314 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9abd7525aa9d7024a3303c5f5788130c.pdf 04b737e855c4e1ec2672e3cfaa9d04b2 PDF Text Text Evaluation of a Vehicle Acceleration Behavior through Decision Tree Learning Đhsan Ö mür Bucak Fatih University, Engineering Faculty, Computer Engineering Department, 34500 Buyukcekmece,Istanbul, Turkiye ibucak@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The faster that a motor vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucial to its performance and handling. The acceleration of the vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the car handles during merging and evasive maneuvering. Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. The attractiveness of decision trees is due to the fact that, in contrast to neural networks, decision trees represent rules. Rules can readily be expressed so that humans can understand them after a brief explanation. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. Keywords: Vehicle Acceleration, Vehicle Dynamics, Decision Tree Learning, Machine Learning. Introduction A vehicle can go faster if it has more horsepower. In reality, there are many aspects to a vehicle acceleration besides it's horsepower. One other major aspectis vehicle weight.Ifthe vehicle weightislowered, itsacceleration, braking, and handling capabilites will beincreased. Given the same power and adequatetraction, a light vehicle will accelerate quicker than a heavier vehicle. Figure 1 shows such an acceleration performance, specifically 0-60 mph (=26.66 m/s) passing time, for various vehicle weights from 1100 kg to 1700 kg with all other parameters unchanged on a simple vehicle dynamics modelrealized on Matlab-Simulink (Matlab, 2008). A very quick street or race car usually combines excellent power with less weight. The most current vehicle dynamics controllers attempt to ensure stability by keeping lateral acceleration, sometimes, longitudinal acceleration, and yaw within reasonable bounds (Bauer, 1999a; 1999b; Jurgen, 1999; Karri and Butler, 2002). The faster that a vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucialto its performance and handling. The acceleration of a vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the vehicle performs during merging and evasive maneuvering. The launching performances are the acceleration performance with variousthrottle positions and the transient characteristics of vehiclecreep and throttletip-in. Every time a new or redesigned performance car enters the marketplace,itis accompanied by a number; specifically,the number of seconds it takes to reach 60 miles per hour (26.66 meters per second) from a standing start. So many drivers want to push that pedal allthe way to the metal, as much of the time as possible; because they do not want to have trouble merging into an expressway or take endless seconds to pass another vehicle on a two-lane road. Weak acceleration is an issue that needs to be addressed when minicars,including those powered by batteries, begin to emerge into the world market. What matters is not the ability to reach 60 miles per hour in a few seconds. Allthat countsisthe abilityto accelerate at midrange speeds:from 30 to 50 mph, or 50 to 70 mph. That is where energetic acceleration has a valid purpose, and is essential for safe motoring. Charts display acceleration times not only from 0 to 60 mph, but for a selection of useful speed ranges. Road tests include a broad set oftimed acceleration runs. Excess acceleration and deceleration need to be detected and mitigated within the required response time particularlyinthe case of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).There are a variety of simulation programs developed toinvestigatethelaunching performance in variouslaunching conditionsthrough the use of mathematical models of each driveline component (Kim, 2005). Automotive manufacturers use such performance programs to evaluate their vehicles during product design and development stages so that they can meet the stringent govermentalregulations on performance,fuel economy, and emissions before the vehicleis actuallylaunched to the marketplace. Practical evaluation of acceleration behavior through the rulistic expression of decision trees helps to expose the major factors that affectthe performance-related design parameters so thatthe redesign can be made more productively and effectively in orderto prevent vehicle recalls and/or customer dissatisfaction. 395 �0-26.66 m/s passing time for various vehicle weights 100 90 80 1100 kg 1300 kg 1500 kg 1700 kg Vehicle speed m/s 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Time s 60 70 80 90 100 Figure 1. Acceleration performance for various vehicle weights. This paperis based on decision tree learning used to evaluate vehicle dynamic parameters for describing an accelerating vehicle behavior. The remaining of the paper is arranged as follows. Section 2 briefly explains the basics of the decision tree learning including the definition, the construction, attributes as classifiers, entropy and information gain. Section 3 describes the method. Section 4 presents the numerical experiments and simulations. Finally, conclusions are drawn in Section 5. Decision Tree Learning Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. One of the several advantages of decision trees is that they are simple to understand and interpret. This is mainly due to the fact that,in contrastto neural networks, decision trees represent rules. These rules can readily be expressed so that people can understand them after a brief explanation (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Decision tree learning, used in data mining and machine learning, uses a decision tree as a predictive model which maps observations about an item to conclusions about the item's target value. More descriptive names for such tree models are classification tree (discrete outcome) or regression tree (continuous outcome). In these tree structures, leaves represent classifications and branches represent conjunctions of features that lead to those classifications (Breiman et al., 1984; Yuan and Shaw, 1995; Mitchell, 1997; Berikov and Litvinenko, 2003; Menzies and Hu, 2003, Wikipedia, 2009). Decision tree is a classifier in the form of a tree structure, where each node is either (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001): • a leaf node -indicatesthe value ofthe target attribute (class)of examples, or • a decision node - specifies some test to be carried out on a single attribute-value, with one branch and sub-tree for each possible outcome ofthe test. A decision tree can be used to classify an example by starting atthe root ofthetree and moving through it untilaleaf node, which providesthe classification oftheinstance. Most algorithms that have been developed for learning decision trees are variations on a core algorithm that employs a top-down, greedy search through the space of possible decision trees. Decision tree programs construct a decision tree from a set of training cases (Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). The estimation criterion in the decision tree algorithm is the selection of an attribute to test at each decision node in the tree. The goalisto selectthe attribute thatis most useful for classifying examples. A good quantitative measure of the worth of an attribute is a statistical property called information gain that measures how wella given attribute separatesthetraining examples according totheirtarget classification. This measure is used to select among the candidate attributes at each step while growing the tree.In orderto define information gain precisely, we need to define a measure commonly used in information theory, called entropy, that characterizes the (im)purity of an arbitrary collection of examples. Given a set S, containing only positive and negative examples of some target concept (a 2 class