316 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/159c9cd74ee9154a55e95660f948b007.pdf 07659dd9c770010edc383ecc85743f19 PDF Text Text The Role of Universities in Sustainable Development Ali Rıza ERDEM Pamukkale University Faculty of Education Kudret GEZER Pamukkale University Faculty of Education Abstract: Sustainable development is a concept which entails that economic development needs to be maintained without any harm to the environement. In addition sustainable development is a sort of development which helps today’s generation to meet their needs without risking those of the future generations. In the light of such a view, using the natural resources effectively, reducing the waste amount to a minimum level, and recyling the resources, needs of the future generations will be provided and environment be continously preserved. Sustainable development means programming the present and future life and development in such a way to meet the needs of generations today and tomorrow without exploiting the natural resources but by establishing a balance between the nature and the humanbeings. Sustainable development is also a concept which has its social, environmental, economic and institutional perspectives. The fundemantals of such a concept were first established according to the report prepared by the World Environment and Development Comission in 1987. Behind the environmental problems that arise similarly in many countries lie imbalance between the economy and the environment. Humanbeings increase the standards of life with the help of ever growing science, technology and industry, whereas they do big harm to the nature. The indicators pertinent to sustainable development are the ones used to measure the rate of progress achieved and also to show the extent to which objectives are attained. These are also useful means to facilitate decision-making process to secure sustainable develoopment in environmental, economic and social terms. Universities that play an important role to educate professional people, to carry out academic research, and to assume community service have important responsibilities and duties for sustainable development internationally and nationwide. This article critically reviews the role of universities as one of the strategic components of sustainable development. Key Words: Sustainable Development, Universities, Structure and Role Introduction Word population has increased gradually sınce 1950. The quality of life which is increasing in developed contries brings with fast consumption. The more production means the more consumption, and the more garbage the more contaminated the nature become. Global warming, the ozon layer (weakentig) variety of the herbals and animals, abserviation the negative results of being common of the air, water and earth contaminatied; and also these environmental problems gaining global dimension mutual interaction of economic and cnvironmental atmosphere, so all these reality of the need of being evaluated together makes it conceal. The fact that naturel resource, are limited is a widely accepted view in he intunatiand arena and has turned the sustainable development into a theory. Sustainable Development The terms of Sustainable Development were first took in place in the Project of Our Common Future Report by World Environment and Development Commission in 1987.The main reason of the environmental problems happening in the same way, in many countries in the world is the unbalance between the economy and environment. Mankind at the same time is raising up his economical life standards through the developing science technology and industry, on the other hand he is giving harm to the nature. Sustainable development is one of the most significant concepts of the twenty first century. The sustainable development draws attention that the economical development should be done without giving harm to the nature. The sustainable development is such a development that it meets the needs of present generation’s needs avoiding from giving harm to the future generations to meet their basic needs. By the help of this, using the natural resources effectively, diminishing the amount of the waste, enabling the reuse of resources, the 294 �constant protection of the environment will become true and the needs of future generation’s needs will be provided. Sustainable development means that planning the life and the development of today and the future generations through keeping the balance between the nature and mankind without consuming the natural resources so that the new generations could meet their ends. Sustainable development is such a concept that has social, environmental economical and institutional dimensions. Primarily sustainable development consists in human, honor, basic human rights, justice, frredom, peace, reciprocal love and respect as well as believing in wisdom rather than power. The strategies of sustainable development can be condensed into six titles such as environment, future, life standard, justice, precautional principles and the whole consideration. (Engel1990;Bigg&Felix;Gough&Scott,2006;Poharyles,2007;Talu,2007;Baykal,2008;Sinemilioğlu,2009;Özyol,8 .5.09;Dalal.8.5.09) The signs of the sustainable development related to the dimensions of the sustainable development are the indicators that measures how much improvement in the sustainable development has been gained and how much has been reached to the planned targets. The indicators of the sustainable development are the most important devices that help us to provide the sustainable development in social environmental economical and institutional ways. Sustainable Development And Universities Profession has national and international responsibilities and missions in universities which take on academical searching and ministration to the community in sustainable development. The importance of universities which is one strategic element of sustainable development, mustn't be blinked. University is a strategic agent in improving social, environmental, economical and instituinal indicators of sustainable development in national dimension. The Social Sustainability and Universities ⎯ Educating people is facal point in social dimension of sustainable development. Improving of quality of life is aimed by constant education.These are social indicators of social sustainable development: ⎯ Equality;(a)poverty (ratio of population of whom live under the poverty frontier , index of income inequality , the ratio of unemployment) (b) gender equality (the average of the ration of female employee earning to male employee earning) ⎯ Health; (a) the condition of alimentation ( the condition of alimentation of children)(b) death ratio of children under 5, life expectation in child-bearing) (c) the conditions of hygiene (the ratio of population taking enough dirty water waste ministration) (d)drinking water (the ratio of population taking basic health ministration, the vaccination against contagious child pathos, the ratio of using of methods of birth control) ⎯ Education;(a) education level (the number of primary education grads ) (b) Literacy (the ratio of adult literacy ) ⎯ Settlement ;(a)settlement conditions (life area for a person) ⎯ Security;(a) crime (the crime recorded for 100,000 people) ⎯ Population;(a) changing of popularity (the ratio of increasement of popularity) ⎯ Training of people in society,taking advantage of health ministration is so important. Universities take on an important mission by co-operating with other official, individual education institutions in training forever of people in society.But it is not possible to say that this co-operation is enough.Additionaly, universities having medico faculty and explarotary-technic hospital take on an important mission in taking basic and advanced health ministration to people in society away. Environmental Maintenance and Universities The indications related to the environmental dimension of continuing development which emerges in parallel with technological development are up to the very critical and vital level. It is necessary to give much more importance to the natural sources which are renewable and not to consume the ones, which are not renewable, entirely. Especially living natural sources should be saved from extinction and being used up. Those living sources’ being consumed as a purpose of nourishment unconsciously by people causes corruption of ecological balance by facing those living creatures to extinction. Here, either renewable or not, the effectively usage which can enable every natural sources’ maintenance is the main goal. The environmental indications of continuing development (Nemli, 8.5.2009; Özyol, 8.5.2009): 1. Atmosphere; (a) climate change (emissions of hothouse gases), (b) corruption of ozone layer (consumption of the matters which damage the ozone layer), (c) air quality (ratio of air pollution in cities), 295 �2. Soil; (a) agriculture (plantation fields, usage of fertilizer, usage of agricultural chemicals), (b) forests (percentage of heavily forested areas, intensity of cutting the trees), (c) loosing top soil and becoming desert (fields affected by turning into desert), (d) urbanization (wideness of settlement of urban areas), 3. Oceans, seas and shores; (a) coastal regions (ratio of alga’s being intense by the shores, ratio of population living in the coastal regions), (b) fishery (ratio of important species hunted yearly), 4. Water; (a) amount of water (ratio of yearly usage of groundwater), (b) water quality (level of organic material in the water), 5. Biological variety; (a) ecosystem (ratio of important ecosystems, ratio of fields under control), (b) species (presence of important species) The importance given about issues related to environmental maintenance such as respecting the nature, reducing the pollution, protecting the species, enabling the ecosystem variety etc. has increased nationally and internationally. Universities have contributed a great deal to increase the sensitivity of people about environmental protection by both sharing the results of scientific studies that they have done and acting together and collaborating with the other environmentalist organizations. Universities should be more active for this issue. Sustainable Economy and Univerities The basis of sustainable economy is based an the fact that it’s limited to the saurces in nature. The dimension of sustainable development is production consumption and Grass National Product (GNP) per person. The indicators of sustainable economy are the followings: 1) Economic structure: a) Economic performance (gross domestic product per person, rate of investments in Gross Domestic Product) b) Commerce ( the balance of payments at property and service) c) Financial pasition ( the rate of detts to G.N.P.;exterlar assistance that’s taken as the persent of G.N.P. ) 2) Models of Production and Consumption: a) Consumption of stuffs ( density of the use of stuff) b) Use of energy ( annual cansumption of energy per person rate of the use of renovsable sources of energy) c) Production and direction of waste material (production of solid waste materionis of industry and municipality, production of dangerous waste materials, direction of radioactive waste materials, recyeling and reusing of waste Technoparks which were opened with the coaperation of universty-private sector provide association of industry-universty and indirectly the develapment of structures of production in the direction of protection of natural balance at economic sustainability. However, today tecnoparks which were opened with the coaperation of unıversty-private sector aren’t enough. Institutional Sustainablity and Universities The institutional dimension of sustainable development depends an strategy. The strategies, which are applied at the direction of the decisions that are concerned with the institutional dimensions of sustainable development directly affect the other dimensions, the direction and the success of sustainable development. The institutional indicators of sustainable development are: 1) Institutional frame: a) Strategical sustainable growing applications ( national sustainable developing strategies) b) ınternational cooperation ( the applications of signed global agreements) 2) ınstitutional capasity a) Access to knowledge ( the numbers of internet users-1.000 pers person) b) substructure of communication ( the numbers of telephone lines-1000 per person) c) science and technology ( as a percent of GSMH research-clevelopment (Ar-ge) expenditures) d) being prepared to natural disasters (casualties and economical losses which are caused by natural disasters) In the gross of National Outcame, the partion of research-development is nearly %2.60 in USA, %2.30 in G7, %2.15 in OECD, %1.73 in the countries of Europeon Union (Gümüş, 1.4.2008; TUIK 1.4.2008) Universities contribute to institutional sustainablity by making especially research development studies. If the universities take the important parts of the partion which is seperated from GSMH for research-development, important sources will be provided for bath institutional sustainablity and ecanomical sustainablity. Self-awareness of “Sustainable development” and the Universities Individual and foundational awareness in sustainable development is essential in regards to reaching the suggested aims. Foundational awareness and individual awareness are like two halves of a whole. However, initially individual awareness has to be realized in order to realize foundational awareness. Otherwise, not only 296 �will the support and individual attendance of foundations to sustainable development activities be sufficient, but also there will be no deliberate and permanent pressure to trigger the activation of foundations on sustainable development. Universities are on the top list of foundations which will take the responsibilities and achieve it about rising awareness on social, environmental and foundational sustainable development. Both the qualified staff of them and the respection of society towards them will make it easy to realize this role. Because of this, universities must be the pioneers with their activities to raise awareness among society on “Sustainable life” and to make individuals to gain integrative perspective. Conclusion Sustainable development is not an aim that could be achieved by foundations one by one. Cooperation of foundations at both national and international levels and especially their coordination are necessary. Nongovernmental organizations, private sectors, public sectors and universities should be in cooperation and coordination for sustainable development. Universities should be a more effective strategic (determinant) factor in improving the indicators of especially social, environmental, economical and institutive sustainable development in a national dimension. Additionally, universities should improve individual’s awareness thorough community oriented activities while social, environmental, economical and institutive sustainable development is in effect. Universities should work by comprising realistic, modernist and effective new strategies with other foundations in cooperation and coordination for achieving their roles in sustainable development. According to experimental results, it is necessary that changes in strategies be put into practice on time and functionally. Universities should undertake the lead in any sort of education given about sustainable development ( Charon& Montburn, 2009 ). Renewable and unrenewable natural resources should be advertised with the aid of education programs under the guidance of universities. Also, optimum usage of all resources should be provided by finding alternative energy resources. People should learn development without risking the future while they provide their needs without harming the environment. References Baykal, H. & Baykal T. (2008) Küreselleşen dünyada çevre sorunları, Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 5 (9), 1-17 Bertrand, Y. A. Neden sürdürülebilir kalkınma? (Herkes için pedagojik bir sergi), İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.sj.k12.tr/html/dayanisma/2005_2006/yab.pdf dan indirildi. Bigg, T. & Felix, D. (1997) The UN commission on sustainable development, Dodds Felix (ed), The Way Forward Beyond Agenda 21 in pp 16-21, London, Earthscan Publication Dalal, B. What is sustainable development, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.nssd.net/otherdocuments/sustdev2.doc dan indirildi. Dulupçu, M. A. Sürdürülebilir kalkınma politikasına yönelik gelişmeler, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.dtm.gov.tr/dtmadmin/upload/EAD/TanitimKoordinasyonDb/politika.doc dan indirildi. Engel, J. R. (1990) Sürdürülebilir kalkınma ahlakı (Çeviren: İbrahim Özdemir), Joan Gibb Engel (ed) Ethics of Environment and Development in pp: 1-9, London, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da http://dergiler.ankara.edu.tr/dergiler/37/743/9495.pdf dan indirildi. Gough, S & Scott, W. (2006) Education and sustainable development: A political analysis, Educational Review, 58 (3), 273-290 Gümüş, Ş. Ar-ge ve patent, İnternetten 01.04.2008’de www.acarpatent.com/yazdir.asp?id=686 - 10k den indirildi. Nemli, E. Sürdürülebilir gelişme:Ekonomi ile çevre arasındaki denge, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.kalder.org/genel/Esra%20Nemli%20Oturum%205E%20Windows%20XP.ppt den indirilmiştir. Özyol, A. Sürdürülebilir kalkınma, İnternetten 8.5.2009’da www.hydra.com.tr/uploads/kutup9.pdf den indirilmiştir. Pohoryles, R.J. (2007) Sustainable development, innovation and democracy: What role for the regions?, Innovation, 20 (3), 183-190 Sinemillioğlu, M. O. (2009) Sürdürülebilir bölgesel kalkınma ve Türkiye süreci, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8 (27), 245-268 Talu, N. (2007) Sürdürülebilir kalkınma ve Türkiye’nin çevre politikaları, Sivil Toplum Dergisi, 5 (20), 109-120 TUİK, 2006 Yılı Araştırma ve Geliştirme Faaliyetleri Araştırması, Haber Bülteni, sayı:31, İnternetten 01.04.2008 ‘de http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb_id=8&ust_id=2 den indirildi. 297 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 361 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Universities in Sustainable Development Author Author ERDEM, Ali Rıza GEZER, Kudret Abstract A summary of the resource. Sustainable development is a concept which entails that economic development needs to be maintained without any harm to the environement. In addition sustainable development is a sort of development which helps today’s generation to meet their needs without risking those of the future generations. In the light of such a view, using the natural resources effectively, reducing the waste amount to a minimum level, and recyling the resources, needs of the future generations will be provided and environment be continously preserved. Sustainable development means programming the present and future life and development in such a way to meet the needs of generations today and tomorrow without exploiting the natural resources but by establishing a balance between the nature and the humanbeings. Sustainable development is also a concept which has its social, environmental, economic and institutional perspectives. The fundemantals of such a concept were first established according to the report prepared by the World Environment and Development Comission in 1987. Behind the environmental problems that arise similarly in many countries lie imbalance between the economy and the environment. Humanbeings increase the standards of life with the help of ever growing science, technology and industry, whereas they do big harm to the nature. The indicators pertinent to sustainable development are the ones used to measure the rate of progress achieved and also to show the extent to which objectives are attained. These are also useful means to facilitate decision-making process to secure sustainable develoopment in environmental, economic and social terms. Universities that play an important role to educate professional people, to carry out academic research, and to assume community service have important responsibilities and duties for sustainable development internationally and nationwide. This article critically reviews the role of universities as one of the strategic components of sustainable development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7175edbded5a2c187fe125542c2f4a36.pdf 65bb958bdd15d440e20e8024d0ec91d3 PDF Text Text An Investigation of the Effective E-Learning Criteria for Higher Education Institutions Özcan Asilkan Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania oasilkan@epoka.edu.al Fatih Ersoy Department of Computer Engineering, Epoka University Tirana, Albania afersoy@epoka.edu.al Abstract: The recent advances in Information and Communication Technologies affected education industry as well as other industries all over the world. Over the past decade, higher education institutions have been increasingly utilizing e-learning programs. However, some experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems might result in failure and disappointment. Therefore educational institutions should develop and follow the corporate guidelines so that the courses can be taught effectively and students can feel comfortable to adapt quickly to the other e-learning based courses. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning for higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University in Spring semester of 2008-2009 academic year. The findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions who are planning to establish e-learning. Introduction The advancement in ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) and the widespread use of computers have generated a remarkable interest in on-line education in the past decade. This advancement led educational institutions search for alternatives to the traditional education. Consequently, they started to offer online education, or simply “e-learning” which aims to eliminate the dependency to the traditional classrooms and/or improve the learning environment (Eastman & Swift, 2001). There are many definitions of e-learning. For example, Zhang et al. (2004) defined it as “technologybased learning in which learning materials are delivered electronically to remote learners via a computer network”. A very comprehensive one was proposed by Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre: “learning facilitated and supported through the use of information and communication technologies” (Jenkins & Hanson, 2003). Although e-learning is utilized by many educational institutions and companies today, the major beneficiaries are higher education institutions due to their high number of learners whose ages are very suitable for understanding e-learning. Nowadays, a great number of higher education institutions are providing e-learning courses or complete programs to the students. Besides, the number of those higher institutions is continually increasing. It is becoming evident that on-line education will become an integral part of higher education in the foreseeable future (Nakos et al., 2002). Despite this increasing interest in e-learning, some recent studies claimed that e-learning is less popular amongst learners compared with traditional learning and there is less demand for online study than enthusiasts predicted (Mcleod, 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008). Some other experiments showed that superficial e-learning systems may even result in failure and disappointment. Since e-learning is a new concept and has been popular swiftly, many higher institutions implemented it without determining corporate guidelines and critical success factors, measuring students perception, etc. Actually, an understanding of students’ perception and the factors that drive adoption intention will be very useful to make this mode of learning more acceptable. Additionally, teachers who are experienced in e-learning might be expected to understand what students are looking for when they are choosing their mode of studies (Lam & Bordia, 2008). The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. The study presents some of the previous research findings and supplements them with a survey conducted at Epoka University which is located in a transition country, Albania. E-learning issues are comparatively little known in Albania and there seems no relevant study researching e-Learning in the higher 249 �education institutions in this small lovely country. Therefore findings of this study may be very useful to the higher education institutions in Albania or other transition countries to establish their e-learning strategies. E-Learning Models E-learning models used at the higher education institutions can be classified according to various criteria. Three major categories are presented below (Eurybase, 2009): 1. The role of e-learning: a) Full e-learning programs – students obtain access to e-learning contents put on an online platform (like web) or distributed on CDs. Students are usually supported by tutors that use various communication tools (chat, discussion forum, e-mail, virtual classroom, videoconferences). Students take presence at the university several times a year, during which they take exams, participate in kick-off classes. This model is being used successfully only by a small set of universities. b) Traditional learning programs supported by ICTs in the area of communication and collaboration – this model is usually used by institutions that haven’t developed e-learning contents yet. c) Blended learning programs – students attend traditional led classes, which are supported with e-learning contents. This is the most popular model today. 