 1928-1940; Kırım 1929-1938; Nogay 1928-1938; Kumuk 1928-1938, Karaçay-Balkar 1924-1936; Karakalpak 1928-1940; Kazakistan 1929-1940; Kırgızistan 1928-1940; Başkurt 1928-1940; Tatar 1927-1939; Özbek 1930-1940 yılları arasında Latin alfabesiyle yazmışlardır. Bu Türk Cumhuriyetlerinin bazıları 1991’de tekrar bağımsızlıklarını kazandıktan sonra yeniden Latin alfabesine geçmişlerdir. Bugün Azerbaycan, Gagavuz, Kırım, Türkmen, Özbek Türkleri 1991 yılında Marmara Üniversitesinde yapılan Alfabe toplantısının da etkisiyle Latin alfabesine geçmişlerdir. Latin alfabesine geçmek isteyip de geçemeyen Tataristan Özerk Cumhuriyeti Rusya’nın baskısıyla karşı karşıyadır. Bugün Kazakistan’da Latin alfabesine geçiş çalışmaları sürdürülmekte, bu konuda Türkiye’nin de tecrübelerinden yaralanmak için Kazak ve Türk bilim adamları 11-15 Haziran 2007 tarihleri arasında Türk Dil Kurumunda bir toplantı yapmışlardır. Türkler bugüne kadar ister ticarî ister dinî amaçla veya siyasî dayatma sonucu olsun pek çok alfabe kullanmıştır. Ama bunların arasında Türklerin yaratması olan Köktürk İşaretleri ile modern ve çağdaş bir ulus yaratma endişeleriyle kullanılan Latin alfabesi hepsin farklı bir yere sahiptir. Kaynakça 1926 Bakü Türkoloji Kurultayı Tutanakları, (Çev: Kâmil Veli Nerimanoğlu, Mustafa Öner), TDK Yay., Ankara 2008 Açıkgöz, Namık, “Türklerin Kullandığı Alfabelerden Göktürk Alfabesi”, Yeni Türkiye, Mayıs-Haziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 236. s. Altun, Mustafa, “Alfabe Değişiminin Tarihsel Gelişimi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme”, Cumhuriyetimizin 81. Yılına Armağan, (Editör: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Enis Şahin), Sakarya Üniversitesi Rektörlüğü Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılâp Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Müdürlüğü, Adapazarı, Aralık 2004, 57-63. s. Caferoğlu, Ahmet, Türk Dili Tarihi I-II, Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul 1984. 120. s. Demirci, Ümit Özgür, “Arap Harfli Özbekçenin İmla Özellikleri”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_ozbekce_imla_ozellikleri. pdf. 142 Hatice Şirin User, age., 362-363. s. Ayrıca buraya alamadığımız diğer gramer kitaplar ve sözlükler hakkında geniş bilgi için aynı eserin 1116. dipnota bakılabilir. 143 Hatice Şirin User, age., 364. s. 368 �Demirci, Ümit Özgür, “Türk Dünyasında Arap Harflerinin Islah Edilmesi ve Latin Harflerine Geçiş Tartışmaları”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/CAGDAS%20TURK%20LEHCELERI/umit_ozgur_demirci_harf.pdf. Diyarbekirli, Nejat, “Kazakistan'da Bulunan Esik Kurganı", Cumhuriyetin 50. Yılına Armağan, Edebiyat Fakültesi, İstanbul 1973, 291-304. s. Doğan, İsmail, Doğu Avrupadaki Göktürk (Runik) İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2002. Doğan, İsmail, Kafkasyadaki Göktürk Runik İşaretli Yazıtlar, TDK Yay., Ankara 2000. Ercialsun, Ahmet Bican, Türk Dili Tarihi, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2005, 169. s. Kutalmış, Mehmet, "Tarihte ve Günümüzde Kazakistan'ın Alfabe Meselesi", Bilig, Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2004, 1-21. s. Levend, Agah Sırrı, Türk Dilinde Sadeleşme ve Gelişme Evreleri, Ankara 1972 Öner, Mustafa, “I. Bakû Türkoloji Kongresinde İdil-Ural Türkleri”: 1926 Bakû Türkoloji Kongresi’nin 70. Yıl Dönümü Toplantısı, TDK Yay., Ankara 1999, 13-25.s. Öner, Mustafa, “Islah Edilmiş Tatar Alfabesi ve Huca Bediî’nin Derlediği Tatar Ata Sözleri”, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Araştırmaları Dergisi X (Üzbek Bayçura Özel Sayısı), Ege Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fak. Yay., İzmir 2001, 213-313.s. Öner, Mustafa, “Ortak Türk Alfabesi Hakkında Bazı Notlar”, Yeni Türkiye, Türk Dünyası Özel sayısı I, MayısHaziran 1997, yıl 3, sayı 15, 207-233. s. Şimşir, Bilal, Türk Yazı Devrimi, Ankara 1992 Tansel, Fevziye Abdullah, “Arap Harflerinin Islahı ve Değiştirilmesi Hakkında İlk Teşebbüsler ve Neticeleri (1862-1884)”, TTK- Belleten 1953, c. XVII, Ankara 1950 Tekin, Şinasi, “Mani Dininin Uygurlar Tarafından Devlet Dini Olarak Kabul Edilişinin 1200. Yıldönümü Dolayı İle Birkaç Not (762-1962)”, TDAY-B 1962, 6. s. Tekin, Talat, Irk Bitig Eski Uygurca Fal Kitabı, Öncü Kitap, Ankara 2004. Tezcan, Semih, “En Eski Türk Dili ve Yazını”, Bilim, Kültür ve Öğretim Dili Olarak Türkçe, Ankara 1994, 277; 283. s. Thomsen, V., Orhon ve Yenisey Yazıtlarının Çözümü İlk Bildiri, (Çev: Vedat Köken), TDK Yay., Ankara 1993, 49-55. s. User, Hatice Şirin, Başlangıcından Günümüze Türk Yazı Sistemleri, Akçağ Yay., Ankara 2006. Ülkütaşır, M. Şakir, Atatürk ve Harf Devrimi, TDK Yay., Ankara 1973 369 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 412 Title A name given to the resource Geçmişten Günümüze Türk Dünyasında Alfabe Gelişimi Author Author KARTALCIK, Vedat Abstract A summary of the resource. Türklerin metinlerle belgelenebilen tarihte kullandıkları ilk alfabe Köktürk işaretleridir. Köktürklerin Ötükendeki hâkimiyetleri sona erdikten sonra, Uygurlar döneminde farklı dinleri kabul eden Türk toplulukları tarafından Mani, Soğut, Uygur, Süryani, İbrani alfabeleri; Brahmi, Tibet yazıları gibi farklı alfabe ve yazı sistemleri kullanılmıştır. Grek alfabesi de Hristiyan Türkler ile misyoner rahip ve tüccarlar tarafından Türkçenin yazımında kullanılmıştır. X. yüzyılda İslâmı kabul eden Türkler uzun bir süre Arap alfabesini kullanmışlardır. 19. yüzyılda başlayan yenileşme hareketleriyle birlikte, Arap alfabesinin Türkçe sesleri karşılamada yetersiz kaldığı ve başka gerekçelerle Arap alfabesinin ıslah edilmesi gerektiği fikri tüm Türk dünyasında dile getirilmeye başlamıştır. XX. yüzyılın başında neredeyse çeyrek asırlık bir sürede Türk dünyası alfabe ıslahı ve yeni bir alfabe kabulü meselesi üzerinde durmuş, bu konuyla ilgili kurultaylar düzenlemiştir Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b270df1040d772c989a394a31b1e5f39.pdf 2127774f8b3f3bbd2552e19245c58780 PDF Text Text The Comparison of Vocational Colleges Located Both in City Center and In a Town in Erzurum Region in Terms of Teaching Process M. Dursun KAYA Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum/Turkey dursun@atauni.edu.tr Y.Ziya AYIK Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum/Turkey ziyaayik@atauni.edu.tr A.Samet HAŞILOĞLU Atatürk University, Faculty of Enginnering, Department of Computer Engineering Erzurum/Turkey asamet@atauni.edu.tr Reşat KARCIOĞLU Atatürk University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Erzurum/Turkey rkarci@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: At each academic somestry, by means of the questionnaries applied to the students, the effectiveness and quality of teaching-learning carried out high education are determined and it is determined that how efficient a lesson is taught. By means of the answers given for questionnaries by students, their real ideal or thoughts about lessons are determined and, besides their contributions of the lecturers who carry out the lesson., the thoughts of administers contribute to the teaching and training in that somestry. In this respect, the data of questionnarie applied to the students of vocational college in campus and that of in the town were obtained. 