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3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT POLICY AND HARMONIZING EXTERNAL TRADE BY MODE OF
TRANSPORT: MACEDONIAN CASE
Ph.D Riste Temjanovski, Associate Prof.79
Abstract
There is a growing imbalance between modes of transport in all over the world. The increasing success of
road and air transport is resulting in ever worsening congestion, while, paradoxically, failure to exploit
the full potential of rail. But saturation in certain parts of the European Union must not blind us to the
fact that outlying areas have inadequate access to central markets. In this context the main engagement
in the trans-European policy is to pursue the optimization of the interregional transport services at the
European level through a multimodal approach and interoperability for each transport mode. Coherent
transport policy can contribute to reduction of the budget expenses for the transport sector by providing
the conditions for efficient management of infrastructure or the instruments for internalization and
reduction of transport external costs.
For Macedonia case, transport plays essential role for economic development. Regional co-operation in
Western Balkans is of even greater importance today. From a commercial point of view, the Union is the
main trading partner for Western Balkans, and its business cooperation with these countries has
increased in importance.
But, one mode of transport is consistently predominant. Road transport was the main mode of transport
used for trade with European countries. The analysis of external trade shows that road transport was by
far the most used mode of transport for trade with 92% by value. But in terms of volume, this accounted
for 89% over the five years. Also showing a higher percentage in terms of volume than value, rail
transport accounted only between 12-20% by volume and between 5-10% by value.
In addition, the Republic of Macedonia should take advantage of its position, harmonize all transport
modes, because such as South-East European country, it is at intersection of routes to Balkans,
Mediterranean and Caspian Region and Asia. Corridors VIII and X are expected to be ones of the impulses
to generate economic development among countries of Western Balkans.
Sustainable transport is an enormously complex and dynamic subject, and it can be concluded that the
transport system in this region can be improved by favoring those transport modes which are more
effective and environmentally friendly.
79
d-r Riste Temjanovski, vonredni profesor - Associate Prof. Riste Temjanovski, PhD, Goce Delcev" University – Faculty
of Economics – Stip, R.of Macedonia e-mail: riste.temjanovski@ugd.edu.mk
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Key words: sustainable transport, sustainable development, transport modes, road transport, external
trade, Western Balkans
Introduction
Transport is a key element in the development of any society. Advances in transport technology
have extended the range of markets, enabled new methods of production, fostered specialization and
strengthened social, political and economic ties between countries and major geographic areas.
Transport creates valuable links between regions and economic activities, between people and the rest
of the world.
The demand for transport of people and goods is rising from day to day, and the consequences are
reflected in an overburdening of parts of the transport network and an imbalance in the overall
transport infrastructure. In the last few years private passenger road traffic in particular has been
growing at the expense of other modes of transport, which shows up in the unfavorable ratio in the
choice of transport mode.
Transport represents one of the most important human activities worldwide. It is an indispensable
component of the economy and plays a major role in spatial relations between locations. The trade of
goods, finance, information and people among the world’s economies is not new. But in recent decades
the international flow of trade and finance has grown to unprecedented levels and become essential to
the world economy.
Transport is one of Europe’s strengths. European transport systems compare well in terms of efficiency
with other developed regions of the World and they are an essential component of the European
economy. The European countries differ both regarding the level of transport development as well as in
the priorities of development plans. On the one hand are the countries of the European Union with
developed transport systems, and on the other the countries in transition, that have poorer transport
infrastructure and fleet as well as inefficiently organised transport. In transition countries the efforts of
institutional restructuring of government management of transport infrastructure are particularly
noticeable. However, the developed countries as well deal seriously with issues of privatising the
transport sector and the transport infrastructure.
The development and progressive completion of a Trans-European network, as the infrastructure basis
for the flows of goods and the free movement of people in the Internal market, remains a vital policy
objective for the EU that will bring the Western and Eastern part of the Union together and so creating
the future Single European Transport Area.
Trans-European transport policy is key factor to stimulate economic development in Europe. For the
countries from Western Balkans integration in the world economy has three aspects:
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a regional one, that involves the economic relations between each other and other
countries in Western Balkans and Central and Eastern Europe, (many of which are
members of the Central European Free Trade Area - CEFTA);
a European one that involves primarily their relations with the European Union (EU), by
far their most important trading partner and source of direct investment; and
a global one, that involves their trade relations with the rest of the world.
While in many respects they are giving the European dimension the highest attention because of the
importance of their economic links with the EU, they cannot afford to ignore the other two dimensions:
their relations with the EU will yield greater benefits, if they are pursued within a liberal trade
environment towards the rest of the world; and the same is true for their relations with their neighbors
which are also on a path to integrate in the European structures.
Transport systems in the countries in transition differ significantly in both structure and scale. For
instance, some carry exceptionally high volumes, if only because of the surface area they cover and the
size of the population they serve. In addition, progress with the economic reform process varies widely
from one country to another and not all countries are introducing market mechanisms at the same pace,
this being the case in the transport sector.
For Macedonia case, transport plays essential role for economic development. Regional co-operation in
south Eastern Europe is of even greater importance today, in the aftermath of conflict in former SFRJ,
than a two decade ago. Political and commercial ties amongst EU member states and countries from
Western Balkans are strengthening rapidly. Political ties are tighter due to the fact that the Western
Balkans countries aim to become full members of the Union, and their relations with the Union are
based on different agreements bringing them closer to full integration. From a commercial point of view,
the Union is the main trading partner for Macedonia, and its business cooperation with these countries
has increased in importance.
Macedonia and Core Regional Transportation Network
Republic of Macedonia is a landlocked country located in the south-central part of the
Balkan Peninsula. Country area is 25.713 sq km bordering with two EU member states: in the
south - Greece and in the east - Bulgaria. The neighbor in the north is Serbia and Kosovo, and
Albania in the west.
The economy in Republic of Macedonia is ranging on the list of non-so-successful economies in
transition. As a new independent state, it has strived very hard to survive and to maintain
macroeconomic stability, while at the same time implementing all the necessary reforms that were
requested by international organizations. During the last two decades, Macedonia has been
progressively opening its market and has made progress in liberalizing its economy.
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The transport sector has an important role in the national economy. In addition, the
Republic of Macedonia should take advantage of its position, because such as South-East
European country, it is at intersection of routes to Balkans, Mediterranean and Caspian Region
and Asia. Republic of Macedonia is promoting the concept of EU Neighborhood Policy into the
transport field for better connection the EU with the neighboring countries and regions. External
links include all direct links of the Country with neighbouring countries, as they manifest the
most direct relations as parts of the obligations to develop good neighbourly relations and
intensive exchange and cooperation with the surrounding.The major transnational axes are those
which contribute most to promote the international exchanges and traffic as well as to enable
regional cooperation and integration. The High Level Group document has determined the EU
member states Major Trans - National axes, where the South Eastern axis links the EU through
the Balkans and Turkey to the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea as well as to Egypt and the Red Sea.
Access links to the Balkan countries as well connections towards Russia, Iran and Iraq and the
Persian Gulf are also foreseen as well as a connection from Egypt to the South towards other
African countries. SEE axis which are passing through Republic of Macedonia, fully are covering
the existing defined Corridor X and VIII. On the existing Corridor X, with a total length of 172
km, passing the country in North - South direction; at about 71% has been already finalized to
modern highway standards and the remaining sections accounting 29% of the total being ready
for tender procedures.
On the existing Corridor VIII, with a total length of 304 km, crossing the country from
East to West, is less advanced in comparison to Corridor X. Only 36.3 % of the total length is
already built to modern highway standards. Corridors VIII and X are expected to be ones of the
impulses to generate economic development among countries of Western Balkans. In other hand
they also play a main role in domain the Economic and Environmental Programs in this regional
policy. These corridors would be assisted by the establishment of set of multilateral principles
and encourage the transfer of passenger and goods.
Distances from major destinations
Country
Zagreb ( Croatia)
Sarajevo (Bosnia and
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Distance in
km
815 km
450 km
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Herzegovina)
Belgrade (Serbia)
Sofia (Bulgaria)
Tirana (Albania)
Prishtina (Kosovo)
Thessalonica (Greece)
Athens (Greece)
420 km
250 km
230 km
90 km
230 km
700 km
The European Community is supporting the implementation of these projects to attain
greater, efficient transport system whish reduce regional disparities and effective better balance
between European countries.
There is strong political commitment to the development of the regional transport
networks is confirmed with the signing of the Memorandum for understanding of the
development of the South East Europe Core Regional Transport Network in June 2004.
More recent efforts for defining the Core Regional Transport Network are made with in the future
Treaty for Establishing a Transport Community between the EU and South East Europe Partners
which should be in force by 2011.
Border crossings
The border cross issue is depending mainly on the successful implementation of the
modernization of customs regulations, improvement and operability of the cross border buildings,
enhancement of the battle against smuggling, corruption and illegal human trade. The other issues
are mostly related with the interaction between the public and private sector and strengthening of
the regional cooperation.
The number of official border crossings in the Republic of Macedonia towards the
neighboring countries is:
a) 15 road border crossings:
3 with Bulgaria (Deve Bair near Kriva Palanka, Novo Selo near Strumica, and
Delcevo);
3 with Serbia (Tabanovce, Sopot and Pelince near Kumanovo);
2 with Kossovo (Jazince near Tetovo; and Blace near Skopje);
3 with Greece (Bogorodica near Gevgelija, Medzitlija near Bitola, and Star Dojran
near Dojran); and
4 with Albania (Stenje near Resen, Sveti Naum near Ohrid, Kafasan near Struga, and
Blato near Debar).
b) 3 railway border crossings:
2 with Serbia (Tabanovce near Kumanovo, and Volkovo near Skopje);
1 with Greece (Bogorodica near Gevgelija).
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c) 2 airport border crossings in Skopje (Alexander the Great Airport) and Ohrid (St. Paul
the Apostle Airport).
According to the National Strategy for Integrated Border Management, categorization is
carried out at border crossings in regards to their operational capacity (current and prospective).
Improving the throughput of the crossings, with full respect to the previously mentioned concept
of " accessible but secure borders and “Schengen best practice" in this country are implementing
the concept of "Single Window" and "One-Stop-Shop". By applying these concepts, will greatly
reduce the waiting time at the crossings as well as their transfer, which will produce major
positive economic effects. Some of the issues in the near future will be placed among others:
The harmonization of customs procedures with neighboring countries
The harmonization of categorization of the borders with neighbors.
The development of border crossings depends largely on successful implementation and
modernization of customs legislation, improving the operation of border crossings and
intensifying the fight against smuggling, corruption and trafficking of human beings, respecting
the basic principles of "accessible but secure borders”. Other issues in greater extent are related to
the interaction between public and private sector and strengthening of regional cooperation.
National Transportation Network
Transport network of the Republic of Macedonia, structured of several communication sub-systems, has
been established through the system of transport and communications, upon which national space is
organized. Transportation system of the Republic of Macedonia is composed of road, railway, air, lake
transport and post traffic and system of communications consists of telecommunications and radiodiffusion system.
- Road transport. Republic of Macedonia has a total of 13.940 km categorized road network, out of which
911 km are national roads, 3771 km ragional and remaining 9258 km local roads. Major part of national
roads or 553 km are included in the European roads "E" system, while only 251 km of motorways may be
included in the TEM TEM (Trans– Europe Motorway) system of roads, these being: Border R.Serbia Kumanovo - Petrovec - Veles - Gradsko -Negotino - (to Demir Kapija); Skopje - Petrovec; HipodromMiladinovci; Skopje (Saraj) - Tetovo; Tetovo - Gostivar. Out of the total length of categorized national and
regional road network, 251 km (4.7%) are at motorway level, 341 km (7.9%) are with tracks width of 7
meters or more, 297 km (6.9%) are of tracks width of 7 meters and less, 1523 km (35.3%) have width
bigger than 5.5 meters, 306 km (7.0%) are of width ranging from 4.5 and 5.5 meters, 872 km (20.2%)
with width less than 4.5 meters and 774 km (17.9%) are with earth tracks.
The national road network is of a high density with the exception of the highways. Today,
the overall road network of the country has a total length of 13898 km. The network itself is a
good starting basis for further development.
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Table 1: Type of roads and total length in Republic of Macedonia
Type of roads
Total length (km)
Highways
251
Magistral roads
911
Regional roads
3771
Local roads
9258
TOTAL
13940
Source: State statistical Office: Statistical Review: Transport, tourism and other services. 8.4.10.04.669. Skopje:
Statistical Office 2010.
Table 2: The assessment of the general conditions of the road infrastructure
Good
Medium
Poor
Highways (Magistral 2x2)
Magistral (M 1x2)
Regional 1 (R1)
Regional 2 (R2)
Gravel (R2)
10%
10%
28%
50%
50%
60%
60%
45%
20%
30%
30%
27%
30%
50%
The overall condition of the road structure (main and important regional roads) is lower in
comparison to European and some Neighboring Countries Standards. The existing constructions are in
fact generally strong and of a good quality. The magistral roads, and in particular the highways, which
have to carry the higher portion of traffic are in a better condition than those of second importance. The
worst conditions can be assessed on low-traffic regional roads; most of them with dead ends. Many of
them don't present neither geometric, structural, nor traffic characteristics and not justifying their
classification into the regional road network.
- Rail transport. The Railway Infrastructure in the Republic of Macedonia was
constructed in 1873 with the first Railway Track from Skopje to Thessaloniki in Greece. Today
the railways network is about 696 km in single track lines and normal gauge of 1435mm.
There are 53 locomotives, 110 passenger cars, and 1323 freight wagons. In 2009 the railway
carried 1.523.000 passengers, equating to 154 million passengers/kms. As for cargo, the railway has
carried 2.929.000 tons, equating to 497 million ton-kms of cargo. The railway carries selected bulk
commodities including fuels, coals, cokes, steel products and clinker/cement.
