319 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/52a8ce4083aacaa726a2bc363de75efe.pdf 945207a9aa13bf67faca1492e9a46967 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Velasquez, M.G. (2006). Business Ethics Concepts & Cases. 6. Ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson. Transformation Of The Institutional Structure Of Western Balkan Countries Şermin Şenturan1, Samir Husić2 1Bülent Ecevit University, Zonguldak/Turkey 2International University of Sarajevo,Bosnia and Herzegovina E- mails: senturansermin@gmail.com, samirhusic@gmail.com Abstract Transformation of the institutional structure affects economic development both from the cost of transactions aspect and the operating costs. In development theory it is usual to define development as economic growth plus structural change. But in the framework of institutional economic theory development could be defined as economic growth plus appropriate institutional change, meaning institutional changes which facilitate further economic growth.There are several factors influencing reforms in the Western Balkan countries. Those countries prove that institutions can successfully change at the time of crisis. Although the general rule shows strong correlations among the many reform measures, some institutions develop independently of other measures of institutional or organizational reform. As it is emphasized on the role of institutions in growth and development, it should be also recognized that institutions can change regardless of undesirable environmental factors. Keywords : institutional change, economic transition, Western Balkan Countries 1.INTRODUCTION Transformation of the institutions in a new market economies have been mostly radical in an astonished and unpredictable direction. Numerous factor influenced reforms that followed in liberalization of prices, privatization, opening of economy to the foreign investments, liberalization of the foreign exchange market, and the reduction of foreign trade restrictions. The main dimensions along which various national capitalist systems can be placed are the corporate governance and macroeconomic institutional environment (Cernat, 2001). Corporate governance and business-state relations influenced choice and path that economies in transition undertaken. Regardless of strong efforts, disintegration of these economies suffered severe contraction due to collapse of export demand from former trading partners, while domestic demand declined. 234 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Post-Communist Transition was mainly confronted with institutional transformation. Different concepts of institutions created different paths of transformations. At the beginning of the 1990`s, Central and Eastern European Countries (CEE) and Former Soviet Union Republics started with transformation towards market economy. Both the economic and the institutional frameworks were significantly changed. Today in the CEE’s there are developing guarantees of private property, new banks, new economic and administrative organizations, and other formal institutions imposed in a transitional time and by political resolution. Transformation of the institutional structure affects economic development both from the cost of transactions aspect and the operating costs. It will be argued further on that key challenge for governance in Western Balkan post-conflict period was institutional transformation required for successful and sustainable economic growth. Transition is a very complex process, since in the market economy the capital and labor allocation is completely different than in the centrally planned economy. All the formal institutions such as stock exchange, banks, investment funds, trade unions, property rights, enterprise confederations, and others are new. Their development is slow and affected by a learning process. Because of that, a shock therapy was a poor strategy and likely brought important recession in Western Balkans in the early 90's (Tridico, 2005). Anglo-Saxon variant of capitalism, or so called „Atlantic“ capitalism (Hodges and Woolcock, 1993) has certain specific fundamental institutional characteristics. Those characteristics involve the role of the state to maintain a stable environment for markets to operate freely from any political or social interference. 2.Objectives of the economic institutional structure reforms There is general agreement that systematic transformation of the institutions implies fundamental reforms in most of the areas. Such areas and institutional reforms are recognized in many political party programs of transitional countries, like in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Avdic and Međedovic, 2006). Many of above mentioned structural transformations already started in Western Balkan countries but had not been successfully implemented to the end. Reasons for those failures are complex, and most common one is missing political willingness to implement reforms. Usually decision makers are promoting reforms, especially in pre-election periods, but in reality they try to preserve situation unchanged and to continue to rule in the same manner. Sometimes decision makers did not achieved previously necessary institutional changes, so reforms are prevented to go faster. Very common in transition countries is lack of knowledge and expertise among policy decision-makers, which could not be overcome except with foreign support (Filipovic, 2006). 3.The negative effects of institutional transition 235 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo In the first years of transition, the most important aim of Government was macrostabilization: the fight against inflation, the reduction of debt, the liberalization of prices, the budget balance and privatization. All these aims were considered necessary by international organizations and main stream economists to allow economic growth. Nevertheless these results were not sufficient to stimulate long-term and sustainable growth. Transition economies are affected by very high unemployment rates, a growing inequality rate, a considerable index of poverty, a chronic current account deficit and a considerable foreign debt. Moreover informal economy and corruption levels strongly persist. Economic transition countries of the former Yugoslavia, experienced tragic events, civil wars, crime domination and economy of chaos. Therefore they did not implement any institutional policies which would allow for an institutional governance, for the protection of weaker and poorer people, or for conflict management. On the contrary, the sudden introduction of the market economy and the end of social policies, welfare state and income redistribution policies caused an increase in poverty, inequality and unemployment (Adam, 1999). In order to expand human capabilities institutions are needed. Institutional policies would allow for improving the three essential capabilities for human development: leading long and healthy lives, being knowledgeable and having a decent standard of living. This approach assumes that economic growth requires first of all investment in human development. Countries which implemented institutional policies, social policies and a governance recovery, increased their level of human development. On the contrary, countries which did not implement such institutional policies did not increase their level of human development, and their economic growth was neither fast nor sufficient to recover the pre-1989 level of GDP per capita (Tridico, 2005). 4.Present position of Western Balkan countries Western Balkan countries proven after twenty years that only radical transformation of the institutional structure can lead them to the successful EU economy. Certain attempt to make small or incremental changes to the old institutional solutions, sooner or later become ineffective and just time consuming. Such small changes to the institutional arrangements happened quite frequently, though, so they produced a variety of organizational solutions based on old institutional framework. Considering advancement in development of the institutional structures, today we can classify all transition economies into three main categories (Filipovic, 2006): (a) The most successful economies in transition that provides stable economic growth rates, establish institutional framework comparable with developed economies and that already deeply enter into European integration (or become a full member states of the EU); (b) Relatively successful economies in transition that has temporary episodes of successes measured by economic and social performances - first of all through low level of inflation, high rate of GDP growth and avoiding of mass unemployment, but also followed by short 236 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo episodes of destabilization and worsening of their performances. Typical representatives in this group are some of Western Balkans countries, like Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, etc.; (c) Third group of countries in transition are the most obsolete countries, with slow and not in depth institutional changes, countries that are still at the beginning of the transition process and that miss enough courage to cope with the changes transition must comprised. In this group are most of the former Soviet Union members. The most successful transition economies, mentioned above, already becomes a full member of EU, accepting European standards, organizational structures and most important European institutional framework. Those countries liberalized their markets and open it to foreign direct investment inflow in early 1990’s, so most attractive investments and profitable opportunities for old EU investors are already reduced. On the other hand, in Western Balkan countries there are still some obstacles for their faster integration in European institutional framework: most of them lack transparent and effective judicial system, there is still inefficient implementation of laws, every new election are considered as potential change and turbulence in economic system. 5.Institutional structure reforms in Western Balkan countries The socialist economy was characterized by strong state intervention in economy which manifested itself through all-encompassing price control, subvention of enterprises, etc. Elimination of subventions and liberalization of market and prices at the beginning of 90s, together with an inadequate production structure, caused accumulation of losses in state companies. In spite of their losses, yet, the companies continued to operate. Their preservation was motivated by the avoidance of huge social costs which might arise in the case of their closure (Golubovic, 2005). The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) summed up, using transitional indicators, the advancement of structural and institutional reforms in the year 2010 for 29 countries in transition. Eleven transitional indicators encompass six main transitional areas: liberalization, privatization, companies, infrastructure, financial institutions, and the legal environment. Each indicator shows a synthesized assessment of improvement achieved in a certain area, based on various data, narrative information and analyses (EBRD, 2010). Countries in transition continued to advance in their structural and institutional reforms with various levels of success in last decade. Countries of South-East Europe advanced significantly, Baltic states and Central and East European countries achieved some advancement, while the advancement in newly independent states was modest. Comparison of the average yearly transitional index between economies in transition shows that in 2004 21 countries (scope 2,6-3,9) were more advanced than Serbia, Montenegro, and Bosnia and Herzegovina, while only Turkmenistan, Belarus, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan showed results that were lower (EBRD, 2004). 237 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia FYR Macedonia Montenegro Serbia Population mid2010 (million) 3,2 3,8 4,4 2,0 0,7 9,9 Private sector share of GDP mid-2010 (EBRD estimate in per cent) 75 60 70 70 65 60 Large-scale privatisation 4- 3 3+ 3+ 3+ 3- Small-scale privatisation 4 3 4+ 4 4- 4- Governance and enterprise restructuring 2+ 2 3 3- 2 2+ Price liberalisation 4+ 4 4 4+ 4 4 Trade and foreign exchange system 4+ 4 4+ 4+ 4 4 Competition policy 2 2 3 2+ 2 2+ Banking reform and interest rate liberalisation 3 3 4 3 3 3 Securities markets and non-bank financial institutions 2- 2- 3 3- 2- 2 Overall infrastructure reform 2+ 3- 3 3- 2+ 2+ Table 1: Transition indicator scores 2010. - Enterprises Markets and trade Financial institutions Infrastructure. Source: EBRD, 2010. According to the EBRD assessment, in 2010 Albania has made steady progress with structural reform, despite having to overcome serious institutional weaknesses and one of the most difficult starting points for transition. In 2009, Albania submitted a formal application for EU membership. However, the country faces major reform challenges in a number of areas. The need to improve the quality of the infrastructure is a requirement, although the 238 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo government does have major investment plans for roads, railways and electric power. The banking sector has limited reach as a source of finance outside of the main cities, and nonbank financial institutions are at a very early stage of development. Bosnia and Herzegovina’s progress in transition has been effectively stalled for some years, and as a result the country lags behind all others in south-eastern Europe. The country’s complicated political and constitutional structure is a major hindrance to reform and good governance. A significant privatisation agenda lies ahead but, in the FBH at least, there appears to be little appetite for bringing major enterprises slated for sale to the market. As a result of the reform paralysis, the country also lags behind other EU candidates or potential candidates in the region in terms of EU approximation. Croatia has long been considered among the most advanced of the transition countries, with a broadly liberalised economy, a relatively high degree of sophistication in financial services, and a country where significant progress has been made on infrastructure reform. The banking sector weathered the financial crisis well and remains sound and liquid. However, some major enterprises and financial institutions continue to rely on state subsidies although the level of subsidies has fallen significantly since 2005. The quality of the business environment remains a concern, according to cross-country surveys, and reflects the need to tackle obstacles to doing business, such as the cumbersome permit process, as well as the need to implement urgent public administration reforms. Progress in reform in FYR Macedonia throughout the transition period has been steady if somewhat slow, as the country has been hampered by weak administrative and institutional capacity. In the financial sector competition among banks is less vibrant than in neighboring countries and the development of capital markets is in its infancy. The country’s infrastructure also faces significant investment needs in the coming years. The Montenegrin authorities have made important advances in several areas, notably in price and trade liberalisation and financial sector development. Privatization is advanced, with most state assets having been sold off. The banking sector had grown very rapidly in the years before the crisis and progress has been made in strengthening supervisory and regulatory structures. Lastly, Montenegro has had some success in creating a favorable business climate and in attracting reputable foreign investors. Nevertheless, the country still has a significant transition agenda ahead. The challenges are particularly large in the infrastructure sector, notably in the power sector, which is crucial to supporting economic activity. Serbia began the transition later than most other countries, but has been catching up steadily over the past decade. Nevertheless, a major structural reform agenda still lies ahead. The challenges are particularly large in most infrastructure sectors, especially in the energy sector, which remains dominated by one state-owned company. A significant number of large enterprises also await privatisation once market conditions improve, both in the corporate sector and in parts of the financial sector, including the largest insurance company (EBRD, 2010). 239 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 6.CONCLUSIONS Effective institutional restructuring is not a question of adaptation of foreign rules and standards, but more the question of gradual and persistent time consuming process. Societies have different own norms and tradition, and their institutional building of formal rules are based on informal one. Transformation of these formal rules are often radical, especially when organizations with different interest emerge, and when institutional change cannot be mediated through the existing institutional framework. During transitional period, a great deal of effort of the international financial institutions was devoted to support of institutional building, as it was recognized as priority in transition economies. The reform index is both proven as a measure of the extent of reform, and a measure of institutional change. Economic growth is powerfully associated with that index. Western Balkan countries prove that institutions can successfully change at the time of crisis. Although the general rule shows strong correlations among the many reform measures, some institutions develop independently of other measures of institutional or organizational reform. As we emphasize the role of institutions in growth and development, we should also recognize that institutions can change regardless of undesirable environmental factors. The change of the financial sector reform in the Balkan countries in transition was different from the transition economies of Central Europe, since no radical changes took place in this sector in the Balkans. The Balkan countries accepted a gradualist approach to the financial sector reform stressing some other aspects of transformation. These countries' experiences in the nineties points out that partial institutional changes do not create a favorable environment for structural changes. Rather, structural reforms require integral and harmonized changes in all its segments. Both formal and informal structural change can contribute to growth, and the more structural transformations are made, the more rapidly the economy grow. REFERENCES Adam, J. (1999). Social costs of Transformation to a Market Economy in Post-Socialist Countries, the case of Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary. MacMillan Press, New York. Avdic, A. & Međedovic, A. (2006). Analiza ekonomskih platformi političkih stranaka u BiH. Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, Sarajevo. Cernat, L. (2001). Institutions and Economic Growth: What Model of Capitalism for Central and Eastern Europe? Conference on Institutions in Transition, Slovenia, July 2001. EBRD (2004). European Bank for Reconstruction and Development - Transition Report 2004: Infrastructure. http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/transition/TR04.pdf EBRD (2010). European Bank for Reconstruction and Development - Transition Report 2010: Recovery and Reform. http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/research/transition/tr10.pdf 240 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Filipovic, M. (2006). Importance of Institutional Development for Western Balkan Countries. 