315 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92c2050e5fe097c8cf0f360022d9379b.pdf dad43125d4fbe76ca10aa6c647640414 PDF Text Text Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System Gabriela DIRLOMAN „Nicolae Kretzulescu” Commercial High School Bucharest, Romania gabriela.dirloman@gmail.com Sorina PIRVU „Ion Mares” Secondary School Vulcana, Romania sosoliciul@yahoo.com Manuela GHEORGHE Vulcana School, Romania manu28g@yahoo.com Abstract: The paper tries to underline the evolution of the Romanian and Japanese educational systems which, irrespective time and space, have to evolute so that the new generations may adapt to the global changes. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors, in the end, to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Education itself must become global and has to emphasize the respect for environment, to promote mutual understanding between people, values and traditions based on truth. Introduction In a century of technology and information, all the societies of the world face rapid changes which make them become more conscious of their future. To adapt to such complex changes, human beings realize that they have to be prepared and well informed. The key to this evolution is education, which has to change itself the scale of viewing, from local to global scale. Nowadays, Education for Sustainable Development seems to be the right answer to create a global community. What becomes clearly in many countries, irrespective their social-economical development is that it is necessary to change something in the educational systems, and to act more responsible in reducing the problems humankind faces, such as: environmental degradation, urbanization or discrimination among gender and nations. At global level, different countries cooperate in the field of education, developing and disseminating formal and non-formal education, which nurture the development of youths in the fields of international exchange and mutual understanding, environmental preservation with a special emphasis on cultural properties. That is why the present study “Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System” tries to underline the main aims of two educational systems which seem to be totally different, but which in fact promote similar values and morals. The answer to differences and similarities of Japanese education and the Romanian education, shows that each system is unique, and both countries are looking for the best alternatives to face the tendencies of the present times. The objective of education should be “learning how to think” and “learning the process of understanding the changes and constantly building the solutions to the new and several problems that it outlines the society”. For that reason, people must be more capable to confront a changing world and to look for new solutions for their problems instead of making it thinking of the solutions of the past. 202 �Concepts and Principles of the Romanian Educational System and of the Japanese Educational System After the fall of the totalitarian regime in Romania, reform of education began and aimed initially at eliminating courses that had become obsolete in view of the new option and during a second more extensive phase, building a coherent legal frame that could ensure a more effective higher education. The Constitution of Romania, adopted in 1991 is the foundation of the entire legislation in the field. It is currently under debate by Parliament in order to make it better adapted to the new evolutions at national, European and world level. The Romanian education aims to develop human personality through: assimilation of scientific knowledge and of national and world culture; training of intellectual skills, of the emotional availabilities and practical abilities by assimilation of human, scientific and esthetical knowledge; assimilation of techniques for intellectual work which are necessary for self-training during all life; education in the spirit of respecting human rights, tolerance and dignity; development of sensitivity for human problems, for moral and civic values and for respecting nature and environment; harmonious development of individuals by sports and by health education; training the new generation to act properly in society. According to the Constitution of Romania, all the citizens of Romania have equal rights to attend school at all levels irrespective social and material state, irrespective sex, race, nationality, political or religious beliefs. The concepts and principles of education in Japan are formulated in the Fundamental Law of Education enacted in 1947. In the preamble of this Law, the desire of the Japanese people is expressed as follows: having established the constitution of Japan, we have shown our resolution to contribute to the peace of the world and welfare of humanity by building a democratic and cultural state. The realization of this ideal shall depend fundamentally on the power of education: we shall esteem individual dignity and endeavour to bring up the people to love truth and peace, while education which aims at the creation of culture rich in the individuality shall be spread far and wide. The ideal toward which education in Japan strives is to mould a person who aspires to truth and peace. This has been created from the experience of the Japanese people in World War II. The significance of the phrase “No more Hiroshima!” is deeply rooted in the hearts and minds of the people. In present - day Japan, 50 years after the end of World War II, the outer conditions of life have greatly changed as a result of the rapid progress of industrialization, whereas the inner spirit of the people has hardly changed. In order to achieve the above educational aim, the Fundamental Law of Education provides for equality of opportunity of education, free compulsory education, coeducation etc. Every Japanese is equally entitled to receive education in accordance with his ability whatever his race, creed, sex, social status, economic standing or family origin. For those who have ability but find difficulty in continuing education for financial reasons, the state and local public corporations are obliged to find a method to allow them to continuing schooling. Compulsory education is for 9 years according to the Constitution and is offered free of charge at schools run by the state and local public entities. Coeducation is one of the principles that have been observed almost completely in postwar Japanese education. Some people are still opposed to the coeducational system, but a majority of people are convinced of its benefits. Among other principles, secularism in education should also be mentioned. School System During the 24-th year reign of Nicolae Ceausescu, Romania’s educational system remained under strict state control. Curricula strongly emphasized Marxist-Leninist ideology, and universities, in particular, came under the direct influence of Ceausescu and his wife, Elena. As a result of the government’s isolationist policies, higher education was virtually cut off from the rest of the world. Since the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime in 1989 and the country’s transition to a market-based economy, many educational reforms have been implemented. Under communist rule, all Romanians were required to attend primary school. But starting 1989, mandatory primary school was abolished, and as a result, illiteracy has increased throughout the country, especially in rural areas. The country’s successive post-communist governments have attempted to reverse this trend by offering educational programs to young people who abandoned compulsory schooling. These programs have been targeted especially towards children living in rural areas, urban slums and geographically remote communities in addition to ethnic minorities. So far, progress has been slow. In 2000, the educational system underwent additional changes and got an open character. 203 �According to the Law 151/1999, compulsory education lasts 9 years instead 8; the first generation concluding 9 years began lower secondary education (the 5-th grade) in 1998/1999. The leaving examination of lower secondary education, for this generation was held in the summer of 2004. The Romanian school system (Table 1) is similar to the Japanese one (Table 2), except the duration for each level of education. The statistical values of the year 2003 show that the number of kindergartens and schools achieved 23,519, while in 2005 was of 21, 419. Comparing to the previous years – at national level in 2005, there may be noticed a decrease of number of kindergartens (Table 3). AGE SCHOOL EDUCATION Graduation school - 18-22 University Higher education 18-21 Junior College Higher education 17-19 High school Secondary high education 15-17 School of arts and Secondary low education 23-24 or 23-28 or over 28 vocational school 11-15 Middle school Secondary low education 7-11 Elementary school 3-6 Kindergarten Elementary education - Table 1: The School System in Romania AGE SCHOOL EDUCATION 23-24 or 23-28 Graduation school - 18-22 University Higher education 18-20 Junior college Higher education 12-14 Special school Secondary education 15-17 High school Secondary education 12-14 Middle school Elementary education 6-11 Elementary school Elementary education 3-5 Kindergarten - Table 2: The School System in Japan The reduction of kindergartens is caused by the administrative fusion and by the attachment of kindergartens to schools – the most affected being the kindergartens in rural area, where the decrease was with 375 204 �kindergartens. In 2003, a compensation to this situation was given by opening new 32 kindergartens. The geographical distribution of kindergartens is favourable to rural areas, where there are 6,734 independent kindergartens comparing to 2,813 kindergartens in urban areas. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2003 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2005 STUDENTS 2003 STUDENTS 2005 9,547 14,396 629,703 644,911 12,456 7,023 2,171,147 Secondary Low School 1,388 1413 740,404 Secondary High School 207 6370 41,313 Vocational Colleges 89 77 61,855 289,494 Universities 133 136 600,122 600,350 Kindergartens 1,996,604 Primary School 773,843 35,510 Table 3: Educational institutions in Romania (Source: Ministry of Education and Innovation, Bucharest, 2008) The same phenomena can be noticed at the level of schools in 2003. One explanation may be the decrease of birth rate all over Romania (10,5 births/1000 population starting 2003) - the same phenomena can be noticed in Japan too (Table 4). In Romania, the highest number of elementary and secondary schools are national, same as in Japan where the highest number is hold by public and then private schools. In 2003, the number of private schools in Romania has increased to 20. In the case of high schools, there were 1,388,000 independent high schools. The distribution of high schools is asymmetrical, the highest number being registered in urban areas, 85% of the total number. Similar to elementary and secondary schools, the highest number of high schools are national, the rest being private. The number of students enrolled at high schools was of 41,313 in 2003, while in 2005 became 35,510. The distribution of students in high schools is high in urban areas – 93,4%. Even if the number of high school students has increased, there can be noticed that 48,6% enrolled in theoretical high schools, 44,7% enrolled in technological high schools and only 7,3% enrolled in vocational high schools. Thus, the orientation to a career is in balance with the theoretical one. Taking into account the form of education, 89% students have attended day-courses, while 7,5% students attended evening-courses and 3,5% students attended part-time courses. In Romania, higher education includes university colleges (for 3 years) and universities (which can last from 3 years – the case of Socio-Humanistic, Economic, Artistic and Sportive Universities till 6 years – the case of University of Medicine and Architecture). Recent changes that have occurred in the Romanian and European higher education system is grounded on the options of continental countries, expressed in the Bologna Declaration, to achieve a unique space in this field by the year 2010. The creation of a pro-Bologna attitude at the level of education institutions, through debates, workshops, the inclusion of universities is an experimental network, that began with the MATRA Programme, financed by the Dutch Government. Changes that have occurred globally in the educational system have been strongly influenced by the increasing number of public and private higher education institutions. In 2003, there were 133 civil universities and 8 military institutions in the higher education institutions network in Romania, compared to 30 higher institutions existing in 1989. Out of the 133 civil higher education institutions, 49 (not counting the military ones) belong to public higher education, while the other 84 are private. As shown in Table 4, the basic pattern of the school system in Japan is that of a unitary system. This was established after 1947 by reforming the previous dual system. As an addition to the institutions of the unitary system, higher technical schools were created in 1962 with the aim of training middle - grade engineering specialists, but the number of schools of this type is still rather small. These technical schools specialize both in vocational and liberal 205 �arts fields. The educational system in Japan consists of 6 - years for elementary school, 3 years for junior high school, 3 years for high school and 4 or 6 years for universities. EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2003 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 2005 STUDENTS 2003 STUDENTS 2005 Kindergartens 14,174 13,949 1,760,494 1,738,766 Primary Schools 23,633 23,123 7,2226,910 7,197,458 Secondary Schools 11,134 11,035 3,748,319 3,626,415 High Schools 5,450 5,418 3,809,827 3,605,242 Special Schools (For Pupils With Disabilities) 995 825 96,473 91,164 Vocational Colleges 63 63 57,875 59,160 Universities 702 726 2,803,980 2,865,051 Table 4: Educational institutions in Japan (Source: MEXT, Tokyo, 2008) Even if the kindergartens are fairly expensive, many children go to them for 1, 2 or sometimes 3 years before primary school. All children start primary school at 6 years old and junior high school at the age of 12. Primary school lasts for 6 years and the junior high school for 3 years. Primary schools and junior high schools as well are compulsory and most of the students complete junior high schools. More than 95% of junior high school students go on to senior high schools for 3 years at the age of 15, although senior high schools are not free. The first 9 years of schooling are compulsory for children from age of 6 to 15. The 3 years of upper secondary education are non-compulsory. In order to improve the education, 36,4% of students from 1-st grade to 9-th grade go to extra schools called Juku, while 59,5% of junior high school students from 7-th grade to 9-th grade go to Juku. In case of students who failed the entrance examination to universities, about 10% of university candidates spend 1 more year for preparation. Junior colleges generally operate on the basis of 2-year courses. There are some junior colleges offering 3year courses, but the number is small. One of the characteristics of junior colleges in Japan is that a large number of them are for women. In 2003, the number of female which attended these colleges was of 220,090 persons. In case of universities (which last for 4 years) and technical schools, more then half of the senior high school graduates go to these, when they are 18 years old. Comparing to 2003, at national level, in 2005, one may notice a decrease of number of kindergartens, elementary, secondary and high schools and of students as well (Table 4). One explanation may be the decrease of birth rate all over Japan (9,61 births/1000 population starting 2003). Because of the rapid population growth after World War II, the number of students in a typical elementary or junior high school class once exceeded 50. But starting 1980’s and with fewer classes per grade and unfilled classrooms, the number of students decreased. For example, in some villages there are school classes with only 20 or 25 students. In the case of universities, there is an opposite situation, in 2005 it may be noticed a slow increase of numbers (24) and of students (6171 more students than 2003) (Table 4). This could be explained as a more careful attention is paid to study sciences and technology, especially in national universities comparing to private universities which are concentrated on the teaching of humanities and social science. The first 9 years of schooling are compulsory for children from age of 6 to 15. The 3 years of upper secondary education are non-compulsory. 206 �The School Year The duration of school year in Romania may differ from year to year, but usually it lasts for 36 weeks (178 school days). The school year is divided in two semesters, the longest one being the first one. For all elementary, secondary and high schools, school starts on September 15-th and lasts till December, when there is the winter holiday for 2 weeks (when is celebrated Christmas). The second semester starts in January and lasts till June (with a spring holiday of 2 weeks when is celebrated Easter). The structure of school year can be modified for the schools which are affected by difficult weather conditions, especially in winter (heavy snow, strong wind etc.). One the main changes in the Japanese school year was the reduction of school days from 240 days to 200 days. This is the result of cutting with 30% of the educational contents in the national curriculum. The gradual transition from a 6-day school week to a 5-day school week was completed in 2002. For most elementary, junior high and high schools, the school year in Japan begins on April 1-st and is divided in 3 terms: April to July, September to December and January to March. Some schools follow a two-term schedule. The Japanese elementary and secondary school year is reported as being 240 days long, including Saturdays. Monbusho requires a minimum of 210 days of instruction, including a half day on Saturday. No formal instruction is given on Saturday afternoon. The School Time Table The school time table in Romania is different from school to school according to the number of pupils and the space. There are schools which work in 1 shift, but there are schools which work in 3 shifts, depending on the number of school classrooms. Usually, school starts at 8 a.m. and 1 class lasts for 50 minutes, comparing to the Japanese system where a class lasts for 40 minutes. There is a longer break for pupils in order to have a sandwich, but comparing to Japan there are a few schools which have an eating hall (usually, just the private schools). As it shown in Table 5, in Japan, school begins at 8.30 am and last till 3 p.m. for 1-st graders, while 2-nd graders go back home at 1 pm or 2 p.m. Educational Reform In the context of global changes, educational reforms constitute a demand for mankind in order to live in harmony and develop solid societies based on moral principles and values. Training children to become part of their society is an integral part of the formation of society itself. TIME 8.25-8.35 8.35-8.45 8.45-9.35 9.45-10.35 10.45-11.35 11.45-12.35 12.35-13.20 13.20-14.10 14.20-15.10 15.15-15.25 15.30-15.40 15.40-17.00 MONDAY-FRIDAY Teacher’s morning assembly Home room The first period The second period The third period The fourth period Cleaning time The fifth period The sixth period Cleaning time Home room Extracurricular activities Table 5: School Time Table in Japan The debate about education for peace, stability and democracy has increased tremendously since the collapse of the communism system in Romania. The world of two opposing sides was replaced by a world facing the problems of transition, a concept which encompasses an entire spectrum of social, economic, cultural and political 207 �aspects. To establish priorities is in itself a great problem. But considering transition as a long-term change which deals fundamentally with people, education has to be a significant field of action for local, European and international factors. The elements taken into account are the following: 1) the most complete term which can be used is “education for democratic citizenship”. It implies the learning of citizen rights and obligations, the respect for human rights, the fostering of a democratic culture; 2) it is a global approach and, therefore, has to be present in school curricula and in permanent education; 3) education for democratic citizenship; 4) civic education. During the communism regime, formal education had, apart from the ideological framework of all subjects, at least three clear-cut instances of ideological education: the subject matters called “Constitution” (7-th grade) and “Social-political Education” (10-th grade) and the classes for “political education”) one hour fortnightly, lectures and debates over articles in party publications, grades 5-th to 12-th). It is important to focus on another aspect. During the communist regime, voluntary work was seen as a paramount feature. It showed not only the solidarity of the society as a whole, but also the approval of the party’s politics. As far as the civil society is concerned, it was practically non-existent. The lack of straightforward and open communication between individuals and groups, was almost total. In 1997, a comprehensive reform was drawn up and called for the following: modify teaching methodology; academic programs and textbooks; make the national curriculum more compatible with the rest of Europe; shift from rote learning to “problem solving”; establish links between secondary and postsecondary schools and their economic, administrative and cultural environment; undertake infrastructural improvements, particularly with regard to the World Wide Web and other forms of electronic communication within the classroom; decentralize secondary and postsecondary schools and grant autonomy to various institutions of higher education; enhance cooperation at the international level. In Agenda 2000, elaborated by European Union and based on the analysis of years 1996 and 1997, it was stipulated: “The big difficulty in the way to reform is the low level of funds allocated by Romanian Govern in order to maintain and improve the educational infrastructure, to buy new equipments and pay in an attractive way the teachers. Other major risks which may affect the success of reform are the low capacity of Ministry of Education and Innovation to implement reforms and the resistance to change which has been noticed at national and local level”. In 2000, it could be noticed that strong efforts to end the transition reform in the Romanian educational system were made. It became a necessity to change mentality - from that organized on passive waiting, generated by state to the mentality which encourages initiative, elaboration of projects and competition on the qualification market and on that of technical and scientific innovations. Thus, the situation of schools, high schools and universities is very diverse and depends more on school management. There are also schools or high schools which still depend on the “state mentalities” and with no programs and interest in innovation. It has also been underlined that the agents of educational reform are the teachers, the students, the specialists in the administrative sector, the researchers – in fact everybody involved in the educational process. Following the end of World War II, education in Japan realized the concept of equal opportunity and elevated national educational standards to become the driving force for the development of economic society. However, turning toward the current state of education in Japan reveals various problems significantly unbalancing the confidence of the public and society in education. Firstly, against the backdrop of the advance in declining birthrates and urbanization, and the notable fall in educational functions in the home and society, Japan faces serious education issues, including bullying, nonattendance at school or violence in school. Secondly, through the standardization of education resulting from excessive equality to the cramming of immoderate levels of knowledge, education oriented toward the individuality and competence of the children has been given to neglect. Thirdly, traditional educational systems are being marginalized by the progress of the era and society amid society’s transformation on a grand scale, evidenced by the rapid progress of science and technology, socioeconomic globalization and computerization. The main aims of the Japanese educational reform are: to implement a class system based on 20 pupils/class in order to improve the efficiency of education; to encourage the youth to become open minded and generous by taking part to different services and activities of the community; to improve the environment for learning, an environment with no worries and fearless; to build reliable schools for parents and local community; to establish a new educational psychology adapted to the new century. Globalization of Education 208 �A closer international relationship existing nowadays among nations has been a main debate at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. At this conference, Sustainable Development was recognized as a common goal for humanity. Thus, the period 2009-2014 has been declared “The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development”. None of the issues over Sustainable Development can be solved separately and it requires an interdisciplinary and integrated approach. In this sense, education can function as a catalyst to unite the various components which constitute Sustainable Development. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors in the end to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Therefore, Education for Sustainable Development should include not only the teaching of a notion and a concrete image of what Sustainable Development is, but also the provision of norms of behaviour in favour of Sustainable Development. Education for Sustainable Development urges people to transform their minds in terms of their knowledge, skills, values, behaviour and life styles in compliance with Sustainable Development. The role of teachers at all stages of education, based on this new idea, becomes critical as well. The content of Education for Sustainable Development differs between Japan - a developed country and Romania - a developing country. It is desirable for Romania to envision a sustainable future on its own and set a plan of action towards achieving the goal. As Education for Sustainable Development also aims to transform a social system, people in Romania need to take into account issues such as to build a local community, how to promote respect for traditional cultures and how to alleviate problems caused by population growth in addition to the activities of the Education for All. Therefore, it is necessary to be creative in developing curricula, contents of educational materials and methods of education. Although the financial and human resources of developed countries - such as Japan – are crucial to developing various educational programmes and building educational infrastructure in developing countries such as Romania, the one way flow of knowledge, data and technology which is currently moving into developing countries has to be reconsidered. To reduce the knowledge and information gap, it is also necessary to enhance the capacity of educators, researchers and related organizations in Romania as well as to promote cooperation with developed countries like Japan by building a network in order to cooperate, to create meaningful ideas and knowledge. Education in Japan is an important agenda for Sustainable Development as well. As a developed country, Japan needs to reconsider its own patterns of production and consumption from the perspective of sustainability. Furthermore, Japan needs to raise awareness in the areas of creating new social norms, reducing and preventing environmental degradation. By promoting Education for Sustainable Development, it is needed to improve the situation of “poverty of the rich” found in the other developed countries as well, where bonds and solidarity are becoming scarce. Environmental Education – A Goal of Education for Sustainable Development Environmental Education in Romania, as a part of Education for Sustainable Development aims to understand the relation between humans and nature, to increase the consciousness for the environmental problems and to understand the personal values of the pupils by “discovering” their own attitude, helping them to evaluate and clarify their feelings for the environment they live in. The Environmental Education can be found in the curricula of Geography, Biology, Physics, Chemistry and History. It can be taught using trans-disciplinarily, which means to find new methods of learning, centered on the problems of real life so that the pupils may become good citizens in the future. Furthermore, Environmental Education can be taught through extracurricular activities and by financial support offered by the local authorities, by parents or by European Programs: Comenius, Leonardo etc.) or by ONG-s. The “Eco-schools” Programme, which is managed internationally by Foundation for Environmental Education (FEE) was initiated in 1994 by European Commission as a pilot-programme, and nowadays is being implemented in 24 European countries, counting 7000 schools and 2360 Eco-schools. In Romania, Eco – schools Programme is under the coordination of the Carpato-Danubian Center of Geo-ecology; it has started in 1999 with 5 pilot schools; around 600 school have carried out the project, 403 being active now and 57 schools have been awarded the Green Flag and the title of Eco - school. 