The main line on Corridor X from Tabanovci to Gevgelija – via Skopje and Veles is a single-track line,
electrified (25Kv, 50Hz) and relay signal system which allows a good exchange of communication by
fiber-optic cable. The last renovation on most sections has taken place 30 years ago. The total length of
the railway infrastructure in Corridor VIII is about 307 km on the territory of R. of Macedonia and 152 km
(or 49%) are constructed and operational. Аbout 89 km or 25% of the total length are remaining to be
constructed on the link with Bulgaria and 66 km or 20% of the total length on the link with Albania
subject to construction.
The railway system suffers from a chronic lack of maintenance that has been evidenced for many
years and the rehabilitation that will be required to recover the position to achieve acceptable levels of
safety at speed are difficult to quantify with any accuracy at this time.
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Besides incomplete basic infrastructure network: the missing part of Corridor VIII and
still no electricity on part of Corridor VIII, which is in function, and branch Xd of Corridor X,
there are several factors that explain the relatively small role of railways in the transport system
of the country. All major issues related to geographical features of the state, i.e. the short distance
among urban centers in the country especially between Skopje - Veles, Skopje - Kumanovo and
Skopje-Tetovo are currently limiting factor for the low level of technical and technological
development. This lack of adequate investment in infrastructure especially in transport can
become a great asset to the extremely large benefit for the country (in all European countries
there is well-organized suburban rail passenger traffic).
In 2007 Macedonian Railways (Makedonski Železnici; MŢ) was reorganized into two separate joint stock
companies—a public enterprise in charge of infrastructure management, Macedonian Railways
Infrastructure (MŢ-I) and a transport company in charge of passenger and freight operations,
Macedonian Railways Transport (MŢ-T). R.of Macedonia adopted a new railway law and rail safety law in
2010, both of which entered into force on April 17, 2010. Since 2007, there are two independent rail
companies as successors to Macedonian Railways—Public Enterprise Macedonian Railways
Infrastructure (MZ Infrastructure) and the joint-stock company Macedonian Railways Transport (MZ
Transport). This change was part of a broader railway reform program aimed at making the Macedonian
rail sector comply with EU directives and the EU rail acquis, and by doing so, increase the commercial
orientation of activities in order to allow the rail system to operate successfully and in competition with
other operators.
Trade and role the transport mode
The adaptation of the national economy to the European market is necessary, considering the fact that the
European Community is important external trade partner, and integration processes in Europe will result
in long-range economic and other implications on future cooperation. The involvement of the economy of
the Republic of Macedonia into integrated developments in Europe has been conditioned by the
commencement of the process of economic restructuring, introduction of modern technical and
technological solutions and international standards. The national economy, due to limited accumulation
and need for intensified economic development and changing of unfavorable economic structure will
remain liable to utilization of additional accumulation from abroad.
One mode of transport is consistently predominant in transport and trade of passengers and goods.
Road transport was the main mode of transport used for trade with European countries other than EU.
The analysis of external trade shows that road transport was by far the most used mode of transport for
trade. Road transport was the main mode for 92% of exports and 79% of imports by value (the same
transport mode participate with 89% over the five past years of export by volume and 72% of import by
volume) with 92% by value. Also showing a higher percentage in terms of volume than value, rail
transport accounted only between 12-20% by volume and between 5-10% by value.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
The volume of goods exported from the R. Macedonia by rail between 2005 and 2010
decreased by 10.48% (2005) to 5.77 % (2010).
The volume of export by air is 0.10%, mainly on account of the volume of goods traveling by air with EU27, but because of the small volume of this trade, the participations is not as significant as it appears. By
contrast, imports by air scope by 2.63% (by value) over the five years period, with EU-27 as the main
trading partners.
Table 3: Modal split in Macedonian trade in terms of value-volume; export-import.
Modal split in Macedonian trade in terms of value-volume; export-import.
value export
value import
volume export
volume import
Transport mode
USA $
%
USA $
%
kg
%
kg
%
Rail
190.378.973
5.77
726.374.069
5.82
329.528.188
10.03
726.374.069
12.66
Road
3.058.399.535
92.33
4.152.519.023
79.77
2.953.033.151
89.87
4.152.519.023
72.36
Pipeline
3392586
1.03
591558654
10.85
0
0
780694204
13.6
Air
18689889
0.57
146128022
2.68
3169343
0.1
957543
0.2
Mail
401283
0.01
2719638
0.05
3028
0
90947
0
Others
33575
0
45038630
0.83
641
0
77912712
516
1.36
�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
Graph 1: Modal split in Macedonian trade in terms of value (USA $) and volume (tonnes) export
Graph 2: Modal split in extra EU-27 trade in terms of value (USA $) and volume (tonnes) imports
Promote the Sustainable transport policy
The twentieth century, more than any other, has seen a considerable growth of the transport demand
related to individual (passengers) as well as freight mobility. This growth is jointly the result of larger
quantities of passengers and freight being moved, but also the longer distances over which they are
carried. Recent trends underline an ongoing process of mobility growth, which has led to the
multiplication of the number of journeys involving a wide variety of modes that service transport
demands.
But how to attain harmonizing transport modes?
The basic strategic determination of transport policy of the Republic of Macedonia is the
achievement of higher level of the overall functional integrity of the space in the Country, as well as
facilitation of conditions for significantly greater infrastructure and economic integration with
neighboring and other European countries. Macedonian transport policy should place rail and road
transportation on an equal footing: the legal provisions and the level of financial contribution of
the state for railway and road infrastructure should be equivalent. This will allow users to make
the socially optimal choice between the two modes for each trip.
The achievement of higher level of integrity of the space in the country assumes reduction of regional
disparities, i.e. quality changes in spatial, economic and social structure, especially in areas with
emphasized malfunctions of social and economic development. An Integrated transportation system
has a key role to play in facilitating economic growth in remaining competitive by having access to fast,
efficient and reliable transport services, as well as ensuring individual mobility through offered transport
services.
Operating, managing, maintaining and executing new constructions of the transportation
network directly contributes to the economy, linking people to their works and other daily
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
activities, promotes employment as a key element of social inclusion which enables
economic growth. Transport can also contribute on releasing the economic and
regeneration potentials of particular areas in the country.
With developing the transport network, we promote the social inclusion by connecting
remote and disadvantaged communities and increasing the accessibility of the transport
network;
The immediate expected impact of a transport investment is to reduce general transport
costs, lead times for transportation in general and having a positive impact on the short
term GDP development.
Strategy for sustainable development of the Republic of Macedonia for the next period must
take into account into:
Improvement of the urban flow and traffic, securing the urban transport infrastructure’s role in
reducing the green house gas emissions;
Implementation of environmental noise protection, and support for a transport system that
efficiently plans land use while preserving vital habitat and biodiversity;
Undertaking measures that improve the economic and ecological sustainability of transport;
Strengthen the broad horizon of policy setting for sustainable development, i.e. without losing
sight of environmental sustainability, look beyond it and treat economic and social sustainability
as equally important aspects in transport policies;
The new railway line will lead to a reduction of negative externalities in result of the modal shift
of passenger and freight traffic from road to rail. These externalities are mainly the reduction of
road accidents, air pollution, CO2 emissions and noise.
Space protection and reservation for future strategic transport corridors, for which there are no
transportation and economic arguments at present;
Interconnection of the Republic of Macedonia and neighbouring countries, for the purpose of
establishing links between Macedonian rail transport and other points.
Delivering an optimal solution can only be achieved if the issue is addressed in a cross–
sectoral models. Planning and policy development outside the transport sector must take transport
generation into account and provide the information necessary to find an optimal solution.
Planners and policymakers must essentially decide how they want cities to look and how they
want people and goods to be transported in the future. Transport policy is not some miraculous
tool with which to solve a society's development problems. It must work in unison with national
development programmes, physical planning, investment, economic and monetary policy, legal
regulations and other areas. It must move in step with the implementation of these programmes
and respond with vitality and responsibility to the changes taking place in society. We must all
acknowledge that, in many respects, our quality of life depends on the success of our transport
policy.
Conclusion
The undoubted favorable geographical position of the Republic of Macedonia and its complexity
may lead to greater spatial and functional integration with its neighborhood and wider, through well
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
designed and systematic transport infrastructure. The greater integration of the Republic of Macedonia
into European and global transportation developments requires maximum utilization of its geographical
position towards direct surrounding. The fact that one of the most important transportation corridors,
connecting Scandinavian and Baltic regions, through the countries of Central Europe with the countries
of the Near East i.e. South Africa, passes through the Country deserves particular respect.
In the future the especially point will be taken to:
Development of transportation system that will minimize harmful impacts of the traffic
on environment and contribute to an improved quality of living in urban and rural areas
of the country;
Establishment of transport intermodal centres, as main contact points among different
transport types, as a precondition costeffective transportation system (Goods
transportation via air, railway and combined goods transportation);
Dynamic implementation of infrastructure, through application of priorities based on
transport and economic criteria, in line with strategic determinants of the country when
transportation acts as initial factor of the overall development;
Specific development of tracks passing through or by major urban agglomerations;
Increase of pass through capacity of the Macedonian transportation system, its
connection with neighbouring countries and joint connection to European systems and
trends;
Maximum utilization of traditional roads when locating the main transportation corridors;
Adjustment of general tracks positioning to natural relief characteristics;
Adaptation of transportation network to the main generators of future movements of
passengers and goods transport;
Minimization of transportation time and costs;
It should be noted that external connection of the country will be based on defined communication
corridors in line with international conventions and agreements, reflecting our orientation towards
European and Balkan commitments towards economic and technological communications. The level of
transport system development and its integration into corresponding European systems and trends will
determine the directions and communications of people and products, as well as capital and information
flows within the country and beyond. Development is expected to include expansion, improvement and
modernization of communication subsystems in the Republic of Macedonia. Integrated combined
transport for fast transfer of goods by modern methods and technologies is expected to develop in relation
to the development of supportive goods transportation centres. To this end, synchronization among
terminal blocks for land and air traffic should be established and demands for transit, import-export and
internal goods transportation harmonized.
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�3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo
4. EC.
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TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORT POLICY AND HARMONIZING EXTERNAL TRADE BY MODE OF TRANSPORT: MACEDONIAN CASE
Author
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Riste , Temjanovski
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
There is a growing imbalance between modes of transport in all over the world. The increasing success of road and air transport is resulting in ever worsening congestion, while, paradoxically, failure to exploit the full potential of rail. But saturation in certain parts of the European Union must not blind us to the fact that outlying areas have inadequate access to central markets. In this context the main engagement in the trans-European policy is to pursue the optimization of the interregional transport services at the European level through a multimodal approach and interoperability for each transport mode. Coherent transport policy can contribute to reduction of the budget expenses for the transport sector by providing the conditions for efficient management of infrastructure or the instruments for internalization and reduction of transport external costs. For Macedonia case, transport plays essential role for economic development. Regional co-operation in Western Balkans is of even greater importance today. From a commercial point of view, the Union is the main trading partner for Western Balkans, and its business cooperation with these countries has increased in importance. But, one mode of transport is consistently predominant. Road transport was the main mode of transport used for trade with European countries. The analysis of external trade shows that road transport was by far the most used mode of transport for trade with 92% by value. But in terms of volume, this accounted for 89% over the five years. Also showing a higher percentage in terms of volume than value, rail transport accounted only between 12-20% by volume and between 5-10% by value. In addition, the Republic of Macedonia should take advantage of its position, harmonize all transport modes, because such as South-East European country, it is at intersection of routes to Balkans, Mediterranean and Caspian Region and Asia. Corridors VIII and X are expected to be ones of the impulses to generate economic development among countries of Western Balkans. Sustainable transport is an enormously complex and dynamic subject, and it can be concluded that the transport system in this region can be improved by favoring those transport modes which are more effective and environmentally friendly. Key words: sustainable transport, sustainable development, transport modes, road transport, external trade, Western Balkans
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Trabzonlu Sırrî as an Example of Poets in Divan Literature
Hüseyin GÖNEL
International Burch University, Sarajevo
hgonel@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: Divan literature is a literary style that lasted six hundred years. This
literary style, which had a vital importance in our history, has been strongly criticized
on the grounds that it was isolated from the people of the time and had no connection
to real life. However, Divan literature was popular in all levels of the society, and
popular with many poets from different parts of the empire. This article aims to
anaylze the poet Sırrî, who lived in Trabzon in the 16th Century, and whose life has
not yet been studied.
Key words: Divan literature, divan poets, Sırrî
Introduction
While the Ottoman Empire was expanding its land, it also carried its language to the level of an empire
empirical language. Since the reign of Yıldırım Beyazıt, the palace prepared the necessary substructure to
develop classical literature. Following Fatih’s invasion of Istanbul, the city became the center of culture (Kurnaz,
2009:205; 2007: 201-212). This created a social structure in which the society and the intellectuals gathered
around the common values. Those people with distinctive talents and skills represented a philosophy intricate
with the common values. And those intellectuals, sharing the same values with the society they were born into,
became teachers of both the society and the palace (Kurnaz, 2009: 206; qtd. in Güngör, 1980:28).
In that structure, which united everybody with the philosophy of Umma, the harmony of taste and style
is also clearly visible. The same feelings were shared all through the country from the West to the East. The
poetry of a Balkanian poet was read and listened in Şam with the same enthusiasm (Kurnaz, 2009: 207). Almost
every city was a part of this cultural movement influencing the whole country (Đsen, 1997: 77-84; Şentürk, 2007:
208-210).
This harmony of taste, which was reflected in our classical literature in a positive way, encouraged the
emergence of talented poets within each level of society, and ethnic background all over the empire (Đsen, 1997:
64-76). To be more precise, Divan poetry became the sole possession of the society and was developed by the
society itself. Sultans and Şehzades opened their meetings to the poets. Literary communities were created
around the important members of society, especially the governors (Đpekten, 1996; Şentürk, 2007: 208-210;
Çeltik, 2007). Trabzon, which is one of the important centers of Black Sea Region, made an important
contribution to the development of poetry with fifteen Divan poets (Đsen, 1997: 70).