46th European congress of the Regional Science Association „Enlargement, Southern Europe & Mediterranean“. Volos, Aug. 30- Sep. 3 2006. Belgrade, April, 2006. Flow of Funds Accounts of the United States. (2011, June). Federal Reserve Statistical Release. Retrieved from http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/z1/current/data.htm Golubović, S., & Golubović, N. (2005). Financial Sector Reform in the Balkan Countries in Transition. Economics and Organization Vol. 2, No 3, 2005, University of Niš, pp. 229 – 236. Hodges, M., Woolcock, S. (1993). Atlantic Capitalism versus Rhine Capitalism in the European Community. Frank Cass & & co ltd, Great Britain. Tridico, P. (2005). Institutional Change and Human Development in Transition Economies. European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy. EAEPE Conference paper, November 2005, Bremen (Germany). Empowerment At Higher Educational Organizations AŞermin Şenturan1, Julijana Angelovska2 1Bülent Ecevit Üniversity, Zonguldak/Turkey 2International Balkan University, Skopje/Makedonia E- mails : senturansermin@gmail.com, julijana.angelovska@yahoo.com Abstract Empowerment is a concept which is widely used in management and many managers and professional in various organizations claim to be practicing it. The objective of this study was to assess the construct validity and internal consistency of the Psychological Empowerment Questionnaire (PEQ) for employees in higher education. The PEQ was administered at private university in Skopje. The study is empirical research on psychological empowerment, and more specifically research regarding a tool that can be used to assess the level of psychological empowerment of employees in higher education organisations. If psychological empowerment can be measured in a reliable and valid manner, interventions can be implemented to promote the empowerment of employees. Exploratory factor analysis is used to verify the validity of the psychological empowerment comprising four cognitive dimensions i.e. meaning, competence, self-determination and impact in the context of private higher education institutions The subscales showed acceptable internal consistencies. Psychological empowerment can be measured in a reliable and valid manner in higher educational organizations. 241 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1120 Title A name given to the resource Transformation Of The Institutional Structure Of Western Balkan Countries Author Author Şermin, Şenturan Abstract A summary of the resource. Transformation of the institutional structure affects economic development both from the cost of transactions aspect and the operating costs. In development theory it is usual to define development as economic growth plus structural change. But in the framework of institutional economic theory development could be defined as economic growth plus appropriate institutional change, meaning institutional changes which facilitate further economic growth.There are several factors influencing reforms in the Western Balkan countries. Those countries prove that institutions can successfully change at the time of crisis. Although the general rule shows strong correlations among the many reform measures, some institutions develop independently of other measures of institutional or organizational reform. As it is emphasized on the role of institutions in growth and development, it should be also recognized that institutions can change regardless of undesirable environmental factors. Keywords : institutional change, economic transition, Western Balkan Countries Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e280d945a4968268cafc256cb63755d.pdf ca4d9717e633e15bf548e2743f93b413 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Transformational Approaches to Leadership of Alija Izetbegovic from the Perspective of Bosnian University Students İlker Akkaya International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ilkerakkaya@gmail.com Ali Göksu International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina agoksu@ibu.edu.ba The main aim of this study is making an examination over leadership of Alija Izetbegovic during the 1992- 1995 war period and eight years right after the war. It will be examined that how Alija Izetbegovic manage the crises during the war and post war time period. In order to comprehend the leadership of Alija Izetbegovic some questionnaires will be applied to Bosnian University students. By this way it will be understood the approaches of the students regarding this issue moreover all the approaches of the students will be explained via statistical methods. Keyword: Leadership and Characteristics of Leader, Crises Management, Statistical Methods, Transformational Approaches. 168 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1674 Title A name given to the resource Transformational Approaches to Leadership of Alija Izetbegovic from the Perspective of Bosnian University Students Author Author AKKAYA, Ilker GÖKSU, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. The main aim of this study is making an examination over leadership of Alija Izetbegovic during the 1992- 1995 war period and eight years right after the war. It will be examined that how Alija Izetbegovic manage the crises during the war and post war time period. In order to comprehend the leadership of Alija Izetbegovic some questionnaires will be applied to Bosnian University students. By this way it will be understood the approaches of the students regarding this issue moreover all the approaches of the students will be explained via statistical methods. Keyword: Leadership and Characteristics of Leader, Crises Management, Statistical Methods, Transformational Approaches. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6920e7597178a744db73ca7a65acede.pdf c2b6a783fa42ff5765c2eb66aafc6a50 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource BOOKS Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Transgressive Space in Literature: Theory in Practice Author Author Ibrahim Murat Öner Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a7be93f106bd4655fce2c143192ca565.pdf 671002f6cf69f8a0bc016d089e362b6e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Description An account of the resource Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering (JONSAE) is a peer-reviewed, biannually published international journal focusing on empirical and theoretical research in all branches of Engineering and Natural Sciences. It is published on the behalf of Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences of International Burch University and aims to provide the best content regarding by publishing original research papers, review articles, special issues, feature articles, and book reviews. All manuscript submissions are subject to initial appraisal by the Editor, and, if found suitable for further consideration, to peer review by independent, anonymous referees. All peer review is double-blind and submission is online. The journal welcomes theoretical, applied, interdisciplinary and methodological work, with preference on empirical research, critical approach and problem-solving methods in manuscripts. Language A language of the resource English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Transient Stability Analysis on Modified IEEE 14-Bus System Author Author Ermin Šunj, Ammar Arpadžić, Mirza Šarić Abstract A summary of the resource. Power system stability represents an important condition of the safe and efficient operation of the electric power system. This paper presents the transient stability analysis for the case of the new generator grid connection. The analysis is performed on a modified IEEE 14-Bus test system. In total, two cases were analysed. In the first case, the analysis with the maximum installed power of the generator (250 MW) is carried out, while in the second case, the analysis is performed using the optimal generator ratings (75 MW) using the DIgSILENT PowerFactory software. The transient stability analysis was carried out under the three-phase symmetrical faults and the N-1 criterion requirements. The results indicate that power system large disturbances significantly influence system operation and characteristics. This paper demonstrates the importance of transient stability analysis, which is an important part of power system studies and must be included in generator grid connection approval. Keywords Keywords. active power, IEE 14-Bus system, N-1 criterion, reactive power, rotor angle, transient stability Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2637-2835 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Journal of Natural Sciences and Engineering Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource January, 2020 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3512 Title A name given to the resource TRANSKRIPCIJA DIFTONGA /EA/ SA RUMUNSKOG JEZIKA NA SRPSKI: TEORIJA I PRAKSA Author Author Ćorković, Mirjana Huțanu, Monica Abstract A summary of the resource. This study is situated in the field of contrastive linguistics, namely, morphophonology. The aim of the paper is to examine the ways in which transcription of phonemes from Romanian into Serbian language is being realized in proper and geographical names. The analyzed corpus is based on literary translations. As both Serbian and Romanian language have phonetic, i.e. shallow orthography, and show a high degree of similarity of phonology systems, it is expected that transcription will not pose a lot of challenges. Previous research in the field of transcription from Romanian into Serbian offers some rules and recommendations. However, we find that the analyzed data indicates certain biases and problems that appear on the practical level, when it comes to transcription of proper and geographical names. Thus, the contrastive research of transcription from Romanian into Serbian shows high level of diversity regarding the solutions that the translators chose. Our paper will focus on the theoretical and practical problems posed by the transcription of the Romanian diphthong /ea/ into Serbian. We will analyse the suggestions for rendering the diphthong that have been put forward so far, taking into account both theoretically-oriented orthographical norms, and solutions preferred in practice by translators and other users of Serbian. We will finally address the rendering of /ea/ after sonorants /l/ and /n/, pleading for a change towards simplicity and consistency in transcription norms. Keywords: constrastive linguistics, transcription, Romanian Language, Serbian Language, diphtong /ea/ Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8a0b28406be4224027a0610646f8178c.pdf 86295bda99fa30fc1033a7ad87d4e3d2 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1 (2), pp. 126-142, Winter 2018 Professional paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/jeh2018124 Translation and Translators in Romani Context Professional paper Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić Council of Europe - Committee of Experts for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages France hedina.sijercic570@gmail.com Abstract: Since the area presenting former Yugoslavia has no mandatory Romani langauge classes and consequently no offically recognized translation classes, nor does it provide training for Romani translators, this paper deals with the experience and the current situation of Romani translation and translators. Theoretical background of Polysystems, Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), Skopos and non-systems oriented ‘Cluster concept’ provide support for a better approach to translation in the Romani context. ‘Cluster concept’ allows the possibility to create a definition of Translation Romani as a new approach to Translation Studies. As translation represents one of the ways to preserve and develop linguistic vitality in the minority languages, reassuring its speakers, activating the creation of new vocabulary, and strengthening domains of language use that are under-used, it also applies as a way for creating translation strategies for teaching Translation Romani. This research is grounded in personal experience, and presents the beginning of the research on Translation Romani (TR). Keywords: translation, Romani language, Roma, Romani translator, Romani translation, training Article History Submitted: 18 Decemeber 2018 Accepted: 30 January 2019 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić 1. INTRODUCTION Romani language/čhib1 is the common language of Roma, Sinti, Kale and other European groups pejoratively known as “gypsies“. It “is the only new IndoAryan language spoken exclusively outside of the Indian subcontinent (Zatreanu & Halwachs 2013, p. 3)” by about 10-15 million Roma throughout the world, and “comprised of almost 80 dialects”2 of the Romani language. As stated by Halwachs, Klinge and Schrammel (2013) Romani “may be described as a heterogenous cluster of varieties with a homogeneous core – a common morphology and a common lexicon- but without any generally accepted homogenizing standard“ ( p. 5). Even though the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages has been signed by eight (8) countries3 and ratified by twenty five (25) countries4, fifteen (15)5 “have officially recognised Romani as a minority language traditionally present on their territory” (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 36), the development of Romani čhib is given an inadequate opportunity.6 In the situation where discrimination and racism against Roma and Romani exist in their visible and invisible forms, the speakers’ identity and the identity of the language disappear. Such a situation, according to Hughes (2013), warrants “intervention from governments to protect Romani language, as it is considered an important, but vulnerable facet of the Roma peoples identity” (p. 19). It is obvious that, as stated by Pym “political dimension [is] involved [in the languages], especially in situations where translation policies are associated with the defence and development of minority languages“ (2002, p. 4). A political dimension is also present in the situation of the Romani language, and consequently in Translation Romani. There are, unfortunately, no educational programs where both the Romani language and Translation Romani are 1 Denomination of Romani language in Romani is Romani čhib. In further text will be used as Romani. 2 Translation Romani. See: http://www.translationromani.net/en/romani/language Azerbaijan, France, Iceland, Italy, Malta,Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 3 4 See: https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/148/signatures) As Part II language signed by Austria, Finland, Germany, Norway, Netherlands, Romania, Sweden, Slovenia, and as Part III language signed by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czech Republic, Hungary, Montenegro, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, and Germany in Hesse. 5 ”This is the highest number of ratifications for a single language under the Charter and it reflects, among others, the status of Romani as a European language.” Statement adopted by the Committee of Experts of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (ECRML) on 5 November 2015 on the occasion of the International Romani Laguage Day.” (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 36). 6 127 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 mandatory, and there are no trained Romani translators nor interpreters. 7 The Romani language is a complex linguistic issue of translation process in Romani context. Until the twentieth century, the Romani was a spoken language only and even today, as stated by Tahirović-Sijerčić, [d]ominant ideology and culture erroneously understand Romani as an oral language and not as written, and Romani literature as a folk literature with no focus on contemporary creation. However, international Romani authors do, in fact, write in Romani and publish in its different dialects, and the written language is used in Romani networks, email, and chatrooms. (2017, p. 14) At the present time, Romani as a mandatory subject is only taught within Romistika in the frame of graduate studies at the Department of Indology and Far Eastern Studies, Faculty of Philosophy in Zagreb. In a frame of elective courses, Romani is taught at the College of Professional Studies for Educators “Michael Palov“ in Vršac, and at the Faculty of Philology in Belgrade. Romani is taught occasionally through short training courses, thanks to the small grants and educational projects, within the Romani and non-Romani NGO circles. These organizations are dealing with different issues in the areas of language, politics, economics, history etc. for and about Roma. The main issues of such education are not only Romani čhib and majority8 official language/s, but also Romani culture and majority culture/s of the countries where the Roma live. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Within his theoretical framework of polysystems, Even-Zohar, cited in Pym (2010, 72), sees translation playing an innovative role when: “(a) a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is ‘young,’ in the process of being established; (b) a literature is either ‘peripheral’ (within a large group of correlated literatures) or ‘weak,’ or both; and (c) there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature” (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 10). 7 There is an individual initiative since 2016. Translator is not a professional translator, and does not have any translation training but has translation experience. „Romany Interpreting and Translations (RIT) is registered trademark and sole trading business based in Manchester, UK. https://www.romanyinterpretingandtranslations.com/resume The “majority society language” refers to dominant and powerful society and language which is in contact with Roma as minority people or ethnic groups, and with Romani as minority language. 8 128 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić It accounts for bilingual and multilingual communities. The literature of Roma and written by Roma is ‘young’, ‘peripheral’ and ‘weak’. As already stated, it started first to be published in the 20th century, and its invisibility has been reflected by the history of Roma (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 10), and their historical and current socio-economic situation. In their difficult socio-economic situation Romani translators were engaged because of different project needs related to human rights issues. On that way, translation in Romani has been seen only as the need for “the ‘aim’ or ‘purpose’ (‘skopos’)9 that guides the production of a translation. According to this perspective, it is the target culture which “defines [a translation’s] adequacy” (Vermeer in Venuti, 2000, p. 222)” (Tahirović-Sijerčić 2018, p. 16). It means that source text, depending of goals or purposes, could have many different translations, also with possibility that the source text does not meet meaning of the context in the target language and the source text is destabilized, and does not have its function in the target culture. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function (Pym, 2010, p. 45), (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 16). Within the Romani translation using the concept of Skopos theory, there are, also, the other problems such as: directionality of languages (majority – Romani or Romani – majority); contact language effect including existence of loanwords and neologisms in Romani; Romani readers and their different dialects; acceptance of translation; and fulfillment of the needs (TahirovićSijerčić, 2018, p. 17). It is important to state that a need for, and interest in, Romani translators and interpreters was awakened during the Decade of Roma Inclusion 20052015.10 The funding provided for the projects of different institutions also covered activities to bring Romani language to the forefront and thus to become more visible. The issues that have been most translated are in the domain of human rights and law, with special emphasis on housing, health, employment, and education for Roma. Diverse institutional and NGO reports on law and human rights have been translated into Romani and have spawned many types of translation. Translation 9 “Skopos theory” is a concept of translation studies from the 1980s. 10 The Decade of Roma Inclusion (2005-2015) was an initiative of 12 European countries (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Spain), to improve the socio-economic status and social inclusion of the Romani people across the region. An observer status had Slovenia and United States. 