209 �The goals of Environmental Education in Romania are: to increase the level of conscience for environmental problems to the children; to develop a civic spirit and the capacity of taking decisions to the children; to create connections with schools in Romania and in the world; to recycle the wastes (Figure 1); to arrange the green space around the school. Figure 1: Collecting the plastics (Eco – school, Romania) Figure 2: The activity of planting a cherry tree at Vulcana Bai Environmental Education can give the pupils the possibility to develop their thinking in a creative and critical way. A method which can be applied is that of partnership projects with schools from other spaces: towns, villages or other countries. An example of good practice is the project called “Bridges between town and village: Together, we are equal” made in partnership by the Commercial High School “Nicolae Kretzulescu” in Bucharest and Secondary School “Ion Mares” from Vulcana Bai, during the school year 2008 – 2009. The project’s goal was to increase Environmental Education to the children in rural areas by activities like: “Let’s plant a tree!”(Figure 2), “What we know about forests?” (identifying species of trees and plants) or contest among children from the two schools concerning Education for Natural Disasters Reduction. Environmental Education in Japan is the 2nd subject taught in Japanese schools (after the culture and language subjects). It aims: to cultivate the conscience for environmental problems; to respect the environment; to train the capacity of solving the environmental problems; to take part of activities of environmental protection (1 day/week). Basic Environmental Education is taught starting kindergartens, and then at schools during so called “comprehensive studies”. Environmental activities range from those integrated within the curriculum, to extracurricular activities, such as clubs and associations. Activities are also initiated at the school level by local and national governments, by the private sector, and by NGOs. There are three trends in teaching Environmental Education in Japan: increasing and unintended pollution of the environment from the high industrial growth periods of the 60’s and 70’s; urban lifestyles and resource consumption patterns that were essentially unsustainable and placed a heavy burden on the local environment – both in production and in disposal of wastes; awareness on global environmental trends as a result of United Nations and other international events and Japan’s own growing presence on the global arena. Environmental Education, as part of Globalization of Education constitutes a strong goal for the Associated Exchange UNESCO Programme in Japan. This programme aims to build a new regional network of ASP schools in Asia-Pacific region for a Flagship Programme of the future. Associated Schools Project activities in Japan started at 4 lower secondary schools and 2 upper secondary schools in 1953. 30 schools joined into this project in 1975, but 210 �now the number is only 20. The most famous Associated UNESCO Schools are Ikeda (Figure 3), Hagoromo and Kitazodo. Figure 3: Japanese pupils collecting the plastics (Ikeda School, Osaka) Environmental Education has to be learned by each pupil through their own experience, having a strong foundation in their families and being based on moral and values inherited from the past. Sharing the experience about their own values and traditions, about the way they understand and respect the environment with people all over the world can be a model to apply the principles of GLOBAL EDUCATION. Based on such principles, the Commercial High School “Nicolae Kretzulescu” has settled a partnership called “Sharing the Globe!” with the Bucharest Japanese Language School, developing different activities such as: “Knowing Japan”, “Origami”, “Small Japanese Gardens” (Figure 4) or “Wearing Yukata” (Figure 5). Figure 4: Small Japanese Garden Project Figure 5: Wearing Yukata by a pupil from the Commercial High School „Nicolae Kretzulescu”, Bucharest Conclusions 211 �As both Japan and Romania experience an era of rapid changes, “Globalization of Education” should emphasize the promotion of mutual understanding between peoples of nations through education. The importance of international understanding can be seen also by promoting non-formal education, as well by taking into account the importance of cooperation and the respective roles of schools, communities and families in education and in the creation of lifelong learning societies. In order to cooperate more effectively and efficiently, Japan and Romania should conduct more programmes, domestically and internationally in order to exchange ideas such as: common values and cultural diversities, Ethics in Science and Technology, globalization and social transformation or establishment of knowledge societies. In conclusion, both Japanese educational system and Romanian educational system have good and weak points, which make them be different not only from socio-economical point of view, but also from cultural and mental level. Irrespective time and space, Japan and Romania have to improve education so that the new generations should adapt to the evolution of world, a world which becomes more global. References Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Fukuzawa, Rebecca, Erwin, Gerald, K. L. (2000). Intense Years: How Japanese Adolescents balance School, Family and Friends, New York: Rutledge Falmer Khan, Yoshimitsu (1997). Japanese Moral Education. Past and Present, Cranbury, Associated University Press Lewis, Catherine, C. (1997). The Roots of Japanese Educational Achievement: Helping Children develop Bonds to School, Educational Policy 9, (pp. 121-151), EJ 506 494 ***, (2005). Talking about Japan Updated Q&A, Tokyo, Kondansha International Ltd. Press www.ceser.hyogo-u.ac.jp www.cnr-unesco.ro www.cnrop.ise.ro www.eco-schools.org www.edu.ro www.ics-inc.co.jp/eos2e www.isei.or.jp/books www.web-japan.org/factsheet/education www.mext.go.jp www.mext.go.jp/english/topics/unesco www.mofa.go.jp www.portal.unesco.org/education 212 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 398 Title A name given to the resource Globalization of Education – A Comparative Study between the Romanian Educational System and the Japanese Educational System Author Author DIRLOMAN, Gabriela PIRVU, Sorina GHEORGHE, Manuela Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper tries to underline the evolution of the Romanian and Japanese educational systems which, irrespective time and space, have to evolute so that the new generations may adapt to the global changes. Education can be a driving force for human innovation and social transformation because it develops the capacity of human beings who are the central actors, in the end, to solve the problems surrounding Sustainable Development. Education itself must become global and has to emphasize the respect for environment, to promote mutual understanding between people, values and traditions based on truth. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/807ff433e9b803058889677de5adfc78.pdf 863c36ad79d60bf99fb8a195bae874d2 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Relationship Between Mobbing and Job Satisfaction: An Exploratory Study Hulusi DOĞAN Alanya Business Administarion Faculty, Akdeniz University Turkey hulusidogan@gmail.com Đlknur DOĞAN Salavatlı School, Sultanhisar Aydın-Turkey Đlknurd09@hotmail.com Abstract: The objective of this study is te examine the relationship between employees’ perceptions for workplace mobbing and job satisfaction by an applied research in a wheel manufacturer firm. A survey questionnaire was designed and used in this study. A total of 95 completed questionnaires were returned, representing a response rate of 95%. The study results indicate that there was a negative relationship between employees’ (downward and horizontal) workplace mobbing perceptions and job satisfaction. About 16.7% of the variance in employee job satisfaction could be axplained by the independent variables of downward mobbing and horizontal mobbing (Adjusted R²). Horizontal mobbing had the strongest impact on employee job satisfaction, and followed by downward mobbing. As a result, employee job satisfaction could be increased through eliminating workplace mobbing. Introduction Understanding and quantifying the process of mobbing is important because of its multiple consequences (Carnero, et al., 2008). At first, exposure to mobbing has severe mental and physical health poblems for those involved, variously manifesting itself in somatic symptoms, anxiety, and depression. In the most severe cases, exposure to mobbing may even produce symptoms resembling post-traumatic stress disorder (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009; Banafos et al., 2009). For example, Leyman and Gustafsson’s (1996) research results of the analysis of 64 patients subjected to mobbing showed a severe degree of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with mental effects fully comparable with post-traumatic stress disorder from war or prison camp experiences. But, not only the victim is involved in this problem but also the firm and the society as being a target of mobbing frequently leads to absenteeism, increased employee turnover, and reduced productivity (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). For example, a study for a sample of 6500 temporary disability cases showed that, during the year 2002, 52 million Euros were lost in work compensation as a consequences of mobbing behaviours in Spain (Carnero, et al., 2008). In other words, there is a strong societal dimension of “mobbing” problem and society is left to pick up many of the long-term costs, including medical treatment, work incapacity benefits, and costs associated with premature retirement (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). So, there are legislative and organizational attempts to prevent mobbing. For example, some countries (Sweden, The Netherlands, Belgium, France, Quebec, South-Australia) enacted legal regulations to combat mobbing in last decades. But, in order to be successful, legal interventions must be accompanied by well-informed, trained, and motivated employers and trade unions who, in collaboration, are willing to deal with the problem proactively on an organizational level (Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). So, mobbing is not a marginal fact in today’s organications and this study aims to make a contribution to the literature and actual attempts to deal with mobbing problem by investigating the relationship between workplace mobbing and employee job satisfaction. Theoretical Grounding Mobbing Mobbing is accepeted as an extreme social stresser at workplaces (Leymann and Gustafson, 1996). And Vandekerckhove and Commers (2003) simply defined “mobbing” as repeated and systematic behavior of individuals or groups, which harms others with whom they work. But Browne and Smith (2008) uses an interesting example to explain “mobbing”: A flock of birds is gathered by the water, eating. A new bird approaches the established flock, hoping to gain entry. Instead of accepting the new bird, the flock of birds torments the new bird, stealing its food, driving it away. The group attack is known as “mobbing.” A group of employees gathers in the office break room, chatting and enjoying the lunch hour. A newly hired employee approaches, hoping to coin the conversation. Instead of accepting the new employee, the group ignores the employee, effectively ostracizing her. Upon returning to 265 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo work, the group of employees greets the new employee with insults to her intelligence, rumors about the reasons she was hired, and total ostracization from their social circle. The group attack is known as “mobbing,” In this type of conflict, the victim is subjected to a systematic stigmatization process and encroachment of his or her civil rights. Even, it may ultimately lead to the expulsion from the labour market if the individual in question is unable to find employement (Leymann and Gustafson, 1996). Because mobbing involves hostile and unethical communication towards an individual, who is pushed into a helpless and defenceless position. So, mobbing has been referred to different terms such as “workplace bullying,” “moral harrasment,” “psychological harassment,” “psychological terror”, and “victimization.” But, Leyman (1996) distinguishes bullying from mobbing in stating that the use of the bullying concept in research on workplace aggression stems from research on bullying at school, which is very often strongly characterized by physically aggressive acts. Mobbing on the other hand, is characterized by more sophisticated behaviors, which better describes the phenomenon found at work-places, and consists of harmful treatment of or putting harmful pressure on an employee (Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003). Also Leyman (The Mobbing Encyclopaedia, http://www.leyman.se/English/frame.html) states that mobbing must occur very frequently (statistical definition: at least once a week) and over a long period of time (statistical definition: at least six months). Because of the high frequency and long duration of hostile behavior, this maltreatment results in considerable psychological, psychosomatic, and social suffering. The definitions stated above show that there must be four critical points to talk about mobbing; these are frequency, duration, reaction and power differencies. At first, the person who is exposed to mobbing must not have a power to defend himself. In other words, there must be a power difference in favour of mobber. So, the person exposed to mobbing is called as “victim.” Second, the hostile actions, behaviors towards the victim must occur in a systematic process. So, the repetitious nature of these behaviors (at least once a week) implies the frequency of mobbing. Third, negative behaviors must no face an interruption. Maltreatments must last in a long time, at least six months. And the last one, the individual exposed to mobbing must be aware of all these systematic actions and suffer from these hostile behaviors. If an individual do not suffer psychologically or socially from these multreatments, it is not possible to state about mobbing (Nield, 1996; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007). Moreover, the last point makes mobbing as the vital issue for all organizations. Because researches carried out in different organizations and different countries demonstrated that mobbing was an extreme social stresser and cretaed serious mental and psyhosomatic health problems as well as undesired organizational outcomes. The most outstanding consequences of workplace mobbing for mobbed persons are a loss of income due to being sacked or leaving the job, and health hazards such as severe anxiety, unable to concentrate, sleeplesness, depression, PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) (Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Leymann and Gustafson, 1996; Quine, 1999; Vanderstar, 2004). For example, a study composed of self-reports of workplace mobbing and the resulting health problems from 1000 individuals who visited the Bullying Institute’s website and voluntarily filled out a questionnaire indicated that the most frequently reported symptoms were: anxiety, stress, excessive worry (reported by 76 percent of respondents); loss of concentration (71 percent); disrupted sleep (71 percent); feeling edgy, irritable, esily startled and constantly on guard (paranoia) (60 percent); stress headaches (55 percent); obsession over details at work (52 percent); recurrent memories, nightmares and flashbacks (49 percent); racing hearth rate (48 percent); needing to avoid feelings, thoughts, and situations that remind the victim of trauma or a general emotional “flatness” (47 percent); body aches-muscles or joints (45 percent); exhaustion, leading to an inability to function (41 percent); compulsive behaviors (40 percent); diagnosed depression (39 percent) (Browne and Smith, 2008; Namie, 2003). As European researchers have publicized the potentially devastating effects of mobbing in the workplace, legislators have taken action. Sweden was the first nation to pass anti-mobbing legislation, enacting the Ordinance on Victimization at Work in 1993 (Browne and Smith, 2008; Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). The second country to enact such legislation was France, passing the Modernization of Employment Act of 17 January 2002. Belgium, Quebec, and the United Kingdom have also passed workplace bullying legislation. The Swedish, French, and Quebecois approaches require employers to create a policy preventing mobbing and place the burden for preventing mobbing solely on the shoulders of the employers. The Belgian legislation goes one step further, requiring employers to hire a prevention advisor who is trained to mediate workplace relations, including recognizing, preventing, and resolving instances of both psychological and sexsual harrasment (Browne and Smith, 2008; Hoel and Einarsen, 2009). Researches on the causes of mobbing are also being carried out. For example, Einarsen (2000a; 2000b)) collected the causes of mobbing under three titles: personal traits (anxious, aggressive or touchy character of the victim; or a fair, successful, hardworking victim), interpersonal conflicts (stemming from fears, suspicions, angers, pessimism etc.), and social and organizational work environment (role conflicts, leadership style, excessive work-load, lack of job control etc.). And Leyman (1996) stated two basic reasons for the prevelance of work-place mobbing: extremely poorly organised production and/or working methods, and second, an almost helpless or uninterested management. On the other hand, Vandekerckhove and Commers (2003) collect the causes of mobbing under five titles: lack of communication, lack of job control, outside influences (especially pressure to produce good revenues for shareholders), dysfunctional organizational culture (confusion and no 266 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo clear line of authority, poor leadership, little or no recognition of achievement, work hours and work load, lack of management support etc) and fear related motives (fear of being made a fool, fear of being regarded as insufficiently informed, as ignorant or as stupid, fear of giving the impression of not being able perform the task etc.). And finally, it is talked about two forms of workplace mobbing in the literature: vertical mobbing and horizontal mobbing. In the vertical form of mobbing, an employee is mobbed by a superior/superiors (downward mobbing), or an employee or a group of employees harasses his/their superior (upward mobbing). And horizontal form of mobbing consists of mobbing by employees against a colleague (Carnero, 2008; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007; Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Tutar, 2004; Çobanoğlu, 2005). Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction describes the feelings, attitudes or preferences of individuals regarding work (Chen, 2008). In other words, it is the degree to which employees enjoy their jobs (McCloskey and McCain, 1987). And researches indicated that dissatisfied employees are likely to leave their jobs. Thus, the understanding of employee job satisfaction and its contributing variables are important for any organization to exist and prosper (Mrayyan, 2005). And numerous researches have been going on job satisfaction for many years. It is common thought that job satisfaction influences organizational behavior, namely it positively affects employee working performance and organizational commitment, and negatively influences employee turnover (Agarwal and Ferrat, 2001; Poulin, 1994; Chen, 2008). Moreover, the relationships between job satisfaction and many variables such as motivation, stress, salary, promotion, role conflict, distributive and procedural justice, role ambiguity, autonomy, workload, leadership style, educational level, emotional intelligence are still being analyzed in different fields as an attractive and important subject of management literature (Ross and Reskin, 1992; Agho et al., 1993; Stordeur et al., 2001; Chu et al., 2003; Kafetsios and Zampetakis, 2008). For example, Sengin (2003), and Hinshaw and Atwood (1984) identify variables that influence employee job satisfaction as: (1) demographic variables: education, experience, and position in the hiererchy; (2) Job characteristics: autonomy, tasks repetetivenes, and salaries; and (3) organizational environment factors: degree of professionalization, type of unit. And Mrayyan (2005) says that the variables of encouragement, feedback, a widening pay scale and clear job description, career development oppurtunity, supportive leadership style, easy communication with colleagues and social interaction positively affect job satisfaction, whereas role stress has a negative influence on it. Similarly, the research made by Chu and his friends (2003) demonstrates that satisfaction is positively related to involvement, positive affectivity, autonomy, distributive justice, procedural justice, promotional chances, supervisor support, co-worker support, but it is negatively related to negative affectivity, role ambiguity, work-load, resource inadequacy and routinization. (-) Vertical Workplace Mobbing Employee Job Satisfaction (-) Horizontal Workplace Mobbing Figure 1: The Model For The Relationships Between Research Variables On the other hand, it is known that both horizontal and vertical form of mobbing create undesired consequences for organizations such as lower productivity due to sick leave and lower motivation. In other words, researches indicate that mobbing have a negative influence on employee motivation and triggers turnovers at a workplace (Zapf, 1999a; Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007; Yücetürk and Öke, 2005). As dissatisfied eployees have not a strong positive feelings and attitudes towards their works and are likely to leave, in this study (as seen from figure 1) we propose that: 267 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Hypothesis 1: There is a negative relationship between vertical (downward) mobbing and job satisfaction. Hypothesis 2: There is a negative relationship between horizontal mobbing and job satisfaction. Research Methodology Analyzing the relationship between employee job satisfaction and workplace mobbing was the main purpose of this study. Two forms of mobbing, horizontal and dawnward one were included in the analysis to measure their influences on employee job satisfaction. The target organization selected for this research was Turkey’s largest wheel manufacturer firm, established in 1977 and employed 400 (full-time and part-time) people. Company is located in Aydın, covering an area of 100.000 square meters where annual production capacity reaches 2.000.000 wheels, of which 75% are exported to over 80 countries worlwide. After having a written permission from the firm administration, an anonymous questionnaire was distributed to 100 full-time employees. Each questionnaire was accompanied by a letter explaining the purpose of the research, the voluntary nature of participation, and the confidentiality of the data. And a total of 95 completed questionnaires were returned (95 percent response rate) from 100 employees. The responses given by the employees were anonymous and confidential. All analyses described below are based on the data from these 95 subjects. The employees were handed a demographic and a field survey questionnaire designed for this study. Demographic survey part of the questionnaire was composed of 5 variables to control the effect on employee job satisfaction and workplace mobbing. And 29 variables existed on the second part of the questionnaire to measure the degree of workplace (horizontal and downward) mobbing perceived by employees and additionally 6 variables to measure their job satisfaction. The instrument consisted of these 35 items answered on a five-point Likert scale anchored by the terms “strongly disagree/very low” (1) and “strongly agree/very high” (5). In statistical analyses, SPSS pc + version 16.0 was used. Sequentially, factor analysis “varimax rotation” to condense condense the number of items, Cronbach’s alpha test for the internal consistency, Pearson rank correlation coefficient to calculate the correlation between the variables were used in the study. And multiple regression analysis was used because it provided estimates of net effects and explanatory power. The adjusted explained variance (the adjusted R2) was used in this research to measure explanatory power. Research Results Several demographic variables were used to measure or control the effect on job satisfaction and workplace mobbing perceived by employees. So, demographic statistics of the respondents were presented in Table 1. Table 1: Demographic Statistics of The Respondents Item Frequency Percent (%) Item Frequency Percent (%) Gender Male Female Missing Total 82 11 2 95 86.3 11.6 2.1 100 Age 18-30 51 53.7 31-40 35 36.8 Vocational Experience 1-5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16-20 years 21 years and over Total 32 30 24 6 3 95 33.7 31.6 25.3 6.3 3.2 100 41-50 51 and over Missing Total 7 0 2 95 7.4 0.0 2.1 100 Marital Status Married Single Total 69.5 30.5 100 34 29.5 32 1 95 35.8 66 29 95 Education Level Primary School High School 28 University Master Total 33.7 1.5 100 As can be seen from this table, the majority of our respondents were male employees (88.3%); and 11.6% were female. And 69.5 percent of the respondents were married, 30.5 percent were single. Employees were categorized by age: 18-30 years (53.7%), 31-40 years (36.8%), 41-50 years (7.4%), and 51 years and over (0.0%). Vocational experience was also assessed using categorical brackets. 33.7 percent (majority) of the respondents indicated they were between the experience of one to five; 31.6 percent indicated they were six to ten; 25.3 percent were eleven to fifteen; 6.3 percent were sixteen to twenty and only 3.2 percent were twenty-one and over. Also as presented in Table 1, 35.8 percent of the respondents held primary school degrees, 29.5 percent high school degrees, and 33.7 percent university degrees. Only 1.5 percent held master degree. 