30 questions are asked in questionnarie. The answer given for these questions were applied as factor analysis in SPSS programme, and the organization and planning of the lesson were evaluated as in various factors such as learning from the lesson of the students and lesson, examination and evaluation, and relationshipof training and teaching, the skills of communication, clearness and planning of the lesson. In addition, the ansver given by two different vocational college students were analaysed, and the distriction between them was found and the results obtained were interprated as regards lecturer’s prophile and two different vocational college students. Keywords: Assessment form of teaching process, factor analysis, the students of vocational college Introduction One of the methods determining the quality and efficiency of teaching-learning carried out higher education is to determine how to lesson is performed effectively by means of answers for questionnaires given to students at the end of each academic semester. The ideas indicating friendly thoughts of the students about the lessons they received 61 �by means of this method are one of the guiding elements about lectures in the decisions of the managers as well as contributing to the development of teaching-learning methods and lessons which were given by lecturers (Pamuk, 2005, Simmons, 1996, Noonan & Wold, 1983, Soerjaningsih et al., 2001). Various types of questionnaires as to evaluation of teaching process can be held. For instance, as questionnaires about the lecturer will be prepared, the questionnaires oriented to the students used in this study can also be prepared. In the questionnaires carried out with the aim of assessment of teaching process, there are thirty questions. In the result of a similar study made by (Braskamp & Ory, 1994, Centra, 1993) although they found six different results, in our study, we planned to investigate whether how many of different factors were found by practicing the same evaluation form for two different vocational colleges (Centra et al., 1993, Yamamoto, 1963, Coats, 1972). In this respect, with the application of a questionnaire where thirty questions take the place in teaching process evaluation form, in our study we obtained two new variables for Vocational Colleges of Aşkale and four new variable for Vocational Colleges of Erzurum. The most important agent in preference of factor analysis technique, in the direction of thriftiness principle, is that a context reticulated from a number of solid variables turned into a context reticulated from a small number of abstract variables and that it make comprehension and the explanation easy. In other words, factor analysis is multivariety statistics which aims the discover and finding out new variables which are significant concept by bringing a great number of variables together (Büyüköztürk, 2008, Kalaycı, 2006, Tatlıdil, 1992). Material and Method Evaluation form of teaching process was applied to the students attending to education in Vocational Colleges of Aşkale and Vocational Colleges of Erzurum of Atatürk University. Factor analysis was applied to data set consisting of the responds given for evaluation form of teaching process by students attending to different departments of these both vocational colleges by using SPSS statistical packet program. In the result of the analysis applied to Vocational College of Erzurum, four different factors were obtained while that of applied to Vocational Colleges of Aşkale was obtained two different factors. Factor analysis provides the interpretation of the structure of variance-covariance of variables sets by means of linear components of variables by explaining with a small number factors. For this reason, correlation matrix was first obtained. Of initial eigen values counted for Vocational College of Erzurum, four factors which are over one were found out. While four factors obtained for Vocational College of Erzurum explain 61.72% of total variance, it is observed that two factors obtained for Vocational College of Aşkale explain 66.56% of total variance (Tab. 2 and 3). Findings and Discussions In our study, 2325 teaching process evaluation form questionnaires as to lessons and the lecturers who give these lessons were applied to the students attending to three different departments of Vocational College of Erzurum. 871 teaching process evaluation form questionnaires as to lessons and lecturers who give these lessons were applied to the students attending to two different departments of Vocational College of Aşkale. Thirty questions were asked in the questionnaire about the lessons and their references and with the aim of determining the quality of teachinglearning (Tab. 1). 62 �Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19 Q20 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Q27 Q28 Q29 Q30 The purpose of this course is presented by the lecturer at the beginning of semester The lecturer is telling the course in whole heartedly The list of the preference is given at the start of the semester Educational tools and objects are used in the lesson The subjects planned at the beginning of the semester are being given Before lesson, the objective of the course is explained by lecturer I am being directed to investigate in this lesson My active participation in this lesson is provided I acquired promising knowledge in this course The lecturer is using lesson’s duration for the purpose of the lesson I think this knowledge will be useful for me The lecturer is performing the course successfully The lecturer is giving lesson by using various methods The lecturer can draw student’s attentions towards the lesson The lecturer admire positive behaviors of the students The lecturer can use body language effectively during the lesson The lecturer has been using clear understandable language The lecturer can give answers to the questions of the students The lecturer has been behaving to everybody equally The lecturer has been criticizing the errors of the students without breaking their honors The lecturer has been accepting the criticize with a positively manner The lecturer can communicate a healthy relations with his/her students during lesson The examination questions of this course have included all the subjects told before The examination questions of this course have been asked clearly and understandably The examination questions of this course have a teaching quality I have been receiving the mark I have expected from this lesson’s examinations The lecturer has been evaluating the activities such as homework, project, etc. about the lesson The lecturer has been giving the mark impartially The examination questions of this lesson can distinguish the literate from illiterate The lecturer can provide me the opportunity to examine my own examination paper Table 1: Teaching process evaluation form The study, the factors were determined according to principal component methods, and the most important basic component number according to Caiser criterion is four for Vocational College of Erzurum and two for Vocational College of Aşkale. The variances of basic component are bigger than 1. By accepting that factor number will be as much as basic component number, four factors for Vocational College of Erzurum and two factors for Vocational College of Aşkale were obtained. The most important stage as regards the research of factor analysis is to name the factors obtained and to mean them. 63 �Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Total 14,757 1,532 1,193 1,035 ,909 ,746 ,688 ,591 ,573 ,547 ,524 ,499 ,489 ,477 ,439 ,432 ,416 ,400 ,394 ,393 ,358 ,348 ,328 ,316 ,297 ,289 ,278 ,270 ,247 ,235 Initial Eigen values % of Variance Cumulative % 49,190 49,190 5,105 54,295 3,977 58,271 3,451 61,723 3,030 64,752 2,488 67,240 2,292 69,532 1,970 71,502 1,912 73,414 1,824 75,238 1,748 76,985 1,664 78,649 1,632 80,281 1,590 81,870 1,462 83,332 1,439 84,771 1,386 86,158 1,332 87,490 1,313 88,803 1,309 90,112 1,193 91,305 1,162 92,466 1,094 93,560 1,053 94,614 ,989 95,603 ,963 96,566 ,925 97,491 ,900 98,391 ,825 99,215 ,785 100,000 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % 5,264 17,547 17,547 5,088 16,959 34,507 4,565 15,215 49,722 3,600 12,001 61,723 Table 2: Total variance counted for Vocational College of Erzurum Four different factors obtained for Vocational College of Erzurum are named as “the method of making lesson of lecturer and organizing of it”, “the relationship of student-the lecturer”, “transparency of the lecturer against students and equal behavior communication skills with them” and “the references used in the lesson and planning of the course” respectively (Tab. 4). Two factors obtained for Vocational College of Aşkale are respectively “type of performing of the lesson and the references used in the lesson”, and “communicating with the students by the lecturers and behaving equally”. 