2. E-learning content distribution method: a) Computer based training – it is a popular model in universities who are lack of high Internet access. b) Web based training – it is becoming more and more popular due to some improvements in IT infrastructure, as well as the increased availability of cost-effective e-learning solutions. 3. E-learning solutions used: a) Self-developed platforms – they were quite common a few years ago that universities started to develop own solutions instead of purchasing expensive commercial ones. However due to the need for continuous investment in self-developed platform to follow new standards, decreasing prices of commercial solutions, appearance and popularization of open source platforms (e.g. Moodle), only few universities still continue to develop their own platforms. b) Open source platforms – they are commonly used today in many universities. These platforms are usually free and can be easily adapted to the particular needs of a university. One of the most popular platforms is Moodle. Moodle implementations however are rarely integrated with other university systems and their usages lack standardization and coherence between various courses (Please see http://moodle.org/ for a detailed information on Moodle). c) Commercial platforms – they are usually integrated with other university systems and their usage seems to be the most professional compared to self-developed and open source platforms. These platforms are usually preferred by universities who offer a comprehensive set of e-learning courses. E-Learning Pros and Cons Recent developments in ICTs have made e-learning a feasible alternative to access to educational and training opportunities for learners of all ages, at all levels, and in different environments. In contrast to traditional classroom learning, e-Learning has several advantages for learners. First, e-learning provides time and location flexibility. Second, in the long run, e-learning results in cost and time savings for educational institutions. Third, it supports self-directed and self-paced learning by conducting learner-centered activities. Fourth, e-learning offers a collaborative learning environment by linking each learner with physically dispersed experts and peers. Fifth, it allows unlimited access to electronic learning materials. In addition, knowledge stored in a Web repository can be updated and maintained in a timely and effective fashion (Anaraki, 2004). 250 �On the other hand, superficial e-learning systems can result in frustration, anxiety, confusion, and reduced learner interest. Some of the problems that hinder the effectiveness of e-learning are listed below (Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). • Lack of forms of communication, body language and voice inflection: Compared to traditional classroom teaching, the electronic experience takes away much of the social and diversity aspects in the elearning class. These important skills are important in the business community and in an individual’s success in interacting face-to-face with others. • Text-based learning materials: The learning materials composed of only text may seem boring to learners and cause them to disengage during online learning. • Unstructured and isolated multimedia content: Many multimedia-based e-learning systems simply post content on the Web without any processing. Postings are usually static, passive and unstructured, without any link to relevant materials in different media. For example, instructional videos and PowerPoint slides of the same lecture are presented separately. Learners may even have to go to two different Web sites to view both of them. • Lack of rich content: A number of e-learning systems lack adequate instructions for students. Some systems provide only PowerPoint slides which may not ensure that learners understand the learning content. It is not uncommon for readers of those slides to fail in understanding what an instructor really means by all those bullet points. • Insufficient interactivity or flexibility: Many current e-learning systems are not quite interactive. Learners have little flexibility to adapt learning content and process to meet their individual needs. For example, it may not be possible to find exactly what is wanted or to skip a portion of content that is already known (Hammond, 1995). In other cases, a student may want to ask a question and get an answer right away instead of sequentially going through an entire instructional video or other multimedia content to find an answer. Most multimedia-based e-learning systems do not provide this capability. Table 1 illustrates the pros and cons of e-learning in comparison with traditional classroom learning (Zhang et al., 2004; Lam & Bordia, 2008; Anaraki, 2004). Advantages Traditional Classroom Learning Immediate feedback ƒ Being familiar to both instructors and students Motivating students ƒ Cultivation of a social community ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ ƒ Instructor-centered Time and location constraints ƒ More expensive to deliver Disadvantages ƒ Lack of individual interactivity especially in ƒ crowded classes. ƒ ƒ E-Learning Learner-centered and self-paced Time and location flexibility Cost-effective Potentially available to global audience Unlimited access to knowledge Archival capability for knowledge reuse and sharing Lack of immediate feedback in asynchronous elearning Increased preparation time for the instructor Not comfortable to some people Potentially more frustration, anxiety, and confusion Lack of social communication Table 1. Pros and Cons of E-Learning Effective E-Learning Criteria Establishing e-Learning courses is a very complex process that includes many critical success factors. Thus, institutions and educators need to consider these factors to provide effective learning environments. The institution should firstly determine its own corporate guidelines and inform the educators to base their courses on them. This is especially important in order to maintain a common user interface for each course. Here are some examples to corporate guidelines: (Zeidman, 2003; Anaraki, 2004) • • • • • • • Learning objectives must be clearly defined. The course structure must be well thought-out and consistent for each course The user interface must be easy to use and consistent for each course. Courses must be prepared by instruction experts with experience in instructional design. The courses must require regular interaction with the student. The progress must be measured, tracked, and reported. Minimum course materials must be determined (i.e. PowerPoint Slides, Videos, etc). 251 �• • Support tools (labs, references, collaboration, etc.) must be determined. Platform security must be maintained. A very comprehensive and challenging work has been done by Blass and Davis (2003) to explore the eight areas in terms of guiding principles that can be tailored to the needs of the particular student group and faculty. They grouped these principles into four higher order groupings or criteria, with the central concerns of each of these criteria identified (see Table 2). The relationships between the criteria and guiding principles are shown in the flowchart in Figure 1. Guidingprinciples 1Appropriatenessofstafandcontent 2Appropriatenessformarketandstudents .3Learningaspirations 4Cognitveergonomics 5Faculty-studentinteraction 6Student-studentinteraction 7Reinforcementstrategy 8Achievementofpurpose Higherordercriteria Centralconcerns Appropriateness Ise-learningappropriateandsustainable? Design Whatisthetargetpopulationandwhatshouldthee-learninglookandfeelike? Interaction Howwilstudentsandfacultyinteract? Evaluation Howarebothstudentlearningandproduct efectivenessassessed? Table 2. Guiding principles and Higher Order Criteria for E-Learning Development (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Figure 1. Relations between criteria and guiding principles. (Source: Blass & Davis, 2003) Obeying the guidelines of the institution, instructors must separately evaluate the student satisfaction towards the online course they are providing. Obtaining ‘feedback’ from students about the design and implementation of the learning environment provided is an essential part of identifying what has worked, and where improvements could be made in the future (Pearson & Trinidad, 2005, p. 396). Although educators may create their own survey forms, we can suggest them to use a qualified and effective survey instruments like OLES, one that was used and presented in the methodology section of this study. 252 �Methodology This study utilized an instrument called Online Learning Environment Survey (OLES). OLES is a webbased instrument for evaluating e-learning environments. Participants of the survey are asked to indicate their ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ experiences with components of online learning in a course they take. The data collected and the resultant statistics depict the actual and preferred learning environment of learners giving valuable feedback to educators working in these environments. OLES can be administered totally online by the educators. Using the OLES, educators can gather valuable pre-course and post-course data to evaluate the effectiveness of the e-learning environment. Adjustments can then be made accordingly to improve or adjust the learning environment. OLES instrument was developed by Dr. Sue Trinidad and Dr. John Pearson. Additional information about OLES can be obtained from http://www.monochrome.com.au/oles/survey.htm. OLES contains 54 items arranged in nine scales – Computer Usage (CU); Teacher Support (TS); Student Interaction and Collaboration (SIC); Personal Relevance (PR); Authentic Learning (AL); Student Autonomy (SA); Equity (EQ); Enjoyment (EN); and Asynchronicity (AS). Samples of items in each scale are shown in Table 3. Respondents are asked to rate items using a five-point scale (Almost Never; Seldom; Sometimes; Often; Almost Always). OLES is available in two forms: the student version and teacher version. In this paper, only data on the use of the student version has been used. SCALES SAMPLE ITEMS Computer Usage (CU) (6 items) I use the computer to find out information about the course. (3) I use the computer to take part in online discussions with other students. (6) Teacher Support (TS) (8 items) If I have an inquiry, the teacher finds the time to respond. (7) The teacher gives me valuable feedback on my assignments. (10) Interaction & Collaboration I discuss my ideas with other students. (18) I can collaborate with other students in the class. (19) (SIC) (6 items) Personal Relevance (PR) (5 items) I am able to pursue topics that interest me. (22) I link class work to my life outside of this class. (24) Authentic Learning (AL) (5 items) I work on assignments that deal with real-world information. (28) I apply real world experience to the topic of study. (30) Student Autonomy (SA) (5 items) I work during times I find convenient. (32) I play an important role in my own learning. (34) Equity (EQ) (7 items) I get the same amount of help from the teacher as do other students. (37) I receive the same encouragement from the teacher as other students do. (39) Enjoyment (EN) (6 items) Online learning is exciting. (44) I would enjoy my education if more of my classes were online. (47) Asynchronicity (AS) (6 items) I access the discussion forum at places convenient to me. (49) The process of writing and posting messages helps me to think. (52) Table 3. Guiding OLES scales and sample items (Source: Pearson & Trinidad, 2006) The data were collected from OLES that were applied to 13 MBA students taking Supply Chain Management course in Spring 2009 semester at Epoka University. The course included online discussions, assignments and some visual course materials as an adjunct to classroom presentations given by the lecturer every 3 weeks. Of the students 62% were female (n=8) and 38% were male (n=5). Findings The summarized responses of 13 students who completed OLES are shown in Table 4 and Figure 2. As one would expect, ‘preferred’ scores were higher than ‘actual’ scores. Means of scores ranged from 3.11 to 4.45 for ‘actual’ and 3.81 to 4.67 for ‘preferred’. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) revealed significant differences for the Computer Usage (CU), Teacher Support (TS), Personal Relevance (PR), and Authentic Learning (AL) scales in 95% confidence level. These results are giving opportunity to the lecturer of this course to identify unsatisfied aspects and update the e-learning environment supplied to the students. 253 �OLES Scale Computer Usage (CU) Teacher Support (TS) Student Interaction & Collaboration (SIC) Personal Relevance (PR) Authentic Learning (AL) Student Autonomy (SA) Equity (EQ) Enjoyment (EN) Asynchronicity (AS) Actual / Preferred Actual 3,40 Std. Deviation 0,964 Preferred 4,27 0,516 0,143 Actual 3,58 1,007 0,279 Preferred 4,48 0,788 0,218 Actual 3,35 1,287 0,357 Preferred 3,81 1,367 0,379 Actual 3,11 0,889 0,247 Preferred 4,05 1,120 0,311 Actual 3,37 1,110 0,308 Preferred 4,34 0,685 0,190 Actual 3,45 1,138 0,316 Preferred 4,03 1,183 0,328 Actual 4,45 0,606 0,168 Preferred 4,67 0,513 0,142 Actual 3,13 0,884 0,245 Preferred 3,82 1,039 0,288 Actual 3,72 0,939 0,261 Preferred 4,33 0,670 0,186 Mean Std. Error 0,267 F Sig. 8,243 0,008 6,502 0,018 0,785 0,384 5,598 0,026 7,177 0,013 1,650 0,211 1,005 0,326 3,340 0,080 3,708 0,066 Table 4. Statistics between students’ ‘actual’ and ‘preferred’ scores on the OLES scales Figure 2. Graphical Representation of Students’ Actual and Preferred Scores Conclusion This study investigated the effectiveness criteria of e-learning in higher education institutions. Elearning environments can not be effective without considering students’ needs and preferences. Obtaining student feedback is thus crucial for the successful design and implementation of e-learning environment. The study presented important findings regarding the students’ feedback on a sample e-learning course. By the help of effectiveness criteria and empirical results, higher education institutions can plan and implement e-learning strategies and thus improve the e-learning courses they offer to satisfy their students. The findings of this study also showed that OLES is a valuable tool to help higher education institutions and lecturers evaluate the effectiveness of their online courses. The results gathered by OLES or similar tools can be used to make changes to the design of actual e-learning environments. 254 �References Anaraki, F., (2004). Developing an Effective and Efficient eLearning Platform, International Journal of The Computer, the Internet and Management, 12 (2), 57-63. Blass, E. & Davis, A. (2003). Building on Solid Foundations: Establishing Criteria for E-learning Development, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 27 (3), 227-245. Eastman, J. & Swift, C. (2001). New horizons in distance education: The online learner centered marketing class. Journal of Marketing Education, 23, (1), 25-34. Eurybase – Retrieved from the web on May 25, 2009. http://www.easy-elearning.net/downloads/e-learning_in_Polonia.pdf Jenkins, M. & Hanson, J. (2003). E-Learning Series No.1: A guide for Senior Managers. Learning and Teaching Support Network (LTSN) Generic Centre, UK, August 2003. Lam, P. & Bordia, S. (2008). Factors Affecting Student Choice of e-Learning over Traditional Learning: Student and Teacher Perspectives, The International Journal of Learning, 14 (12), 131-140. McLeod, D. (2004). Hefce Pulls the Plug on UK e-University. Education Guardian, March 4. Nakos, G. E., Deis, M.H., & Jourdan, L. (2002). Students’ Perceptions of On-line Courses: An Exploratory Study. Turkish Journal of Online Distance Education (TOJDE), 3 (1). Pearson, J. & Trinidad, S. (2006). Evaluating E-Learning environments in initial teacher education using the online learning environment survey (OLES), ACEC 2006 - The Australian Computers in Education Conference, Cairns, Australia. Zeidman, B. (2003). Guidelines for Effective E-Learning. Chief Learning Officer, 24-31. Zhang, D., Zhao, J., Zhou, L., & Numamaker, J. (2004). Can e-learning replace classroom learning?. Communication of the ACM, 47 (5), 75–78. 255 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 409 Title A name given to the resource International On-Line Degree Programs in Higher Education: Proposals for Albania, Turkey and University Computer Centers Author Author ERSOY, Ahmed Fatih ASILKAN, Özcan Abstract A summary of the resource. Higher education is education provided by universities and other institutions that award academic degrees. Higher education includes both the teaching and the research activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as quaternary education or graduate school). Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as vocational education. However, most professional education is included within higher education, and many postgraduate qualifications are strongly vocationally or professionally oriented, for example in disciplines such as law and medicine. In this study the trends in higher education, the effects of globalization on higher education, the opportunities presented by communication and information technologies; and the effects of changes in higher education on globalization will be mentioned. At the end of the present study a road map will be presented by taking the suggestions and position of Turkey and Albania as a starting point for computer centers at universities. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f598a923d488869d958aab8586a0bfb6.pdf 941ba6ebf213fa3260fe173895a1d5e3 PDF Text Text Flower and Fruit Abscission in Orchards Nilda ERSOY Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Horticultural Department, 42031, Konya/Türkiye, nersoy@selcuk.edu.tr Mustafa BEKTAŞ Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Horticultural Department, 42031, Konya/Türkiye, mbarsiv@gmail.com Cumhur ERSOY Akdeniz University, Vocational High School, 07070, Antalya/Türkiye, cersoy@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: A small part of flowers which occurs by blooming and have fruit set stay on tree till harvest in fruit trees. If all flowers transformed to the fruit the tree would not feed these, not to be completed developing and decreased their quality. Hence, both the tree and growers are affected negatively. Researches show that even have good fertilization and growing conditions most of the flowers and fruits abscise. In fruit culture abscission of the flower and fruit is four forms. These ones are; flower, small fruit, June and pre-harvest period abscission. Many factors effect flower and fruit abscission. These ones are; lack of the fertilization, inadequate nutrition, lack of the plant growth regulators, diseases, pests and abnormal environmental factors, respectively. In this research, concerning reasons of flower and fruit abscission and the measures against these situations are evaluated. Key Words: Flower, fruit, abscission 1- Introduction Flower and fruit falls are one of the most important subject interest searchers and growers in fruit culture. These falls are called abscission in literature. Abscission is the sequence of events whereby a multicellular organ (e.g. leaf, flower, fruit, branch) becomes separated from the parent body. Abscission genetically programmed and control by plant growth regulators (Osborne 1989). When plants reached an apparent maturity and agedness stage fall their organs skin, branch, bud, leaf, flower etc as a development symptom. Abscissions are not exclusion of dead tissues contrary an active disconnection event. Abscissions realize in different organs and different times as a result of cellular and chemical changes occur in abscission layer (Burak 1994). As a rule, fall is postponed as long as an organ to continue in the physiological activity. However, physiological activity is complete, disease or physiological activity for any reason that the layout of the damaged organs can be seen that appears to fall (Kaynaş 2004). As it is known in fruit culture to get any crop one of the first condition is blooming. Enough to get a product is required for adequate blooming. In a good fertilization and maintenance conditions 15-20% of apple flowers in the open, pears 8-15% , citruses 1-3%, plums 3-4.5% , grapes 20-30%, olives 1-5% , raspberries 7080% (Kaynaş, 2004), avocado 0.2% (Anonymous 2007a) are a good yield when the fruit connected in this rates. Kiwi fruit, except that normally do not have the abscission and all the flowers to connect fruit (Anonymous 2007b). 1 �2- Taxonomy of Flower and Fruit Abscission in Fruit culture 4 groups of flowers and fruit in the fruit growing in the abscission it is possible to collect. These are flowers abscission, small fruit abscission, June abscission and pre-harvest abscission. 2.1. Flower Abscission The abscission occurs immediately after flowering. Why the lack of fertilization or damaged occur and in terms of the structure of the female organs are distorted, especially in deciduous flowers can be seen as rudimentary pistil. For example, 6% of pistachio in the flowers maturity yet to be accepted (receptivity) would die without access (Anonymous 2007c). Atrophy of the female organ with olive abscission sometimes 80% is reached. The average is 2 weeks. In fruit trees such as avocado (abscission takes 3 weeks and almost all the abscission will perform (Anonymous 2007a) in this process in the time of full bloom to apply growth inhibitors like paclobutrazol or uniconazole cause vegetative implementation lead to increased generative development as the amount of product increases. 2.2. Small Fruit Abscission The abscission happens 15-20 days later from flowers abscission. The fruit of the female organs are normal, but fertilization is disorder. Little or no developed embryos and endosperm did not occur. Nutrition disorders can also cause small fruit abscission. Auxin that flowers and small fruits inclusion abundantly increase abscission if it transports from abscission zone to other organs (Goldschmidt 1976, Goren and Goldschmidt 1970). In addition, the seeds of small fruit, especially in the ethylene synthesis in the seed coat are effective in small fruit abscission (Anonymous 2007a). 2.3. June Abscission At the figures 1 and 2 before and after June abscission with displays of the species of apple has been given. June abscission is seen about 1 month later from small fruit abscission. Fruits are the size of hazelnuts. That's because the very rapid growth and development of embryo and thereupon not to develop endosperm and embryo (Kaynaş 2004). Figure 1 Apples before June abscission (15 mm) (Anonymous 2007d) 2 �Figure 2 Apple after June abscission (21 mm) (Anonymous 2007d) 2.4. Pre-Harvest Abscission The abscission is just before full maturity (Figure 3). In fruit peduncle abscission layer and protective layer occurs from cells that have thin membranes (Figure 4) and the tissue stays to the abscission. Figure 3. Pre-Harvest abscission in apples (Anonymous 2007e) Protective layer Abscission layer Stem Fruit peduncle Figure 4. Abscission layer and protective layer (Anonymous 2007f) In the formation abscission layer the cell membrane are destroyed especially by cellulose and polygalactronase enzymes. Works are done in the direction to isolate the genes that synthesis by these enzymes (Burak 1994). Destruction of cells in that layer during the abscission is performed by melting. Certain cells in this layer semi-permeability are reduced, all protoplasts lose, intra of cells fill with and soften. In parallel with the softening pectin formation increases too in this parts. In this area vascular break off by mechanical effects and fruit abscission occurs (Kaynaş 2004). 