problem), the entropy of set S relative to this simple, binary classification is defined as: Entropy( s ) = − p p log 2 p p − pn log 2 pn , (1) where pp is the proportion of positive examples in S and pn is the proportion of negative examples in S (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). One interpretation of entropy from information theory is thatit specifies the minimum number of bits of 396 �information needed to encode the classification of an arbitrary member of S (i.e., a member of S drawn at random with uniform probability). For example, if pp is 1, the receiver knows the drawn example will be positive, so no message need be sent, and the entropy is 0. On the other hand, if pp is 0.5, one bitis required to indicate whether the drawn example is positive or negative. If pp is 0.8, then a collection of messages can be encoded using on average less than 1 bit per message by assigning shorter codes to collections of positive examples and longer codes to lesslikely negative examples (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). If the target attribute takes on c different values rather than the special case discussed above where the target classification takes on 2 different values, i.e., binary, then the entropy of S relative to this c-wise classification is defined as c Entropy( S ) = ∑ − pi log 2 pi , (2) i =1 where pi isthe proportion of S belonging to classi. Note the logarithm is still base 2 because entropy is a measure of the expected encoding length measured in bits. Note also that if the target attribute can take on c possible values,the maximum possible entropy islog2 c (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Given entropy as a measure of the impurity in a collection of training examples, we can now define a measure of the effectiveness of an attribute in classifying the training data. The measure we will use, called information gain,is simply the expected reduction in entropy caused by partitioning the examples according to this attribute. More precisely, the information gain, Gain (S, A) of an attribute A, relative to a collection of examples S,is defined as Sv Gain( S , A ) = Entropy( S ) − Entropy( Sv ) (3) ∑ v∈Value( A ) S where Values(A)isthe set of allpossible values for attribute A, and Sv isthe subset of S for which attribute A has value v (i.e.,Sv = {s  S | A(s) = v}). Note the firstterm in the equation for Gain isjustthe entropy of the original collection S and the second term isthe expected value ofthe entropy after S is partitioned using attribute A. Gain (S,A) is therefore the expected reduction in entropy caused by knowing the value of attribute A. Put another way, Gain(S,A) is the information provided about the target attribute value, given the value of some other attribute A. The value of Gain(S,A) is the number of bits saved when encoding the target value of an arbitrary member of S, by knowing the value of attribute A (Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). The process of selecting a new attribute and partitioning the training examples is now repeated for each non-terminal descendant node,this time using only the training examples associated with that node. Attributes that have been incorporated higher in the tree are excluded, so that any given attribute can appear at most once along any path through the tree. This process continues for each new leaf node until either of two conditions is met: 1. every attribute has already been included along this path through the tree, or 2. the training examples associated with this leaf node all have the same target attribute value (i.e.,their entropy is zero). Practical issues in learning decision trees include determining how deeply to grow the decision tree, handling continuous attributes, choosing an appropriate attribute selection measure, handling training data with missing attribute values, handing attributes with differing costs, and improving computational efficiency. Overfitting is a significant practical difficulty for decision tree learning and many otherlearning methods. There are several approaches to avoiding overfitting in decision tree learning (Schaffer, 1991; Mitchell 1997; Gamberger and Smuc, 2001). Method and Data Vehicle dynamics describes the forces acting on the vehicle that resultin its motion. Tractive effort and resistance are the two primary opposing forces that determine the performance characteristics of road vehicles. The engine in the vehicle supplies the tractive-effort force, and the magnitude of this force is restricted by internalfriction losses. The difference between thetractive effortand the resulting resisting forceisthe netthrust Fnet available for accelerating vehicle. The forces of air resistance, rolling resistance, grade resistance, and friction resistance oppose the engine tractive force and limit the acceleration capability of the vehicle (Wong, 1978; Snare, 2002). Maximum tractive force, Ftotal,isthe maximum amount of force thatthe engine can supply to the tires of the drive axles. Therefore,the maximum tractive force delivered to the tires ofthe drive axlesinthe chosen gear combination can be expressed as follows: Ftotal = ( Tm .Tr .Rr .Rn .Grx ) / Ts , (4) where Tm represents maximum torque (Nm), Tr transfer case or auxiliary gear box ratio, Rr final drive ratio, 397 �Rn drive axles efficiency (%),Gr1 gear ratio forthe first gear (i.e.,x=1), and Ts tire size (radius) (m). Required pullforce, Freq,isthe force required to cause the vehicleto roll. Hence,the required pullforce is calculated by the following equation: Freq = overcome friction + Accelerate+ C lim b slope or, (5) Freq = µ R .W g . cos( sl ) + ( W g / g ).a + W g . sin( sl ) , where µ R represents coefficient of rolling friction, Wg gross vehicle weight (mTon), g gravitation ( m / s ) ,and sl maximum slope in route (degree). In this paper acceleration behavior is evaluated based on the 37500 data, which are formed by the combination ofthe maximum torque, weight, gear ratio,finaldrive ratio, maximum slope and tire size variables. These variables,also known as attributes,are expressed inthe form of one-dimensional arrays. The same number of elements of each attribute array represents a dynamic parameters of a unique vehicle. Thereforethe number of different vehicletypesinthe evaluation processis determined by the size ofthe arrays, allin equallength. Drive axles efficiency is taken constant that is set at 90%. The efficiency slightly reduces due to internal friction although the absolute traction between tires and road surface increases. Coefficient of rolling friction is also considered constant,and is set at 0.03 valid for most ordinary cartires on asphalt pavements. The other constant parameter is transfer case. Transfer case or auxiliary gear is intended to select two wheel drive or four wheel drive operations and may contain one or more sets of low range gears. Low range gears slow down the vehicle and increase the torque available at the axles. Therefore, they are used during slow speed or extreme off road maneuvers. Although on all drive sports cars this feature is absent, we still consider the equations that include the transfer case ratio, but we decide to setthe ratio 1:1 for allthe vehicle types considered. However,transfer case ratio has had no effect on our conclusions when we setit at 2:1 for the purpose to exhibit and observe its role in describing the complete acceleration behavior. Itis assumed thatthe first gear is engaged as the lowest gear and used as such in the entire calculations. The limits of acceleration variable forthe evaluations have been determined through acceleration vs speed charts (Snare, 2002). The speed calculations have not taken into account any environmentalforces such as wind or state (and incline) ofthe road. 2 Numerical Experiments and Simulations In this study there are seven determined attributes used to evaluate the vehicle acceleration