129 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 and interpretation for different cultural events are also widespread, and found in the form of flyers, guidelines and advertisements. Almost all of the official Decade of Roma Inclusion conferences used Romani interpreters. When looking for a Romani translator or interpreter, the institutions and non-Romani NGOs mostly have recourse to certain individuals within certain Romani NGOs. Once eligible for these institutions and NGOs, the translator/interpreter, after gaining his/her first job, the translator/interpreter is engaged with clients and is always called for the next engagement. Clients are not aware of the specific challenges that inadequate translation and/or their choice of translator/interpreter can cause. In order to make readers aware of problems “of identity politics, to experiences shrouded in silence, and to forms of representation that deepen our to empathize with people who are different from us (Ellis & Bochner, 2000)“ (Ellis, Adams & Bochner, 2011, par. 3), it is important that client institutions and NGOs as clients have translators/interpreters who identify themselves as Romani, and as the speakers of the Romani language. These are the only criteria. Of no interest to clients are the quality of the translator’s educational background; the dialect/s he/she uses; the levels of his/her Romani as the target language, the majority language as the source language; the quality of her/his translation/interpretation; or the knowledge of cultural differences. Above all, the cheapest price for translation would be appreciated. With Romani identity and work being done at the cheapest rates possible, the client’s expectations are fulfilled. In such situations, clients and translators could experience problems with the final product – the translation into Romani čhib. According to Rosemary Mackenzie, it is not just because they “ [h]a[v]e insufficient information about the situation or about the subject matter in hand“ (1998, p. 202), but also because they are “ in the game“ and they have an opinion to hold a monopoly over translation for NGOs and institutions (Mackenzie, 1998, p. 202). These translators would not generally or readily confess that they do not know the grammar of the language pair they translate. In fact, they will do the ‘work’ despite its bad quality and despite a low understanding of the source text. In fact, not just the Romani language but also its translation suffers from a cultural, economic, political and educational pressure of the majority languages in which they have been in contact. This unequal relationship of power between minority and majority languages, their linguistic and cultural differences led me to the postcolonial approach where question on power hierarchy came to attention. Since there is no translation theory nor approach that could be used to all translations, Tymoczko’s ‘cluster concept’ as the most acceptable concept, 130 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić especially in the context of Translation Romani makes and “allow[s] for selfdefinition of translation by all cultures thus far been dominated by Western logocentrism (2007, 2010, 2014, p. 105) ” (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 22). This approach provides a space for creation and self-definition of Translation Romani. 3. TRANSLATION ROMANI AND ROMANI TRANSLATORS – DEFINITION Romani, as a minority language,11 has been constantly influenced by neologisms and loanwords and creates an obstacle for communication between various groups of Roma, as does the different use of writing style and script, likewise a difficulty for translation. This situation of complex linguistic and cultural differences leads to the importance of translation in Romani context, i.e. Translation Romani. Translation Romani as a new approach to Translation Studies, is translation in and from the Romani language involving different dialect groups, cultures, customs, religions, different geographical areas and nationality languages where Roma live. In other words, Translation Romani is a cluster of translation produced by Romani translators in diverse domains in and from different Romani dialects, which preserve and still live in different Romani and non-Romani cultures. Following this definition, the Romani translator is any individual who has been educated about both cultures and both languages, and has a very good language knowledge in TL and SL, i.e. a majority language and Romani language. Romani translators, despite their bilingualism and multilingualism, have different levels of knowledge of national language/s and of Romani, which also creates difficulties in Translation Romani. The biggest problem is insufficient and incomplete translators’ education in national language/s and their national culture/s colored with particularities in expressions. In the domain of literary translation, Translation Romani is produced mostly by Romani poets who are self-translators.12 Without institutional support or access According to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages “regional or minority languages means languages that are: (i) traditionally used within a given territory of a State by nationals of that State who form a group numerically smaller than the rest of the State's population; and (ii) different from the official language(s) of that State; it does not include either dialects of the official language(s) of the State or the languages of migrants;“ Retrieved from https://rm.coe.int/168007bf4b 11 12 My PhD dissertation which seeks -through the optic of translation studies - to address some preliminary questions with regard to Romani literature and self-translation. My readings of Romani poetry, in particular, have led me to make some initial observations worthy of analysis: poems are written bilingual and 131 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 to mainstream publishers, these poets and writers publish their own work through their Romani NGOs. The situation of translation and interpretation is in an unrivaled position for both minority and majority languages, especially in the countries of Western Balkans, having in mind that [t]here are no translator training institutions as such in BiH. Most people who engage in translation/interpreting hold a degree in modern languages and many do translation/interpreting part time. Companies which offer translation or interpreting services are very rarely found in BiH. The only professional association of translators/interpreters in Bosnia and Herzegovina is the Association of Translators of BiH (Udruženje prevodilaca Bosne i Hercegovine). (Jurida & Pavlović, 2016, p. 73) In the case of Romani, both, the language and translation education is lacking, and only a small percentage of Roma are fluent and literate in Romani. Educational institutions that are responsible for supporting Romani programs, and Romani language programs in particular, face difficulties in teaching Romani and consequently in teaching Translation Romani. 4. ANALYSIS: CHALLENGES FOR CLIENTS, ORGANIZATIONS, NGOS As an illustration of the problems in Translation Romani, we will briefly analyze an excerpt of the Akcioni plan Bosne i Hercegovine za rješavanje problema Roma u oblasti zapošljavanja, stambenog zbrinjavanja i zdravstvene zaštite [Аkcijako plаno Bоsnе thaj Hеrcеgоvinе pala pandime e romenge problemura ande оblаst bućaripe ćherako zbrinime thaj sastimake zаštita/Action plan of Bosnia and Herzegovina for addressing Roma Issues in the field of employment housing and health care] which was published by the Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009. The publication is written in Bosnian as the source language and translated into Romani as the target language by a Romani translator. The translation in English is made by a professional English translator. multilingual – in Romani and majority language/s; poems are self-translated by their writers; all versions of the poem are complementing each other; versions of the poem are read ‘together’, “stereoscopically”, in the sense that textual meaning is obtained through a reading of one in relation to another – bilingually or multilingually. 132 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić Table 1. Translation Romani in 2009. BOSNIAN Akcioni plan Bosne i Hercegovine za rješavanje problema Roma u oblasti zapošljavanja, stambenog zbrinjavanja i zdravstvene zaštite (title page) ROMANI Аkcijako plаno Bоsnе thaj Hеrcеgоvinе pala pandime e romenge problemura ande оblаst bućaripe ćherako zbrinime thaj sastimake zаštita (2009, 72) ENGLISH Action plan of Bosnia and Herzegovina for addressing Roma issues in the field of employment housing and health care (2009, 133) Zаključаk (...) Оčеkivаni rеzultаti u plаnu pоstižu se krоz јаsnо dеfinirаnе mјеrе Аkciоnоg plаnа kоје оbuhvаtајu niz аktivnоsti kоје trеbа poduzеti i kоје mоrајu imаti u vidu i uzеti u оbzir pоstојеćе stimulаtivnе mјеrе i аktivnоsti u оblаsti zаpоšljаvаnjа kоје su dаlе оdrеđеnе rеzultаtе. (2009, 47) Zаključko (...) Оčеkuvime rezultatura an planpostignin pe krezo jasno definišime mjere Akcionone planoha save obuhvatin nizo aktivnosturengo save trubuj te poduzmin pe i save mora te aven an uvid i te lol an obzir već postojime stimulativni mjere te aktivnostura an oblastura zapošljavanjeko save dje određeni rezultatura. (2009, 112) Conclusion (...) The results anticipated by the Plan are achieved through the clearly defined measures of the Action Plan that include a series of activities which need to be undertaken and which must also take into account the already existing incentives and activities in the area of employment, which have already produced certain results. (2009, 171) Example 1. *The words in bold in the Bosnian source text have influenced the Romani target text. As stated by Munday, Vinay and Darbelnet’s translation strategy is the “orientation of the translator […]” and procedures are specific techniques or methods which are used “by a translator at a certain point in a text” (2012, p. 57), on the basis of the appropriate translation procedure chosen by the translator (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 93). In this example, even though unconsciously, the Romani translator uses word for word translation procedure. Translator does not pay attention to the style of the text, but to the grammar and idioms keeping the meaning in the target language. This procedure is “the most common procedure when translating between two languages of the same family [...], and even more so when they also share the same culture (Vinay & Darbelnet 2000, p. 86)” (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 96). It is the fact that Romani and Bosnian are not of the same language family, but Romani uses Bosnian grammar, orthography and morphology. Contact effect language, loanwords and neologisms, provide characteristic of Romani, hybridity and mimicry. 133 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 Romani čhib, such as other minority languages, is constantly under the pressure from dominant, majority languages, and therefore it can very easily, as Cronin stated, “become mirror-image of the dominant language“ (1998, p. 147), which is obvious in this example. In the example of the Romani translation provided, several problems are identified: 1. Translators seem to be very heavily influenced by the source text. 2. Compatibility between Bosnian / Serbian / Croatian / Montenegrin / Macedonian and Romani is more than obvious. 3. Neologisms and loanwords dominate in the Romani translation. 4. Translators do not have enough knowledge about Romani language grammar, about dialects and their differences. Their knowledge depends on the second language grammar level which they learn in schools as a mandatory subject. 5. The translator does not pay attention to punctuation or proper use of uppercase letters. There is no uniformed textual use of the nouns Rom, Roma, and adjective Romani/o/e, even though these nouns and adjectives in the source text are correct. 6. Translators do not use translation technologies or tools, and they are mostly unaware of the existence of Romani dictionaries. 7. The degree of translators’ textual awareness or use of textual knowledge is limited. This might be attributed to the following: a) the translator does not understand the text i.e. the meaning in the source language; b) the translator imports the words from the source language into the target language because he/she is not aware of their existence in the target Romani language; c) in importing the source language words, the translator builds, creates and self-invents ‘new Romani words’ (clumsy hybrids) adding to SL words Romani suffixes; and d) the translator is not aware of the existence of Romani dictionaries and grammars. 8. The revision phase is not done. As another example in Revidirani Akcioni Plan Bosne i Hercegovine za rješavanje problema Roma u oblastima zapošljavanja, stambenog zbrinjavanja i zdravstvene zaštite 2013-2016. godine published by Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2013, a translation shows how a Romani translator produces Translation Romani when the translator is well educated, uses language books, grammar and dictionaries, and has good knowledge in both, the Bosnian and Romani language and culture. 134 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić Table 2. Translation Romani in 2013. BOSNIAN ROMANI ENGLISH Revidirani Akcioni Plan Bosne i Hercegovine za rješavanje problema Roma u oblastima zapošljavanja, stambenog zbrinjavanja i zdravstvene zaštite 2013-2016. godine (title page) Bosnako thaj Hercegovinako Revidirano Akciono Plano pala ćhinavipe e Romenge problemura ande pašipende pala bući, ćheresko ažutipe thaj sastipesko arakhipe 2013. - 2016. (title page) Revised Action Plan of Bosnia and Herzegovina for addressing Roma issues in the field of employment, housing and healthcare 2013-2016 (title page) Položaj pojedinaca i/ili ove manjinske grupe udaljava Rome od mogućnosti obrazovanja i zaposlenja, te smanjuju njihovu mogućnost za ostvarivanje prihoda, tako da su mnogi od njih isključeni i ne učestvuju u društvenim mrežama ili drugim aktivnostima u zajednici. (1) E peravneski situacija jal situacija pala gova nacionalno minoriteto ćerel lungo drom e Romendar koring edukacija, bući thaj ćeren lengo bišajipe jal cikno šajipe pala bućako poćinipe jal bućako therdipe, thaj pe gova drom but katare lendar si ačhavne thaj na den participacija ande amalipeske inzardende jal ande aver aktivitetura ande amalipeste. (1) This position of individual Roma and/or this minority group alienates Roma in terms of educational and employment opportunities and hence restricts their ability to generate revenue. It is for this reason that many members of the Roma national community are excluded and do not participate in social networks or other community activities. (1) Example 2. (neologisms and loanwords in bold) In this translation, the Romani translator uses Vinay and Darbelnet’ (2000) sense by sense translation procedure taking into consideration Romani grammar, Romani dictionaries Romani writing, and Romani everyday communication. In the final observation we would refer to Newmark who states that, “[i]n communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation” (1981, p. 39), and disagree in the case of Translation Romani. Even though both examples are equivalent, the translation in Example 1 (one) does not work for revitalization activities: education of and in Romani13, the development of written standards, vocabulary development, and learning 13 The Romani alphabet consists of 34-38 letters, two genders (feminine and masculine no middle genus), two numbers (singular and plural), and eight cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental, locative, and ablative. Romani does not have infinitive (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018, p. 44). The effect of contact language enabled the exchange, acquisition, adaptation and creation of a large number of loanwords and neologisms from majority and other minority languages which influence Romani in every country where Roma live. 135 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 materials to serve Romani translators’ training and Translation Romani. In both examples, invisibility of translator/s is lacking. Accordingly, as Venuti stated “linguistics remained a basic component in the curricula of translator training programs” (2012, p. 391). As translation is one of the ways to preserve and develop linguistic vitality in minority languages,1415 reassuring its speakers, activating the creation of new vocabulary, and strengthening domains of language use that have remained under-used (Toury, 1985, p. 7), it applies also for the development of linguistic vitality in the case of Romani (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2018a), although at the same time, it could cause a threat to its distinctiveness (Cronin, 1995, p. 89). 5. TRAINING RECOMMENDATIONS Taking into consideration the position of Romani as a minority language, as well as general situation of Romani, Translation Romani and Romani Translators, the models found in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Jurida & Pavlović, 2016, pp. 74-82), Montenegro (Lakić & Pralas, 2016, pp. 98-109) or other models in the Western Balkans or Europe would not be applicable in the Romani context. Therefore, it is necessary to create a course which complements language, translation and translators training. Since each student has a different cultural, social and linguistic background (different dialects, customs and religion), and in order to avoid the common generalization about Roma, we should state that “[...] no individual is a typical example of the culture within which they live [and keep] in mind that all individuals are unique“ (Garant, 1997, p. 26). Therefore, the mean goal is to make students aware about “Rromanipe(n) /Romanipe(n) [as] the common denominator of [what] is considered or believed to make up the essential characteristics of [the world] Roma/Rroma. [Romanipe(n) is] the feeling of belonging to the same people, to the same history, culture, and habits despite the differences” [specific to each group and their linguistic and cultural sub-groups] (Tahirović-Sijerčić, 2017, p. 18). In order to get professional teachers of Romani and thus professional translators, it is necessary to develop Translation Romani as a university curriculum program to provide training for professional Romani Translators specializing in certain domains. These courses should inspire students to speak 14 15 (European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, European Treaty Series - No. 148, Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992, pg. 1-2. 