64 �Component 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Total 18,637 1,331 ,876 ,822 ,713 ,626 ,567 ,540 ,453 ,441 ,400 ,380 ,348 ,320 ,315 ,285 ,279 ,264 ,251 ,249 ,235 ,234 ,215 ,209 ,191 ,184 ,174 ,163 ,160 ,139 Initial Eigen values % of Variance Cumulative % 62,123 62,123 4,435 66,559 2,921 69,480 2,741 72,221 2,376 74,597 2,086 76,683 1,891 78,574 1,801 80,376 1,511 81,887 1,470 83,356 1,333 84,689 1,267 85,956 1,160 87,116 1,065 88,181 1,051 89,232 ,950 90,182 ,930 91,112 ,880 91,992 ,837 92,830 ,828 93,658 ,783 94,441 ,778 95,220 ,718 95,938 ,695 96,633 ,635 97,268 ,613 97,881 ,578 98,460 ,543 99,003 ,532 99,535 ,465 100,000 Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % 10,537 35,125 35,125 9,430 31,434 66,559 Table 3: Total variance counted for Vocational College of Aşkale The factors obtained from factor analysis cariied out orienting to the questions in (Tab. 1) and seen in (Tab. 2) when (Tab. 4) is examined for Vocational College of Erzurum, while the questions of Q14, Q16, Q22, Q13, Q8, Q15, Q12, Q21, Q18, and Q9 were in the factors “the relationship of student-the lecturer”, and the question of Q5, Q10, Q11, Q24, Q23, Q1, Q17, Q2, and Q25 were in the factor of “the performing method of the lesson by the lecturer”, and the question of Q28, Q29, Q26, Q30, Q19, Q20, and Q27 were in the factor of “method of transparency of the lecturer against the students and behaving equal and the skills of communicating with them”, the question of Q4, Q7 , Q3, and Q6 were named as the factor called as “the references used in the lesson and planning of the course”. For Vocational College of Aşkale, the questions of Q9, Q6, Q5, Q3, Q12, Q11, Q8, Q4, Q2, Q1, Q10, Q7, Q14, Q13, Q15, Q16, Q18, and Q17 were in the factor of “the tyğe of performing of the lesson and the references used in the lesson”, and the question of Q28, Q26, Q29, Q30, Q25, Q23, Q21, Q24, Q22, Q27, Q20, and Q19 were named as the factor of “communicating with students of the lecturer during lesson and behaving them equally”. The variables which affect mostly the factor of “relationship of students-lecturer which is the first factor obtained from our study for Vocational College of Erzurum are questions such as “the lecturer can draw student’s attention towards the lesson”, “the lecture can use body language effectively during lesson” and “the lecturer can contact with a health communication with the students during lesson” respectively. The variables which affect mostly the second factor are questions, such as “the subjects planned at the beginning of the semester are being giving in the lesson”, “the lecturer use the duration of the lesson appropriately to the aim of lesson”, “the knowledge I learned from this lesson will be useful for me”. The variable which affects mostly the third factor is the question such as “the lecturer gives the mark impartially”, and the variable which affects mostly the fourth factor is the question of “the lecturer use tool and material of teaching at lesson”. 65 �Vocational College of Aşkale Vocational College of Erzurum Q14 Q16 Q22 Q13 Q15 Q21 Q8 Q20 Q5 Q10 Q11 Q24 Q1 Q12 Q17 Q23 Q18 Q25 Q2 Q28 Q26 Q29 Q30 Q19 Q4 Q7 Q3 Q27 Q6 Q9 1 ,694 ,662 ,651 ,607 ,587 ,585 ,563 ,550 ,152 ,270 ,239 ,214 ,169 ,539 ,481 ,204 ,509 ,237 ,445 ,270 ,194 ,172 ,237 ,402 ,058 ,423 ,195 ,262 ,351 ,417 Component 2 3 ,263 ,214 ,245 ,214 ,325 ,406 ,198 ,203 ,228 ,402 ,267 ,482 ,261 ,187 ,238 ,488 ,206 ,703 ,239 ,650 ,150 ,598 ,489 ,554 ,156 ,552 ,220 ,549 ,303 ,548 ,499 ,542 ,297 ,528 ,474 ,512 ,193 ,508 ,314 ,715 ,269 ,657 ,310 ,647 ,040 ,616 ,365 ,571 ,176 ,145 ,134 ,220 ,377 ,164 ,071 ,500 ,434 ,191 ,447 ,161 4 ,362 ,254 ,125 ,465 ,219 ,120 ,468 ,033 ,271 ,105 ,325 ,118 ,384 ,240 ,107 ,020 ,155 ,282 ,264 ,120 ,278 ,269 ,259 ,062 ,748 ,658 ,608 ,512 ,478 ,457 Q9 Q6 Q5 Q3 Q12 Q11 Q8 Q4 Q2 Q1 Q10 Q7 Q14 Q13 Q15 Q16 Q18 Q17 Q28 Q26 Q29 Q30 Q25 Q23 Q21 Q24 Q22 Q27 Q20 Q19 Component 1 2 ,386 ,747 ,385 ,738 ,334 ,733 ,344 ,731 ,447 ,730 ,350 ,727 ,424 ,725 ,264 ,712 ,414 ,695 ,387 ,692 ,377 ,690 ,405 ,669 ,524 ,668 ,483 ,657 ,507 ,656 ,561 ,599 ,581 ,590 ,578 ,587 ,325 ,776 ,307 ,764 ,352 ,743 ,279 ,719 ,467 ,708 ,395 ,705 ,442 ,693 ,434 ,692 ,463 ,688 ,444 ,681 ,439 ,653 ,510 ,613 Table 4. Rotated component matrix For Vocational College of Aşkale, the variables which affect mostly the factor of “type of performing of lesson and the references used in lesson” are the questions such as “I acquired promising knowledge in this lesson”, “the goals of the lesson are being explained by lecturer before lesson” and “the subjects planned at the beginning of the term are being given in this lesson”. The questions such as “the lecturer gives the mark impartially”, “I have been receiving the mark I expect from the examination of this lesson” and “the questions of this lesson can distinguish the literate from illiterate” were found as variables which affect the factor of “contact with communication with the students of the lecturer during lesson” and “behaving equally to them”. 66 �Conclusions Thirty questions along with teaching process evaluation form orienting to the determination of the number and type of the ideas of the students about the lecturers were asked and these questions were included in factor analysis. In the result of factor analysis carried out, while four factors were obtained from the answers given by students of Vocational College of Erzurum, two factors were obtained from the answers given by the students of Vocational College of Aşkale to the same questions. While 17.55% of total changing for Vocational College of Erzurum indicates as first “the method of performing of the lesson by lecturer and organizing the lesson”, 35.13% of total changing for Vocational College of Aşkale indicates as the factor of “the type of lesson’s presentation and the references used in lesson”. It was found out that four factors explained 61.72% of total variance for Vocational College of Erzurum, and that two factors explained 66.56% of total variance for Vocational College of Aşkale. When the number of factors was taken into consideration, the students of Vocational College of Erzurum assessed the lecturer with more factors than those of Vocational College of Aşkale. The students of Vocational College of Erzurum stated their ideas about the matters relating to administrative decisions orienting to make changing in the method of giving lesson by lecturers and personal features or effectiveness of their lesson presentation. The students of Vocational College of Aşkale named 30 questions as two factors, and they make some narrower comprehensive assessments about the decisions taken by some administrators so that they will be oriented to the lecturer. While teaching process education form applied in the end of each academic year at Atatürk University is being applied, thanks to a good timing and by taking not only lecturers but also student’s into account, the process of teaching-learning belonging to that period will be assessed better. In case of mentioned suggestions application, some benefits such as assessment of lessons, rising the quality of teaching-learning, improvement of lecture himself/herself, the content of the lessons they gave, updating of some references and teaching method they applied for will be able to be provided. References Braskamp, O., (1994). Assessing Faculty Work: Enhancing Individual and Institutional Performance, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2008). Sosyal Bilimler için Veri Analizi El Kitabı İstatistik, Araştırma Deseni SPSS Uygulamaları ve Yorum, Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık, Ankara. Cantrell, R.P., Stenner, A.J. & Katzenmeyer, W.G. (1977). Teacher knowledge, attitudes, and classroom teaching correlates of student achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 69, Issue 2, 172-179. Centra, (1993). Reflective Faculty Evaluation: Enhancing Teaching and determining Faculty Effectiveness, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Coats, W.D. & Swierenga, L. (1972). Student Perceptions of Teachers: A Factor Analytic Study. The Journal of Educational Research. Vol. 65, No:8, s. 357-360. Coffman, W.E. (1954). Determining students' concepts of effective teaching from their ratings of instructors. Journal of Educational Psychology, Volume 45, Issue 5, 277-286. Çakar, G.E., Oktar, İ. & Bayraktar, F. (2007). Melsek Yüksekokulu öğrencilerinin öğretim elemanlarının davranışları konusundaki görüşleri, 4. Ulusal Meslek Yüksekokulu Sempozyumu, Ege Üniversitesi, 14-16 Mayıs 2007, Bergamaİzmir, 545-548 http://www.yok.gov.tr/egitim/raporlar/egitimdeger/egitimdeger.html, Öğrencilerin Eğitimi Değerlendirmesi Işık, S., Duman, K., & Korkmaz, A. (2004). Türkiye Ekonomisinde Finansal Krizler: Bir Faktör Analizi Uygulaması. D.E.