behavior. These attributes are maximum acceleration, weight,torque,gear ratio,final drive ratio,tire size, and slope. The attributes are used to calculate the leaf and decision nodes, and the branches in the tree are formed by the attribute values, which are simply one-dimensional array elements. Each element holds a unique branch value. For each and every acceleration value in the acceleration array, the difference between the total tractive force and the required pullforce is checked whetherthe resulting difference between the forces is sufficient enough to accelerate the vehicle when needed on the road. If the difference is positive, the further analysis is done to determine the effects ofthe variables mentioned previously and hence evaluate acceleration behavior(usually for maximum acceleration) as the acceleration is varied between its predetermined minimum and maximum limits. Therefore,the objective ofthis paperisto develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of personal motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. In this study we use the ID3 algorithm (Quinlan, 1986) to learn the decision tree by constructing them topdown, beginning withthe root node ofthetree. The bestvariable (attribute) has been selected and used as the test at the root node of the tree. A descendant of the root node is then created for each possible value of this attribute, and the training examples are sorted to the appropriate descendant node. The entire process is then repeated using the training examples associated with each descendant node to selectthe best attribute to test at that point in the tree (greedy search policy) (Mitchell, 1997). We must note that the gain can be negative. A negative gain indicates thatthe cost of using the statisticalinformation is more than the cost of determining the path at each node (Rontogiannis and Dimopoulos, 1995). The decision tree in Figure 2 shows the entire tree to classify by sorting the problem through the tree to the appropriate leaf node, then turning classification associated with this leaf (in this case Yes or No). Figure 3 shows the 30% post pruned decision tree (Mitchell, 1997; Esposito, Malerba, and Semeraro, 1997). Both figure sets the depth of the tree to three to view the tree better since the branch numbers getintermingled as the depth isincreased. Yes in the tree indicates the value of thetarget attribute (class) of examples, which, also means thatthe difference between the totaltractive force and the required pullforceis sufficient enough to acceleratethe vehicle when needed on the road, and the magnitude of this difference will always be positive. No indicates that no such force for a given acceleration can be produced by the engine and therefore vehicle cannot accelerate for a given conditions, and the magnitude ofthis difference will always be zero or negative. 398 �The leaf and decision nodes receive their values, which, in this case, are shown in numbers by the program, according to the variable organization sequence during the software loop execution and represent attributes. Therefore, ‘1’ represents maximum acceleration, ‘2’ maximum slope, ‘3’ gross vehicle weight, ‘4’ maximum torque, ‘5’ gear ratio,‘6’ final drive ratio, and finally ‘7’ tire size. The numbered branches indicate the valuesinthe attribute array in the order from lefttothe rightthatthe specific branches belong to as shown in Table 1. 1 2 3 4 Accel (m/s^2) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 W (mTon) 1.0728 1.696 1.999 1.379 1.192 sl (deg) arctan(0.0 1) 145.1 arctan(0.03 ) 332.2 atctan(0.0 5) 375.6 244.1 173.6 3.615 4.056 0.2997 4.484 3.16 0.34544 3.06 3.42 0.3746 3.50 3.812 0.3327 3.143 4.765 0.317 5 Tm (Nm) Gr1 Rr Ts (m) 5 Table 1. Branch numbers and their values forthe selected attributes. Conclusions In this paper the most effective parameters or variables for describing an accelerating vehicle behavior have been assessed by using decision tree learning. Having analyzed the 37500 data by the fully complete and post pruned decision tree, we conclude that the maximum torque that the engine can produce is the main significantfactorin determining an accelerating vehicle behavior and always ends up atthe root node ofthe tree regardless of the several trials with different initial parameters. Moving down the tree branch, the maximum acceleration comes up asthe second significant variableto describe an accelerating vehicle behavior.Inthe third subtree level,the vehicle weight, and in the fourth, the final drive ratio seem to emerge other most significant ones. Lastly, gear ratio,tire size, and maximum slope in route are the least significant ones, depending on their defined ranges, as compared to others. These conclusions have been obtained after many runs with different initial set-ups for mainly train size, test size, and prune size parameters of the decision tree algorithm. Of the 37500 data, 50% to 80% has been chosen as train size, 3% to 10% as test size, and 30% to 50% as prune size in different occasions to come to the above conclusion. For a vehicleto be really quick,these conclusions suggestthatitisimportantto pay attention to variables like torque, horsepower, desired maximum acceleration, gear ratios, transmission selection, traction, weight. Specifically, maximum performance in longitudinal acceleration of a motor vehicle may be determined by tire traction limit atlow speeds other than engine power which may be accounted at high speeds (Gillespie, 1992). All of these factors work in harmony with each other to create a signature acceleration rate. Once the major components arein place,the nextthing would be to tune the combination to create an optimu m acceleration. 399 �References Bauer, H. (1999a) ESP Electronic Stability Program, Technical Instruction, Robert Bosch GmbH, Society of Automotive Engineers. Bauer, H. (1999b) Driving Safety Systems, Robert Bosch GmbH, Society of Automotive Engineers. Berikov, V. and Litvinenko, A. (2003) Methods for statistical data analysis with decision trees, Sobolev Institute of Mathematics, Novosibirsk. Breiman, L., Friedman, J., Olshen, R. A. and Stone, C. J. (1984) Classification and regression trees, Wadsworth. Esposito, F., Malerba, D. and Semeraro, G. (1997) ‘A Comparative Analysis of Methods for Pruning Decision Trees’, IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 19, pp. 476-491. Gamberger D. and Šmuc, T. (2001) Data Mining Server Available at http://dms.irb.hr/, Zagreb, Croatia: Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Laboratory for Information Systems. Gillespie, T. D. (1992) Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. Jurgen, R. K. (1999) Automotive Electronics Handbook, 2nd Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers. Karri, V. And Butler, D. (2002) ‘Using artificial neural networks to predict vehicle acceleration and yaw angles’, In: Wang, L., Rajapakse, J.C., Fukishima, K., Lee, S. And Yao, X. (eds.), Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Neural Information Processing (ICONIP'02) , Vol. 4. Kim, J. (2005) ‘Launching Performance Analysis of a Continuously Variable Transmission Vehicle With Different Torsional Couplings’, Journal of Mechanical Design, 127, pp. 295-301. Matlab (2008), Matlab Inc. R2008b. Menzies, T. and Hu, Y. (2003) ‘Data Mining For Very Busy People’, IEEE Computer, pp. 18-25. Mitchell, T. M. (1997) Machine Learning, McGraw-Hill International Editions. Quinlan, J. R. (1986) ‘Induction of decision trees’, Machine Learning, 1, pp. 81-106. Rontogiannis A. and Dimopoulos, N. J., (1995) ‘A probabilistic approach for reducing the search cost in binary decision trees’, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 24, pp. 362-370. Schaffer, C. (1991) ‘When does overfitting decrease prediction accuracy in induced decision trees and rule sets? Machine Learning’ — EWSL-91, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, pp. 192-205. Snare, M. C. (2002) Dynamics model for predicting maximum and typical acceleration rates of passenger vehicles, M.Sc. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA. Wikipedia (2009). Decision tree learning. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree_learning 31/3/2009]. Wong, J. Y. (1978) Theory of Ground Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Yuan, Y. and Shaw, M. J. (1995), ‘Induction of fuzzy decision trees’, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 69, pp. 125–139. 400 [accessed �3 4 2.5 1 2 1 1.5 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 1 1 3 3 3 3 0.5 12345 12345 12345 12345 yes 0 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes nonoyes yes nonononononononono 0 10 20 2 3 4 5 3 4 5 1 1 1 1 1234 1234 1234 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 30 yes yes 2 3 4 1 1 1234 1234 1 5 yes 1 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 50 40 60 yes 2 3 1 4 1 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 12345 yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes noyes yes nonoyes yes yes yes yes yes yes noyes yes nononoyes nononono 70 80 90 100 Figure 2. The decison tree output for an accelerating vehicle. 3 4 2.5 1 2 1 1.5 yes 3 4 yes 5 yes 1 12 3 4 1 yes 3 0.5 0 2 1 2 34 3 no yes 3 12345 12345 0 yes no no yes yes yes no no no no 10 20 3 3 12345 12345 12345 30 40 50 60 70 80 yes yes no yes yes yes no no yes yes yes no no no no 90 100 Figure 3. The output ofthe 30% pruned decison tree for an accelerating vehicle. 401 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 518 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of a Vehicle Acceleration Behavior through Decision Tree Learning Author Author Bucak, İhsan Ömür Abstract A summary of the resource. The faster that a motor vehicle can accelerate to a high velocity is crucial to its performance and handling. The acceleration of the vehicle is important to know because it tells us how the car handles during merging and evasive maneuvering. Decision trees are powerful and popular tools for classification and prediction. The attractiveness of decision trees is due to the fact that, in contrast to neural networks, decision trees represent rules. Rules can readily be expressed so that humans can understand them after a brief explanation. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to develop a systematic method using decision trees of machine learning to evaluate acceleration behavior of motor vehicles based on the forces acting on the vehicle, i.e. vehicle dynamics. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/29644d5fcdac64ccf6fbedee93f563c8.pdf c98ff7b2b7352c162ec100f45b393af2 PDF Text Text Balkan Savaşı Hikâyelerinden Yansıyan Çocuk ve Kadınlar Şeyma BÜYÜKSAVAŞ KURAN Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Samsun. bkavasseyma@hotmail.com. Özet: Osmanlı hâkimiyetinde iken huzur içinde yaşamalarına rağmen Sırp, Bulgar, Rum, Arnavut ve Karadağlılar, milliyetçilik akımının yayılması ve bazı büyük devletlerin kışkırtmasıyla farklı zamanlarda Osmanlı’ya karşı ayaklanırlar, savaş açarlar. Bu süreçte 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı ve 1912-1913 Balkan Savaşları ile Balkanlar Osmanlı’dan kopar. Bu kopuş sırasında yaşanan savaşlarda eli silah tutan Türk ve Müslüman erkekler vatanlarını, namuslarını kurtarmak amacıyla cephelere koşarken arkalarında savunmasız yaşlılar, analar, hamile taze gelinler ve her yaştan çocuk bırakmak zorunda kalmışlardır. Erkekler savaşta bin türlü vahşetin içinde şehitliğe ererken arkada açlık, korku ve gözyaşıyla bıraktıkları kişiler, asırların görmediği soykırımı ve sürgünü yaşarlar. Balkan Savaşları sırasında yaşanan bu olaylar belli başlı yönleriyle tarihin kanlı ve tozlu sayfalarında yerlerini alırken edebiyat da bu yaşananları fert düzeyinde bir taraftan ve daha çok da şiirle, diğer taraftan da hikâye ve romanla dile getirmekte, bu insanlık dramını nesilden nesile anlatmaya devam etmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Balkan Savaşı yıllarında kaleme alınmış hikâyeler, cephe gerisinde kalan çocuk ve kadınların durumları açısından ele alınacaktır. Yüzyıllar boyunca savaşın en çirkin yüzüne maruz kalan kadın ve çocukların Balkan Savaşındaki durumları, o döneme ait hikâyeler yardımıyla resmedilecektir. 1908-1918 yılları arasında kaleme alınan bu hikâyelerin bazılarında; babaları, eşleri ya da oğulları savaşa gittikten sonra yurtlarında kalan kadın ve çocukların yaşadıkları binbir çeşit eziyet ve yok edilme konu edilmektedir. Yine bu kadın ve çocuklardan yurtlarından kopup Anadolu’ya sığınmak üzere sürgün yolculuğuna çıkan ya da Anadolu’ya ulaşmayı başarabilenlerin de ölüm, korku, açlık ve kimsesizlik uçurumunda kayboldukları dile getirilmektedir. Annesini, kardeşlerini korumak zorunda kalan on üç yaşında çocuk erkekler, Anadolu’ya geldiklerinde çeşitli sebeplerle hayal kırıklıkları yaşayan göçmen hanımlara da yine bu sayfalarda tesadüf edilmektedir. Anahtar kelimeler: Balkan Savaşı, hikâye, kadın, çocuk . Balkan savaşı hikâyelerinden yansıyan Çocuk ve kadınlar Osmanlı bilindiği gibi çok uluslu bir devletti. Milliyetçilik akımının ortaya çıkmasına kadar bu uluslar Osmanlı Devleti’nde milli varlıklarını koruyarak memnun bir halde yaşamakta idiler. Milliyetçilik akımının yayılmasıyla birlikte Balkanlarda yaşayan farklı uluslar ayaklanmaya başlamışlar Balkanlar’da ayrı bir politikası olan Ruslar tarafından da kışkırtılmışlardır. Bu süreçte bağımsızlıklarını kazanan Bulgaristan, Yunanistan, Karadağ ve Sırbistan birleşerek Türkler’i Avrupa’dan kovmak amacıyla Osmanlı’ya savaş açarlar. 1912-1913 tarihlerinde gerçekleşen bu savaşın sonunda Londra Barış Antlaşması’yla Osmanlı Devleti Trakya’daki topraklarını kaybeder. Savaş sonunda çıkar kavgasına düşen Balkan Devletleri’nin arasındaki savaşı fırsat bilen Osmanlı Devleti II. Balkan savaşına katılarak İstanbul Antlaşması’nı imzalar ve I. Balkan Savaşı’nda kaybettiği bazı toprakları geri alır. Görüldüğü gibi tarihi olaylar başlangıç, bitiş ve sonuç itibariyle özetlendiğinde bir iki paragrafa sığabiliyor. Oysaki bu dönemde insan, fert düzeyinde yaşananların tahminlerimizden ve anlayışımızdan yazık ki çok uzak olduğunu ve tam anlamıyla, gerçek boyutlarıyla dile getirilemediğini söylemek gerek. Günümüz dünyasında yaşanan ve neredeyse naklen izleyebildiğimiz savaşların içler acısı görüntüleri bu hali bir parça olsun yansıtabilmektedir. 93 Harbi olarak bilinen 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı’yla Balkanlar’da başlayan soykırım hiç aralık vermeden Balkan Savaşları’yla devam etmiş “Osmanlı’nın, Balkanlar’daki altı yüzyıllık tarihinin evlatları olan Balkan Türkleri, bu iki harpte insanlık tarihinin en kanlı etnik temizliğine ve sürgününe maruz kalmışlardır.”37 Erkeği, kadınıyla yaşlısı çocuğuyla binlerce insan vatanlarından sürülmüş, binlercesi insanlığı utandıracak vahşetle, katliamla karşı karşıya kalmışlardır. Bugün tarihi belgelere dayandırılmadan, araştırma ve incelemeye yanaşılmadan Türkler aleyhine ortaya iddialar atılırken Balkan Savaşı öncesinde ve sonrasında yaşananlar ne sorgulanmakta ne de gündem işgal etmektedir. Tarihin tozlu sayfaları bu konuda derin bir suskunluk yaşarken bu 37 Nesîme Ceyhan, Balkan Savaşı Hikâyeleri, s. 18. 