136 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić and cooperate in a group, to exchange, discuss and share their knowledge and ideas of possible strategies employed for their work in translation. The course would also help Roma and non-Roma students to eliminate anti-Roma prejudices and stereotypes. For example, we would suggest introducing an elective course for two semesters Translation Romani within Romani Studies.16 The objective is to facilitate student learning of relevant Romani linguistic and cultural traits and issues (history, language, literature, migration, minority) through the concept of cultural translation, using multi-modal content (text, image, audio-visual) in Romani and other languages as examples for analysis and discussion. Through lectures, reading assignments, discussions and practical exercises in small groups students will learn about cultural translation in the unique context of the Romani language and culture, with a special emphasis on the Romani identity. Students will have opportunities to practice cultural translation in three specific contexts: literary expression (poetry, short story); film; and advertising and marketing. They will learn how language is used creatively in translation to express Romani cultural identity and representation for reception in diverse domains. The contents for this class would be presented at the introductory level, and eventually at an intermediate level class with increased difficulty in reading assignments and practical exercises. Oral presentations, discussion, individual and collective textual analysis, manipulation of audio and video material with subsequent analysis and demonstration would serve teaching methods and would be used. The basic themes for two semesters are: Introduction to Translation Romani and Introduction to Romani Studies, Romani language and translation history, Romani bilingualism and multilingualism within translation, and Translational tools: Romani grammar and dictionaries, Special problems in Romani translation, Translation Romani within Romani culture, Translating Romani identity (self-perspective), and Self-translation in Romani context. Also, included might be themes such as Terminology studies and Romani translation, Translation Romani and Romani translators, Romani literary expression and translation, Romani media and translation, Romani film and translation, and Translation Romani and advertising/marketing. Also, terminology classes are a necessity, and should include ongoing exercises which deal with different types of interference and ‘false friends’. In most translation, as well as in Romani translation, interference and interlanguage forms are present and they are, as Toury stated, “likely to occur whenever one language is used in some contact with another” (1978, p. 224). According to Havlásková, “the seriousness of mistake caused by interference can be diverse-from 16 when possibility approved 137 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 “mistakes” which cause that the text is clumsy, but which preserve the meaning of the original, to errors which completely change sense of the source text” (2010, p. 39). Learning from one’s own errors and mistakes awakens ideas for creation of terminology lists and glossaries, of use to all translators and interpreters in and from Romani čhib. They could help in the creation of more uniform sets of words missing or forgotten in Romani through their translation, and would provide better understanding, communication, translation and interpretation. In order to establish requirements and expectations for Romani translators while being in training17 it is essential that theoretical discussions are promoted in conjunction with a hands-on practice of translation (Pym, 2009, pp. 6-7). 6. CONCLUSION It appears impossible to write about translation in the Romani context, about creation of syllabuses of Translation Romani, along with training for translators, without the knowledge of the Romani language, cultures and identities of Roma and Romani translators. This knowledge constitutes Translation Romani as a new approach to Translation Studies. Translation Romani is a cluster of translations produced in 17 The translators should understand the text as readers better than even the author at the moment of writing; they should investigate the problems they have while translating, and think about processes and the methods which would be the most appropriate for this translation. Further, they should be aware of the language and readership (source and target text) specificities, highlight the importance of the length of time devoted to the translation of text, and consider the number of hours or days needed for quality translation. This may include consultation with other translators about certain terminology problems in Romani. They may require time for self-revision and revision by others, and think about realistically meeting the client’s deadlines. They may need to think about the degree of their awareness or use of textual knowledge, and reflect on the importance of self-confidence (advantages and disadvantages in the Romani case). In addition, they must recognize the significance (and importance) of the text as a whole and what is the interest of Translation Romani, and find the ways to develop Romani čhib and increase its value as a language. 138 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić diverse domains in and from different Romani dialects, which preserve and still live in different Romani and non-Romani cultures, done by Romani translators. The biggest problem that faces Translation Romani is training of professional teachers and trainers. A trainer of Romani must always have in mind one important question: Which dialect/which Romani is the most correct and most appropriate for the class teaching translation? When working with the educational mediators in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the best way to approach students is to establish good atmosphere, provide students with available literature (different dictionaries, grammars, language text books etc.), and teach them how to use these tools. After discussion about the accessibility of educational and translational tools, students could work in groups to translate a short text from Bosnian into Romani. In that way, both languages, of the source and target text are taught. These classes should be mostly interactive and practical, with translations discussed with students in detail so that [i]ndividually and in groups students develop their own glossaries, learning the basics of terminology and creating at the same time a solid basis for their future activities in translation and interpreting. (Lakić & Pralas, 2016, p. 100) The use of different Romani dialects could be of great challenges not just for students but also for trainers who should have knowledge and experience to explain the differences between them. Creating and building terminology must be a challenge especially in case of Romani where terminology is lacking. A need for the establishment of the program and designing curriculum, as the situation imposes, should start “from the idea that the goal of the entire course was to meet the needs“ (Lakić & Pralas, 2016, p. 115) of the speakers in the countries where translation programs are supported and approved. An important issue of translation, and especially of Translation Romani, is intracultural and intercultural diversity along with cross-cultural knowledge and skills that help development of communication skills (Yang, 2015, p. 249) and provide people from “different cultural background an opportunity to observe and analyse the differences, thus to understand them better and approach them positively” (Yang, 2015, p. 250). Finally, there is the problem of the evaluation/revision phase in translation. How should revision be done, and who should provide a revision? Who should validate Romani translation and validation, for certain translation choices? 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Intercultural Teaching and Learning. English as a Foreign Language Education in Finland and Japan. Jyväskylä Studies in Communication No.8. Jyväskylä: University of Jyväskylä. Retrieved from https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/24960 Havlásková, Z. (2010). Interference in Students’ Translations. Master's Diploma Thesis, Supervisor: Mgr. Renata Kamenická, Ph. D. Faculty of Arts: Department of English and American Studies, English-language Translation. Retrieved from http://is.muni.cz/th/175871/ff_m/Diploma_thesis_ZH.pdf Lakić, I. & Pralas, J. (2016). Translation Training for the EU: The Case of Montenegro.Current Trends in Translation Teaching and Learning E, 3, 87–118. Retrieved from http://www.cttl.org/uploads/5/2/4/3/5243866/cttl_e_3_laki%C4%87_2c_i.__ _pralas_2c_j..pdf Hughes, P. (2013). Language and the representation of Romani identity on websites. RomIdent Working Papers. Paper No.23. Retrieved from http://romani.humanities.manchester.ac.uk/virtuallibrary/librarydb/web/fil es/pdfs/378/Paper23.pdf Jurida, H. S. & Pavlović, T. (2016). Translation Curriculum Development at a Modern Language Faculty in Bosnia and Herzegovina: A Case of the University of Tuzla. Current Trends in Translation Teaching and Learning E, 3, 69–86. Retrieved from http://www.cttl.org/uploads/5/2/4/3/5243866/cttl_e_jurida___pavlovic.pdf Mackenzie, R. (1998). Creative Problem-Solving and Translator Training. In Beylard-Ozeroff, A., Králová J. and Moser-Mercer B. (Eds.) (pp. 20-206). 140 �Translation and Translators in Romani Context Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić Translators' strategies and creativity. Selected Papers from the 9th International Conference on Translation and Interpreting, Prague, September 1995,. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 201-206. Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees Bosnia and Herezgovina. (2009). Akcioni plan Bosne i Hercegovine za rješavanje problema Roma u oblasti zapošljavanja, stambenog zbrinjavanja i zdravstvene zaštite [Аkcijako plаno Bоsnе thaj Hеrcеgоvinе pala pandime e romenge problemura ande оblаst bućaripe ćherako zbrinime thaj sastimake zаštita/Action plan of Bosnia and Herzegovina for addressing Roma Issues in the field of employment housing and health care]. Sarajevo: Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees Bosnia and Herzegovina. (2013). Revidirani Akcioni Plan Bosne i Hercegovine za rješavanje problema Roma u oblastima zapošljavanja, stambenog zbrinjavanja i zdravstvene zaštite 2013-2016. godine. Sarajevo: Ministry for Human Rights and Refugees Bosnia and Herzegovina. Retrieved from http://www.mhrr.gov.ba/PDF/LjudskaPrava/bos-romeng.pdf Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to Translation. Oxford, New York: Pergamon Press. Pym, A. (2002). Translator Training: A Global Overview. The following is the English version of the text published as “Ausbildungssituation in aller Welt (Überblick)”, Handbook Translation, Ed. Mary Snell-Hornby et al., Tübingen: Stauffenburg Verlag, 1998, 33-36. Retrieved from http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/on-line/training/stauffenberg.pdf Pym, A. (2009). Training Translators. Pre-print text written for the Oxford Companion to Translation Studies. Retrieved from http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/online/training/2009_translator_training.pdf Tahirović-Sijerčić, H. (2017). Romani identity. In Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić and Cynthia Levine-Rasky (Eds.) A Romani Women Anthology: Spectrum of the Blue Water (pp. 13-41). Toronto: Inanna Publications and Education Inc.Toronto. Tahirović-Sijerčić, H. (2018). Language and literature of Roma within translation in the Western Balkans: Poetry in self-translation (Jezik i književnost Roma u prevodu na Zapadnom Balkanu: Poezija u autoprevodu). (Doctoral dissertation). – Unpublished (pdf). Belgrade: University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philology. Retrieved from https://uvidok.rcub.bg.ac.rs/bitstream/handle/123456789/2767/Doktorat.pdf ?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Tahirović-Sijerčić, H. (2018a). Mogućnosti očuvanja lingvističke vitalnosti romskog jezika.[Possibilities for preserving the Romani language vitality.] In Tibor Varadi i Biljana Sikimić (Eds.). Očuvanje, zaštita i perspektive romskog 141 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 1, Issue 2, Winter 2018 jezika, Zbornik radova sa naučnog skupa održanog 20-21. oktobra 2016 (pp. 111-130). Beograd: Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti (SANU). Toury, G. (1985). Aspects of Translating into Minority Languages from the Point of View of Translation Studies. Multilingua 4, 3-10. Toury, G. (1978). Interlanguage and its Manifestations in Translation. Meta, 24 (2), 1978, pp. 223-231. Reprinted in 1979. Retrieved from http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/ Venuti, L. (Ed.). (2012). The Translation Studies Reader. Third Edition. London and New York: Routledge. Yang, P. (2015). Appreciation of Cultural Diversity through Translating Australian Aboriginal Culture: A Project-Based Learning Approach. Current Trends in Translation Teaching and Learning E, 2, (pp. 246-284). Retrieved from http://www.cttl.org/uploads/5/2/4/3/5243866/chapter_8_cttlappreciatio nofculturaldiversitythroughtranslatingaustralianaboriginalculturecurrenttrend.pdf 142 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Education and Humanities Subject The topic of the resource Education and Humanities Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Translation and Translators in Romani Context Description An account of the resource Abstract: Since the area presenting former Yugoslavia has no mandatory Romani langauge classes and consequently no offically recognized translation classes, nor does it provide training for Romani translators, this paper deals with the experience and the current situation of Romani translation and translators. Theoretical background of Polysystems, Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS), Skopos and non-systems oriented ‘Cluster concept’ provide support for a better approach to translation in the Romani context. ‘Cluster concept’ allows the possibility to create a definition of Translation Romani as a new approach to Translation Studies. As translation represents one of the ways to preserve and develop linguistic vitality in the minority languages, reassuring its speakers, activating the creation of new vocabulary, and strengthening domains of language use that are under-used, it also applies as a way for creating translation strategies for teaching Translation Romani. This research is grounded in personal experience, and presents the beginning of the research on Translation Romani (TR). Creator An entity primarily responsible for making the resource Hedina Tahirović-Sijerčić Source A related resource from which the described resource is derived Journal of Education and Humanities Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource Winter 2018 Type The nature or genre of the resource Keywords: translation, Romani language, Roma, Romani translator, Romani translation, training Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2566-4638 DOI 10.14706/JEH2018124 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e409989c683b5a425b9149525184041a.docx 7c05296ffe76314934afcaaf96bf0038 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/534643c3b449d57b7eeb8eca4e4b30e9.pdf a93fff8fdf037243ffa0afc1cc2d885e PDF Text Text Translation Science as an Aid to Second Language Teaching Alenka Kocbek University of Primorska / Koper, Slovenia Key words: translation, SLT, skopos, cultureme, meme ABSTRACT In line with the findings of authors such as Cook (2010), Widdowson (2003), Malmkjær (1998), who have advocated integrating translation in second language teaching (SLT), the paper proposes adopting selected approaches from translation science as teaching strategies aimed at enhancing learners’ cross-cultural communicative competences. Firstly, the functionalist perspective with the “skopos” theory (Reiss and Vermeer 1984) is presented, according to which translation can take a number of forms and pursue different strategies to best fulfil its intended purpose and thus enable effective cross-cultural communication. This theory introduces the concept of the cultural embeddedness of language, which was also at the core of the so-called cultural turn in translation science and according to which a message can fully be understood only if embedded in the context of the culture underlying it. Furthermore, to fully envisage the interrelatedness of language and culture I suggest viewing communicative situations in the light of the “cultureme theory” (Oksaar 1988, Kocbek 2012) where culturemes are defined as patterns of communicative behaviour, i.e. as socio-cultural categories realised through realisational and regulatory “behaviouremes”. Realisational behaviouremes refer to verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal aspects of a communicative act, while the regulatory ones involve extra-linguistic factors, such as time, space, status, social order, culturally-specific norms and conventions, etc. The concept of cultureme as a teaching tool can be applied in SLT at different levels and with varying degrees of complexity – from simple communicative situations such as greeting customs to complex communicative acts requiring the use of culture-specific text types. Finally, to acquaint learners with ideas, concepts, conventions and cultural practices which have no corresponding counterpart in their culture (i.e. memes), translation is proposed as the vehicle for transferring such culturally-bound concepts across cultural and linguistic boundaries (i.e. as a survival machine for memes) in accordance with Chesterman’s theory of memes (1997). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1703 Title A name given to the resource Translation Science as an Aid to Second Language Teaching Author Author KOCBEK, Alenka Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: translation, SLT, skopos, cultureme, meme ABSTRACT In line with the findings of authors such as Cook (2010), Widdowson (2003), Malmkjær (1998), who have advocated integrating translation in second language teaching (SLT), the paper proposes adopting selected approaches from translation science as teaching strategies aimed at enhancing learners’ cross-cultural communicative competences. Firstly, the functionalist perspective with the “skopos” theory (Reiss and Vermeer 1984) is presented, according to which translation can take a number of forms and pursue different strategies to best fulfil its intended purpose and thus enable effective cross-cultural communication. This theory introduces the concept of the cultural embeddedness of language, which was also at the core of the so-called cultural turn in translation science and according to which a message can fully be understood only if embedded in the context of the culture underlying it. Furthermore, to fully envisage the interrelatedness of language and culture I suggest viewing communicative situations in the light of the “cultureme theory” (Oksaar 1988, Kocbek 2012) where culturemes are defined as patterns of communicative behaviour, i.e. as socio-cultural categories realised through realisational and regulatory “behaviouremes”. Realisational behaviouremes refer to verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal aspects of a communicative act, while the regulatory ones involve extra-linguistic factors, such as time, space, status, social order, culturally-specific norms and conventions, etc. The concept of cultureme as a teaching tool can be applied in SLT at different levels and with varying degrees of complexity – from simple communicative situations such as greeting customs to complex communicative acts requiring the use of culture-specific text types. Finally, to acquaint learners with ideas, concepts, conventions and cultural practices which have no corresponding counterpart in their culture (i.e. memes), translation is proposed as the vehicle for transferring such culturally-bound concepts across cultural and linguistic boundaries (i.e. as a survival machine for memes) in accordance with Chesterman’s theory of memes (1997). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/142a06b4af6cbd5d20e02e64e5a69a4d.doc 45119fe42e30447940e17e9e869e7f41 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/827cd6e0f9b1c3057f2780ffbf5cebc6.pdf 099e5d9ab69298d3a1cdff53450f651c PDF Text Text BOOK OF ABSTRACTS that the word can be sincere and human. We know that we cannot change the world, we can accept or not accept globalization and the imperatives imposed, but we want to be part of it. We want to show to the world our culture, our art, our history, our natural resources.” Translation studies: an emerging discipline Samra Krlicevic International Burch University / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT The increasingly interdisciplinary nature of translation studies has multiplied theories of translation. A shared interest in a topic, however, is no guarantee that what is acceptable as a theory in one field or approach will satisfy the conceptual requirements of a theory in others. In the West, from antiquity to the late nineteenth century, theoretical statements about translation fell into traditionally defined areas of thinking about language and culture: literary theory and criticism, rhetoric, grammar, philosophy. And the most frequently cited theorists comprised a fairly limited group. One such catalogue might include: Cicero, Horace, Quintilian, Augustine, Jerome, Dryden, Goethe, Schleiermacher, Arnold, Nietzsche. Twentieth-century translation theory reveals a much expanded range of fields and approaches reflecting the differentiation of modern culture: not only varieties of linguistics, literary criticism, philosophical speculation, and cultural theory, but experimental studies and anthropological fieldwork, as well as translator training and translation practice. Any account of theoretical concepts and trends must acknowledge the disciplinary sites in which they emerged in order to understand and evaluate them. At the same time, it is possible to locate recurrent themes and celebrated topoi, if not broad areas of agreement. | 39 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1445 Title A name given to the resource Translation studies an emerging discipline Author Author KRLICEVIC, Samra Abstract A summary of the resource. The increasingly interdisciplinary nature of translation studies has multiplied theories of translation. A shared interest in a topic, however, is no guarantee that what is acceptable as a theory in one field or approach will satisfy the conceptual requirements of a theory in others. In the West, from antiquity to the late nineteenth century, theoretical statements about translation fell into traditionally defined areas of thinking about language and culture: literary theory and criticism, rhetoric, grammar, philosophy. And the most frequently cited theorists comprised a fairly limited group. One such catalogue might include: Cicero, Horace, Quintilian, Augustine, Jerome, Dryden, Goethe, Schleiermacher, Arnold, Nietzsche. Twentieth-century translation theory reveals a much expanded range of fields and approaches reflecting the differentiation of modern culture: not only varieties of linguistics, literary criticism, philosophical speculation, and cultural theory, but experimental studies and anthropological fieldwork, as well as translator training and translation practice. Any account of theoretical concepts and trends must acknowledge the disciplinary sites in which they emerged in order to understand and evaluate them. At the same time, it is possible to locate recurrent themes and celebrated topoi, if not broad areas of agreement. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c819880e9edda7d14fb7a4c22bf0e35c.pdf dfb18a5c83026c9b4e7435ebd26fd164 PDF Text Text Transportation Practices and Strategies for Sustainable Development Mirsad Kulović, Tennessee Department of Transportation Nashville, TN 37243, USA m.kulovic@hotmail.com Abstract: The transportation as a system is an important component of social and economy sustainable development. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. In order to effectively reduce the adverse impact of existing transportation systems new development patterns must be adopted. Overall, the concept of transportation sustainability should be defined through three major factors: social equity, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility. Strategies for transportation sustainability include demand management, operation management, improvements of vehicle technology, pricing policy and integrated land use and transportation planning. This paper deals with importance of transportation for sustainable development and presents some sustainable transportation practices and strategies in the United States and Europe. Key words: Transportation, Sustainable Development, Practices, Strategies Introduction Sustainability, in general, is creating a balance between the economy, social needs and environment. Transportation, as a core component supporting the interactions between economy, social activities and environment should be balanced. Virtually all human activities have an impact on our environment, and transportation is no exception. While transportation is crucial to our economy and our personal lives, as a sector it is also a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Today’s transportation is facing the most significant issue – climate change. The reality of climate change is broadly accepted by international recognized scientific organization and governments. Racing global temperatures pose two major challenges for the transportation community: (1) preservation of transportation systems by minimizing affect of climate change and (2) reduction of greenhouse gases emissions produced by transportation systems. The transportation sector accounts for more than two thirds oil consumption and transportation vehicles emit 28% of the total greenhouse gas emissions. Since 1990 transportation sector emissions have grown more in absolute terms than any other sector. Forecasts of emissions, or estimates of future emissions, assist with the development of policies and actions that can be taken to establish reduction goals and reduce GHG emissions over the long term. While technological change is essential to reducing GHG emissions there is also a role for strategies that help to limit the growth in travel demand. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society; while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. Transportation Sustainability The concept of sustainability can be defined through three major points: social equity, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility (Figure 1). Social equity relates to conditions favoring a distribution of resources among the people upon comparative levels of their productivity. This should not be 832 �confused with welfare programs because welfare is not equity, but redistribution. Economic efficiency relates to higher levels of economic efficiency in terms of resource and labor usage. Economic efficiency focuses on competitiveness, flexibility in production and providing goods and services that supply a market demand. Environmental responsibility assumes using natural capital (the sum of nature’s resources) at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. This includes the supply of resources (food, water, energy, etc.) and numerous forms of wastes. The existing problems in the respects of social equity, economic efficiency and resources consuming (the land, energy, etc.) are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. The transportation infrastructure, mode of transportation and logistics systems are the major areas of transportation sustainability concentration which would contribute to the sustainability in general. Table 1 summarizes the key issues that should be balanced and integrated. The next an important question is: how to evaluate presented transportation sustainability issues? Sustainable transportation indicators are an important tool for better transportation planning. There is currently no standard set of transportation sustainability indicators. It would be very desirable to develop standardized baseline indicators of transportation sustainability. The quantity of oil consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission are directly related and they have influence on all three categories of transportation sustainability issues. The basic information on oil consumption and GHG emission are presented in the following paragraphs. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL EQUITY ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION MODE INFRASTRUCTURE LOGISTICS Figure 1: Sustainable Development and Sustainable Transportation Relationship Social Equity Economic Efficiency Inequity of Impact Mobility of Disadvantaged Human Health Impact Community Cohesion Traffic Congestion Mobility Barriers Crash Damages Transportation Facility Costs User Transportation Costs Depletion of Non-renewable Resources Community Livability Aesthetics Environmental Responsibility Air Pollution Climate Change Habitat Loss Water Pollution Hydrologic Impacts Noise Pollution Table 1: Transportation Sustainability Issues (Source: Victoria Transport Policy Institute) Oil Consumption The industrialized countries are the largest consumers of oil, but until 1998 had not been the most important growth markets for some years. The countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), for instance, account for almost 2/3 of worldwide daily oil consumption. In contrast, however, oil demand in the OECD grew by some 11 percent over the 1991-97 periods, while demand outside the OECD (excluding the Former Soviet Union) grew by 35 percent. The Former Soviet Union presents a special case. The collapse of the Russian economy that accompanied the collapse of Communism led to a decline in oil consumption of more than 50 percent over the 1991-98 periods. The developed economies use oil much more intensively than the developing economies. The United States and Canada stand almost alone in their consumption of oil per capita. For instance, oil consumption in the United States equals 10.8 liters per day per 833 �capita. The difference is this country transportation sector, with its dependence on private vehicles to travel relatively long distances. Oil consumption in the rest of the OECD equals 5.3 liters per day per capita. Outside of the OECD, oil consumption equals 0.76 liters per day per capita. Table 2 shows consumption of oil per day per capita in the USA, European Union and some European Countries with the rank of those countries in total oil consumption per day among 213 world’s countries. Country Oil Consumption per Day per Capita [Liters/Day/Capita] Total Oil Consumption per Day [Liters/Day In Millions] Rank in Total Oil Consumption per Day USA 10.8 3288 1 European Union 4.6 2288 2 Germany 4.7 390 7 Croatia 3.6 16 76 Serbia and Montenegro 1.3 13.5 82 Slovenia 4.3 8.6 94 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1.1 4.4 111 Macedonia 1.7 3.4 119 Table 2: Oil Consumption (Source: Energy Statistics, Oil Consumption, Nation Master.com) Regionally, the largest consuming area remains North America (dominated by the United States), followed by Asia (with Japan the largest consumer), Europe (where consumption is more evenly spread among the nations), and then the other regions. Asia was the region with the fastest demand growth until the 1998 economic crisis in East Asia. The region's economic upheaval is a central reason for the oil price collapse of 1998. The United States and Canada use oil more for transportation than for heat and power, but the opposite pattern holds for most of the rest of the world: most regions use more oil for heat and power than for transportation. As a result, global demand for oil is highest in the Northern Hemisphere's cold months. There is a swing of 3-4 million barrels per day (some 5 percent) between the 4th quarter of the year, when demand is highest, to the 3rd quarter, when it is lowest. Demand for crude oil is derived from the demand for the finished and intermediate products that can be made from it. In the short-term, however, demand for crude oil may be mismatched with the underlying demand for petroleum products. This misalignment occurs routinely as a result of stock changes: the need to build stocks to meet seasonal demand, for instance, or the desire to reduce stocks of crude oil for economic reasons. In the longer term, blending non-petroleum additives into petroleum products (such as ethanol or other oxygenating agents into gasoline) can also reduce crude oil demand relative to demand for finished products. 834 �Greenhouse Gas Emission Based on current GHG emission reporting guidelines, the transportation sector directly accounted for about 28 percent of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2006, making it the second largest source of GHG emissions, behind only electricity generation (33 percent). Nearly 97 percent of transportation GHG emissions came through direct combustion of fossil fuels, with the remainder due to carbon dioxide (CO2) from electricity (for rail) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) emitted from vehicle air conditioners and refrigerated transport. Transportation is the largest end-use sector emitting CO2, the most prevalent greenhouse gas. Estimates of GHG emissions do not include additional "lifecycle" emissions related to transportation, such as the extraction and refining of fuel and the manufacture of vehicles, which are also a significant source of domestic and international GHG emissions. Figure 1 shows Greenhouse Gas emission in the USA. Residential 5% Electricity Generation 33% Transportation Commercial 6% Agriculture 8% Industry 20% 28% Figure 1: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in USA Sustainable Transportation Practices and Strategies A number of practices and strategies are being carried out in many countries in Europe and United States. Some of those practices which found to be effective are listed and described in the following paragraphs. Land Use Strategies The decisions related to land use have significant impact on transportation and vice versa. The number and purpose of trips generated by certain type of land use would influence size and spatial distribution of transportation infrastructure and different mode of transportation. The most beneficial land use strategy is people living close to work, shopping centers and basic services. Providing public transportation and space for walking and biking are the next best actions. Defining urban growth boundaries, minimum density development and comprehensive planning are effective land use strategies that reinforce sustainable transportation. The policy of the state, region or municipality should be development of transportation plan that implement the goals previously adopted by the state, region or municipality. The objective of this policy is to provide the needed level of mobility while minimize number of trips taken by automobile. It is anticipated that adequate transportation demand management would reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the USA by 6% by 2020 and 15 % by 2040. The land use strategies could be summarized in the following four practical development actions: compact development, mixed use development, higher development densities and transit, pedestrian, bike friendly development. Current transportation planning practices tend to favor road automobile-oriented investments and designs over alternatives. Transportation planning practices often evaluate transportation primarily in terms of vehicle movement, which skews decisions toward automobile improvements at the expense of other forms of access. Transportation professionals should shift their focus from only on level of service for motor vehicles or road users to the users of other travel modes.Technology 835 �The new technologies offer many opportunities to improve efficiency of goods and passenger transportation and ability to access information. Application of Intelligent transportation systems in many areas of transportation field already broth significant benefits. The gas-electric hybrid vehicles are widely available on the market. Hybrid vehicles, which combine an internal combustion engine with a battery-powered motor, are significantly more fuel efficient than regular gasoline powered vehicles. For example the 2008 Toyota Prius hybrid has a combined city/highway fuel economy of 5.1 liter per 100 kilometers, while non-hybrid Toyota Corolla, which is comparable in size, is rated at 8.8 liters per 100 kilometers in city and 6.8 liters per 100 kilometers on highway. The ‘plug-in –hybrids” are designed to operate mainly as limited range electric vehicles, with a small gasoline engine to extend range and recharge batteries if needed. They are expected to reach the fuel economy of 2.4 liters per 100 kilometers. The electricity consumed from the grid is not included in this measure. This technology is still several years from widespread deployment as the battery systems that operate the vehicles are extremely expensive and not yet sufficiently reliable for commercial use. An alternative fuel, most generally defined, is any fuel other than the traditional selections, gasoline and diesel, used to produce energy or power. The emissions impact and energy output provided by alternative fuels varies, depending on the fuel source. Examples of alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, electricity, propane, compressed natural gas, and hydrogen. Transportation Planning Strategy While technological change is essential to reducing GHG emissions there is also a role for strategies that help to limit the growth in travel demand. Transportation planning strategies can be implemented through the transportation planning process and are usually initiated by transportation agencies. These include Travel Demand Management (TDM), transit investment, changes in land-use patterns and bicycle/pedestrian projects. The vehicle-kilometer traveled (VKT) has grown much faster than population growth for the past several decades, but appears to have slowed considerably in the past two years, perhaps in response to sharply rising fuel prices and global economic crisis. There are many factors that can affect the future growth rate of VKT. Among most important factors are economic trends and demographic forces, which are largely beyond the influence of government policies. Expanding transit services and other alternatives to single-occupant vehicle travel and encouraging land use that minimize the number and length of auto trips can significantly help to reduce GHG emission. An average private vehicle emission rate is about 0.3 kg of CO2 per kilometer. An automobile driven by single person 20 kilometers round trip to work will emit 6 kg of CO2. Thus, savings by using existing public transportation services would be about 6kg of CO2 per day. Over the course of a year an individual could potentially reduce their CO2 emissions by more than 1440 kg (assuming 240 days of transit travel per year). The possible opportunity to reduce growth in VKT is providing incentives and logistical support for telecommuting. Telecommuting, which has been doubled in the 1980-2000 period, is likely to be highly cost-effective strategy for reducing GHG emissions. A high level of motor vehicle travel is not sustainable. Therefore sustainable transportation requires mobility management (strategies that change travel behavior) to increase transportation system efficiency rather than just vehicle efficiency. Transportation Systems Operations Strategies Transportation systems operations strategies are designed to reduce vehicle delay, improve traffic flow, and avoid unnecessary emissions. These include incident management, traveler information, and freeway management. Traffic congestion contributes to GHG emissions because vehicle engines operate les efficiently and therefore produce higher emissions per kilometer when they are driven at low speeds in stop-and-go traffic. The optimal speed for motor vehicles with internal combustion engines is about 70 km/h. At lower speeds, CO2 emissions per kilometer are several times higher than at 70 km/h. At higher speeds, CO2 emissions per kilometer increase as well, but somewhat less sharply. Pricing Strategies The significant component of GHG emissions, as much as 22 percent, results from inefficient operation of motor vehicles. These inefficiencies could result from factors beyond the driver’s control, such as traffic congestion, and also could reflect a driver’s own behavior, such as high speed driving, vehicle maintenance, and tire pressures. The concept of road pricing has received increased attention primarily as a means of managing congestion and generating additional funding for transportation. If implemented on a broad scale road pricing system could change driver behavior. Driver education and other policies could help to promote more efficient vehicle operations, which would help reduce GHG emissions. Pricing strategies are recognized as efficient for congestion reduction. The methods vary from toll roads to peak period congestion pricing. Congestion pricing 836 �charges the owner or operator of a motor vehicle a fee for using certain roadways during periods of high congestion. The way in which congestion pricing is implemented depends upon type of technology selected and the type of pricing preferred by policymakers. Increase fuel cost can help promote alternative modes of transportation and investments. Transportation Research Board (TRB) estimates that increasing fuel prices by a rate of 3 percent per year would result in a 20 percent in global warming by 2020 and 35 percent reduction by 2040. Also TRB estimates that a 1.5 percent annual increase in average new vehicle fuel efficiency would result [1] in a 15 to 20 percent reduction in global warming by 2020 and 35 percent by 2040. Distance-based car insurance and distance-based car registration fees convert insurance and registration fees to a variable cost related to annual kilometers driven. This would reduce driving by about 9 percent and would reduce travel during peak hours motivated by consumer savings resulting from the lower, off-peak charges. Education, Community