Ü. İ.İ.B.F.Dergisi, Cilt:19 , Sayı:1, 45-69. Kalaycı, Ş. (2006), SPSS Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistik Teknikler, Asil Yayın Dağıtım. 2. Baskı, 321-331. Noonan, R. & Wold, H. (1983). Evaluating Evaluation in Education, Volume 7, Issue 3, 219-364. school systems using partial least squares Pamuk, M. (2005). Öğrencilerin Öğretim Üyesi Değerlendirmesine Ait Bir Uygulama, İstanbul Üniversitesi İktisat Fakültesi Ekonometri ve İstatistik Dergisi, Sayı. 1, 15-05. 67 �Simmons, T. (1996). Student Evaluation of Teachers, http://www.jalt.org/test/sim_1.htm Soerjaningsih, W., Fraser, B.J. & Aldridge, J.M. (2001). Teacher-Student Interpersonel Behaviour and Student Outcomes Among University Students in Indonesia, Section 1.01, http://www.aare.edu.au /01pap/soe01034.htm Tatlıdil, H. (1992). Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistiksel Analiz, Ankara. Yamamoto, K. (1963). Evaluating teacher effectiveness: A review of research, Journal of School Psychology, Volume 2, Issue 1, 60-71. 68 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 331 Title A name given to the resource The Comparison of Vocational Colleges Located Both in City Center and In a Town in Erzurum Region in Terms of Teaching Process Author Author KAYA, M. Dursun AYIK, Y.Ziya HAŞILOĞLU, A.Samet KARCIOĞLU, Reşat Abstract A summary of the resource. At each academic somestry, by means of the questionnaries applied to the students, the effectiveness and quality of teaching-learning carried out high education are determined and it is determined that how efficient a lesson is taught. By means of the answers given for questionnaries by students, their real ideal or thoughts about lessons are determined and, besides their contributions of the lecturers who carry out the lesson., the thoughts of administers contribute to the teaching and training in that somestry. In this respect, the data of questionnarie applied to the students of vocational college in campus and that of in the town were obtained. 30 questions are asked in questionnarie. The answer given for these questions were applied as factor analysis in SPSS programme, and the organization and planning of the lesson were evaluated as in various factors such as learning from the lesson of the students and lesson, examination and evaluation, and relationshipof training and teaching, the skills of communication, clearness and planning of the lesson. In addition, the ansver given by two different vocational college students were analaysed, and the distriction between them was found and the results obtained were interprated as regards lecturer’s prophile and two different vocational college students. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8370bff307832fd64df1895e04975748.pdf a7f59b81c223e367d565846ff59c51e4 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A Research on Updating of Anthropometric Measurements M. Dursun KAY A Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum, Turkey dursun@atauni.edu.tr Đsmail MAL K O Ç Atatürk University, Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Erzurum, Turkey imalkoc@atauni.edu.tr Os man ERD O Ğ A N Management of National Education, Erzurum, Turkey osman124512 @hotmail.com Aslı KARA Center of Public Health of Yakutiye, Erzurum, Turkey dr.aslikara@hotmail.com Hakkı YELŞĐYURT Ministry of Health, Ankara hyesil62@hotmail.com Abstract: By considering the dimensional measurements of the students who spend most of their time at school, the fact that their body and structural equipment haven’t been designed will affect their body and psychological improvements negatively. Anthropometric measurements are necessary for education equipment and designs of education-structural equipment of the children at the age of school. It is emphasized that anthropometric measurements of the people living in different climate and altitude conditions in literature will be different. It is mentioned that anthropometric data available for a certain region will be able to change in terms of changing socio-economical conditions and therefore, updating of anthropometric data is necessary in certain in period of times. For the reason, in 1999 anthropometric data obtained from the children, between the age of seven and fifteen, who were in sitting and standing position, were measured to plan a longitudinal study in 2007. In the result of comparison which was made, as reported in literature, it is clear that anthropometric data will be able to be updated in certain period of times. Keywords: anthropometric measurement, primary school students, longitudinal Introduction Anthropometric measurements are essentialinthe correct designs of ergonomic business areas. Obtaining of anthropometric data is very significant in terms of growing and shaping of body posture regularly of the children who spend most of theirtime sitting in the desks and on the chairs (Jeong and Park, 1990, Floyd, and Roberts, 1958, Oxford, 1969). The factthatthe chairs and desks were designed appropriately and in a functional way according to the physical structure of the user made the design of equipment for school significant. Therefore,itis necessary that different changes and relations among body dimensions should be known (Kayış & Özok, 1986, Mandal, 1982,). First of all, Ergonomist’s duty is to determine the features of the product to be used in the design of the equipment produced with mass production and then isto provide the usage of the objectsincluding fixed things which will be benefited in the design by anthropometry (Hira, 1980, Floyd & Word, 1969). Firstly, it is necessary to obtain anthropometric measurements for the design of certain products. It is emphasized that anthropometric data of the people living in different altitude and climate conditions willbe separate (Yip et 189 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo al., 1988). Also, itis mentioned that anthropometric data obtained for a certain region will change within the time in terms of changing socio-economical conditions and therefore, updating of anthropometric measurements made in the studies before at every five yearsis necessary. In this study, anthropometric measurements obtained by using Phesant measurements method (Tab. 1)in 1999 were obtained again by using the same method in 2007 and these data compared by updating as Yip and their colleagues suggested (Phesant, 1988). Variable Eye Height Elbow height Shoulder breadth Buttock-knee length Corresponding measurement in Pheasant (1988) Method of Measurement 2 Vertical distance from the floor to the inner canthus (corner) of the eye. 4 Vertical distance from the floor to the radiale 18 Horizontal distance across the shoulders measured between the acromia (bony points) 13 Horizontal distance from the back of the uncompressed buttock to the front of the kneecap Table 1: List of anthropometric variables and methods of measurement. Material and Method In this study,in 1999 in Erzurum province,the altitude of which is 2000 meters (medium altitude), 1408 students, 694 of whom are male, and in 2007 1477 students, 732 of whom are male, were included in the research by stratified sampling method (Kaya et al.,2000a,Kaya et al.,2000b, Kaya et al.,2003). These children were evaluated with regard to four different anthropometric measurements in both studying periods. These anthropometric measurements included the height of eye and elbow at standing position,the width of shoulder and leg and knee distance. Allthe studentsincluded in the study were examined regarding