413 �katliamı yaşayan milletin fertleri de ateşten ateşe atıldığı, beladan belaya uğradığı için hangi bir derdine yanacağını şaşırmış bir halde gözyaşları içinde kalmıştır. Tarihin sustuğu noktada konuşmaya başlayan edebiyat, Balkan Savaşı yıllarında yaşanan acıyı, çekilen çileyi, şiir ve hikâye gibi türlerle günümüze dek anlatmaya devam eder. Özellikle bu dönemde -az sayıda olsa da- yazılmış hikâyelerde Balkan Savaşları’nın sıradan insana yansıyan yüzünü görebilmek mümkündür. Evini, ocağını yaşlı anasını, eşini ve yeni doğmuş çocuğunu bırakıp giden nice Türk gencinin çilesi, kahramanlığı bu hikâyelerde dile gelirken savaş cehenneminde kavrulan nice kadın ve çocuk da “enkaz-ı beşer” gibi bu hikâyelerin sayfalarında savrulur. Bu çalışmada bahsi geçen hikâyelerdeki kadın ve çocuklar ele alınacaktır. Oğlunu, kocasını, damadını, nişanlısını savaşa gönderen; namusunu, çocuklarını korumak amacıyla cephe gerisinde ayrı bir savaş veren, kimsesizlikle, açlıkla, hastalıkla, bin bir çeşit korku ve tehlikeyle mücadele eden kadınların ve yaşamak, güvende olmak, bir ana babaya sahip olmak, beslenmek, barınmak gibi temel ihtiyaçlarından mahrum kalan çocukların savaş denilen canavarın dişleri arasından nasıl kayıp gittiği hikâyelerden seçilen örneklerle gösterilecektir. Savaşın Şahitleri ve Kurbanları: Çocuklar Balkan hikâyelerine çocuk konusu çerçevesinde bakıldığında bu hikâyelerde yer alan çocukların dünya yüzünde gördükleri ve yaşadıkları tek gerçeğin savaş ve onun sonuçları olduğunu söylemek gerekir. Neler olup bittiğini pek anlamasalar da yaşananlardan en fazla etkilenen çocuklardır. Daha Balkan Savaşları başlamadan önce Osmanlı’nın elinden çıkmış topraklarda yaşanan şu olayları korku dolu gözlerle izlerler: Göçe zorlanan insanlar eşyalarını satılığa çıkarmışlardır. Bulgarlar kaleleri yıkmaya devam eder. Kimsesiz ve korumasız kalan Türkler birbirlerine sığınırlar. Kahvelerde hicret edenlerden bahsedilir, gelen mektuplar okunur. Her akşam birileri daha vedalaşır, helalleşir, gidenlerin ardından dualar edilir. Camilerde kalabalık cemaatle namazlar kılınır, Allah’a yalvarılır, hazin sureler okunur, Fatiha’yla ruhlar teselli bulur. Bir gün kalelerdeki toplarını almak için İstanbul’dan Türk askerleri gelir ve Vidin kalesi dibinde boru çalar. Çaldıkları borudan yükselen ses ile Vidinliler, Osmanlı günleri geri geldi, Tuna tekrar Osmanlı Devleti’nin oldu sanıp bir dakikalığına sevinip, heyecanlanır, çocuklar koşturur. Fakat bir anlık sevinçten sonra bunun gerçek olamayacağını, Vidin’de tekrar Türk sancağının dalgalanamayacağını ve bu kale dibinde böyle bir borunun bir daha çalınamayacağını fark ederek ümitsizlik ve matem içinde kalırlar. Tüm bu yaşananlara bir çocuk şahit olmakta ve onları dile getirmektedir. Balkan Savaşı hikâyelerinde babası savaşa gidince anneleriyle ve evin yaşlılarıyla kalan bebekler ve çocukların fazlalığı dikkat çeker. Savaşı, toprağı, vatanı, idrak edemeyecek yaşta olan bu çocuklar ya annelerinin kollarından zorla kopartılarak fırınlarda yakılır, süngü ya da dipçik darbeleriyle annelerinin gözleri önünde öldürülür, ya da boğazları kesilir. Bunlar arasında daha dünyaya gelmeden annesinin karnında iken öldürülen ya da yakılan çocuklar da vardır. Pek çok çocuk düşman askerleri tarafından çeşitli yollarla öldürüldükten sonra şefkatli bir mezar toprağına dahi kavuşamaz ve cesetleri yırtıcı hayvanlar tarafından parçalanır. Yaşı biraz daha büyük olan çocuklar; annelerini, köylerini savunmak için gayret ederler. Ama onlar da kardeşlerinin akıbetinden kurtulamazlar ya samanlığın içinde yanarak ya da düşmanın çok çeşitli silahlarıyla vurularak şehit olurlar. Sekiz yaşından küçük kızların çirkin ve zayıfları öldürülür, güzel ve kuvvetlileri vaftizlenerek Bulgaristan’a gönderilir. Hikâyelerde çok sayıda çocuğun zehirlenerek öldürüldüğü Yunanlı bir askerin defterinde şöyle anlatılır: “Bütün bakkallar Türk çocuklarına şeker satarken içine selimani pastilleri karıştırıyor. Çocuklar da bu suretle derhal sancılanıyor, ölüyor. Ne yapalım, kolera!” (Kanlı Sahifeler, s.162) Görüldüğü gibi çocukların biyolojik silah yöntemiyle öldürüldüğü bir Yunan askerinin ağzından alaycı bir biçimde anlatılmıştır. Dul analarının tek ümidi ve neşesi olan, yıllar yılı tüm zorluklar göğüslenerek büyütülen ve gün gelip anaları yaşlandığında onlara bakacak olan çocuklar, anaları ne kadar karşı çıksa da elleri silah tutunca eğitimlerini, işlerini bırakıp cepheye koşarlar. Kimi gözlerinin önünde katledilen kardeşlerinin ve babasının intikamını almak için, kimi vazife, kimi vatan, namus diyerek, kimi de sadece Müslüman ve Türk olduğu için yok edildiklerini anlayarak eğitimlerini, işlerini bırakıp cepheye koşarlar. Bu çocukların durumunu bir şehidin mezar taşına yazılmış şu mısralarda bulmak mümkündür: Yetim idim, anam beni büyüttü Evimizde kara baykuşlar öttü Kulübemiz viran kaldı, inledik Mezarcığın nerededir bilmedik Türk oğlunun ölüm okşar başını Akıtmadan babası için yaşını. (Bir Şehidin Kitabesi, s.68) Ölüm saçan düşman askerinden evlerini ocaklarını bırakıp Edirne’ye, İstanbul’a, Bursa’ya kaçan Türk ailelerinin çocukları bu sürgün yolculuğunda şöyle resmedilir: “Bindiğimiz vapur son derece kalabalıktı. Muhacir aileleri, çocukları kundaklarında bütün güverteyi kaplamışlardı. O mini mini yavrucakların ihtimal bakılamamaktan ihtimal sayısız dolduruldukları binaların havasızlığından yüzleri gözleri hep çıban içinde idi. 414 �(Edirne’den Bursa’ya s.192.) Küçük çocuklar deniz tutmasından sapsarı olmuş, soğuk rüzgârın tesiriyle titreşiyorlardı ki, işte orada genç bir kadın on günlük yavrusunu yere bırakmış, onun açlık feryatlarını işitemiyor bile, muttasıl başını koyacak bir yer arıyor ve soğuk bir rüzgâr bu sefillerin üstüne kim bilir o esnada hangi hastalığın tohumlarını serperek geçiyordu. (Edirne’den Bursa’ya s.193.) Sürgün yolculuğundan sonra ulaştıkları yerlerde de yine yokluk, açlık, kimsesizlik devam eder. Mezar taşları arasında saklambaç oynayan çocuklar, evlere besleme alınmak üzere kendilerine göz dikilen küçük kızlar, sığındıkları medreselerin loş ve isli odalarında ip beşikte avaz avaz ağlayan yolda doğmuş bebeklerle onları susturmak için ellerini çırpan akraba çocukları hikâyelerde yer alır. Bu çocukların bir kısmı sürgünden sonra geldikleri Edirne’de, Bursa’da, İstanbul’da hicret günlerini ve ondan öncesinde yaşananları bir dev masalı gibi korka korka dinleyerek büyürler. Yine bu çocuklardan bazıları da soğuğa, kimsesizliğe, açlığa dayanamaz ve tek dayanağı olan anasının da kör olmasıyla birlikte dilenciliğe başlar. Çocuklar muhacir olarak geldikleri topraklarda vatan nedir, vatan hasreti nedir bu duyguları da son haddinde yaşarlar. Sıla Hediyesi’nde anlatıcı konumunda olan çocuk, vatana duyulan özlemi babasının Tuna’dan bir testi içinde gelen hediye suyu, zemzem gibi, şifalı bir şurup gibi içmesinden anlar ve Tuna’nın artık bizim olmadığını öğrendiğinde boğazı düğümlenir. Namusu Canından Önce Gelenler: Kadınlar Balkan hikâyelerinde savaşın en çirkin yüzüne maruz kalan kişiler kadınlardır. Onlar öncelikle savaşa asker gönderen ana ve eştirler. Oğullarını yetiştirmek, okutmak için her türlü çileye katlanan, gece gündüz dikiş diken ve günü geldiğinde yine oğulları tarafından bakılacağını uman, evladının mürüvvetini görmeyi hayal eden dul analar ne kadar karşı çıksalar da oğullarının savaşa katılmasına engel olamazlar. Tek ümidi ve yaşama sebebi oğlu, şehit olunca da bir meczup gibi onun mezarı başında ağlayarak ömürlerini geçirirler. Bu kadınlardan bazıları da açlıkla ve torunlarının bakımıyla savaşmak zorunda kalır. Eşlerini askere, savaşa gönderen hanımlar da “Yavrum, babacığın vatanın hizmetine gitti. İnşallah şan ve şerefle döner ve o zamana kadar senin sevgili varlığına kendi hayatımı siper koyarak ben seni muhafaza ederim” diyerek kendilerini evlatlarını korumaya adarlar. (Edirne’den Bursa’ya, s. 189) Analar da, gelinler de evlatlarını ve eşlerini savaşa göndermek istemezler. Ama onlardan biri yan çizer ve gönüllü olarak askere gitmekten vazgeçerse “muharebeden firar eden bir kocaya, bir evlada malik olmanın utanç verici olduğunu idrak edip, hakiki bir Türk kızı olduklarını ispat ederek” evlatlarına ve eşlerine kızarlar, kin beslerler ve onları savaşa gitmeye zorlarlar. (Baba-Oğul, s. 259.) Balkan hikâyelerinde oğulları ve eşleri askere gittikten sonra çocuklarla ve yaşlılarla kalan kadınların karşılaştıkları felaketler korkunçtur. Kimi kılıçtan geçirilir, kimi fırınlarda yakılır, kiminin çocuğu gözü önünde katledilir. “Bir genç kadını öldürmek on beş düşmanı öldürmektir” (Beyaz Lâle, s. 221) diyen düşman askerleri “İslam unsuruna evlat, Türk ordusuna asker yetiştiren” (Kanlı Sahifeler, s. 165) Türk kadınlarına büyük bir öfke ve