Sırrî, who will be introduced in this research, was one of the 16th century Divan poets. His mastery in
the poetry as well as his skill in calligraphy, his assistance to Sultan Murad the 3rd, and his position as a Divan
writer in government caused him to be well-known. Teskires (anthology of poets) mention his mastery in
calligraphy and his talent in poetry. He should be considered from this respect. There is no academic research on
him available so far. In this research, we aim to carry his name from historical records to our time.
Sırrî’s Life, and Examples from His Poetry
Sırrî is the nickname of the poet whose real name is Mehmet according to all resources. He was refered
as Muhammed only in Çelebi’s Tezkire (Hasan Çelebi, 1989: 470). This maybe because those two names are
written the same in Arabic, and either of them is used according to the preference of people. However, Mehmet
is prefered to Muhammed as a sign of respect to the Prophet. With the agreement of the other sources, his real
name is Mehmed (Beyani, 1997: 120; Ahdi, 2005: 357, Riyazi, 1982:78). In addition, his name is referred as
Muzaffer in Aşık Çelebi’s Tezkire. However, the poet is known as “Muzaffer Sırrısı” (Hasan Çelebi, 1989: 470;
Ali, 1994: 309). The poet, who was grown in Black Sea Region, became famous with this name. There is such
kind of naming in Black Sea Region. For instance, Hasan Alisi indicates that Ali is the son of Hasan. And this
application is special to this region. Therefore, the expression that “his name is Muzaffer” in Aşık Çelebi is
wrong. It should be “He is famous as Muzaffer Sırrısı”.
With the agreement of the sources, he was from Trabzon. There is no available information about his
family background in the sources. Based on his nickname, we can only say that his father’s name was Muzaffer.
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There is no detailed information about his educational background, either. However, it is clear that he
had a good education. He was an assistant and student of Yahya Çelebi, one of the famous respected teachers in
his time. The education under the supervision of Yahya Çelebi, shaped his personality: “Medâric-i ‘ilimde pâyesi
kutbu’l-ebrâr Yahyâ Çelebi hidmet-i şerîflerini erişmişdir. Ve zamân-ı sabâdan gül-i unvân-ı ömrü monla-i
mezbûrun sabâ-yı himmeti ile şükûfte ve handân bâğ-ı letâfette terbiyette nihâl-i ahvâl-i a’mâline ol mihr-i zülâli kemâl reşahât-ı sehâb-ı feyz ü fazliyle âb u nâb vermiştir” (Aşık Çelebi, ty:408).
Sırrî was not only a successful poet, but also a very good calligrapher. He was also well-known as a
talented Katib (a kind of correspondence clerk in the Ottoman Empire). Every line that he wrote was appreciated
like a new product in the market. “Fenn-i kitâbetde yed-i beyzâsı olup memâlik-i kitâbetle mülk-i yümn ile mâlik
olup kıt’a nüvislikte her satırı mukatta’ât-ı ibn-i yemîn gibi meyl-i dide-i ayân-ı ehl-i haseddir” (Aşık Çelebi,
ty:408). The poet completed his education with a good degree. His academic competence was confirmed by the
high authorities of his time: “Mukaddemâ tahsil-i ulûm ve tekfîn-i fünûn edüp isti’dâd-ı zâtisi mecâlis-i ulemâ-yı
âlâm ve mehâfil-i fuzelâ-yı izâmda imzâ olunduktan sonra ” (Ahdi, 2005: 357).
As well as his academic membership, the poet was also a well qualified calligrapher. Generally, the
calligraphers were good at one or two writing styles. Our poet had a distinctive talent in writing all kinds of
calligraphy. Especially, he was good at nesih and ta’lik writing styles. At that time, a calligrapher of his calibre
was rare: “Kitâbetde râsih ü mâhir ve kalem misal her gûne hattı yazmaya kâdir idi” “... hususa nesh ü ta’likte
mâhir ve diyâr-ı rumda emsâl nadirdir” (Hasan Çelebi, 1989: 470; Ahdi, 2005: 357).
He attended Celal Bey’s gatherings, who was one of the assistants of Şehzade Sultan Selim the 2nd. He
sometimes complained about Celal Bey’s meanness, and his lack of support. (Âli, 1994: 309)
Sırrî also assisted Şehzade Murad the 3rd. Hasan Paşa, one of the Rumeli Beylerbeyis, realized his
capacity and talent, and made him a katib. The poet had some difficulties following Hasan Paşa’s death. He went
to Kütahya, one of the important centers of the time. He was assigned to be a Divan Katib when Sultan Murad
the 3rd became the emperor. Before long, he died in 1574. It is also the year when Sultan Murad the 3rd was
crowned.
Bursalı Cinânî wrote a line referring to the date of his date:
“Gitti Sırrî mülk-i ukbâya” (Âli, 1994: 309; Riyazi, 1982:78).
The sources indicate that his writings were very much appreciated. He wrote in Turkish. Everyone was
interested in his nice and comforting expressions, and attracted by his use of Turkish so well. This is mentined in
Gülşen-i Şu’arâ as: “Kıt’ası makbûl-i zurefâ-yı deverândır” (Ahdi, 2005: 357). His distinctive talent and
competence contributed to the appreciation of his poetry. His successful communication skills caused him to be
appreciated by the high authorities of the government as well. He was admired by everyone because of his high
rank and prestige: “Musahabet-i dil- küşâsı ferah-fezâ olmagın eshâb-ı devlet gayet ihtibâr eylemişlerdir. Ve şiiri
fevka’l-had naziktir. Zümre-i şu’arâ içinde hayli iştihârı vardur” (Aşık Çelebi, ty:408; Ahdi, 2005: 357; Hasan
Çelebi, 1989: 470).
All tezkires acknowledged that his death at a young age prevented him from producing better works. If
the poet, whose poetry was very influential, had lived longer, he would have produced many good works: “Elhak hûb eş’ârı ve sırr-ı halden mebnî güftârı vardır”, “ömrden bir mikdâr behre-dâr olaydı şu’arânın
namdârından olmak muhakkak idi”, “... pür-iştihâr ve namdâr şâ’ir-i pür-âsâr olurdu” (Beyani, 1997: 120;
Hasan Çelebi, 1989: 470).
There is no available record to prove that he wrote a Divan. His early death might have hindered his
production of a Divan. Âlî mentioned about the abundance of his words worth listening (Âlî, 1994: 309). His
poetry available consists of only a couple pieces. Those poems have reached our times only because they were
written in teskires. The teskire writers acknowledge that the poet, who had a distinctive talent, used all the
elements of Divan tradition with a great mastery. As well as his clear and understandable style, his poetry had
the taste of powerful work of arts of Divan tradition. Some of his beyits (two line poems) and gazels (a poem
consisting of 5 to 15 beyits) can be a proof of that:
Kanı hâk-i rehün ahumla berbâd etdüğüm demler
Anılmaz mı ser-i kûyunda feryâd etdüğüm demler
Gözümde uçar oldı ol tezerv-i şive- kârımla
Dem-â-dem murg-ı cânı gamdan azâd etdüğüm demler
Akar cûy-ı sirişkim kamet-i dilcûyun andıkça
Tolar kan ile çeşmim la’lini yad etdüğüm demler
Hayâl-i hevâya döndü kûşe-i firkatde ey meh-ru
Visâlünle dil-i nâ-şâdımı şâd etdüğüm demler
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
*
Reng-i rû olsa eğer mâhda ey gonce-dehen
Benzedürdüm ruh-ı rengînine mehmâ-emken
*
Şehâ çeşm-i çerâğ-ı alem-i nûr-ı basarsın sen
Nazîrin görmedüm bir merdum-i sâhib-nazarsın sen
Görüp ben nâtüvânın kaçma lutf et ey perî-peyker
Seni görsem vücûdum mahv olur kimden kaçarsın sen
*
Âstân-ı gayre yüz sürmem kapundan sürseler
Dönmezem yolunda olmaktan eğer öldürseler
*
Ne nümâyiş var ola serv-i hırâmânunda
Sevr- kadler katı alçak görünür yanunda
*
Nedür çok böyle incinmek dil-i şeydâya sultânım
Nedür bâ’is bu denlü nâz ü istiğnâya sultânım
Revâ mı ru-siyehler sâye-veş yanunca salınmak
Yazıklar hasılı ol kamet-i bâlâya sultânım
*
Kûşe-i meylde olsa yerimiz gam yimeziz
Zevkimiz kûşesidir ol bezm ey zâhid-hâr
*
Evsâf-ı dil mi bulunur câm-ı musaffâdan yeğ
Pâk-meşreb mi olur sâgar-ı sahbâdan yeğ
Kanı bir sünbül-i hoş-bû bu cihân bağında
Ârız-ı yâre düşer zülf-i semensâdan yeğ
*
Meded o kaddi çenarım vefâdan el çekti
El ucuyla olan merhabâdan el çekti
*
Đrgüren vasla rakibâ demiş ol mahşeri
Şâl-lâh ol günlere irgürmeye Allâh seni
*
Sünbülün gül üzre kim pür-piç ü tâb olmaktadır
Ru-yı maksâda kara bahtım nikâb olmaktadır
*
Gam-ı cânânı âşıklar dem-i ukbâya vermezler
Bugün nakdi koyup dil nisye-i ferdâya vermezler
Bu deyr içre Mesihâ dirilenler tanrı hakkı çün
Ölürler bir puta can vermeye dünyâya vermezler
Mey ü mahbûb zevkin anlayan şevk ehli âşıklar
Şerâb-ı kevserleri dilberleri hûrâya vermezler
Metâ-ı vasl-ı yâre nakd-i cân ver ölmeden seni
Ki dâim ömr gibi sana bir sermâye vermezler
*
Eşk-i çeşmün akıdup tenhâda inkâr eyleme
Ol senin ey Sırrî yüzünden gözünden akıyor
*
Görünmezsin kaçarsın âşıkınla neylesün âdem
Sana çok söyle kaçma ey perî layık mıdır andan
*
Seyr et habâbı dide-i ibretle bir nazar
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Güyâ ki kaldı sâğar-ı meyde Cem’in gözi
*
Saklarım aşkın derûn-ı sinede cânım gibi
Kafirim aşkın senin sevmezsem imânım gibi
Kul ola mı kimseye şâhım ne eylersin beni
Bir efendim var iken âlemde sultanım gibi
*
Cân derdi sanma hicr ile vardı huzûra Kays
Benden sorun firâk-ı elemin ol dahi uyur
References
AÇIKGÖZ, Namık (1982) Riyazü’ş-Şu’arâ, (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Ankara Ünv. DTCF,
Ankara.
Ahdi (2005) Gülşen-i Şu’arâ, (Haz. Süleyman SOLMAZ) Atatürk Kültür Merkezi yay. Ankara.
Âlî (1994) Künhü’l-Ahbar’ın Tezkire Kısmı, (Haz. Mustafa ĐSEN) Atatürk Kültür Merkezi yay.
Aşık Çelebi (ty) Meşa’irü’ş-Şu’arâ.
Beyâni Mustafa Bin Carullah (1997) Tezkiretü’ş-Şu’ara, (Haz. Đbrahim KUTLUK), TTK yay. Ankara.
ÇELTĐK, Halil (2007) “Halep’te Kınalızade Hasan Çelebi’nin Şairler Meclisi”, Gazi Türkiyat Dergisi, Güz.
GÜNGÖR, Erol (1980) Türk Kültürü ve Milliyetçilik, Ötüken Yayınları, Đstanbul.
ĐPEKTEN, Haluk (1996) Divan Edebiyatında Edebi Muhitler, Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayını, Đstanbul.
ĐPEKTEN, Haluk, vd. (1988) Divan Edebiyatı Đsimler Sözlüğü, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara.
ĐSEN, Mustafa (1997) “Osmanlılarda Şehir ve Kültür” Ötelerden Bir Ses: Divan Edebiyatı ve Balkanlarda Türk
Edebiyatı Üzerine Makaleler, Akçağ yay. Ankara.
ĐSEN, Mustafa (1997) “Tezkirelerin Işığında Divan edebiyatına Bakışlar – Osmanlı Kültür Coğrafyasına Bakış”
Ötelerden Bir Ses: Divan Edebiyatı ve Balkanlarda Türk Edebiyatı Üzerine Makaleler, Akçağ yay. Ankara.
KAYABAŞI, Bekir (1996) Kafzâde Faizî’nin Zündetü’l-Eş’ârı, (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi), Đnönü Ünv.
Malatya.
Kınalı-zade Hasan Çelebi (1989) Tezkiretü’ş-Şu’arâ C.I, (Haz. Đbrahim KUTLUK), Türk Tarih Kurumu
Basımevi, Ankara.
KURNAZ, Cemâl (2009) "Divan Edebiyatı ve Türk Kimliği", Türk Kimliği: Ayvaz Gökdemir'e Armağan-2,
Đstanbul, Ötüken Neşriyat.
Mehmet Nail Tuman (2001) Tuhfe-i Naili, Bizim Büro Yayınları, Ankara.
Şemseddin Sami (1996) Kamusu’l A’lâm, Kaşkar Neşriyat, Ankara.
ŞENTÜRK, Ahmet Atillâ (2007) Eski Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Dergah yayınları, Đstanbul.
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Trabzonlu Sırrî as an Example of Poets in Divan Literature
Author
Author
GÖNEL, Hüseyin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Divan literature is a literary style that lasted six hundred years. This literary style, which had a vital importance in our history, has been strongly criticized on the grounds that it was isolated from the people of the time and had no connection to real life. However, Divan literature was popular in all levels of the society, and popular with many poets from different parts of the empire. This article aims to anaylze the poet Sırrî, who lived in Trabzon in the 16th Century, and whose life has not yet been studied.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
-
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Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Traces of the Life of Charlotte Brontë in Jane Eyre
Mine Özge Çeri
School of Foreign Languages
Sùleyman Demirel University, Turkey
mineozgezure@yahoo.com
Abstract: ‗‗Details, situations which I do not understand and cannot personally inspect, I
would not for the world meddle with. Besides not one feeling on any subject, public or
private, will I ever affect that I do not really experience.‘‘ (Smith, 2000) This confession
settles the question whether the books written by Charlotte Brontë are drawn from what
came within her own world of experience. This paper wants to show the influence of the
life and experiences of Charlotte Brontë on her famous novel Jane Eyre. The first part of
the article provides a brief summary of the life of Charlotte Brontë. The second part
provides information about the schools she attended to which are Cowan Bridge and Roe
Head and their similarities to the novel. The third part of this paper provides Charlotte
Brontë‘s working experience as a governess in Stonegappe. The fourth part provides
information about Henry Nussey, Mr. Heger and Hathersage, which have important
influences on the novel. The paper concludes that a close acquaintance with Charlotte
Brontë‘s life shows that the story of Jane Eyre is largely her own experience.