and Consumers Involvement The sustainability considerations are affecting people’s travel patterns and involve changes in citizen behavior and community design. In order for sustainability to be effectively achieved, citizens need to be informed and educated. Transportation demand management involves educating individuals and communities about changing travel behavior, including shifts in travel time, route, mode and destination. An efficient market must provide consumers with a variety of options from which they can choose the combination of quantity, quality and price that best suits their needs. Consumers must also have accurate information about their options. Only with viable options can consumer decisions reflect their true preferences. The value of some types of consumer transportation options is widely recognized. For example, many people argue that competition in vehicle manufacturing, fuel production and distribution, and airline services tends to increase efficiency and service quality in these markets. However, there is less recognition of the importance of competition between modes. For example, transit service improvements can benefit both motorists and non-motorists if it allows some motorists to shift and therefore reduces congestion and dependency on petroleum producing monopolies. Improving other modes, such as walking, cycling and ridesharing, can have similar benefits, both to people who change modes, and so benefit directly from having diverse options to choose from, and those who benefit indirectly trough reduced congestion and increased market competition. Conclusions Transportation is a core component of sustainable socioeconomic systems development. Planning for sustainability requires changing the way we think about transportation and solve its problems. Transportation is one of largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions and a major contributor to global warming. A balance between economic, social and ecological objectives is necessary. Improving vehicle gas consumption efficiency and reducing number of trips by private automobile are two most beneficial actions. However, these actions require manufacturer innovations/supplier offerings and development of new, more efficient modes of transportation. Improved travel choices supported by pricing incentives, technological innovations, intelligent transportation system implementation and better integration of land use and transportation planning provide basic framework for sustainable transportation policy and actions. A high level of motor vehicle travel is not sustainable. Therefore, sustainable transportation requires mobility management (strategies that change travel behavior) to increase transportation system efficiency rather than just vehicle efficiency. Sustainable transportation indicators are an important tool for better transportation planning. It would be very desirable to develop standardized baseline indicators of transportation sustainability. References E. Deakin, (2001-2003), Sustainable Development and Sustainable Transportation: Strategies for Economic Prosperity, Environmental Quality and Equity, Working Paper. Primer on Transportation and Climate Change (2008), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), Washington D.C. Sustainable Development, Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in 21st Century (2006) Report of the IUCN Renowned Thinkers Meeting. Transport and Sustainability, www.people.hofstra.edu 837 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 635 Title A name given to the resource Transportation Practices and Strategies for Sustainable Development Author Author Kulović, Mirsad Abstract A summary of the resource. The transportation as a system is an important component of social and economy sustainable development. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. In order to effectively reduce the adverse impact of existing transportation systems new development patterns must be adopted. Overall, the concept of transportation sustainability should be defined through three major factors: social equity, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility. Strategies for transportation sustainability include demand management, operation management, improvements of vehicle technology, pricing policy and integrated land use and transportation planning. This paper deals with importance of transportation for sustainable development and presents some sustainable transportation practices and strategies in the United States and Europe. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7129ff892f9416c63176b0d4250ed70c.pdf 17b4ef75d65b69fdd6728d07d0033f14 PDF Text Text IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce Transposition of the Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights - A challenge to national legislators Dr. sc. Anita Petrović Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, docent e-mail: anita.petrovic@untz.ba Sažetak: U oblasti europskog ugovornog prava, pravno područje najviše zahvaćeno procesom harmonizacije, a slijedom toga i procesom revizije jeste oblast zaštite potrošača. To iz razloga što se u posljednjih nekoliko desetljeća najintenzivnija legislativna djelatnost manifestirala u donošenju potrošačkih direktiva. Implementacijom istih države članice su prepoznale priliku vlastitog ekonomskog prosperiteta, s obzirom da je unapređenje trgovinske razmjene jedino moguće ukoliko potrošači uživaju ista prava bez obzira gdje na teritoriji Europske unije sklapaju ugovore. Pažnja ovog rada usmjerena je na novi horizontalni instrument europskog prava zaštite potrošača, Direktivu 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača. Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja pionirski korak na putu izgradnje koherentnog europskog prava zaštite potrošača, te u tom svjetlu ukazat će se na problemska pitanja koja se javljaju u postupku harmonizacije propisa država članica sa Direktivom 2011/83/EU, imajući u vidu klauzulu maksimalne harmonizacije. Također, kritički će se razmotriti i proces harmonizacije pozitivnih propisa sa pravnom stečevinom u oblasti zaštite potrošača. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 Keywords: Consumer protection, harmonization, Directive 2011/83/EU. JEL Classification: K12, K39 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO15215 Article History Submitted: 29.05.2014. Resubmited: 18.11.2014. Accepted: 23.01.2015. 109 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović Abstract: In the area of European contract law legal area most affected by the process of harmonization, and consequently the process of revision is the area of consumer protection. Because in the last few decades most intense legislative activity is manifested in the adoption of consumer directives. Transposing consumer directives member states have recognized the opportunity of their own economic development, since the improvement of trade is only possible if consumers enjoy the same rights no matter where in the territory of the European Union conclude contracts. This paper is focused on new horizontal instrument of European consumer law, Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights. Directive 2011/83/EU is a pioneering step towards building a coherent European consumer protection law, and in this light will be indicated the problem questions that arise in the process of harmonization of regulation Member States with Directive 2011/83/EU, keeping in mind the maximum harmonization clause. Also critically will be considered the process of harmonization of positive legislation with the Acquis in the field of consumer protection. 110 Keywords: Consumer protection, harmonization, Directive 2011/83/EU. JEL Classification: K12, K39 http://dx.doi.org/ 10.14706/DO15215 Article History Submitted: 29.05.2014. Resubmited: 18.11.2014. Accepted: 23.01.2015. Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce 1. Uvod Unutarnje tržište Europske unije (dalje: EU, Unija) još uvijek počiva na divergentnim pravnim sistemima država članica, što se u kontekstu ekonomske integracije i realizacije proklamiranih gospodarskih sloboda, slobode kretanja roba i usluga smatra bitnom preprekom. U svim svojim segmentima unutarnje tržište treba funkcionirati kao nacionalno, i mada se već duže vrijeme provodi proces harmonizacije propisa država članica, što je posebice evidentno u oblasti prava zaštite potrošača, ipak ovaj proces nije rezultirao potpunim ujednačavanjem pravnog okvira na razini EU.1 Mozaik nacionalnih propisa kojima se reguliraju ugovorni odnosi implicira niz negativnih posljedica na razvoj prekogranične trgovine, to posebno ako se ima u vidu da na unutarnjem tržištu djeluje oko 500 mil potrošača, a krajnja potrošnja čini oko 56% GDP EU.2 Stoga ne iznenđuje činjenica da se najintenzivnija legilsativna djelatnost u smislu harmonizacije propisa odvija u oblasti zaštite potrošača, jer u tome su države članice prepoznale priliku svog ekonomskog rasta i razvoja. Različiti nacionalni propisi u znatnoj mjeri povećavaju troškove poslovanja, stvaraju pravnu nesigurnost, a kod potrošača izazivaju nepovjerenje.3 Mnogi razlozi zašto harmonizacija propisa koja se u oblasti zaštite potrošača provodi od sredine 80-tih godina do danas nije polučila željene rezultate, čak vice versa unutarnje tržište je rascjepkano divergentnim propisima država članica, mogu se svesti na zajdnički nazivnik, a to su potrošačke direktive temeljene na klauzuli minimalne harmonizacije.4 Primjena načela minimalne usklađenosti nije rezultirala stvaranjem potpuno unificiranog sistema zaštite potrošača na razini EU,5 već stvaranjem zajedničkog okvira minimalne zaštite potrošača, gdje se pravne razlike ne uklanjaju već samo minimaliziraju tako da ne ometaju funkcioniranje unutarnjeg 1 V.: S. Weatherill, Why Harmonise?, in: T. Tridimas, P. Nebbia, (ed.) European Union Law for the Twenty-First Century, Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland Oregon, 2004., 11-33. 2 A European Consumer Agenda-Boosting confidence and growth, Brussels, 22.5.2012 COM(2012) 225 final. 3 Green Paper from the Commission on policy options for progress towards a European Contract Law for consumers and businesses, COM(2010) 348 final, Brussels, 1.7.2010., 4-6. 4 O ostalim razlozima koji su detrminirali otpočinjanje procesa revizije europskog prava ugovora cfr.: E. McKendrick, E., Harmonisation of European Contract Law: The State We Are In, in: S. Vogenauer, S. Weatherill, (ed.), The harmonisation of European Contract Law, Implications for European Private Laws, Business and Legal Practice, Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2006., 14-19. 5 S. Jelinić, D. Akšamović, Ugovorno pravo Europske unije na prekretnici, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, 60-1/2010, 214. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 111 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović tržišta.6 Drugim riječima, na jedinstvenom tržištu ne postoje jedinstvena pravila, zato što države imaju slobodu da prilikom transponiranja direktive odstupe od njenog sadržaja, već upravo suprotno stvoreno je toliko harmoniziranih, a ipak različitih pravnih područja koliko EU ima članica.7 Sektorski pristup harmonizaciji, budući da su potrošačke direktive usvajane kao ad hoc odgovori na konkretne barijere slobodi kretanja roba i usluga bez naročite sistematike i međusobne konzistentnosti, kao i prethodno spomenuti problem klauzule minimalne usklađenosti, implicirali su proces revizije consumer acquisa8 i postavljanje novog kursa u daljem razvoju prava zaštite potrošača koncem 2000-tih godina.9 Taj zaokret predstavljaju direktive nove generacije koje se temelje na klauzuli ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije,10 no rezultat 6 Minimalna harmonizacija omogućava stvaranje različitih sistema zaštite potrošača, stoga potrošači ne mogu biti sigurni da li će im nivo zaštite koji uživaju u svojoj zemlji, biti osiguran ukoliko kupuju negdje drugo na području EU. Ova nesigurnost u „jednaka prava“ implicira nepovjerenje potrošača u prekogranične transakcije i samim tim zadržava ih u „sigurnim“ granicama nacionalnih tržišta. Stoga, za europske potrošače najidealnije bi bilo kada bi se moglo reći „wherever you are in the EU or wherever you buy from it makes no difference: your essential rights are the same.“ V.: Green Peper on the Review of the Consumer Acquis, COM(2006), 744 fin., 3. 7 Sloboda koja je ostavljena državama članicama prilikom transponiranja odredaba direktiva minimalne harmonizacije dovela je do stvaranja tzv. „sivih pravnih područja.“ C. Twigg-Flesner, The Europeanization of Contract Law: Current controversies in law, Routledge-Cavedish, London & New York, 2008., 105. 8 Proces revizije je usmjeren na osuvremenjavanje postojećih potrošačkih direktiva, na način da se pojednostavi i unaprijedi pravni okvir za oba subjekta, poduzetnika i potrošača, te unaprijedi stupanj zaštite potrošača. Revizijom je bilo obuhvaćeno 8 ključnih potrošačkih direktiva, no sama revizija nije donijela očekivane rezultate, o čemu najbolje svjedoči i sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU. V.: Green Paper on the Review of the Consumer Acquis, 4. O reperkusijama, koje je Zelena knjiga polučila na reviziju consumer acquisa opširnije: Z. Meškić, Harmonizacija Evropskog potrošačkog prava – Zelena knjiga 2007. godine i Nacrt zajedničkog referentnog okvira, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, 3/2009, 543569.; E. Čikara, Novosti u razvoju europskog prva zaštite potrošača-Osvrt na Zelenu knjigu o reviziji pravne stečevine na području zaštite potrošača Europske zajednice, Hrvatska pravna revija, VIII:1/2008, 60-70.; C. Poncibò, The Challenges of EC Consumer Law, European Univerity Institute Working paper Max Weber Programme No. 2007/24, 5-9., http://ssrn.com/abstract=1028218, 12.03.2013. 9 V.: J. Karsten, G. Petri, Towards a Handbook on European Contract Law and Beyond: The Commission’s 2004 Communication ‘‘European Contract Law and the Revision of the Acquis:The Way Forward“, Journal of Consumer Policy, 28/2005, 32-33. 10 Prva direktiva zasnovana na principu maksimalne harmonizacije jeste Direktiva 2002/65/EZ o marketingu financijskih usluga na daljinu (Directive 2002/65/EC of 23 September 2002 concerning distance marketing of consumer financial services and amending Directive 90/619/EEC and Directives 97/7/EC and 98/27/EC, OJ L 271/16/02), potom Direktiva 2005/29/EZ o nepoštenoj poslovnoj praksi (Directive 2005/29/EC of 11 May 2005 concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the internal market and amending Council Directive 84/450/EEC, L 149/22), Direktiva 2008/48/EZ o ugovorima o potrošačkom kreditu (Directive 2008/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 112 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce koji je privukao najviše pažnje jeste Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača11 (dalje: Direktiva 2011/83/EU). 2. Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU u nacionalna zakonodavstva a) Razlozi za usvajanje prve horizontalne direktive Antagonizam između pravnih propisa iz područja zaštite potrošača,12 koje su država članica usvajale tijekom više decenijskog perioda, konačno bi trebao biti otklonjen. Fragmentaran pravni okvir, dodatno pogoršan primjenom klauzule minimalne harmonizacije nije pogodovao poslovnim subjektima, a još manje potrošačima. To iz razloga što je poduzetnicima koji žele trgovati prekogranično iziskivao troškove usaglašavanja propisa, a potrošačima nije davao dovoljan stupanj sigurnosti i povjerenja u prekogranične transakcije. Poduzetnici koji žele trgovati na tržištima drugih država članica izloženi su dodatnim troškovima koji poskupljuju proizvode i samim tim umanjuju njihovu konkurentnost. S druge strane, nizak nivo povjerenja u kupovinu preko granice impliciran je činjenicom da potrošači nisu upoznati sa svojim pravima u drugoj državi i smatraju da je ista teško ostvariti u praksi.13 Troškovi poslovanja i nepovjerenje potrošača ocijenjeni su kao ključni razlozi koji sprečavaju da unutarnje tržište zaživi u svom punom opsegu. Nova Direktiva 2011/83/EU ima za cilj postojeći nekonzistentni i rascjepkani consumer acquis transformirati u jedinstven i unificiran sistem pravila, koji će svojom koherentnošću pomoći tržišnim akterima da što bolje koriste potencijal unutarnjeg tržišta. Ovim pravnim aktom otpočeo je proces moderniziranja europskog prava zaštite potrošača na potpuno nov, sistematiziran i sveobuhvatan način. of 23 April 2008 on credit agreements for consumers and repealing Council Directive 87/102/EEC, OJ L 133) i dr. 11 Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on consumer rights, amending Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directive 85/577/EEC and Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, 25 October 2011, OJ [2011] L 304/64, 22 November 2011. 12 N., Reich., Crisis or Future of European Consumer Law, in: D. Parry, A., Nordhausen, G., Howells, C., Twigg-Flesner, C., (ed.), The Yearbook of Consumer Law 2009, Ashgate Publishing, 2008., 40. 13 V.: Flash Eurobarometer No. 299, Consumer attitudes towards cross-border trade and consumer protection, March 2011, 6., http://ec.europa.eu/ consumers/ strategy/ docs/ consumer eurobarometer2011en.pdf, 14.04.2014. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 113 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović Najadekvatniji način za otklanjanje ovih barijera predstavljen je u formi horizontalne Direktive 2011/83/EU temeljene na klauzuli ciljane maksimalne harmonizaciji. Horizontalna harmonizacija podrazumijeva usvajanje okvirnog akta u kojem su integrirane sve zajedničke i opće odredbe sadržane u većini potrošačkih direktiva, pritom niti jedno konkretno pitanje koje je predmet normiranja neke posebne direktive ne bi bilo uključeno. Horizontalna direktiva predstavlja potpuni novum u oblasti zaštite potrošača,14 jer sve direktive iz područja zaštite potrošača imaju karakter vertikalnih mjera. Pored toga, potrošačke direktive trpile su i prigovore međusobne nekonzistentnosti kada su u pitanju ključni pojmovi, što se čak javljalo i unutar iste direktive,15 kao i to da predmetno polje primjene direktive obuhvaća vrlo usko pravno pitanje (primjerice određeni ugovor, ili čak samo jedan aspekt nekog ugovora ili nekog drugog pravnog instituta), odnosno strogo su funkcionalno orjentirane.16 Za razliku od Prijedloga Direktive 2011/83/EU iz 2008. godine,17 koji je trebao promijeniti i sjediniti sadržaje četiri potrošačke direktive, Direktiva 14 U naučnim krugovima javljaju se mnoge nedoumice vezano za primjenu horizontalne direktive u praksi, kao i to da li se toliko željena puna usklađenost divergentnih pravnih propisa može postići direktivom kao pravnim aktom, jer puno adekvatniji instrument bila bi uredba. Nadalje, kako će se ova direktiva uklopiti u postojeći komunitarni poredak, odnosno kakav će odnos imati naspram drugih direktiva iz oblasti ugovornog prava. V.: M., Loos, Full harmonisation as a regulatory concept and its consequences for the national legal orders: The example of the Consumer rights directive, Centre for the Study of European Contract Law, Working Paper Series, No. 2010/3, 3., http://ssrn.com/abstract=1639436, 14.04.2014. 15 Problem nekonzistentnosti sadržaja potrošačkih direktiva, te poteškoće koje su se neminovno javljale prilikom transponiranja njihovih odredaba u pravne sisteme država-članica, bili su predmet istraživanja posebnog znanstvenog projekta, kojeg je Europska komisija povjerila međunarodnoj skupini pravnih eksperata, a kao rezultat čega je nastala studija pod nazivom „EC Consumer Law Compendium“ (dalje: EC Compendium). Nekonzistentnost je najbolje uočljiva kod pojmova potrošač (consumer) i trgovac (business), zati trajanja i računanja prava na bezrazložni raskid ugovora (right of withdrawal), kao i dužnosti informiranja (information duties) V.: H., Schulte-Nölke, C., Twigg-Flesner, M., Ebers, (ed.), EC Consumer Law Compendium, The Consumer Acquis and its transposition in the Member State, Sellier, Munich, 2008. 16 Cfr.: D., Staudenmayer, The Place of Consumer Contract Law Within the Process on European Contract Law, Journal of Consumer Policy, 27/2004, 270-271.; Slično i: T., Josipović, Izazovi harmonizacije građanskog prava putem direktiva, Forum za građansko pravo za jugoistočnu Europu, Izbor radova i analiza Prva regionalna konferencija, Cavtat, 2010., Knjiga I, Beograd 2010., 291-296. 