düşmanlık beslerler. Barış zamanlarında kendilerine yüz vermeyen nazlı ve vakur şehirli hanımların intikamını gittikleri köylerdeki hanımlardan çıkarırlar. İslam hanelerindeki kadınların muayene bahanesiyle çarşaflarını, peçelerini yırtarlar. Onları döverek, sırtlarında beş altı sopa kırarak soyarlar. Türk subaylarının İstanbullu hanımlarını ve kızlarını da kendilerine iğrenç bir eğlence vasıtası yaptıktan sonra süngülerler. Geldikleri yerlerdeki kadınları, renklerine göre gruplara ayırır ve askere dağıtırlar, sekiz yaşından kırk beş yaşına kadar olan kadınları kesip cesetlerini şehrin dışındaki hendeklere gömerler, çok ihtiyar kadınları Hıristiyan olmaya zorlarlar. Düşman askerinin en büyük eğlencelerinden biri de Türk ve Müslüman dolu camileri yaktıktan sonra caminin içinde saçları tutuşan kadınların pervane gibi dönüşünü izlemektir. Kadınlar karşılaştıkları bu tür vahşet, gördükleri hunharca eziyetlerden sonra korkudan, acıdan, utançtan ağlarlar, yüzlerini kapatırlar, akıllarını, dillerini kaybederler. Vücutları paramparça olur, kan ve saç yığınında, yanık kokusu içinde o çok geç gelen kurtuluşa, ölüme kavuşurlar. Ölüm, namusu canından önce gelen bu kadınlar için en büyük kurtuluştur. Bu kadınlardan bazıları “Öldürün beni… Allah’ın, Peygamberin huzuruna bakire ve mazlum olarak çıkıp sizi şikâyet edeceğim” (Kanlı Sahifeler, s. 165) diyerek inancına sarılır ve onurunu koruyarak, dik durmaya çalışır. Bütün bu zulümlerden kaçmayı başarıp sürgün yolculuğuna çıkan kadınlardan bir kısmı yolculuk sırasında düşman askeri tarafından yakalanırlar. Zorlukla bulabildikleri arabaları yaylım ateşine tutulur. Çocukları gözleri önünde öldürülür. Bazıları kemerlerle boğulur, bilezikleri kolları kesilerek alınır, yüzükleri parmaklarının derisi soyularak çıkartılır; çorapları, ayakkabıları bile alınır. Kendilerini zorlukla bir gemiye atabilmiş kadınlar da öncelikle hastalıkla sonra da daha vapurda iken başlayan çevrenin baskısıyla ve kötü muamelesiyle karşılaşırlar. Edirne’den Bursa’ya adlı hikâyede hastalıktan titreyen, ter içinde kalan ve biraz nefes alabilmek için peçesini kaldıran bir göçmen hanım hem polis hem de diğer insanlar tarafından “Hanım yüzünü kapa, edebini takın, burası İstanbul değil, Anadolu” gibi sözlerle uyarılır. Bu yolculuğun sonunda İstanbul’a, Edirne’ye ya da Bursa’ya gelebilmiş olan kadınları da buralarda ayrı zorluklar bekler. Geldikleri bu topraklarda yeterli ilgiyi bulamazlar, medreselerin köhne odalarında açlıkla, hastalıkla, soğukla, çocuklarının ya da torunlarının bakımıyla savaşırlar. Kendilerine yardım eli uzatılmaz ama kız çocuklarına hizmetçi alınmak üzere 415 �göz dikilir. Halkın gereken ilgiyi göstermemesi ve içinde bulundukları imkânsızlıklar sonucunda sağlıklarını kaybederler. “Samatya’da Bir Gece” adlı hikâyede böyle bir kadının sonunda kör olduğu ve çocuğuyla beraber dilenmeye başladığı görülür. Rumeli’den İstanbul’a ya da Anadolu’ya sığınabilmiş kadınlar, buralardaki Türk ve Müslüman soydaşlarının Balkanlarda yaşanan vahşetten habersizmiş gibi davranmaları karşısında büyük hayal kırıklığı yaşarlar. Bu hayal kırıklığı yaşayanlardan biri, babası Makedonya çetelerinin eliyle vahşice öldürülen, kocası ve çocukları da düşman ayakları altında inleye inleye ölen Selanikli Ayşe Hanımdır. Selanik’in teslimi sırasında bir zamanlar müşterisi olduğu mağazanın Rum sahibi tarafından saldırıya uğrar ama namusunu kurtarmayı başararak İstanbul’a canını atar. İstanbul’a geldiğinde Rumeli’de mahvedilen yüz binlerce Müslüman’ın, Türk’ün haberinin sanki buraya gelmemiş gibi İstanbul bey ve hanımlarının zevk ve eğlencelerine devam etmesine şaşırır. Yine Müslüman ve Türk hanımlarının Rum mağazalarından alışveriş etmesine dayanamaz ve şöyle haykırır: “İşte kardeşçiklerim siz böyle kanlı katil bir herifin kardeşinden mal alıyorsunuz. Bu paraların nereye gittiğini bilmiyorsunuz. Hep işte benim ve sizin gibi Müslüman ve Türk hanımların alın teri döken kocalarınızdan alıp bu hınzır heriflere döktüğümüz paralarla Averoflar, toplar, tüfekler alındı. Analarımız, babalarımız, evlatlarımız hep bizim paralarımızla alınan toplarla, tüfeklerle şehid edildi. Averof zırhlısını Yanyalı bir Rum’un verdiği para ile aldılar. O ölenler…şehid edilenler sizin kardeşleriniz değil mi? Yüreğiniz bu heriflerle alışverişe nasıl razı oluyor? Sizde Müslüman kalbi, Türk yüreği yok mu?” (Selanikli Ayşe Hanım, s.206) Rumeli’den gelen hanımlar, muhacirlerin yaşadığı sıkıntılar ve onlara ilgi gösterilmemesi, Türk mahallelerinin çamurdan, tahtadan evleri, taşları bozuk kaldırımları, kirli fakir dükkânları, kahvelerdeki işsiz güçsüz insanları karşısında da hayal kırıklığına uğrarlar. Buna karşın Ermeni mahallelerindeki temizliğe, düzene ve kahvehanelerin azlığına şaşırırlar. Bu zıtlık karşısında “Niçin her şey Türklüğün küçüldüğünü böyle gösteriyor?” diye dertlenen muhacir hanımlardan biri güneşin altında gösterişi, inceliği ve güzelliği ile parlayan Yeşil Türbe ile karşılaşır. Muhitinin sefaleti arasından sıyrılan bu yüksek ve ulvi güzelliğe sahip türbeden içeri girer. Çinilerin latif renkleri, hatların güzel şekilleri karşısında içi iftiharla dolar. Böyle bir eseri meydana getiren Türk dehasına hayran olur, biraz önce Türk mahallelerinde gördüğü sefaleti, küçüklüğü unutur. “Bu nefis eseri vücuda getiren âlî zevkli millet asla ölmez” diyerek, milletinin bir gün eski ulviyetini, eski büyüklüğünü hatırlayacağına emin olur. Bütün olumsuzluklara rağmen Yeşil Türbe sayesinde gelecek günler için ümitlenir. (Edirne’den Bursa’ya, s. 199) Sonuç 1908-1918 yılları arasında yazılan Balkan hikâyeleri çocuk ve kadın bağlamında incelendiğinde, Balkanlar’da yaşanan savaşın, soykırımın ve sürgünün en çirkin yüzüne çocuk ve kadınların maruz kaldığı görülür. Masum ve çaresiz anne karnındaki bebekler, küçük çocuklar yakılarak, süngülenerek, kesilerek, dini ve geçmişi unutturularak yok edilir. Çok sayıda çocuk, yetim, öksüz kalır. Bir kısmı da sürgün yolcuğunda öldürülür. Hicret ettikleri topraklarda da açlık, kimsesizlik, perişanlık içinde kalırlar. Bütün bu yaşananlar sırasında hikâyelerin arka planında hiç dinmeyen bir çocuk ağlaması duyulur ve mini mini ellerini semaya kaldırarak dua eden çocuk silueti gözler önünden gitmez. Balkan Savaşı’nı konu eden hikâyelerde kadınların karşılaştığı durumlar hikâyeleri okuyanları insan olmaktan utandıracak özelliktedir. Ömer Seyfettin’in çok bilinen Beyaz Lâle adlı hikâyesi bu durumların derecesini ve korkunçluğunu gözler önüne serer. Kadınlar Türk ve Müslüman halkın bekasının temeli oldukları için ayrı bir düşmanlıkla karşı karşıya kalırlar. Sadece canları değil canlarından çok daha fazla değer verdikleri namusları, evlatları, eşleri, vatanları ellerinden alınır. Bu kadınlar için ölüm bir şanstır, en temiz ve kolay bir kurtuluştur. Fakat onlar özellikle namusları paramparça edilmeden, gözleri önünde evlatları süngülenmeden bu kurtuluşa eremezler. Hicret ettikleri topraklarda da yalnızlık, açlık, hastalık ve kimsesizlik içinde kalırlar. Balkan Savaşı yıllarında toplumsal gerçekçilikle kaleme alınan bu hikâyeler baştan sona okunduğunda hepsinin de aynı tarihi gerçekleri yansıttığı görülür. Yazarların aynı gerçekleri ya da hayali üstelik birbirini tamamlayacak şekilde dile getirmeleri dikkat çekicidir. Bahsi geçen hikâyeleri Balkan savaşı yıllarında Türk ve Müslüman halkın yaşadığı soykırımın bir aynası kabul etmek ve özellikle tarih öğretiminde kullanmak yerinde olacaktır. 