general health control by pediatrician. Any chronic and systemic cases which will be able to affect anthropometric measurements weren’t included in the study. The students whose families have monthly incomes above minimum living conditions according to State Statistics Institute’s economical indications were included in the study in every both periods (1999 and 2007 years). Harpenden Anthropometer device was used for allthe measurements. The anthropometer was calibrated withthe accuracy of 0.05 cm. During the measurements,the children were barefooted and lightly clothed. Allthe measurements weretaken between 8 and 12 o’clock every in the morning to prevent within day variabilityin the measurements (Kayis, 1987,Kaya et al., 2003). The studentsincluded inthe study were divided into groups interms of age and sex in every both periods. The data obtained were evaluated statistically in both among themselves and among the groups. SPSS statistical packet programme was used for statistical analysis. Findings According to age and sex, description and statistical analyses of anhropometric measurements belonging to female and male students in 1999’s and 2007’s were shown in (Tab. 2 and 3). According to this it was determined that anthropometric measurements according to age and sex of cases evaluated in 1999’s and 2007 are increased. Anthropometric measurements obtained in every both periods were compared according to age and sex. When (Tab. 2) was examined, for example,it was found thatthere was a significant difference among the heights of elbow values at standing position of male students, 8 years old, in 1999’s and 2007’s (t=-4.29, p<0.001). While anthropometric measurements of the heights of elbow at standing position of the female students, 8 years old, was 72.38 ± 4.26 in (Tab. 3) in 1999, it was found to be 74.67 ± 3.02 in 2007 and the comparison of these two values was quite significant (t=-3.97, p<0.001).In every both periods,the comparison of anthropometric measurements obtained among their kinds ofthe students at same age of group was shown in (Tab. 2 and 3). 190 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Anthropometric measurements Eye Height Elbow height Shoulder breadth Buttock-knee length Age 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 n 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 71 73 81 76 78 80 81 76 78 1999 Year Mean ± SD 108.43 ± 4.57 112.52 ± 6.16 118.02 ± 5.55 122.80 ± 5.45 129.87 ± 5.07 134.84 ± 3.63 139.58 ± 4.03 141.98 ± 4.65 145.01 ± 5.07 69.08 ± 3.67 72.38 ± 4.55 76.24 ± 3.97 80.13 ± 3.97 84.65 ± 3.85 88.73 ± 4.36 90.18 ± 3.42 92.39 ± 3.75 94.29 ± 3.73 26.88 ± 1.12 27.62 ± 1.40 28.91 ± 1.51 29.82 ± 1.69 31.26 ± 1.51 32.73 ± 1.67 33.23 ± 1.24 34.52 ±1.43 35.39 ± 1.54 38.97 ± 2.16 40.74 ± 2.49 42.93 ± 2.73 44.76 ± 2.88 47.71 ± 2.60 50.32 ± 2.53 51.33 ± 2.17 52.64 ± 2.79 53.57 ± 2.85 n 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 74 80 83 82 82 85 82 81 83 2007 Year Mean ± SD 109.35 ± 4.43 114.82 ± 4.11 120.63 ± 5.85 123.58 ± 5.29 129.76 ± 5.55 135.75 ± 5.13 140.20 ± 5.10 144.87 ± 6.31 145.42 ± 5.20 71.66 ± 3.73 74.99 ± 2.89 79.33 ± 4.22 81.54 ± 3.93 85.72 ± 3.88 89.31 ± 3.42 92.98 ± 4.24 96.56 ± 4.33 94.57 ± 3.86 28.38 ± 2.95 29.18 ± 1.40 30.43 ±2.24 30.98 ± 1.80 32.47 ± 1.77 33.51 ± 1.53 34.51 ± 1.72 35.80 ± 2.67 35.50 ± 1.67 39.26 ± 1.90 41.31 ± 2.08 43.80 ± 2.73 44.87 ± 2.61 47.31 ± 2.74 49.37 ± 2.12 51.29 ± 2.24 51.29 ± 2.79 53.70 ± 2.98 t -1.23 -2.75 ** -2.93 ** -0.91 0.12 -1.23 -0.82 -3.24 ** -0.49 -4.24 *** -4.29 *** -4.82 *** -2.25 * -1.74 0.94 -3.92 *** -6.44 *** -0.45 -4.02 *** -6.71 *** -5.08 *** -4.12 *** -4.62 *** -3.12 ** -5.27 *** -3.70 *** -0.42 -0.85 -1.55 -2.04 * -0.26 0.95 2.62 ** 0.13 0.83 -0.27 *: significant at p<0.05, **: significant at p<0.0.1, ***: significant at p<0.001 Table 2: The Comparison of anthropometric measurements of boys in 1999 and 2007 191 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Anthropometric measurements Eye Height Elbow height Shoulder breadth Buttock-knee length Age 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 n 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 80 78 82 85 77 85 81 78 68 1999 Year Mean ± SD 108.66 ± 4.42 112.59 ± 5.91 118.31 ± 5.75 122.45 ± 5.82 128.48 ± 5.22 132.11 ± 5.18 139.84 ± 6.71 144.74 ± 6.84 150.21 ± 7.75 69.17 ± 3.25 72.38 ± 4.26 76.45 ± 4.02 79.57 ± 4.34 84.15 ± 3.93 86.40 ± 4.28 91.53 ± 5.25 94.32 ± 5.04 98.17 ± 5.32 27.30 ± 1.35 28.19 ± 1.39 29.24 ± 1.57 30.17 ± 1.66 31.11 ± 1.49 32.00 ± 1.61 33.92 ± 1.96 34.96 ± 2.14 36.61 ± 2.41 38.77 ± 1.96 40.05 ± 2.61 42.29 ± 2.75 44.32 ± 2.61 46.44 ± 2.43 48.24 ± 2.29 51.19 ± 2.95 52.80 ± 2.26 54.83 ± 2.78 n 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 78 85 86 76 85 87 83 86 79 2007 Year Mean ± SD 108.37 ± 4.56 113.75 ± 4.07 119.10 ± 6.60 124.23 ± 6.05 129.63 ± 4.99 133.58 ± 5.23 141.85 ± 5.37 144.54 ± 4.64 151.58 ± 8.09 71.35 ± 3.26 74.67 ± 3.02 78.76 ± 5.62 82.29 ± 4.41 85.59 ± 4.14 88.40 ± 3.81 93.99 ± 3.88 96.39 ± 3.70 98.54 ± 5.64 27.97 ± 1.36 28.78 ± 1.29 29.88 ± 1.93 30.92 ± 1.85 32.33 ± 1.70 32.96 ± 1.47 34.91 ± 1.97 35.63 ± 1.53 36.72 ± 2.31 39.51 ± 2.34 41.48 ± 1.90 43.69 ± 2.71 45.44 ± 2.70 47.60 ± 2.63 49.06 ± 2.32 51.74 ± 3.23 53.14 ± 2.41 54.59 ± 2.69 t 0.39 -1.47 0.82 -1.91 -1.43 -1.69 -1.19 0.20 -0.94 -4.20 -3.97 -3.05 -3.98 -5.22 -2.95 -2.35 -2.73 -0.60 -3.11 -2.79 -2.33 -2.75 -4.79 -3.73 -3.22 -2.11 -0.17 2.16 -4.02 -3.31 -2.72 -2.92 -1.99 -1.12 -0.84 -0.49 *** *** ** *** *** ** * ** ** ** * ** *** *** ** * * *** ** ** ** * *: significant at p<0.05, **: significant at p<0.0.1, ***: significant at p<0.001 Table 3: The Comparison of anthropometric measurements of girlsin 1999 and 2007 Discussion Itis always obvious that updating of the data bank is necessary in terms of checking and following the students’ growing and developing in a healthy way by determining the dimensions of desks and tables used by the students who spend most of their daily life at school during teaching and educating period. Although discussions are available aboutfor how long anthropometric measurements should be updated,the results of our study reflect the difference of 8 year anthropometric measurements. Yip and their colleagues emphasize that anthropometric measurements should be updated at every 5 years (Yip et al., 1988). According to the result of our study, it was determined that there was q significant difference in the comparison of anthropometric measurements of the same age and kind of group. Although it was considered that changing of climate conditions, developing of socio and economical conditions and health services, increasing the percent of individual education level and changing oftheirfeeding habitcaused anthropometric measurementsincrease,the result of our study showed thatthis period was necessary for updating anthropometric measurements. However,in spite ofthe factthat statistical difference wasn’tfound among anthropometric measurements dealing with the height ofthe eye and the distance between the leg and knee at standing position from the point of all age groups, on the other hand, it was determined that statistical difference was found in terms of the age and the kind in every both periods withthe regard tothe height ofthe elbow and width of shoulder parameters at standing position. As a result, although the results of our study suggestthat anthropometric measurement values during the childhood should be updated always needed at every ten years, new studies are the children living in different socio and economic and altitude conditions. 