Key Words: Literature, novel, biography.
Introduction
In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, C. Holloway argues about Charlotte Brontë‘s works that ‗‗Her works are
mainly delineations of actual experiences; she was not an inventor of fiction. Her fancy filled in the background of
her pictures, but her own knowledge of people and things supplied the material.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) This is what
most of writers who study the life and works of Charlotte Brontë argue about her writing. Holloway further states
that ‗‗Had she not known the experience, we should not have had such books as she wrote, …‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) In
Understanding Jane Eyre : A Student‘s Casebook to Issues, Sources & Historical Documents, Teachman states;
‗‗As sources of material for her fiction, Brontë used the experiences she, her sisters, and her female friends had at
school and work.‘‘ (Teachman, 2001) Barker illustrates in The Brontës that ‗‗Perhaps learning from her Brussels
chapters in The Professor, Charlotte began to draw on personal experience to flesh out her characters and scenes.‘‘
(Barker, 1995) In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, C. Holloway states about Charlotte Brontë that ‗‗With her mind
she could see, independent of the organs of vision; and her wonderful intuitive powers invested her with a
knowledge of human nature incompatible with the restricted life she led.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883)
Debra Teachman argues about Jane Eyre that ‗‗It claims a need for women to have equal experiences with
men-not the same, but equal in quality and depth of meaning.‘‘ (Teachman, 2001) In Jane Eyre, Jane points out the
famous lines about the equal states of men and women which have been read over and over again; ‗‗Women are
supposed to be very calm generally: but women feel just as men feel; they need exercise for their faculties, and a
field for their efforts as much as their brothers do; they suffer from too rigid a restraint, too absolute a stagnation,
precisely as men would suffer; …‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) That a young and plain girl like Jane Eyre claims to have ‗‗a field
for her efforts‘‘ is what Charlotte Brontë dreams of. Brontë reflects her own ideas about the equality of men and
women on her heroine. Jane Eyre thinks of herself as a spirit equal to any other spirit, on this subject Gordon points
out; ‗‗It is here that Charlotte Bronte gave form and meaning to the private extravagance of her own life tugged
between the claims of the self and the claims of society.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994)
In her biography Juliet Barker draws the conclusion that ‗‗an intense family relationship‘‘ was vital to the
writing of the Brontës‘ fiction. In We are Three Sisters : Self and Family in the Writing of the Brontës, Drew
Lamonica states about the same topic that ‗‗Family was the medium through which they saw and interpreted the
world.‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003) She further claims that literary critics viewed family as Brontës‘ ‗‗motive for their
writing‘‘ and argues; ‗‗Yet the family was not simply an essential context for the Brontës‘ writing processes-the
family is an essential element of content in the texts themselves.‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003)
In Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, Gordon points out that ‗‗But Jane Eyre stands out from many
predecessors in the gothic or romance tradition for its unusual heroine: no swooning beauty, no fragile model of
sensibility, Jane is a plain, intelligent governess who tells her story with compelling honesty.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) We
see the characteristics of Charlotte Brontë in her heroine and on this topic, in her famous biography The Brontës,
Barker states that ‗‗Just as she was later to do with Jane Eyre, Charlotte endowed Elizabeth with many of her own
characteristics.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Charlotte was very small in figure as Mrs. Gaskell describes her. Barker indicates;
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‗‗It is also the first novel to have a plain and ordinary woman as its heroine. Charlotte is usually credited with this
innovation in Jane Eyre, which she told her friends, was written to prove to her sisters that a heroine ‗as plain and as
small as myself‘ could be as interesting as their conventionally beautiful ones.‘‘ (Barker, 1995)
Charlotte Brontë‘s Early Life
Charlotte Brontë was born on 21st April, 1816 in Thornton, Yorkshire, England, the third child to Patrick
Brontë, a clergyman of Irish descent and his wife, Maria Branwell. The family only lived in Thornton for five years
and Patrick Brontë was offered to work for the Church in Haworth. The house in Haworth had a garden in front and
was near the Church. In In the Footsteps of the Brontës, Chadwick states; ‗‗The house is full of memories, and the
old-fashioned window seats remind readers of Jane Eyre, and of her partiality for hiding herself in the recesses of the
windows.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) In Selections from the literary remains of Ellis and Acton Bell, Charlotte Brontë gives
a very faithful picture of the district, which applies to Haworth; ‗‗Mills and scattered cottages chase romance from
these valleys; it is only higher up, deep in among the ridges of the moors, that imagination can find rest for the sole
of her foot; and even if she finds it there, she must be a solitude-loving raven, no gentle dove.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914)
Kathryn White, the writer of the book The Brontës examines; ‗‗The Brontës‘ environment affected their work deeply
…‘‘ (White, 1998) In Charlotte Bronte A Passionate Life, Gordon describes the moors as ‗‗a contrast between
restriction and freedom that was to be central to their work.‘‘ Gordon indicates; ‗‗Jane Eyre has a notion that, in the
last extremity, she will cast herself on the breast of nature as on the body of a mother.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994)
Brontë children read and studied books from their father‘s library and they used to be very creative drawing
and writing plays, poems and stories. Bewick‘s British Birds was included in Patrick Brontë‘s collection of books. In
The Brontës, Juliet Barker illustrates that ‗‗The simple lines but the great detail of the vignettes were endlessly
copied by the young Brontës with varying degrees of success.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Kathryn White, in The Brontës,
indicates that ‗‗they all copied vignettes from Thomas Bewick‘s A History of British Birds, mentioned in the first
chapter of Jane Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) It is significant that in the first chapter Jane Eyre studies the vignettes of this
book.
Charlotte Brontë‘s School Life
Cowan Bridge
In her widely-read biography The Life of Charlotte Brontë, Elizabeth Gaskell states what Charlotte told her;
‗‗Miss Brontë more than once said to me, that she should not have written what she did of Lowood in ‗‗Jane Eyre‘‘,
if she had thought the place would have been so immediately identified with Cowan Bridge, although there was not a
word in her account of the institution but what was true at the time when she knew it; … ‘‘ (Gaskell, 2009) The
Clergy Daughters‘ School was the first school which the Brontë sisters were sent. Her experiences here are reflected
in Lowood in Jane Eyre. In an essay which was written in Charlotte‘s time Elizabeth Rigby states; ‗‗… Cowan
Bridge near Kirkby Lonsdale-these being distinctly, as we hear, the original and the reformed Lowoods of the bookis pretty generally known.‘‘ (Rigby, 1990) In The Brontës, Juliet Barker depicts; ‗‗The story of the young Brontës at
the Clergy Daughters‘ School has become inextricably entwined with that of the young Jane Eyre at Lowood
School.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Kathryn White in The Brontës indicates that ‗‗The school is notorious for being the basis of
Lowood charity school in Charlotte‘s Jane Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) In Understanding Jane Eyre : A Student‘s
Casebook to Issues, Sources & Historical Documents, Teachman states that ‗‗Brontë‘s experiences at Cowan Bridge
School provided the foundation for much of Jane‘s experience as a student at Lowood, and Brontë‘s experiences at
Roe Head School provided her with an understanding of the experiences Jane would have undergone as a teacher at
Lowood.‘‘ (Teachman, 2001)
In her book, Chadwick talks about a commemorative medallion on which it is written ‗‗At this school
Maria Elizabeth Charlotte Emily Daughters of the Rev. P. Brontë were educated in 1824-1825.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914)
Chadwick talks about a report for the Brontë children at the school and she states Charlotte Brontë‘s report;
‗‗Entered school August 10, 1824. … Altogether clever of her age, but knows nothing systematically. Left school
June 1, 1825. Governess.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914)
In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, Holloway states about Cowan Bridge that ‗‗The pupils all knew the
pangs of unappeased hunger, and a feeling of nausea overcame her for years when she recalled the food she was
compelled to eat there.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) In Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, Lyndall Gordon points out to the
condition of the food in the school ‗‗Hungry as they were, the girls often could not bring themselves to swallow such
food, and were soon semi-starved.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Similar to these accounts, Jane Eyre complains about the food
in the school stating that ‗‗Then the scanty supply of food was distressing: with the keen appetites of growing
children, we had scarcely sufficient to keep alive a delicate invalid.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Gordon further argues that ‗‗In
Charlotte‘s later view, low morale, semi-starvation, and physical neglect predisposed most of the pupils to
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infection.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) In The Brontës, Kathryn White argues about Cowan Bridge; ‗‗Cowan Bridge suffered
from poor diet and hygiene in food preparation, encouraging the spread of disease.‘‘ (White, 1998)
On the subject of Helen Burns Mrs. Gaskell points out; ‗‗I need hardly say that Helen Burns is as exact a
transcript of Maria Brontë as Charlotte‘s wonderful power of reproducing character could give.‘‘ (Gaskell, 2009)
White states about the death of Charlotte‘s sister Maria; ‗‗Charlotte blamed the school for her death and over twenty
years later she recreated Maria in the character of the saintly Helen Burns in Jane Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) In Charlotte
Brontë A Passionate Life, Lyndall Gordon argues; ‗‗From the time of her arrival at the school, Charlotte was forced
to watch Maria‘s repeated humiliation at the hands of a schoolmistress called Miss Andrews, the Miss Scatcherd of
Jane Eyre. Miss Scatcherd, who is described as small, dark, smartly dressed, with a rather morose look, persecutes
the uncomplaining Helen Burns, an exact portrait of Maria Brontë.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Maria was ‗‗her teacher‘s prime
victim‘‘ and Gordon argues; ‗‗Charlotte quivered in ‗impotent anger‘, but Maria preached a creed of endurance.‘‘
(Gordon, 1994) This reminds us of Helen Burns who does not resist but accepts her teacher‘s bad treatment of her.
Juliet Barker points out that ‗‗In the saintly Helen Burns, too, she drew from life, taking as a model her eldest sister,
Maria. Ironically, this was the one character the reviewers were to find fault with, considering her too good to be true
…‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Barker further indicates that ‗‗Charlotte herself suggested that her own sister, Maria, was the
original of Helen Burns in Jane Eyre. She later told her editor, William Smith Williams: ‗she was real enough: I
have exaggerated nothing there.‘ ‘‘ (Barker, 1995)
The Rev. W. Corus-Wilson was the founder and the manager of the Clergy Daughters‘ School, and known
in Jane Eyre as the clergyman, Mr. Bracklehurst. Kathryn White indicates; ‗‗Cowan Bridge was run by the Revd
William Carus Wilson, author of magazines such as The Children‘s Friend and The Friendly Visitor, which featured
the terrible consequences for little children if they thwarted God‘s wishes. Mr. Brocklehurst of Lowood was based
on Carus Wilson.‘‘ (White, 1998) Mrs. Chadwick in In the Footsteps of The Brontës states somewhat a similar
situation about Carus Wilson; ‗‗That Mr. Carus-Wilson made several mistakes in the early days is not to be
wondered at, and that he was very strict and narrow concerning religious matters …‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) Throughout
the novel, religion is an important theme. Mr. Brocklehurst is a religious figure and represents a model of religion
which has the hypocrisies of the nineteenth-century Evangelical movement. In Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life,
Lyndall Gordon argues about Carus Wilson that ‗‗Carus Wilson was a manipulative, rather sinister man who saw
girls as weak and sinful and whose school would attempt to save them by trying to stamp out their nature: by cutting
off their hair, by chilling their bodies, by depressing their appetites with inedible food, and birching them into
submission.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) In Jane Eyre, when Mr. Brocklehurst visits Lowood, he makes a student‘s ‗‗natural
curls‘‘ cut. When Mrs. Temple tells him that the girl‘s hair curls naturally, he says; ‗‗Naturally! Yes, but we are not
to conform to nature. … I desire the hair to be arranged closely, modestly, plainly.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006)
Tunstall Church is described in Jane Eyre as Brocklebridge, Charlotte Brontë depicts it in Jane Eyre;
‗‗Sundays were dreary days in that wintry season. We had to walk two miles to Brocklebridge Church, where our
patron officiated. We set out cold, we arrived at church colder: during the morning service we became almost
paralysed. It was too far to return to dinner, and an allowance of cold meat and bread, in the same penurious
proportion observed in our ordinary meals, was served round between the services.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Of Tunstall
Church, In An Hour with Charlotte Brontë, Holloway argues; ‗‗Charlotte tells us of the long, cold walks the pupils
were compelled to take in the snow and rain, hungry and insufficiently clad; of the barren, uncomfortable church in
which they sat shivering through a long sermon, only to resume their weary march at the end of it, and then to go
supperless to bed, or eat food that was distasteful and wholly inadequate to supply their needs.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883)
Roe Head School
Kathryn White in The Brontës states; ‗‗During Charlotte‘s first days at Roe Head school in January 1831,
Ellen Nussey, a fellow pupil, discovered a little, weeping, shrinking figure in the shadows of the library, a picture
which is echoed in the opening chapter of Jane Eyre when the young Jane takes refuge among the books.‘‘ (White,
1998) Ellen Nussey and Navy Taylor were Charlotte‘s close friends at Roe Head and they left a faithful record of
Charlotte Brontë. Mary Taylor indicates; ‗‗She used to draw much better and more quickly, than anything we had
seen before and knew much about celebrated pictures and painters.‖ (Chadwick, 1914) Ellen Nussey described her
as ‗‗rising from the bottom of the classes to the top.‘‘ (Chadwick, 1914) Similarly, Jane Eyre states; ‗‗Already I had
made visible progress: that very morning I had reached the head of my class.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006)
As her friends state Charlotte had that habit of pacing to and fro in the room, this also reminds us of Jane
Eyre who has the same habit. At this point, Sandra Gilbert illustrates that ‗‗… restlessness and passion-the pacing
‗backwards and forwards‘-which it were italicize Jane‘s little meditation on freedom.‘‘ (Gilbert, 1990)
Charlotte had little pleasures like visiting the homes of Mary Taylor and Ellen Nussey. Gordon argues that
Charlotte was inspired by a story which built the foundation for Jane Eyre when she was teaching at Roe Head.