17 Naime, određeni autori Prijedlog direktive su vidjeli kao idealnu podlogu za donošenje onog što se u znanstvenoj javnosti često naziva Europski zakonik prava potrošača (European Code of Consumer Rights). Tako, u narednih 10 do 15 godina Direktiva o pravima potrošača na sveobuhvatan način će regulirati sve potrošačke ugovore. Istovremeno, potrošači će se u tolikoj mjeri navići na takav oblik zaštite, da će Komisiji postati sasvim racionalno da umjesto Direktive o pravima potrošača predloži 114 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce 2011/83/EU derogira samo Direktivu 85/577/EEZ o ugovorima sklopljenim izvan poslovnih prostorija, i Direktivu 97/7/EZ o ugovorima sklopljenim na daljinu, dok u određenoj mjeri revidira Direktivu 93/13/EEZ o nepoštenim ugovornim odredbama u potrošačkim ugovorima, te Direktivu 99/44/EZ o prodaji potrošačke robe i povezanim garancijama. Direktiva 2011/83/EU sastoji se iz dva dijela, općeg ili uvodnog, te posebnog. U uvodnom dijelu sadržana su opća i zajednička načela, te definicije ključnih potrošačkih pojmova koji su dijelom postojećih direktiva koje ovaj instrument zamjenjuje ili dopunjava, dok u posebnom dijelu regulirane su pojedine vrste ugovora, koji su nekad bile predmet regulacije posebnih direktiva. Pravni pojmovi i instituti koji su zajednički svim potrošačkim direktivama prvo su apstrahiran, a potom jednoznačno integrirani u novi dokument. Nesporno je da Direktiva 2011/83/EU po prvi put uvodi jedinstvene zajedničke definicije osnovnih potrošačkih pojmova, zatim sadrži iscrpna pravila o obavezi predugovornog informiranja potrošača, o jednostranom bezrazložnom raskidu i posljedicama, o mjerama koje trebaju spriječiti prikrivene terete za potrošača, no činjenica da se navedeno primjenjuje samo na dvije vrste B2C (business to consumer) ugovora umanjuje značaj koji je Direktiva 2011/83/EU trebala imati u procesu ujednačavanja prava zaštite potrošača. No, ipak iz same strukture Direktive 2011/83/EU donekle se može nazrijeti intencija europskog zakonodavca, a to je da Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja dobru polaznu točku za buduće aktivnosti u pravcu stvaranja jedinstvenog ugovornog prava zaštite potrošača. Ovo iz razloga što struktura Direktive 2011/83/EU dozvoljava da se vremenom interpoliraju i ostali segmenti potrošačkog acquisa, a da se pritom ne izgubi ratio. Na taj način bi postepeno došlo do diferenciranja sadržaja, koji bi bio podijeljen na dva dijela, opći i posebni. Jedinstvene, konzistentne definicije i zajedničko pravo na informiranje potrošača i jednostrani bezrazložni raskid bi vremenom poprimili izgled općeg dijela potrošačkog ugovornog prava, dok bi posebni dio činili različiti modaliteti potrošačkih ugovora.18 Iako je ova horizontalna direktiva u znatnoj mjeri trebala doprinijeti smanjivanju ukupne građe consumer acquisa i lakšoj preglednosti ove opsežne Uredbu o pravima potrošača, a time bi izravno na snazi bio Europski potrošački zakonik. O tome: M. W., Hesselink, The Consumer Rights Directive and the CFR: two worlds apart?, 5(3) ERCL 2009, 5-7.; Slično i: N., Reich, A European Contract Law, or an EU Contract Law Regulation for Consumers?, Journal of Consumer Policy, 28/2005, 398-403. 18 V.: Z., Meškić., Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača od 25. oktobra 2011. godine, Sl. list EU 2011, L 304/64, Nova pravna revija, 1/2012., 48. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 115 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović materije, to se ipak nije dogodilo, budući da je van snage stavila samo dvije direktive. S druge, pak, strane Direktiva 2011/83/EU je otklonila postojeće terminološke probleme i ponudila jednoznačne definicije ključnih potrošačkih pojmova, zatim izbjegnuto je višestruko a različito reguliranje određenih prava potrošača, te došlo je do modernizacije određenih pravnih rješenja kako bi se uhvatio korak s razvojem novih tehnologija. Iz tog razloga se i smatra da je horizontalni instrument najbolji način da se reguliraju zajednički aspekti prava potrošača, kao i to da se pojednostave i ažuriraju postojeći propisi, otklone neujednačenosti i popune praznine. b) Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija i njezine posljedice Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija19 znači da se potpuna usklađenost pravnih propisa odnosi samo na određene, ključne aspekte potrošačkog acquisa, odnosno države članice prilikom transponiranja direktive ne smiju odstupiti od odredbi koje su „pogođene“ maksimalnom harmonizacijom, u smislu usvajanja i zadržavanja strožijih mjera zaštite potrošača.20 Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija predstavlja svojevrsnu simbiozu između minimalne harmonizacije, gdje države imaju slobodu transponiranja i maksimalne harmonizacije gdje je ta sloboda isključena, na način da je maksimalna harmonizacija ublažena ciljanjem samo na određena pitanja koja se usklađuju.21 Iako bi maksimalna usklađenost trebala obuhvatiti samo određene, ciljane aspekte ugovornog odnosa, ipak iz analize Direktive 2011/83/EU evidentno je da su obuhvaćeni gotovo svi segmenti predmetnih ugovora. Iz tog razloga skoro da se i ne može govoriti o ciljanoj, nego samo o punoj harmonizaciji, ili još slikovitije rečeno Direktiva 2011/83/EU više cilja na punu harmonizaciju, nego što stremi ciljanoj harmonizaciji.22 Međutim, sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU predviđa niz odstupanja od 19 Izraz „ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija“, Komisija je počela prvi put upotrebljavati u svom Izvještaju o Zelenoj knjizi o reviziji pravne stečevine (Report on the Green Paper on the Review of the Consumer Acquis, OJ 2008 C 187/E231). 20 Princip ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije reguliran je odredbom člana 4. Direktive 2011/83/EU, što znači da „države-članice ne smiju zadržati ili propisati u svom nacionalnom pravu, odredbe koje odstupaju od onih propisanih u ovoj Direktivi, uključujući manje ili više striktne odredbe da se osigura različit nivo zaštite potrošača.“ 21 V.: E., Mišćenić, Usklađivanje prava zaštite potrošača u Republici Hrvatskoj, Godišnjak Akademije pravnih znanosti Hrvatske, 1/2013, . 22 V.: G., Howells, R., Schulze, Overview of the Proposed Consumer Rights Directive, in: G., Howells, R., Schulze (eds.), Modernising and Harmonising Consumer Contract Law, Sellier, European law publishers, Munich, 2009., 24. 116 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce principa maksimalne harmonizacije, tako primjerice dozvoljava se državama članicama da reduciraju polje primjene,23 zatim da u određenim slučajevima pruže veći stupanj zaštite potrošačima, kao i to da pojedine odredbe nisu obavezne inkorporirati u svoj pravni sistem. Iz čega proizlazi da načelo maksimalne harmonizacije ipak trpi niz odstupanja i da načelo minimalne harmonizacije nije u potpunosti nestalo.24 Odlučujuća činjenica koja je generirala primjenu načela maksimalne harmonizacije jeste nedovoljno iskorišten potencijal prekogranične elektronske trgovine. 25 U posljednjih par godina unutarnja distanciona prodaja bilježi svoj rast, dok se to isto ne može reći kada su u pitanju prekogranične transakcije.26 Međutim, pored razloga navedenih u preambuli Direktive 2011/83/EU koji opravdavaju punu harmonizaciju, treba uzeti u obzir i praktične posljedice koje će ovaj nivo harmonizacije implicirati na nacionalna zakonodavstva.27 Drugim riječima, kako će puna usklađenost propisa u oblasti potrošačkih ugovora utjecati na dalji razvoj ugovornog prava država članica, posebice ako se zna da su određene države članice 23 Tako primjerice, države članice mogu odlučiti ne primijeniti, zadržati postojeće ili uvesti nove odredbe vezano za vrijednost ugovora zaključenog izvan poslovnih prostorija trgovca, budući da se odredba člana 3., stav 4. Direktive 2011/83/EU neće primjenjivati ako vrijednost ugovora ne prelazi 50 €. Nadalje, odredbom člana 5. propisana je lista informacija koje trgovac mora pružiti potrošaču u predugovornom stadiju, a koja se odnosi na sve ugovore o prodaji robe ili pružanju usluga, pri tome u stavu 4., navodi se da države-članice mogu proširiti ovu listu informacija. Odredba člana 7., propisuje formalne zahtjeve koji moraju biti zadovoljeni kod ugovora sklopljenih izvan poslovnih prostorija, dok države-članice imaju mogućnosti da stav 4. navedene odredbe uopće ne transponiraju u svoje zakonodavstvo. 24 O prednostima i nedostatcima primjene principa minimalne, odnosno maksimalne harmonizacije kroz analizu slučajeva iz prakse ESP vidi: G., Howells, N., Reich, The current limits of European harmonisation in consumer contract law, ERA Forum, 2010. 25 V.: točku 7. preambule Direktive 2011/83/EU. 26 Kada se radi o prekograničnom sklapanju ugovora svega 25% Europljana je u 2007. godini zaključilo ovakvu transakciju. Pritom, ove transakcije se najčešće sklapaju neposrednim kontaktom između trgovca i potrošača (face-to-face), i to za vrijeme odmora i poslovnih putovanja (70%), organiziranih shopping tura (36%) i sl. U posljednje vrijeme distancioni ugovori zaključeni putem interneta, pošte, telefona i sl., sve više zauzimaju mjesto kod EU populacije. Tako, u 2008. godini 33% Europljana je obavilo kupovinu putem interneta, 28% posredstvom pošte, 16% putem telefona, 9% Europljana je zaključilo ugovor na kućnom pragu. Međutim, značajno je istaći da većina distancionih ugovora ipak ima tuzemni karakter (30%), odnosno prekogranična distanciona trgovina javlja se tek uzgredno (7%). V.: European Commision, Special Eurobarometer 298, Consumer protection in the Internal Market, October 2008., 4., http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_298_en.pdf, 13.10.2013. 27 Cfr.: J., Smits, Full Harmonization of Consumer Law? A Critique of the Draft Directive on Consumer Rights, European Review of Private Law, 1/2010, 8–10. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 117 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović potrošački acquis inkorporirale u svoje građanske kodifikacije, koje su iz tog razloga već bile podvrgnute procesu modernizacije?28 Odnos između Direktive 2011/83/EU i nacionalnih pripisa može se analizirati sa dva aspekta. Prvi aspket, jeste odgovor na pitanje koje je sve propis potrebno ukinuti da bi se udovoljilo zahtjevu pune harmonizacije? Drugi aspekt, jeste odgovor na pitanje da li će puna harmonizacija imati „efekat preljevanja“, odnosno da li će njome biti zahvaćene i one oblasti prava, koje direktno ne ulaze u predmetno polje primjene Direktive 2011/83/EU?29 No, jedno je sigurno Direktiva 2011/83/EZ će na određeni način doprinijeti europeizaciji ugovornog prava, dok razlozi koji opravdavaju princip pune harmonizacije, a koje je Europska komisija navela nakon ispitivanja javnog mnijenja, su samo iluzija, jer nivo pravne sigurnosti koji se proklamira neće biti povećan, već će zasigurno biti smanjen.30 Zato što većina država članica zahvaljujući principu minimalne harmonizacije svojim potrošačima je pružala veću razinu zaštite nego što to sada predviđa Direktiva 2011/83/EU.31 Jedina sigurnost koju će potrošači imati jeste to što će se isti korpus pravila primjenjivati svugdje na području EU, dakle, bez obzira na mjesto sklapanja ugovora. Na taj način eliminirana je glavna prepreka prekograničnoj trgovini i nepovjerenju potrošača. Potpuna harmonizacija će značiti kraj pravnom eksperimentiranju nacionalnih zakonodavaca, s tim da izraz eksperimentiranje ovdje nema negativnu konotaciju kao što to ima pravna 28 Za države članice obaveza implementacije određenog normativnog akta nameće obavezu izbora adekvatnog modela implementacije, odnosno da li sadržaj primjerice određene direktive inkorporirati u postojeću kodifikaciju građanskog prava, ili opredijeliti se za usvajanje novog zakona (lex specialis). Države članice da bi uskladile svoje propise sa komunitarnim aktima, a pri tome očuvale koherentnost pravnog sistema, odnosno spriječile pojavu kontradiktornih rješenja povodom istih pravnih problema, najčešće pristupaju temeljitim pravnim reformama. Najbolji primjer za to je izmjena njemačkog Građanskog zakonika iz 2002. godine (Gesetz zur Modernisierung des Schuldrechts, 26. 11. 2001. (BGBl. I S 3138), zatim noveliranje nizozemskog Građanskog zakonika iz 1992. godine (Burgerlijk Wetboek) Međutim, usvajanje velikog broja komunitarnih akata u vrlo kratkom periodu, ukazuje na to da se legislativne reforme vremenom pretvaraju u začarani krug. Cfr.: M. W., Hesselink, The New European Private Law: Essays on the Future of Private Law in Europe, Kluwer Law International, 2002., 37-42.; S., Vogenauer, S., Weatherill, 71-83. 29 G., Howells, R., Schulze (2009), 41.; M., Loos, (2010), 15-16. 30 O implikacijama i poteškoćama s kojim će se susresti nacionalni zakonodavci prilikom i nakon transponiranja Direktive 2011/83/EU detaljnije vidi i kod.: H. G. Howells, R., Schulze R. (2009), 5661. 31 V.: H. W., Micklitz, N., Reich, N., Crónica de una Muerte Anunciada: The Commission Proposal for a "Directive on Consumer Rights", Common Market Law Review, 46/2009. 118 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce fragmentacija koja nastaje kao njegov rezultat.32 Ujednačena, iako evidentno smanjena razina zaštite potrošača, zasigurno će u velikoj mjeri pogodovati poduzetnicima jer iako se radi o imperativnim propisima postoje mnoge pravne praznine, koje će poduzetnici iskoristiti u svojim općim uvjetima poslovanja koji će sada biti identičnim za cijelo tržište EU kako bi sebi osigurali ekstra profit.33 c) Problem izbora adekvatnog modela implementacije Bez obzira na to što Direktiva 2011/83/EU nije ispunila očekivanja projicirana nizom programskih akata koje je Europska komisija donosila posljednjih desetak godina, ipak ne smiju se zanemariti reperkusije koje će nova Direktiva 2011/83/EU proizvesti nakon što države članice transponiraju njen sadržaja, budući da je taj rok istekao 2013. godine. Velike razlike u pravnim režimima zaštite potrošača ocijenjene su glavnom preprekom za efikasno funkcioniranje unutarnjeg tržišta, a da bi se ostvarilo jedinstvo pravnog režima izabrana je maksimalna harmonizacija.34 Primjena klauzule maksimalne harmonizacije znači da će sada određene države članice morati sniziti stupanj zaštite koji su osiguravale svojim potrošačima, dok će neke tu razinu podići. U većini slučajeve države članice su pribjegavale usvajanju izuzetno strogih mjera zaštite potrošača svaki put kada bi direktiva minimalne harmonizacije šutila o određenom pitanju. Iako će nivo zaštite koji europski potrošači uživaju od sada biti isti za sve fizičke osobe koje djeluju na unutarnjem tržištu, mnogo kompleksnije 32 Prema: G., Howells, R., Schulze R., (2009), 77. Cfr.: V., Mak, Review of the Consumer Acquis – Towards Maximum Harmonisation?, TICOM, Working paper No. 2008/6, August 2008, 12-13., http://ssrn.com/abstract=1237011, 20.04.2013. 34 Potrošačke organizacije nisu iskazale oduševljenje zbog primjene klauzule maksimalne harmonizacije, već su svoju naklonost usmjerile mješovitom pristupu implementacije. Iz perspektive potrošača maksimalna harmonizacija je poželjna samo ukoliko se istom osigurava izuzetno visok stupanj zaštite, a to je jedino moguće kada su u pitanju odredbe procesnog karaktera, zatim kada se radi o pojmovima koji se provlače kroz sve potrošačke direktive, kao što su primjerice definicije potrošač, trgovac, trajni medij i sl., zatim u pogledu pitanja tzv. „tehničke prirode“ poput dužine roka za jednostrani bezrazložni raskid ugovora. S druge strane, određene potrošačke oblasti bi trebale i dalje biti podvrgnute principu minimalne harmonizacije, to se posebice odnosi na nepoštene ugovorne odredbe, odgovornost za nedostatke na proizvodu, garancije i sl. O tome detaljnije v. istraživanje provedeno od strane Gallup organizacije, na zahtjev DG HCP objavljeno u Special Eurobarometer, Business attitudes towards crossborder sales and consumer protection, July 2008, No 224, 20-28., http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash /fl_224_en.pdf, kao i reakciju organizacije za zaštitu potrošača BEUC na Prijedlog direktive o pravima potrošača dostupnu na www.beuc.eu., 10.03.2014. 33 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 119 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović pitanje tiče se samog izbora adekvatnog metoda implementacije Direktive 2011/83/EU u nacionalna zakonodavstva. Izbor odgovarajuće normativne tehnike naročito je pogodio one države članice koje su potrošački acquis ugradile u svoje građanske kodifikacije, koje su zbog toga već bile podvrgnute krupnim nomotehničkim zahvatima. Direktiva 2011/83/EU neminovno će imati određeni utjecaj na opće ugovorno pravo država članica.35 Pravo zaštite potrošača, iako u sebi sadrži i javnopravne i privatnopravne elemente, ipak se razvija i čini sastavni dio općeg ugovornog prava država članica, tzv. „spontana harmonizacija.“ Iz tog razloga ne može se promatrati kao izolirana cjelina, budući da se u velikoj mjeri prava i interesi potrošača štite propisima općeg ugovornog prava, na što upućuju i same potrošačke direktive. S obzirom da se Direktiva 2011/83/EU temelji na principu pune harmonizacije to može dovesti do tzv. „efekta zamrzavanja“ europskog potrošačkog prava, koje će postati statično, dok europsko ugovorno pravo će se nastaviti razvijati prateći suvremeni gospodarski razvoj. U budućem periodu može se dogoditi da pravni propisi ugovornog prava budu povoljniji za potrošača, nego propisi koji su stricto sensu namijenjeni njegovoj zaštiti. Nadalje, u samoj Direktivi 2011/83/EU navodi se da ista neće utjecati na ugovorno pravo država članica kada su u pitanju one oblasti koje nisu predmet njene regulacije. Direktiva 2011/83/EU ne bi smjela utjecati na određene aspekte općeg ugovornog prava, kao što su primjerice opći uvjeti zaključenja ugovora, dejstva ugovora, tumačenje, nevažnost ugovora, pravni lijekovi za slučaj povrede ugovornih obaveza, naknadu štete i sl.36 Međutim, to ipak otvara određena pitanja, budući da i sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU upućuje na primjenu nacionalnih propisa, i to ne samo kada su u pitanju ugovorni aspekti isključeni iz predmeta njenog djelovanje, već i kada se radi o aspektima koji su djelomično predmet njene regulacije. Iz toga proizlazi da bez obzira što je došlo do potpunog ujednačavanja određenih segmenata ugovornog prava iz oblasti zaštite potrošača, ipak divergentni propisi obligacionog prava država članica i dalje će se primjenjivati kada su u pitanju potrošački ugovori.37 Prema tome, potpuna je zabluda da Direktiva 2011/83/EU neće dovesti u 35 Opširnije: M., Loos, The Influence of European Consumer Law on General Contract Law and the Need for Spontaneous Harmonization, European Review of Private Law, 2007/4. 36 V.: točku 14. preambule Direktive 2011/83/EU. 37 V.: G., Howells, N., Reich, 50-52. 120 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce pitanje postojeće propise ugovornog prava država članica, već upravo suprotno,38 države članice kako bi očuvale unutarnje jedinstvo i sistematičnost propisa građanskog prava morat će pristupiti izmjenama određenih instituta. To dalje znači da neće biti uspostavljen potpuno koherentan pravni okvir kojim se štite potrošači, jer se propisi obligacionog prava država članica razlikuju. Direktiva 2011/83/EU o mnogim pitanjima šuti i ostavlja državama članicama da ih urede u skladu sa svojim propisima ugovornog prava, npr. pitanje sankcija za slučaj kršenja obaveze informiranja potrošača, kakve su pravne posljedice bezrazložnog raskida ugovora u slučaju da jedna od ugovornih strana ne ispuni svoju obavezu restitucije, prestanak povezanih ugovora i sl. U većini slučajeva da bi zadržale koherentnost općeg ugovornog prava države članice morat će optirati u smislu da li ići u postupak izmjene općeg ugovornog prava ili stvoriti poseban korpus pravila namijenjen isključivo potrošačima koji će biti u interakciji s propisima općeg ugovornog prava kada se radi o neharmoniziranim pitanjima.39 Tako, ukoliko bi se određeni nacionalni zakonodavci ipak odlučili da Direktivu 2011/83/EU transponiraju u svoje građanske kodifikacije to znači da su gotovo prisiljeni spontano harmonizirati i ostale propise koji se primjenjuju na nepotrošačke, odnosno na B2B i C2C ugovore, u cilju održavanja unutarnje konzistentnosti ugovornog prava. Mada se od država članica ne očekuje da primjene „copy-past“ tehniku transponiranja, ipak većina njih će se odlučiti upravo za ovaj metoda kako bi se izbjegle nepotrebne greške i previde.40 No, pored pitanja kako, javlja se i pitanje gdje implementirati ovu okvirnu horizontalnu direktivu: u okviru postojećih građanskih zakona ili potrošačkih zakona?41 38 V.: M. W., Hesselink, Towards a sharp distinction between b2b and b2c? On consumer, commercial and general contract law after the Consumer rights directive, European Review of Private Law, 2010/1, 81. 