192 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Acknowledgments The authors would like to extend their deep appreciation to Prof. Dr. Behzat ÖZKA N of the Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine at Atatürk University,for his suggestions on write-up ofthe study. References Floyd, W.F. & Roberts, D.F. (1958). Anatomical and physiological principles in chair and table design. Ergonomics, 2, 1–16 Floyd, W.F. & Word, J.S. (1969). Anthropometric and physiological considerations in school, office and factory seating. Ergonomics, 12, 132–139 Hira, D.S. (1980). An ergonomic apprasial of educational desks. Ergonomics, 23, 213–221 Jeong, B.Y. & Park, K.S. (1990). Sex differences in anthropometry for school furniture design. Ergonomics, 33(12), 1511– 1521. Kaya, M.D., Hasiloglu, A.S., Bayramoglu, M., Yesilyurt, H., & Ozok, A.F. (2003). A new approach to estimate anthropometric measurements by adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS). International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 32(2), 105–114. Kaya, M.D., Yeşilyurt, H., Özkan, B. & Akdağ, R. (2000b). Orta dereceli irtifada (2000 m., Erzurum) yaşayan lise öğrencilerinin antropometrik ölçümleri, YA/EM’2000 Yöneylem Araştırması ve Endüstri Mühendisliği XXI. Ulusal Kongresi, 12-14 Haziran 2000, Doğu Akdeniz Üniversitesi. Kaya, M.D., Yeşilyurt, H., Özkan, B., Çapoğlu, Đ. & Akdağ, R. (2000a). Anthropometric measurements in adolescents living at an intermediate altitude: the relationship between height, weight, head circumference and socioeconomics status, McCabe, P.T., Hanson, M.A., Robertson, S.A. (Editör), Contemporary Ergonomics 2000, Taylor & Francis Inc., London, 38-43. Kayış, B. & Özok, A.F. (1986). Đlkokul öğrencilerinin boyutsal ölçülerinin saptanması, TÜBĐTAK, YAE, Rapor no: h128, Ankara. Kayış, B. (1987). Đlk eğitim donanımlarının tasarımında antropometrik verilerin önemi, TÜBĐTAK, YAE, Rapor no: a67, Ankara. Mandal, A.C. (1982). The correct height of school furniture. Human Factors, 24, 257–269 Oxford, H.W. (1969). Anthropometric data for educational chairs. Ergonomics, 12, 140–161 Pheasant, S. (1988). Bodyspace: Anthropometry, Ergonomics and Design. London, Taylor & Francis; 1988. Yip, R., Binkin, N.J. & Trowbridge F.L. (1988). Altitude and childhood growth. The Journal of Pediatrics, 113, 486–489. 193 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 507 Title A name given to the resource A Research on Updating of Anthropometric Measurements Author Author KAYA, M. Dursun MALKOÇ, ismail ERDOĞAN, Osman KARA, Aslı YELSiYURT, Hakkı Abstract A summary of the resource. By considering the dimensional measurements of the students who spend most of their time at school, the fact that their body and structural equipment haven’t been designed will affect their body and psychological improvements negatively. Anthropometric measurements are necessary for education equipment and designs of education-structural equipment of the children at the age of school. It is emphasized that anthropometric measurements of the people living in different climate and altitude conditions in literature will be different. It is mentioned that anthropometric data available for a certain region will be able to change in terms of changing socio-economical conditions and therefore, updating of anthropometric data is necessary in certain in period of times. For the reason, in 1999 anthropometric data obtained from the children, between the age of seven and fifteen, who were in sitting and standing position, were measured to plan a longitudinal study in 2007. In the result of comparison which was made, as reported in literature, it is clear that anthropometric data will be able to be updated in certain period of times. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/959b0eb00936f30084c9906d3178c3b8.pdf eb4a83537d7d3a8095e4bc5e7cb70156 PDF Text Text ELT Prep Students Perceptions of Their Problems with Reading: Perception of Failure or Failure of Perception? M. Naci KAYAOĞLU Faculty of Arts Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Fehmi TURGUT School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey feturgut@yahoo.com Abstract: This study focused on ELT students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading. The participants were 150 prep class students in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, in the academic years from 2005 to 2008. At the beginning of each academic year, the students were asked to make a list of the problems or issues they thought made their reading difficult. Their responses were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The students were also observed in terms of their responses towards various texts with reading difficulties. The study intended to make a picture of the problematic areas in EFL reading from the perspectives of learners: how much of the problematic areas in EFL reading was perceived by students, whether they lacked perception of self- failure in reading, whether they had control over their reading problems and whether their perceptions of self-failure matched their real problems in practice or not. Introduction Reading is a very complex developmental process for foreign language learners. Considering the problems students face in studying reading comprehension in the native language, studying reading comprehension in a foreign language becomes a process that drives the learner under many challenging and unfavorable circumstances. Even to make a list of the probable problems in reading is ardous work, for problems may vary according to different foreign language teaching/learning settings, based upon materials, purpose of reading, needs, and proficiency levels. Not all these problems can be diagnosed and solved within the scope of one single study. Recent has already established and reported close interactions between learning and student perceptions and the influence of students' thoughts, beliefs, and feelings about themselves, other persons, and events outcomes (Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, & McKeachie, 1986; Koon and Murray, 1995; O’Connell and Dickinson, 1993; Ryan and Harrison 1995; Cashin and Downey 1992) . This means students affect classroom events, and their learning and learning. Students themselves can formulate achievement goals, involve in various activities, and sometimes develop and use strategies which they believe will guarantee thier success. When their thoughts, beliefs, feelings and perceptions do not match, their learning is affected negatively. Since perception is a requisite property of action, without perception, action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless; in a sense, "perception and movement are two sides of the same cointhe coin is action" (Gibson, 1966). Considering the multitude of benefits ELT students draw from critical or analytical reading, the task of picturing what perceptions motivate their actions in reading, what problems they think make their reading process enigmatic and building a bridge between the problems they perceive and those they actually experience are challenges that should not be ignored. It is for this reason that this study aimed to focus on the English-majoring prep-class students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading to draw a picture of their world of 89 �reading in English in the hope that the resulting data would lead the researchers, the teachers and the program designers to some solutions. The study Gibson (1966) claims that any account of the facts of perceiving must include the facts of error. He continues as follows: “Actually, the deficiencies of perception are much more familiar to us than its successes. We take the latter for granted, but we are naturally curious about the causes of our misperceptions, misjudgments, and mistakes. We have a special curiosity about a class of inaccuracies that are called illusions. They are usually not serious enough to be called misperceptions. Often we are aware of the illusion, as we are of the image in a mirror, the bent stick in water, the circular coin that looks elliptical, and the after-sensation "in front of the eyes". But these are still failures of perception, to be exact, and they are very interesting.” (pp.287) It is for this reason that this study aims to investigate how Gibson’s claims are reflected on the side of ELT students while they are practising the act of reading. Research reports that, to beter evaluate the efficiency of language teaching activity in foreign language teaching, teachers’ attitudes towards and perceptions of the langaue skill they teach has a significant effect on the outcome of that