‗‗Charlotte may have recalled this story in July 1845 when she visited the Eyre family seat of North Lees during a
three-week stay with Ellen in Hathersage, Derbyshire.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Charlotte was frequently invited to Ellen
Nussey‘s home at the Rydings, Birstall. The Rydings figures in Jane Eyre as Thornfield.
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After Charlotte studied at Roe Head, she obtained a teaching position there. Barker states; ‗‗Charlotte had
taken up her post as a teacher at Roe Head with deep reluctance.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) She quitted her job in 1838 and
returned to Haworth to teach her sisters. However, she was anxious about the future; she was determined to qualify
herself to earn her own living.
Stonegappe
In The Brontës, Kathryn White points out; ‗‗Career options for women were severely restricted. … and the
only resort for an educated woman was teaching, being a governess or writing.‘‘ (White, 1998) She further states
that ‗‗One of the main themes of the Brontës‘ writing is their own experience of education and the need to learn a
living.‘‘ (White, 1998) Charlotte Brontë tried to work as a governess herself as her heroine Jane Eyre. Her brief
experiences as a governess cast some light on the experiences of Jane Eyre as a governess. In An Hour with
Charlotte Brontë, Holloway states that ‗‗When the question of earning her bread came to be considered by her, and it
came early, Charlotte realized that teaching young children was her only available accomplishment, and she sought
and obtained a position as governess.‘‘ (Holloway, 1883) In 1839, Charlotte Brontë obtained a situation as a
governess to the children of Mrs. John Sidwick at Stonegappe, a large house in Skipton, Yorkshire. Gateshead Hall,
described in the early part of the novel is based on Stonegappe. Gordon points out; ‗‗Below, in the valley, runs the
river Ayre, perhaps one source for the name of Jane Eyre. It is well-known that Stonegappe was the source for
Gateshead in Jane Eyre, and it is likely that Jane‘s position as an interloper in an uppish family owed something to
the position in which Charlotte found herself when she joined the Sidgwicks in May 1839.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Lyndall
Gordon states the indifference of Mrs Sidgwick and argues; ‗‗However Charlotte tried to please – however Anne
tried at Blake Hall – neither won the slightest recognition. Their gifts of mind were invisible; their employers could
not see what did not reflect themselves.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Charlotte wrote to Emily about Mrs. Sidgwick that ‗‗I now
begin to find that she does not intend to know me.‘‘(Gordon, 1994) Charlotte reflects this feeling of being invisible
as a governess in Jane Eyre. In Jane Eyre, two sisters, Diana and Mary Rivers, leave their home, Moor-House, to
serve as governesses in families ‗‗by whose wealthy and haughty members they were regarded only as humble
dependants, and who neither knew or sought one of their innate excellences, …‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Ellen Nussey well
remembered Charlotte giving an account of Norton Conyers, an old mansion that she visited when she was
employed at Stonegappe. The interior of Thornfield Hall, referred to in Jane Eyre, must have been taken from
Norton Conyers. One of small rooms in the attic was shown as ―the mad woman‘s room‖ and there is a story that it
was once occupied by an insane woman. This most probably gave rise to the story of Bertha Mason. However, at this
point Gordon argues about the Thornfield Hall that ‗‗Based on Ellen‘s old home, the Rydings, near Birstall, and on
the Eyre family seat of North Lees which CB visited during her stay in Derbyshire in 1845.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994)
Marriage Proposal
Charlotte‘s letters probably led Mrs. Gaskell to think that she had no eagerness for marriage but Jane Eyre
proves the opposite. Marriage in her view should mean a real union between two souls such as existed between
Rochester and Jane. Charlotte had a great desire for a true marriage.
She received a marriage proposal from the Reverend Henry Nussey, the brother of her friend Ellen Nussey.
About this proposal, in The Brontës, White states that ‗‗In March 1839, Charlotte received an unexpected, businesslike proposal of marriage from Ellen‘s brother, the Revd Henry Nussey. He had contemplated missionary work and
the experience may have influenced Charlotte‘s depiction of the chilly missionary, the Revd St John Rivers, in Jane
Eyre.‘‘ (White, 1998) Although the proposal was unromantic, there were certain advantages to this marriage as
Charlotte would not worry about her future any longer and could forget about being a governess. However, Charlotte
refused the proposal and as its reason, White indicates; ‗‗For Charlotte, love was a prerequisite of marriage, though
many women would have considered her foolish not to grasp the opportunity of financial security.‘‘ (White, 1998)
As to her refusal, Barker examines; ‗‗The problem was that Charlotte like Elizabeth Hastings and Jane Eyre, had the
romantic notion that she should love her husband. ‗I asked myself two questions-‘, Charlotte told Ellen ‗Do I love
Henry Nussey as much as a woman ought to love the man her husband? … Yet I had not, and never could have that
intense attachment which would make me willing to die for him-and if ever I marry it must be in that light of
adoration that I will regard my husband.‘ ‘‘ (Barker, 1995) In her letter containing her negative answer to Henry
Nussey, she writes; ‗‗In forming this decision- I trust I have listened to the dictates of conscience more than to those
of inclination.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Similar to Revd. Henry Nussey‘s offer of marriage and missionary work with him,
St. John Rivers makes Jane an offer of marriage and missionary work with him in India. He proposes; ‗‗A
missionary‘s wife you must-shall be. You shall be mine: I claim you-not for my pleasure, but my Sovereign‘s
service.‘‘ (Brontë, 2006) Like Charlotte, her heroine refuses this proposal as she knows that she will never be able to
love him as she does Mr. Rochester, as Jane is already aware of passion she cannot tolerate a marriage without it.
Jane tells Henry Nussey that; ―I scorn the counterfeit sentiment you offer: yes, St. John and I scorn you when you
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offer it.‖ (Brontë, 2006) Jane indicates that; ‗‗It is-that he asks me to be his wife, and has no more of a husband‘s
heart for me than that frowning giant of a rock ...‘‘ (Brontë, 2006)
Hathersage
In The Brontës, Barker illustrates; ‗‗Though Charlotte was to stay only a brief three weeks at Hathersage,
the visit was to be a major influence in shaping Jane Eyre.‘‘(Barker, 1995) Barker mentions Charlotte‘s poem The
Missionary which was probably written at that time. This poem tells of a man who has to give up his love to be a
missionary in another county. ‗‗This scenario was to be developed more fully in Jane Eyre, where St. John Rivers
loves Rosamond Oliver but refuses to ask her to share his own destiny as a missionary in India because he knows she
will not be able to adapt to his hardships.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Barker depicts; ‗‗Whether or not Charlotte was
consciously seeking material for the story that, a year later, was to become Jane Eyre, the village of Hathersage and
its setting were to feature prominently in her novel. Even the name of his heroine seems to have been adopted from
the four splendid medieval brasses of the Eyre family in the church. The fifteenth-century Eyre home, North Lees
Hall, which lay two miles from Hathersage, may also have provided Charlotte with material for her description of
Rochester‘s Thornfield Hall.‘‘ (Barker, 1995)
In We Are Three Sisters: Self and Family in the Writing of the Brontës, Charlotte depicts her sisters, Anne
and Emily, in Rivers sisters; ‗‗Not only are the Rivers sisters alike, but Jane immediately recognizes her affinity to
them: ‗I liked to read what they liked to read: what they enjoyed, delighted me; what they approved, I reverenced. …
we coincided, in short, perfectly.‘ ‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003) Gordon argues the same about Rivers sisters being Emily and
Anne ‗‗Grave and slender, both possessed faces full of distinction and intelligence. So she described them in the
form of two studious sisters, Diana and Mary Rivers, who shelter Jane when she runs away from bigamous Mr.
Rochester.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) Lamonica further examines that ‗‗This idealized picture of sisterly solidarity can be
seen in the context of the Bronte family relations in the 1840s, as Charlotte compensated for her increasing
estrangement from Branwell, her former confidante and creative spur, by turning to her sisters for both emotional
and creative support. Despite Hannah‘s presentation of the Riverses‘ sibling unity, St John is significantly peripheral
to the female community in Moor-House. He is unable to share in their domestic harmony, as Branwell was, by
1846, distanced from his sisters.‘‘ (Lamonica, 2003)
Monsieur Heger
Monsieur Heger‘s personality was a great source of inspiration for Charlotte Brontë. Charlotte was very
happy during her first year at Brussels. At the end of six months, Emily and Charlotte were offered the position of
teaching. Holloway indicates; ‗‗At the expiration of the six months two sisters were offered positions in the school
…‘‘ (Holloway 20) In her second stay in Brussels, Charlotte was feeling lonely as she was feeling herself more
attached to Heger. Barker focuses on that ‗‗She could not declare her love to Monsieur Heger in such shameless
terms, but her heroine could and would. Like Monsieur Heger, Mr Rochester was married, and Jane, like Charlotte,
would take the moral line and flee from temptation; but Jane, unlike Charlotte, would eventually win her man.‘‘
(Barker, 1995) Gordon depicts; ‗‗M. Heger‘s letters to Charlotte have vanished, but forty years later, writing to
another English pupil, his engaging ways remained undimmed.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) She presents a paragraph from
Heger‘s letter and states; ‗‗This voice is like Rochester‘s as he contemplate Jane in his library and becomes aware of
a resolute woman who does not deny feeling but who will not allow it to shake her reason‘‘ (Gordon, 1994).
‗‗Though this relationship was beyond all doubt entirely proper, the letter breathes an intimacy and sensuality which
a susceptible woman would find erotic. ‗I only have to think of you to see you‘, he told the lady in question.‘‘
(Barker, 1995) She further examines; ‗‗This could be Mr. Rochester talking to Jane Eyre.‘‘ (Barker, 1995) Charlotte
Bronte fell in love with a powerful man like Mr. Rochester who was the opposite of everything she valued. Gordon
illustrates that ‗‗Rochester‘s words to Jane are close to Heger‘s style.‘‘ (Gordon, 1994) White indicates ‗‗It is
interesting that she addresses him as her ‗master‘ on several occasions, a term which Jane Eyre uses to describe the
moody Rochester.‘‘ (White, 1998) When she returned to Haworth, she was not ill in body, but she never seemed to
be well after leaving Brussels. There were constant complaints of depression and ill-health. Charlotte said ―I shall
not forget what the parting with M.Heger cost me, it grieved me so much.‘‘ (Gaskell, 2009) This state of mind
resembles that of Jane Eyre when she flees Thornfield and Mr. Rochester. ‗‗Depression drives Jane into the
wilderness near Whitcross. Whitcross was derived from the stone pillar known as the Moscar Cross, close to the
Hallam moors in Derbyshire which Charlotte would have seen when she vacationed with Ellen in the village of
Hathersage in the summer of 1845.‘‘(Gordon, 1994) Barker depicts that ‗‗Charlotte‘s own journey across the flat
moorlands between Sheffield and Hathersage, where the desolation is broken only by scattered outcrops of rock, was
to provide an appropriate setting for Jane‘s flight from Rochester, and Hathersage itself became the fictional village
of Morton.‘‘ (Barker, 1995)
Conclusion
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On this study, the influences of Charlotte Brontë‘s experiences on her successful novel, Jane Eyre have
been analysed by stating many opinions of various critics and biographers as well as connotations from the novel,
Jane Eyre itself. The first part examines Charlotte Brontë‘s early life illustrating its reflections on her novel. It
further focuses on her time in Haworth. The second part indicates Charlotte Brontë‘s school life, Cowan Bridge, Roe
Head and her teaching experience, depicting their relevancies to her novel. The third part focuses on Charlotte‘s
experiences as a governess and its reflections on Jane Eyre. The last part depicts Henry Nussey, Monsieur Heger and
Hathersage and their impacts on the novel. Therefore, through this study, traces and effects of Charlotte Brontë‘s life
on her work are analysed and a close observation of her life depicts the reflections of her experiences on her novel,
Jane Eyre.
References
Brontë, C. (2006). Jane Eyre, London: Penguin Red Classic.
Gaskell, E. (2009). The Life of Charlotte Brontë, A Digireads.com Book.
Barker, J. (1995). The Brontës, London: Phoenix.
Chadwick, H. E. (1914). In the Footsteps of the Brontës, London: Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd.
Gordon, L. (1994). Charlotte Brontë A Passionate Life, London: Chatto & Windus.
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Teachman, D. (2001). Understanding Jane Eyre : A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources & Historical Documents,
Westport: Greenwoodpress.
Lamonica, D. (2003). We Are Three Sisters : Self and Family in the Writing of the Brontes, Columbia: University of
Missiouri Press.
Holloway, C. (1883). An Hour with Charlotte Brontë; or Flowers from a Yorkshire Moor, New York: Funk &
Wagnalls Publishers.
White, K. (1998). The Brontës, Stroud: Sutton Publishing Limited.
Rigby, E. (1990). Review of Jane Eyre: An Autobiography. Critical Essays on Charlotte Brontë, Boston: G. K. Hall
& Co.
Gilbert, M. S. (1990). Plain Jane‘s Progress. Critical Essays on Charlotte Brontë, Boston: G. K. Hall & Co.
Smith, M. (2000). The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, New York: Oxford University Press.