268 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 2: Factor Loadings and Reliability (Cronbach Alpha) Values of Research Items. Factor loading below 0.500 deleted. Variables and Factor Groups F1 F2 F3 Alpha Vertical (Downward) Mobbing X8 0.867 X10 0.861 X1 0.827 X4 0.827 X13 0.793 X11 0.787 X6 0.775 X5 0.731 X15 0.714 X2 0.711 X14 0.708 X7 0.612 X12 0.535 0.955 Horizontal Mobbing X17 X18 X23 X16 0.802 0.845 0.806 0.714 0.561 Job Satisfaction X33 X30 X34 X32 X35 0.829 0.853 0.734 0.728 0.687 0.525 The Results of Factor Analysis 35 items of the questionnaire were included in a factor analysis. At the end of the factor analysis, items of the questionnaire (prepared using from Carnero, et al., 2008: 1-11; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007: 169-186; Chen, 2008) were collected in three factor groups which were labelled as: vertical mobbing, horizontal mobbing, and job satisfaction. The results (presented in Table 2) of the factor analysis show that our factor groups were rather reliable and consistent. Because 13 items of the questionnaire were deleted as their factor loadings were lower than 0.500 and alpha coefficient values of all factor groups were higher than 0.800. Furthermore, alpha coefficients of three factor groups, namely downward mobbing, horizontal mobbing, and job satisfaction were satisfactory; 0.955, 0.802 and 0.829. Intercorrelations Among Research Variables Intercorrelations among reserach variables and demographic (control) variables are reported in Table 3. As seen from Table 3, there was a negative relationship between employee perceptions for downward mobbing and job satisfaction (rp = -0.353, p< 0.01). This result provided support for our hypothesis 1: There is a negative relationship between vertical (downward) mobbing and job satisfaction. Also, there was a (support for our hypothesis 2) negative relationship between employee job satisfaction and horizontal mobbing (= -0.386, p< 0.01). The results in Table 3 indicated that there were no significant relationships between research variables (vertical-horizontal mobbing) and control variables: age, gender, marital status, vocational experience, and educational level. Table 3: Means, Standard Deviations and Correlations Among Research Variables. *Correlation (Pearson) is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **Correlation (Pearson) is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 1. Job Satisfaction 2. Downward Mobbing 3. Horizontal Mobbing 4. Gender 5. Age 6. Educational Level 7. Vocational Experience 8. Marital Status (Mean) (SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 3.267 1.776 1.974 1.118 1.526 2.000 2.136 1.305 -0.353** -0.386** -0.108 0.037 -0.015 0.065 0.075 0.193 -0.003 0.177 -0.169 -0.060 0.000 0.216* 0.135 0.183 -0.125 0.128 -0.036 0.227* 0.042 0.041 -0.041 0.589** -0.451** -0.221* 0.107 -0.347 - 0.770 0.620 0.644 0.324 0.635 0.862 1.058 0.462 269 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Regression Analysis Results As can be seen from Table 4 (adjusted R2 = 0.167), 16.7 % of variance in employee job satisfaction could be explained by the set of research variables: sequentially horizontal mobbing and downward (vertical) mobbing. Horizontal mobbing had the strongest influence on employee job satisfaction (β = -0.277, p < 0.05), followed by downward mobbing (β =- 0.228, p < 0.05). Table 4: Model of Intention to Stay-Simultaneous Multiple Regression. †R2 = 0.186, adjusted R2 = 0.167; dependent variable: job satisfaction, F= 9.794, p< 0.05. Unstdandardized coefficients Model† (Constant) Horizontal Mobbing Downward Mobbing β SE 5.183 -0.318 -0.277 0.564 0,125 0.132 Standardized coefficients β t P-value 9.186 -2.539 -2.094 -0.277 -0.228 0.000 0.013 0.039 On the other hand, the contribution of each variable to employee job satisfaction, using stepwise multiple regression, is presented in Table 5. By itself, horizontal mobbing explained 13.4% of the variance in job satisfaction. Entering downward mobbing also added a 3.3% explanation to the variance. Consequently, all the results told above indicate that our two hypotheses were supported. Our first hypothesis (H1) expected a negative association between employee perception for vertical (downward) mobbing and job satisfaction. And Pearson correlation and regression analysis results confirmed that there was a negative association between employee perception for horizontal mobbing and job satisfaction. Moreover, the results of regression analyses (presented in Table 4 and 5) indicate that horizontal mobbing was the first major determinant of employee job satisfaction. Table 5: Model of Intention to Stay-Stepwise Multiple Regression. †R2 = 0.144, adjusted R2 = 0.134, dependent variable: Job satisfaction, F= 14.635, p< 0.05. ††R2 = 0.186, adjusted R2 = 0.167, dependent variable: Job satisfaction F= 9.794, p< 0.05. Unstdandardized coefficients Model† β SE Standardized coefficients β t P-value Model 1† (Constant) Horizontal Mobbing 4.485 -0.436 0.464 0.114 -0.379 9.667 -3.826 0.000 0.000 Model 2†† (Constant) Horizontal Mobbing Downward Mobbing 5.183 -0.318 -0.277 0.564 0.125 0.132 -0.277 -0.228 9.186 -2.539 -2.094 0.000 0.013 0.039 Conclusion The study results indicate that there is a negative, but not a strong, relationship between (horizontalvertical) workplace mobbing and employee job satisfaction. In other words, research findings show that mobbing is a non-rational organizational behavior for employee job satisfaction and also confirm many authors (for example, Zapf, 1999a; Mcmahon, 20000; Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003; Aydın ve Özkul, 2007; Yücetürk and Öke, 2005) who state that workplace mobbing create undesired consequences for organizations such as lower productivity and lower motivation. Moreover, the study indicates that workplace mobbing is not a 270 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo marginal fact for today’s organizations as well as all organizations in Turkey. In this context, we can say that the issue of workplace mobbing needs to be come under academic, administrative and legislative review in Turkey. According to the study results, horizontal workplace mobbing is more prevalent than veritical form in the target organization. But, this result does not support previous researches. For example, Kirstner’s findings (1997) show 37% mobbing by superiors and 10% mobbing with superiors involved, 44% mobbing by colleagues, and 9% mobbing up the ladder. Similarly, downward workplace mobbing makes up for 81% of all workplace mobbing in USA; it is slightly lower in Europe, but the downward form is still the most prevalent: 57% (Vandekerckhove and Commers, 2003). So, our model and workplace mobbing issue need to be tested and examined in further researches. In other words, this finding can be attributed to some limitations exist in our study. For example, the study includes the analyses of only one organization’s employees and the results reflect the nature and character of this organization, not a trend for all organizations. And the model for employee job satisfaction and workplace mobbing was developed for this study, thus it requires continued validation and further applications. In other words, additional researches using the same or other instruments in other organizations or industries are needed to explore antecedents of research variables (job satisfaction and workplace mobbing) and compare all results. Because many researches indicate that the content or a level of workplace mobbing can change from sector to sector, or an organization to organization. For example, Hubert and Veldhoven (2001) found that mobbing victim percentages were 12.4% among employees of an industrial company, 4.4% among employees in the industrial/administrative organization, and only 1% among employees in the financial institution in The Netharlands. Einarsen and Skogstad (1996) determined industrial workers to be relatively more prone to mobbing, while Leymann (1993), Zapf (1999b), and Hubert and Veldhoven (2001) found that education sector was relatively more prone to mobbing. Consequently, our research results indicate that both scholars and practitioners should make periodical-researches in different sectors and organizations to explore the causes and preventions of workplace mobbing in Turkey and compare the results with all findings in the literature. References Agarwal, R. and Ferratt, T.W. (2001), “Crafting and HR strategy to meet the need for IT workers”, Communications of the ACM, 44 (7): 58-64. Agho, A.O., Mueller, C.W. and Price, J.L. (1993), “Determinants of Employee Job Satisfaction: An Emprical Test of a Causal Model”, Human Relations, 46: 1007-1027. Aydın, Ş. ve Özkul, E. (2007), “Đş yerinde Yaşanan Psikolojik Şiddetin Yapısı ve Boyutları: 4-5 Yıldızlı Otel Đşletmeleri Örneği”, Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, C. 7, S. 2: 169-186. Banafos, C., Jehel, L. and Bequet, C.A. (2009), “Specifity of the links between workplace harassment and PTSD: primary results using court decisions, a pilot study in France”, Int Arch Environ Health, 82: 663-668. Browne, M. N. and Smıth, M. A. (2008), “Mobbing in the Workplace: The Latest Illustration of Pervasive Individualism in American Law”, Employee Rights and Employment Policy Journal, 12 (1): 131-159. Carnero, M.A., Martınez, B., and Mangas, S.R. (2008), “Mobbing and its determinants: the case of Spain”, Applied Economics, 1-11. Chen, L.H. (2008), “Job satisfaction among information system (IS) personel”, Computers in Human Behavior, 24: 105-118. Chu, C.I, Hsu, H.M., Prıce, J.L. and Lee, J.Y. (2003), “Job satisfaction of hospital nurses: an emprical test of a causal model in Taiwan”, International Nursing Review, 50: 176-182. Çobanoğlu, Ş. (2005), Đşyerinde Duygusal Saldırı ve Mücadele Yöntemleri, Timaş Ya., Đstanbul. Einarsen, S. (2000a), “Harrasment and Bullying at Work: A Review of the Scandinavian Approach”, Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5 (4): 379-401. Einarsen, S. (2000b), “The Nature, Causes and Consequences of Bullying at Work: The Norwegian Experience”, International Journal of Manpower, 20 (1-2): 16-27. Hinshaw, A. And Atwood, J. (1984), “Nursing staff turnover, stress and satisfaction: models, measures, and management”, Annual Review of Nursing Research, 1: 133-155. Hoel, H. and Einarsen, S. (2009), “Shortcomings of antibullying regulations: The case of Sweden”, European Journal of Organizational Psychology, 1-21. Hubert, B.A. and Veldhoven, V.M. (2001), “Risk sectors for undesirable behaviour and mobbing”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10 (4): 415-424. Kafetsios, K. and Zampetakis, L.A. (2008), “Emotional intelligence and job satisfaction: Testing the mediatory role of positive and negative affect at work”, Personality and Individual Differences, 44: 712-722. Kirstner, T. (1997), Mobbing, wo Andere leiden, hört der Spass auf (Industriegewerkschaft Metall), Frankfurt. 271 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Leymann, H. (1993), Mobbing, Psychological terror at the workplace and how one can defend oneself, reinbek bei Hamburg, Germany. Leymann, H. (1996), “The Content and Development of Mobbing at Work”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5 (2): 165-184. Leymann, H. and Gustafsson, A. (1996), “Mobbing at Work and the Development of Post-traumatic Stress Disorders”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5 (2): 251-275. Mccloskey, J.C. and Mccaın, B. (1987), “Satisfaction, commitment, and professionalism of newly employed nurses”, Journal of Nursing Scholarship 19 (10): 20-24. Mcmahon, L. (2000), “Bullying and Harrassment in the Workplace”, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12 (6): 384-390. Mrayyan, M.T. (2005), “Nurse job satisfaction and retention: comparing public to private hospitals in Jordan”, Journal of Nursing Management, 13: 40-50. Namie, G. (2003), The Workplace Bullying http://bullyinginstitute.org/research/res/2003results.pdf. Institute Report on Abusive Workplaces, 12-17, Nield, K (1996), “Mobbing and Well-being: Economic and Personnel Development Implications, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5: 239-250. Poulin, J.E. (1994), “Job task and organizational predicators of social worker job satisfaction change: A panel study”, Administration in Social Work, 18 (1), 21-39. Quine, L. (1999), “Workplace Bullying in NHS Community Trust: Staff Questionnaire Survey”, British Medical Journal, 318: 228-232. Ross, C.E. and Reskın, B.F. (1992), “Education, control at work and job satisfaction”, Social Science Research, 21 (2): 134148. Sengin, K.K. (2003), “Work-related attributes of RN job satisfaction in acute care hospitals, Journal of Nursing Administration, 33 (6): 317-320. Stordeur, S., D’hoore, W. and Vandenberghe, C. (2001), “Leadership, organizational stress, and emotional exhaustion among hospital nursing staff”, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 35 (4): 533-542. Tutar, H. (2005), Đşyerinde Psikolojik Taciz, Platin Ya., Ankara. Vandekerckhove, W. and Commers, M. S. R (2003), “Downward Workplace Mobbing: A Sign of the Times”, Journal of Business Ethics, 45: 41-50. Vanderstar, E. S. (2004), “Workplace Bullying in the Healthcare Professions”, Employee Relations and Employment Journal, 8: 455-467. Yücetürk, E. and Öke, M. K. (2005), “Mobbing and bullying: legal aspects relating to workplace bullying in Turkey”, South East Europe Review, 8(2): 61-70. Zapf, D. (1999b), “Mobbing in Organisationen-Überlick zum Stand der Forschung”, Zeitschrift für Arbeits- Und Organisatios- psychologie, 43 (1): 1-25. Zapf, D. (1999a), “Organisational Work Group Related and Personal Causes of Mobbing/Bullying at Work”, International Journal of Manpower, 20: 70-85. 272 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 218 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship Between Mobbing and Job Satisfaction: An Exploratory Study Author Author DOĞAN, Hulusi DOĞAN, ilknur Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is te examine the relationship between employees’ perceptions for workplace mobbing and job satisfaction by an applied research in a wheel manufacturer firm. A survey questionnaire was designed and used in this study. A total of 95 completed questionnaires were returned, representing a response rate of 95%. The study results indicate that there was a negative relationship between employees’ (downward and horizontal) workplace mobbing perceptions and job satisfaction. About 16.7% of the variance in employee job satisfaction could be axplained by the independent variables of downward mobbing and horizontal mobbing (Adjusted R²). Horizontal mobbing had the strongest impact on employee job satisfaction, and followed by downward mobbing. As a result, employee job satisfaction could be increased through eliminating workplace mobbing. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6aaf0df037cbd6b77805956f30fdf7c6.pdf f4bb532e1ebe5876f8e700deeb57e282 PDF Text Text “İDEALİST ÖĞRETMEN”İN EĞİTİM ANLAYIŞI Recep DUYMAZ Trakya Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Bölümü Edirne, Türkiye rduymaz@gmail.com Abstract: We are living in an age of science. In this age, individuals, families and societies solve the problems they encounter under the guidance of science. For this reason, science is a concept that gets more and more important each day for individuals, families and societies. Science is acquired from schools, universities and research institutes based on a program. Besides books, visual and audio materials, we encounter teachers in these places. According to our thoughts the most crucial aspect of education is teacher. Thus, each nation pays full attention to the training of teachers. Good teachers -with no doubt- are people with high professional knowledge and formation. Besides these qualities a good teacher is the one with ideals. The ideal of a teacher is loving science and children. The idealist teacher with professional knowledge and formation alters the place s/he works positively according to the purpose of education. The Racinski character in Georgy Petrov’s The Idealist Teacher, is an example of this type in the world of literature. The success of education depends on idealist teachers with sound professional knowledge and formation. Key words: Science, education, teacher, ideal, G. Petrov Giriş Eğitim, birey, aile ve toplumu biçimlendiren bir çalışma alanıdır. Çağımızda onun önemi daha da artmıştır. Bugün, birey, aile ve toplumlar, karşılaştıkları sorunları bilimin yol göstericiliğiyle çözmektedirler. Bunun yanında bilim ve teknolojide ileri giden milletler, günlük hayatı kolaylaştıran ve çalışma hayatında üretimi arttıran âletler yapmakta ve onları öteki milletlere pazarlamaktadırlar. Bu durumda çağımızda her millet, bilim ve teknolojide ileri gitmek, günlük hayatı kolaylaştıran, çalışma hayatında verimi arttıran ve kaliteyi yükselten teknolojik âletleri kendisi yapmak istemektedir. Bu isteğin kaliteli bir eğitimle gerçekleşebileceği açıktır. Bu nedenle günümüzde her millet, gençlerine eğitim kurumlarında iyi bir eğitim ve öğretim vermek istemektedir. Çocuklarına ve gençlerine çağın gerektirdiği eğitim ve öğretimi verebilen milletler, geleceğe doğru daha emin adımlarla ilerleyebilirler. Eğitim Nedir? İnsan dünyaya cahil olarak gelir. Kendisi, ailesi ve çevresi hakkındaki bütün bilgileri zamanla öğrenir. Aile, okul ve çocuğun içinde yaşadığı toplum, bilgi edinilen başlıca mekânlardır. Öğrenim, ailede başlayan ve ömür boyu devam eden bir süreçtir. Bu uzun sürecin başlangıcı kuşkusuz ailedir. Çocuk, önce insan, aile, toplum ve kâinat hakkındaki ilk ve temel bilgileri bu ocakta öğrenmeye başlar. Ailedeki eğitim, doğal, sıcak ve samimi bir ortamda gerçekleşmekle beraber, plansız, programsız, dağınık ve karmakarışıktır. Bu nedenle milletler, ailedeki eğitimi yeterli görmemiş ve bir bakıma onun devamı diyebileceğimiz eğitim kurumlarını meydana getirmişlerdir. Eğitim kurumlarındaki eğitim, ailedekine göre hem daha ileri, hem de planlı ve programlıdır. Biz burada örgün eğitim dediğimiz okuldaki eğitimden söz edeceğiz. Eğitim, heterojen bir kavramdır. Bu kavram, birbirinden ayrı, ancak her biri diğerini karşılıklı olarak etkileyen dört öğeyi içerir. Bu dört öğenin oluşturduğu bütünlüğe eğitim sistemi diyoruz: 84 �Yönetim Öğrenim Öğretim Program Eğitim Sistemi Eğitim sistemimin bu temel öğelerini kısaca şöyle açabiliriz: Öğretim, çocuklara, gençlere ve yetişkinlere belli bir amaca göre gereken bilgi, beceri ve uygulama yetisini görsel, işitsel ve deneysel yollarla kazandırma işidir. Öğretim, insan yaşamına amaçlı bir müdahaledir ( Barutçugil, 2002, s. 18). Öğretmen en geniş anlamıyla bu işi meslek edinen kimsedir. Program, bir alanda yapılacak işlerin ( burada öğretimin ) amacına ulaşabilmesi için bir düzene ve sıraya konulmasıdır. Programda gösterilen işler ve bunların sırası o alandaki öğretimin amacına uygun olarak düzenlenir. Program, çalışma hayatının isterlerine uygun olarak daima güncellenebilir. Öğrenim, çocukların, gençlerin veya yetişkinlerin çalışma hayatındaki bir meslek veya iş için gerekli bilgi, beceri ve uygulama yetisini kazanmaları amacıyla yaptıkları işitsel, görsel ve deneysel çalışmalardır. Öğrenci, bu çalışmaları hayatının belli bir döneminde yapan kişidir. Yönetim, öğretim, program ve öğrenim işlerinin ülkenin yasalarına ve kurumun özel şartlarına uygun biçimde zamanında yapılmasını sağlamaktır. Eğitim kurumlarında bu işi yapan kişiye yönetici (müdür) denir. Eğitim Sisteminde Öğretmenin Yeri Eğitim sistemi, kendisini oluşturan bu dört öğenin uyumlu çalışmasıyla olumlu sonuçlar veren bir yapıdır. Bu öğelerin arasında öğretim unsurunu gerçekleştiren öğretmenin özel bir yeri vardır. Kanaatimize göre sistemin en önemli öğesi, öğretmendir. Bunun sebebi, öğretimin onun vasıtasıyla gerçekleşmiş olmasıdır. Çağdaş anlamda öğretmen, bir bilgi işçisidir ( Ergun, 1999, s. 61). Bu işçinin görevi, yeni nesillere bilgi aktarmaktır. Buna göre öğretmen bir aktarıcıdır. Hemen belirtmeliyiz ki onun aktarıcılığı, bilgiye giden yolu göstermekten ibarettir. Öğretmen bu yolda yeni nesillere bilgiyi, kültürü, uygarlığı ve güzelliği aktarır. Öğretmen her türlü bilgiyi aktarmak zorunda değildir; onun yeni nesillere aktaracağı bilginin birtakım özellikleri vardır. Bunların başında “yenilik” gelir. Bir ülkenin eğitim sistemi, yeni nesillerine her şeyden önce her alanda (dil, edebiyat, eğitim, biyoloji, fizik, kimya...) insanlığın en son ulaştığı, en yeni bilgileri öğretmek zorundadır. Bir millet, ancak yeni bilgilerle yeni âletler üretebilir ve ancak yeni âletler üretebilen milletler teknolojide söz sahibi olabilirler. Eğitim sisteminde öğretmenin aktaracağı bilginin “yeni” olmasının yanında “doğru” olması da gerekir. Buradaki doğruluktan kasıt, evrensel bakımdan doğru olmaktır. Bir tek kişi, ideoloji veya siyaset anlayışına göre doğru olan bilgileri eğitim kurumlarında “bilim” adı altında yeni nesillere aktarmak, eğitim değil, propagandadır. Propaganda ise eğitimden ziyade siyasete ait bir kavramdır. Öğretmen, fen bilimleri ve sosyal bilimlerdeki en yeni bilgilerin ve evrensel doğruların yanında yeni nesillere “kültür”ü de aktarır. Buradaki kültürü, öğretmenin ait olduğu milletin kültürü (dil, din, sanat …) şeklinde anlayacağımız gibi, bölgenin, hattâ insanlığın ortaya koyduğu bütün kültür unsurlarının güzelliklerini kapsayacak şekilde geniş olarak da anlamalıyız. Buna göre öğretmen, çocuklara ve gençlere “yeni” ve “doğru” bilgilerin yanında kendi milletine ait “kültür”ü de güzel bir yolla aktaran bir şahsiyettir. 85 �Bütün bunlar gösteriyor ki bir milletin eğitim sistemi, “öğretmen” öğesiyle bir canlılık kazanıyor ve gerçekleşiyor. Bu sebeple her millet, eğitim sisteminde öğretmenin yetiştirilmesine ayrı bir dikkat ve özen göstermektedir. Türk eğitim sisteminde de 1915 yılından itibaren öğretmenler özel bir takım kurumlarda yetiştirilmeye başlanmıştır ( Akyüz, 1985, s. 206). Petrov’un “İdealist Öğretmen”i Eğitimbilimciler, kaliteli öğretmenin özelliklerini, hangi eğitim kurumlarında nasıl yetiştirileceklerini, mezun olduktan sonra atanma ve çalışma şekillerini eğitimbilimine dair yazdıkları kitaplarda uzun uzun anlatırlar ( Barutçugil, 2002, s. 77-100; Ergun, 1999, s. 62-113; Çelikkaya, 1999, s. 5-15; Koçer, 1992, s. 79204; Yalman, 1992, s. 86) . Eğitim bilimcilerin kaliteli öğretmen tasavvurlarının yanında bazı edebiyatçı ve diğer bilim dallarındaki şahsiyetler de eğitim ve öğretmen üzerinde düşünmüşler, düşündüklerini deneme, hikâye roman gibi edebiyat türlerindeki eserlerinde yazmışlardır. Bunların yazdıkları, gözlemlerine, çevrelerinde yaşanan gerçek olaylara dayandıkları için daha bir somutluk, canlılık ve inandırıcılık kazanmıştır. Bu şahsiyetlerden birisi de bir Rus yazarı olan Grigoriy Petrov’dur. Petrov, yazdığı “İdealist Öğretmen” adlı kitabıyla eğitim ve öğretmene dair düşüncelerini yakın çevresinde gördüğü olaylara dayandırmış ve Raçinski’nin şahsında idealist bir öğretmenin portresini çizmiştir. D. Bojkov, İdealist Öğretmen’i Bulgarca’ya çevirmiş, bir Türk eğitimcisi olan Ali Haydar Taner de onu Bulgarca’dan Türkçe’ye aktararak 1928 yılında İstanbul’da ilk kez bastırmıştır. İdealist Öğretmen, o tarihten günümüze gelinceye kadar Türkiye’de değişik yayınevlerince birçok kez basılmıştır. İdealist Öğretmen’in yazarı Grigoriy Petrov, orta öğreniminden sonra İlâhiyat Fakültesi’ne gitmiş ve yüksek öğrenimini orada tamamlamıştır. Daha öğrencilik yıllarında insanları aydınlığa ve mutluluğa götürecek yolları aramaya başlamıştır. Çağdaşı ünlü yazar Levi Tolstoy gibi o da “yeryüzünü cennete çevirecek bir yol” arıyordu. Şöyle düşünüyordu: İnsan, yeryüzünün en değerli yaratığıdır. O, Tanrısal yaratığın baş tacıdır. Bu dünyada her şey insan içindir. Sanat, bilim, teknoloji, bütün bu güzellikler ve zenginlikler insanları daha güvenli huzurlu ve mutlu etmek için ortaya konulmalıdır. Bunlar insanı daha aydınlık günlere götürmelidir ( Petrov, 1961, s. 1). Aramalarının sonunda yeryüzünü cennete çevirecek yolu bulduğunu düşünüyordu. O yol, “eğitim yolu” ydu. Eğitimi de okul, üniversite ve enstitülerde öğretmenler veriyorlardı. Öyleyse öğretmenler, hem meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgilerine, hem de “yeryüzünü cennete çevirme” idealine sahip olarak yetiştirilmeliydiler. Öğretmen adaylarına meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgileri, öğrenim gördükleri okullarda kuşkusuz öğrenimleri boyunca eksiksiz olarak verilebilir; fakat onlara bir de ideal duygusu vermek o kadar kolay değildir. Petrov, bunun örneklerle kazandırılabilecek bir değer olduğunu düşünüyordu... Önce idealin ne olduğunu, sonra da petrov’un bunu okurlarına/öğretmen adaylarına nasıl kazandırdığını görelim. İdeal nedir? İdeal ve ideoloji sosyal bilimlerin tartışmalı kavramlarıdır. Biz burada o tartışmalara girmeyeceğiz; onları sadece konumuzla alakalı yönleriyle kısaca ele almakla yetineceğiz. Onları açıklamaya sözlük anlamlarından başlayacağız. İdeal, insan düşüncesinin tasarlayabileceği bütün üstün nitelikleri kendinde toplayan düşünce, nesne veya davranıştır ( Parlatır,1998, s. 1046); Hornby, 1978, p. 427). İnsan hayat yolunda her alanda iş, arkadaş, ev, araba... ve benzeri alanlarda hep en iyisine sahip olmayı ister ve onu elde etmek için çalışır. Doğal yapısı bozulmayan her insanda görülen bu istek, onu sürekli olarak çalışmaya ve istediğini elde etmeye yöneltir. Bu anlamda idealist de böyle bir isteğe sahip olan insan demektir. İdeal kavramının bu sözlük anlamının yanında, sosyolojide bir de terim anlamı vardır. Terim anlamıyla ideal, bir “düşünce gücü”dür. Bu “düşünce gücü”, bireyi, aileyi, toplumu, bulunduğu düzeyden hem maddî, hem manevî bakımdan daha ileri ve mükemmel bir duruma götürme isteği şeklinde kendisini gösterir. Sosyolojide, idealin bir türevi olan ideoloji için birçok tanımlar yapılmakla beraber, biz onlardan sadece bir tanesine değinmekle yetineceğiz: “İdeoloji farklılaşmış bir toplumun fikir yapısıdır. Farklılaşma ile birçok toplum fonksiyonunun iç içe girdiği geleneksel toplum yapılarının yerini, farklılaşmış sosyal fonksiyonlara bırakmasını kastediyoruz. Artık cemaat ilişkilerinin yerini şehir toplumunun fonksiyonel açıdan farklılaşmış ilişkileri alıyor. Hemşehri 86 �kavramının yerini “işçi” kavramı alıyor. İşte bu farklılaşma sonucunda, insanların içine düştükleri yeni şartlara uygun inanç arayışlarına ideoloji diyoruz” Türköne, 1991, s. 23). İdeal, bir arayışın anlatımıdır. Bu arayış, bireyi, aileyi ve bütün toplumu daha ileri ve mükemmele doğru götürme çabası şeklinde ortaya çıkar. Tarihin akışına bir ideale sahip olan idealistler yön vermişlerdir. Bilim, sanat, siyaset, askerlik ve daha başka alanlarda ortaya çıkan idealistler, mensup oldukları milletlerin bireylerindeki gizli güçleri harekete geçirmiş ve onları medeniyet yolunda ileri götürmüşlerdir. Her millet, ideali olan gençlere sahip olmak ister. Gençleri ideal sahibi olarak yetiştirmek, kuşkusuz eğitim kurumlarının görevidir. Eğitim kurumları, gençlere seçtikleri meslekle ilgili bilgi ve beceriler kazandırırken, onlara mensup oldukları millet ve bütün insanlık için çalışmak ve “yeryüzünü cennete çevirmek” idealini de kazandırmaya çalışır. Eğitim kurumlarının yanında gençlere hem bilgi, hem ideal duygusu veren bilim, sanat ve düşünce adamları da çıkmıştır. Grigoriy Petrov, onlardan biridir. Petrov, İdealist Öğretmen adlı kitabında Moskova Üniversitesi’nde ünlü bir matematik profesörü olan A. Raçinski’nin üniversitedeki görevinden ayrılarak doğup büyüdüğü Tatevo köyüne öğretmen olarak atanmasının hikâyesini anlatır. Kitapta anlatılan hikâye boyunca biz, Raçinski’nin şahsında ideal öğretmen tipinin eğitim, öğretmenlik ve öğrencilere dair düşüncelerini okuruz. Genç profesör, üniversitedeki görevinden ayrılıp köy okulunda öğretmen olmaya karar verdiği zaman, üniversitedeki arkadaşları ve Eğitim Bakanlığı’ndaki yetkililer şaşırmış ve onu kararından vazgeçirmeye çalışmışlardır. Raçinski, kararına itiraz edenlere verdiği cevaplarda ve Tatevo köyünde yaptıklarında, aynı zamanda, öğretmenlik anlayışını da ortaya koymuştur. Ona göre öğretmenlik, bir “keşif mesleği”dir. Öğretmen de bir “kâşif”tir. Rusya’nın uçsuz bucaksız bozkırlarına dağılmış köylerindeki halk yığınlarının arasında gizli kalmış nice “yetenekler” vardır; fakat o sıralarda uygulanmakta olan eğitim sistemi ve oralara gönderilen öğretmenler bu yetenekleri bulup ortaya çıkarmak gücünden yoksundurlar: “İşte ben bugün, milletin ruhunun derinliklerinde, binlerce seneden beri gizli kalmış olan büyük yetenekleri meydana çıkarmak için köylere gidiyorum. ( ...) Öğretmenler, okullarda halka doğru gidiş tarzını, hayatı iyi kullanış yollarını öğretmiyorlar; milletin ruhunda gizli kalmış yetenekleri uyandırmıyorlar. Milyonlarca halk kütlesinin dimağları, işlenmemiş milyonlarca dönüm arazi gibi çorak halde bulunmaktadır” ( Petrov, 1928, s. 16, 17 ). Raçinski’ye göre bunun sebebi, mevcut öğretmenlerin ideal duygusuna sahip olmayışlarıdır. Milletin ruhunda gizli kalmış yetenekleri “keşfetmek ideali”, öğretmenin meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgilerine bir yön verir; onları nerede, ne zaman ve nasıl kullanacağını gösterir. Onlara bir çerçeve görevini görür. Hayatına ve mesleğine bir anlam kazandırır: Meslek bilgisi Formasyon bilgisi Genel kültür bilgisi İdeal Meslek bilgileri ile ideal arasındaki bağlantı Halk yığınları arasında “gizli kalmış yetenekleri keşfetmek ve yeryüzünü cennete çevirmek ideali, öğretmenin meslek, formasyon ve genel kültür bilgilerini içine alan bir çerçeve gibidir. Bu çerçeve, öğretmenin bilgi, düşünce ve eylemlerini hep idealini gerçekleştirmek yönünde kullanmasını sağlar. Rus edebiyatında olduğu gibi, Türk edebiyatında da idealist öğretmen tiplerinin hikâyelerini anlatan romanlar yazılmıştır. Reşat Nuri Güntekin’in Çalıkuşu adlı eseri onlardan biridir. Çalıkuşu romanının kahramanı Feride, başlangıçta bir hayal kırıklına uğraması üzerine gönlünü avutmak için İstanbul’dan Anadolu’ya giderek öğretmenlik yapmaya başlar. Orada çocukların durumunu gözleriyle görünce kendi derdini unutur. Kendini öğretmenliğe adar… Çalıştığı okulları, bulundukları durumdan daha ileri ve güzel bir duruma getirir… Bunu edindiği idealizmi sayesinde başarır. 87 �Sonuç Meslek, insanların geçimlerini kazanmak için yaptıkları iştir. Her toplumda birçok meslek vardır. Doktorluk, avukatlık, mühendislik, ayakkabıcılık ve berberlik... bunlardan sadece birkaçıdır. İnsanların yaşamlarını devam ettirebilmelerini sağlayan, severek yapılan bütün işler iyi ve şerefli mesleklerdir. Bununla beraber öğretmenliğin bunların arasında özel bir yeri vardır. Öğretmenlik bir bakıma bir “keşif” ve “elmas arayıcılığı mesleği”dir. Öğretmenlik, gizli kalmış değerleri bulup çıkarmak, işlemek ve onları önce kendi milletinin, sonra da bütün insanlığın hizmetine sunmaktır. Bu amaç, öğretmenin meslek bilgilerinin yanında bir özveri ve ideal duygusuna sahip olmasıyla gerçekleşir. G. Petrov’a göre bu ideal milletin bireylerinin içinde gizli kalmış değerleri “keşfetmek” ve onları “işlemek” idealidir. İdealist Öğretmen kitabında bize tanıtılan Raçinski, idealist bir öğretmendir. O, mensup olduğu Rus milletinin geniş halk yığınları arasında gizli kalmış değerleri keşfetmiş, onları işlemiş, devamında önce kendi milletine, sonra da bütün insanlığın hizmetine sunmuştur. Raçinski, kuşkusuz bir simgedir. Yazar, bu simgeyle köy, kasaba ve büyük şehirlerdeki bütün öğretmenlerin birer ideal sahibi olmaları gerektiği iletisini vermek istemiştir. Bu iletiyi, yüksek okul ve üniversitelerdeki öğretim üyelerini de kapsayacak şekilde genişletmek eserin ruhuna uygun bir yorumdur. Her eğitim kademesindeki öğretmenlerine bu ideali kazandırmasını bilen bir millet, bilim ve teknoloji yolunda hızlı adımlarla ilerler ve modern dünyanın şerefli bir üyesi olur. Kaynaklar: Akyüz, Y., (1985), Türk Eğitim Tarihi, Ankara, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Yayınları. Barutçugil, İ., (2002), Eğiticinin Eğitimi, İstanbul, Kariyer Yayınları. Barutçugil, İ., (2002), Eğiticinin Eğitimi, İstanbul, Kariyer Yayınları. Çelikkaya, H., Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş, İstanbul, Alfa Yayınları. Ergun, M., vd. (1999), Öğretmenlik Mesleğine Giriş, Ankara, Ocak Yayınları. Hornby, A. S., (1978), Oxsford, Oxford Advaced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, New Edition, Oxford, Oxford University Press. Koçer, A., (1992), Türkiye’de Modern Eğitimin Doğuşu ve Gelişimi ( 1773-1923 ), İstanbul, MEB Yayınları. Parlatır, İ., vd., (1998), Türkçe Sözlük, Ankara, Türk Dil kurumu Yayınları. Petrov, G., (1928), Mefkûreci Muallim, Çev. Ali Haydar, İstanbul, Kütüphane-i Hilmi. İstanbul. Recep Duymaz, bu kitabı günümüz alfabesiyle bastırmıştır: İdealist Öğretmen, (2008), İstanbul 3F Yayınları. Petrov, G., (1961), Ak Zambaklar Ülkesinde, Çev. Ali Haydar, İstanbul, MEB Yayınları. Türköne, M., (1991), Siyasî İdeoloji Olarak İslamcılığın Doğuşu, İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları. Yalman, M., (1992), Öğretmenlik Mesleği ve Meseleleri, İstanbul, Türkiye Milli Kültür Vakfı Yayınları. 