particular act of teacing (Prabhu 1987, Sparks and Ganschow 1996) . Therefore, it would not be erratic to claim that the same is true for students. The study was conducted with 150 English majoring students studying language skills in the prepatory classes in the academic years from 2005 to 2008 in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, Turkey. The students who had to retake the prep program were excluded from the study. The reading course the students were required to take was designed to teach reading skills and to prepare the students for their future readings of text books and other literary texts like novels, shortstories, plays and poems. The subjects of the study came to the department from different schools from almost the same programs: the foreign language programs of Anatolian High Schools or Super High Schools or other Government High Schools. The points they got on the university exam showed no significant differences to allow any intervention of external variable in the results of the study. The students reported that they did not take a seperate reading course but did reading embedded in other courses. Data required for this study were collected through three stages. In the first stage, to see how they viewed the term ‘reading’, the subjects were asked to write individual words for their own definitions of ‘reading’ on a piece of paper. This was what Nuttall (1996) did with EFL teachers at the very beginning of her book. This study did the same activity with its participants because, as she put it, it would be useful to know about students’s ideas of reading, for their understanding of the term ‘reading’ would give some hints about their approaches towards the act of reading. In Stage 2, the subjects were asked to make a list of the things which they belived made their reading difficult or problematic. They were asked to make the list by rating the items from the most important to the least. The intention was to have a picture of the students’ world of reading, of problems or so-called / perceived problems in reading. The third stage was a stage of observation. In order not to rely merely on the data coming from the students’ self-reports and to construct some kind of triangulation over the data, and to develop prolonged engagement in the research process, the study used the observation method. Although the classroom observation method may have its own disadvantages like the duration and the frequency of the observation- the investigator will need to visit the same class over an extended period of time if meaningful data are to be gathered- the way the observation is conducted- the presence of the observer in the classroom while the activity is taking place may influence the progress of the activity (Cohen and Manion, 1998), these did not pose such a problem for this study because the observer in this study was the reading instructor in the classrooms under observation. But research critics also recognize some advantages in gathering data through classroom observation. Observation may give the research study a more objective, and a more impartial status (Cohen and Manion, 1998). By using observation, the observer may have the opportunity to see problems/issues through his/her own eyes and to filter the data in order to see whether there are any discrepancies between what the subjects report and what is performed. Researchers recognize two types of observation tools: the Immediate Indicators Tool (ITT) and the Observational Prompt Tool (OPT) (Holbrook, Gray and Fasse, 1999). While ITT enables the observer to record quick snapshots of what is happening in the classroom environment, OPT prompts for what to look for during individual, small-group, and whole-class activities, what to look for during particular classroom activities and what to look for when certain goals are active. The most important characteristic of this tool is that it provides the 90 �researchers with guidelines for what to look for in the classroom and structure for their individual field notes (Fasse and Kolodner, 2000). Since this study dealt with two classrooms, with some particular classroom activities (reading and comprehension in English), and with some certain active goals (diagnosis of reading comprehension problems of the participants in English), the OPT tool was the more suitable and helpful one to use in the classroom observation. During the observation stage, students were given some tasks. These tasks included some sentences and longer texts which had some certain levels of difficulty in terms of content, text type, structure, vocabulary and sentence complexity, background information etc. Here the objective was to observe how the students responded these texts based on their perceptions of difficulty. Findings and Conclusion Among the words the participants used to define the term ‘reading’, the following ones appeared to dominate the list: to decode, to know the unknown words, fluency, identify, pronunciation, to recognize the written words. Only a small group included the words like understand, meaning, respond to the text, which define reading as an act of creating meaning in the text. The words in the first group refer to the first thing(s) of all about reading, not suitable for academic settings. In such settings, where students read at academic levels to study lingustics and literature, the main focus should not be on the pronunciation of what they are reading or in the grammatical structures used. Fluency can influence comprehension, but this does not mean that students should read words very quickly and easily. During the observation stage, students appeared to have problems with fluency. However, in order to seem fluent readers, they tended to read words very quickly, with an automacity ignoring the word as an inseparable part of the sentence or longer text. This part of the study revealed that the participants’ understanding of the term “reading”, which was rather simplistic and reductionist, influenced both their perceptiopns of reading in foreign language and their approaches to the text. The second part of the study showed this influence more clearly. In their responses to the second part- what they thought made their reading difficult- , two items came to the fore interchangeably: 1- difficult or unknown words; 2- long and complex sentences or difficult sentence structure. It did not pose a problem that the participant students came up with the idea that difficult/unknown words and complex sentences made their reading problematic. In literature, this is much more than an idea; a well established fact by reading researchers (Nation and Coady 1988, Goodman 1976, Grabe 1991, Grabe and Stoller 1997). Here the problem was that the participants were unaware of other difficulties and that they restricted their act of reading to “vocabulary” and “grammar”. They thought they were the only two problematic issues in EFL reading that influenced their performance negatively. The idea that the most important problem in EFL reading is that of difficult or unknown words limits academic reading to a ‘word-level reading’ activity. Hence, the students focused on individual words or on their dictionary meanings/annotations without considering their contextual meanings or connotations. When they encountered an unknown word, they stoped for a while, hesitated, or read haltingly. They easily got demoralized. The probability of other unknown words in the ensuing parts of the text made them irritated. Perception is a general term refering to the awareness of objects, qualities, or events stimulating the sense organs; it also refers to a person’s experience of the world (Stranks 2003). So when one perceives something through his environment, somehow puts it into practice (Hulse, Deese, & Egeth, 1975). In the case of this study, perceptions replaced realities. Research findings suggest that students' perceptions about a particular learning activity may have considerable influence both on students' approaches to that activity and the outcome (Hallowell, 2008; Knowles, 1990). This was ture for the