416 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 432 Title A name given to the resource Balkan Savaşı Hikâyelerinden Yansıyan Çocuk ve Kadınlar Author Author BÜYÜKSAVAŞ KURAN, Şeyma Abstract A summary of the resource. Osmanlı hâkimiyetinde iken huzur içinde yaşamalarına rağmen Sırp, Bulgar, Rum, Arnavut ve Karadağlılar, milliyetçilik akımının yayılması ve bazı büyük devletlerin kışkırtmasıyla farklı zamanlarda Osmanlı’ya karşı ayaklanırlar, savaş açarlar. Bu süreçte 1877-1878 Osmanlı Rus Savaşı ve 1912-1913 Balkan Savaşları ile Balkanlar Osmanlı’dan kopar. Bu kopuş sırasında yaşanan savaşlarda eli silah tutan Türk ve Müslüman erkekler vatanlarını, namuslarını kurtarmak amacıyla cephelere koşarken arkalarında savunmasız yaşlılar, analar, hamile taze gelinler ve her yaştan çocuk bırakmak zorunda kalmışlardır. Erkekler savaşta bin türlü vahşetin içinde şehitliğe ererken arkada açlık, korku ve gözyaşıyla bıraktıkları kişiler, asırların görmediği soykırımı ve sürgünü yaşarlar. Balkan Savaşları sırasında yaşanan bu olaylar belli başlı yönleriyle tarihin kanlı ve tozlu sayfalarında yerlerini alırken edebiyat da bu yaşananları fert düzeyinde bir taraftan ve daha çok da şiirle, diğer taraftan da hikâye ve romanla dile getirmekte, bu insanlık dramını nesilden nesile anlatmaya devam etmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Balkan Savaşı yıllarında kaleme alınmış hikâyeler, cephe gerisinde kalan çocuk ve kadınların durumları açısından ele alınacaktır. Yüzyıllar boyunca savaşın en çirkin yüzüne maruz kalan kadın ve çocukların Balkan Savaşındaki durumları, o döneme ait hikâyeler yardımıyla resmedilecektir. 1908-1918 yılları arasında kaleme alınan bu hikâyelerin bazılarında; babaları, eşleri ya da oğulları savaşa gittikten sonra yurtlarında kalan kadın ve çocukların yaşadıkları binbir çeşit eziyet ve yok edilme konu edilmektedir. Yine bu kadın ve çocuklardan yurtlarından kopup Anadolu’ya sığınmak üzere sürgün yolculuğuna çıkan ya da Anadolu’ya ulaşmayı başarabilenlerin de ölüm, korku, açlık ve kimsesizlik uçurumunda kayboldukları dile getirilmektedir. Annesini, kardeşlerini korumak zorunda kalan on üç yaşında çocuk erkekler, Anadolu’ya geldiklerinde çeşitli sebeplerle hayal kırıklıkları yaşayan göçmen hanımlara da yine bu sayfalarda tesadüf edilmektedir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1027350b8ad07f075df4b003ac2e067a.pdf da104684109213ab1a362559245fc153 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters of the Islamic Economic System Mehmet CAN International University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Engineering Paromlinska 66, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mcan@ius.edu.ba Abstract: The Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of March 4, 2009 reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. To understand economics and economic aspects of human beings in the light of Islamic Shariah, we should explain its objectives. All business and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of helping to achieve the aims of the Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law or divine injunctions that regulate the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of these injunctions which are: matters of belief and worship; ethic, socioeconomic and legal systems; obligations; and prohibitions. Banking and finance are parts of economics or the economic system, as the rules governing activities of banks and financial institutions stem from the overall economic framework in which these institutions operate. It is, therefore, worthwhile to discuss the structure of Islamic economics under which the Islamic financial system is supposed to work. In this paper we discuss the fundamentals of the Islamic economic worldview having direct or indirect impact upon the business of Islamic financial institutions and markets. Keywords: Islamic Finance, Parameters 1. Introduction Recently the Vatican advised Islamic finance principles to Western banks as a solution for worldwide economic crisis. Daily Vatican newspaper, 'L'Osservatore Romano, reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. "The ethical principles on which Islamic finance is based may bring banks closer to their clients and to the true spirit which should mark every financial service," the Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of march 4, 2009 (see webpage rassegnastampa.mef.gov.it). Author Loretta Napoleoni and Abaxbank Spa fixed income strategist, Claudia Segre, say in the article that "Western banks could use tools such as the Islamic bonds, known as sukuk, as collateral". Sukuk may be used to fund the "'car industry or the next Olympic Games in London," they said. They also said that profit share, gained from sukuk, may be an alternative to the interest. They underlined that sukuk system could help automotive sector and support investments in infrastructure area. Islamic sukuk system is similar to bonos of capitalist system. But in sukuk, money is invested concrete projects and profit share is distributed to clients instead of interest earned. Pope Benedict XVI in an October 7, 2008 speech reflected on crashing financial markets saying that "money vanishes, it is nothing" and concluded that "the only solid reality is the word of God." The Vatican has been paying attention to the global financial meltdown and publishing articles in its official newspaper that criticize the free-market model for having "grown too much and badly in the past two decades." Islamic finance is not only a remedy for the crises of capitalism, for countries with Muslim majority; it is also the most beneficiary financial system to be adopted by administrative and legislative bodies of the states. For the Muslim minorities in Europe and in all other continents in which the followers of various religions live in intermingled communities without physical political borders, for Muslims and others who may choose it as a better option, there must be alternative Islamic financial institutions. The need for alternative Islamic financial legislations and institutions necessitates a broad religious freedom that supports a life along the Shariah. Starting from this post modern era, believers will not be satisfied by any level of religious freedom that supports less than living in accordance with the Shariah of their religion. For the Muslims scattered throughout the world as minorities, the minimums of living in accordance with the Shariah are 1. Alternative education at all levels, 24 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2. Alternative jurisprudence, Shariah courts, 3. Alternative financial system, and supporting financial institutions, 4. Alternative health care. This global need necessitates the evolution of a system that could lead to a balanced, sustainable and equitable economic order in the world at large for the benefit of individuals and societies. Islamic economic principles are a basis for promoting a balance between the social and economic aspects of human society, the self and social interests, and between the individual, family, society and the State. Islamic finance has to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law that regulates the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives along Islam. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of this code which are: Aqaid, or matters of belief and worship; Akhlaq, or matters for disciplining one's self; Ahkam, or socio-economic and legal systems; Fraidh, or obligations; and Nawahi, or prohibitions. Islamic economics directly or indirectly deals with all these disciplines (see Eyub 2007). 