88 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 656 Title A name given to the resource İDEALİST ÖĞRETMEN”İN EĞİTİM ANLAYIŞI Author Author DUYMAZ, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource. We are living in an age of science. In this age, individuals, families and societies solve the problems they encounter under the guidance of science. For this reason, science is a concept that gets more and more important each day for individuals, families and societies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0fac96c39ee07704574213534788ad71.pdf 8c5dcc209f0f7c3cbdab818a64d56a2c PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A Sample for the Environmental Protection Implementation in Turkey: National Parks Serkan Doğanay Atatürk University, Turkey sdoganay@atauni.edu.tr Mete Alım Atatürk University, Turkey metealim @atauni.edu.tr Na mık Tanfer ALTAŞ Atatürk University, Turkey ntanfer@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The rapid population growth, extreme and unplanned consumption, in line with technological developments, cause intensive pressure upon natural sources. Likewise, the human values that have a global importance due to historical and cultural features face the similar problems. As one of the current global problems, environmental change and destruction urge to be taken some precautions. The conscious occurrence of the national parks, one of the precautions of environmental protection, goes back to the second half of the nineteenth century. The Yellowstone National Park, in the USA opened in 1872 can be seen as the official beginning of the environmental protection thought. The natural and cultural sources are under serious danger in Turkey where its settlement is very old. The first legal regulations in Turkey as for the national parks were made at the end of the World War II. The first national park is Yozgat Camligi National Park opened in 1958. Today, the number of these park is 40 and the protection area reaches 897 657 hectares. It is seen that the 1.1 % of the whole area (814 578 km²) is under protection as national park field. Intense tourism pressure causes ignorance of protection approach which is the basis of sustainable environment understanding. Further, the restriction of economic benefit zones causes the local people to develop negative attitudes towards protection areas. However, the expectations of the local people should be taken into consideration by means of scientific planning so that sustainable environment understanding can reach the optimum results. In this study the legal regulations as for the national parks, national parks and their geographical distribution, the fundamental problems and suggestions were examined. Keywords: Environmental protection, national park, sustainable development, Turkey Introduction The rapidly growing world population and technological developments resultinthe use of natural sources intensively. Especially the increase in manufacturing,the development of cities and the expansion of trade pave the way forthe emergence of worldwide environmental problems. Environmental changes and impairment affect also the natural sources negatively in terms of causing their reduction and losing their quality. It began to be realized that environmental problems were reaching global level in 1960s. In this sense, almost every country began to getinvolved in attempts to contribute to providing sustainable progress and reducing the deterioration of natural balance. Scientific, social and economic benefits of nature protection zones began to be perceived apparently and as a consequence of this,the amount of the conserved area today is 1 billion ha (Demirel 2005: 7) The idea of forming national park which is one of the approaches to protect the nature came into prominence in the second half of the 19th century. Yellowstone National Park which was taken under preservation in 1872 in the USA was the first practice of this idea. In the same period, the concept of nature conservation was adopted by countrieslike Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Mexico. The geographicallocation of Turkey paved the way for the affluence of Turkey in terms of both natural and culturalsources. However,the factthatthe firstsettlement dates back to old times and the intense beneficial use of the area gave rise to many environmental problems. The idea to erect national parks in Turkey aiming at protecting rare species of plants and animals, cultural entities,land forms and hydrographical sources began 223 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to develop in 1950s. The firstlegalregulation in Turkey regarding national parks was made withthe article 25 of the Forest Law no 6831 which was implemented in 1956. Afterwards, the 2. article of National Parks Law no 2873 brought forward the concepts of nature protection zones, natural parks, natural monuments and recreation spots in addition to national parks. (Doğanay 2001:151-153, Turkey Environmental Organization 1999:335). In this article, the concept of national park is defined as the nature segments that own scientifically and aesthetically unique national and international natural and cultural values, and also recreation and tourism spots (Akıncı 1996:222). By the regulations made in this field, today totaling 206 protection zones including the national parks (40), natural parks (30), natural monuments (105) and nature protection zones (31) are present in Turkey. The aggregate surface area of the aforementioned protection zones is 1028565 ha and the 897657 ha of which belong to national parks, and this constitutes 1.2 % ofthe country’stotalsurface area.In 1993, protection zones (572395 ha) made up only 0.7 % of the total surface area of the country (Taşlıgil 1994:259). Just taking the national parks into consideration, itis seen that about 1.1 % of Turkey has been taken under preservation. This data revealsthatthere was an acceleration in the attempts to identify the protection zones after 1990. As a matter of fact, 19 oftotal 40 national parks were identified after 1990. National parks which are among the most efficient approaches to transferring natural and cultural sources to the next generations after preserving them consciously are of great importance for scientific studies besides their being the centre of attraction for tourists. Protection zones like national parks which are vitally important for sustainable environmentalapproach are facing some basic problems which need to be solved as expeditiously as possible. The negligence of the balance between preservation-utilization, and the high pressure oftourism are the greatest problems. Accordingly, primarily Turkey’s national parks and their geographical distribution in conjunction with their causes are discussed in this study. Afterwards,the problems encountered in national park areas and in the neighboring areas are dealt with from the point of preservation- utilization balance, and local economy and are attempted to come to a conclusion. National Parks and Their Geographical Distribution The most common way of preserving the nature in the world is national parks. Because of their natural and cultural characteristics,that some geographical areas are protected and putinto the service of human beings for cultural and touristic reasons forms the basis of the foundation of national parks (Doğaner 1985:119). Therefore, in accordance with the idea of sustainable environment, the idea to build up a balance between preservation and utilization isenvisaged. Turkey isthe intersection point of the continents of Asia, Europe and Africa. Additionally,the variety of land forms and its being surrounded with water provides Turkey with affluence interms of both plant and animal existence. Nevertheless, the fact that the first settlement date goes long way back brought about the serious devastation of natural sources. Though itis estimated that 10000 years before B.C, 75 % of the area on which Turkey is located currently was covered with forest,today this rate has gone down to 25 %. Within the same period, wetland has receded from 6 % to 1 %. Related to the intense exploitation, while forest, moor and wetlands have diminished, agricultural and settlement areas have steadily increased. The alterations in the natural habitatresulted inthe extinction of 12 kinds of endemic plant species and brought along 1189 more plant species tothe verge of extinction (Demirel 2005:24). Itis getting more and more crucial to conserve the wealthy diversity of plants against the rising human activities. Protection zones like national parks undertake a prettyimportantfunction in conserving especially the endangered species. The conservation and declaration of national parks are carried out by General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks which is affiliated to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. The first national park which was taken under protection in 1958 is Yozgat Çamlığı National Park (Figure 2). The latest national park is Yumurtalık Lagoon National Park which was declared in 2008 (Figure 3). The number of national parks inthe country has reached 40 today. The grand total ofthe surface area of national parksis around 897657 ha.In our country, between the years 1950-1959 4, 1960-1969 5,1970-1979 7, 1980-1989 5, 1990-1999 11, 2000-2009 8 national parks were identified and established (Table 1).Yozgat Çamlığı (264 ha) and Bird Paradise National Park (64 ha) are the ones with the smallest area (Arı, 2003: 9). Bird Paradise National Park, which was certified to have 64 ha surface area in 1959, was scaled up to 24047 ha in 2005. The largest one of allthe national parks in Turkey is Beyşehir Lake National Park with its 88750 ha of surface area. Historicalrelics, geomorphological formations,flora, hydrologicalfeatures and the presence of diverse bird species compose the value of this park. Ağrı Mountain National Park (87380 ha), Kızıl Mountain National Park (59400 ha), Aladağlar National Park (54524 ha) and Kaçkar Mountains National Park (51550 ha) are following the previously mentioned national park in the order of magnitude (Table1). Natural, cultural, historical and archaelogical values they possess are regarded in the process of 224 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo designating the national parks in Turkey (Figure 4). Justto give an example, while Gelibolu Peninsula National Park and Başkomutan Historical National Park have been taken under protection due totheirimportance in terms of war history, Güllük Mountain (Termessos), Karatepe-Aslantaş, Olimpos-Beydağları Beach, Köprülü Canyon, Boğazköy- Alacahöyük and Troya Historical National Parks have been designated as national parks for their high historical value areas and for harbouring archealogical relics. We also have national parks which were designated as national parks because of their natural vegetation and wild life. Yedigöller National Park, Dilek Peninsula- Müyük Menderes Delta National Park, Ilgaz Mountain National Park, Kovada Lake National Park, Đğneada Longoz Forests National Park, Tek Tek Mountains National Park and Yumurtalık Lagoon National Park are some examples of these kinds of national parks. Some ofthe national parks in Turkey come into focus with their different source of values. To illustrate this, Köprülü Canyon National Park owns rich flora besides archaeological relics. Altındere Valley National Park, which islocated in the Eastern part of Black Sea Region, is known forits embodying a universal archaeological and historicalstructurelike Sümela Monasteryin addition to its natural values (Doğanay, 2003: 43-64). Göreme Historical National Park has been declared as protection zone as it possesses amazing geological formations like fairy chimneys, old settlements, churches and a high tourism potential. Uludağ, Saklıkent, and Ilgaz Mountain National Parks are also of great importance as winter tourism centers. Taking a look atthe regional distribution of national parks,itis vividly seen that 31 of 40 national parks are situated in the regions on the coast. Mediterranean (11)isthe region with the most national parks. Black Sea (8), Marmara (7), Egean (5), Central Anatolia (4), Eastern Anatolia (3) and Southeastern Anatolia (2) are the regions coming after it (Figure 1, Table 1). Morphological characteristics, diverse flora, historical and cultural values arethe reasons why national parks are situated mostly in coastalregions (Yaşar, 2000: 185). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Name Region Province Area (ha) Date Aladağlar N.P. Mediterranean Niğde, Adana, Kayseri 54524 1995 Mediterranean Adana 16430 2008 Southeastern Anatolia Adıyaman 13850 1988 Aegean Afyon, Kütahya, Uşak 40742 1981 Eastern Anatolia Ağrı, Iğdır 87380 2004 Black Sea Ankara 1195 1959 Mediterranean Antalya 6702 1970 Mediterranean Antalya 34425 1972 Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. Nemrut Mountain N.P. Başkomutan Historical N.P. Ağrı Mountain N.P. Soğuksu N.P. Güllük Mountain (Termessos)N.P. OlimposBeydağları Coast N.P. 9 Köprülü Canyon N.P. Mediterranean Antalya 36614 1973 10 Altınbeşik Cave N.P. Mediterranean Antalya 1156 1994 11 Hatila Valley N.P. Black Sea Artvin 17138 1994 12 Karagöl-Sahara N.P. Black Sea Artvin 3766 1994 13 Dilek PeninsulaBüyük Menderes Delta N.P. Aegean Aydın 27675 1966 14 Bird Paradise N.P. Marmara Balıkesir 24047 1959 Source Value - Geological and geomorphological structure - Flora and fauna - Bird existence - Sea turtle and Flora - Historical open air museum - Watching sunrise - Cultural values - Cultural values - Flora and fauna -Flora - Recreation and entertainment -Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Geological formations - Geological and geomorphological formations - Cave ecosystems - Geological and geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Hydrographical structure -Flora - Well protected maquis flora of the Mediterranean - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Diverse bird species -Flora - Bird observation 225 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -Flora and fauna - Multiplicity of tourism - Flora and fauna - Geological and geomorphological formations 15 Kazdağı N.P. Marmara Balıkesir 21300 1993 16 Küre Mountain N.P. Black Sea Kastamonu, Bartın 37172 2000 17 Yedigöller N.P. Black Sea Bolu, Zonguldak 2019 1965 18 Uludağ N.P. Marmara Bursa 12732 1961 19 Gelibolu Peninsula Historical N.P. Marmara Çanakkale 33000 1973 20 Troya Historical N.P. Marmara Çanakkale 13350 1996 21 Ilgaz Mountain N.P. Black Sea Çankırı, Kastamonu 1088 1976 -Flora - Mountain and winter sports - Recreation and entertainment 22 BoğazköyAlacahöyük N.P. Central Anatolia Çorum 2634 1988 - Archaeological relics (Hittite state center) 23 Honaz Mountain N.P. Aegean Denizli 9616 1995 24 Gala Lake N.P. Marmara Edirne 6090 2005 25 SarıkamışAllahuekber Mountain N.P. Eastern Anatolia Kars, Erzurum 22980 2004 26 Kızıldağ N.P. Mediterranean Isparta 59400 1969 Mediterranean Isparta 6534 1970 Central Anatolia Kayseri 24523 2006 Marmara Kırklareli 3115 2007 27 28 29 Kovada Lake N.P. Sultansazlığı N.P. Đğneada Longoz Forests N.P. 30 Beyşehir Lake N.P. Mediterranean Konya 88750 1993 31 Spil Mountain N.P. Aegean Manisa 6694 1968 32 Marmaris N.P. Aegean Muğla 33350 1996 33 Saklıkent N.P. Mediterranean Muğla, Antalya 12390 1996 34 Göreme Historical N.P. Central Anatolia Nevşehir 9572 1986 35 KaratepeAslantaş N.P. Mediterranean Osmaniye 7715 1958 226 - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geological formations - Flora - Mountain and winter sports - War history - Flora and fauna - Geomorphological formations - Historical relics - Geological structure - Geological and geomorphological formations - Archaeological relics -Flora (endemic species) - Wetland areas - Lake and forest ecosystems - Diverse bird species - Historical relics and war history -Flora (Pinus sylvestris forests) - Mountain and winter sports -Flora - Recreation and entertainment - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Fresh and salty water ecosystems - Diverse bird species - Longoz forest - Mountain and forest sports - Historical relics - Geomorphological formations -Flora - Hydrological features - Diverse bird species - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Historical relics - Geomorphological formations - Flora and fauna - Historical settlements - Geological formations (Fairy Chimney) - Recreation and entertainment - Archaeological relics -Flora - Recreation and entertainment �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 36 Kaçkar Mountain N.P. Black Sea Rize 51550 1994 37 Tek Tek Mountain N.P. Southeastern Anatolia Şanlıurfa 19335 2007 38 Altındere Valley N.P. Black Sea Trabzon 4800 1987 Eastern Anatolia Tunceli 42000 1971 Central Anatolia Yozgat 264 1958 39 40 Munzur Valley N.P. Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. - Geological and geomorphological structure - Flora and fauna - Mountain and winter sports - Flora and fauna - Historical and archaeological characteristics - Cultural values (Sümela Monastery) - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment - Geological structure - Flora and fauna - Flora and fauna - Recreation and entertainment Table 1: National parks in Turkey,1958-2009 (http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr-20.04.2009). Figure 1: Geographical distribution of national parks in Turkey (2009). National Parks: 1.Aladağlar N.P. 2.Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. 3.Nemrut Mountain N.P. 4.Başkomutan Historical N.P. 5.Ağrı Mountain N.P. 6.Soğuksu N.P. 7.Güllük Mountain (Termessos) N.P. 8.Olimpos-Beydağları Coast N.P. 9.Köprülü Canyon N.P. 10.Altınbeşik Cave N.P. 11.Hatila Valley N.P. 12.Karagöl-Sahara N.P. 13.Dilek Peninsula-Büyük Menderes Delta N.P. 14.Bird Paradise N.P. 15.Kazdağı N.P. 16.Küre Mountain N.P. 17.Yedigöller N.P. 18.Uludağ N.P. 19.Gelibolu Peninsula Historical N.P. 20.Troya Historical N.P. 21.Ilgaz Mountain N.P. 22.Boğazköy-Alacahöyük N.P. 23.Honaz Mountain N.P. 24.Gala Lake N.P. 25.SarıkamışAllahuekber Mountain N.P. 26.Kızıldağ N.P. 27.Kovada Lake N.P. 28.Sultansazlığı N.P. 29.Đğneada Longoz Forests N.P. 30.Beyşehir Lake N.P. 31.Spil Mountain N.P. 32.Marmaris N.P. 33.Saklıkent N.P. 34.Göreme Historical N.P. 35.Karatepe-Aslantaş N.P. 36.Kaçkar Mountain N.P. 37.Tek Tek Mountain N.P. 38.Altındere Valley N.P. 39.Munzur Valley N.P. 40.Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. 227 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2: Yozgat Çamlığı N.P. Altındere Valley N.P. Gala Lake N.P Başkomutan Historical N.P. 228 Figure 3: Yumurtalık Lagoon N.P. Karagöl-Sahara N.P. Troya Historical N.P Dilek Peninsula-Büyük Menderes Delta N.P. �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Nemrut Mountain N.P. Ağrı Mountain N.P. Figure 4: Views of some national parks inTurkey. Discussion and Conlusion The greatest threat the world faces today is the deterioration of the natural environment. The fact that environmental problems have ascended to desperate straitsin the global scale entailsinternational collaboration. Almost every country in the world aims at developing by establishing a balance between human being and natural sources, and also without depleting the natural sources. With this purpose in mind, sustainable growth is given alot ofimportance with respectto social, ecological, economic,locational and cultural dimensions. The diverse natural and cultural sources Turkey contains are witnessing a heavy exploitation of them. Because of this, a balance policy between preservation and utilization related to the use of them without contaminating, mutilating and depleting has been adopted. In this sense, national parks also draw attention. Nevertheless,there are some problems present which need to be solved as urgently as possible forthe protection of source values of national park zones,reforming them and increasing their significance in terms oftourism. Com mon problems regarding national parks are managerial,legal, economic and educational (Demirel, 2005: 394-401). Furthermore, that intense tourism pressure and local inhabitants can’t be associated with protection zones threatens preservation and utilization balance. The duty of the management of national parks is carried out by General Directorate of Nature Protection and National Parks which is directly affiliated to the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. A large number of organizations take it upon themselves to protect the nature directly orindirectly. This kind of administrative structure createslack of coordination and it hampers the practicality of plans in protection zones. To resolve the problem, a new restructuring in which there are expert staff who can devise the source values national parks own is required. The protection zones in our country are protected with 6 differentlaws. Thisindicatesthat protection zones are in greatlegal disorder. Nature Protection Law which embraces all otherlaws is needed immediately in this field. High cost and scarcity of grantis one of the burning issuesinthe process of protection.In orderto dispose ofthisissue, more fund should be allocated to national parks and the revenue generated out of national parks should be submitted to park administration. Financial affairs have downgraded national parks in terms oftrained staff and equipment.The existing problems are the utmost hurdles on the way to the protection of the source values national parks have and their enhancement. Itis a common belief in developed countries that natural environment must be protected. However, the sense of responsibilityto protectthe nature istoo low in countrieslike Turkey. For this reason,the best solution tothis problem is educating individualsregarding the issue ofenvironment and its protection. Allthe classesthat constitute our country should lay claim to preservation policy in collaboration. One ofthe burning problems of national parksis high tourism pressure. Therefore,theidea of exploitation wins out over the preservation and utilization balance in the institutions which were established with the idea of providing this balance. With the above stated approach,itis notlikely to conserve the source values of national parks and to improve them too. This situation gives the illusion that the national parks of the country were established with the intention of serving tourism. For Turkey to get rid of this dilemma, an elaborate plan of national parks must be prepared. In these plans, source values and their importance must be identified thoroughly. Additionally,the zones which are not available to people and the zones the source values of which will be taken under protection, and the zones which are available for daily use should be determined. Accordingly,touristfacilitiesmust be deployed outside national park zones. One of the major deficiencies of the idea of preservation in Turkey is that local population can’t be associated with protection zones. The traditional perception model which restricts human activities and 229 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo anticipatesthe migration of human beings that are within the borders of protection zone or their utilizing natural sources is being abandoned. Instead of this,there is an attempt in which local elements can get involved in the decision making process and with theirlifestyles,they can become an integral part of source utilization strategies (Arı 2003: 29). Protection zones in our country generally constrain locals’ economic utilization zones. Due to financial difficulty,this paves the way for migration and locals’ developing negative attitude towards protection zones. Bearing this in mind, making the locals an integral part of preservation, allowing them to utilize the source values of national parks economically without damaging them will be a modern approach. The most efficient way to preserve historical and cultural values and passthem down to future generations without depleting and devastating them is national parks. Collaborating with one another,all groups of people in the society should develop an integrated approach that can meet the expectations. This approach which also forms the basis of sustainable progress will be a milestone in determining not only our nation’s but also the common future of whole humanity. References Akıncı, M. (1996). Oluşum ve yapılanma sürecinde Türk çevre hukuku. Kocaeli Kitap Kulübü Yay., Bilim Dizisi: 1,Đzmit. Arı, Y. (2003). Kuş Cenneti Milli Parkı’nda park yönetimi-yöre halkıilişkisi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8 (9), 737. Demirel, Ö.(2005). Doğa koruma ve milli parklar. Karadeniz Teknik Üniv. Yay. No: 219, Orman Fak. Yay. No: 37, Trabzon. Doğanay, H. (2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası. Çizgi Kitabevi, Konya. Doğanay, S. (2003). Coğrafi özellikleri açısından Altındere Vadisi Milli Parkı. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 8 (10), 43-64. Doğaner, S.(1985). Turizmde Doğanın Önemi ve Türkiye’de Doğayı Koruma Çalışmaları.Đstanbul Üniv. Deniz Bil. ve Coğrafya Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2,(2). Doğaner, S.(2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası. Çantay Kitabevi,Đstanbul. Özgüç, N. (1998). Turizm coğrafyası(özellikler-bölgeler). Çantay Kitabevi,Đstanbul. Sarı, C. (2007). Çeşitli koruma statülerindeki alanların turizm amaçlı kullanımı: Güllük Dağı (Termessos) Milli Parkı örneği. Atatürk Üniv. Fen-Edebiyat Fak. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7 (39). Sever, R. & Bekdemir, Ü. (2007). Eko-turizm açısından Karagöl-Sahara Milli Parkı (Artvin-Şavşat). Atatürk Üniv. Fen-Edebiyat Fak. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7 (39). Sezer, Đ.(2006). Dilek Yarımadası-Büyük Menderes Deltası Milli Parkı’nın coğrafi etüdü (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Atatürk Üniv. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Erzurum. Somuncu, M. (2003). Türkiye’nin koruma altındaki dağlık alanlarda turizm/rekreasyon ve çevre etkileşimi: Aladağlar ve Kaçkar DağlarıMilli Parkı örnekleri. CoğrafiÇevre Koruma ve Turizm Sempozyumu, 2003, Đzmir. Somuncu, M. (2004). Dağcılık ve Dağ Turizmindeki Đkilem: Ekonomik Yarar ve Ekolojik Bedel. Ankara Üniv. Türkiye Coğrafyası Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 2, Sayı: 1, Ankara. Taşlıgil, N. (1994). Spil Dağı Milli Parkı. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 29,Đstanbul. Yaşar, O. (2000). Ülkemizde Milli Park ve Benzer Statüdeki Alanların Dağılımı. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı: 35, Đstanbul. http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr 230 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 515 Title A name given to the resource A Sample for the Environmental Protection Implementation in Turkey: National Parks Author Author Doğanay, Serkan Alım, Mete ALTAS, Namık Tanfer Abstract A summary of the resource. The rapid population growth, extreme and unplanned consumption, in line with technological developments, cause intensive pressure upon natural sources. Likewise, the human values that have a global importance due to historical and cultural features face the similar problems. As one of the current global problems, environmental change and destruction urge to be taken some precautions. The conscious occurrence of the national parks, one of the precautions of environmental protection, goes back to the second half of the nineteenth century. The Yellowstone National Park, in the USA opened in 1872 can be seen as the official beginning of the environmental protection thought. The natural and cultural sources are under serious danger in Turkey where its settlement is very old. The first legal regulations in Turkey as for the national parks were made at the end of the World War II. The first national park is Yozgat Camligi National Park opened in 1958. Today, the number of these park is 40 and the protection area reaches 897 657 hectares. It is seen that the 1.1 % of the whole area (814 578 km²) is under protection as national park field. Intense tourism pressure causes ignorance of protection approach which is the basis of sustainable environment understanding. Further, the restriction of economic benefit zones causes the local people to develop negative attitudes towards protection areas. However, the expectations of the local people should be taken into consideration by means of scientific planning so that sustainable environment understanding can reach the optimum results. In this study the legal regulations as for the national parks, national parks and their geographical distribution, the fundamental problems and suggestions were examined. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3faa780a9a68b5a6a507234fd850401e.pdf 457bc2d5dd62929a487ddd023ac6e05e PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Climatic Hazards Phenomena of the Warm Semester of the Year in the South-West Development Region. Romania Carmen-Sofia Dragotă Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, Physical Geography Department, Bucharest dragotacarmen @yahoo.co.uk Ines Grigorescu Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, Physical Geography Department, Bucharest inesgrigorescu@yahoo.com M onica Dumitraşcu Institute of Geography, Romanian Academy, Physical Geography Department, Bucharest stefania_dumitrascu@yahoo.com Costin Dumitraşcu Faculty of Geography, Spiru Haret University, Bucharest costin_dumitrascu@yahoo.com Abstract. The South-West Development Region is exposed to several climatic hazards with major impact upon the environment. The paper emphasizes the occurrence and the amplitude of the hazard phenomena characteristic of the warm semester of the year within the study area based on processed annual, monthly and daily extreme climatic values (temperature, precipitations, wind, dangerous atmospheric phenomena) from all the meteorological stations involved (1961-2007) in order to establish the main vulnerability classes (mixed, very high, high, medium and low). On the basis of this survey a climatic hazard map was realized in order to emphases the main threats of these hazardous phenomena (heat waves and positive thermal singularities, dryness and drought, heavy rainfall, thunderstorms, hail storms, strong winds, acid deposits and fog) to the environment. Thus, certain areas have been identified with different vulnerability classes: mixed, high and very high, medium and low to the above mentioned climatic hazards. 1. Introduction The South-West Development Region is situated in the south-western part of Romania covering 12.3 % (29,010 km2) of the national territory and 10.7% of its population (2,301,833 inh.) [Figure 1 A]. The region expands from the heights of Southern Carpathians and Banat Mountains in the north and north-westto the hilly, plain areas and Danube floodplaininthe centre and south.The genesis of specific climatictypes (mountain, hilltableland and plain) is mainly determined by the amphitheatre-like distribution of the relief units. The climatic influences (submediterraneean in the south-western extremity, oceanic in the north and transitionalto arid in the east), filling the temperate-continental climate of the South-West Development Region (Romania. The Environment and the ElectricTransportation Network. Geographical Atlas). These major climatic traits are completed by the multitude of factors related to the local geographical environment (orographic barrier of the mountains situated in the north, exposure, massiveness and fragmentation, vegetation, soil and water bodies as well as the man-made changes) determining a wide range of local climatic features and exposing it to several climatic hazards with major impact upon the environment (Figure 1). 2. Methodology Natural risk assessment studies have often been elaborated based one criterion determining a one-sided approach of the involved phenomena. In 1991, E. Bryant developed one of the most complex classifications based on multiple criteria, which inspired Croitoru and Moldovan (2005) in approaching the hazardous meteorological phenomena specific to Romania’s territory. They identified for the southern part of the country droughts, heat waves, cold waves, strong winds, blizzards, frontal and convective rainfall, hail, 248 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo thunderstorms, glazing, fog and dust/sand transportation as dangerous phenomena (Bryant, 1991, Croitoru, Moldovan, 2005). Starting from these complex classifications and yet adapted to the particularities and to the scale of the study-area, a regionalization of the main climatic hazards could be done, based on the annual occurrence and the amplitude of the main thermal, pluvial and mixed phenomena. Figure 1: The position of meteorological stations according to relief unitsinthe South-West Development Region and itslocation within the Romanian territory (A) Thus, these could be grouped into two main categories: climatic hazards within the cold semester of the year (October - March) and climatic hazards within the warm semester ofthe year (April-September),revealing with accuracy the two periods in the year where the emergence and development of the extreme climatic phenomena have the greatest impact on the environment. Due to the representatively of the dangerous meteorological phenomena of the warm semester of the year by means of intensity, effects and the covering surface,the present paper analyses in detailthe environmental vulnerabilityto climatic hazards occurring during thistime span. Thus, the above mentioned climatic hazards were analysed in a GIS format, based on the processed annual, monthly and daily extreme climatic values for the period 1961-2007 (temperature, precipitations, wind, and dangerous climatic phenomena) from all the meteorological stations involved and on the climatic hazard elementsidentified within the study-area (Figure 1). In a first stage, main meteorological elements’ distribution maps (temperature, rainfall, wind) which fit into the area ofinterest have been analyzed by drawing the variabilitylines ofthe climatic parameters. Later on, the main meteorological phenomena specific to the warm semester of the year with different degrees of vulnerability have been analyzed and establish the main vulnerability classes (mixed, very high, high, medium and low). The identified vulnerability categories were underlined by the mean and maximum frequency, duration and intensity of hazardous meteorological phenomena, as well as by the periods in the year affected by these phenomena. Each climatic hazard was represented by a layer in GIS format comprising of the spatial distribution of the environmental vulnerability to the main climatic hazards which are affecting the studied area in order to emphasize the main threats of these hazardous phenomena to the environment. Following the layers’ superposition and correlation, a complex climatic hazard map for the warm semester of the year for the studyregion has resulted. The significance ofthe chosen dangerous climatic phenomena characteristic forthe warm semester of the year within the studied area was also emphasized through the analyses of the most significant extreme climatic sequences, considered as case-studies. 249 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3. Results Based on the methodology described above, the regionalization of the main hazardous meteorological phenomena that take theirtoll on the South-West Development Region between April and September could be performed in orderto make the climatic hazards map forthe warm semester ofthe year. Climatic hazards occurring during the warm semester of the year are caused by the exceeding of the multi-annual mean values in correlation with the general circulation of the atmosphere combined with solar radiation and with the nature of the subjacent surface or by the frequency and intensity of extreme climatic phenomena related to the global warming. Within the South-West Development Region, the meteorological phenomena with greatimpact on the environment during this period of the year are related to the action of heat waves and positivethermal singularities, dryness and drought, heavy rainfall,thunderstorms, hailstorms, strong winds, acid deposits and fog (Figure 3). Heat waves and positive thermic singularities are generated by the tropical air advections and the criteria according to which they are classified are as follow (Bogdan, Niculescu, 1999): - mean monthly temperatures of the hottest months (July, August) ≥ 250 C; - maximum daily temperatures that exceed 350 C (extremely hot days); - minimum nightly temperatures ≥ 200 C (tropical nights). Heat waves and positive thermic singularities are enabled by the complex interaction of different genetic factors such as: the intensity of the heating process, the relief’s characteristics (orographic barrier of the surrounding hills/mountains, exposure, massiveness and fragmentation), the vegetation cover, the physical and chemical characteristics of soillayer,the man-made related changes etc. The penetration of tropical heat waves in favourable synoptic situations has lead to excess values in the South-West Development Region which have reached the state of climaticrecord. Due to the persistence of anticyclonal baric formations for several days in a row, local heat-strike phenomena intensify which leads to en increase in the degree of aridity and drought, emphasizing the value ofthe positive thermic singularities. It ought to be noticed the presence of an extended area in south-east Oltenia, between Jiu River, the Danube and the Oltenia hills where massive heating processes are worthy of comparison with those in Bărăgan Plain, very well known in Romania for its increases aridisation process. The absolute maximum value in this area is only one degree lower than that ofthe entire country, and,in addition,the massive heating processes can be seen here earlier (35.5 0 C in Bechet on 04.10.1985) and later (43.50 C in Strehaia on 08.20.1946 and on 09.08.1946),than inthe rest ofthe country. Thus, Olteniaisthe firstarea ofthe country struck by heat waves the earliest(in spring), but also the latest(the first decade of September). This area could be considered the second epicentre of extreme heatin Romania (Marinică, 2006). Due to heat waves, as well as positive thermic singularities, the Oltenia Plain is affected by drought, a phenomenon which can be seen allthe more often and which has repercussions on the environment by the severe reduction in phreatic waters, changes in the structure and texture of the soil, phenological changes in vegetation etc. In the past decades, the southern part of the South-West Development Region has been struck by extreme heat. Such alterations have occurred during the heat waves of July 1916 and 1936, August 1946 and 1951, JuneJuly 1994 etc. A special situation isthe massive heating in the summer of 2000 when the intensity ofthe heat coincided with the year of maximum solar activity of a seculartype,resembling the one in 1946, only much more intense. Figure 2: Baric configuration in Europe on July 5th 2000 (ww w.wetterzentrale.de) The weather heating process began on July 2nd, 2000 when the Icelandic depression west of Great Britain up to the northern seas interacted with the Greenland Anticyclone above the Atlantic Ocean towards Northern 250 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Africa.In this synoptic context the rapid advection of warm air over south-western area of Romania favoured a south-western circulation of airinthe whole ofthe inferiortroposphere (Figure 2). The final stage of the extreme heat reached its peak in the interval of July 4th-5th of 2000 when it affected the southern half of the country and the temperature-humidity index (ITU) exceeded the threshold of 80 units, which lead to an extremely high thermic hazard. In the South-West Development Region the hottest summer day in 2000 was the 4th of July, which also holds the record in the past 84 years forthe hottest day of any July (Table 1). Subsequently, within the same synoptic context, the tropical heat waves have hit repeatedly and in addition with the scarce quantities of rainfall, completed the massive heating aspect characteristic for the summer of 2000 in the South-West Development Region. As to theimpact maximum dailytemperatures have on the environment,exceeding the 350 C threshold has a negative impact on the environment. Taking into consideration the fact that temperatures are measured in meteorological shelter, its equivalent at soil level has 10-150 C more, which amplifies the thermic discomfort. Positive thermic singularities in the warm semester of the year have higher values that the criticalthreshold of 350 C in the southern part of the area under discussion, even exceeding 410 C in Oltenia Plain along the Jiu Valley, up to Filiaşitown. These thermic singularities are upheld by the frequency of days when characteristic maximum temperatures are registered of ≥300 C (tropical days), ≥350 C (extreme heat) and when minimal temperatures of ≥200 C (tropical nights) are also taken into account (Table 1). Meteorological Station Absolute maximu m temperature ≥300 C ≥350 C Relief unit (selection) (0 C)/date Obârşia Lotrului 29.0/5. July 0 0 Southern Carpathians Voineasa 36.7/4. July 11 2 Tg. Jiu 40.6/4. July 18 6 Getic Subcarpathians Polovragi 39.2/4. July 15 4 R m. Vâlcea 40.6/4. July 17 5 Apa Neagră (Padeş) 41.8/4. July 17 6 Getic Piedmont Tg. Logreşti 40.0/4. July 14 5 Drăgăşani 40.7/4. July 18 7 Vânju Mare 42.4/4. July 17 9 Oltenia Plain Băileşti 43.1/4. July 19 11 Caracal 42.3/4. July 19 10 Calafat 43.2/4. July 18 12 Danube Floodplain Bechet 42.0/4. July 16 12 Source: National Meteorological Agency Database Table 1. Absolute extreme temperatures and the frequency of days when characteristic maximum temperatures are registered in July 2000,in the South-West Development Region Heat waves have a special impact on vegetation by underlying physiological and phenological changes and on humans by increasing the risk associated diseases or even death. Thus, following the heat wave in the summer of 2000, the Romanian Government issued the Government Ordinance 99/2000, regarding protection measures taken by the population in the case of extreme climatic phenomena. In the South-West Development Area the degree of vulnerability to heat waves and positive thermic singularitiesincreases from northto south,revealing an area of very high vulnerabilityin Oltenia Plain,along Jiu Valley, up to north of Filiaşi. Within this space, an area of a very high degree of vulnerability to aridity and drought can be found. This degree increases as we approach the Danube Floodplain. The Southern and Eastern slopes of Almăjului Mountains, the southern part of MehedinŃi Tableland, MehedinŃi Piedmont, BălăciŃei and Motrului Piedmont, central and southern part of OlteŃ and Cotmeana Piedmont, as well as the Olt valley up to the Râmnicu-Vâlcea – OcniŃa Depression displays a high degree of vulnerabilitytothese climatic hazards. Areas with a medium degree of vulnerability are in the north of MehedinŃi Tableland, the Getic Subcarpathians (except Târgu-Jiu and Râmnicu-Vâlcea – OcniŃa Depressions) expanding towards the Olt Valley inthe mountain sector,to the northern part of OlteŃ and Cotmeana Piedmonts. This area also displays a medium degree of vulnerabilityto aridity and drought phenomena. The mountain area subscribed to the South-West Development Region is not affected by these thermic hazards and is,thus, characterized by a low degree of vulnerability. By way of their characteristic parameters (intensity, duration, quantity), heavy rainfall are dependant on altitude, relief, solar radiation, and on the role as a orographic barrier the Carpathian Mountains play to the 251 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo humid air advections. The highly active dynamics of the humid tropical air or of the polar-maritime air over Romania’s territory, as well as the unequal heating of the terrestrial surface generates heavy rainfall during summer unleashing flood-waves. W hen taking into consideration the South-West Development Region,the evolution ofthe meteorological factors,aside from topographic particularities of riverbeds and fundamentalfeatures ofthe water system, plays a decisive role in the occurrence of floods most often brought about by heavy rainfall. From the point of view of the synoptic situations, heavy rainfalls within the area belong to certain types (Milea et. al.,1976): � Type 1 – heavy rainfall determined by the Mediterranean cyclones; � Type 2 – heavy rainfall determined by the cyclones centred inthe Pannonia Plain; � Type 3 – heavy rainfall inside the depression corridor formed by an Icelandic anti-cyclone and a cyclone from the eastern area ofthe Mediterranean Sea; � Type 4 – heavy rainfall brought about atthe limits of an anti-cyclonic field; � Type 5 – heavy rainfall of athermo-convective nature. As a moment when heavy rainfall occur after being generated by such weather situations, a greater frequency during spring and sum mer comes forwards when talking about the South-West Development Region, due tothe more frequent surging of warm and humid oceanic or Mediterranean air above the Romanian territory. During summer,the thermo-convective type 5 is prevalent. Within the analyzed area,floods are determined by a certain quantity of water coming from precipitations (Milea et. al., 1976): � in plain areas: − inthe case of dry soil,a quantity of water of 50 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period; − inthe case of humid or soaked soil,a quantity of water of 15 – 30 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period; � in hill or mountain areas: − inthe case of dry soil,a quantity of water of 30 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period; − inthe case of humid or soaked soil,a quantity of water of 10 – 20 l/m2 or more isrequired in a 24 hour period. In the South-West development Region, the maximum monthly precipitation amounts of a year is registered inthe months of June – July. One sector where heavy rainfallareregistered isthat ofthe sand dunes at Ciuperceni – Calafat, where the underlying sand surface is rapidly heated and the frequency of unstable moist and tropical air is very high. Another sector greatly affected by heavy rainfall is that of the Subcarpathian Depressions of Oltenia, where the orographic barrier of the relief plays a major role in the increase in value of rainintensity, on the background of Mediterranean cyclones evolving on the classicalsouth-west north-east axis. In such situations,in plain, hill and tableland areas, rainfall of a torrential character have mean intensities of 4 m m/min or even higher. The greatest pluvialintensities determined during torrentialrain have been registered at: Meteorological station Ciupercenii Vechi Târgu Jiu Tismana After Marinică, 2006 Date of occurrence 28.06.1945 30.07.1941 27.06.1934 Mean intensity (m m/min) 6.15 5.60 0.50 Duration (minutes) 2 6 240 Total quantity of water (m m) 12.3 33.6 120.0 Table 2. Maximum quantity of heavy rainfallin Oltenia As the altitude increases,the intensity of torrentialrains drops under 3 mm/min due to the increase in air humidity which quells airtemperature values thus preventing thermo convection. The destructive aspects oftorrentialrainfall depend on the intensity, duration and on the water quantities, as well as on the numerous characteristics ofthe active area:lithology,the presence/absence ofthe vegetallayer, the declivity rate,the moment when they occur during the year (afterlong drought periods, when the soilis very dry and its cohesion isreduced and the rain’s force of erosion is higher, but also after a period of heavy rainfall, or after snow meltdowns when the soil is oversoaked). In such conditions, heavy rainfalls trigger geomorphological processes, affects crops, economic infrastructure (roads, bridges, railroads, networks of electrical energy transportation sewage systems and water/gas pipelines) and houses determining a negative impact on the environment. The environmental vulnerability to this climatic hazard takes into consideration especially the pluvial intensity, which,inthe south and the centre ofthe area under discussion becomes one ofthe highest.Itis worthy of mentioning the special role of meteorological phenomena associated with heavy rainfall (strong winds, hailstorms, floods etc.), which usually complete the aspects that make up the climatic hazard in the warm 252 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo semester ofthe year. One has to mention the impact ofthe precipitation registered during short periods oftime,of which those cumulated in 24 hours play a very importantrole. These amounts ofrainfallthatfallduring the warm semester of the year, genetically juxtaposed to thermo convective and frontal processes subscribe themselves to the Azores circulation of air which prevails, and reach the highest values in the whole year. The months during which the most abundant day precipitations are registered, are June, July and August,followed by the autumn months, and then by spring months (especially May). From the perspective of quantity, they exceed the mean values and quantities of the entire month, and in some cases they grow near to the annual mean. In the South-West Development Region, among the most representative such amounts are the following: Meteorological station M aximu m amount of precipitations/24 h (m m) Date of occurrence Bîcleş 110.1 31.07.1980 Calafat 194.0 4.06.1940 Dragotă, 2006 Table 3 Absolute maximum quantities of precipitations registered in 24 hours One ofthe most significant examples of precipitation fallen in short periods oftime and in large areasthat generate floods in the South-West Development Region isrepresented by the 1st-3rdof July heavy rainfall. The year 2005 stands outthrough thelong list of meteorological observations conducted since 1874, as an exceptional year in terms of the quantity of monthly rainfall, but especially during the warm semester. In Romania, this has generated, from April until November, seven flood waves with catastrophic results, since material damage of over one billion Euros, and 62 human casualties were registered (Dragotă, 2006). The synoptic contextfavourabletothe unfolding ofthe climatic hazard in July 2005 started off on the 30th of June 2005, due to vast depression areas north of Romania, in Ukraine and Poland that merged with the Icelandic depression above our country. The Azores Anticyclone had extended over the western and central areas of Europe and led to the contact of cold, polar air with the humid masses of air coming from the Mediterranean, thus generating an intense cyclic genesis best displayed by the synoptic situation on the 2nd of July 2005 (Figure 3). Figure 3: Baric configuration in Europe on July 2nd 2005 (ww w.wetterzentrale.de) The evolution ofthe synoptic context has led to the development of a strong associated cloud system, and inthe southern part ofthe country,especiallyin Oltenia,rainfall has been signalled associated with strong winds. The rainfall ofthree days equalled, and even exceeded,the multi-annual monthly mean withinthe interval 19012007 (Table 4),flooding wide areas in the South-West Development Region. A similar synoptic context stands out forthe 11th - 13th of July 2005 when heavy rainfallseriously damaged Jiu and Olt rivers catchments. Thus, due to the damage inflicted (11 human causalities and 839,415 mil. Ron), the month of July 2005 has been deemed to have been the month with the most serious floods in the past 50 years for the area under analysis (Dumitraşcu, Dumitraşcu, 2001, Dumitraşcu, 2006). The largest part of the South-West Development Region displays a medium vulnerability to climatic hazards generated by torrential rain overlapping with the central and northern part ofthe Oltenia Plain and with the entire piedmont area. 253 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Precipitation amounts (m m) Relief unit Registration date 1.07.2005 2.07.2005 3.07.2005 Total(1-3.07 2005) Runcu 30.8 87.5 1.8 120.1 Getic Subcarpathians Balta 49.7 92.7 0.9 143.3 MehedinŃi Plateau Rovinari 66.2 93.1 2.8 162.1 Getic Piedmont Potcoava 191.5 2.9 194.4 Scorniceşti 137.0 2.0 139.0 Slatina 18.6 109.4 30.0 158.0 Breasta 55.0 75.0 26.0 156.0 Oltenia Plain MărunŃei 27.3 143.0 21.5 191.8 Corbu Buzeşti 3.0 164.0 167.0 Văleni 1.0 168.0 4.9 173.9 After Marinică, 2006 Table 4. Rainfall amounts registered between the 1st and the 3rd of July 2005 Meteorological station (selection) To the South, in the Danube Defilee, BlahniŃa Plain, DesnăŃui Plain and in the southern part of RomanaŃi Plain, as well as in the insular area that covers MehedinŃi Plateau and the depressions in the Oltenia Subcarpathians,the degree of vulnerabilitytothis climatic hazard is high.Inthe mountain area,the vulnerability totorrentialrain islow (Figure 4). Hailis a dangerous meteorological phenomenon which occurs during the warm semester of the year and has major consequences on the environment. Usually, hailis associated with heavy rainfalland lightning and its character of a climatic hazard is provided by the size oftheice hailstones,the duration,the amount of water,the intensity ofthe hailstorm and the wind speed thatleads to the storm before hail. The South-West Development Region generally displays the same degree of vulnerability to these meteorological phenomena as those determined by heavy rainfall, which is why on the map for dangerous meteorological hazards distribution concerning the warm semesterthey are represented by the same symbol. In the case of a high vulnerabilitythe mean annual frequency is 2-6 days of hail and the absolute annual mean is o 5-10 days. The areas described by this vulnerability step are:the Danube Defilee, DesnăŃui Plain and the south of RomanaŃi Plain, as well as the insular area covering MehedinŃi Plateau and the Oltenia Subcarpathians’ depressions.The medium vulnerability,specificforthe centre and north of Oltenia Plain and the entire piedmont areais determined by an average number of 1-2 days and a maximum number of 4-5 days of hail (Bogdan, Marinică, 2007). Areas which show low vulnerability register less than one case of hail in a mean regime and lessthan 4 cases per year of maximum frequency in multi-annualregime, being representative forthe entire mountain area. The damage caused by this climatic hazard is of a mechanic nature through their destructive effect the hailstones have on crops, as well asthrough the wind intensifications that accompany or anticipate hail. Thunderstorms are part of the electro-meteor category and consist of sudden atmospheric electrical discharge which manifestthemselves as a short-lived and intense light(lightning) and smothered sounds or loud thuds (thunder). Thunderstorms are associated with convection clouds (Cumulonimbus) and usually come accompanied by rainfalls. In the South-West Development Region, an average number of thunderstorm days on an annual basis, oscillates from south to north: - between 30-35 cases/year in the south of BălăciŃa Piedmont and in Oltenia Plain and display a low vulnerability; - 40-50 cases per year in the rest of the piedmont area and in the Oltenia Subcarpathians east of Târgu Jiu, leading to an medium vulnerability; - in MehedinŃi Plateau,the eastern part of the Getic Subcarpathians, as well as in the entire area overlapping the South-West Development Area have, alltogether, a number exceeding 45 cases of thunderstorms, thus determining a high vulnerability. Allthe year round,the maximum number of days/month of thunderstorms is reached in June, when, on a multi-annual regime,the maximu m amount of precipitations isregistered. Strong winds (with a frequency and speed of >15 m/s) are generated by the thermo-baric contrasts between the differentregions characterised by the high values of horizontal gradients,asthey can occur any time of the year.If during the cold semester of the year winds are associated with the snow layer and with snowfall, forthe warm semesterthey are seen as climatic hazards when associated especially with extreme heat or with the 254 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo begging of heavy rainfall. The main role in the dispersion of pollutantsin the terrestrial atmosphere isthat of masses’ circulation as well as the relief’s configuration. Atmospheric calm associated with the lack of precipitations favours the stagnation ofthese elements of pollution forlong periods of time, usually atlower altitudes and inthe same areas where they were generated. The factthat atmospheric precipitations along with strong winds are the most active pair of meteorological elements which influence the geographical environment is very well known. The annual mean ofthe dominant wind frequency is predominantly west-wards and in the direction ofits components. The aspects of a climatic hazard developed by the wind meteorological factor results in the strong intensification and are characterised by the sudden changes in direction and intensity, resulting in values of 16 m/s. These can be regarded as strong winds and convective thunderstorms associated with the passing of cold fronts of air. The aspect of a climatic hazard induced by strong winds and thunderstorms can produce significant damage, especially in the case of those that hit frontally (due to the large expansion area): the dislodging and destruction of roof-tops, suspended cables and especially electric energy transportation network, knocking down treesin hilly an mountain areas (especially ifthe front of air comes right after a period of heavy rainfall and the soilisintensely humid), affecting crops etc. In the South-West Development Region, the average number of days/year with strong winds varry between north (mountain area) where 50-100 cases have been registered,towards south (the Danube Valley and the south of Oltenia Plain) where theirfrequency drops to 10 cases, exceeding 10 days (Clima României, 2008), and the maximum number of cases possible during the warm semester can go