participant students. They were observed to organize their reading heavily based on their perceptions of “reading” and “reading” problems. Another most important finding the observation stage revealed was that the prticipant sudents had a tendency to attach equal importance to each word in a text. But reading research reports that not all words are equally important. Nuttall (1996) puts vocabulary into three categories: (1) active vocabulary; (2) receptive vocabulary; (3) throw-away vocabulary (pp.62-77). Active words are those students know well enough to use them, but receptive words are the ones students recognize and can respond to, but cannot confidently use. Throw-away vocabulary includes those words which students meet only once when they are reading an unsimplified material. The subjects of this study could hardly distinguish between these vocabulary-categories during reading. When they were given some texts that contained no unknown or difficult vocabulary, and when they were given some other texts with no difficult structutres, seeing that the texts still were difficult to read and understand made them surprised and discouraged very much. When asked to what they could attribute their failure in reading and understanding these texts, they were not able to come up with any plausible answer. 91 �The over-all conclusion of the present study was that the reading and level of difficulties in reading these students perceived differed from recommendations in the literature, and that students organized their reading styles, their approaches to the act of reading, their relationships with the text based upon their perceptions of failure or problem in reading. When perceptions replaced realities; that is, when they perceived that a certain issue played the most important role in their failure, they thought merely dealing with that issue would guarantee their success. Upon learning that the text they were reading required more knowledge and abilities than they perceived, they got surprised and blocked during the reading process. From this we van conclude that the perception or the idea that the most and the only problems in EFL reading are difficult sentences and unknown words would undervalue the role of reading in learning. Reading, whether in native or foreign language, cannot be limited to these two items. A number of other issues are involved in EFL reading. These can be listed as: 1. pre-viewing 2. building a bridge between what s/he knows and what s/he will learn 3. categorizing 4. deciding what is important and what is not 5. arguing with the text 6. analyzing and snynthesizing the information and evidence 7. summarizing, predicting, comparing ideas and connecting them to each other 8. organizing new information and ideas 9. making logical inferences 10. commenting on what s/he reads 11. critiquing the text and its writer 12. earning new concepts 13. combining the information in the text with that of the real world 14. reading a variety of texts from different genres easily 15. recognizing the text structure 16. constructing sentence relationships easily 17. coping with difficult vocabulary and use strategies to solve his problems ( Henry, 1974; Nunan, 1999; Nuttall, 1996). The students in this study were unaware of these elements of foreign language reading. Maybe it is lack of these issues on the side of both teachers and students that makes reading a complex, difficult and problematic activity in EFL instruction, making it inevitable to make some drastic alterations in or additions to EFL learners’ perceptions of problems in reading. References Cashin, W. E., & Downey, R. G. (1992). Using global student rating items for summative evaluation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 563-572. Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994). Research Methods in Education. Routledge. USA. Fasse, B.B. and Kolodner, J.L. (2000). Evaluating Classroom Practices Using Qualitative Research Methods: Defining and Refining the Process, College of Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0280. Gibson, James.J. (1966). The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Boston 1966. Goodman, K.S. (1976). Reading: a psycholinguistic guessing game. In H. Singer and R. Ruddell (eds) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. International Reading Association, Newark. 2nd ed.. [14.2] Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOLQuarterly 25, 3: 375406. [14.4] Grabe, W. and Stoller, F. (1997). Reading and vocabulary development in a second language: a case study. In Coady and Huckin: 98-122. [14.4] Hallowell, D. (2008). Cognitive Approaches to Learning: New Developments in Educational Psychology. Drexel Learning Center 92 �Henry, G. H. (1974). Teaching Reading as a Concept Development: emphasis on effective thinking. International Reading Assosciation. Newark, Delaware. USA. Holbrook, J., Gray, J. and Fasse, B. (1999). Observation Prompt Tool Learning by Design Document. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA. Hulse, S. H., Deese, J., Egeth, H. (1975). The Psychology of Learning. Tokyo. McGraw/Hill Kogakusha. Knowles, M.S. (1990). The Adult Learner: a Neglected Species. 4th edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division Knuth, R.A.and Jones, B.F. (1991). What does research say about reading? NCREL, Oak Brook, USA. Koon, J., & Murray, H. G. (1995). Using multiple outcomes to validate student ratings of overall teacher effectiveness. Journal of Higher Education, 66(1), 61-81. Nation, I.S.P. and Coady, J. (1988). Vocabulary and reading. In Carter and McCarthy: 97- 110. [14.1] Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Heinle and Heinle Publishers Boston USA. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching Reading Skills in a foreign language, Macmillan Publishers, Oxford, UK. O’Connell, D. Q., & Dickinson, D. J. (1993). Student ratings of instruction as a function of testing conditions and perceptions of amount learned. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 27(1), 18-23. Pintrich, P. R., Cross, D. R., Kozma, R. B. & Mc Keachie, W. J. (1986). Instructional Psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 37:611-651. Prabhy, N.S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy, OUP. Ryan, J., & Harrison, P. (1995). The relationship between individual instructional characteristics and the overall assessment of teaching effectiveness across different instructional contexts. Research in Higher Education, 36(5), 577594. Sparks, R.L.; Ganschow, L. (1996). Teacher’s Perceptions of Students’ Foreign Language Academic Skills and Affective Characteristics. Journal of Educational Research. Vo.89, Issue 3, p.172, Washington D.C. Stranks, J. W. (2003) Health and safety at work : key terms. Butterworth-Heinemann. Amsterdam. 93 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 335 Title A name given to the resource ELT Prep Students Perceptions of Their Problems with Reading: Perception of Failure or Failure of Perception? Author Author KAYAOĞLU, M. Naci TURGUT, Fehmi Abstract A summary of the resource. This study focused on ELT students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading. The participants were 150 prep class students in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, in the academic years from 2005 to 2008. At the beginning of each academic year, the students were asked to make a list of the problems or issues they thought made their reading difficult. Their responses were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The students were also observed in terms of their responses towards various texts with reading difficulties. The study intended to make a picture of the problematic areas in EFL reading from the perspectives of learners: how much of the problematic areas in EFL reading was perceived by students, whether they lacked perception of self- failure in reading, whether they had control over their reading problems and whether their perceptions of self-failure matched their real problems in practice or not. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)