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561
Title
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Traces of the Life of Charlotte Brontë in Jane Eyre
Author
Author
Çeri, Mine Özge
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
‗‗Details, situations which I do not understand and cannot personally inspect, I would not for the world meddle with. Besides not one feeling on any subject, public or private, will I ever affect that I do not really experience.‘‘ (Smith, 2000) This confession settles the question whether the books written by Charlotte Brontë are drawn from what came within her own world of experience. This paper wants to show the influence of the life and experiences of Charlotte Brontë on her famous novel Jane Eyre. The first part of the article provides a brief summary of the life of Charlotte Brontë. The second part provides information about the schools she attended to which are Cowan Bridge and Roe Head and their similarities to the novel. The third part of this paper provides Charlotte Brontë‘s working experience as a governess in Stonegappe. The fourth part provides information about Henry Nussey, Mr. Heger and Hathersage, which have important influences on the novel. The paper concludes that a close acquaintance with Charlotte Brontë‘s life shows that the story of Jane Eyre is largely her own experience.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a0ed9fc5022343acc3a76858d48c44b6.docx
a0a101d31c544366826fe74cfa73e8b3
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dfea62c4f24ace1667d09161e4e89452.pdf
0e1246f382d0d5708c46232917418761
PDF Text
Text
Trade Agreements of Albania and their Impact on Agriculture, Imports
and Exports
RisildaDjala
Epoka University
Albania
rdjala11@epoka.edu.al
Mergleda Hodo
Epoka University
Albania
mhodo@epoka.edu.al
Abstract: This paper examines the impact that the free trade agreements of Albania have had
on the overall economy in general and in agriculture sector, exports and imports in
particular, turning out to be increased in significant amounts. These trade agreements have
provided the Albanian economy with a competitive advantage and economic space. The long
journey of integration for Albania has started with its association in the World Trade
Organization (WTO), a great step towards international competitiveness, followed by being
part of Central European Free Trade Area (CEFTA). Albania has also free trade agreements
with nine countries of the region, including Bosnia & Herzegovina, Kosovo, Macedonia,
Moldova, Croatia, Yugoslavia and Turkey, Romania and Bulgaria, which are the latest EU
members, and by January 2009, the process of ratification from the members of European
Union countries finished. This means free exchange of goods and services between these
countries by exploiting better their competitive advantages. The possibility of the development
of agro-industrial industries continues to be high for Albania, because many products can be
exported customs duty zero, facilitating the burden of tariffs and taxes. All analyses done
about the impact of the FTA on trade facilitation, price reduction and the volume of imports
and exports results that generally in 2008 and especially since 2010, there has been seen a
positive trend in the increase of the volume of trade, indicating the positive effect of these
agreements in the mentioned sectors. Furthermore, there is a need for deep structural
changes, including changing the size of the farm, further development of the land market,
increased competitiveness, more domestic production, and an increase the level of public and
private investments in the future.
Keywords:Agriculture, exports, imports, tariffs, customs duty, impact.
74
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2509
Title
A name given to the resource
Trade Agreements of Albania and their Impact on Agriculture, Imports and Exports
Author
Author
DJALA, Risilda
HODO, Mergleda
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This paper examines the impact that the free trade agreements of Albania have had on the overall economy in general and in agriculture sector, exports and imports in particular, turning out to be increased in significant amounts. These trade agreements have provided the Albanian economy with a competitive advantage and economic space. The long journey of integration for Albania has started with its association in the World Trade Organization (WTO), a great step towards international competitiveness, followed by being part of Central European Free Trade Area (CEFTA). Albania has also free trade agreements with nine countries of the region, including Bosnia & Herzegovina, Kosovo, Macedonia, Moldova, Croatia, Yugoslavia and Turkey, Romania and Bulgaria, which are the latest EU members, and by January 2009, the process of ratification from the members of European Union countries finished. This means free exchange of goods and services between these countries by exploiting better their competitive advantages. The possibility of the development of agro-industrial industries continues to be high for Albania, because many products can be exported customs duty zero, facilitating the burden of tariffs and taxes. All analyses done about the impact of the FTA on trade facilitation, price reduction and the volume of imports and exports results that generally in 2008 and especially since 2010, there has been seen a positive trend in the increase of the volume of trade, indicating the positive effect of these agreements in the mentioned sectors. Furthermore, there is a need for deep structural changes, including changing the size of the farm, further development of the land market, increased competitiveness, more domestic production, and an increase the level of public and private investments in the future. Keywords:Agriculture, exports, imports, tariffs, customs duty, impact.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2014-04-24
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
Identifier
An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context
ISSN 2303-4564
H Social Sciences (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c33b23d5ce5e144e01d126eb29081828.pdf
d64b645b2919f99283cf61821413dbf2
PDF Text
Text
International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
Trade as Engine of Growth: The Case of Turkey
İbrahim Arslan
Gaziantep University, Turkey
arslan@gantep.edu.tr
İsmail Taş
Tunceli University, Turkey
ismailtas@tunceli.edu.tr
As a result of technological changes in the world, international trade has
become very easy in practice and has shown a rapid increase in the
volume. The increase in trade volume is closely related to the growth
policies implemented by countries. While some of countries applying
import substitution policies for economic growth, some of them applying
export oriented policies for growth. Both import-led growth hypothesis
and export-led growth hypothesis are an important discussion in applied
economics. Turkey's economy implemented import substitution growth
policies until 1980 then country's economy affected by oil crisis after that
stabilization program applied in 24 January 1980. In this respect, the study
is divided into two separate parts, which are the years between 1962 and
1981, years between 1982 and 2010. These two groups analyzed and
evaluated separately. The main purpose of this study is to investigate
relationship between export, import and growth in both periods for
Turkey. Dickey Fuller (ADF) tested stationary of the variables. Granger
causality test was applied to test the existence of causality between the
variables. As a result of this paper, it is found that causal relationship from
import towards economic growth from 1962 to 1981 and casual
relationship from export towards economic growth between the years
1982 and 2010.
Keywords: Export-Led Growth, Import-Led Growth, Economic Growth,
Trade, Granger Causality Test.
165
�
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Title
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Trade as Engine of Growth: The Case of Turkey
Author
Author
ARSLAN, Ibrahim
TAS, Ismail
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
As a result of technological changes in the world, international trade has become very easy in practice and has shown a rapid increase in the volume. The increase in trade volume is closely related to the growth policies implemented by countries. While some of countries applying import substitution policies for economic growth, some of them applying export oriented policies for growth. Both import-led growth hypothesis and export-led growth hypothesis are an important discussion in applied economics. Turkey's economy implemented import substitution growth policies until 1980 then country's economy affected by oil crisis after that stabilization program applied in 24 January 1980. In this respect, the study is divided into two separate parts, which are the years between 1962 and 1981, years between 1982 and 2010. These two groups analyzed and evaluated separately. The main purpose of this study is to investigate relationship between export, import and growth in both periods for Turkey. Dickey Fuller (ADF) tested stationary of the variables. Granger causality test was applied to test the existence of causality between the variables. As a result of this paper, it is found that causal relationship from import towards economic growth from 1962 to 1981 and casual relationship from export towards economic growth between the years 1982 and 2010. Keywords: Export-Led Growth, Import-Led Growth, Economic Growth, Trade, Granger Causality Test.
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International Burch University
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2013-05-10
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Article
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ISSN 2303-4564
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bc7c62aa214fb804fc0b28d7f67d9111
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Text
��
�
�40,0
35,0
30,0
Raw materials
Labour-intensive
25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
5,0
0,0
Capital-intensive
Technologyintensive, easily
imitable
Technologyintensive,
difficultly imitable
������0,3
0,25
Albania
0,2
Bosnia & H.
Croatia
0,15
Montenegro
0,1
Serbia (& M.)
Macedonia
0,05
0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
�0,12
Albania
0,1
Bosnia & H.
0,08
Croatia
0,06
Montenegro
0,04
Serbia (& M.)
0,02
Macedonia
0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013
�����
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Trade liberalisation and product structure: the case of the Western Balkans
Author
Author
Molendowski, Edward
Klimczak, Łukasz
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Abstract This paper addresses an important issue of an impact of trade liberalisation on export structure and product concentration, which, according to contemporary findings, have a strong influence on the dynamics of an economic growth. The analysis covers the region of the Western Balkans (WB) in years 1995 – 2013 with an emphasis on Stabilisation and Association Process (SAP) and CEFTA-2006 agreement, which formed the basis for the trade liberalisation in the region. The empirical results provide evidence that is in contrary to the evidence from other countries where trade liberalisation resulted in their deepened specialisation in production and export of raw materials and labour-intensive goods. Moreover, liberalisation processes turned out not to have had much impact on product concentration of the WB’s trade. Finally, substitutability of capital and labour factors in the production process of exported goods was confirmed. Key words: Western Balkans, international trade, trade
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2016
Keywords
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H Social Sciences (General)
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49d001ed6b65d16558e60bcf75a0c1a5
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TRADITIONAL BOSNIAN HOUSE – LESSON IN ENVIRONMENTAL
JUSTICE
Emina Zejnilovic
International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
ezejnilovic@ibu.edu.ba
Erna Ahmetspahic
International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
eahmetspahic@ibu.edu.ba
Keywords:Mahala, traditional house in Bosnia and Herzegovina, indigenous materials, green
garden, eco-design, sustainability, vernacular architecture.
ABSTRACT
Following recent architectural trends in housing, Bosnia is facing problems of city
sedimentation. Proportionally to the city growth, level of environmental contamination is
increasing. Environmental crisis cannot be limited to a specific micro-scale for it is a global
issue. Residential buildings are one of the biggest energy consumers. Macro-regions are being
formed through informal dwellings, suffocating the city and bending over it. ‘New Mahalas’1 in
Bosnia and Herzegovina are the result of ‘new way of living.’ They are collectors of pollutants
and unsustainable development. Surpassing ecological, there is ever present social and economic
aspect of this type of built environment, which is a serious threat to aesthetic and historical value
of traditional mahala. Before the era of sustainability, synergy between architecture and nature
was the foundation of traditional settlement in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The aim of this research
is not ‘anti-modernism’ or going backwards but to investigate the elements of vernacular house
that can be implemented to present social and environmental circumstances as well as to answer
to the needs of contemporary living and create a more sustainable architecture.
�
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Title
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TRADITIONAL BOSNIAN HOUSE – LESSON IN ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE
Author
Author
ZEJNILOVIC, Emina
AHMETSPAHIC, Erna
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Keywords:Mahala, traditional house in Bosnia and Herzegovina, indigenous materials, green garden, eco-design, sustainability, vernacular architecture. ABSTRACT Following recent architectural trends in housing, Bosnia is facing problems of city sedimentation. Proportionally to the city growth, level of environmental contamination is increasing. Environmental crisis cannot be limited to a specific micro-scale for it is a global issue. Residential buildings are one of the biggest energy consumers. Macro-regions are being formed through informal dwellings, suffocating the city and bending over it. ‘New Mahalas’1 in Bosnia and Herzegovina are the result of ‘new way of living.’ They are collectors of pollutants and unsustainable development. Surpassing ecological, there is ever present social and economic aspect of this type of built environment, which is a serious threat to aesthetic and historical value of traditional mahala. Before the era of sustainability, synergy between architecture and nature was the foundation of traditional settlement in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The aim of this research is not ‘anti-modernism’ or going backwards but to investigate the elements of vernacular house that can be implemented to present social and environmental circumstances as well as to answer to the needs of contemporary living and create a more sustainable architecture.
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International Burch University
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2013-05-24
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ISSN 2233-1565
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6d1f8424e81c0196a869a9480fd43308
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Traditional vs Modern Teaching Methods. Advantages and Disadvantages
Mahira Hadžimehmedagić & Azamat Akbarov
International Burch University/ Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Key words: traditional, modern, methodology, advantage, disadvantage
ABSTRACT
Which methods of teaching have our teachers used,and we grew up with? Which methods do we use nowdays? Has
something changed? Can we, today, talk about "those traditional" and "these modern" approaches of teaching?What,
in fact, we can name as "traditional" and "modern"? Is there a border where we can distinguish or separate one from
another? All these questions show the big imporatnce of knowing the terms : methodology, traditional,
modern...Traditional method of teaching is "teacher-dominated interaction".Teaching is deeply teacher centred and
teachers are the source of the knowledge, while learners are passive receivers that must memorize things.Modern
method is "student centred" method based on "help learning to happen"-role, communication, interaction, helping
students to explore method.These days, especially at private schools, we have great possibilities in what a teacher
can do with the students, in terms of teaching methodsand usage of all optional aids in the classroom.With this
freedom in teaching we also have an enormous number of ideas to use.Since the time we spent with our students is
very precious,teachers' crucial task should be:comparing, analysing and evaluating the methods they use to motivate
the students and to make learning as effective as possible. A teacher must be aware of all advantages and
disadvantages in using all types of methodologies. There is no one best or worst method, or one method simply the
best for everything and everybody.The central factor in the choice of methods is the learner's need and character. A
teacher must be a good pedagog to see and understand all the students' individual abilities. Some methods work for
one person well, but the same one might not work for another person at all.Understanding the student help you
choose the way of teaching
�
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1901
Title
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Traditional vs Modern Teaching Methods. Advantages and Disadvantages
Author
Author
HADZIMEHMEDAGIC, Mahira
AKBAROV, Azamat
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Key words: traditional, modern, methodology, advantage, disadvantage ABSTRACT Which methods of teaching have our teachers used,and we grew up with? Which methods do we use nowdays? Has something changed? Can we, today, talk about "those traditional" and "these modern" approaches of teaching?What, in fact, we can name as "traditional" and "modern"? Is there a border where we can distinguish or separate one from another? All these questions show the big imporatnce of knowing the terms : methodology, traditional, modern...Traditional method of teaching is "teacher-dominated interaction".Teaching is deeply teacher centred and teachers are the source of the knowledge, while learners are passive receivers that must memorize things.Modern method is "student centred" method based on "help learning to happen"-role, communication, interaction, helping students to explore method.These days, especially at private schools, we have great possibilities in what a teacher can do with the students, in terms of teaching methodsand usage of all optional aids in the classroom.With this freedom in teaching we also have an enormous number of ideas to use.Since the time we spent with our students is very precious,teachers' crucial task should be:comparing, analysing and evaluating the methods they use to motivate the students and to make learning as effective as possible. A teacher must be aware of all advantages and disadvantages in using all types of methodologies. There is no one best or worst method, or one method simply the best for everything and everybody.The central factor in the choice of methods is the learner's need and character. A teacher must be a good pedagog to see and understand all the students' individual abilities. Some methods work for one person well, but the same one might not work for another person at all.Understanding the student help you choose the way of teaching
Publisher
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IBU Publishing
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2013-05-03
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
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94ee958a5eb38684df41a9a9326e86f1
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Text
Index:
Bencmarking
National
Environmental
http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/es/esi/esı2005 (23.04.2012).