beyond 40.In the north of Oltenia Plain and in the south of the Getic Plateau, due to local orographic factors and to the southern exposure, the number of days with strong windsis 10-25 cases. Withinthe analysed area, maximum winds speeds registered at the meteorological stations display a variety in value different,in the sense that the lowest value is specific to BlahniŃa Plain and to the south of DesnăŃui Plain (20-30 m/s) while the Oltenia Subcarpathians east of Tismana River registerthe lowest maximu m speeds (under 20 m/s). In the rest of the plain and piedmont areas on the southern slope of Vulcan-Parâng-CăpăŃânii Mountains and in MehedinŃi Mountains and Mehedinti Plateau, maximu m speeds range between 30 and 40 m/s. In the mountain area maximum wind speeds of over 40 m/s are registered, providing an elevated frequency of this climatic hazard. Combining the climatic parametersrepresented by the maximu m speed and frequency of days with strong winds (>15 m/s) that have an impact on the South-West Development Regions’s environment; areas displaying vulnerability to strong winds can be individualized. The north area of the analysed region is the most exposed partto this climatic hazard, and overlaps the high-altitude mountain space,thus describing a region with a very high vulnerability. The south-west part of Almăj Mountains,the high-altitude mountain area,the Danube Gorge, MehedinŃi Mountains,the south ofthe Getic Plateau and the north of Oltenia Plain display a high vulnerabilityto this climatic hazard. A medium vulnerability is characteristic for the southern slopes of the Carpathian Mountains, as they merge with the Oltenia Subcarpathians, Olt Valley (mountain sector),the north of the Getic Piedmont, Danube Valley, BlahniŃa Plain, DesnăŃui Plain, south of RomanaŃi Plain. Areas with a low vulnerability generally overlap the east of MehedinŃi Plateau and the Oltenia Subcarpathians. Within this area, atthe lowest altitudes of Târgu Jiu – Câmpu Mare Depression, an insular area stands out within which the degree of vulnerabilityto thistype of meteorological phenomenon is very low. Acid deposits and fog are a very important source of pollution of the atmosphere, due to the mechanic (fog) and chemical (acid deposits) effectsthat have a negative impact on the environment. Fog is basically atmospheric suspension in the form of microscopic drops that reduce visibility to less than 1 kilometre. The presence of fog,in no matter what shape, has a negative impact on transport means (road transport, watertransport, airtransport,sewage transport) and on population’s health. The highest monthly frequency of fog within a year can be registered during winter (December-January), and the lowest during summ er (June-August). The physical and geographical allotment of this hydro-meteor highlightsthe highest number of foggy days (40-50)inthe subcarpathian depressions and down the valleys of Jiu River (Motru – Rovinari coalfield) and Olt River (from the mountain region to the plain region). Isolated, in Târgu Jiu – Câmpu Mare and Râmnicu Vâlcea – OcniŃa depressions up to 60 cases in annual mean regime are registered.In the rest ofthe analysed territory the number offoggy days decreases,rarely exceeding 40 cases as an average value per year (e.g.:the Danube Valley). W hen associated with various polluting substances its effect on the environment increases in direct ratio with their concentration rate, and the intensity and duration of parameters characteristic for this meteorological phenomenon amplify or diminish the content of polluting substances existentinthat micro-climatic area. Precipitations associated with polluting substances enhance the negative impact fog has on the environment.In a polluted area, asinthe case of some regions inthe analysed area, 5% of the polluting elements present in the free atmosphere can be engulfed in the precipitations that fall on the soil (wash-out).In the case where precipitations come from a dirty cloud that has a high concentration of polluting substances (rain-out), 255 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo these substances reach the earth’s surface atthe same time the precipitations do and at great distances from the emission source. The mostimportantindustrialsources for atmosphere pollution are concentrated in the urban ecosystems of: Râmnicu Vâlcea (Oltchim S.A.), Craiova (S.C. Dolj Chim, CET 1 IşalniŃa, CET 2 Şimnic), Slatina (Slatina Industrial Platform), Târgu Jiu (Romcin), Drobeta Turnu Severin (Power Plant), Turceni (Energetic Complex), Rovinari(CET Rovinari) etc.These sources also determine the pollution caused by the dusts conditioned during constant exploitation in the Motru-Rovinari coal exploitation, as well as by the toxic substances and polluting emissions in the atmosphere that come from the fuel burns coming out oftechnological processes,from thermic plantsthat produce heat and running water, and,last but notleast,from road traffic. These lead to the identification, within the South-West Development Area, of regions that display different degrees of vulnerability associated with sources previously mentioned that manifestthemselves even 45 km around the affected cities. The direction and the average speed in a multi-annual wind system, imprintthe differentiated dispersion also favoured by the local configuration of the relief as well as by the degree of sheltering conveyed by the frequency ofthe atmospheric calm. Figure 4: Climatic hazards in the warm semester ofthe year within South-West Development Region Acid precipitations or acid rainfall that have a pH value lower that 5.6 refer to the process of dry or humid deposit ofthe acid materialsin the atmosphere on the earth’s surface.In the absence of rain or any other sort of precipitations, atmospheric polluting substances shift from the atmosphere by gravitational fall and by direct contact with the soil, vegetation and buildings. The rate for the dry deposit of these polluting substances varies between 0.1 and 1.0 cm/s. Dry deposits can have a great contribution to the increase in acidity, and both types of deposits (dry and humid) bear the name of acid deposits (Fărcaş, Croitoru, 2003) which manifest themselves associated with the risk of fog formation and in the topo-climatic conditions ofthe heatisland of the urban ecosystems affected (Râmnicu Vâlcea, Craiova, Slatina, Târgu Jiu, Drobeta Turnu Severin, Turceni, Rovinari) and increasesin directratio with these cities’territorial expansion. Due to the factthatroad traffic has increased, sources of mobile pollution have also multiplied and, associated with dangerous meteorological phenomena (mist,fog, acid deposits etc.)lead to a majorimpact on the environment and on the state of health of the population. Thus, by analyzing the main dangerous meteorological phenomena having different degrees of climatic vulnerability characteristicforthe warm semester ofthe yearinthe South-West Development Region a complex hazard map with the identified vulnerability areas have resulted (Figure 4). 256 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 4. Conclusions The joint effect of hazardous climatic phenomena can be felt gradually depending on how their parameters manifestthemselves: according to the altitude (from the plains’levelto he mountain areas), but also from East to West. During the warm semester of the year, the central, southern area of the Getic Piedmont, as well as the southern slopes of the Southern Carpathians reveal an area of mean vulnerability to the climatic hazards characteristic for this time of the year. Towards the south,in the Oltenia Plain, an area affected by heat waves accompanied by positive thermal singularities, drought and dryness, heavy rainfall and winds of a regional and local character, the degree of vulnerability is high. In the Subcarpathian depressions and in the northern area of the Getic Piedmont, an area with mean towards low vulnerability stands out, especially regarding heavy rainfall and thunderstorms, which, when confronted with atmospheric polluting sources,favour the existence of insular areas with acid deposits. The mountain sectors exhibitlow vulnerability to heat waves, but a high degree of vulnerabilityto humidity, winds, and thunderstorms. The importance of making the hazard maps consists in assessing and monitoring the environment vulnerabilityto different disturbing factorsin orderto avoid or even diminish their negative impact. Hereby,the maps dictate the delimitation of areas with different vulnerability scales to the analyzed hazards, having a practicalimportance forthe human communities atregional and locallevel. References Bălteanu, D., Şerban, Mihaela (2004), Natural and technological hazards in Romania, Environmental Change and Sustainable Development, Proceedings of the second Romanian–Turkish Workshop of Geography, Bucharest, Romania/June 15-22, 2003, Editura Universitară, Bucharest Bogdan, Octavia, Marinică, I., (2007), Hazarde meteo-climatice din zona temperată. Factori genetici şi vulnerabilitate cu aplicaŃii la România, Editura Lucian Blaga, Sibiu Bryant E. A., (1991), Natural Hazards, Cambrige University Press Croitoru Adina, Moldovan F., (2005), Vulnerability of Romanian territory to climatic hazards, Analele UniversităŃii de Vest din Timişoara, Seria Geografia, XV/2005 Dragotă, Carmen-Sofia., (2006), PrecipitaŃiile excedentare din România, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti Dumitraşcu, Monica, Dumitraşcu, C. (2001), Vulnerabilitatea ecosistemelor urbane la riscuri naturale, Comunicări de Geografie, IV, Universitatea din Bucureşti Dumitraşcu, Monica, Dumitraşcu, C., Douguedroit, Annick (2002), ConsideraŃii asupra tendinŃei de evoluŃie a temperaturii aerului în Oltenia, Rev. Geografică, VIII, p. 18-24. Dumitraşcu, Monica, (2006), Modificări ale peisajului în Câmpia Olteniei, Edit. Academiei Române, Bucureşti Marinică, I., (2006), Fenomene climatice de risc în Oltenia, Editura Autograf MJM, Craiova Milea Elena et. al., (1976), Studiul meteorologic al apelor mari din 4-12 octombrie 1972 în sudul Ńării, Culegere de lucrări a INH ***, (2002), Romania. The Environment and the Electric Transportation Network. Geographical Atlas, Editura Academiei Romane, Bucuresti ***, (2008), Clima României, Editura Academiei Române, Bucureşti 257 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 473 Title A name given to the resource Climatic Hazards Phenomena of the Warm Semester of the Year in the South-West Development Region. Romania Author Author Dragotă, Carmen-Sofia Grigorescu, Ines Dumitrascu, Monica Dumitrascu, Costin Abstract A summary of the resource. The South-West Development Region is exposed to several climatic hazards with major impact upon the environment. The paper emphasizes the occurrence and the amplitude of the hazard phenomena characteristic of the warm semester of the year within the study area based on processed annual, monthly and daily extreme climatic values (temperature, precipitations, wind, dangerous atmospheric phenomena) from all the meteorological stations involved (1961-2007) in order to establish the main vulnerability classes (mixed, very high, high, medium and low). On the basis of this survey a climatic hazard map was realized in order to emphases the main threats of these hazardous phenomena (heat waves and positive thermal singularities, dryness and drought, heavy rainfall, thunderstorms, hail storms, strong winds, acid deposits and fog) to the environment. Thus, certain areas have been identified with different vulnerability classes: mixed, high and very high, medium and low to the above mentioned climatic hazards. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c416346805aa8912c169eb35ebba6aeb.pdf 9e5455efb95dff2251b42ca87959c0e4 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Information Sources for Farmers Growing Pulses in Turkey Oral Düzdemir Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crops Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY orald@gop.edu.tr M urat Sayılı Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY muratsayili@yahoo.com Hasan Akca Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY akcahasan@yahoo.com Abstract: Literature review shows that articles focusing on information sources used by farmers growing pulses are limited. Although farmers lack technical knowledge related to cultivation of pulses, they do not benefit from extension staff at enough level. Therefore, they face difficulties while growing pulses. The aim of this study is to determine information sources (printed & unprinted material, universities, extension staff, media, private input sellers, chamber of agriculture, neighbour farms, etc) used by farmers growing pulses in Tokat province of Turkey. Data were collected from 142 farms via survey. Research findings showed that farmers growing pulses contact with agents selling seed for green bean, private agrochemical sellers and other farmers in the region. On the other hand, they get information at weal level from research institute, agricultural faculty, agro-based industry, printed material, and media. Keywords: Pulses, information sources, Turkey Introduction Pulses are one of the most important crop groups that have been cultivated by human beings since the firstages of history. Turkey is a homeland for many varieties of pulses. They have been cultivated and consumed in large quantities in Turkey for many years. The major varieties of pulses grown in Turkey are lentils, chickpeas, white beans, red beans and broad beans which are used for human nutrition, and vetches (Akova, 2006). Turkey is one of the main pulses producers in the world. In 2007, production area, production amount and yield of chick pea in Turkey were 503 675 ha, 505 366 tons, and 1 010 kg ha-1,respectively. The figures for dry bean were 109 250 ha, 154 243 tons, 1 410 kg ha-1, respectively. In the same year, production amount was 519 968 tons for fresh bean, and 58 710 tons for kidney bean (FAO 2009). Material and Methods Primary data were used in the study. Data were collected from 72 farms growing bean and 70 farms growing chickpea via survey in Tokat province of Turkey. The method of simple random sampling was used to determine farms to be surveyed (Dixon & Massey 1969): 114 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo n= N .S 2 .t 2 (N − 1).E 2 + S 2 .t 2 W here, n is sample size, N is number of farm in the population, S is standard deviation,tistable value (1.86) at 95% significance level and 10% error, E is error. Questionnaire was carried outin October 2006. Research and Findings Agricultural information covers all published or unpublished knowledge in all aspects of agriculture (Agbamu 2006).Information is basicingredientforincreased agricultural production and productivity. Access to the rightinformation atthe righttime inthe rightformat and from the right source may shiftthe balance between success and failure of the farmer (Opara, 2008). Access to adequate information is very essential to increased agricultural productivity (Mgbada 2006, Ofuoku et al. 2008). Benefiting from information sources can be changed depending on educationallevel of farmers.In developed countries,farmers contact with university and research institute actively. On the other hand, in developing and less developed countries farmers have not understood importance ofthese organisations at desired level. This situation can be changed in different parts of the same country. Information sources used by pulse growers in Tokat province of Turkey are shown in Fig.1. In order to understand the subject,information sources were classified in three levels because benefiting level of farmers from information sources is different. In the research area, farmers growing pulses get information generally from private agents selling agrochemicals, other farmers (friends, neighbours, etc)in the region, and seed agents for green bean. There is a knowledge share between farmers and four actors (governmental extension staff, chamber of agriculture,export-import unions, and chickpea seed sellers) at medium level.It was determined that growers of pulses do not contact with research institute, agricultural faculty, agro-based industry, printed material (books, journals,leaflets) and media (TV, Radio, etc). This situation reflects only the idea of farmers growing pulses in the research area. Different results can be derived from other parts of Turkey. Medium Level-Information Source * Governmental Extension Staff * Chamber of Agriculture * Export-Import Unions * Seed Agents (chickpea) W eak Level-Information Source * Research Institute * Faculty of Agriculture-University * TV, Radio, Newspaper * Agro-based Industry * Books, Journals, Leaflets Strong Level-Information Source * Private Agrochemical Agents * Friends, Relatives, Neighbour * Seed Agents (green bean) FAR MERS 115 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1: Information sources which pulses growers use Research findings showed that farmers growing pulses get information about agrochemical usage especially from private sellers (bean growers: 69.45%, chickpea growers: 78.57%) while buying pesticides. At the same time, farmers believe that they have enough experience in the subject of fertiliser use in both bean (76.39%) and chickpea (77.14%) growing. In the subject of pesticide usage, they always contact with private agrochemical agents while buying pesticides (Tab. 1). Yes, always No, I have enough experience Sometimes, when I need Total Pesticides Bean (irrigated) 69.45 8.33 22.22 100.00 Chickpea (non-irrigated) 78.57 12.86 8.57 100.00 Fertilizer Bean (irrigated) 4.17 76.39 19.44 100.00 Chickpea (non-irrigated) 18.57 77.14 4.29 100.00 Table 1: Whether farmers getinformation how to use agrochemicals or not while buying them from agents? (%) Conclusion and Recommendation To produce more quality, quantity and profitable pulses following recommendations can be advice to farmers: • Growers should getinformation from extension staffinstead of advice of neighbour farmers. • Farmers growing pulses should benefitfrom academic staff working at agricultural faculty established inthe region more than today. • Education level of farmers should be increased viatheoreticaland applied agriculturaltraining activity. • Farmers should contact with different actors at desired level. References Agbamu, J.U. (2006). Essentials of agricultural communication in Nigeria, Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd. Akova, Y. (2006). Pulses (www.ctacc.org/new/images/files/pulses.pdf). Dixon, W.J., & Massey, F.J. (1969). Introduction to Statistical Analysis. Kogakasha: McGraw-Hill Book Company. FAO (2009). Statistical database (www.fao.org). Jones, D.E. (1990). Sources of agricultural information. Library Trends, 38 (3), 498-516. Ofuoku, A.U., Emah, G.N, & Itedjere, B.E. (2008). Information utilisation among rural fish farmers in central agricultural zone of Delta State, Nigeria. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 4 (5), 558-564. Opara, U.N. (2008). Agricultural information sources used by farmers in Imo State, Nigeria. Information Development, 24 (4), 289-295. 116 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 490 Title A name given to the resource Information Sources for Farmers Growing Pulses in Turkey Author Author Düzdemir, Oral Sayılı, Murat Akca, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. Literature review shows that articles focusing on information sources used by farmers growing pulses are limited. Although farmers lack technical knowledge related to cultivation of pulses, they do not benefit from extension staff at enough level. Therefore, they face difficulties while growing pulses. The aim of this study is to determine information sources (printed & unprinted material, universities, extension staff, media, private input sellers, chamber of agriculture, neighbour farms, etc) used by farmers growing pulses in Tokat province of Turkey. Data were collected from 142 farms via survey. Research findings showed that farmers growing pulses contact with agents selling seed for green bean, private agrochemical sellers and other farmers in the region. On the other hand, they get information at weal level from research institute, agricultural faculty, agro-based industry, printed material, and media. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e3999745e01af9f9602f835d37bbc282.pdf e0477d3369dd0bcb6788306c3755223f PDF Text Text Bir Bektâşî Şairin Diliyle Nevrûz Ve Çiçekler Melek DİKMEN Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Isparta/Türkiye kahraman_melek@hotmail.com. Kamile ÇETİN Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Isparta/Türkiye kamilecetin80@gmail.com. Özet: Toplum hayatını en çok etkileyen mevsimlerden biri olan baharın gelişi, tüm dünyada yapılan değişik törenlerle coşkulu bir biçimde kutlanır. Türklerde de baharın gelişi bir bayram kabul edilir ve bu bağlamda ilk akla gelen Nevruz Bayramı’dır. Nevrûz, Osmanlı döneminde de sayılı günlerden biri olarak kutlanmıştır. Bu durumun edebî hayattaki yansımalarından biri, baharın başlaması münasebetiyle kaside, gazel gibi nazım şekilleriyle kaleme alınan ve başta padişah olmak üzere devlet ricaline sunulan nevruziyye adlı şiirlerdir. Bu tebliğde, bir Bektâşî şairi olan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın ihtiva ettiği değişik çiçek adlarıyla dikkati çeken “Nevrûziyye” başlıklı şiiri değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler:Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba, Nevruz, Nevrûziyye, Çiçekler. Bahar, tabiatın canlanması, havaların ısınması gibi özellikleri ile toplum hayatını en çok etkileyen mevsimlerden biridir. Bu sebeple tüm dünyada baharın gelişi, yapılan değişik törenlerle coşkulu bir biçimde kutlanır. Bu bağlamda bahar, daha çok toprağa bağlı bir hayat sistemine sahip olan Türk milleti için de son derece önemlidir. Bu yüzden Türklerde baharın gelişi âdeta bir bayram olarak değerlendirilir. Bahar denilince ilk akla gelen ise Nevruz Bayramı’dır. Nevruz sözcüğü Farsça nev (yeni) ve ruz (gün) kelimelerinin birleşmesinden meydana gelmiş olup, “yeni gün” anlamına gelmektedir. Türk mûsikîsinde en eski makamlardan birinin adı da (Öztuna, 2000: 296) olan Nevruz, eski İran takvimine göre yılın ilk günüdür ve güneşin koç burcuna girmesi sebebiyle ilkbaharın başlangıcı sayılır. Farslara atfedilen bir bayram olan Nevruz, aslında Türkler için de birtakım manalar ve semboller içeren çok önemli bir gündür. Bunlardan en çok dikkati çekeni, Ergenekon Destanı’nda anlatıldığı üzere Göktürk Devleti’nin kurucusu olan Aşina ailelerinin Nevruz’da Ergenekon’dan çıktıklarına ve özgürlüklerine kavuştuklarına inanılmasıdır. (Çay, 1996: 10; Koca, 2002: 52) Bu yönüyle de Nevruz, Türk toplulukları için önemli bir fonksiyona sahiptir. İran geleneğinde öncelikle yılbaşı olarak kutlanan Nevruz, Türk kültüründe baharı, yaşama sevincini, su ve kutsal arınmayı, yenilenmeyi, uyanan doğa ile birlikte bolluk-bereketi ve üremeyi simgeleyen anlam ve öğelerle yüklüdür. (Altun, 2002: 17). Bütün Türklerde 21 Mart yılbaşı olarak kabul edilir. Nevruz Bayramı sırasında köy, kasaba ve şehir meydanlarında veya kırlarda toplu yemekler yapılır, hep birlikte kırlara çıkılarak eğlenilir; şölenler, yarışmalar, gösteriler, seyirlik oyunlar düzenlenir. (Pirverdioğlu: 44-48). Nevruz, Osmanlı döneminde de özel günlerden biri sayılmış, devlet kademelerinden başlayarak halka yansıyan bir şenlik havası ve hediyeleşme geleneği ile kutlanmıştır. (Halaçoğlu, 1996: 183-188; Köktürk, 2005) Baharın başlaması münasebetiyle kaside, gazel gibi nazım şekilleriyle kaleme alınan ve başta padişah olmak üzere devlet ricaline sunulan “nevruziyye” adlı şiirler Nevruz’un Osmanlılardaki önemine işaret etmektedir. Klâsik Türk edebiyatında Nef’î ile Rami Paşazâde Ref’et Bey’in nevruziyyeleri ünlüdür. (Cunbur, 1995: 37; Güzel, 1995: 98; Kılıç, 1999: 209) Alevî-Bektâşî geleneğinde de Nevrûz kutsal bir gün kabul edilmiştir. Zira inanışa göre Hz. Ali bugün doğmuştur. Bu sebeple Nevruz için “Sultan Nevruz” ve ““Mevlüd-i şah-ı velayettir bugün...” ifadeleri kullanılmıştır. Aynı zamanda Hz. Muhammed’e peygamberliğin bugün verildiği, gece gündüz eşitliğinden dolayı nübüvvet ve velayetin eşitlendiği, Hz. Ali ile Fâtıma’nın bugün evlendiği, Kerbela olayının da Nevruz günü gerçekleştiği diğer inanışlarıdır. (Temren, 1995: 152-155). Şi’â inancına göre ise bugün Hz. Ali, Hz. Peygamber tarafından halife ilan edilmiştir. (Çay, 1996: 9-10) Bazı bölgelerde yapılan Nevruz kutlamalarında halkın sabah kırlara gittiği, gidemeyenlere koklamaları için nevruz çiçeği getirildiği, Hz. Ali’nin kokusunu yaydığı şeklindeki inançtan dolayı kutsal kabul edildiği de kaydedilmektedir. (Uçkun, 2005: 165). Nevruziyye türü şiirlerin Bektaşîlerde de var olduğu, cem âyinlerinde, Nevrûz bayramı gecesinde dergâh bahçelerinde, kırlarda okunduğu bilinmektedir. Bu şiirlerde, tabiat sevgisi, Hz. Ali muhabbeti, yeni yıl gibi hususlar söz konusu edilmiştir. (Çay, 1996: 91). 421 �Bu çalışmada, XIX. yüzyıl şairi olan ve aynı zamanda Bektaşî geleneğine mensup bulunan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın38 (H.1258/H. 1287) Divanı’nda yer alan “Nevruziyye”si ele alınacaktır. Söz konusu şiir, 13 beyitten müteşekkil olup aruzun Mefâ’îlün Mefâ’îlün Mefâ’îlün Mefâ’îlün kalıbıyla kaleme alınmıştır. (Noyan: 1325/1907). Hilmi Dede-Baba, şiirine gam olarak nitelendirdiği kış aylarından sonra insanın gönlündeki sevinci, neşeyi arttıran Nevrûz’un gelişine şükrederek başlamıştır. Nevrûz’un gelişiyle birlikte her taraf rengârenk çiçeklerle bezenmiştir; elbette böyle bir görünüm insana keyif ve yaşama sevinci verecektir: Bi-hamdillâh gidüp gam geldi Nevruz-ı neşât-efzâ Bezendi sû-be-sû elvan çiçekle dâğ ile sahrâ Bahar geldiğine göre bu mevsimin vazgeçilmez çiçeği olan gülün sahneye çıkması kaçınılmazdır. Nitekim bu günlerde çeşitli süsler ve ziynetler ortaya koymak için gül bahçesinde birçok goncalar peyda olmuştur: Bahâr eyyâmı gûne zîb ü zînet bahş içün el-hak Oluptur gülsitânda gül bedenden goncalar peydâ Devam eden beyitte bir dadıya teşbih edilen yeryüzünün (dünya, toprak) nisan bulutu ile çemen çocuğunu emzirdiğinden bahsedilmektedir. Bu şerefe nâil olduğu için yeryüzü dadısı yeşil bir kaftanla ödüllendirilmiştir. Beyitte, baharın gelişiyle birlikte bilhassa Nisan ayında yağmurların yağması ve dünyanın yemyeşil bir görünüme kavuşması “dadı-bulut-çocuk-emzirmek” şeklindeki bir tablo ile ifade edilmiştir: Çemen tıflını emzirdikçe dâim ebr-i nisândan Giyüpdür dâye-i arz ol şerefle hil’at-i hadrâ Şairin bir sonraki beyitte pek çok bahar çiçeğini sahneye çıkardığı görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda ilk çiçekler olarak şebboy, zerrin ve nergis söz konusu edilmiştir. Şeb-bû (şebboy), pembe, kırmızı, krem, açık sarı, portakal renginde veya mor renkli çiçekler açan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 98; Tırman, 1987: 212). Zerrin (fulya) ise ilkbaharda çiçek açan bir bitki olup sarı veya sarımsı-kahverengi renkte çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 230; Tırman, 1987: 169). Zerrin, eski toplum hayatımızda itibar görmüş çiçeklerdendir. (Polat, 2001: 187-189). Nergis ise, sarı veya beyaz renkli çiçekler açar. (Yücel, 2002: 228; Tırman, 1987: 169). Mitolojiye göre Narkissos adlı güzelliğine son derece mağrur bir perinin ölümüyle ortaya çıkmıştır. (Erhat, 2003: 211-212). Nergis, Klâsik Türk edebiyatında hastalık, mahmurluk ve şehlâlık sıfatlarının sembolü durumundadır. Şiirlerde çoğunlukla sevgilinin gözü ile mukayese edilir. (TDEA, “Nergis”: 14-15). Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın tasavvuruna göre, güzellerin elbiseleri şebboy kokusu ile kokulanırken zerrinin gözü açılmış; şehlâ nergis de uykudan uyanmıştır. Klâsik şiirin genel anlayışına uygun olarak zerrin ile göz ve nergis ile de yine “tatlı şaşı; elâ göz” arasında münasebet kurulmuştur. Beyitte, baharda bilhassa gece vakitlerinde âdeta insanı sarhoş eden, baş döndürücü hoş kokulu çiçeklerin yer aldığı bir tablo çizilmiştir. Beyit “hoş koku” üzerinde şekillenmiştir: Muattar oldu hubânın libâsı ıtr-ı şebbûdan Açıldı dîde-i zerrîn uyandı nergis-i şehlâ Bir önceki beyitte birden çok çiçek adına yer veren şair, devam eden kısımda çiçekler kadrosuna zülf-i arûs ve sünbülü de eklemiştir. Zülf-i arûs (gelin perçemi), göz alıcı güzellikte ve beyaz, pembemsi mor, morumsu mavi, krem rengi ve sarı arasında değişen renklerde çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (http://www.killerplants.com/plant-of-the-week/20041206.asp) Sünbül (sümbül) bilindiği üzere, menekşe mavisi veya beyaz renkli olup çok güzel kokan bir çiçektir. (Yücel, 2002: 186; Tırman, 1987: 223). Klâsik edebiyatta sık rastlanan çiçeklerden olup şekli ve kokusu itibariyle sevgilinin saçına benzetilir. (Pala, 1998: 362). Beyitte sarılıcı bir bitki olan zülf-i arûs, sevgilinin boyuna dolanmış olarak tasvir edilmiştir. Sümbül ise istiâre yoluyla, sevgilinin kırmızı renkli yanağı üzerine dökülmüş hoş kokulu ve dağınık saçlarını karşılamaktadır. Bektaşî geleneğinde sümbül, Nevruz’un simgelerinden biridir. Günümüzde de Bektaşîlerce hazırlanan Nevruz sofralarında sümbül bulundurma geleneği vardır. Hz. Ali’yi anmak için her can, sümbülün kokusundan bir nefes çeker. Fakat beyitte sümbülün bu anlamı ve kullanımı ile ilgili bir husus söz konusu edilmemiştir. Sarıldıkça sarılmış zülf-i ‘arûs kadd-i dilcûya Yakıştıkça yakışmış rûy-i âle sünbül-i ra’nâ Devam eden beyitte bir gül bahçesi tablosu içinde şakayık, ortanca ve menekşe çiçeklerine yer verilmiştir. Şakâyık koyu kırmızı renkte çiçekleri bulunan, (Yücel, 2002: 248; Tırman, 1987: 76) ortanca beyaz, pembe, kırmızı ya da eflatun renkli, (Yücel, 2002: 186; Tırman, 1987: 207) menekşe ise mor, beyaz veya pembe renkli çiçekleri olan bitkilerdir. (Yücel, 2002: 340; Oğuz vd., 1987: 169; Tırman, 1987: 157). Beyitte şakayık, bahçede ortanca çiçeğiyle arkadaş olmuş iken menekşe, gül bahçesinin tenha bir köşesinde yalnız başına, boynu bükük bir vaziyette yatmış bir kimse olarak teşhis edilmiştir: 38 “Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede 1842’de İstanbul’da doğmuş bir Bektâşî şairidir. Sultan Ahmed civarında Güngörmez Camii imamı Nuri Efendi ile Emine Bacı’nın oğludur. Ailesi Merdiven Köyü’nde Şahkulu Sultan Tekkesi post-nişini Hasan Baba’dan kendisi de Aşçı Baba’dan el almıştır. 