3 �Pre-Harvest fruit abscission is a problem directly affect the grower. What if grower will not give more importance to the rate of abscission and will be satisfied with fruit trees remaining or before pre-harvest abscission grower will pick them without get quality and full color. Indeed, in both cases as well as the farmer also negatively affects the national economy (Burak 1994). However, pre-harvest abscission to be stopped and harvest has been extended by delayed harvest and fruit will increase marketing opportunities. The causes of pre-harvest abscission; before harvest hot-cold weather, excessive and late fertilization of nitrate, drought or high groundwater, fertilization and seed fewness, inadequate of boron and magnesium deficiencies, inadequate of plant growth regulators, especially abscisic acid is concentrated, auxin deficiency and is the increased synthesis of ethylene. Maintenance work to be done regularly is not enough to prevent pre-harvest abscission. To prevent this abscission should be done applications of synthetic auxin (Kaynaş 2004). If abscissions are not enough in horticulture by making flowers or fruits thinning vegetative and generative balance of the tree can be provided. For this purpose, thinning hand, chemical substances (dinitro compounds), and with growth regulators (auxins) is done (Kaynaş 2004). If abscission is more the growth realized as vegetative and the productivity will decrease. In this case the prevention of abscissions, or in a balanced manner to realize such as the plant water balance, nutrition programs and pruning techniques of cultural actions as appropriate to be done, to increase fertilization the bees in the garden and the use of growth regulators (auxins and gibberellic acid (GA) is possible (Kaynaş 2004). 3. Factors Play a Role in Flower and Fruit Abscission • • • • • • In general, flowers and fruit abscissions in fruit trees; Flaw of fertilization, Inadequacy of nutrition, Plant growth regulators for the flaw, Diseases of and harmful, Environment and culture conditions have emerged ahead of abnormalities. 3.1. Effects of Fertilization Flaws to Abscission Fertilization flaw is effective especially in flowers and small fruits abscission. The flowers are not fertilized and small fruits that not enough fertilized abscise. This situation, abscised fruits in numbers of full and empty seed can be explained by taking into consideration. For example, small fruit abscission in Masaya apple, 5% full, 80% empty seed and 15% in the dead ovis, small fruits in these rates remaining on brunch respectively, 89%, 1% and 10%. This study clearly shows the impact on fertilization is abscission (Özbek 1977). 3.2. Effect of Nutrition in Abscission 3.2.1. Effect of Water in Abscission Researches prove between the amount of water with the tree and fruit abscission there is an interest. The leaves that have a greater osmotic power to take the water from fruits be the cause of fruit abscission. Water flaw makes fast the fruit abscission in Spring and summer months. Moreover, the low air humidity, rise of temperature, more lighting and especially dry winds increase transpiration and encourage abscission (Özbek 1977, Coutanceau 1962, Chandler 1957). On the other hand, the impact of the flaw of the water varies according to physiological status and maintenance conditions. Fruit abscission in dry regions is more than rainy regions. Excessive water increases abscission like inadequate water. The trees have an optimal water capacity. Negative impact is seen on top of this. Observations have seen in the years of plentiful rainfall till June abscission like dry years abscission increase. This effect is estimated to be indirect. Excess amounts of water to speed up the development of shoot hence water causes abscission of the opponent fruit (Burak 1994). 3.2.2. Effect of Mineral Materials in Abscission In the period following fertilization the formation of seeds is very fast in this period especially nitrogen and phosphorus needs. Because of this, nitrogenous fertilization is important for the abundant flowering and despite of good fertilization conditions not fruit connected trees (Özbek 1977, Chandler 1957). Between vegetation beginning and June abscission stage nitrogen needs very much because of cell division. About 60% of annual nitrogen consumption of trees has emerged 3-4 months. According to 4 �observations, a very weak given the small amount of nitrogen in growing trees, fruits to reach the harvest can not provide. On the other hand, the strong improvement in the much amount of nitrogen in fruit trees will fall. Because the maximum amount to be used for development vegetatively and sufficient nutrient to reduce for fruit development in the medium (Burak 1994). 3.2.3. Effect of Carbohydrates on Abscission Carbohydrates are indispensable sources of energy in the formation of new tissue, and for all substance exchange. In this regard, especially in abscission periods of fruit trees an appropriate metabolic activity should be provided. Good nutrition by carbohydrates provides better to hold fruits (Özbek 1977). 3.3. Deficiencies in Plant Growth Regulators 3.3.1. Effect of Auxins in Abscission Auxin, abscission in the region by reducing the sensitivity of cells to ethylene is delayed fruit abscission. Fruits begin to develop in the first circuits in excess of the auxin amount that produced by seed and the rate decrease or increase depending on the development of seed. Flower and fruit of abscissions of less auxin to occur on the circuit, the circuit in more than has been found to stop (Lepold and Kridemen 1975, Chandler 1957, Westwood 1978). Implementation of the NAA in the time of early fruit development encourage ethylene production and allows small fruit abscission (Anonymous 2007g). 3.3.2. Effect of Ethylene on Abscission Ethylene is naturally generated during growth, development and maturation in plants. It is thought ethylene coordinates abscission, maturity and death process. Ethylene is produced in any part of the plant which is as a result of injury, and by reason of interact with other organs increase fruit abscission. When auxin level is low synthesis of ethylene increases and begin the process of abscission. In the case of the high level auxin ethylene is ineffective in the abscission. (Anonymous 2007g). 3.3.3. Effect of Abscisic Acid in Abscission ABA (Abscisic Acid) is a natural plant growth inhibitor and accelerates abscission. When ABA application is made in sour cherry abscission layer development fasted and cellular changes was found (Zucconi et al. 1969). 3.4. Effects of Harmfuls and Diseases on Abscission Diseases (Figure 5) and harmfuls cause abscission in significant amounts in fruit development process. Figure 5. Because of Phytophthora in citrus abscission (Anonymous 2007h) 5 �3.5. Abnormalities that Emerging in Environment and Culture Conditions 3.5.1. Climate Factors 3.5.1.1. Temperature In the conditions of appropriate nutrition development of fruit accelerates by increasing temperature. However, after a certain level (39 oC) development stops. Temperature is also affected root development. Water absorption speed of the roots increases until 30 - 40 oC and decreases by impairment of the cells over the degrees. In a very cold region in the spring, between the tree roots and over soil parts a different vegetative situation may be formed and important abscission can occur. The cold is very intense, especially sensitive to the causes of death of flowers and small fruit (Westwood, 1978). In this way, can generate very heavy production losses. Crane (1954) after 2 days of cold damage to the 2,4,5-T Tilton apricot varieties of fruit abscission of implementation is reduced, damaged most of the fruit was also determined that continued development. 3.5.1.2. Wind Especially in hot and dry wind as sweating increases significantly. Especially in the arid lands of this abscission is accelerated (Burak, 1994). 3.5.1.3. Rain It rains following a drought, will usually result in smaller fruit abscission. Furthermore, especially in the rains period of full bloom, by prevent fertilization causes abscission (Burak, 1994). 3.5.1.4. Soil Factor Organic matter status and richness in minerals of soil is effective to nourish the tree. Particularly in the strong soils determined that the flowers and fruits abscission are much by overdo fertilizing too (Ülkümen, 1973). 4. Measures for Flowers and Fruit Abscissions 4.1. Measures in the Field of Nutrition Works in this area are intended to provide a balanced nutrition system in the tree. These measures will be made either directly applications on the tree or by soil can be obtained. 4.1.1. Applications on the Tree 4.1.1.1. Pruning In the head of this practices there is pruning. By removing a portion of branches as a result reduced the number of flowers and small fruit, competition is lighted between them and better nutrition is provided. Thus each element more carbohydrate, nitrogen and hence own growth regulators produce materials. Time to prune is also important. If done early enough flowers is very good and quite benefits and better to be feed sexual cells show less tendency to abscission (Burak 1994). Moreover, pruning air and light status makes the appropriate correcting to suck carbon in all trees. However, to obtain positive results out of the branch must be chosen well. Violence of pruning must be set according to species and growth conditions of the tree (Chandler 1957, Westwood 1978). 4.1.1.2. Effect of Rootstock It is estimated that rootstocks effects indirect in fruit abscission. Direct effect of encouraging or reduction the growth of exile. The effect of rootstocks is different in strong and dwarf rootstocks. Developing of roots in dwarf rootstocks less compared to powerful rootstocks and they can benefit less from the nutrients. Therefore, shoot growth is limited in dwarf rootstocks. But as a natural result of competition between fruit and shoot decreases. Particularly it is frequently observed that as a result of over-fertilization shaking is occurred in trees that in powerful soils and grafted powerful rootstocks (Ülkümen 1973). But the purchase of mineral materials is limited in dwarf rootstocks such as the purchase of water. Therefore, irrigation is very important in dwarf rootstocks (Burak 1994). 6 �4.1.2. Applications Made Through Soil The processes are done through soil that flowers and fruits to take control of abscission for the irrigation, drainage, fertilization and maintenance of soil. A careful irrigation in all critical periods of continuous and to get into all roots in suitable style can reduce abscissions significantly (Özbek 1977, Ülkümen 1973, Countanceau 1962). Usually, in the following period of fertilization, because of fast seed development in fruits, trees needs especially nitrogen and phosphorus in this period. Therefore, nitrogen fertilization is important in abundant flowering and even though fertilization conditions are good not kept fruit, and in these cases 3 weeks before bloom giving of nitrate fertilizer often reduces or prevents abscission (Özbek 1977). 4.2. Measures in the Field of Plant Growth Regulators In 1939 the first studies on this subject were made by La Rue. La Rue has found the defoliation of the coleus plant delay using synthetic plant growth regulators. This important invention has been referred to many researchers on prevention abscission of different organs in different plant species by the synthetic plant growth regulators (Özbek 1971). Naphthalene Acetic Acid (NAA) and derivatives are used as intense in pre-harvest abscission. NAA is applied 1 week ago from harvest; its effect begins after 3-4 days carry on 3-4 weeks. NAA is used 10 ppm in apples, pears at 5 ppm and 2.5 ppm in Williams’s pears. Fenoxi acetic acid and derivatives, 2,4-D, 2,4,5,-T and 2,4,5-TP have used 2-3 weeks ago from the harvest. The effects start after 5-7 days, and lasts 3 months (Kaynaş 2004). 10 ppm in citrus fruits, 3-5 ppm in Stayman and Winesap apple cultivars and in the pear 3 ppm 2,4-D; citrus for 5 ppm 2,4,5-T and apple for 2,4,5-TP used. Aminozid (Alar, B9, SADH) is a substance effective of antigibberellin and inhibitor regress that internal ethylene synthesis. It slows fruit maturity, delays abscission and extend harvest period. Alar is used in intended amount because there is no negative impact on ability of storing. In fact the fruit inside watery spots and the fruit scald reduces, the flesh hardness is sustained and the formation of the top colors is improved. But it is applied in very early term of fruit is smaller. Usually 2-3 weeks before harvest and in the rate of 0.1-2% (Kaynaş 2004). Auxin applications sometimes give different results at the level of variety. For example, the 2.4-D application are able to achieve results in Staymen Winesap and Winesap apple cultivars, there is no any change in Golden Delicious and Mc Intosh apples (Burak 1994). Serr and Forde (1952), In Peerless almond cultivar, when the first coat is seen to crack 10 ppm 2.4-D and 20 ppm 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy propionic acid applied and observed fruit application has been blocked and due to there is no tree damage in any record ( Burak 1994). WookJae et al. (2006) determined in Tsugaru apple cultivar to control pre-harvest fruit abscission applied 125 mg AVG/l (aminoethoxyvinylglycine) and have seen flesh hardness increased, there is no preharvest abscission occurred and harvest delayed 10 days from normal time. It is understood that the reason of fruit abscission of a group of Italian plums (Prunus salicina L.) abortion of embryo. Abscission is significantly reduced by the spraying of 5-20 ppm 2,4,5-TP before 2 weeks from seed hardening (Westwood 1978). Acknowledgements Thanks to Selçuk University Coordination of Scientific Research Projects for Financial Support. References Anonymous(2007a).http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0851993575&id=CxmvpAYkL54C&pg=PA121 &lpg=PA121&ots=D7DY4yU2WB&dq=Adato+and+Gazit+1977&sig=cWEa15lzXAhp1vj0sncP8IN0z1 8#PPA339,M1120-121.s. Anonymous (2007b). http://hasanbatu63.sitemynet.com/agaclar/id2.htm Anonymous(2007c).http://209.85.135.104/search?q=cache:xDVKNzUOdJoJ:web.adu.edu.tr/akademik/zdalkilic/ images/antepfistigi261205i.ppt+%22%C3%A7i%C3%A7ek+ve+meyve+d%C3%B6k%C3%BCmleri%22 &hl=en&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=2 Anonymous (2007d). http://web1.msue.msu.edu/fruit/applgrw.htm Anonymous (2007e). http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/05-047.htm Anonymous (2007f).http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/2314/S204_1_012i.jpg Anonymous (2007g). http://www.crec.ifas.ufl.edu/faculty/burns/pdf/workshop.pdf Anonymous (2007h). http://plantpathology.tamu.edu/Texlab/Fruit/citrus/p03.asp?ploc=cpfr.htm 7 �Burak, M., (1994). Meyvecilikte Çiçek ve Meyve Dökümleri, Dr. Masum BURAK Derim, 11 (1) 38-47. Chandler, W. H., (1957). Decidious Orchards. Lea and Febiger, Philedelpia, 432s. Coutanceau, N., (1962). Arboriculture Fruitieres. J. B. Baillers et Fills. Paris, 575s. Crane, J. C., (1954). Frost resistance and reduction in drop of fruits by 2,4,5-T tri-clorophenoxyacadic acid. Porc Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 64:225-31. Goldschmidt, E. E., (1976). Endogenous growth substances of citrus tissues. Hortscience 11:95-99. Goren, R., Goldschmidt, E. E., (1970). Regulative systems in the developing citrus fruits. I. The hormonal balance in orange fruit tissues. Physiol. Plant. 23:937-947. Kaynaş, K., (2004). Bahçe Bitkileri Fizyolojisi. Ç.O.M.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi, 75:57-60 Lepold, A.C., Kridemen, P.T., (1975). Plant Growth and Development McGraw Hill Book Company. New York, 545s. Osborne D.J., (1989). Abscission. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 8, 103–129. Özbek, S., (1977). Genel Meyvecilik. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fak, Yay. 111 Adana 386s. Özbek, S., (1971). Hormonlar ve Bağ-Bahçe Ziraati. A.Ü. Ziraat Fak. Yayın no: 48 ANKARA Serr, E.F., Forde, H.I., (1952). Sprays for control of preharvest drop of Peerless almonds. Proc.Amer.Soc.Hort.Sci. 60, 193-6. Ülkümen, L., (1973). Bağ-Bahçe Ziraatı. Atatürk Üniv. Zir. Fak. Yayınları Erzurum, 425 s. Westwood, M. N., (1978). Temperate-Zone Pomology. W.H. Freeman and Company. San Francisco, 428 s. WookJae, Y., Kang, I., Kweon H., Kim, M., Kim D., Lee D., Byun J., (2006). Usage potentiality of starch pattern index at aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatment to prevent preharvest drop in 'Tsugaru' apple fruits. Korean Journal of Horticultural Science & Technology, 24(1):64-69. Zucconi, F., Stosser, R., Bukovac, M. J., (1969). Promotion of Fruit Abscission with Abscisic Acid BioScience, 19: 815-817. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 641 Title A name given to the resource Flower and Fruit Abscission in Orchards Author Author ERSOY, Nilda BEKTAŞ, Mustafa ERSOY, Cumhur Abstract A summary of the resource. A small part of flowers which occurs by blooming and have fruit set stay on tree till harvest in fruit trees. If all flowers transformed to the fruit the tree would not feed these, not to be completed developing and decreased their quality. Hence, both the tree and growers are affected negatively. Researches show that even have good fertilization and growing conditions most of the flowers and fruits abscise. In fruit culture abscission of the flower and fruit is four forms. These ones are; flower, small fruit, June and pre-harvest period abscission. Many factors effect flower and fruit abscission. These ones are; lack of the fertilization, inadequate nutrition, lack of the plant growth regulators, diseases, pests and abnormal environmental factors, respectively. In this research, concerning reasons of flower and fruit abscission and the measures against these situations are evaluated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e9f5749b22dff302860926068835584.pdf b35b69f9a55c28e905bf273aa653430e PDF Text Text Ecological Plant Production in Turkey by Schematically Nilda ERSOY Selçuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Horticultural Department, 42031, Konya/Türkiye, nersoy@selcuk.edu.tr Cumhur ERSOY Akdeniz University, Vocational High School, 07070, Antalya/Türkiye, cersoy@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: In recent years, organic farming not only in developed countries, has been spreading rapidly in developing countries. This case is largely result of the increasing importance among consumers for healthy food consumption and environment protection. Suitable for organic production and ecological conditions that has a production potential of our country, the world market share of organic products and food is low. The main purposes of this study are the current ecological farming products, the advantages and disadvantages of organic farming products in the world and especially in Turkey is considered to be schematically. Key Words: Ecological agriculture and Turkey What is the Meaning of Ecological Agriculture? Ecological (organic, biological) agriculture based on the use of high input industrial agriculture human health, the economy and the environment occurs in terms of the negative results have emerged as alternatives in the face of an agricultural system. (Altındişli and İlter 1999). Ten Reasons for Ecological Agriculture 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. To protect future generations To prevent soil erosion To protect water quality To protect the energy To away from the chemicals from our food To protect the health of agricultural workers To help small farmers To ensure a stable economy To ensure biological continuity To consume more delicious products (Aksoy 2005). Proposes and Properties of Ecological Agriculture Ecological agriculture is an agricultural system targeted a high quality. The main purpose of soil-plantanimal and human life in the production chain optimization in a healthy manner can provide (Figure 1). This is a production system which has contractual, planned, each stage has been recorded, controlled, certificated, primarily based on mutual trust (İlter and Altındişli 1996). 9 �Figure 1. Proposes of Ecological Agriculture How Ecological Agriculture has been Started? The world trade in organic products has started in the 1970s. Later, European companies have demanded ecological products from companies of Turkey. Thus, the ecological agriculture in our country began in 19841985. In these years, Turkey has produced the traditional export products organic dried figs and raisins in the Aegean region. Then such as products of dried apricots, hazelnut spread different regions (Aksoy 2005). Legal Regulations in Turkey ü 1992, Establishment of the Association of Ecological Agriculture Organization ü December 24th 1994, First Regulations ü June 29th 1995, Regulation changes ü July 11th 2002, Regulations on the re-edit ü July 22 2003 Establishment the Office of Alternative Agricultural Production Techniques ü December 3rd 2004, Publication of the Organic Agriculture Law ü June 10 2005, the publication of new regulations (Anonymous 2009a, Kayahan and Tan 1999). Advantages of Ecological Agriculture System � Synthetic chemicals in our country by a large number of farmers used very little, or never used. Therefore, the transition to organic agriculture is expected to be easy. 10 �� The manufacturer's revenue is increasing. � Rapidly increasing price of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and energy savings are entries. � The manufacturer's product is guaranteed to be taken by contract farming. � Export price of the ecological products at a rate 10-20% higher than the other products. � Special information for the ecological farming model of Agricultural Engineers create new employment fields (Anonymous 2009b). Disadvantages of Ecological Agricultural System � Supply of agricultural products year after year in our country, significant fluctuations are seen. The young and rapidly increasing population, consumption levels and the steady increase in diversity and the environment in almost all the countries of the demand of agricultural products because of the features of organic farming (in efficiency can occur due to a decrease) in short-term growth appears to be difficult. � Plant production in the emerging ecological farming methods a problem of land is too small, fragmented, and is close to each other. This situation negatively affects the organic production. � Ecological farming systems, especially in the marketing of farm products for the domestic market is an issue of new and uncertain.Enough agricultural extension studies has not been done because of the new topic. Also in this area include lack of qualified personnel (Anonymous 2009b). Ecological Agriculture in the World Approximately 31 million hectares area is managed as ecological according to the world-wide research. 39% of ecological agricultural land is in Oceania, 23% is in the Europe and 19% in the Latin America in the world. Countries have more ecological agriculture land are Australia (11.8 million ha), Argentina (3.1 million ha), China (2.3 million ha) and USA (1.6 million ha) respectively. Ecological agriculture is quickly developed world-wide. At the moment this agricultural system is being implemented in over 120 countries (Anonymous 2009c). Ecological Agriculture in Turkey In our country, ecological agriculture, has been in demand from European buyers. The first, ecologic raisin and dried Figures are grown in the Aegean region in 1984-85. When in 1990 only 8 different products produce as organic and the number of products and the amount of production has increased year by year (Anonymous 2009b). Offer a product to market as organic were monitored in our country are shown in schematic way (Figure 2). 