39 V.: M., Loos, (2010), 3. 40 V.: Z., Čađenović, E., Čikara, et al., Transponovanje predložene Direktive o pravima potrošača u nacionalne zakone zemalja učesnica, Forum za građansko pravo za jugoistočnu Europu, Izbor radova i analiza Prva regionalna konferencija, Cavtat 2010., Knjiga III, Beograd, 2010., 722 i d. 41 Po pitanju izbora tehnike transponiranja države članice su pretežno prihvatile mješoviti model, tako išlo se u pravcu izmjena i dopuna postojećih propisa o zaštiti potrošača, uključujući i građanske zakonike, ali i donošenje potpuno novih obvezujućih akata (zakonskih, podzakonskih) u skladu sa odredbama Direktive 2011/83/EU. Primjerice, u Nizozemski građanski zakonik (Dutch Civil Code) interpolirani su novi dijelovi kompatibilni sadržaju Direktive 2011/83/EU, kako bi se i dalje održala sistematizacija i struktura građe Zakonika, redaktori su vodili računa da transplantati budu u vezi sa općim pravom ugovora. Tako, u Knjigu 6 Zakonika smješten je odjeljak o obavezi informiranja i to u dijelu koji se odnosi na opće uvjete za sklapanje ugovora, ili Knjiga 7 Zakonika pored redovnog ugovora o prodaji sada ima i novi odjeljak o distancionoj i prodaji na kućnom pragu i sl. O implementaciji Direktive 2011/83/EU u Nizozemski građasnki zakonik opširnije vidi: A. J., Luzak, V., Mak, The Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 121 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović Pred državama članicama je veliki izazov u pogledu izbora odgovarajućeg modela implementacije, no postoji opravdana bojazan da će nakon što snize nacionalne nivoe zaštite potrošača države članice se susresti s paradoksalnim problemom da su im odredbe općeg ugovornog prava povoljnije od posebnih pravila o zaštiti potrošača. Drugi problem s kojim se mogu susresti države članice jeste pitanje pravnih praznina, naime Direktiva 2011/83/EU harmonizira određeno pravno područje, ali ne do kraja iscrpno. Tako primjerice, kada je u pitanju obaveza predugovornog informiranja potrošača, Direktiva 2011/83/EU je izričita i ne dozvoljava državama članicama odstupanja od propisanih informacija, no s druge strane sankcije za kršenje ove obaveze potpuno prepušta državama članicama. Što znači da su države članice i dalje obavezne ona pitanja koja nisu potpuno harmonizirana ipak dopunjavati propisima općeg ugovornog prava. Stoga, bi bilo potpuno naivno misliti da će maksimalna harmonizacija povećati stupanj zaštite potrošača kada postoje evidentni primjeri da će taj nivo biti umanjen, jer su države članice obavezne derogirati sve propise koji prelaze maksimalnu granicu zaštite propisanu Direktivom 2011/83/EU. d) „Visok stupanj zaštite potrošača“ – hoće li i dalje ostati visok? Mnoga pitanja bitna za zaštitu potrošača Direktiva 2011/83/EU je ispustila iz predmetnog polja primjene, odnosno i dalje ih je ostavila dejstvu vertikalnih mjera minimalne harmonizacije. Što znači da je de facto i dalje zadržan pravni partikularizam i nekonzistentnost u ovoj oblasti i pored toga što je Direktiva 2011/83/EU puno obećavala kada je u pitanju otklanjanje ovih barijera. Dugogodišnji napori akademske i stručne javnosti ipak nisu urodili očekivanim plodom kada se radi o uspostavljanju jedinstvenog seta propisa koji će biti jamac visokog stupnja pravne sigurnosti potrošača na unutarnjem tržištu. S tim u vezi značajno je naglasiti da nakon što je Lisabonski ugovor stupio na snagu, visok nivo zaštite potrošača „promoviran“ je na rang ustavnog načela.42 Stoga, postavlja se i pitanje da li naziv Direktiva o pravima potrošača zaista odgovara Direktivi 2011/83/EU, s obzirom da ista regulira veoma uzak segment potrošačkog acquisa, tj. sadrži pravila koja se primjenjuju jedino na ugovore sklopljene na daljinu i ugovore sklopljene izvan poslovnih prostorija. Iz tog razloga sam naziv Direktive 2011/83/EU Consumer Rights Dirctive, Centre for the Study of European Contract Law Working Paper Series No. 2013-01, University of Amsterdam, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstractid= 2192603. 15.03.2014. 42 V.: odredbu člana 114., stav 3. UFEU. 122 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce lako može zavarati da se radi o Zakoniku ugovornog potrošačkog prava, što zapravo nije slučaj, odnosno naziv direktive ne odgovara njenom sadržaju.43 Jako je teško osigurati visok stupanj zaštite potrošača naročito u onim oblastima gdje taj nivo Direktiva 2011/83/EU snižava u odnosu na postojeće nacionalne propise, stoga se čini da je klauzula minimalne harmonizacije ipak bila prihvatljivije rješenje kada se radi o zaštiti potrošača. Nesporno je da je princip minimalne harmonizacije implicirao sve one negativne pojave u smislu divergencije materijalnih propisa država članica. Upravo iz tog razloga, države članice koje njeguju dugu tradiciju zaštite potrošača morat će se odreći svojih visokih standarda i usvojiti standarde propisane Direktivom 2011/83/EU.44 Nadalje, postavlja se pitanje kako će potpuna harmonizacija utjecati na povjerenje potrošača u jedinstveno europsko tržište. Tako primjerice, potrošači mnogih europskih zemalja će sigurno biti razočarani kada Direktiva 2011/83/EU postane dio njihovog pravnog sistema, zato što će se nivo zaštite značajno srozati a to nikako neće doprinijeti njihovom povjerenju u funkcioniranje unutarnjeg EU tržišta. Upravo suprotno! Međutim, ne smije se zaboraviti da Direktiva 2011/83/EU ima i političke ciljeve, i to što se određene države članice moraju odreći svojih visokih standarda bit će kompenzirano sveukupnim povećanjem razine zaštite potrošača u EU. Zaštita koju osigurava Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja na određeni način „zlatnu sredinu“, odnosno mjeru kojom će se uspostaviti stvarna ravnoteža između zaštite interesa potrošača i konkurentnosti poduzetnika. 45 3. Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU u domaći pravni poredak Potpisivanjem Sporazuma o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju između europskih Zajednica i njihovih država članica (dalje: SSP) 2008. godine, preuzeta je obaveza ispunjenja niza političkih, gospodarskih, institucionalnih i pravnih kriterija kako bi se Bosna i Hercegovina (dalje: BiH) pridružila europskim integracijama. Proces 43 D. A., Chirita, The Impact of Directive 2011/83/EU on Consumer Rights, 3., http://ssrn.com /abstract=1998993, 10.06.2013. 44 V.: M., Loos, (2010) 18-19. 45 O tome cfr.: V., Reding, An ambitious Consumer Rights Directive: boosting consumers’ protection and helping businesses, speech/10/91, European Consumer Day 2010, Madrid, 15 March 2010, http://europa.eu/rapid/ pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/10/91&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLang uage=en, 10.06.2013. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 123 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović harmonizacije domaćih pravnih propisa sa pravnom stečevinom (acquis communautaire) jedan je od temeljnih uvjeta za pristup novih država u članstvo EU. Iz tog razloga i BiH već određeno vrijeme provodi proces usklađivanja pozitivnih propisa sa pravnim naslijeđem EU i to u raznim oblastima. Usklađivanje domaćih propisa odvija se na bitno drugačiji način nego u državama članicama, jer BiH nema aktivnu ulogu u izradi uredbi, direktiva i drugih akata, već se samo radi o jednostranoj obavezi preuzimanja već usvojene regulative. Obaveza harmonizacije pozitivnopravnih propisa u domenu zaštite potrošača sa zajedničkim pravom EU proizlazi iz odredbe člana 76., stav 1. SSP. Stoga, i našem zakonodavcu predstoji obaveza transponiranja Direktive 2011/83/EU, to iz razloga što Direktiva 85/577/EEZ i Direktiva 97/7/EZ već čine sastavni dio pozitivnog sistema zaštite potrošača. Iako se naš zakonodavac na početku opredijelio za tzv. „mješoviti model implementacije“, s obzirom da su iste potrošačke direktive istovremeno bile transponirane u lex specialis propis, odnosno u Zakon o zaštiti potrošača u Bosni i Hercegovini46 (dalje: ZZP BiH), ali i u Nacrt Zakona o obligacionim odnosima iz 2004. godine. Ovakav način „uvođenja“ komunitarnih propisa u nacionalni pravni sistem imao bi za posljedicu unutarnji sukob zakona. Paralelna, ali ne i istovjetna pravna rješenja, stvorila bi nepotrebnu konkurenciju pozitivnih propisa u domenu zaštite potrošača, što bi u praksi rezultiralo mnogim negativnim reperkusijama. To je donekle riješeno Prijedlogom ZOO iz 2010. godine, budući da je iz istog apstrahiran znatan dio propisa o zaštiti potrošača, tako da je ZZP BiH postao i ostao temeljni propis kojim se na sistemski način uređuje oblast zaštite potrošača. Kada je u pitanju transponiranje horizontalne Direktive 2011/83/EU koja zahtijeva potpunu harmonizaciju u naš pravni poredak, važno je naglasiti da to nije nimalo jednostavan postupak. To naročito ako se ima u vidu (ne)primjena ZZP BiH u praksi. Tako, mada je ZZP BiH usvojen 2006. godine, a pritom je naslijedio ZZP BiH iz 2002. godine, i dalje je ostao samo slovo na papiru. Sasvim uzgredna primjena ZZP BiH u praksi ne znači da naši potrošači ne trebaju zaštitu, već govori o tome da je na donošenje ovog zakona gledano isključivo kao na jedan od političkih ciljeva koji je u datom trenutku trebalo ispuniti. No, iako pozitivne odredbe o zaštiti potrošača trpe brojne kritike, budući da po svom sadržaju i jezičkoj formulaciji često odstupaju od odredaba i samog cilja implementiranih direktiva, ipak i primjena takvog pravnog propisa bolja je od njegove neprimjene. On što je evidentno jeste 46 „Sl. glasnik BiH“, broj: 25/06. 124 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce činjenica da se na potrošačke ugovore primjenjuju opći propisi obligacionog prava, odnosno duga tradicija Zakona o obligacionim odnosima47 nadvladala je primjenu ZZP BiH kao lex specialisa. Na taj način odstupilo se od generalnog principa lex specialis derogat legi generali i umjesto da potrošački ugovori čine poseban režim, i dalje se u pravnom prometu i sudskoj praksi isti tretiraju kao „obični“ obligacioni ugovori. Najbolji pokazatelj ignoriranja ZZP BiH jeste oskudna sudska praksa. Bez obzira na činjenicu što je izostala primjena ZZP BiH u praksi, ipak ovo je poseban propis namijenjen isključivo zaštiti potrošača, stoga bi nova Direktiva 2011/83/EU svoje mjesto trebala naći u istom. To našem zakonodavcu u budućem periodu nameće obavezu korjenitih izmjena i dopuna ovog lex specialis propisa. Ovo posebice iz razloga što se već sad većina odredbi ZZP BiH temelji na odredbama direktiva koje su stavljene van snage, pritom se misli na Direktivu 87/102/EEZ o potrošačkom kreditu, zatim Direktivu 94/47/EZ o timeshare ugovorima, a sada i Direktivu 85/577/EEZ i Direktivu 97/7/EZ, dok su Direktiva 93/13/EEZ o nepoštenim ugovornim odredbama i Direktiva 99/44/EZ o odgovornosti za materijalne nedostatke izmijenjene i dopunjene. Imajući u vidu sve promjene koje su se u posljednje vrijeme dogodile u oblasti zaštite potrošača, kao i činjenicu da sve direktive nove generacije predstavljaju mjere maksimalne harmonizacije, to se i pred našeg zakonodavca stavlja zahtjev stvaranja takvog pravnog okvira, koji će osigurati onaj nivo zaštite koji predviđaju nove direktive. Postupak transponiranja potrošačkog acquisa dodatno se usložnjava s obzirom da Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja horizontalni instrument, po svom sadržaju izuzetno opsežan i kompleksan, a klauzula ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije ne dozvoljava bilo kakva odstupanja kada se radi o odredbama koje su njome pogođene. Pravilna implementacija Direktive 2011/83/EU nije nimalo jednostavan zadatak, to je izazov kojem domaći zakonodavac do sada i nije baš najbolje znao udovoljiti. Naime, i samo europsko pravo zaštite potrošača trpi brojne kritike zbog svoje iscjepkanosti i različitosti, stoga je i domaćem zakonodavcu bilo jako teško redigirati koherentan, homogen i sistematiziran korpus pravila o zaštiti potrošača. Koliko se u tome uspjelo najbolje svjedoče neadekvatni prijevodi mnogih pojmova, neujednačena terminologija, izrazi koji nisu svojstveni našoj pravnoj tradiciji, nezgrapne i nejasne zakonske formulacije, pravne praznine i sl. Sve navedeno je 47 Zakon o obligacionim odnosima („Sl. list SFRJ”, br. 29/78, 39/85, 45/89 i 57/89), koji je preuzet u domaće zakonodavstvo Zakonom o preuzimanju Zakona o obligacionim odnosima („Sl. list R BiH”, br. 2/92, 13/93 i 13/94 i „Sl. novine FBiH“, broj: 29/03) i Zakonom o izmjenama i dopunama Zakona o obligacionim odnosima, objavljenom u („Sl. glasniku RS”, br. 17/93 i 3/96). Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 125 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović posljedica toga da je ZZP BiH de facto nastao „spajanjem“ odredaba pojedinih direktiva, pritom se nije previše vodilo računa o ciljevima i dosezima tih direktiva.48 Upravo da bi se izbjegle navedene slabosti i uskladio položaj potrošača u nacionalnom pravu sa standardima postavljenim u pravnom poretku EU, domaći zakonodavac mora poduzeti ozbiljan korak i upustiti se u proces revizije postojećih pravnih rješenje. Drugim riječima, potrebno je učiniti novi kvalitativni korak u razvoju prava zaštite potrošača što je nemoguće ukoliko se ne pristupi izmjeni i dopuni postojećih propis u svjetlu novih direktiva, a naročito Direktive 2011/83/EU. To je neophodan preduvjet za uključenje BiH u unutarnje tržište. No, ako se uzmu u obzir mnogobrojne izmjene i dopune pravnih rješenja koje tek predstoje, to bi puno jednostavnije i kvalitetnije rješenje bilo da se pristupi donošenju potpuno novog Zakona o zaštiti potrošača. S nomotehničkog aspekta to je složen postupak, ali isto tako ne kreće se od nule budući da već postoji ZZP BiH, što zasigurno predstavlja dobar temelj da se sistem zaštite potrošača u BiH samo nadogradi.49 Nadalje, ne bi trebalo ostati samo na općem zakonu, već određene aspekte zaštite potrošača potrebno je regulirati i posebnim zakonima, kao što se to primjerice već događa u oblasti financijskih usluga. Isto tako druge oblasti koje nisu isključivo potrošačke potrebno je uskladiti s propisima općeg ugovornog prava. U suprotnom, ukoliko bi i novi Zakon o zaštiti potrošača predstavljao samo doslovan prijevod i spajanje odredaba Direktive 2011/83/EU sa odredbama drugih 48 Naime, svaka direktiva je samostalan pravni akt, koji ima svoje posebne ciljeve koji nisu sadržani samo u normativnom dijelu direktive, već i u preambuli. Stoga, za razumijevanje sadržaja određene direktive važno je uzeti u obzir i njen normativni ali i nenormativni dio, te potom ga prilagoditi specifičnim karakteristikama i načelima konkretnog pravnog sistema. V. opširnije: S., Petrić, Kritički osvrt na Zakon o zaštiti potrošača u Bosni i Hercegovini, Zbornik radova Aktualnosti građanskog i trgovačkog zakonodavstva i pravne prakse, br. 2, Mostar, 2004.,195. 49 Sasvim je jasno da Direktiva 2011/83/EU u određenim situacijama i nije znatnije odstupila od rješenja Direktive 85/577/EEZ i Direktive 97/7/EZ. Pritom, kada su u pitanju odredbe ZZP BiH koje se tiču ugovora o prodaji izvan poslovnih prostorija trgovca i ugovora o distancionoj prodaji, pozitivna zakonska rješenja u određenoj mjeri odstupaju od sadržaja transponiranih direktiva, ali se zato u određenoj mjeri približavaju rješenjima nove Direktive 2011/83/EU. Tako primjerice, jedna od novina predviđena Direktivom 2011/83/EU odnosi se na definiciju ugovora zaključenih izvan poslovnih prostorija, koja je znatno proširena, a jedno od proširenja obuhvaća i ugovore sklopljene u sredstvima javnog prijevoza ili nekom drugom javnom mjestu. Pritom, ova situacija je već bila redigirana odredbom član 39., stav 1., slovo c) ZZP BiH. Nadalje, Direktiva 2011/83/EU uvodi jedinstven rok za raskid ugovora u trajanju od 14 dana, dok i ZZP BiH također sadrži unificirani rok za raskid ugovora u trajanju od 15 dana. Po pitanju trajanja roka za raskid ZZP BiH je već dostigao standarde zaštite koji uvodi Direktiva 2011/83/EU. 126 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce potrošačkih direktiva, ponovno bi zakonodavac potvrdio da ne postoji jedinstvena i do kraja artikulirana koncepcija kako regulirati ovu oblast.50 Na taj način bi i po treći put bilo potvrđeno pravilo da ratio donošenja Zakona o zaštiti potrošača u BiH jeste samo nastojanje da se na zakonodavnoj razini uskladimo sa standardima EU usvojenim u oblasti zaštite potrošača, a ne i osiguranje da se usvojena pravila zaista i primjenjuju u praksi. 4. Zaključna razmatranja Imajući u vidu da je tek koncem 2013. godine istekao rok za transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU to je još uvijek rano govoriti o posljedicama koje je ostavila na nacionalna zakonodavstva i samim tim na položaj potrošača, a još uvijek nije istekao ni rok kada ista postaje obvezujuća u državama članicama (13.6.2014). No, i nakon ovog roka trebat će proći određeni period tijekom kojeg će potrošači testirati jedinstveni regulatorni okvir u praksi, tek tada mogu se dati konkretni odgovori o utjecaju koji je Direktiva 2011/83/EU ostavila na pitanje pravne sigurnosti i povjerenje potrošača. Drugim riječima, ostaje da se vidi da li je ovim jednoobraznim pravilima dovršen posao izgradnje unutarnjeg tržišta u oblasti zaštite potrošača i otklonjena pravna fragmentacija. Iako su države članice pribjegle različitim metodama transponiranja, neke u okviru postojećih građanskih kodifikacija, određene su se odlučile na donošenje potpuno novih specialis zakona kojim se implementira Direktiva 2011/83/EU, dok su se neke države odlučile na modernizaciju i usvajanje novih kodifikacija potrošačkog prava u svjetlu horizontalne direktive, ipak sve države su morale proći fazu provjere i preispitivanja svog zakonodavstva kako bi se i ostali propisi usaglasili sa Direktivom 2011/83/EU. Pravo zaštite potrošača predstavlja funkcionalnu pravnu oblast koja se postepeno etablira i u bosanskohercegovačkom pravnom poretku, stoga sve novine koje se posljednjih godina događaju na europskoj potrošačkoj sceni ne smiju ostati nezamijećene od strane domaćeg zakonodavca. 50 Cfr.: S., Petrić, 196. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1 127 �Dr. sc. Anita Petrović 5. 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Anita Petrović   130 Z., Meškić, Harmonizacija Evropskog potrošačkog prava – Zelena knjiga 2007. godine i Nacrt zajedničkog referentnog okvira, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, 3/2009 Z., Meškić., Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača od 25. oktobra 2011. godine, Sl. list EU 2011, L 304/64, Nova pravna revija, 1/2012 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2852 Title A name given to the resource Transposition of the Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights - A challenge to national legislators Author Author Petrović, Anita Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: In the area of European contract law legal area most affected by the process of harmonization, and consequently the process of revision is the area of consumer protection. Because in the last few decades most intense legislative activity is manifested in the adoption of consumer directives. Transposing consumer directives member states have recognized the opportunity of their own economic development, since the improvement of trade is only possible if consumers enjoy the same rights no matter where in the territory of the European Union conclude contracts . This paper is focused on new horizontal instrument of European consumer law, Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights. Directive 2011/83/EU is a pioneering step towards building a coherent European consumer protection law, and in this light will be indicated the problem questions that arise in the process of harmonization of regulation Member States with Directive 2011/83/EU, keeping in mind the maximum harmonization clause. Also critically will be considered the process of harmonization of positive legislation with the Acquis in the field of consumer protection. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-5706 K Law (General)