Stewardship,
Traffic Accident Detection By Using Machine Learning Methods
Nejdet Dogru, Abdulhamit Subasi
International Burch University,Sarajevo, Bosnia And Herzegovina
E –mails: ndogru@ibu.edu.ba, asubasi@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract
There are lots of studies about preventing or detecting the car accidents. Most of them
includes sensing objects which might cause accident or statistics about accidents. In this
study, a system which detects happening accidents will be studied. The system will collect
necessary information from neighbor vehicles and process that information using machine
learning tools to detect possible accidents. Machine learning algorithms have shown success
on distinguishing abnormal behaviors than normal behaviors. This study aims to analyze
traffic behavior and consider vehicles which move different than current traffic behavior as a
possible accident. Results showed that clustering algorithms can successfully detect
accidents.
1.INTRODUCTION
Recent inter vehicular studies are acquiring commercial interest via the DSRC/WAVE
standard in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs). Possible future services among vehicles
are topic of many studies(Xu et al., 2004; Nandan et al., 2005; Lee and Gerla, 2010)
In VANETs, vehicles are able to communicate with each other in vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) or
with roadside network infrastructure in vehicle-to-Roadside Communication (V2R) manner.
Some of the envisioned applications for vehicular networks are : vehicle collision warning,
security distance warning, driver assistance, cooperative driving, cooperative cruise
control,dissemination of road information, internet access, map location, automatic parking,
driverless vehicles(Boukerche et al., 2008)
Most of applications need traffic speed and travel time measurements. These measurements
can be used to help roadway users to decide which route to use or when to depart etc. Also
These measurement can be saved to analyze traffic speed and travel time patterns for
different time intervals. Currently local detectors at specific points along the road are used to
468
�measure the speed. New approach is to equip vehicles with communication and location
devices to measure their speed and travel time. Some studies have shown that cellular
networks can be used to identify vehicle’s location using cellular phone base station
communication records(Bar-Gera, 2007)
Safe navigation support has also become one of the main research topic with the help of
DSRC/WAVE standardization(Jiang et al., 2006). For instance, collision or road condition
warning messages can be forwarded to following vehicles. Beside DSRC/WAVE standards,
2/3G cellular networks can be used to enable message exchange among vehicles(Boukerche
et al., 2008; Lee and Gerla, 2010)
In this study, we will use machine learning methods to analyze collected information from
vehicles to detect forward collisions. Drivers will be alerted about collision and they will
have time to take precaution to avoid piled-up collision.
2.BACKGROUND
Recently, automatic incident detection has attracted much attention in freeway control
systems to reduce traffic delay, advance road safety, capacity and real time traffic control
because when freeway and arterial incidents occur, they cause congestion and mobility loss,
if they are not fixed immediately, they can cause second traffic accidents. Algorithms which
is used to detect incidents include the pattern recognition techniques , time
series(Angshuman, 2004), filtering, fuzzy set(Edmond Chin-Ping Chang and Kunhuang
Huarng, 1993), and artificial neural network(Edmond Chin-Ping Chang, 1992) (Wang et al.,
2007)
Unlike sensors, vehicles can be equipped with sensing devices with high processing power,
high cost and weight like GPS, chemical spill detectors, video cameras, vibration sensors,
acoustic detectors, etc.. since they are not usually restricted by energy and size constraints.
VANETs deployment scenario is different than traditional wireless sensor network
deployment scenarios since vehicles expose limited mobility pattern due to street shapes,
intersections, speed limitation, vehicle size. If vehicles are equipped with network cards, they
can access wireless access networks like DSRC/WAVE, Cellular, Wifi, WiMAX, etc(Lee
and Gerla, 2010)
2.1.Traffic Flow/ Incident Detection
Advances in ITS require more accurate traffic information and providing this information
became a big challenge for the public institutions and private companies. The traditional
traffic sensors that are used to measure current traffic conditions, like loop detectors, are
ineffective to provide accurate information about traffic status on a road network.
469
�Traffic related information from other sources , such as cameras, GPS, cell phone tracking,
probe vehicles, are used to improve accuracy of the traditional measurement systems.
Traffic manegement control centers also keep these traffic related information for future use.
Data fusion techniques can be used to combine offline traffic data and data from multiple
sources in order to produce better understanding about road traffic state and future necessary
road development(Faouzi et al., 2011)
Data fusion techniques that are used in traffic management include Dempster–Shafer
inference, Bayesian inference, and voting logic. Most of these techniques combined probe
vehicle data with traditional traffic data for incident detection. Neural network approach was
also used to detect incidents from observed information(Faouzi et al., 2011)
2.2. Localization
Most of VANET application needs vehicles’ current position. In order to compute the
position of vehicles, Global Positioning System, Map Matching, Dead Reckoning, Cellular
Localization, Image/Video Processing and Relative Distributed Ad Hoc Localization
techniques has been studied. All of these techniques have advantages and disadvantages.
GPS signals may not be available in dense urban environments, tunnels, indoor parking lots,
forests or underground environment or might be effected or blocked by obstacles, electronic
interference. Also accuracy of GPS position can change from ±10 to 30 m. This accuracy
array will occur at all nearby receivers. Map knowledge can be used to decrease the error at
the position of vehicle that calculated by other techniques. Vehicles are supposed to follow
roads, vehicle position can be match with road coordinates to estimate the location of
vehicle(Krakiwsky et al., 1988; Jagadeesh et al., 2004)Dead reckoning technique compute
vehicle location using its last known location based on direction, speed, time, etc when GPS
signal is not available. Map knowledge can be combined to improve accuracy(Krakiwsky et
al., 1988; King et al., 2005)Cellular localization techniques use cellular networks to estimate
the position of the mobile phones(Han-Lee Song, 1994; Caffery and Stuber, 1998)Cellular
localization is less accurate than GPS, localization error might change from 90m to
250m(Chen et al., 2006). Cellular localization results are not accurate enough for VANET
applications but it can be useful when combined with other techniques. Local relative
position maps are dynamic position maps which shows vehicles’ relative position from other
vehicles. Every vehicle estimates its distance from other vehicle and shares this information
with nearby vehicles to construct local relative position map(Kukshya et al., n.d.; Boukerche
et al., 2008)
470
�3.METHODOLOGY
Machine learning methods showed great success at anomaly detection. In this study, we
considered incidents in normal traffic flow as an anomaly. When accident happens, following
cars will slow down or stop, and many cars will be affected from accident. When location
data of vehicles are analyzed , it is seen that many cars are collected around accident location.
Clustering algorithms can be used to group vehicles according to their speed and location in
particular road segment. In accident case, algorithms will put vehicles which is affected by
accident in one group , other vehicles in other group or groups.
In our simulations , it has been observed that number of group is increased by 1 at the time of
accident and number of vehicles in the new group increased in the following seconds. It can
be interpreted as an accident happened and following cars or cars around the accident are
affected by the accident.
4.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In this study, Simulation of Urban Mobility, SUMO traffic simulator has been used to enable
mobility of vehicles and collect position and sleep information. 100 vehicles has been used in
3000 m road segment. 5 different vehicle types has been used to imitate real life traffic.
Type
Length (m)
Acceleration Deceleration Max Speed
(m/s2)
(m/s2)
(m/s)
Driving
Perfectness
A
2
8
10
30
50%
B
4
2
10
30
50%
C
6
5
10
30
50%
D
8
4
10
30
50%
E
10
14
10
30
50%
Table 1 : Vehicle types and properties
SUMO traffic simulator is collision free traffic simulator. To simulate accident, cars are
forced to make a stop in predefined position. Stops also can be considered important incident
in a road segment. Vehicle itself or passengers who are leaving the vehicle might cause a
problem. Identifying such incident and alerting coming vehicles will avoid possible
accidents.
One car is forced to make a stop at 50 th second of the simulation. Deceleration value is
chosen as 30 m/s2 to make stop instantaneously. DBSCAN (Sander et al., 1998) unsupervised
471
�clustering algorithm is used to create clusters. Every second, vehicle positions has been
received from SUMO traffic simulator and fed to WEKA machine learning tool (Holmes et
al., n.d.) Results of clustering structure as follows before and after the accident:
Simulation Time Number of Cars Normal Cluster
in Road Segment
Anomaly Cluster
47
67
67
48
68
68
49
68
68
50
68
67
1
51
71
68
3
52
71
68
3
53
74
70
4
54
76
72
4
55
76
72
4
56
77
73
4
Table 2: DBSCAN clustering results
When the car made a pre-scheduled stop at 50 th second of simulation, DBSCAN has been
able to detect anomaly situation. Number of anomaly cluster increases after accident as
expected because car stop or accident has blocked the road.
5.CONCLUSION
Automatic accident detection became very important topic in traffic management systems.
Detection of accident will avoid future accidents and will help authorities to make road
segment available for traffic again. In this study, we showed that traffic behavior can be
analyzed using vehicle positions and speeds and abnormal activities on the road could be
considered possible danger for the drivers who are close to incident area.
472
�REFERENCE
Angshuman, G., 2004. An Incident Detection Algorithm Based On a Discrete State
Propagation Model of Traffic Flow.
Bar-Gera, H., 2007. Evaluation of a cellular phone-based system for measurements of traffic
speeds and travel times: A case study from Israel. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging
Technologies 15, 380 - 391.
Boukerche, A., Oliveira, H., Nakamura, E., Loureiro, A., 2008. Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks:
A New Challenge for Localization-Based Systems. Computer Communications 31, 2838–
2849.
Caffery, J.J., Stuber, G.L., 1998. Overview of radiolocation in CDMA cellular systems. IEEE
Communications Magazine 36, 38-45.
Chen, M.Y., Sohn, T., Chmelev, D., Haehnel, D., Hightower, J., Hughes, J., LaMarca, A.,
Potter, F., Smith, I., Varshavsky, A., 2006. Practical Metropolitan-Scale Positioning for GSM
Phones, in: Dourish, P., Friday, A. (Eds.), UbiComp 2006: Ubiquitous Computing. Springer
Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 225-242.
Edmond Chin-Ping Chang, 1992. A Neural Network Approach to Freeway Incident
Detection. IEEE, pp. 641-647.
Edmond Chin-Ping Chang, Kunhuang Huarng, 1993. Fuzzy Set Applications For Freeway
Incident Detection. IEEE, pp. 439-443.
Faouzi, N.E.E., Leung, H., Kurian, A., 2011. Data fusion in intelligent transportation
systems: Progress and challenges - A survey. Inf. Fusion 12, 4–10.
Han-Lee Song, 1994. Automatic vehicle location in cellular communications systems. IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology 43, 902-908.
Holmes, G., Donkin, A., Witten, I.H., n.d. WEKA: a machine learning workbench. IEEE, pp.
357-361.
Jagadeesh, G.R., Srikanthan, T., Zhang, X.D., 2004. A Map Matching Method for GPS Based
Real-Time Vehicle Location. The Journal of Navigation 57, 429-440.
Jiang, D., Taliwal, V., Meier, A., Holfelder, W., Herrtwich, R., 2006. Design of 5.9 ghz dsrcbased vehicular safety communication. IEEE Wireless Communications 13, 36-43.
King, T., Füβler, H., Transier, M., Effelsberg, W., 2005. On the application of deadreckoning to position-based routing for vehicular highway scenarios. ACM Press, p. 258.
Krakiwsky, E.J., Harris, C.B., Wong, R.V.., 1988. A Kalman filter for integrating dead
reckoning, map matching and GPS positioning, in: , IEEE Position Location and Navigation
Symposium, 1988. Record. Navigation into the 21st Century. IEEE PLANS ’88. Presented at
the , IEEE Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 1988. Record. Navigation into the
21st Century. IEEE PLANS ’88, IEEE, pp. 39-46.
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�Kukshya, V., Krishnan, H., Kellum, C., n.d. Design of a system solution for relative
positioning of vehicles using vehicle-to-vehicle radio communications during GPS outages.
IEEE, pp. 1313-1317.
Lee, U., Gerla, M., 2010. A survey of urban vehicular sensing platforms. Computer Networks
54, 527–544.
Nandan, A., Das, S., Pau, G., Gerla, M., Sanadidi, M.Y., 2005. Co-operative downloading in
vehicular ad-hoc wireless networks, in: Second Annual Conference on Wireless On-demand
Network Systems and Services, 2005. WONS 2005. Presented at the Second Annual
Conference on Wireless On-demand Network Systems and Services, 2005. WONS 2005,
IEEE, pp. 32- 41.
Sander, J., Ester, M., Kriegel, H.-P., Xu, X., 1998. Density-Based Clustering in Spatial
Databases: The Algorithm GDBSCAN and Its Applications. Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery 2, 169-194.
Wang, W., Chen, S., Qu, G., 2007. Comparison between Partial Least Squares Regression
and Support Vector Machine for Freeway Incident Detection. IEEE, pp. 190-195.
Xu, Q., Mak, T., Ko, J., Sengupta, R., 2004. Vehicle-to-vehicle safety messaging in DSRC.
ACM Press, p. 19.
Sustainability and Using Information Technologies in Disaster Managament
FatmaNevalGenç, Murat Yılmaz
Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economic and Administritive Sciences,
09900, Nazilli, Aydın, Turkey.