11 �Figure 2. Chart of Organic farming organization in Turkey Most of organic products produced in our country are exported. Turkey exported the more organic products to Germany, USA and UK respectively in 2006 (Anonymous 2009c). The number of organic produce producers, production quantity, production areas and product range are increasing year after year in our country. While the number of producer is 1.947 in 1996, this value has reached 14.926 in 2008 (Figure 3) (Anonymous 2009a, Anonymous 2009d). As a result, the number of organic producers has increased 7 times in 10 years. Percentages of organic producers in Turkey are 39 % in Aegean Region, 18 % in Black sea Region, 13 % in East Anatolia Region, % 13 Middle Anatolia Region, % 13 in the Mediterranean, 3 % in Marmara Region and 1 % in South-East Anatolia according to the 2006 data (Figure 4) (Anonymous 2009a). While the Turkey’s ecological agriculture area is 6.789 ha in 1996, this area has reached at 166.883 ha in 2008. The amount of the field has been increased 24.5 times (Figure 5). Percentages of ecological agriculture area are 38 % in Aegean Region, 31 % in Black sea Region, 13 % in East Anatolia, 6 % in Middle Anatolia, 5 % in the Mediterranean, 5 % in Marmara and 2 % in the South-East Anatolia according to the 2006 data (Figure 6) (Anonymous 2009a). In recent years, the production area has been falling. The reason for this drop is the decline of the natural field collection area. While the total product types are 26 in 1996, the type number has reached 247 in 2008 (Figure 7) (Anonymous 2009a, Anonymous 2009d). 12 �Figure 3. Numbers of ecological producers in Turkey 3% 1% Aegean 13% Black Sea 39% 13% East Anatolia Middle Anatolia Mediterranean Marmara 13% South-East Anatolia 18% Figure 4. Numbers of farmers according to the regions of Turkey 13 �Figure 5. Area of ecological agriculture in Turkey 5% 5% 2% Aegean 6% 38% 13% Black Sea East Anatolia Middle Anatolia 31% Mediterranean Marmara South-East Anatolia Figure 6. Field Production in Turkey by Region (ha) Figure 7. The number of ecological products in Turkey. 14 �Acknowledgements Thanks to Selçuk University Coordination of Scientific Research Projects for Financial Support. References Anonymous (2009a). http://www.tarim.gov.tr/TarimPortal.html Anonymous (2009b). http://www.izmirtarim.gov.tr/organik/ekavdez.asp Anonymous (2009c). http://eto.org.tr/duneko.asp Anonymous (2009d). http://www.genbilim.com/content/view/4342/34/ Altındişli A. & İlter E., (1999). Eko-Tarımda İlke ve Kavramlar. Ekolojik Tarım, ETO Ekolojik Tarım Organizasyonu Derneği, s:24-29. Aksoy, U., (2005). Bahçe Bitkileri Tarımında Çevre Dostu Üretim Teknikleri (Editör: Prof. Dr. Ayşe Gül) Bölüm 1: Çevre Dostu Üretim Teknikleri, ISBN: 975-93098-3-1, 1-32. İlter, E. & Altındişli, A., (1996). Ekolojik (Organik, Biyolojik) Tarım (Editörler: Prof. Dr. Uygun Aksoy, Dr. Ahmet Altındişli), Ekolojik Tarım ve İlkeleri, 1-6. Kayahan, S. & Tan, İ., (1999). Ekolojik Tarım, ETO Ekolojik Tarım Organizasyonu Derneği, Ekolojik Tarımda Yasal Uygulamalar, 258-268. 15 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 642 Title A name given to the resource Ecological Plant Production in Turkey by Schematically Author Author ERSOY, Nilda ERSOY, Cumhur Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, organic farming not only in developed countries, has been spreading rapidly in developing countries. This case is largely result of the increasing importance among consumers for healthy food consumption and environment protection. Suitable for organic production and ecological conditions that has a production potential of our country, the world market share of organic products and food is low. The main purposes of this study are the current ecological farming products, the advantages and disadvantages of organic farming products in the world and especially in Turkey is considered to be schematically. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d532b1002a9d639a64dfdf5679da373b.pdf 105cb4e08c562ce911af7b2c074fa2be PDF Text Text EFFECTS OF GRAFTED SEEDLING ON PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF MELON GROWING IN GREENHOUSE Rana ERTOK Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey rertok@yahoo.com M. ÜNLÜ Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey A. FIRAT Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey C. ÖZKAN Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya- Turkey In this study, the effects of different rootstocks on plant growth and uptake of plant nutrient elements were studied. Batem 5 and Batem 7 inbred lines which are resistant to Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis races 0, 1, 2 and tolerant to races 1-2 were used as rootstocks. Canay F1, self grafted Canay F1, Cıtırex F1 and 7-42-47 F1 hybrids were used as controls. Canay F1 was used as scion. The experiment was designed in four randomized blocks. Rootstock diameter, scion diameter, plant height, plant nutrient elements in leaves were statistically analysed. Significant differences were found betweeen rootstocks but scion diameter wasn’t significant statistically. Rootstocks showed no significant difference in uptaking N, P, Ca. Keywords: Melon, Plant growth, Nutritional status, Rootstock 66 �First International Symposium on Sustainable Development (ISSD’09) June 9-10, 2009 Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Education Proceedings IBU Publications Francuske Revolucije bb Sarajevo / Bosnia and Herzegovina Tel : +387 33 782 100 www.ibu.edu.ba 67 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 652 Title A name given to the resource EFFECTS OF GRAFTED SEEDLING ON PLANT GROWTH AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF MELON GROWING IN GREENHOUSE Author Author ERTOK, Rana ÜNLÜ, M. FIRAT, A. ÖZKAN, C. Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, the effects of different rootstocks on plant growth and uptake of plant nutrient elements were studied. Batem 5 and Batem 7 inbred lines which are resistant to Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. melonis races 0, 1, 2 and tolerant to races 1-2 were used as rootstocks. Canay F1, self grafted Canay F1, Cıtırex F1 and 7-42-47 F1 hybrids were used as controls. Canay F1 was used as scion. The experiment was designed in four randomized blocks. Rootstock diameter, scion diameter, plant height, plant nutrient elements in leaves were statistically analysed. Significant differences were found betweeen rootstocks but scion diameter wasn’t significant statistically. Rootstocks showed no significant difference in uptaking N, P, Ca. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/14db640bb85093bb535435e711e38ef2.pdf 0d494f9304c48113a822128701e96f8c PDF Text Text Using Multimedia Technologies as a Current Trends on Social Sciences Education Deniz Ekinci Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Department of Geography, Istanbul, Turkey, 34459. ekincideniz@hotmail.com. Ercan Karakoç Gebze Institute of Technology, Faculty of Business, Department of Strategy Science, Kocaeli, Turkey, ercankarakoc@hotmail.com. Davut Hut Marmara University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of History, Istanbul, Turkey. davuthut@hotmail.com. Halil Ersin Avcı Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Department of History, Istanbul, Turkey, 34459 halilersinavci@yahoo.com Abstract: Last decade’s mere technology that includes only writing, speaking skills and static graphics were used but this technique is simple and inadequate for social sciences and its education. However, multimedia technologies include high, advanced and sophisticated technology. Such technologies are used a lot of field in social sciences education. These are showing up in every walk of education and every aspect of community; architecture, business, education as social sciences. Now multimedia technologies which are including video, audio, animation, interactive map, graphic, table, and GIS, RS technologies are used for social sciences education. These new techniques, which are based commonly on computer, provide good education and better learning. Proponents of multimedia and modern techniques show that they can change the way we understand, think, learn, and work; they have heralded it brings the end of printed books and static graphics. Advocates of modern methodology and tools, both in their research and educational applications, see them better than mere technology. Modern and last systems are garnering to increase attention in cartography, history and geography, although there is a paucity of literature on the prospects of multimedia as a research or educational method in history, and geography. They are used a lot of sample area which occurs our study subject. Some of them allow us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. They help people answer questions and solve problems by looking at people’s data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. This presentation describes an educational application of multimedia and modern tools for geography and history education as social sciences based on the assumption that multimedia and high and advanced technology are better than mere skill. As a result, the aim of this study is presenting some multimedia technology based on examples and applications in social sciences. Introduction The technological advancements have made society take a leap towards success. Every technological reform is a small step towards advancement. Every new invention in technology is a step towards progress of mankind. Centuries ago, hardly anyone would have even dreamt of working on a computer. Generations of the yester years would have hardly imagined being able to communicate with people on the other side of the globe. But there were some intelligent minds to dared to dream of such revolutionary discoveries and they made the impossible possible. Since several years ago, education experts had been proposing a new style of education involving using multimedia, which differs radically from the traditional ways. Changing the education systems as a new ways is towards a new paradigm for teach (Rosenberg, 2001). The development of multimedia technologies for learning offers new ways in which learning can take place in education areas. In last decades, there has been a growing 93 �interest in the creation and use of multimedia technologies throughout the education world. There have been many experiments and innovations in the field of education and training regarding knowledge delivery (Tally, 2002). From face to face to virtual education, different technologies have played great roles at different times. In the last decades, due to the advent of multimedia technologies has got new meaning (Del, 1998; Moreno, 2000). Development, access, and transfer of text, sound, and video data gave given a unique face to education centers, in the form of multimedia learning. The development of multimedia systems can be very rewarding. So interest and investment in this technology are increasing and multimedia technologies are the need of the day (Bransford, 1990; Mayer, 1990; www.zwire.com). This study reviews the use of multimedia technologies and is to provide a panorama of the application of multimedia technologies in social sciences education. As such, this page is addresses pedagogical issues and applications. The aim of this page is to highlight the range of innovative use of multimedia technologies in social sciences education with reference to their relative pedagogical value. This study is also hoped to awaken critical enthusiasm for an effective and beneficial implementation of the multimedia technology in the social sciences education. Particular emphasis is put on the history and geography sciences as a social sciences use of multimedia technologies (Brown, 1993; Ferry, 1993; White, 2006). Multimedia Technologies as an Educational Tool Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the concept of multimedia took on a new meaning, as the capabilities of satellites, computers, audio and video converged to create new media with enormous potential. Combined with the advances in hardware and software, these technologies were able to provide enhanced learning facility and with attention to the specific needs of individual users (Fenrich, 1997; Meyer, 2001; Mayer, 2003). Multimedia is a term frequently heard and discussed among educational technologists today. Now multimedia technologies these called "new media," "hypermedia," "integrated media," or more commonly "multimedia" have been defined in a number of ways. Actually the term “multimedia” covers a lot of territory. "Multimedia", in its broadest sense, means graphics, music, sound effects, voice, video, and animation, in any combination, in the same program or presentation (Blumenfeld, 1991. Fensham,, 1990; www.aare.edu.au). It can be defined as an integration of multiple media elements (audio, video, graphics, text, animation, etc.) into one synergetic and symbiotic whole that results in more benefits for the end user than any one of the media elements can provide individually. Multimedia can be defined generically as any combination of two or more media such as sound, images, text, animation, and video. For educational technology purposes, multimedia refers to computer-based systems that use associative linkages to allow users to navigate and retrieve information stored in a combination of text, sounds, graphics, video, movies, music, lighting and other media as for education (Meyer, 2001; www.wps.prenhall.com; Sandholtz, 1997; Vanbuel, 2006). When the term is used with computer technology, multimedia refers to a variety of applications that combine media and that use CD-ROM, video, audio, DVD, and other media equipment. As it seen multimedia is the combined use of media, such as images, video, audio, CD/DVD-ROMs, the internet and interactive applications such as applets and flash for education and entertainment (Chang, 2004; Finn, 2002). Multimedia hardware requirements include a basic computer system with the standard input devices, central processor, and output devices, CD-ROMs or DVDs, sound boards or cards, speakers, video boards, highspeed central processors, extensive secondary storage or hard disk (Lieshout, 2001; Millar, 2005). Multimedia’s basic technologies include text, maps, graphic images, electronic presentations, animation, videoconferencing, digital audio and video, web learning environment, videoconferencing systems (Lieshout and etc, 2001; Phillips, 1997; Behrens, 1996, 1997; Bijnens 2004, 2005; Cleveland, 1998). As a result this study is used the term ‘multimedia’ quite loosely, referring to anything interactive or with visuals, audio, video. Multimedia combines five basic types of media into the learning environment; text, video, sound, graphics and animation, thus providing a powerful new tool for education (Duke, 1993). These are to demonstrate abstract concepts, to accommodate students with a variety of learning styles, to engage students, to enable active learning, by incorporating multimedia into learning, activities, students can manipulate, create and interact with material rather than just absorb representations created by others (Kearsley, 1998; Person, 2003). Multimedia technologies have a lot of advantages such as; widely available, reusable, multimedia, and decrease pressure on lecturer, better individual student engagement, globality (Repman, 1993; West, 2006). These are fun and interesting, provide a pre question, and make description a narration, no need to include an image or video of the narrator, unless there’s some demonstration. Do not include explanation in both text and narration styles, Give students chance to pause the video/audio and ask questions, Make the multimedia interactive, Provide pre training on key components, concepts in the multimedia to enhance students’ understanding of the multimedia resource, Presenting more materials may result in less understanding (Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn, 2001; Mayer, Dow and Mayer, 2003; Wallace, 2006; www.clickandgovideo.ac.uk; www. buzzle.com). 94 �Advantages and Benefits of Using Multimedia Technologies in Social Sciences Education The pedagogical strength of multimedia is that it uses the natural information processing abilities that we already possess as humans. Our eyes and ears, in conjunction with our brain, form a formidable system for transforming meaningless sense data into information. The old saying that "a picture is worth a thousand words" often understates the case especially with regard to moving images, as our eyes are highly adapted by evolution to detecting and interpreting movement. For example, a photograph of Ganges in Varanasi, apart from being aesthetically pleasing, can contain a wealth of information relating to the culture, religion, geography, geology, climate, history, and economics of the area. Similarly, a recording of a politician's speech can allow us to discern significant semantic features not obvious in a written transcript (Sherin, 2002). For the student, one advantage of multimedia courseware over the text-based variety is that the application looks better. If the courseware includes only a few images at least it gives relief from screens of text and stimulates the eye, even if the images have little pedagogical value (Yadav, 2006). More often than not, the inclusion of non- textual media into courseware adds pedagogical value to the application. For example, a piece of courseware describing a dig at an archeological site would be more valuable to the student, if it included images of the site, such as enhanced aerial images showing features like old field boundaries, or diagrams illustrating where the digging and scanning took place. In this respect, using the text only, even in a creative way, has obvious limitations as compared to the use of both text and pictures (Jonassen, 1995; Kameyama, 2001; www.athensacademy.org). Benefits to learners; work at own pace and control their learning path, learn from an infinitely patient tutor, actively pursue learning and receive, feedback. Provide students with opportunities to represent and express their prior knowledge. Allow students to function as designers, using tools for analyzing the world, accessing and interpreting information, organizing their personal knowledge, and representing what they know to others (Smith, 1993). Multimedia applications engage students and provide valuable learning opportunities. Empower students to Produce and design rather than absorbing representations created by others. Produce personally meaningful learning opportunities (www.tech4learning.com). Benefits to teachers; allows for creative work, saves time for more challenging topics, replaces ineffective learning activities, increases student contact time for discussion (Moursund, 1999). Educational benefits of multimedia tools; giving students an opportunity to produce documents of their own provides several educational advantages. Students that experience the technical steps needed to produce effective multimedia documents become better consumers of multimedia documents produced by others. Students indicate they learn the material included in their presentation at a much greater depth than in traditional writing projects. There is another aspect to developing multimedia documents that empowers students. Students quickly recognize that their electronic documents can be easily shared. Because of this, students place a greater value on producing a product that is of high standard (Ambrose, -1991; Kinnear, 2002). Applications and Case Studies Based Multimedia for Effective Social Sciences Education Human knowledge and the study of the world and everything in it have developed over thousands of years. More recently, over only the last two centuries or so, accompanying the rise of industrialization and imperialism in the world, new methods, claims, assumptions, theories, and practices of knowledge production have emerged through the rise of specialized fields, usually referred to as disciplines. These disciplines can be further grouped together under broad umbrella categories: Math and Sciences, Engineering, Business, and Social Sciences, etc. The Social Sciences can be said to be the study of human systems. There are various disciplines within this broad classification, all of which have developed their unique approaches over time, though with significant overlap (www.instruction.greenriver.edu). History, geography, anthropology, political science, psychology, sociology are main social sciences disciplines or Social science Sub-branches. Two sub-disciplines of social sciences (history and geography) are selected for the effective use of multimedia in social sciences education as a case study. History and geography described briefly below and their a few subjects are explained using multimedia as a key study. As mentioned earlier, multimedia learning integrates five types of media to provide flexibility in expressing the creativity of a student and in exchanging ideas. Out of all of the elements, text has the most impact on the quality of the multimedia interaction. Generally, text provides the important information. Text acts as the keystone tying all of the other media elements together. It is well written text that makes a multimedia communication wonderful. Sound is used to provide emphasis or highlight a transition from one page to another. Sound synchronized to screen display, enables teachers to present lots of information at once. A great advantage is that the sound file can be stopped and started very easily. The representation of information by using the visualization capabilities of video can be immediate and powerful. While this is not in doubt, it is the ability to choose how we view, and interact, with the content of digital video that provides new and exciting possibilities for the use of digital video in education (Young, 2002). Animation is used to show changes in state 95 �over time, or to present information slowly to students so they have time to assimilate it in smaller chunks. Animations, when combined with user input, enable students to view different versions of change over time depending on different variables. Animations are primarily used to demonstrate an idea or illustrate a concept. Graphics provide the most creative possibilities for a learning session. Some of the prototype multimedia lessons are also given below as features of multimedia examples from two science branch. History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research of past events as relating to the human species; as well as the study of all events in time, in relation to humanity. It is classified History as a Social science. History can be seen as the sum total of many things taken together and the spectrum of events occurring in action following in order leading from the past to the present and into the future (http://en.wikipedia.org). Historians are to interpretation of the past, how it affects our views of the present, understanding trends or the lack thereof in the past. The subject in the history lesson was selected Canakkale wars into Turkey in the 20 century. To deeply understand it, the teacher thought that remembering the names of famous historical people, events and their activities was not sufficient and that it was important to provide multimodal information through images and moving ships, pictures, including sound and speech. For the student, graphics, animations, a replica of war equipments were prepared. Famous ships and geographical locations in Gelibolu (Gallipoli) were illustrated and presented (Figure 1-6). These videos consist of high degree of reality and visualization. Figure 1: April 25th 1915 04.00, Sector Seddülbahir. Figure 2: April 27th 1915 Turks and Anglo-French troops’ position. 96 �Figure 3: August 6th -10th 1915 Anafartalar Battles. Figure 4: August 6th -10th 1915 Anafartalar Battles (Last Day). 97 �Figure 5: February 1915, Limni, Allied Preparations for Gallipoli Landing. Figure 6: March 1915, Turkish Preparations for Coastal Defense. Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. Human geography focuses on fields as diverse as cultural geography, transportation, health, military operations, and cities. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation, soil, water and landforms are produced and interact. Geographers attempt to understand the earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of mapmaking and finding ways to precisely project the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. Modern geography is an allencompassing discipline that seeks to understand how the world has changed in terms of human settlement and natural patterns. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as remote sensing, geographic information systems, aerial photography, statistics, and global positioning systems (GPS) 98 �(www.hudtech.net). Geography lessons use many map, animation and video, etc... as a social sciences. One of them is enlargement European Union map according to years by years. Other animation examples are Pangea, earthquakes, faille, the Himalayas forming, chine earthquakes and, river morphology; tectonics is selected for video sample (Figure 7-19). Animations represent medium for simulation, can visualize abstract relations, to explain concepts and procedures that requires movement that cannot be filmed, movements in the universe or within a body, figurative movements such as ideas, economic tendencies can be clarified through moving graphs. Videos represent high degree of reality and visualization can show practices that take place over a long distance or period. Video and animation can be viewed on demand. The student himself has control over the material and can work on his own pace, by navigating through the subject matter. In multimedia information that is being presented both visual and in audio, is better understood and remembered. It is easier to learn through different channels. However, these channels cannot appear separate from each other. It is better to present video and text on the same subject together on the page than to put them in different folders. However, make sure you always think of the material’s relevance in order not to overload the senses. The advance of digital television and the key word interactivity as the prerequisite for good educational practice came together in the demand for totally integrated use of videos in education. From the mid nineties, the web reinforced further the ideas of accessibility and interactivity, but added a new element, integration. This refers to interlinking with other web materials including communication and collaborative tools. This trend, in which several types of media in education are combined is called “Multimedia or hypermedia Learning”. The streamed video is then part of a whole package of educational material, like for instance printed documents, websites, PowerPoint presentations etc. There are plenty of possibilities of elaborating a simple video by means of other tools and methods. Figure 7: Enlargement European Union map Figure 9: Land slide 99 Figure 8: Inside during to earthquake �Figure 10: Convergent Plates, Subdiction Zone Figure 11: Faille and Earthquake Figure 12: Inside the Earth 100 �Figure 13: Pangea Figure 14: Tectonic Figure 15: Convergent Plate Zone and explain of Chine Earthquake 101 �Figure 16: Meandering river and ox-bow lake Figure 17: Fluvial processes and its relief Figure 18: Earth Systems and Processes Figure 19: Plates 102 �Feedback Score 80 students have been given the new style of lectures in which “multimedia technologies” are mainly used. First of all, students were asked what they are thinking about the new style of lectures. As Figure 20 shows, quarter of the students find no change about the progress speed of the lectures, whereas 75% of them feel it increasing. Figure 21 shows that almost 15 percent of the students think there is no change in terms of intelligibility, while the rest of them are divided into both sides. The change in the amount of contents of the lectures that the students must learn is shown in Figure 22. Where 20% of the students think there is no difference, while the rest of them think it increased than those who think it decreased. Figure 23 shows how easy the students feel to ask teachers questions. 90% of them feel difference, but those who feel uneasiness exceed the opposite. Figure 24 shows that almost 90% of the students think there is good and enough in term of Pedagogy, while the rest of them is not enough. According to Figure 25, approximately 90% of the students think their attitudes to course have changed. This result might mean that the students much learn because of the implementation of multimedia equipments. As a result feedback is positive and appropriate to the intended student population. Feedback does not threaten or reward incorrect responses. Feedback is relevant to student responses, Feedback is corrective when appropriate, and Feedback remedies and explains when appropriate. Feedback employs a variety of responses. Feedback remains on the screen for the appropriate amount of time; branching is used effectively to remediate. 60 80 50 60 40 30 No change No difference Much faster 40 20 20 10 0 Easy to understand 0 Figure 20: What do you think about the progress speed? 70 Figure 21: What do you think about the lectures using the devices? 80 60 60 50 40 No difference 30 Much more 20 40 0 0 Figure 22: Do you think the contents of the lectures increased? Figure 23: Do you think it’s easy to ask teachers questions? 80 80 60 60 Not enough Good 40 20 20 0 0 Figure 24: What do you think about the pedagogy? 103 Easier 20 10 40 Harder Figure 25: Do you think yours changed? Not at all Changed �Results and Discussion Besides being a powerful tool for making presentations, multimedia offers unique advantages in the field of education. Traditional learning: verbal message as the primary means of explaining ideas to learners; Lectures, printed lessons and text. Multimedia: the presentation of material using both words and pictures. For instance, text alone simply does not allow students to get a “feel” of any of plays. The key to providing this experience is having simultaneous graphic, video and audio, rather than in a sequential manner. The appeal of multimedia learning is best illustrated by the popularity of the video games currently available in the market. These are multimedia programs combining text, audio, video, and animated graphics in an easy to use fashion. It is here that the power of multimedia can be unleashed to provide long term benefit to all. Multimedia enables learning through exploration, discovery, and experience. Technology does not necessarily drive education. That role belongs to the learning needs of students. With multimedia, the process of learning can become more goals oriented, more participatory, and flexible in time and space, unaffected by distances and tailored to individual learning styles, and increase collaboration between teachers and students. Multimedia enables learning to become fun and friendly, without fear of inadequacies or failure. As we known human brain has dual channel and they separate information, processing channels for visual and verbal materials. These channels have limited capacity. For active processing: learning requires substantial cognitive processing in the verbal and visual channel. Multimedia is to make; maximize the usage of both channels, balance the processing load of both channels, use one channel to share the burden of the other, prime related concepts and knowledge to structure learning, As a result learning through experience, learning by doing, learning while enjoying learning when you need to know at using Multimedia systems (Young, 2006). Also multimedia include Pedagogical assessment; constructivism: inquiry-based, problem-based, project-based; creation of meaning using prior knowledge and experience; socratic method with levels of probing questions, systematic observation, hypotheses testing, and problem-solving, real-world situations, public venues, cooperative learning, community of learners. As a result pedagogic approach is superior and pedagogy is innovative. Questions are appropriate to the content and effectively measure student mastery of the content. Approach is appropriate for the intended student population. Overall tenor of interaction is helpful. Student is an active participant in the learning process. Graphics, video and audio are used to motivate (www.wps.prenhall.com). There are a lot of reasons to use Multimedia in social sciences education. Multimedia is fast, cheap, consistent, private, personal, a strong foundation, a tool to make remembering longer, easier, more information faster and fun. The pedagogical vision is clear: only when multimedia technologies have become routine components of education and e-learning will we have an educational environment that reflects the media-rich world in which we now live. 104 �References Ambrose, D. W. (1991). The effects of hypermedia on learning: A literature review. Educational Technology, 31(12), 51-55. Behrens, J. T. (1997). Principles and procedures of exploratory data analysis. Psychological Methods, 2,131-160. Behrens, J. T., (1996), Toward a Theory and Practice of Using Interactive Graphics in Statistics Education, Role of Technology, Spain Bijnens, H., Bijnens, M., Vanbuel, M., (2004) “Streaming Media in the Classroom”, Education Highway, Linz. Bijnens, M., Vanbuel, M, (2005), “An overview of IPR issues in MultiMedia”, ATiT, Roosbeek. Blumenfeld, P.C. Soloway, S., Marx, R.W., Krajcik, J.S., Guzdial, M., and Palincsar, (1991), A. Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist. 26(3,4), 369-398. Bransford, J. D., Sherwood, R. D., Hasselbring, T. S., Kinzer, C. K. & Williams, S. M. (1990). Anchored instruction: Why we need it and how technology can help. In D. Nix & R. Spiro (Eds), Cognition, education and multimedia: Exploring ideas in high technology, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Brown, J. S. and Duguid, P. (1993). Stolen knowledge. Educational Technology, 33(3), 10-15. Chang, C-W., Lin, K., Lee, S-Y., (2004), “The Characteristics of Digital Video and Considerations of Designing Video Databases”, Institute of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan. Cleveland, W. S., & McGill, M. E. (Ed.). (1988). Dynamic graphics for statistics. New York: Chapman and Hall. Del, M., Rysavy, S., and Sales, G. C. (1991). Cooperative learning in computer-based instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(2), 70-79. Duke, J., (1983), “Interactive video: implications for education and training”, Council for Educational Technology, London, Fensham, P. J. (1990). What will science educators do about technology? Australian Science Teachers Journal. 36(3), 8-21. Ferry, B. (1993). Can we meet the challenge? Problems with implementation and in-service in technologyrelated fields of education. Australian Educational Computing 8(1), 32-36.Layton, D. (1993). Technologies challenge to science education: Cathedral, quarry or company store? Philadelphia: Open University Press. Finn, L. (2002). Using video to reflect on curriculum. Educational Leadership, 59(6), 72-74. Jonassen, D.H. (Ed.), (1995), “Handbook of Research for Educational Communication and Technology”, Simon & Schuster/MacMillan, New York. Kameyama, T., Taketomi, K., Okugawa, M., Deguchi, T., Shibata, R., Usui, T., Suzuki, T., and Kosaki, M., (2001), Implementation of Engineering Education using Multimedia Classroom, Case of Gifu National College of Technology, Procc. 2 nd International Confernce on Information Technology Based Higher Education and Training, Kumanoto. Kearsley, G., Shneiderman, B., (1998) “Engagement Theory: A framework for technology-based teaching and learning”, Educational Technology, September/October , pp 20-37. Kinnear, H., McWilliams, S., & Caul, L. (2002). The use of interactive video in teaching teachers: An evaluation of a link with a primary school. British Journal of Technology, 33(1), 17-26. Lieshout, M. V., Tineke, M. Egyedi and Wiebe E. Bijker, (2001) Types of media, their file formats, and how to work with them Social learning technologies. The introduction of multimedia in education. Aldershot. Mayer , R.E., Gallini, J.K., (1990), “When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?” Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(6) (715-726). Millar , S.M., (2005), “Video as process and product”, Educause Quarterly, 58-61. Moreno, R., Mayer E., (2000) “A learner-centred approach to multimedia explanations: driving instructional design principles from cognitive theory”, Interactive Multimedia Electronic Journal of ComputerEnhanced Learning. Moursund, D. (1999). Project-based learning using information technology. Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in Education. Person, S., Chambers, G., & Hall, K. (2003). Video material as a support to develop effective collaboration between teachers and teaching assistants. Support for Learning, 18(2), 83-87. Repman, L., Weller, H. G. & Lan, W. (1993). The impact of social context on learning in hypermedia based instruction. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 2(3), 283-298. Rosenberg, M. J., (2001),“ E-learning:strategies for delivering knowledge in the digital age”,McGraw Hill, NewYork, Sandholtz, J., Ringstaff, C., and Dwyer, D. (1997). Teaching with technology: Creating student-centered classrooms. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Sherin, M., and van Es, E. (2002). Using video to support teachers’ ability to interpret classroom interactions. Paper Presented at the 13th Annual Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference, Nashville. 105 �Smith, I. (1993). An investigation into students' perceptions of the learning environment provided by hypermedia tools in an interdisciplinary high school course of studies. PhD Dissertation, University of Oregon. Tally, S. (Ed.). (2002). Developing digital video recourses to improve teaching with technology: The PT3-“Best Practices” project. Paper Presented at the 13th Annual Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference, Nashville. Vanbuel, M., Bijnens, M., (2006), “Transnational exchanges of streaming material”, Education Highway, Linz. Wallace, I., Donald, D., (2006), “Project Pad: An open source, browser based video animation tool”, Dıverse Conference, Glasgow. West, J., Donald, D., (2006), “Clydetown: The use of audio and video resources within a virtual community learning resource”, DIVERSE Conference, Glasgow. White, D. W., (2006), The Influence of The Collaborative Videotape Assessment Process On Preservice Technology Education Teachers’ Confidence, Lesson Plan Preparation And Teaching Experience, A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in theGraduate School of The Ohio State University, Ohio, USA. Yadav, V., (2006), Using Multimedia in Education, New Delhi, Pragun. Young, C., Asensio, M., (2002), “Looking through Three .I’s: the Pedagogic Use of Streaming Video”, in: Banks, S., Goodyear , P., Hodgson, V., McConnell, D., (eds), “Networked Learning”, Conference Proceedings, pp. 628-635, Sheff ield. Young, C.P.L., Meldgaard, H., (2006) “Top ten uses of video in education”, eStream Conference, Patras, Greece. www.aare.edu.au. www.iste.org. www.zwire.com. www.buzzle.com. www.clickandgovideo.ac.uk. www.wps.prenhall.com. www.athensacademy.org. 106 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 658 Title A name given to the resource Using Multimedia Technologies as a Current Trends on Social Sciences Education Author Author Ekinci, Deniz Karakoç, Ercan Hut, Davut Avcı, Halil Ersin Abstract A summary of the resource. Last decade’s mere technology that includes only writing, speaking skills and static graphics were used but this technique is simple and inadequate for social sciences and its education. However, multimedia technologies include high, advanced and sophisticated technology. Such technologies are used a lot of field in social sciences education. These are showing up in every walk of education and every aspect of community; architecture, business, education as social sciences. Now multimedia technologies which are including video, audio, animation, interactive map, graphic, table, and GIS, RS technologies are used for social sciences education. These new techniques, which are based commonly on computer, provide good education and better learning. Proponents of multimedia and modern techniques show that they can change the way we understand, think, learn, and work; they have heralded it brings the end of printed books and static graphics. Advocates of modern methodology and tools, both in their research and educational applications, see them better than mere technology. Modern and last systems are garnering to increase attention in cartography, history and geography, although there is a paucity of literature on the prospects of multimedia as a research or educational method in history, and geography. They are used a lot of sample area which occurs our study subject. Some of them allow us to view, understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. They help people answer questions and solve problems by looking at people’s data in a way that is quickly understood and easily shared. This presentation describes an educational application of multimedia and modern tools for geography and history education as social sciences based on the assumption that multimedia and high and advanced technology are better than mere skill. As a result, the aim of this study is presenting some multimedia technology based on examples and applications in social sciences. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27ad977a2ffc3183c1137636304545e5.pdf 821315dec698f5ad8af1c68a54dfe9ab PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey Sezai Ercişli Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty Department of Horticulture Erzurum, Turkey M uharrem Güleryüz Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty Department of Horticulture Erzurum, Turkey E mine Orhan Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty Department of Horticulture Erzurum, Turkey Yaşar Ertürk Ataturk University Hamza Polat Vacational School Erzurum, Turkey Hüseyin Karlıdağ Ataturk University Hamza Polat Vacational School Erzurum, Turkey Abstract: More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world. These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry, wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been discussed Introduction Horticulture plants including fruits, vegetables and grapes are important to the well-being of people in every country of the world, providing essential ecological,economic and cultural services. They are main food resources for humans because they include several vitamines for example vitamin C, A, B6,thiamine, niacin, E, several minerals and dietary fiber (Quebedeaux and Bliss, 1988; Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Wargovich, 2000). As well known, most of the vitamins are produced by horticultural plants. Their contribution as a group is estimated at 91% of vitamin C, 48% of vitamin A, 27% of vitamin B6, 17% of thiamine,and 15% of niacin in diet. Horticultural plants are also supply 16% of magnesium,19% of iron, and 9% of the calories. They are also an important protein sources,particularly nutsincluding almond, hazelnut, pecan, pistachio, chestnut and walnut fruits. When compared proteins between fruits and the other plant crops,itis clear that proteins of fruits are of high quality as to their content of essential amino acids. Fruits, particularly nuts are well known for their high fatty acid content as well (Verma and Joshi, 2000). However there were wide genotypic effects on these parameters which mostly related to genetic derivation. Environmental and pre and post harvest conditions are also affecting its contents. Fruits in the daily diet have been strongly associated with reduced risk for some forms of cancer, heart 78 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo disease, stroke, and other chronic diseases (Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Tomas-Barberan and Robins, 1997; Prior and Cao, 2000; Southon, 2000; Wargovich, 2000). Some components of fruits are strong antioxidants and antioxidant capacity varies greatly among fruitspecies and genotypes (Prior and Cao, 2000). There are some fruit growing countries such as China, Turkey etc. has great ecological diversity within the country. This ecological diversity has contributed not only to a high genetic diversity, but has also allowed the successfulintroduction and cultivation of a great number of fruittree taxa. On the other hand these countries have also a long history offruit cultivation. Fruit culture has played an important role in Turkey’s history. Over 85 fruit species including almost all the deciduous, most of the subtropical and some tropical fruits are grown. Deciduous fruits are spread all over the country. However, the subtropical and tropicalfruitsare grown mainly in the south where the winteris warm and the summer is hot.In the north of Turkey, tea, some citrus,loquat, persimmon and kiwi can be grown (Agaoglu et al. 1997; Ercisli, 2004). In rural areas, apricot, almond, walnut, chestnut, cornelian cherry, plum, hawthorn, rose hips etc. have been propagated to alarge extent from seed, resulting in a wide range of variability (Ercisli, 2004). In this review we are discussed about wild growing fruits and possible use of in sustainable fruit production in Turkey. Classification of Fruits Fruitspecies are mainly classified either climatic orfruit properties. According to climatic properties,fruit species can be classified into 3 main groups (Temperate fruits, subtropical fruits and tropical fruits). In fruit properties, the species can be classified as citrus fruits, pome fruits, stone fruits, nuts, berries, Mediterranean fruits etc.(Agaoglu et al., 1997). Fruitspecies can also classified as cultivated or domesticated,semi domesticated and wild.In most part of Turkey,itis possibleto see all 3 kinds of fruits. The cultivated fruits mostly seen in commercial orchards, semi-domesticated are can be seen near cities, towns, villages. Howeverthe wild edible fruits are widely distributed far away from cultivated araes. Particularly rural areas of Turkey are very rich interms of wild edible fruits. The most distinct characteristics ofthree groups are fruit sizes. The fruit size of three groups as follow; cultivated>semi-domesticated>wild. Sometimes wild term is as ‘Black box’ because in general wild plants are belongs to different speciesthen cultivated ones. Wild Fruit Diversity in Turkey The biodiversity ofthe wild fruitsin Turkey is an important bio-gene poolthatis essentialto human life, biological and agricultural development in the future. Areas of wild fruitsin Turkey are mainly concentrated in Mediterannean, Black Sea, Middle, East, North East and South Anatolia regions (Ercisli, 2004). Turkey holds a greatrichness of wild fruits with regardto variety and biological diversity. Withtheir wide variety of form the wild fruits create unbelievable displays in the region's unique landscape. Since the availability of land for cultivation in some region (North East Anatolia, Black Sea Region)islimited due to the steepness of the land, wild fruits dominates fruit production and collecting wild fruits in these areas has been more important than fruit growing. The rich diversity of fruit species in the country can be explaining of its unique location. As well known Turkey is junction of different gene centers of crop origin and domestication. The main families in Turkey including fruits are; Juglandaceae, Berberidaceae, Saxifragaceae, Rosaceae, Rhamnaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Grossulariaceae, Anarcadidaceae, Cornaceae, Coryllaceae, Ericaceae, Caprifoliaceae, Moraceae etc.