1863’re posta oturan Hilmi Dede, aynı yıl Hacı Bektaş Dergâhı’na giderek icazetini almıştır. 1907’de vefatına kadar bu görevini sürdürmüştür. Mezarı tekkenin haziresindedir.”, Süleyman Solmaz, “Bir Bektaşi Şâiri Mehmed Ali Hilmi Dedebaba ve Divânı”, http://www.pau.edu.tr/pau20/asp_download.aspx?id=738 (30.04.2009). 422 �Şakayık hemdem olmuş bağçede ortanca dilberle Menekşe boynunu bükmüş yatur tenhâ gülzârda Bir sonraki beytin çiçekler kadrosu, hanımeli, civanperçemi, hüsnü Yusuf ve zerrinkadehten oluşmaktadır. Bahsi geçen çiçeklerden hanımelinin çiçekleri, beyaz ya da sarımsı beyazdır. (Tırman, 1987: 120; Yücel vd., 1995: 101-102). Civanperçeminin ise küçük ve beyaz renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 32). Bir diğer çiçek olan hüsnüyusuf, pembe, kırmızı, beyaz ve menekşe renginde çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 128; Tırman, 1987: 140). Zerrîn-kadehin (sarı zerrin, zerren) ise altın sarısı renginde çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 228). Beyitte, hanım elinin hüsnü Yusuf’tan civanperçemini açtığı ve âşıklara zerrinkadehle kırmızı şarap sunduğu söylenilmektedir. Zerrinkadehi, altından yapılmış kadeh olarak anlamanın yanında, bir çiçek adı olarak değerlendirmek de mümkündür. Beyitte, hanımeli, civanperçemi, hüsnü Yusuf, zerrîn-kadeh şeklinde, pek çok bahar bitkisinin çiçek açmasından söz edilmektedir: Hanımeli civân perçemin açmış hüsn-i Yusuf’tan Sunar uşşâka hem zerrin kadehle bade-i hamrâ Akabinde sahneye kendisine çok yakışmış pembe renkli bir kıyafet giyen gelincik, yeşillenip çiçek açmış dilberdudağı ve fesleğen çıkmıştır. Gelinciğin parlak kırmızı, nadiren beyaz, sarı ve pembe renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Tırman, 1987: 100). Dilberdudağının (aslanağzı) çiçekleri dudak şeklinde olup kırmızı, pembe veya sarı gibi değişik renklerde olabilir. (Yücel, 2002: 52). Fesleğen hoş kokulu, otsu bir bitkidir; beyaz, pembe veya leylak renkli çiçekler açar. (Yücel, 2002: 238). Pembe kıyafeti kendisine çok yakışan gelinciğe nazar değmemesi için “maşallah” denildiği de dikkati çekmektedir: Gelincik penbe giymiş pek yaraşmış şimdi mâşallah Yeşillenmiş açup dilber dudağı fesleğen-âsâ Bahar, bilhassa eski toplum hayatımızda kır eğlencelerinin yapıldığı, bahçelerde güzellerin arz-ı endâm ettikleri bir mevsimdir. Beyitte bahsi geçen kadife, sarı veya portakal renginde çiçekleri olan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 314). Bir başka çiçek olan atlasın parlak kırmızı renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 142). Mine genellikle eflâtun, mavi, bazen de alaca ya da beyaz renkli çiçekler açar. (Tırman, 1987: 160; Yücel, 2002:332). Serv-i revân (salınan servi) istiâresiyle karşılanan sevgilinin gül bahçesine teşrif edip kadife, atlas ve mine gibi çiçekleri temaşa etme vakti gelmiştir. Salın serv-i hırâmânım temâşâ eyle ezhârı Döşenmiş sahn-ı gülşende kadife atlas u mînâ Bir sonraki beyitte ise karanfil, lale, nesrin, yasemin, zambak ve fulya çiçeklerine yer verilmiştir. Beyitte yer alan nahıl kelimesi, eskiden balmumundan veya gümüşten özel olarak hazırlanan ve gelinin önünde taşınan meyve, çiçek ve kıymetli taşlarla müzeyyen ağaç (Onay, 2000: 343) anlamındadır. (Arıkan, 2007; İnce: 89-96; (Nahılların İslam resim sanatındaki örnekleri hakkında örnek minyatürler için bkz. Tulum, 2007: 36, 420, 422). Karanfilin çiçekleri değişik renklerde ve güzel kokuludur. (Yücel, 2002: 130; Tırman, 1987: 140). Klâsik şiirde eskiden kavukla sarık, sarıkla fes arasına konulan ya da yakaya takılan çiçekler arasında yer alması, (Onay, 2000: 393-394) şarap kokusunu gidermek için yenmesi, (Onay, 2000: 417) birtakım macunların terkibinde bir baharat olarak kullanılması (Onay, 2000: 315) gibi özellikleriyle söz konusu edilen karanfil, bazen de kırmızı rengi sebebiyle sevgilinin yanağına teşbih edilmiştir. (Çavuşoğlu, 2001: 290). Lalenin ise çiçekleri çan biçiminde ve kırmızı başta olmak üzere çok değişik renklerdedir. (Yücel, 2002: 322; Tırman, 1987: 223). Renginden dolayı lale, klâsik şiirde kan, mum, şarap, yanak, âşığın gözyaşı, lâl, kâse-i mercan, çerâğ, kanlı kefen, al sancak vb. unsurlara teşbih edilmiş; şekil bakımından da genellikle kadeh olarak tasavvur edilmiştir. (Pala, 1998: 252). Lale kelimesindeki harflerin sırası değiştirildiğinde “Allah” ve “hilâl” sözcüklerinin elde edilebilmesi de bu çiçeğin sevilmesinde etkili olmuştur. (Ayvazoğlu, 1997: 109-110). Zambak beyaz-pembe-kırmızı renkte çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Tırman, 1987: 223; Yücel, 2002: 210). Nesrin, Van gülü anlamındadır. Ancak “Van gülü” olarak ünlenen çeşidin hangi tür veya varyeteye sahip olduğu kesin olarak bilinmemektedir. (Baytop, 2001: 85). Yasemin, beyaz renkli ve güzel kokulu çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel vd., 1995: 92). Klâsik şiirde daha çok beyaz renkli olanlarının tercih edildiğini gördüğümüz yasemin, daha çok rengi, kokusu, yaprağı itibariyle anılır ve sevgilinin yanağı ya da gömleği olarak tahayyül edilir. (Pala, 1998: 415; Çavuşoğlu, 2001: 291; Polat, 2001: 197-199). Fulya çiçeği ise daha önce de bahsi geçen zerrindir. Şairin tasavvuruna göre Yüce Allah’ın kudretiyle her taraf karanfil, lale, nesrin, zambak, yasemin ve fulya çiçekleriyle tıpkı bir nahıl gibi donanmıştır. Beyit, renk renk çiçekleriyle çok canlı bir bahar ve bahçe manzarasını gözümüzde canlandırmaktadır: Nahıl gibi donanmış her taraf bâ-kudret-i Yezdân Karanfil lâle vü nesrin ü zanbak yasemen fulya Yine birden çok çiçeğin hep beraber yer aldıkları aşağıdaki beyitte, rengârenk bir tablo çizilmektedir. Nilüfer, güzel kokulu, beyaz, pembe, sarı, mavi renkli çiçekleri bulunan bir su bitkisidir. (Yücel, 2002: 236-238; Tırman, 1987: 173). Filbahri, beyaz renkli ve güzel kokulu çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel vd., 1995: 109). Beytin mana dünyasına göre nilüfer ve filbahri çiçekleriyle amber ve mercan ortaya çıkmış; bunu görünce sedef de ağzını açıp içinde bulunan inciyi gül bahçesine hediye etmiştir. Beyitte bahsi geçen sadef, deniz 423 �kaplumbağasına benzeyen, daha çok Hint ve Çin denizlerinde bulunduğu rivayet edilen bir çeşit istiridyedir. Nisan ayında (18 Nisan) denizin yüzüne veya sahile çıkarak ağzını açtığına, yağmur tanesini yuttuğuna ve böylece incinin oluştuğuna inanılır. (Pala, 1998: 337). Beyitte dikkat edilirse nilüfer, amber, mercan, sadef, inci kelimeleri suyla bağlantılıdır. Bu da herhalde ilkbaharda yağmurların yağmasıyla suların çoğalmasını ifade etmek üzere kullanılmış olmalıdır: Çıkınca nilüfer filbahriden hem anber ü mercan Sadef ağzın açup incüsin etmiş gülşene ihdâ Bahar mevsiminde düzenlenen, birtakım mezeler ve çiçeklerle donatılan, şaşaalı bir içki meclisi tasviri yapan aşağıdaki beyit, her biri birden çok çağrışıma sahip avize, ateş, balmumu çiçeklerini ihtiva etmektedir. Avize çiçeği, beyaz renkli çiçekleri bulunan bir bitkidir. (Yücel vd., 1995: 157). Ateş çiçeğinin kırmızı renkli çiçekleri vardır. (Yücel, 2002: 286). Bir başka çiçek olan balmumu (mum çiçeği) ise, beyaz renkli ve hoş kokulu çiçekleri ile dikkati çeker. (http://www.cicekcesitleri.com/Mum_Cicegi). Çiçek bahçesinde tertip edilen rintler meclisinde ateş çiçeği, parlak balmumunu yakıp avize ile hem meclisi hem de bahçeyi aydınlatmayı amaçlamıştır. Tevriyeli bir kullanıma sahip olan avize ve balmumunun aynı zamanda birer çiçek adı olduğu da hatırlanmalıdır: Şükûfistânı tenvîre etmeğe hem bezm-i rindânı Yakup âvizeden âteş çiçeği balmumun ra’nâ Nevrûziyyenin son beytinde gecesefası ve kahkaha çiçekleri yer almaktadır. Gecesefası, boyun kısımları beyaz, yukarı doğru genelde mor veya gökyüzü mavisi renginde çiçekleri olan bir bitkidir. (Yücel, 2002: 194). Kahkaha çiçeği, beyaz, nadiren açık pembe renkte taç yaprakları bulunan bir çiçektir. Yücel, 2002: 80). Bir önceki beyitte bir bahar gecesinde düzenlenen içki meclisi tasviri yapan şair, son beyitte buna paralel olarak “ay” istiaresiyle ifade ettiği sevgilinin rakipler ile mehtap gezintisine çıktığından bahsetmektedir. Sevgili, böyle bir gezintide kahkahalarla gecesefası yaparken, âşık-şair binlerce kez “ya sabır” çekmektedir. İkili bir anlam dünyasına sahip olan gece safası ve kahkaha aynı zamanda birer çiçek ismidir: O meh ağyâr ile gece safâda kahkahalarla Hezârân yâ sabur çekmekte şimdi Hilmi-i şeydâ Sonuç Bir Alevî-Bektâşî şeyhi olan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın “Nevruziyye” başlıklı şiirini konu alan bu çalışmada şu sonuçlara ulaşılmıştır: Alevî-Bektâşî geleneğinde son derece önemli bir yeri olan ve kutsal bir gün olarak kabul edilen Nevrûz, bu geleneğe mensup bir şairin kaleminde ifade bulmuştur. Şairin Alevî-Bektâşî geleneğine bağlı olmasından dolayı, şiirde Yezdân, çerâğ uyandırmak (mum yakmak) gibi bu geleneğe ait unsurlar da söz konusu edilmiştir. Klâsik şiir anlayışına uygun olarak Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba da kışı bir gam mevsimi, baharı ise insanın gönlüne ferahlık ve yaşama sevinci veren bir mevsim olarak takdim etmiştir. Nevruziyyede elvân çiçek, ezhâr, şükûfistan, gülşen gibi genel anlamda çiçek ve çiçek bahçesi anlamına gelen kelimeler kullanılmıştır. Bunların dışında gül, gonca, şeb-bû, zerrîn, nergis, zülf-i arûs, sünbül, şakayık, ortanca, benefşe, hanımeli, civanperçemi, hüsn-i Yusuf, zerrin-kadeh, gelincik, dilber dudağı, fesleğen, kadife, atlas, mina, karanfil, lale, nesrin, zambak, yasemin, fulya, nilüfer, filbahri, avize, ateş çiçeği, balmumu çiçeği, gece sefası ve kahkaha çiçeklerinden oluşan oldukça geniş bir çiçek kadrosu vardır. Görüldüğü üzere, çalışmaya konu olan Nevrûziyye, Klâsik Türk edebiyatının çok bilinen gül, sümbül, nergis, lale vb. çiçeklerinin yanında, değişik çiçekleri de ihtiva etmektedir. Şiir, bu yönüyle de ilgi çekicidir. Klâsik Türk şiirinde sıkça kullanılanların dışında çiçeklerin zikredilmesi, son dönemlerde kaleme alınan şiirlerde sesten ziyade müşahhaslığın ön plana çıkmış olmasına bağlanabilir. Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba, son dönem şairlerinden olduğu için şiirine yenilik ve farklılık getirme çabasında olduğu düşünülebilir. Her biri farklı renk ve kokulara sahip bu kadar çok çiçeğin bir arada yer aldığı bir şiirde Nevrûz ve dolayısıyla bahar oldukça renkli, bol çağrışımlı ve canlı tablolar hâlinde gözler önüne serilmiştir. Bir erkek şairin kaleminde bu kadar çok çiçeğin bir arada zikredilmesiyle, Alevî-Bektaşî geleneğinde Nevruz’un ve baharın önemi ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bibliyografya Altun, E. (2002). “Türk Halk Kültüründe Nevruz”, Türk Kültüründe Nevruz V. Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni Bildirileri, Ankara. Arıkan, M., “Osmanlı Saray Düğünlerinde Yemekler”, http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/GENEL/murat_arikan_osmanli_saray_yemek.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 30.04.2009). 424 �Ayvazoğlu, B. (1997). Güller Kitabı Türk Çiçek Kültürü Üzerine Bir Deneme, Ötüken Yay., Ankara. Baytop T. (2001). Türkiye’de Eski Bahçe Gülleri, Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ankara. Cunbur, M. (1995). “Klâsik Edebiyatımızda Nevruz”, Türk Kültüründe Nevruz Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni (Sempozyumu) Bildirileri, (Yayına Haz. Prof. Dr. Sadık Tural), AKM Yay., Ankara,. Çavuşoğlu, M. (2001) Necati Bey Divanı’nın Tahlili, Kitabevi Yay., İstanbul. Çay, A. M., (1996). Türk Ergenekon Bayramı Nevruz, Turan Kültür Vakfı, Ankara, 1996. Erhat, A. (2003). Mitoloji Sözlüğü, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul. Güzel, A. (1995). “XIV-XV. Yüzyıl Edebiyatında Nevruz ve Nevruziyeler”, Türk Kültüründe Nevruz Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni (Sempozyumu) Bildirileri, (Ankara 20-22 Mart 1995), (Yayına Haz. Prof. Dr. Sadık Tural), AKM Yay., Ankara, 95104. Halaçoğlu, Y. (1996) “Osmanlılarda Nevruz Kutlamaları”, Nevruz ve Renkler, (Yayına Haz. Prof. Sadık Tural-Elmas Kılıç), AKM Yay., Ankara. http://www.cicekcesitleri.com/Mum_Cicegi (Erişim tarihi: 21 Ağustos 2007). http://www.killerplants.com/plant-of-the-week/20041206.asp (Erişim tarihi: 21 Ağustos 2007). İnce, A. (1988) “Divan Şiirinde Nahıl”, Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları, (54), 89-96. Kılıç, F. (1999). “Osmanlı Devleti’nde Klâsik Edebiyatımızda Nevruz”, Türk Dünyasında Nevruz Üçüncü Uluslararası Bilgi Şöleni. Koca, S. (2002) “Eski Türklerde Bayram ve Festivaller”, Türkler, Yeni Türkiye Yay., Ankara, (III), Noyan, B. (1907). Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede-Baba Divanı, İstanbul. Oğuz, M. G. & Yayıntaş, A. (1987). Park ve Bahçelerimizin Süs Bitkileri, (Yardımcı Ders Kitabı), E.Ü. Fen-Fakültesi Baskı İşleri, İzmir. Onay, (2000). Eski Türk Edebiyatında Mazmunlar ve İzahı, (Haz. Cemâl Kurnaz), Akçağ Yay., Ankara. Öztuna, Y. (2000). “Nevrûz”, Türk Mûsikîsi Kavram ve Terimleri Ansiklopedisi, AKM Yay., Ankara. Pala, İ. (1998) Ansiklopedik Divân Şiiri Sözlüğü, Ötüken Yay., İstanbul. Pirverdioğlu A. (2002). “Türklerde Yılbaşı ve Bahar Geleneği”, Türkler, Yeni Türkiye Yay., Ankara, (III), 44-50. Polat, N. H. (2001). Türk Çiçek ve Ziraat Kültürü Üzerine Cevat Rüştü’den Bir Güldeste, Kitabevi Yay., İstanbul. Solmaz, S. “Bir Bektaşi Şâiri Mehmed Ali Hilmi Dedebaba ve Divânı”, http://www.pau.edu.tr/pau20/asp_download.aspx?id=738 (Erişim tarihi: 30.04.2009). TDEA, “Nergis”, (VII) 14-15, Dergâh Yay., İstanbul . Temren, B. (1995). “Bektaşi Geleneklerinde Nevruz Kutlamaları Kırklar Bayramı”, Foklor/Edebiyat, S. 3, Ankara. Tırman, F. (1987). Tabii Çiçekler Morfolojisi ve Yapma Çiçekçilikte Kullanılan Kalıplar, Selçuk Üniversitesi Yay., Konya. Uçkun, R. (2005) “Alevî-Bektaşî Geleneğinde Nevruz Kutlamaları”, Uluslararası Bektaşilik ve Alevilik Sempozyumu I, Isparta. Vehbî (2007). Surnâme, Sultan Ahmet’in Düğün Kitabı, Haz. Mertol Tulum, Kabalcı Yay., İstanbul. Yücel E. & Yaltırık F. & Öztürk M. (1995). Süs Bitkileri (Ağaçlar ve Çalılar), Anadolu Üniversitesi Yay., Eskişehir. Yücel, E.(2002). Çiçekler ve Yer Örtücüler, Etam Matbaa Tesisleri, Eskişehir. 425 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 436 Title A name given to the resource Bir Bektâşî Şairin Diliyle Nevrûz Ve Çiçekler Author Author DİKMEN, Melek ÇETİN, Kamile Abstract A summary of the resource. Toplum hayatını en çok etkileyen mevsimlerden biri olan baharın gelişi, tüm dünyada yapılan değişik törenlerle coşkulu bir biçimde kutlanır. Türklerde de baharın gelişi bir bayram kabul edilir ve bu bağlamda ilk akla gelen Nevruz Bayramı’dır. Nevrûz, Osmanlı döneminde de sayılı günlerden biri olarak kutlanmıştır. Bu durumun edebî hayattaki yansımalarından biri, baharın başlaması münasebetiyle kaside, gazel gibi nazım şekilleriyle kaleme alınan ve başta padişah olmak üzere devlet ricaline sunulan nevruziyye adlı şiirlerdir. Bu tebliğde, bir Bektâşî şairi olan Mehmet Ali Hilmi Dede Baba’nın ihtiva ettiği değişik çiçek adlarıyla dikkati çeken “Nevrûziyye” başlıklı şiiri değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c9437f33b52cf14878e3e616f992d902.pdf 322410a76895493ccea0cef6aeefcbaa PDF Text Text Punctuation And Capitalisation Errors Of Turkish Efl Students In Composition Classes: An Evidence Of L1 Interference Gencer ELKILIÇ Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kafkas University, Kars/Turkey Gencerelkilic1322@gmail.com Turgay HAN , Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kafkas University, Kars/Turkey turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Selami AYDIN NecatiBey Education Faculty Department of English Language Teaching, Balıkesir University Balıkesir/Turkey selami.aydin@hotmail.com Abstract: While writing composition, Turkish EFL students sometimes confront punctuation and capitalization problems due to their L1 habits. Although such problems can be ignored if the learner is not trained for teaching the target language in future, it is not the case, most of the time, for a teacher candidate or a person expected to work or use it for his or her carrier; in this sense proficiency in Target language(here English) is inevitable. In the present study, punctuation and capitalization errors of the students, studying at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature, were determined and the errors stemming from L1 interference were recorded through exam papers as well as through inclass or out of class composition papers. A total of 300 papers written by 32, intermediate level students, (12 males, 20 females); attending the classes regularly, 225 papers written by 29 upper-intermediate level students (8 males and 21 females) were examined in this study. According to the result of the study both intermediate and upper-intermediate students committed fewer interference errors (20, 3 % and 17 %, respectively) than general errors and as the level increases, the rate of the interference decreases (20, 3 % for intermediate level students, whereas 17 % for upper-intermediate students). Keywords: punctuation errors, capitalization errors, Turkish EFL students, L1 interference, composition classes, Kafkas University. Introduction In academic life writing skill has a special importance as it is an active skill in evaluation the actual language competence of language learners. Yet, the students who study at English Language Departments are not enough trained in composing activities during their high school education since they are accepted to the universities by taking a general test (YDS ) in which there are grammar, translation, reading comprehension and some organization questions in paragraph, but there are no such active skills as writing and speaking skills test questions. On ground that, especially freshman students struggle for composing for some time till they get enough instruction on the issue how to compose. However, the writing skill courses do not always cover punctuation and capitalization topics in detail even they raise students’ awareness in linguistic skills as grammar and other organizational problems in composition. When it comes to mechanical issues in composing, there are lots of problems evident in exam papers of freshman students may be stemming from neglecting them but emphasizing other areas of linguistic categories. In this context, students fall in short conveying their ideas in wittings clearly, so, here, drawing their attentions to the punctuation and capitalization may be effective in getting rid of ambiguity in their written works. 279 �To express thoughts and ideas more clearly, to specify the structure of a sentence and also the pauses in a sentence; moreover to ease reading comprehension and to state the ways of intonation and stress on a sentence punctuation is crucial (Akalın et al. 2005: 32). Then, "good punctuation is crucial for successful academic writing. Many students’ essays use little punctuation beyond commas and full stops. But to be restricted to just two forms of punctuation mark, when writing your essay, is like building a house using only a hammer and a saw: you can do it; but not very well. By learning to use more, or all, of the available forms of punctuation you will be able to communicate and express your ideas, and arguments, more clearly (Collinson et al. 1998)." On the other hand, an effective writing should present some important signals to the reader to help to grasp the exact meaning or idea of it. In this context, it is claimed that: "punctuation is in large part a system of conventions the function of which is to assist the written language in indicating those elements of speech which cannot be conveniently set down on paper: chiefly pause, pitch, and stress (Markwardt 1942 cited in Nunberg 1990:11) . Limitations The mechanical errors but not other types of errors were examined and analysed in terms of interference. The Review of Literature Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) Contrastive language hypothesis declares that a learner’s L1 interferes with his or her acquisition of a second language, and that it, for that reason, comprises the most important difficulty to master a new language. CA maintains that when the structures of L1 are different from those of L2, errors that reflect the structure of L1 are committed. So, these types of errors are assumed to be the effect of L1 habits on L2 production (Dulay et al. 1982:97). Contrastive analysis also relies on structural linguistic. Davies underlines that “prior to the emergence of applied linguistics in the late fifties/early sixties, the combination of structural linguistics and behavioural psychology led to contrastive analysis approaches in language acquisition study and to behaviouristic methods of language teaching (repetition, habit formation, translation).”(Davies & Elder 2004:249) To sum up, according to Gass and Selinker (2008: 96-97), the assumptions that the contrastive analysis based on are as followings: 1. Contrastive analysis is based on a theory of language that claims that language is habit and that language learning involves the establishment of a new set of habits. 2. The major source of error in the production and/or reception of a second language are the native language. 3. One can account for errors by considering differences between the L1 and the L2. 4. A corollary to item is that the greater the differences, the more errors will occur. 5. What one has to do in learning a second language is learn the differences. Similarities can be safely ignored as no new learning is involved. In other words, what is dissimilar between two languages is what must be learned. 6. Difficulty and ease in learning are determined respectively by differences and similarities between the two languages in contrast. Also, CA puts forward the term interference which stems from unfamiliarity with the L2, that is to say, learner’s not having mastered L2 structures (Dulay et al. 1982:99). Moreover, it must be born in mind that the terms ‘interference’ and ‘transfer’ are important in CA. The former one means that “...due to the unfamiliarity with the L2, that is, to the learner’s not having learned target patterns...” ( Dulay et al. 1982:97) on the other hand, according to Lado (1957) the latter is about “...the grammatical structure of the native language tends to be transferred to the foreign language... we have here the major source of difficulty or ease in learning the foreign language .... Those structures that are different will be difficult.”(Lado 1957:58-59 cited in Dulay et al. 1982: 99). The term ‘transfer’ was elaborated by behaviourist psychologist as positive and negative transfer referring to such a process in which the automatic, uncontrolled, and subconscious past learned behaviours are used to construct new responses. Needless to say, negative transfer refers to the errors stemming from old, 280 �habitual behaviours that are different from new behaviours. On the other hand positive transfer is the correct performance of L2 learners the new behaviour is the same as old ones (Dulay et al. 1982:101). Error Analysis Ellis (1986) criticizes contrastive analysis and thinks that CAH fall in short to predict all the errors that learners’ commit. “First, there were the doubts concerning the ability of contrastive analysis to predict errors. These doubts arose when researchers began to examine language learners’ language in depth. Second, there were a number of theoretical criticisms regarding the feasibility of comparing languages and the methodology of contrastive analysis. Third, there were reservations about whether contrastive analysis had anything relevant to offer to language teaching (p.27).” Methodology Subjects 32, intermediate level students, (12 males, 20 females), attending the classes regularly, and 29 upperintermediate level students (8 males and 21 females) were the subjects of this study. Instruments A total of 300 papers written by 32, intermediate level students, and 225 papers written by 29 upper-intermediate level students were examined in this study. Procedure The composition papers were collected from January 5th 2009 to May 29th, 2009. The papers in question were from the compositions or paragraphs written at home as assignments and also written in class hours studies by the intermediate level prep class students. The collected paper was examined to signify only ‘mechanical errors’ and then the errors were counted and categorized. Finally, the results obtained by contrastive analysis were discussed in terms of interference. Research Questions o o Do L1 punctuation and capitalization interfere with L2 composition papers of Turkish EFL students? Does interference decrease as level of the students increase? Contrastive Usage of Some Punctuation Marks and Capitalisation When compared English punctuation system to Turkish, there exists some critical and completely different usages; therefore, errors of interference are abundant in the written production of the novice EFL writers. The below tables present the completely different usage of some punctuation marks between English and Turkish are given and supported by examples. Full Stop (.) Example English Usage Turkish Usage Common after abbreviations Dr. Laura √ √ Numbers 12.315 X √ Decimals 5.5 √ X To separate part of dates 29.05.2007 X √ Between hours and minutes 11.30 X √ Table 1. Uncommon usage of ‘full stop’ in both languages (English-Turkish) 281 �(Note: This table has been adapted from Akalın et al.(2005), Swan (2005 and English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) Comma Example English Usage Turkish Usage Co-ordinate Clause Dr. Laura √ X Subordinate Clause If you study hard, you will be successful. √ X Numbers 7,827 √ X X √ √ X √ X Decimals 3,5 Insert an additional comma before the final ‘and’ (or ‘or’) if needed for clarification (the Oxford comma): Sugar, beef and veal, and milk products Linked sentences. Use a comma to separate two sentences linked by a conjunction such as ‘but’, ‘yet’, ‘while’ or ‘so’ to form a single sentence: The committee dealing with the question of commas agreed on a final text, but the issue of semicolons was not considered. Table 2. Uncommon usage of ‘comma’ in both languages (English-Turkish) (Note: This table has been adapted from Akalın, Ş. et al.(2005), Swan (2005 and English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) Apostrophe Example Plurals of abbreviation do not take an apostrophe Plurals of figures do not take an apostrophe. MEPs, UFOs Pilots of 747s undergo special training. English Usage Turkish Usage √ X X √ Table 3. Apostrophe in English and Turkish (Note: This table has been adapted from Akalın, Ş. et al.(2005), Swan (2005 and English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) On the other hand, capitalisation is another challenging issue for the EFL students as Turkish has some different capitalization, particularly upper case of the letter ‘i’ can be traced on any written production easily which is the evidence of L1 interference. Capitalization Example English Usage Using lower case for job Laura, professor √ titles after name Using upper case of the ACCİDENTS X letter ‘i’ as ‘İ’ Table 4. Capitalisation in English and Turkish 282 Turkish Usage X √ �Problems in Punctuation for Learners of English Most of the language share some common usage of the punctuation and capitalization rules; however, there are also some uncommon rules that can be explained by the characteristics of the languages; especially, in Turkish, possessive markers with the pronouns carry different punctuation. Below the most probable mechanical errors of the EFL students’ production in the compositions and exam papers are tried to be explained (English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.13, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/) . 1. Its/It’s. Note that “its” is a possessive determiner (like mine, yours, his, hers, ours), whereas the -s in “it’s” is an abbreviation for is (it is). Do not confuse with the use of possessive –s (genitive), which is usually separated by an apostrophe: Peter’s thesis, the faculty’s students. 2. Seasons, etc. No capitals for spring, summer, autumn, winter; capitals for weekdays, months and feastdays: Tuesday, November, Christmas Day. 3. Numbers and fractions. Numbers take hyphens when they are spelled out. Fractions take hyphens when used attributively, but not when used as nouns: twenty-eight, two-thirds completed.” In English a hyphen is used to indicate fraction, however in Turkish derivational morphemes such as –lik, -lık, -luk, -lük are used. 4. Sometimes L2 learners overgeneralize contracted forms. For example; It had ≠ it’d It was ≠ It’s 5. Courtesy questions. No question mark is needed after a request or instruction put as a question for courtesy: Would you please sign and return the attached form? 6. Nouns ending in -s, including proper names and abbreviations, form their singular possessive with -’s, just like nouns ending in other letters. an actress’s pay; Mr Jones’s paper; Helios’s future is uncertain; AWACS’s success Discussion and Conlusion In this study we tried to seek answers to following research questions: 1.Do L1 punctuation and capitalization interfere with L2 composition papers of Turkish EFL students? 