E-mails: fatmanevalgenc@gmail.com,muratyilmaz@adu.edu.tr
Abstract
Sustainable development is a concept that meets the needs of present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In recent years world
population suffered by numerous natural and manmade disasters so that they strived to
474
�
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Title
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Traffic Accident Detection By Using Machine Learning Methods
Author
Author
Nejdet , Dogru
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
There are lots of studies about preventing or detecting the car accidents. Most of them includes sensing objects which might cause accident or statistics about accidents. In this study, a system which detects happening accidents will be studied. The system will collect necessary information from neighbor vehicles and process that information using machine learning tools to detect possible accidents. Machine learning algorithms have shown success on distinguishing abnormal behaviors than normal behaviors. This study aims to analyze traffic behavior and consider vehicles which move different than current traffic behavior as a possible accident. Results showed that clustering algorithms can successfully detect accidents.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2012-05-31
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),T Technology (General)
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Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya:
Applications And Public Perceptions
Hakan Aslan
University of Sakarya, Civil Engineering Department,
Division of Transportation, Sakarya
haslan@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: As being one of the main tools in urban transport planning and traffic
management, traffic calming is gaining more attention in the recent years.
Furthermore, it is expected that its use will be increased significantly in the near
future. This paper is mainly assesses the implemantation of traffic calming schemes
in Sakarya and the response from the public. A questionnaire based research was
designed and undertaken in some traffic calmed areas of Sakarya. The results
obtained indicate the factthatthe implemantations and their public perception need
to be improved through bettertechnical applications and public consultation process.
The results conclude thatthere is a significant dissatisfaction among the people from
poorly designed and applied schemes ending up damaging environment and being
very unsightly. The paper also discusses the possible recommendations and
suggestions about the ways ofimproving the traffic calming schemes and expected
benefitsin Sakarya
Introduction
The term traffic calming is very loosely used and can therefore mean differentthings to different people.
Although there is no single com mon definition oftraffic calming accepted by interested authorities[1],it can be
defined as the techniques aimed at reducing vehicle speeds in residential areas, without restricting access. As a
result of this, vulnerable road users and residents are protected, and the quality of life is improved for those
living in the neighbourhood. As one of the main figures in the field of traffic calming, Hass-Klau [2] regarded
traffic calming as ‘ the street regulations and combinations of transport policies used for the Dutch woonerven,
which enforces the reduction of motor vehicle speeds to walking pace, giving equal rights to allroad users and
alleviatesthe adverse environmental safety and severance effects of motor vehicles.
The developments and applications of traffic calming schemes all over the world, especially in the
Europe, has quite rightly brought the subject into the agenda of the transportation related people; researchers,
transport professionals and highway authorities.
Although one of the main objectives of the traffic calming schemes is related to the safety of the traffic
environment, the degree of danger felt by people using the streets is also another important aspect of traffic
calming applications. This research reveals the public perception of the applied traffic calming measures in city
of Sakarya, Turkey.
Traffic Calming in Europe
With the increasing public awareness of environmentalissues in Germany, Federal Ministry of Regional
Planning, Housing and Urban Development handled theissues relatedtotraffic calming. The Ministry played the
leading role in financing traffic calming related applications and first publication about on the analysis and
practical experiences oftraffic calming in 1978/79 was revealed. The two following publications from the same
Ministry were Planning Booklet on Traffic Calming (1982) and Cost of Traffic Calming (1983). These
publications, along with others, changed the attitutes of people and , accordingly,the organisations in highway
and transportation related issues had no longer any question about the need for traffic calming on residential
streets.. The recent studies [3] state that German cities obtained 50 percent increase in bicycle use, 57 percent
reduction in fatal accidents, 45 percent reduction in severe accidents, 40 percent reduction in slight injuries, 43
percentreduction in pedestrian accidents, 16 percentreduction in cyclistaccidents, 16 percentreduction intraffic
accident costs, 66 percent reduction in child accidentsthrough the implementation oftraffic calming projects.
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�As being the origin country of traffic calming, Woonerf schemes of the 1970's, engineers in Delft
demonstrated that the speed of vehicles could be reduced through specific design measures. The first
applications became so successful not onlyinterms oftraffic management and design but also public perception.
The following years led to new applications in many towns and cities, even villages, and legal legislation was
introduced in 1976 [4]. The reliable and steady positive results obtained from the research projects in
Netherlands [5] formed the basis forthe evolution oftrafficcalming design of our modern days.
Britain was slow to startthe debate and discussion on the notion oftraffic calming as the main objectives
of traffic calming was seen to reduce the accidents and Department of Transport claimed that accident levels
were relatively low compared the other European countries.Đn the following years, with the changing attitudes,
some local highway authorities such as Kent & Hetfordshire took the initiative and started carrying out some
traffic calming projects without any clear official approval from the DOT. Britain is now one of the leading
countries ofthe Europe to implementthe wide range oftraffic calming schemes successfully [6].
Turkey is stillitsinfancy regarding the traffic calming applications and the reviews ofthe current applied
measures. The local authorities have the power to implement the schemes whenever and wherever they think
they are necessary. The residents` opinions are frequently neglected inthe process. However,itis quite clearthat
the purpose of the proposed schemes need to be communicated to local residents and allinterested parties not
only to get their opinions but also to inform them about the technical necessities and possible benefits of the
projecttojustify the application in their mind.
The main objective ofthisresearch isto determine through a questionareifthe traffic calming schemes in
Sakarya are readily acceptable by the general public and make some recommendations based on the analysis of
the questionnaire.
The Need for Questionnaire Survey
A survey is not synonymous with a particular technique of collecting information.[7]. The way of data
collection and the analysis method to be employed are the distinguishing features of the surveys. As the
measurement of perception of the public attitude is atthe core of this study,itis believed thatthe questionnaire
based survey would be most appropriate for giving the freedoom to the people to express theirideas. The same
consideration affected the selection of the type of the attitude measurements and, accordingly, The Continuous
Rating Scale and Linkert Scale were employed as the type of rating scale. Đt is thought that these two rating
scales are quite appropropriateto get atrue and unbaised response by giving the best possible amount of freedom
and flexibilitytothe respondents.
The questionnaire is designed to get the opinion of the people affected by the traffic calming schemes
regarding the main aspects below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
the necessity ofthe project
the location and the appearance
the effects on journey times
the effects on route choice
the effects on pedestrian safety
the effects on how the streetlook
the effect on noise levels
the effect on the safety of pedal cyclists
whetherthe participants wish to see traffic calming schemes increased.
The following sections are related to the presentation and analysis ofthe data obtained.
The Selection Criteria of the Applied Projects
Đn this study, the Cark street and 503th street were selected as the fields of the study as these two streets
are quite busy in terms of vehicle and pedestrian movements along with the intensity of the residential areas. Đn
addition,these streets are regarded asthe main projectsimplemented in Sakarya by the local authority.
W hile the first street is a two-way district distributor, the second one is one-way local distributor. The
applied technique on both streets is speed humps. Humps are located near to schools, mosques, crossings and
junctions where it is thought that the vehicle speeds need to be reduced to an acceptable levels if there is a
danger for pedestrian safety,.The visuality ofthe humps are enhanced through reflective paints and colouring.
The selected streets are heavily used ones asthey arelinking the city centre withthe most developed parts
425
�of the city.
Appraisal of Results
Đn order to getthe very firstimpression and generalideas of the participants to traffic calming concept,
the first question was related whetherthe traffic calming should be increased in the city as a whole.
The obtained results areillustrated in Figure 1.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
YES
NO
Figure 1. Do You Think Thatthe Implementation of TrafficCalming Projects Should be Incresaed
Thisresultclearlyindicatesthatthe general attitudes ofthe publictowardstraffic calming schemes are not
in favor. The split is very significant and illustrates the fact that the City Council engineers are facing a big
challenge regarding their traffic restraint policies in order to reduce in the percentage of population opposing
traffic calming schemes.
The necessity ofthe projects applied on the selected streetsis perveived by the public given by Figure 2.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
YES
NO
Figure 2. Do You Think ThatThe Applied Projectis Necessary
The Figure 1 and Figure 2 seem to be showing opposing conclusions. It is belived from Figure 2 that
people are intrested in having a better and safer traffic environment, Figure 1, however, indicates that if the
applications are not projected and carried out properly,this is what makes the people to be against the general
concept oftraffic calming.
426
�Figure 3 illustratesthe public opinion forthe location and appearance ofthe humps.
60
50
40
Location
30
Appearance
20
10
0
Good
Bad
No idea
Figure 3. What Do You Think Aboutthe Location and Appearance ofthe Humps
As figures imply, almost 50 per cent of the general public has the idea thatthe location ofthe humps are
determined properly. Those against the location are generally the people having their residants or shops in the
vicinity of the application area. The respondents` perception towards the appearance of the humps are negative.
This is mainly becasuse ofthe factthatthe applied humps do not have proper markings and design features.
As the main objective ofthe traffic calming isto slow drivers down,itshould resultin an overallincrease
in journey time. The following figures show the results of the survey regarding this point and the effect of the
projects on the route choice behaviour ofthe people,respectively.
60
50
40
30
20
10
ed
d
ge
De
as
c re
i gh
tly
De
cr e
a
se
Ch
an
No
Sl
Sl
i gh
tl y
Đnc
Đn
c
re a
se
re a
se
d
d
0
Figure 4. Effect of Traffic Calming on Journey Times
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�no
t
er
Ca
n
Ne
v
W
ish
bu
t
So
m
eti
m
es
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 5. Effect of Traffic Calming on Route Choice
Figure 4 and 5 imply interesting results. As most of the people normally do not perceive increases or
decreases in journey times unless they are large and significant, more than 50 percent of the repondents stated
that they did not have any impression that the journey time was extended. Although, one of the drawbacks of
traffic calming schemes is that drivers seek alternative routes without any measures on them, overwhelming
majority ofthe participants expressed thatthey never changed theirroutes. Thisis mainly due tothe nature ofthe
selected streets of the study. The streets are the main and possibly shortest routes in time even with applied
measures comparetothe other alternative routes. Another explanation ofthisisthat drivers do speed up between
the humps in order to offset the lost time due to the speed reductions on humps. A lot of respondents, on the
other hand, wish to chance their routes to escape the negative effects of the humps but due to the lack of
alternative routesthey cannot change the road thatthey drive on.
The perception ofthe public regarding the noise levelis given by Figure 6 below.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Worst
Slightly
Worse
No Change
Slightly
Better
Better
Figure 6. Effect of Traffic Calming on Noise Levels
There seems to be significant proportion of people saying that the noise levels had gone up. This is
primarily because of the sudden braking noise of the cars when they reach the speed humps, and the sudden
accelaration noise for speeding up just after humps.
As far as pedestrian and pedalcyclists` safety are concerned,the public perception isformed as below.
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�70
60
50
40
Pedestrian Safety
30
Cyclists Safety
20
10
0
Đncreased
No
Change
Decreased
No idea
Figure 7. Effect of Traffic Calming on Pedestrian and PedalCyclist
As expected, majority of the people perceived that pedestrian safety was improved. Although only a
small percentage of the respondents believe that traffic calming resulted in a decresaed pedestrian safety, it is
very importantthatthese people should also be persuaded about the significant contribution thattraffic calming
can make to the overall pedestrian safety.
Making sense of the combination of these results are not easy, but it can be said that 63 percent of the
participants did not want to see an increased traffic calming but 53 percent of them also believed that traffic
calming applications are necessary. While the first figure illustrates the reaction of the people to the applied
schemes, the second one indicates the fact that people are in favor of the idea of traffic calming if they are
designed and applied properly. People are aware of the benefits of the traffic calming measures and can justify
them in spite of the disbenefits;increased noise level and traveltime.
Conclusions and Recommendations
.
Đtis obviousthattheimportantrolethatraffic calming plays and willcontinue to play intraffic management and
restraint projects, a priority should be given by public authorities to make sure that people are given enough
information aboutthe projects and communicated forthe feedback.
As the aim of this research has been to evaluate the public perception of the traffic calming schemes in
Sakarya and make the recommendations of how to improve this perceptions,the following recommendations are
done in the light ofthis study and obtained results.
1. Without any doubt public should be consulted priorto the implementation of traffic calming measures.
The current system in Sakarya seems to be not inclusive enough. Public should not be given the
impression that decisions are made well before and public consultation exercise done as window
dressings afterwards.
2. Questionnaires should be sent outin the early stages ofthe plans in orderto judge ifthe public assume
that schemes are necessary.
3. Đnitiatives should be introduced for educating the public on the benefits of traffic calming schemes.
Local tv and radio stations along with newspapers may be used for this purpose to make sure that
information is given as widely as possible.
4. As majority of the people supportthe idea of traffic calming but criticise the current implementations,
the utmost care should be paid for the future applications to be designed and carried out with a
predetermined standards. This will surely make the engineers` job in the future easier to get public
support as public might chance their perception aboutthe applied traffic calming schemes inthe past.
5. As people are quite keen to change their routes to escape the disbenefits of the applied traffic calming
measures, the effects of any implementation should be considered as a package by including the
possible alternative routes ofthe streets and roads subjectto implementation.
429
�References
1. MacDonald. (1993). Quantifying the traffic calming effects on vehicle user behaviour. Unpublished MSc Dissertation.
University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
2. Hass-Klau. ( 1990). The pedestrian and city traffic, London. Belhaven Pres.
3. http://www.walkablestreets.com/calm1.htm
4. Lines, C.J., & Castelijn, H.A. (1991). Translation of Dutch 30kph zone design manual. TRRL, PA2046/91
5. Traffic Calming, Local Transport Note 1/107, Department of Transport, March 2007 : TSO
6. Wheeler, G.J., Kennedy, J.V., Davies, G.J., & Green, J.M. ( 2001). Traffic calming schemes in Norfolk and Suffolk.
TRL Report/500. 2001
7. De Vaus, A.D.(1993). Survey in social research. UCL Pres, London
430
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Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya: Applications And Public Perceptions
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Aslan, Hakan
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2009-06
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