(Ercisli, 2004). To exploitation of the bioresources of the wild fruitsin Turkey, more recently several projects were started. In order to conserve the resources of the semi-wild and wild fruits some institutes belongs to Ministry of Agriculture in Turkey set up some collections from them. Nutritive Value of Wild Fruits Having lower water content and nutritionally richerthan cultivated fruitsthe wild fruits areindispensable foods not only for wild animals but also forlocal people. The wild fruits collected are consumed fresh orin dried forms or alternatively some of them are used for making syrup and pestils(dried fruit pulp).Itcan be concluded thatthe wild edibles eaten by thelocal peoples are a good source of nutrients,and considering theirlow cost and easy availability, need to be popularized and recommended for commercial exploitation.Considerableinterest 79 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo has been generated by recent studies on the chemical composition of some wild fruitsin most parts ofthe world. Some of these wild fruits have higher nutritional values compared with levels found in cultivated fruits (Eromosele, 1991; Netzel et al.,2007; Wang and Lewers, 2007). Wild fruits which are pesticide residue free are important food sources for rural populations. Nutritious wild fruits have the potentialto be promoted for wider use, domestication and comm ercialization. As has been evidenced by studiesin many parts of world, wild fruits provide an important component of the diet, particularly for children (Falconer, 1990). Wild fruits contribute greatly to diet quality ratherthan quantity. Anotherimportant characteristic of some wild fruits are their storage capacity. Secondary Metabolite Production Plant secondary metabolites are a generic term used for more than 30,000 different substances which are exclusively produced by plants. The plants form secondary metabolites e.g. for protection against pests, as colouring,scent, or attractants and asthe plant's own hormones.It used to be believed thatsecondary metabolites were irrelevant for the human diet. The importance of these substances has only recently been discovered by scientists. Secondary metabolites carry out a number of protective functions in the human body. Plant secondary metabolites can boostthe immune system, protectthe body from free radicals, kill pathogenic germs and much more (Agrawal, 1999; van Baarlen et al., 2007). Among seconder metabolites anthocyanins which is very abundan particularrly wild and semi-domesticated colorfulberries and smallfruitssuch as wild strawberry, wild raspberry, wild blackberry, sea buckthorn, bilberry, wild bluberry, black and red mulberry, barberry, cornelian cherry etc. has anticancerogen, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antiinflammation effects. Caratenoids has anticancerogen, antioxidant and antiinflammation effects. Flavonoids has anticancerogen, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, strength immune system. Glucosinalats has antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancerogen and also reduce cholesterol levels. These seconder metabolites are also the most importan raw materialsfor medicines. The studies have shown thatthese compounds prevent harmful UV radiation penetrating through leaves. The wild plants are more tolerant than cultivated plant to damaging effect of UV radiation and water stress because in these negative conditions they accumulate more seconder metabolites (Davies, 2004). In contrast to the primary metabolites (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and mineral nutrients) secondary metabolites do not have nutrient characteristics for human beings. They are usually found in very small amounts but have an effect on humans. The function or importance ofthese compounds to the organism is usually of an ecological nature as they are used as defenses against predators, parasites and diseases, for interspecies competition, and to facilitate the reproductive processes (coloring agents, attractive smells, etc). Wild fruits can synthesize and accumulates a variety of secondary metabolites. Some of the biologically active secondary metabolites substantiate the claim made in traditional system of medicine. Wild fruits appear to be a resource of many biologically active compounds. Their derivates are already in extensive use for the control of drug-resistant malaria. In vitro studies on some of the other active compounds identified in wild fruits will hopefully give new therapeutic and agricultural products ofcommercialimportance Threats on Wild Fruits in Turkey As elsewhere in the world, the wild fruits in Turkey face an onslaught of threats from human activities, habitat destruction, over-grazing, over-harvesting and the increasing impact of global climate change. For rural communities the forests including numerous wild fruits also provide grazing for livestock and the under-storey of wood pastures is cut for hay to provide fodder during the winter months. A high proportion of the threatened taxa are critically endangered,thatis,they face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Many of these are narrow endemics, such as Crataegus tanacetifolia, whose fragmented populations are threatened by cutting and/or over-grazing. Others, relatives of domesticated fruit trees and shrubs such as Pyrus elaegnifolia is threatened by collection of saplings as rootstock for grafting. Although an important source ofincome for rural communities, unsustainable rates of harvesting of these plants such as chestnuts continue to pose a huge threattothe country’s unique fruit and nut forests. The threatis further compounded by unregulated logging, grazing, hay-making and, more recently, a number of the species that are endangered or vulnerable are wild relatives of domesticated fruit and nut varieties. This includes seed propagated semi-wild apricots(Armenica vulgaris), which isthreatened by unsustainable harvesting and cutting. The wild apple species are still found in the fragmented fruit in Turkey and are threatened by habitat degradation, mainly from agricultural development and overgrazing. Therefore, there is necessity to come to 80 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo grips with conservation of invaluable bioresources, understanding of the relationships between eco-environment and humankind. During the initial stages of agricultural development, the wild fruit forest was seriously damaged through the reclamation of wasteland. In order to gain great benefits from the wild fruits,the peoples cut down ancient wild fruittrees/shrubs. Some herdsman also cut down wild fruittreesto enlarge their meadow area, leading to the disappearance of primary wild chestnut forest. According to previous investigations, there has been a reduction inthe number of wild appletree seedlings due to over-grazing and dung injuries,leading to a decrease in the activity of wild apple trees to reproduce. The human activities have accordingly caused environmental degradation and a reduction in species numbers and distribution area, which willinevitably lead tothe endangerment and extinction of many rare species. The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production Wild fruit species are very important source of adapted plant material especially when unfavorable climatic and soil conditions are present. These species are also more effective than non-native species in controlling soil erosion. Once established, since they are adapted to local dry conditions,their care is easierthan non-native species. Deep spreading roots help combat soil erosion (Kaya, 1999). They also grows in a tremendous range of conditions from very dry, sterile, sandy woodlands to river bottoms to rocky hillsides and moist or very dry locations.Itthrives on almost any type of soil. The wild fruitshrubs orthreestolerates drought and cold. It develops strong lateral roots and grows fast (Gungor et al., 2002) and is valued for their ability to reclaim degraded soils. It has also been used for wildlife habitat plantings. There is some indication that new markets for specialty native berries and fruits may be opening up. Considerations for a Rural Development Strategy As well known wild or indigenous fruit species has been played an important role in Anatolia’s history. As mentioned before in the past Anatolia had the host a lot of civilization. All previous civilizations have been used fresh and dried fruits as well as extracts for medicinal and social purposes. However,atthe beginning 19th century the commercial orchards established with monoculture fruit species and thus wild fruits are neglected. As well known wild fruits, particularly berries widely found in foreststhus one strategy would be to enhance the recreational and tourism potential value of wild harvesting. This could be done in conjunction with innovative interpretive programs toimpartto visitorssome ofthe historicalsignificance of native fruits and berries and their uses by local peoples living rural areas in Turkey. To be successful on this topic, harvesting areas remain in as natural because the tourists will be seek wild experience. Also,itisimportantthatthese areas should be not far away for walk and suggested distance from town, village or resorts should be maximum 40 km. These areas are also must be uncontaminated. Local festivals and celebrations, native recipes and cooking traditions, and local history can be helpfulto success on thisstrategy. Near villages ortowns each house can produce special products from these wild fruits and can be sellrelatively higher prices because visitors may have remote this culture. The one ofthe mostimportantthings for selleristhatthey mustimply that all products are fully nature. The villagers can also establish some small nurseries to multiply nature wild fruits and can sellthem as planting material to tourists. References Agaoglu Y.S., Celik H., Celik M., Fidan Y., Gulsen Y., Gunay A. et al. (1997). General Horticulture. A.U.Z.F. No:4, p 339. Agrahar-Murugkar, D., & Subbulakshmi, G., (2005). Nutritive values of wild edible fruits, berries, nuts, roots and spices consumed by the Khasi tribes of India. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 44, 207-223 Agrawal, M., (1999). Environmental pollution and plant responses. CRC Press, ISBN 1566703417, pp. 393. Davies, K.M., (2004). Plant pigments and their manipulation. Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 1405117370, pp 352. Ercisli, S., (2004). A short review of the fruit germplasm resources of Turkey Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51, 419-435. Eromosele, I.C., Eromosele, C.O., & Kuzhkuzha, D.M., (1991). Evaluation of mineral elements and ascorbic acid contents in fruits of some wild plants. Plant Food Human Nutrition. 41,53-57. 81 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Falconer, J., (1990). `Agroforestry and Household Food Security', in Agroforestry for Sustainable Production, Economic Implications, R T Prinsley (ed), Commonwealth Science Council, London. Gungor, I., Atatoprak, A., & Ozer, A., (2002). Bitkilerin Dunyasi, Bitki tanıtımı detayları ile fidan yetistirme esaslari, Lazer Ofset Matbaa, Ankara Kaya, Y., (1999). Fırat vadisi'nde erozyon ve erozyon alanında iyi gelisen bitkiler. Türk Tarım ve Ormancılık Dergisi, 23,724. Netzel, M., Netzel, G., Tian, Q., Schwartz, S., & Konczak, I., (2007). Native Australian fruits-a novel source of antioxidants for food. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 8, 339-346. Prior, R.L., & Cao, G., (2000). Antioxidant phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables; diet and health implications. HortScience 35:588-592. Quebedeaux, B., & Bliss, F.A., (1988). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 1st Intl. Symp. Hort. and Human Health. Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ. Quebedeaux, B., & Eisa, H.M., (1990). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 2nd Intl. symp. Hort. and Human Health. HortScience 25,1473-1532. Southon, S. 2000. Increased fruit and vegetable consumption within the EU: potential health benefits. Food Research International, 33,211-217. Tomas-Barberan, F.A. and Robins, R.J. (eds.). 1997. Phytochemistry of fruits and vegetables. Oxford Science Publ., Oxford, UK, 375 pp. Van Baarlen, P., Van Belkum, A., & Thomma B.P.H.J., (2007). Disease induction by human microbial pathogens in plantmodel systems: potential, problems and prospects. Drug Discovery Today. 12, 167-173. Verma, L.R., & Joshi, V.K., (2000). Postharvest technology of fruits and vegetables. Indus publishing Co. New Delhi, India. Wang., S.Y., & Lewers, K.S. (2007). Antioxidant capacity and flavonoid content in wild strawberries. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 132, 629-637. Wargovich, M.J., (2000). Anticancer properties of fruits and vegetables. HortScience 35:573-575. 82 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 478 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey Author Author Ercisli, Sezai Güleryüz, Muharrem Orhan, Emine Ertürk, Yasar Karlıdağ, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world. These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry, wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been discussed Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72a3726b21149afdd847d090d93eb647.pdf e27c00accab507da41e79d1230bb8ce2 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Food Drying Technology Koksal Erenturk Ataturk University College of Engineering Department of Electrical&Electronics Eng. Erzurum, Turkey erenturk@yahoo.com Abstract: Applications of artificial intelligence techniques, such as artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms and neural-fuzzy systems, in engineering have gained momentum in past decade. Main applications of these techniques in engineering are estimation, optimization and control process. In this paper, some of the applications are studied and both simulation and real-time experimental results are given. Artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are very useful for estimation and optimization process for drying technologies. However, fuzzy logic is also capable of both classification and control of the drying process. Estimation, optimization and control applications of artificial intelligence methods are given in detail for different types of food drying applications. Echinacea angustifolia and carrot are selected as application examples. A fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Estimation and optimization applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are compared with non-linear regression analysis. In addition, fuzzy control is also compared with a classical control technique to conclude the robustness of the fuzzy control in terms of classical control. According to the results, it is observed that artificial intelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Moreover these techniques could be applicable for different type processes with simple changes in configuration. Introduction Drying behavior of differentmaterials has been proposed in theliterature by various researchers on both theoretical and application grounds during the past 60 years. There have been many studies for modeling of drying behavior and determining the drying kinetics of various vegetables and fruits such as onion (Sarsavadia, Sawhney, Pangavhane, & Singh, 1999), grape (Dincer, 1996), potato (Diamante & Munro, 1993), pistachio (Midilli, 2001), kiwifruits (Maskan, 2001), red pepper (Akpinar, Bicer, & Yildiz, 2003), rosehip (Erenturk, Gulaboglu, & Gultekin, 2004a and b) and Echinacea roots (Erenturk, Erenturk, & Tabil, 2004c). Dynamic modeling of the drying characteristics of agricultural products, using artificial intelligence methods including genetic algorithms and neural networks has gained momentum, because learning ability ofthe neural network is suitable for identifying plant and fruit responses, which are complex processes to which mathematical approaches are not easily applied. Studies to identify nonlinear and difficult-to-define system behavior with aid of neural networks were conducted on grain drying by Farkas, Reményi, & Biró (2000a and b) and Trelea, Courtois, & Trystram (1997). Kaminski, Strumillo, & Tomczak (1998) also used an artificial neural network for modeling of moisture content and quality index for vitamin C in sliced potatoes and green peas. On the other hand, the genetic algorithm is one of the search methods and optimization techniques for an optimal value of a complex objective function by simulation of the biological evolutionary process based, as in genetics, on crossover and mutation. Morimoto, De Baerdemaeker, & Hashimoto (1997a) developed an artificial neural network-genetic algorithm intelligence approach for optimal control of fruit-storage process. Morimoto, Purwanto, Suzuki, & Hashimoto (1997b) used genetic algorithm for optimization of heat treatment for fruit during storage. Hashimoto (1997) introduced applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms to agricultural systems. Fuzzy settheory is atheory about vagueness and uncertainty. Thistheory provides an approximate, and yet effective, means of describing the behavior of systems that are too complex or ill-defined to permit precise mathematical analysis. Fuzzy controllers were developed to imitate the performance of human expert operators by encoding their knowledge in the form of linguistic rules. The fuzzy controlis also nonlinear and adaptive in nature, which gives it a robust performance under parameter variations. Fuzzy control systems provide control through a set of membership functions quantified from ambiguousterms in controlrules.As fuzzy control can be implemented by a small number of rules,it has a short initial development period. The number of the rules is determined by required accuracy. 375 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Afterthe invention of fuzzy logic by Zadeh,the fuzzy modeling and fuzzy identification of systems has found numerous practical applications in control, prediction and inference. In many cases, reducing to design time and costs the fuzzy logic approach allows the designer to handle efficiently very complex closed-loop control problems. Fuzzy control also supports nonlinear design techniques that are now being exploited in motor and temperature control applications. A fuzzy logic based controller adjusts the system input to get a desired output by justlooking atthe output without any requirement mathematical model ofto be controlled system. For this reason fuzzy logic based controller systems differ from classical control systems and it is possible to get desired control actions for complex, uncertain, and non-linear systems by using fuzzy logic controller (FLC) withoutthe requirement oftheir mathematical models and parameter estimation. In this study, applications of artificialintelligence techniques,such as artificial neural networks, genetic algorithms and fuzzy logic, for food drying technologies are studied. Estimation, optimization and control applications of artificialintelligence methods are given in detailfor differenttypes of food drying applications. Echinacea angustifolia and carrot are selected as application examples. A fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Estimation and optimization applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are compared with non-linear regression analysis.In addition, fuzzy control is also compared with a classical control technique to conclude the robustness of the fuzzy control in terms of classical control. Mathematical Model of Food Drying Process The flow of moisture from the agricultural materialto its surroundings can be considered as analogous to the heattransfer from a body immersed in cold fluid. Comparing the drying phenomenon with Newton’s law of cooling,the drying rate will be approximately proportionalto the difference in moisture content between the material being dried and equilibrium moisture content atthe drying air state. Hence: Drying rate = M t + dt − M t dt (1) Similarly,the moisture ratios of Echinacea and carrot are obtained from: MR = M − Me M0 − Me (2) As proposed by earlier authors and given in Table 1,the drying curves obtained were processed for drying rates to find the most suitable modelamong the four different expressions (Akpinar et al, 2003). Model no: 1 Model name: Model equation: Newton MR = exp(−kt) 2 Page MR = exp(− kt n ) 3 M odified Page 4 Henderson and Pabis MR = exp(−(kt ) n ) MR = a. exp(−kt) Table 1: Thin layer drying curve models considered. The correlation coefficient (r) was one of the primary criteria for selecting the best equation to define the drying curves. In addition to r, the coefficient of determination (r2), reduced Chi-Square (χ2), and sum of squares ofthe difference between the data and fit values (SSR) were used to determine the quality ofthe fit. The best results of the proposed criteria were obtained by using the modified Page equation (Madamba et al., 1996; Panchariya et al., 2002) as shown in Eq. (3): MR = exp(−(kt ) n ) (3) The dependence of the drying rate constant, k, and drying parameter, n, on the drying air variables was modeled as an Arrhenius-type equation. This dependence of both constants on the variables can be expressed in the following form: k = a 0 V a1 d a 2 exp(− 376 a3 ) T (4) �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo n = b 0 V b1 d b 2 exp(− b3 ) T (5) Artificial intelligence techniques for food drying process The selected structure ofthe applied neural network, with its four inputs and single output,is shown in Figure 1. There is no feedback from the output to the inputs. Since the physical structure of a thin layer dryer consists ofthree main parts(the input variables,the drying bed itself and the output variables) athreelayerfeedforward neural network was chosen for modeling purposes (Farkas et al., 2000a).In the hidden layer, 30 hidden neurons were used for Echinacea and 25 hidden neurons were used for carrot. For training, the classical backpropagation algorithm was used (Farkas et al., 2000b) for the both cases. In this study, a logarithmic sigmoid activation function was used. (a) (b) Figure 1: Neural network structure for a) Echinacea and b) carrot. Higher r, r2, χ2 and SSR values were obtained by using the neural network compared with that of modified Page model. The results have shown that the indicators for goodness of fit of the proposed neural network model are betterthan the values obtained by the modified Page model. These results are shown in Table 2. Therefore,the proposed neural network model was selected to represent the thin layer drying behavior of E. angustifolia because of the higher values of r and r2, and the lower values of χ2 and SSR than that by the modified Page model. It can be clearly seen from Table 2 that the accuracy of the neural network model provided a better fit and better results. The performance of the neural network model for E. angustifolia is illustrated in Fig.2a, 2b and 2c for different drying airtemperatures, drying airflow rates and root sizes. Detailed information forthis case could be found in (Erenturk, Erenturk, & Tabil, 2004c) Model name Newton Page M odified Page Henderson &Pabis N NET Model constants k=0.004 k=0.014 n=0.790 k=0.004 n=0.790 k=0.004 a=0.915 - Coefficient of Correlation determination coefficient (r) (r2) 0.9862 0.9938 0.9965 0.9896 0.9994 0.9726 0.9876 0.9930 0.9793 0.9989 χ2 SSR 1.27E-3 3.78E-4 3.29E-4 9.64E-4 3.96E-05 0.348 0.089 0.089 0.262 0.0109 Table 2: Results of statisticalanalyses on the modeling of moisture contents and drying time. 377 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo (a) (b) (c) Figure 2: The performance of the neural network model forE. angustifolia for a)root sizes b) drying airflow and c) different drying airtemperatures. Similiarto the previous case, the drying rate k and the drying parameter n of the modified Page model for carrot were best described by Arrhenius-type model and shown below: k = 42.66 V 0.3123d −0.8437 exp(− 2386.6 ) T (r=0.987) n = 5.48 V −0.0846 d −0.1066 exp(− 452.5 ) T (r=0.954) Above expressions can be used to estimate the moisture content of carrot at any instant during drying, because the regression coefficient,r,is found with acceptable accuracy. The accuracy of the established model was evaluated by comparing the computed moisture ratio under any particular drying conditions with the observed moisture ratio. During both regression routines and determination ofthe dependence ofthe drying rate constant, k, and drying parameter, n, on the drying air variables,the proposed GA approach in (Erenturk, Erenturk, 2007d) was employed for all experimentalruns. After the step by step procedure described in (Erenturk, Erenturk, 2007d), the following relationship between drying variables and drying characteristics was obtained. k = 26.64 V 0.4199 d −0.8362 exp(− 2223.1 ) T (r=0.996) n = 5.29 V −0.0856 d −0.1023 exp(− 443.4 ) T (r=0.962) Regarding above r,r2,χ2 and SSR values determined by using regression analysis and the mathematical model optimized by applying G A were listed in Table 3. The accuracy of the mathematical model optimized by using GA was observed more satisfactory than that of regression analysis. Model name Newton Page M odified Page Henderson &Pabis M odified Page before optimization Correlation coefficient (r) Coefficient of determination (r2) χ2 SSR 0.9964 0.9938 0.9991 0.9976 0.9928 0.9876 0.9981 0.9917 2.36E-3 2.62E-3 2.45E-3 2.42E-3 2.553 2.825 2.698 2.611 0.9985 0.9971 2.52E-3 2.725 Table 3: Statisticalresults ofthe mathematical models optimized by using GA Another AI technique suitable for drying process is fuzzy logic. Fuzzy controllers were developed to imitate the performance of human expert operators by encoding their knowledge in the form of linguistic rules. Since the fuzzy controlis also nonlinear and adaptive in nature,these properties give FC a robust performance under parameter variations. Fuzzy control systems provide control through a set of membership functions quantified from ambiguous terms in control rules. As fuzzy control can be implemented by a small number of rules,it has a shortinitial development period. The number of the rules is determined by required accuracy. A fuzzy logic based controller adjuststhe system inputto get a desired output by justlooking atthe output without any requirement mathematical model ofto be controlled system. For thisreason fuzzy logic based controller 378 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo systems differ from classical control systems and it is possible to get desired control actions for complex, uncertain, and non-linear systems by using fuzzy logic controller (FLC) without the requirement of their mathematical models and parameter estimation. For this purpose, a fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Simulation resultisillustrated in Fig. 3. Fuzzy control (FC) is also compared with a classical controltechnique to conclude the robustness ofthe fuzzy controlin terms of classical control. Comparison results are given in Table 4. According to the results, it is observed that artificial intelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Figure 3: Fuzzy logic based temperature control of a convective drier. Controllertype Fuzzy control PID Overshoot (%) Rise time (h) Steady state error (o C) 1.22 0.28 0.61 1.23 3.52 Table 4: Performance evaluation of controllers. Conclusions Inthisstudy, applications of artificialintelligence techniquesforfood drying processes are presented.In order to estimate the drying behavior of different type foods, a feed-forward artificial neural network (ANN) structure is designed and applied to Echinacea and carrot. It is observed that ANN based estimation is more accurate than that of nonlinearregression analysis.In addition, for more complex operation, such as Arrheniustype modeling, GA based optimization technique is applied and more reliable results are observed. Fuzzy logic based control of a convective drier is also given and compared with a classical PID-type control technique to conclude the robustness ofthe fuzzy controlinterms of classical control. According to the results,itis observed that artificialintelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Moreover these techniques could be applicable for different type processes with simple changes in configuration. 