2.Does interference decrease as levels of the students increase? Level Intermediate TPs 300 TEs 221 G Es 176 % 79,7 Upper-intermediate 225 118 98 83 L1 IEs % 45 20,3 20 17 Table 5. Distribution of Error Types Depending on the Level of the Students Note: TPs= total papers; TEs= total errors; G Es= general errors; L1 IEs= L1 interference errors. The error types and levels of the students have been given in Table 5. According to the table, both intermediate and upper-intermediate students committed fewer interference errors (20,3 % and 17 %, respectively) than general errors. Another important result of the study is that as the level increases, the rate of the interference decreases (20,3 % for intermediate level students, whereas 17 % for upper-intermediate students). As a result of the study it is clear that EFL students are prone to commit punctuation and capitalization errors which can be traced to the drawback of learners’ L1. Even though the number of such errors isn’t so high and such errors can diminish as the level increases , for the immediate purposes such as passing the written exams during the study period one has to be proficient enough in using punctuation marks as well as capitalisation. Interference errors or errors of other types can be ignored if the students are learning English for the purposes other than teaching in the future, but if they are expected to teach in the target domain, they have to learn and use them properly. It is recommended that in order o avoid L1 interference Turkish EFL students 283 �should be taught punctuation marks and capitalisation comparatively and explicitly. References Akalın, Ş.H., Toparlı, R. Korkmaz, Z., Gözaydın, N. Zülfikar, H. and Yücel, B. (2005). Yazım Klavuzu. Ankara:Türk Dil Kurumu. Collinson I., Mort, P. & Downey, T.L. (1998), The Learning Centre, The University of New South Wales, http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/pdf/puct.pdf) Retrieved on 12th March, 2009. Davies, A., Elder C. (2004) The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. UK: Blackwell Publishing. Dulay, H., Burt, M.& Krashan, S.(1982). Language Two. NY: Oxford University Press. English Style Guide, University of Copenhagen, 2007, p.3, http://ordbog.ku.dk/pdf/styleguide.pdf/.Retrieved 0n 23rd March 2009. Gass, Susan M.&, Selinker, L. (2008). Second Language Acquisition, An Introductory Course. NY: Routledge. Marckwardt, A. H. (1942). Introduction to the English Language. New York: Oxford University Press. Nunberg, G. (1990), The Linguistics of Punctiation, CSLI Lecture Notes Number 18, Stanford, California: CSLI Publications. Robert, L. (1957), Linguistics Across Cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Pres. Swan, M. (2005).Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://www.languagechic.com/english_punctuation.html 284 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 355 Title A name given to the resource Punctuation And Capitalisation Errors Of Turkish Efl Students In Composition Classes: An Evidence Of L1 Interference Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer HAN, Turgay AYDIN, Selami Abstract A summary of the resource. While writing composition, Turkish EFL students sometimes confront punctuation and capitalization problems due to their L1 habits. Although such problems can be ignored if the learner is not trained for teaching the target language in future, it is not the case, most of the time, for a teacher candidate or a person expected to work or use it for his or her carrier; in this sense proficiency in Target language(here English) is inevitable. In the present study, punctuation and capitalization errors of the students, studying at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature, were determined and the errors stemming from L1 interference were recorded through exam papers as well as through inclass or out of class composition papers. A total of 300 papers written by 32, intermediate level students, (12 males, 20 females); attending the classes regularly, 225 papers written by 29 upper-intermediate level students (8 males and 21 females) were examined in this study. According to the result of the study both intermediate and upper-intermediate students committed fewer interference errors (20, 3 % and 17 %, respectively) than general errors and as the level increases, the rate of the interference decreases (20, 3 % for intermediate level students, whereas 17 % for upper-intermediate students). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/03717048f192b504f36d2263fd6255df.pdf 204b62ac992086847daabfc0b68c68d9 PDF Text Text THE ROLE OF PARAPHRASING IN PROMOTING SPEAKING ABILITIES OF TURKISH EFL STUDENTS Gencer ELKILIÇ, Kafkas University,Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, Turkey gencerelkilic1322@gmail.com Turgay HAN , Instructor, Kafkas University,Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, Turkey turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Doğan SALTAŞ Research Assist. Ardahan University, Faculty of Humanities, Department of English Language and Literature, Ardahan, Turkey sagitdo@hotmail.com Abstract: Promoting speaking skills is one of the most challenging tasks among EFL Turkish students, as it requires not only vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, but also enough amount of cultural information about the target language and correct sound formation. However, especially for the foreign language situation, it isn’t that easy to catch up with enough proficiency in Turkey if the environment isn’t a touristic place. This study, therefore, suggests that speaking skills of EFL learners can be promoted tremendously if the learners are given certain paraphrasing tasks in accordance with their language levels. To this end, 28 intermediate level students (10 males and 18 females) attending regularly to Kafkas University in Kars, Turkey, participated in this study. An oral pretest was given to the participants before starting the study. Throughout the study period the participants were given intermediate level short texts and were wanted to paraphrase them. At the end of the study the participants were given an oral test . According to the result of the study there was a significant difference between pre and posttest.(p=,01.). However, no difference was observed between males and females related to pretest and posttest. Keywords: Promoting Speaking, paraphrasing, Turkish EFL students, Kafkas University. Introduction It is well-known that among the four skills – listening, speaking, reading and writing – seems to be the most important and active..Thus, “for most people, the ability to speak a language is synonymous with knowing that language since speech is the most basic means of communication” (Lazaraton, 2001: 103). Besides its being so important, it is a challenging task for nonnative speakers since the beginning of foreign and second language teaching and learning. The reason why speaking is a challenging task for second language learners as well as for foreign language learners is that learners “must master several difficult microskills , including the pronunciation of unfamiliar phonemes, the correct placement of stress and intonation, and the appropriate use of formal and informal expressions” (Zhang, 2009: 32). In order to promote speaking abilities, numerous studies have been carried out (Hendrickson, 1980; Faerch and Kasper, 1984; Murphy, 1991; Riggenbach, 1999; Harvey and Goudvis, 2000; Lazaraton, 2001; Alptekin, 2002; Rybold, 2006;) , however no perfect method has been found yet. 89 �Background of the Study English language is the most commonly taught foreign language in Turkey, still the intended level is not promosing in both receptive (listening and reading) productive skills (speaking and writing). Because of the University placement tests given by the Higher Educational Council, students planning to attend to the departments of English language and Literature or of ELT and Linguistics, take intensive courses mostly emphasizing test skills rather than speaking or listening. Even while attending to the classes at Universities, in classes that utilize comprehension-based approaches to language teaching, grammar structures and vocabulary acquisition are stressed before speaking, if speaking is stressed at all. Statement of the Problem Despite having enough knowledge on grammatical structure, vocabulary and other aspects of English language, Turkish EFL students studying at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature in Turkey, most of the time don’t have the stimana to speak English in and out of classes. Purpose of the study The aim of this study is to search about the effectiveness of paraphrasing technique on promoting fluency in speaking skills. It is thought that paraphrasing can make the learners more active and self confident in using spoken English as well as other skills. Limitation This study is limited only to the fluency of the students pronunciation and intonation haven’t been taken into account. Review of Literature According to Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary paraphrase is “to express something that has been said or written in a different way, usually so that it is clearer”. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines it as “to express what sb has said or written using different words , especially in order to make it easier to understand”. So it is clear from both definitions that paraphrasing is primarily related with speaking skills. On the other hand, paraphrasing has been viewed as a student study skill (Fisk and Hurst 2003:182), however it can be used as a tool promoting speaking skills. According to Fisk and Hurst (2003),” … when students are taught a technique how to paraphrase a text , paraphrasing can strengthen comprehension of both fiction and nonfiction”(p .82). Study of speaking skills has been one of the most favourable subjects of methodology , therefore, “…with the advent of the theory of communicative competence and the practice of communicative language teaching, the teaching of oral communication skills as a contextualized socio-cultural activity has become the focal point in many ESL classrooms” (Lazaraton, 2001: 103). According to Chastain (1988)“…having students talk keeps them involved in the class and gives them the impression that their participation is important” (p.272), in doing so, students can be encouraged to participate in the classroom activities more frequently. Chastain maintains that “although productive practice does not contribute to learning, it does foster retention, which is an important component of learning” (Chastain, 1988:272). Methodology Participants Twenty-eight intermediate-level students (10 males and 18 females) at Kafkas University, in the Department of English Language and Literature served as participants. All participants received a statement of subjects anonymity and confidentiality before participating in the study. Materials Intermediate comprehension passages of Longman Publication written by Byrne( 1987) have been used as paraphrasing text for promoting speaking. Procedure 90 �The study started on 18th September 2008 and ended on 12 nd November. As the study was conducted during the regular class hours (3 hours a week), all the students attending to preparatory class participated in the study. At the beginning of the study, the participants were given an oral pretest in order to determine their levels. At the end of the study a post test was given. And the results have been given in tables in Data Analysis part. Data Analysis As seen in Table 1, 10 (35,7 %) of the participants were males, however, 18 (64%) were females. Table 1. Gender Distributions of the Participants. Frequ ency Percent Female 18 64,3 Male 10 35,7 Total 28 100,0 Table2. Descriptions and Correlations of Pre- and Posttest Scores N Minimum Maximum Pretest Scores 28 25,00 65,00 Posttest Scores 28 65,00 95,00 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. Mean 44,50 77,71 Std. Deviation 10,25 8,84 Pearson Correlation Sig. .48** ,01 According to Table 2, there is a significant difference between pretest and post-test.(p=,01.) When the means and significance levels are taken into consideration, it is clear that the grades of the participants increased significantly in the post-test. The use of paraphrasing for speaking purposes seems to have worked well. Table 3. The Relationships between Gender and Pre- and Post Test Scores Pretest Scores Posttest Scores Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Female 18 42,00 9,36 Male 10 49,00 10,73 Female 18 78,94 9,12 Male 10 75,50 8,32 F Sig. ,22 ,94 ,05 ,83 However when Table 3, is observed, it can be seen that there is no significant difference between pre-test and post-test related to genders of the participants. So it can be said that using paraphrasing for promoting speaking skills is the same for both males and females. Conclusion Developing speaking skills is one of the most difficult tasks of a foreign language learner, as it requires not only learning the way of the native speakers use a language, but also the structures and vocabulary of that language. In this sense, one basic thing in learning language is to speak it at least fluently as accuracy may follow during the later stages of the teaching-learning process. “… speaking invites feedback, either overt or covert, which is the basis upon which students make adjustments in their learned language system” (Chastain, 1988: 272). Although paraphrasing is mostly used in writing and reading tasks, it can, also, be used for promoting speaking skills. Therefore, as a result of the study it can be concluded that: 1.Praphrasing as a speaking technique should be taught to Turkish EFL students. 91 �2.The students should only concentrate on the fluency, at least for a certain time. 3.When the expected fluency is reached, other aspects of the language such as accuracy of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary choice as well as intonation should follow. References Alptekin, C.(2002).Towards Intercultural Communicative Competence in ELT.English language Teaching Journal, 56(1): 57-64. Byrne, D.(1987).Intermediate Comprehension Passages with recall exercises and aural comprehension tests. Singapore: Longman. Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary (2001).Cambridge:CUP. Faerch, C.& Kaspar, G.(1984). Two ways of Defining Communication Strategies.Language learning, 34: 45-63. Fisk, C. & Hurst, B. (2003).Parphrasing for Comprehension.The Reading Teacher, 57 (2):182+.Retrieved from www.questia.com on 22.01.1009. Harvey, S. & Goudvis, A.(2000). Strategies that work. Teaching Comprehension to Enhance Understanding. York, ME: Stenhouse. Hendrickson, J.M. (1980). Listening and Speaking Activities for Foreign language Learners. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 36:735-48. Lazaraton, A.(2001). Teaching Oral Skills (pp 103-115)In Marianne Celce –Murcia (ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.USA: Heinle & Heinle. Murphy, J.M. (1991). Oral Communication in TESOL: Integrating speaking, Listening and pronunciation. TESOL Querterly. 25(1):51-75. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary .(2004). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Riggenbach, H. (1999). Discourse Analysis in the Language Classroom.Volume I.The Spoken Language. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Rybold, G. (2006). Speaking, Listening and Understanding: Debate for Non-Native English Speakers.NY: International Debate Education Association. Zhang, Y. (2009).Reading to Speak: Integrating Oral Communication Skills.English Teaching Forum, 47(1): 32-34. 92 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 657 Title A name given to the resource THE ROLE OF PARAPHRASING IN PROMOTING SPEAKING ABILITIES OF TURKISH EFL STUDENTS Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer HAN, Turgay SALTAŞ, Doğan Abstract A summary of the resource. Promoting speaking skills is one of the most challenging tasks among EFL Turkish students, as it requires not only vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, but also enough amount of cultural information about the target language and correct sound formation. However, especially for the foreign language situation, it isn’t that easy to catch up with enough proficiency in Turkey if the environment isn’t a touristic place. This study, therefore, suggests that speaking skills of EFL learners can be promoted tremendously if the learners are given certain paraphrasing tasks in accordance with their language levels. To this end, 28 intermediate level students (10 males and 18 females) attending regularly to Kafkas University in Kars, Turkey, participated in this study. An oral pretest was given to the participants before starting the study. Throughout the study period the participants were given intermediate level short texts and were wanted to paraphrase them. At the end of the study the participants were given an oral test . According to the result of the study there was a significant difference between pre and posttest.(p=,01.). However, no difference was observed between males and females related to pretest and posttest. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/af5bc8d389b1d0e0c87aca4dfecae658.pdf f4b57ab94a1e46d58762e3f142364787 PDF Text Text A Study on Teacher Leadership Styles of Teacher Candidates Studying at the Departments of Secondary Education Muhammet Hanifi ERCOŞKUN Fatih BEKTAŞ Ahmet NALÇACI Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk University, Erzurum Turkey ercoskun@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this research is to determine teacher leadership styles of teacher candidates studying at the departments of secondary education. Sample of the study is composed of candidate teachers studying at the departments of secondary education in The Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk University. Candidate teachers from the departments of History, Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry studying 1st-5th grade have been chosen. “Teacher Leadership Styles Scale” has been used as data gathering tool. The gathered data has been analyzed with SPSS packaged software. Results of analysis have been presented as findings. Keywords: Teacher Leadership Styles, Secondary Education, Teacher Candidate Introduction Education provides manpower necessary for the development of a society. Leaders educated in education institutions leads the society. Most of the researches which was done was about leadership qualifications of schoolmasters (Akgün, 2001; Şahin, 2003; Kılıç, 2006), but there has been researches on leadership qualifications of teachers, though rare (Muijs & Harris, 2006; Frost & Harris, 2003). However, it seems that it is impossible to grow leaders without leading teacher in classroom. Therefore, it is important to research leadership qualifications of teachers for the development of societies. Leadership may be defined as guiding group actions in order to achieve a goal and effecting members of the group (Şimşek & Fidan, 2005, 41); having the ability to gather a group of people for the same purpose (Zel, 2006, 110); being capable of effecting others for certain objectives and stimulating them to take action (Şişman, 2004, 3). The common point of these definitions is that leadership has power to effect (Çelik, 2007, 1). When all of these taken into consideration, leadership in education and training is a qualification necessary not only for schoolmasters but also for teachers who guide the students and shape their behaviors. Various leadership theories have been formed about leadership. It is possible to separate leadership theories into 3 main titles. These are qualifications theory, behavioral theory and situational theory (Şişman, 2004, 5). In behavioral theories what the leader does and how he behaves others is important. In addition, according to behavioral approaches it is possible to educate people to be a leader (Çelik, 2007, 11; Celep, 2004, 11, Erçetin; 200, 31; Özden, 2005, 90). In this study, a scale which has been developed based on the approach which uses X and Y theory of McGregor as a base, being one of behavioral leadership theories has been used. According to X and Y theory of McGregor, thoughts of leaders about human behaviors can be separated into two opposite approaches (Deniz and Hasançebioğlu, 2003, 57). According to X theory defining classical management theory; 1. People do not like working and try to find ways to escape work. 2. People prefer to be directed and escape from responsibility. 3. People are selfish and prefer their own objectives to organizations objectives. 4. People do not like innovation and change and try to resist against these facts. 5. People’s creativity is limited in solving organizational problems. 6. Monetary award is needed for people to take action. 21 �According to Y theory in which individual and organizational objectives are combined, 1. It is as normal for people to make physical and spiritual effort as playing or resting. 2. If people become engaged in the organization and like their work and colloquies, they try to be more useful to the organization. 3. Ordinary people not only accept responsibility but also begin looking for it. 4. Ability and creativity is shared equally among people. 5. Specializing makes it possible to make use of abilities and skills, but it is limited to only some of them. Thus, McGregor tries to explain the importance of social relations in organizations (Eren, 2004, 26). It is thought that this study is important because knowing teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers will have affect on profiles of students who are going to be leaders in the future. Method Sample of the study is composed of candidate teachers studying at the departments of secondary education in The Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk University. Candidate teachers from the departments of History, Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry studying 1st-5th grade have been chosen. In this study, “Teacher Leadership Styles Scale” developed by Deniz and Hasançebioğlu (2003) has been used. In the end of the analysis done by these researches, internal consistency coefficient was found out 0,88. According to grade averages of the scale leadership styles of teachers have been found out that the teachers between 17-64 is autocratic/oppressive, the ones between 65-76 is semi-democratic and the ones between 77-85 democratic/participant. Findings Some findings about teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers are given as tables: Gender Male Female n X sd t p 164 147 66.59 67.24 7.092 6.367 -0.851 0.395 Table 1. Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation and t Value on Teacher Leadership Styles According to Gender Variable of Candidate Teachers There is not a significant difference between thoughts of candidate teachers about teacher leadership styles according to gender variable (0.05). This finding shows that gender variable does not affect teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers. Grade n X sd t p Grade 1 Grade 5 173 138 66.68 67.18 6.966 6.498 -0.654 0.514 Table 2. Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation and t Value on Teacher Leadership Styles According to Grades Variable of Candidate Teachers There is not a significant difference between thoughts of candidate teachers about teacher leadership styles according to grades variable (0.05). This finding shows that grades variable does not affect teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers. 22 �Departments n X sd Mathematics Geography History Chemistry Total 94 84 73 60 311 66.21 69.68 66.75 64.27 66.90 6.380 5.016 6.938 7.919 6.756 Table 3. Arithmetic Mean and Standard Deviation on Teacher Leadership Styles According to the Department Variable of Candidate Teachers When the table analyzed, it is possible to say that because the grade average that candidate teachers at the Departments of Mathematics, Geography and History got from the scale is 65-76, their teacher leadership style is semi-democratic, and because the grade average of candidate teacher at the Department of Chemistry is 17-64, their teacher leadership style is autocratic/oppressive. Variance Analysis Between Groups Within Groups Total Sum of Squares 1110.549 13039.361 14149.910 df 3 307 310 Mean Square 370.183 42.473 F p 8.716 0.000 Table 4. Variance Analysis on Teacher Leadership Styles of Candidate Teachers according to the Department Variable When the Table 4 is analyzed, it is seen that there is a significant difference of 0.05 between thoughts of candidate teacher on teacher leadership styles according to the department variable. Dunnett’s T3 Test has been done in order to find out between which groups there is a difference. Difference has been found out in favor of Geography among the departments of Geography, Mathematics, History and Chemistry. High School n X sd t p Teacher High School Others 44 267 66.43 66.98 5.724 6.918 -0.496 0.620 Table 5. Arithmetic Mean, Standard Deviation and t Value on Teacher Leadership Styles According to the High School Variable of Candidate Teachers There is not a significant difference between thoughts of candidate teachers about teacher leadership styles according to high school variable (0.05). This finding shows that high school variable does not affect teacher leadership styles of candidate teachers. Conclusions 1. There is a significant difference of 0.05 between thoughts of teacher candidates about teacher leadership styles according to gender, grade and high school variables. 2. It is possible to say that because the grade average that candidate teachers at the Departments of Mathematics, Geography and History got from the scale is 65-76, their teacher leadership style is semi-democratic, 23 �and because the grade average of candidate teacher at the Department of Chemistry is 17-64, their teacher leadership style is autocratic/oppressive. 3. It is seen that there is a significant difference of 0.05 between thoughts of candidate teacher on teacher leadership styles according to the department variable. Difference has been found out in favor of Geography among the departments of Geography, Mathematics, History, and Chemistry. Suggestions 1. There seem to be significant differences in favor of the Geography department within the pre-service teachers' departments. Further qualitative studies that focus on the reasons of these differences can be conducted. 2. This study can be broadened to include candidate teachers from different universities. References Akgün, N. (2001). İlköğretim Okulu Müdürlerinin Öğretimsel Liderliği, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi, Bolu. Celep, C. (2004). Dönüşümsel Liderlik, Anı Yayıncılık, Ankara. Çelik, V. (2007). Eğitimsel Liderlik, Pegema Yayıncılık, Ankara, 4. Baskı. Deniz, L. & Hasançebioğlu, T. (2003) Öğretmen Liderlik Stillerini Belirlemeye Yönelik Bir Ölçek Çalışması, Marmara Üniversitesi Atatürk Eğitim Fakültesi Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, Sayı 17, Sayfa: 55-62 Erçetin, Ş. Ş. (2000). Lider Sarmalında Vizyon, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara, Genişletilmiş 2. Baskı. Eren, E. (2004). Örgütsel Davranış ve Yönetim Psikolojisi, Beta Basım Yayım, İstanbul, 8. Bası. Frost, D. & Harris, A. (2003). Teacher Leadership: Towards a Research Agenda, Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol. 33, No. 3. Kılıç, G. (2006). Eğitim Kurumlarında Liderlik Tarzları ve Örgüt Kültürünün Performans Üzerindeki Etkisi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Erciyes Üniversitesi, Kayseri. Muijs, D. & Harris, A. (2006). Teacher Led School Improvement: Teacher Leadership in The UK, Teaching and Teacher Education, 22, 961–972. Özden, Y. (2005). Eğitimde Yeni Değerler, Pegema Yayıncılık, Ankara, 6. Baskı. Şahin, S. (2003). Okul Müdürlerinin Liderlik Stilleri ile Okul Kültürü Arasındaki İlişkiler, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. Şimşek, N. & Fidan, M. (2005) Kurum Kültürü ve Liderlik, Tablet Kitabevi, Konya. Şişman, M. (2004). Öğretim Liderliği, Pegema Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2. Baskı. Zel, U. (2006). Kişilik ve Liderlik, Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara, 2. Baskı. 24 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 314 Title A name given to the resource A Study on Teacher Leadership Styles of Teacher Candidates Studying at the Departments of Secondary Education Author Author ERCOŞKUN, Muhammet Hanifi BEKTAŞ, Fatih NALÇACI, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this research is to determine teacher leadership styles of teacher candidates studying at the departments of secondary education. Sample of the study is composed of candidate teachers studying at the departments of secondary education in The Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk University. Candidate teachers from the departments of History, Geography, Mathematics and Chemistry studying 1st-5th grade have been chosen. “Teacher Leadership Styles Scale” has been used as data gathering tool. The gathered data has been analyzed with SPSS packaged software. Results of analysis have been presented as findings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)