379 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Akpinar, E. K., Bicer, Y., & Yildiz, C. (2003). Thin layer drying of red pepper. Journal of Food Engineering, 59, 99-104. Diamante, L. M., & Munro, P. A. (1993). Mathematical modelling of the thin layer solar drying of sweet potato slices. Solar Energy, 51, 271–276. Dincer, I. (1996). Sun drying of sultana grapes. Drying Technology, 14, 1827–1838. Erenturk, K., Erenturk, S., & Tabil, L. G. (2004c). A comparative study for the estimation of dynamical drying behavior of Echinacea angustifolia: regression analysis and neural network. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 45, 71–90. Erenturk, S., & Erenturk, K. (2007d). Comparison of Genetic Algorithm and Neural Network Approaches for the Drying Process of Carrot. Journal of Food Engineering, 78 (3), 905-912. Erenturk, S., Gulaboglu, M. S., & Gultekin, S. (2004a). The Thin-layer Drying Characteristics of Rosehip. Biosystems Engineering, 89, 159-166. Erenturk, S., Gulaboglu, M. S., & Gultekin, S. (2004b). The effects of cutting and drying medium on the vitamin C content of rosehip during drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 68 (4), 513-518. Farkas, I., Reményi, P., & Biró, A. (2000a). A neural network topology for modelling grain drying. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 26, 147–158. Farkas, I., Reményi, P., & Biró, A. (2000b). Modelling aspects of grain drying with a neural network. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 29, 99–113. Hashimoto, Y. (1997). Applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms to agricultural systems. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 18, 71-72. Kaminski, W., Strumillo, P., Tomczak, E. (1998). Neurocomputing approaches to modelling of drying process dynamics. Drying Technology, 16, 967–992. Madamba, P. S., Driscoll, R. H., & Buckle, K. A. (1996). The thin layer drying characteristic of garlic slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 29, 75-97. Maskan, M. (2001). Drying,shrinkage and rehydration characteristic of kiwifruits during hot air and microwave drying. Journal of Food Engineering, 48, 177–182. Midilli, A. (2001). Determination of pistachio drying behavior and conditions in a solar drying system. International Journal of Energy Research, 25, 715 –725. Morimoto, T., De Baerdemaeker, J., & Hashimoto, Y. (1997a). An intelligent approach for optimal control of fruit-storage process using neural networks and genetic algorithms. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 18, 205-224. Morimoto, T., Purwanto, W., Suzuki, J., & Hashimoto, Y. (1997b). Optimization of heat treatment for fruit during storage using neural networks and genetic algorithms. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 19, 87-101. Panchariya, P. C., Popovic, D., & Sharma, A. L. (2002). Thin-layer modelling of black tea drying process. Journal of Food Engineering, 52, 349-357. Sarsavadia, P. N., Sawhney, R. L., Pangavhane, D. R., & Singh, S. P. (1999). Drying behaviour of brined onion slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 40, 219-226. Trelea, I. C., Courtois, F., & Trystram, G. (1997). Dynamic models for drying and wet-milling quality degradation of corn using neural networks. Drying Technology, 15, 1095–1102. 380 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 512 Title A name given to the resource Artificial Intelligence Techniques for Food Drying Technology Author Author Erenturk, Koksal Abstract A summary of the resource. Applications of artificial intelligence techniques, such as artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms and neural-fuzzy systems, in engineering have gained momentum in past decade. Main applications of these techniques in engineering are estimation, optimization and control process. In this paper, some of the applications are studied and both simulation and real-time experimental results are given. Artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are very useful for estimation and optimization process for drying technologies. However, fuzzy logic is also capable of both classification and control of the drying process. Estimation, optimization and control applications of artificial intelligence methods are given in detail for different types of food drying applications. Echinacea angustifolia and carrot are selected as application examples. A fuzzy logic based control approach is employed to control a convective type drier. Estimation and optimization applications of artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms are compared with non-linear regression analysis. In addition, fuzzy control is also compared with a classical control technique to conclude the robustness of the fuzzy control in terms of classical control. According to the results, it is observed that artificial intelligence techniques have several advantages such as: decreasing computation time, increasing stability and accuracy. Moreover these techniques could be applicable for different type processes with simple changes in configuration. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1fc1c13f0c5a79a0de88f151e3f941a2.pdf 35d4c8801a5ba484aeaa1ad867c1fbf5 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Drying Behaviour and Mathematical Modeling of Mistletoe (Viscum Album L.) in UV Combined Convective Drier Saliha Erentürk Ataturk University Erzurum, Turkey serenturk@yahoo.com Bircan Köse Ataturk University Erzurum, Turkey bircank28 @hotmail.com Abstract: The thin layer drying behavior of Viscum album L. (mistletoe) leaves was investigated in UV combined convective drier. Drying air temperatures and velocities were selected as 60-70 and 80OC, and 0.5-1 and 1.5m/s respectively. Drying curves obtained by using experimental data were fitted to the six models reported in the literature. Comparing the determination of coefficient (R), reduced chi- square (χ2) values of six models, it was obtained that the Modified Page model represents the best fitting. Introduction Viscum album L. commonly known as mistletoe is a semi parasitic plant, which normally grows on a variety of trees. The major constituents of Viscum album L. are the lectins, which include viscumin, polypeptides known as viscotoxins and a number of phenolic compounds found in their free state or as glycosides(Al-Achi, 2005) and also typically include lignans, caffeic acid, vitamin C (Ergun&Deliorman,1996) Because ofthe rich chemical content, Viscum album L. has been used forthe treatment of many diseases, both in traditional medicine and in complementary medicine. It was firstly used for the treatment of epilepsy and dermatitis in Europe (Tenorio et al.,2005). A number of biological effects, such as anticancerand, antimycobacterial, antiviral have been reported. Drying can be described as an industrial preservation method in which water content and activity of fruits and vegetables are decreased by heated air to minimize biochemical, chemical and microbiological deterioration (Doymaz and Pala, 2003). Drying provides not only a longer shelf-life to the food but also resultsinlight weighttransportation and comparatively smaller storage space (Sharma et al,2005). Nowadays some new techniques intending to shorten the drying time and improve the final quality of the dried products such as microwave,IR and UV assisted drying have begun to use. UV drying is an especially used in field of printing and packaging industry where fast drying. UV drying is also used in carton including medicine and food labeling, plastic material, the wood finishing industry and metal decorating (http://www.noblelight.net/products/ultraviolet_curing/curing.asp).(http://www.wluv.de/uvtrocknung.html?&L=1). Viscum album L. extracts is used for the treatment of many diseases as mentioned above. In many treatments,in order to increase the extraction yield, materials which will be extracted are first dried and then grinded to be expanded the surface area.In orderto get easierthe grinding process and longer the storage period, drying is selected as preservation methods of Viscum Album L. leaves. Although numerous thin layer drying models have been published in the literature describing the drying behavior of leaves during convective drying such as parsley (Soysal, 2004), spinach (Karaaslan&Tuncer,2008),rosemary leaves (Aslan & Özcan, 2008), mint leaves (Özbek & Dadali, 2007), mate leaves (Zanoelo,2007). There is no information concerning the drying of Viscum album L. and UV assisted dying of foodstuffs. The aim of this study was; to determine the drying characteristics of Viscum album L.leaves in UV assisted convective drier and to obtain the most suitable mathematical model defined the drying. 326 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Material and Methods Sample preparation and drying equipment Viscum Album L. plants collected from peartrees and provided from Giresun, Turkey in March, 2008 were used in drying experiments. Leaves of plants were diminished from handle, washed and dried on a filter paper to eliminate the surface water. Afterthen leaves are placed into plastic bags and stored at +4o C until drying. The initial moisture content of Viscum Album L. sample was 70% (wet basis, wb). The UV combined convective dryer consists of a fan,fan speed controller, air heater, heat power controller,thermometers, and stainless-steel mesh sieve and three UV lamps (Philips) were located onto sieve with the distance of 15cm. Air velocity was measured by an anemometer (LCA 6000, Lufttechnik GmbH, England). The schematic diagram of the dryeris shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Schematic diagram of experimental drier Drying procedure Drying experiments were carried out attemperatures of 60, 70 and 80ºC, velocities of 0.5,1 and 1.5 m/s in horizontal-flow. UV lamps, air heaters and fan adjusted to required flow rate had been operated to obtain the steady state conditions before drying experiments have been started. Samples of about 15 g were used for drying experiments. Dimensions oftray were 21x18 cm. The weighing tray with the sample was placed in the dryer.In all experiments, samples were placed as a thin layer. The samples were weighed at various time intervals, ranging from 5 min at the beginning to 30 min during the last stage of the drying process. A digital electronic balance with accuracy of 0.01 g (Precisa, BJ610C) was used to measure the weight of the samples. The drying process was continued untilthe material achieves its final moisture content at which the moisture content does not decrease significantly. Final moisture content was taken as the equilibrium moisture content. Each test was replicated three times and the average values were used to construct the drying curves. Dryer walls were insulated with polystyrene. Mathematical modeling For mathematical modeling, the six commonly used thin layer drying models shown in Table 1 were tested to selectthe best model for describing the drying behavior of Viscum album L. leaves during UV assisted convective drying process. The regression analysis was performed using Statistica Computer Program. The goodness offitof each model was evaluated using the correlation coefficient(R) and the reduced chi-square (χ2). The higher the values of R and the lower the values of χ2,the better is the goodness of the fit(Akpinar, 2005; Midilli et al. 2002). χ2can be calculated as follows: 327 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Models Newton Page Modified Page Henderson & Pabis Logarithmic Midilli et al. Equations MR=exp(-kt) MR=exp(-ktn) MR = exp[-(kt)n] MR=a exp(-kt) MR=a exp(-kt)+c MR=aexp(-ktn)+bt References Mujumdar(1987) Erentürk et al. (2004) Diamante and Munro (1993) ,Akpınar (2006) Yaldiz and Ertekin (2001) Henderson and Pabis (1961) Yağcıoğlu et al. (1999) Midilli et al. (2002) Table 1 : Thin layer drying curve models Results and Discussion Effects of air temperature The variations of dimensionless moisture ratio with drying time attemperatures of 60, 70 and 80ºC at 0.5 m/s was given in Fig. 2. An increase in airtemperature resulted in a decrease in the drying time. The required drying times to reach equilibrium moisture content from the initial moisture content at 0.5m/s for the selected drying airtemperatures of the Viscum album L. leaves were found to be as 400, 280 and 180 min . As it would be expected, similar drying curves except for slopes were obtained for the 1m/s and 1.5 m/s drying conditions. The times required reaching equilibrium moisture content for 1 m/s were obtained as 360, 200 and 160 min for the selected temperatures. The drying times for air velocity of 1.5 m/s at air temperatures of 60, 70 and 80ºC were obtained as 360, 200, 160 min.It could be concluded that from the Figure 2; drying airtemperature has an important effectforthe drying of Viscum album L.leaves. Figure 2: Drying curves for Viscum album L. at various airtemperatures Effects of air velocity In order to investigate the effect of air velocity on drying of Viscum album L. leaves, air velocity values were selected as 0.5, 1 and 1.5 m/s. Due to the similarity ofthe drying curves,the effects of different drying air velocity were drawn for only 60o C. The effects of drying air velocities at airtemperature of 60o C were shown in Figure 3. As it can be seen from the figure, with an increase in air velocity causes a smallincrease in the drying rate. When the drying air velocity was increased from the 0.5 m/s to 1 m/s drying rate was also increased. However drying rates are almost similar at 1 m/s and 1.5 m/s velocities. 328 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 3: Drying curves for Viscum album L. at various airvelocities M odeling The results of the statistical analysis were in Table 2. Among the considered mathematical drying models,the Modified Page model was found to be more suitable for predicting the drying behavior of Viscum album L., with the values for R above 0.99 and with the lowest value of χ2.In orderto take into account for the effect of the drying variables on the Modified Page model a multiple regression analysis was performed on the drying variables in terms of drying air temperature (T, o C); and air velocity (V, m/s) since they affected the drying coefficients k and n ofthe Modified Page model. The multiple combinations of the different parameters that gave the highest R value were included in the final model. Arrhenius type modeling was one of the best methods to describe the drying rate k and drying parameter n of the Modified Page model,related details and values forthese coefficients were given below: k = 3.185* V0.452 *exp (-349.69/T) n = 1.495*V-0.049 *exp (0.589/T) These models can be used to estimate the moisture content of the Viscum album L. at any time during the U V asisted drying process with an acceptable accuracy. Validation of the selected model was made by comparing the computed moisture contents with measured valuesin all drying runs. The performance analysis of the models at different velocities and temperatures of drying air was illustrated in Figure 4. As can be observed inthisfigure,consistency offittingthe drying dataintothismodelis very good for all ofthe experimental drying air conditions. Thus, this model may be assumed to represent the drying behavior of Viscum album L. for UV assisted drying. 329 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo M odel T (°C) 60 70 Newton 80 60 70 Page 80 60 70 M odified Page 80 60 70 Henderson & Pabis 80 60 70 Logarithmic 80 60 70 Midilliet al. 80 Table2: The results ofthe statistical analysis 330 V (m/s) R χ2 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9933 0.9905 0.9849 0.9917 0.9906 0.9925 0.00793 0.005954 0.009083 0.004039 0.004377 0.003069 0.5 1 1.5 0.9892 0.9898 0.9936 0.004069 0.003179 0.00165 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9989 0.9939 0.9707 0.998 0.9994 0.9985 0.001719 0.002731 0.016193 0.001573 0.00023 0.000438 0.5 1 1.5 0.9922 0.9993 0.9994 0.004608 0.000194 0.000311 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.999 0.998 0.989 0.9991 0.9993 0.9987 0.001518 0.000604 0.005669 0.000265 0.000249 0.000665 0.5 1 1.5 0.9994 0.9996 0.9999 0.000148 0.000105 0.000065 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9914 0.9868 0.9791 0.9895 0.9899 0.9927 0.005771 0.004145 0.007519 0.002967 0.003371 0.002648 0.5 1 1.5 0.9882 0.9892 0.9933 0.00329 0.00271 0.001467 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9936 0.9926 0.9893 0.9923 0.9794 0.992 0.001956 0.003791 0.011565 0.002121 0.018244 0.002336 0.5 1 1.5 0.9893 0.9899 0.9936 0.002835 0.002383 0.001426 0.5 1 1.5 0.5 1 1.5 0.9975 0.9963 0.9755 0.9961 0.5559 0.9987 0.001692 0.002405 0.016067 0.002354 0.156692 0.00043 0.5 1 1.5 0.9897 0.9994 0.9989 0.005692 0.00016 0.000547 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4. Comparison ofthe experimental and predicted moisture ratios for UV-combined convective drying. Conclusion In this study, drying behavior of Viscum album L. in UV combined convective drier was investigated. Drying airtemperature has the most important effect for the drying of the Viscum album L. Drying air velocity has a little effect on drying. Drying rateis different only at 0.5 m/s but at 1 and 1.5 m/s drying rates are similar. Within the six thin-layer drying correlations considered, the Modified Page model provided the best representation ofthe Viscum album L. drying kinetics forthe UV combined convective drier. Acknowledgements This study was supported by the Research Foundation of Ataturk University (project no: 2003/258). The authors want to thank Mr. K. Erentürk for the dryer equipment. References Al-Achi, A. (2005). Mistletoe (Viscum album L.). U.S. Pharmacist, 30, 12-18. Arslan, D., Özcan, M.M. (2008). Evaluation of drying methods with respect to drying kinetics, mineral content and colour characteristics of rosemary leaves, Energy Conversion and Management, 49(5), 1258-1264. Akpinar, E.K. (2006). Mathematical modelling of thin layer drying process under open sun of some aromatic plants. Journal of Food Engineering, 77(4), 864-870. Akpinar, E. K. (2005). Determination of suitable thin layer drying curve model for some vegetables and fruits. Journal of Food Engineering, 73(1), 75–84. Diamante, L.M., Munro, P.A. (1993). Mathematical modeling of thin layer solar drying of sweet potato slices. Solar Energy, 51(4), 271–276. Doymaz,I.,& Pala, M. (2003). The thin-layer drying characteristics of corn. Journal of Food Engineering, 60, 2, 125-130. Erenturk, S., Gulaboglu, M.S., Gultekin, S. (2004). The Thin-layer drying characteristics of rosehip, Biosystems Engineering 89(2), 159–166. 331 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ergun, F., Deliorman, D. (1996). HPLC analysis of ascorbic acid in Viscum album L. samples. J .Fac. Pharm. Gazi, 13(2) 121-126. Henderson, S.M., Pabis, S. (1961). Grain drying theory I: temperature effect on drying coefficient. J Agric Res Eng, 6:169– 74. Karaaslan, S.N., Tunçer, Đ.K. (2008). Development of a drying model for combined microwave–fan-assisted convection drying of spinach. Biosystems Engineering, 100(1), 44-52. Midilli, A., Kucuk, H., Yapar, Z. (2002). A new model for single layer drying. Drying Technology, 20(7), 1503–1513. Mujumdar, A.S. (1987). Handbook of industrial drying. Marcel Dekker, New York. Özbek, B., Dadali, G., (2007). Thin-layer drying characteristics and modelling of mint leaves undergoing microwave treatment. Journal of Food Engineering, 83(4), 541-549. Sharma, G.P., Verma, R.C., & Pathare, P. (2005). Mathematical modeling of infrared radiation thin layer drying of onion slices. Journal of Food Engineering, 71(3), 282–286. Soysal, Y. (2004). Microwave drying characteristics of parsley. Biosystems Engineering, 89(2), 167–173. Tenorio, F.A., del Valle, L., Gonzalez, A., & Pastelin, G., (2005). Vasodilator activity of the aqueous extract of Viscum album. Fitoterapia, 76(2), 204-209. Yağcıoğlu, A. (1999). Tarım ürünleri kurutma tekniği. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayınları, No:536. Đzmir. Yaldız, O., Ertekin, C. (2001). Thin layer solar drying some vegetables. Drying Technology, 19(3-4), 583–596. Zanoelo, E.F., di Celso, G.M., Kaskantzis, G. (2007). Drying Kinetics of Mate Leaves in a Packed Bed Dryer. Biosystems Engineering, 96(4), 487-494. http://www.noblelight.net/products/ultraviolet_curing/curing.asp http://www.wluv.de/uv-trocknung.html?&L=1 332 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 496 Title A name given to the resource Drying Behaviour and Mathematical Modeling of Mistletoe (Viscum Album L.) in UV Combined Convective Drier Author Author Erentürk, Saliha Köse, Bircan Abstract A summary of the resource. The thin layer drying behavior of Viscum album L. (mistletoe) leaves was investigated in UV combined convective drier. Drying air temperatures and velocities were selected as 60-70 and 80OC, and 0.5-1 and 1.5m/s respectively. Drying curves obtained by using experimental data were fitted to the six models reported in the literature. Comparing the determination of coefficient (R), reduced chi- square (χ2) values of six models, it was obtained that the Modified Page model represents the best fitting. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fb8e5d0ee7a6d7f92a0423829b18a61c.pdf c3cd9c4d0304a20688ae8b6905fe5c51 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Measuring the Effect of the Change in Climate Condition on Input Use in Agriculture in Konya, Turkey Onur Erkan Cukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Adana, Turkey oerkan@cu.edu.tr Cennet Oğuz Selcuk University, Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Konya, Turkey coguz@selcuk.edu.tr Arzu Kan Selcuk University, Faculty ofAgriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Konya, Turkey akan@selcuk.edu.tr Ufuk Gültekin Cukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agriculture Economics, Adana, Turkey ugultek@cukurova.edu.tr Abstract: This study was conducted to determine effect of climate change (temperature and rainfall) on the amount of ınput uses such as fertilizer, pesticide, animal manure, family labour, paid labour and machine by selected farmer’s.The minumum usable sample of farm enterprises were determined as 124 based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from six villages in Çumra and Sarayönü districts in Konya. Input applications as farmer preference under the increasing temperature and rainfall were compared with its under the decreasing temperature and rainfall situations. The binary logistic regression was applied to determine the influence of each selected agricultural practise on the probability that the change of temperature and rainfall conditions. The results showed that when the temperature rises, the percantage of farmers who decrease the amount of chemicals (fertilizer and pesticide), the amount of paid labour increase. When the rainfall rises, the percantage of farmers who increase the amount of chemicals and the amount of family labour decrease. The other factors weren’t significantly important at the level of probability or beter as 0.05. Keywords: Climate change, Agriculture, Logit Model Introduction Itseems obviousthat any significant change in climate on a global scale shouldimpactlocal agriculture, and consequently affect the world's food supply. Considerable the study has gone into questions of just how farming might be affected by climate change in different regions, and by how much; and whether the net result may be harmful or beneficial,and to whom. As a result of study several uncertainties contrats occur for current projections. One relates to the degree of temperature increase and its geographic distribution,the other pertains tothe concomitant changes likely to occur in the precipitation patterns that determine the water supply to crops, and to the evaporative demand imposed on crops by the temperaturer climate (Rosenzweig and Hillel, 2005). The economic and social implications of global climate change, due to increases in atmospheric trace gas concentrations, are presently the subject of intense national and international political debate. In order to formulate policies to address this issue, the costs and benefits of the impacts of potential climate change recommended to be identified (Kane et al.1992). The economic effects of climate change on agriculture are particularly important since agriculture is among the more climate sensitive sectors. However,the assesments on economic impact of climate change on 26 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo agriculture are few. Notable exceptions include Adams et al. (1988, 1990) and Arthur (1988). Adams incorporates climate change into a spatial equilibrium modelto determine its effects on U.S. agricultural supply and demand. Arthur uses a linear programming model to calculate the effect of climate change on net revenues in Canadian agricultural sector. Also Arthur used an input/output model to estimate production effects in other sectors ofthe Canadian provincial economy. For Turkey,the study which was conducted was aboutthe effect of climate change on wheat production.It is prepared by Tsuji et al. (2006). The result of made econometric analyses was showed thatthe farmers in Turkey responded to increase their wheat yield to the higherlast year’s real farm gate wheat price. W heat yield in Turkey responded positively changes to the higher cumulative temperature and rainfall. Especially this resultshowed that Turkey wheat yield declines when Apriltemperature become higher than 15 degree centigrade. This reflected heat damage to wheat in Turkey. Hence, the climate change decreases wheat yield. Another study was conducted by Oguz et al.in Konya and Adana provinces in Turkey. The results of the study showed that the farmers in Konya changed crops production pattern relatively concern on rainfall quantity in March-May. At the same time the farmers in Adana changed crop production pattern by taking into consideration climate change such as globaltemperature and rainfall decrease in Adana too. The climate change impact on crop pattern was more significant in Konya than its in Adana since soil fertility is higher, ang irrigation area islargerin Adana. In this study binary logistic regression was used to determine the impact of climate change on the farmers behaviours aboutınputuse. Therefore,the change ofthe farmers behaviour willshow that probability of which climatic condition happen. Materials and Methods Population and Sample Target population for this study was defined as Konya farm operators in the Cumra and Sarayonu districts. From these two locations, six villages were selected based on agricultural potential, geographic location, population intensity, and posibilities of representing socio-economic characteristics of rurallife in the region. From each village a list of farm operators showing their farm sizes was obtained from the District Agricultural Office. List of six selected villages for each district made the accessible population of the study. Yamane’s(2001) stratified sample size determination formula was used toidentifythe sample size. The equation forthis formula is: n = D= ∑ (N S ) D +∑ N S 2 N N e2 t2 2 h h 2 h 2 (1) h (2) W here n = sample size, N = accessible population, Nh = number of farms in a stratum, Sh = standard deviation within a stratum, D2 = desired variance, E = accepted error from the mean t = t value corresponding the accepted confidence interval Accepting 5 percent error from the mean (e) and 95 percentconfidence interval(t = 1.645),the sample size was calculated as 124 (farm operators). This number was randomly selected. Developing a Farm Level Sustainability Indicator In order to compare farmers’ behaviour about input use in the two different climatic conditions-the changing oftemperature and rainfall-and the effects of climate changes on agricultural production systems were examined by the researches. These changes were the numbers of farmer who decreased or levelled-off the 27 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo amount of fertilizers, pesticide, animal manure, family labour, paid labour rather than family labour and machine. Data Collection The 6 farm level practices about input use indicators were properly worthed with two choices. If the amount of each practices decreases,the answer is “decreasing” and “no” otherwise. These were the independent variables ofthe study. Respondents were also asked whether or notthey change of behaviour aboutinput use and this was treated asthe dependent variable ofthe study. Panelof experts established validity forthe data colection instrument.It was also pre-tested and slight changes were made for establishing reliability. Data were collected in March and April 2006. SPSS – Version 10.0 (Statistical Package for the social sciences) was used for data analyses. Analytical Procedures The study used the chi-square contingency test for independence to determine whether significant differences existed between decreasing of temperature and increasing of temperature;increasing of rainfall and decreasing of rainfallin terms of the selected 6 factors which is about that farmers use the inputs in agriculture like the amount of fertilizer, pesticide, animal manure,family labour, paid labour and machine. X2 =∑ ( ni − E i ) Ei (3) W here, ni = are the observed frequencies in the k categories and Ei = representthe expected frequencies (Freund and Wilson,1993) For each factor (temperature and rainfall) 6 Chi-square tests were conducted to determine whether each of the agricultural practices selected was independent of changing climate condition (temperature and rainfall). “Although this test can describe relationships between or among variables, it cannot measure the combined influence of a group of explanatory variables on a specific dependent variable” ( McLean – Meyinse 1997). Therefore, to analyse the influence of each explanatory variable on the dependent variable, which is a dichotomous variable, the binary logistic regression was used as a method (Maddala 1983; Grene 2000). Two different binary logistic regressions were applied for dependent variables such as temperature increase (y=1), or decrease (y=0). The dependent variable which was rainfall was coded ifthe rainfallincrease (y=1), or decrease (y=0). The logit modelis written: Pr ob( y = 1) = e xβ 1& (4) where; Prob (y=1) isthe probability pof 1, E isthe base of naturallogarithm, F(xβ) isthe standartlogistic distribution function, and X isthe explanatory variable vector, which include the selected agriculture practises These were also collected as dichotomous variables with 1= the farmers decrease inthe amount ofinput, and 0= otherwise. Six explanatory variables as showen below were used in this study (Table 1). 28 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Explanatory variables Using chemical fertilizers (DU M CF) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using chemical pesticides (DU M CP) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using animal mannure (DUM A P) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using family labour(DU M F L) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using paid labour (DU MPL) Decreasing (1) Leveling-off (0) Using farm machinery (DUM F M) Decreasing (1)Leveling-off (0) Table 1. Having used explanatory variables in the equations Factors Decreasing of temparature N Increasing of temparature N Increasing of rainfall N Decreasing of rainfall N Using Chemical Fertilizer Levelling-off (0) 37 13 1 44 Decreasing (1) 21 39 11 17 Increasing (2) 4 10 50 1 Using chemical pesticides Levelling-off (0) 30 13 1 35 Decreasing (1) 32 47 24 27 Increasing (2) 0 2 37 0 Using animal mannure Levelling-off (0) 26 17 5 28 Decreasing (1) 35 44 45 34 Increasing (2) 1 1 12 0 Using family labour Levelling-off (0) 8 19 2 9 Decreasing (1) 31 38 24 40 Increasing (2) 23 5 36 13 Using paid labour Levelling-off (0) 8 20 0 7 Decreasing (1) 33 41 30 43 Increasing (2) 21 1 32 12 Using farm machinery Levelling-off (0) 6 20 1 4 Decreasing (1) 29 37 23 31 Increasing (2) 27 5 38 27 Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of explanatory variables by the different climatic conditions (the number of farmers) 29 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The odds ratios forthe explanatory variables were calculated considering the fallowing formula; odds = P 1− P (5) Itindicates for a single explanatory variable that when holding all other variable constants,farmers who decrease the amount ofinput use is more orlesslikely to farmers who levell offthe amount ofinputuse regarding to the sign oftheir coefficient. Results and discussion Results ofthe study are presented by the objectives. One ofthe study objective was to determine the descriptive statistics by the different climatic conditions.Itwas showed in Table 2. The second objective ofthe study was to determine ifthe using of each selected factors differs between behaving farmers in the increasing and decreasing temperature situations. Chi-square test of independence procedure was used to accomplish this objective and the results were showed in Table 3. From the table, 5 of totalfactors were found significant atthe level of 0,01 probability or better. One factor wasn’tfound significant atthe level of 0,05 probability. W hilethirty-four percent ofthe farmers decrease in amount of using chemicalfertilizersin the situation oftheincreasing oftemperature,about sixty percent offarmerslevel-offtheiramount of using chemicalfertilizer in the situation of the increasing of temperature. These findings show that in the situation of the increasing of temperature,farmers have moretendency oflevelling-offin amount of using chemical fertilizers. About seventy-six percent ofthe farmers decrease in amount of using chemical pesticides in the situation of the decreasing of temperature, and about fourty-eight percent of farmers level-off their amount of using chemical fertilizer in the situation of the increasing of temperature. These findings show that in the situation of the decreasing oftemperature,farmers have more tendency of decreasing in using of chemical pesticides. W hen the relationship between temperature and using of animal manure examine, it wasn’t significant inthelevel of 0,05 probability. Whilethe percentage offarmers who decreasein amount of using animal manure inthe decreasing temperature situation is 70,97 %, the remended (20,97%) wasn’t change their behaviour. The relationship between the temperature and using of family labour was found as significantly in the level of 0,01 probability by using Chi-square anlyses. However, when the temperature increases, the farmers have more tendency of decreasing in using of family labour. The relationship between the temperature and paid labour was found as significantly at the level of 0,01 probability with Chi-square analyses. So that when the temperature increases,the farmers have more tendency of decreasing in using of paid labour. The last significant factor was the using of machine. The result of Chi-square analyses was found as significant atthelevel of 0,01 probability. The percentage offarmers who decreasein using of machine when the temperature rises was 46,77%. It can be said that the percentage of decreasing in machine use was more significantthan the other situations,the temperature rises. Factors Using Chemical Fertilizer Levelling-off (0) Decreasing (1) Increasing (2) Using chemical pesticides Levelling-off (0) Decreasing (1) Increasing (2) Using animal mannure Levelling-off (0) Decreasing (1) Increasing (2) Using family labour Levelling-off (0) 30 Increasing of tempearture Decreasing of temperature 2 χ N % N % P 37 21 4 59,68 33,87 6,45 13 39 10 20,97 62,90 16,13 19,491 0,000 30 32 0 48,39 51,61 0,00 13 47 2 20,97 75,81 3,23 11,569 0,003 26 35 1 41,94 56,45 1,61 17 44 1 27,42 70,97 1,61 2,909 0,234 8 12,90 19 30,65 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Decreasing (1) 31 50,00 38 61,29 Increasing (2) 23 37,10 5 8,06 16,763 0,000 Using paid labour Levelling-off (0) 8 12,90 20 32,26 Decreasing (1) 33 53,23 41 66,13 Increasing (2) 21 33,87 1 1,61 24,190 0,000 Using farm machinery Levelling-off (0) 6 9,68 20 32,26 Decreasing (1) 29 46,77 37 59,68 Increasing (2) 27 43,55 5 8,06 23,633 0,000 Table 3. Differences between the number of farmers decreasing the amount ofinput use and levelling offinthe two differentrainfall condition W hen we examine the relationship rainfalland the input use,it was found thatthe relationship among 5 factors with rainfall were significant at the level of 99% confidence interval. Only the factor of machine use wasn’t significant atthe level of 95% confidence interval.But it was significant atthe level of 0.10 probability level (Table 4). When both temperature increase and rainfall decrease,the amount of using fertilizer decreases. Also planting time of wheat extended from first week of Septembertolast week of Octoberthrough first week of November in the rainfall area. Harwested time changed from middle of July to first week of August in last decade. When the amount of rainfall decreases,the percantage of farmers who use animal manure,familylabour paid labour and farm machinery have more tendency to decrease in amount of them. But when the amount of rainfall increase, it most of the farmers tend to increase the amount of using chemical fertilizer and chemical pesticide. Factors Increasing of rainfall Decreasing of rainfall N % N % χ2 P Using Chemical Fertilizer Levelling-off (0) 1 1,61 44 70,97 Decreasing (1) 11 17,74 17 27,42 Increasing (2) 50 80,65 1 1,61 89,453 0,000 Using chemical pesticides Levelling-off (0) 1 1,61 35 56,45 Decreasing (1) 24 38,71 27 43,55 Increasing (2) 37 59,68 0 0,00 69,288 0,000 Using animal mannure Levelling-off (0) 5 8,06 28 45,16 Decreasing (1) 45 72,58 34 54,84 Increasing (2) 12 19,35 0 0,00 29,562 0,000 Using family labour Levelling-off (0) 2 3,23 9 14,52 Decreasing (1) 24 38,71 40 64,52 Increasing (2) 36 58,06 13 20,97 19,250 0,000 Using paid labour Levelling-off (0) 0 0,00 7 11,29 Decreasing (1) 30 48,39 43 69,35 Increasing (2) 32 51,61 12 19,35 18,406 0,000 Using farm machinery Levelling-off (0) 1 1,61 4 6,45 Decreasing (1) 23 37,10 31 50,00 Increasing (2) 38 61,29 27 43,55 4,847 0,089 Table 4. Differences between the number of farmers decreasing the amount ofinput use and levelling offinthe two differentrainfall condition Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the probability of respondentsthe farmers’ behaviour with the temperature and rain change. Because of that the effect of the temperature and the rain change on the behaviour of farmer aboutinput use examined in two different equations. First of all when we look at the effect of the temperature change on farmer behaviour,the full model was significant, X2 =48,295, p<0,01. The model had a -2Log Likelihood statistic of 123,605, a Cox and Snell R Square of 0,32, and Nagelkere R Square of 0,43. It was able to correctly classify 93,5% of temperature 31 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo decrease and 58,1% of temperature increase,for an overallsuccess rate of 75,8%. The logistic binomial model estimation for whether or not change of temperature was presented in Table 5, which includes the explanatory variables, coefficients, standart error, the Wald X2, p values and odd ratios. Of 6 explanatory variables 3 had significant effects atthe level of 0.05 probability. These are the using of chemical fertilizers, chemical pesticide and paid labour. All of the significant variables had the expected signs. The odds ratios for the significant variables can be interpreted asthe fallowing. Holding all other variables constant,the percantage of farmers who decreasing in the amount of using chemicalfertilizer was 10,01 times more likelythan the percantage of farmers who levelling offthe amount of using chemicalfertilizerin the situation ofincreasing temperature. Farmers who decreasing in the amount of using chemical pesticide was 20,84 times, farmers who increasing of using paid labour are 0,05 times less likely to the percantage of farmers who levelling off using them in the situation of increasing temperature. Factors Coefficient Standart Error W ald χ2 P Value Odds-ratio D U M CF 2,304*** 0,762 9,131 0,003 10,0142 D U M CP 3,037** 1,529 3,947 0,047 20,8426 DU M A M -1,678 1,339 1,571 0,210 0,1867 D U M FL -0,318 1,161 0,075 0,784 0,7276 D U M PL -3,043* 1,283 5,622 0,018 0,0477 DU MF M -0,399 1,179 0,114 0,735 0,671 Constant -0,480 0,268 3,219 0,073 0,6188 Table 5. Logistic binomial model estimation forincreasing temperature and decreasing temperature *** 0,01, **0,05, *0,10 First of all, when we look at the effect of the rainfall change on farmer behaviour,the full model was significant, X2 =106,98, p<0,01. The model had a -2Log Likelihood statistic of 64,92, a Cox and Snell R Square of 0,58, and Nagelkere R Square of 0,77. It was able to classify correctly 77,40% of temperature decrease and 96,80% of temperature increase,for an overallsuccess rate of 87,108%. The logistic binomial model estimation for whether or not change of rainfall is presented in Table 4, which includes the explanatory variables, coefficients,standart error,the Wald X2, p values and odd ratios. W hen we look atthe model about rainfall, we use same 6 factors again in this model.In this model the amount of using chemical fertilizers,family labour and chemical pesticide were found thatthey were significant at 99% and 95% significantlevel,respectively. So that,the decreasing ofthe number offarmer who decreasethe amount of chemical fertilizer (dummy=1) closes p probability value to the number of zero “0” that means of decreasing ofthe rainfall because the coefficient of chemicalfertilizeris negatif value. So that diminishing ofthe number of farmer who decrease in using of chemical fertilizer means that the amount of rainfalllessen. This situation was valid for chemical pesticide.However,the effect of using offamilylabour was differentfrom the others, because its coefficient has positive value. So that decreasing of the farmers who diminish the amount of family labour means that the amount of rainfallincreases. If the dummy is equal to 1 (decreasing of family labour) closes p probability value to number of one “1”. It means that the amount of rainfallincreases. The odds ratios for the significant variables can be interpreted as the fallowing. Holding all other variables constant, the percantage of farmers who decreasing of proper use chemical fertilizer are 0,02 times less and farmers who decreasing of proper use chemical pesticide are 0,05 times likely to the percantage of farmers who levelling offthe amount of using chemicalfertilizer and pesticide respectivelyinthe situation of decreasing rainfall.Farmers who increasing of proper use family labour are 62,16 times more likely to the percantage of farmers who levelling off using them in the situation of decreasing rainfall. Factors Coefficient Standart Error W ald χ2 P Value Odds-ratio D U M CF -3,662*** 1,187 9,52 0,002 0,026 D U M CP -2,971** 1,399 4,511 0,034 0,051 DU M A M -2,477 1,852 1,79 0,181 0,084 D U M FL 4,13*** 1,601 6,65 0,010 62,159 D U M PL -12,154 74,579 0,027 0,871 0,000 DU MF M 7,512 58,583 0,016 0,898 1829,595 Constant 0,629 0,338 3,467 0,063 Table 6. Logistic binomial model estimation forincreasing rainfall and decreasing rainfall *** 0,01, **0,05, *0,10 32 1,875 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusions As a result of the study, most of the farmers in Adana and Konya stated thatthe production technique (cultivation method, amount and variety of seed, amount and kind of fertilizer and pesticities, method and number ofirrigation) had not changed due to climate change inthelast 20 years. Farmers are not very sure about cropping pattern if temperature rises and precipitation decreases. The impact of the climate change on farmers behaviours was found significant decreasing amount of chemicals(fertilizier and pesticide) and increasing the amount of paid labour when the temperature rised. References Adams, R., McCar, B., Dudek, D., and Glyer,J. (1988). Implications of Global Climate Change for Western Agriculture, Western J.Agric.Econ. 12(2), 348-356. Adams, R., Rosenzweig, C., Peart, R., Ritchie,J., McCar.,R., Glyer,J.,Curry, R.,Jones, J.,Boote, K., and Allen, Jr., L.(1990). Global Climate Change and U.S. Agriculture,Nature 345(17), 219-223. Arthur, L.(1988). The Greenhouse Effect and the Canadian Prairies,in Johnston,G., Freshwater, D.,and Favero, P.,(eds.), Natural Resource and Environmental Policy Issues, Westview Press,Inc., Boulder. Freund, R.J.,and Wilson W.J. (1993). Statistical Methods.Academic Pres, San Diego, CA. Grene W.H. (2000). Econometric Analysis 4th edition. Prentice Hall. Kane, S., Reilly,J.,and Tobey, J.(1992). An Empirical Study Of The Economic Effects Of Climate Change On W orld Agriculture. Climatic Change 21: 17-35. (http://www.ciesin.org/docs/004-154/004-154.html). McLean- Meyinse P.E. (1997). Factors influencing early adaption of new food products in louisiana and texas. Journal of food distrubution research Volume 28. Maddala G.S. (1983). Limited-Dependent and Qualitative Variables in Econometrics. 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Acknowledgements This study’s data was gathered from the Project “ An Economic and Institutional Analysis of the Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Farm Economy in Eastern Mediterranean and Central Anatolia Regions in Turkey” which was supported by “Research Institute for Humanity and Nature” (RHIN), and “The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey”(Tübitak). 33 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 464 Title A name given to the resource Measuring the Effect of the Change in Climate Condition on Input Use in Agriculture in Konya, Turkey Author Author Erkan, Onur Oğuz, Cennet Kan, Arzu Gültekin, Ufuk Abstract A summary of the resource. This study was conducted to determine effect of climate change (temperature and rainfall) on the amount of ınput uses such as fertilizer, pesticide, animal manure, family labour, paid labour and machine by selected farmer’s.The minumum usable sample of farm enterprises were determined as 124 based on stratified sampling technique. The data were collected from six villages in Çumra and Sarayönü districts in Konya. Input applications as farmer preference under the increasing temperature and rainfall were compared with its under the decreasing temperature and rainfall situations. The binary logistic regression was applied to determine the influence of each selected agricultural practise on the probability that the change of temperature and rainfall conditions. The results showed that when the temperature rises, the percantage of farmers who decrease the amount of chemicals (fertilizer and pesticide), the amount of paid labour increase. When the rainfall rises, the percantage of farmers who increase the amount of chemicals and the amount of family labour decrease. The other factors weren’t significantly important at the level of probability or beter as 0.05. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)