2. Sources of the Shariah The primary source of the Sharia is the Qur'an and Sunnah of the Prophet (pbuh). The Holy Qur'an says: “Whoever obeys the Messenger, he indeed obeys Allah, and whoever turns back, so We have not sent you as a keeper over them. (4: 80).” The other sources are Ijma'a (consensus) and Qiyas (analogy). Ijma'a of the Companions of the holy Prophet is considered by the Muslims an important source for the derivation of laws subsequently. The general welfare/interest (Maslaha-e-Mursalah) of human beings and Urf (tradition) are also important tools in the hands of Islamic jurists that are kept in mind for deciding the Shariah position of various contracts and activities without compromising on the basic principles contained in the Qur'an and Sunnah. Shariah rules can be divided into Dos, orders to undertake any act; and Don'ts, prohibition from some acts, which can further be divided into the rituals (matters of worship) that are considered as rights of Allah (SWT) and the matters for disciplining human life that constitute the rights of human beings. While the former acts, rituals or matters relating to belief and worship in the form of Fraidh or obligations have to be accomplished strictly according to the Shariah codes, the latter matters that pertain to socio-economic rights and obligations are governed by the rule of "General Permissibility", Ibahatul Asliyah, which means that all acts and things which have not been openly prohibited by the original sources of Shariah are permissible. It is pertinent to observe, however, that while Allah (SWT) may like to forgive any of the lapses by Muslims in respect of His rights (first category), lapses in respect of the rights of human beings would have to be forgiven only by the aggrieved person(s). Further, it is a cardinal principle of Islam that everyone is accountable for his acts and the accountability is individual, both in rituals and in socio-economic contracts. The Holy Qur'an says: “Namely, that no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another. That man can have nothing but what he strives for (53:38-39).” Knowing the objectives of the Shariah helps jurists in determining the prohibition or permissibility of any matters on the basis of Ijtihad and Qiyas. The primary objectives that Shariah tends to realize are the protection and preservation of: 1. Religion. 2. Life. 3. Progeny - family unit. 4. Property. 5. Intellect. 6. Honor. The above primary objectives of Shariah lead to a number of secondary objectives, which are: 1. The establishment of justice and equity in society. 2. The promotion of social security, mutual help and solidarity, particularly to help the poor. 3. The maintenance of peace and security. 4. The promotion of cooperation in matters of goodness and prohibition of evil deeds and actions. 5. The promotion of moral values and all actions necessary for the preservation of the nature (see Chapra 2000). Hence, from the study of the Qur'an and Sunnah, some basic socio-economic rights of human beings have been identified. These rights are: 1. The right to safety. 2. The right to be informed. 3. The right to choose. 4. The right to be heard. 5. The right to satisfaction of basic needs. 25 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 6. The right to redress. 7. The right to education. 8. The right to a healthy environment (see Eyub 2007). Islam requires rulers and various regulators in the system to protect the masses from harm and hardship caused by unscrupulous factors in society through strong and effective laws, and they should be respected in the sense of fulfillment of all socio-economic rights. The State must also curb institutional and other malpractices. 3. The Necessity for Islamic Finance and Economics Studying economics is important for the dual purpose of having better sustenance and religious imperatives. Islam does not separate "pious" and "worldly" life. Holy Qur'an says: "But seek, with the (wealth) which Allah has bestowed on thee, the Home of the Hereafter, nor forget thy portion in this world: but do thou good, as Allah has been good to thee, and seek not (occasions for) mischief in the land: for Allah loves not those who do mischief." (28:77) As the main theme of the Islamic economic system revolves around care for the poor and socioeconomic justice, studying Islamic economics should be a strategic activity for Muslim economists and policymakers. The Islamic economic system can be studied properly only in the context of the Islamic way of life as a whole. The Holy Qur'an gives broad principles of values regarding the economic aspects of man's life, like an owner's attitude towards his property, society's attitude towards the needy, the cooperative basis of the economic relationship and the bias against a concentration of wealth. The individual must be mindful of other ends while planning for economic ends. He has to subject each and every activity to thorough scrutiny, avoiding all those forms which are injurious to social interest. The early Islamic jurists mainly advised individuals and rulers on behavior in economic matters and economic policies (see Yusuf 969). In the later period, they also analyzed such economic thoughts as trading, prices, money, profit-sharing, taxes, development, etc. They gave special importance to ethics and moral purposes and focused on justice, need fulfillment, efficiency, freedom, growth and development. Those who did work of outstanding nature included Imams of juristic schools of thought like Abu Hanifa (see Makhnisawi 2007 ), Malik (see Abdarahman 2007), Shafii, Ahmad ibn-e-Hanbal, Zaid bin Ali, and others like Muhammad bin Hasan al Sheibani, Abu Yusuf (see Yusuf 1969), Yahya bin Adam, Abu Ubaid, Qudama bin Jafar, Ali ibn Muhammad Al Mawardi, Nizamul Mulk Tusi, Nasiruddin Tusi, Abu Hamid Muhammad Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyah, Ibn Qayyim, Ibn Khaldun (see Dawood 1989), al Maqrizi and Shah Waliullah. Abu-Yusuf's book of al-Kharaj is important for various reasons: (a) it was the first book to be published on Islamic economics, (b) it was necessary to look, in some detail, into the work to gain an insight into the thinking of the first Muslim writer in the field, especially as (c) the book was a first serious work on Islamic economics, particularly when (d) the book provided a comprehensive framework, almost a constitution, on the state finance and public administration, of (e) a considerable magnitude, and (f) the book could still be regarded as a reference book by the standards of today. (As an example) “Abu-Yusuf focused on leasing of fields and palm orchards, with a particular reference to the cultivation of barren land on a lease basis. Abu-Yusuf explained that the jurists in al-Hijaz (the Màlikì) had a different view from that of the jurists in al-Kufa. In al-Hijaz and al-Medìnah, jurists, did not allow the lease of barren land on a sharing basis, one half or one third, as they argued that barren land was not like orchards and other gardens for which they allowed sharing leases. Some of the jurists in al-Kufa allowed sharing in orchards and other trees and permitted sharing of crops in barren land at a half and one-third ratio, while others did not allow sharing in orchards or other fruit trees and did not permit sharing of crops in a barren land. Abù-Hanìfah was against the validity of the lease. Those jurists who did not allow the transaction relied on the juridical argument against uncertainty; the yield from the lease of the barren land was uncertain and any involvement in such a transaction could be harmful to either partner. On the other hand, those who allowed leasing depended strictly on the practice of the Prophet when he let the lands of Khyber to the inhabitants of Khyber on a yield sharing basis. Abu-Yusuf's view was that all such leases were allowed and valid. He regarded them as sharing in partnership contracts in which one partner participates in the partnership with his capital and the other with his labor and expertise. The profit, even if it was still unknown to them, was divided on the basis of profit-and-losssharing. This form of partnership is unanimously acceptable by jurists. In Abu-Yusuf's view, leasing of barren land, orchards and other trees was like a partnership: the land was similar to the capital in the partnership contract. To enforce his view, Abu-Yusuf relied on the precedent of the Prophet in the lands of Khyber. The ahadith in support of permission were more reliable and general than the ahadith in support of inhibition, he argued. Abu-Yusuf elucidated different forms of lease contracts in which he clarified the relationship between 26 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the partners in the contract, and the tax position of each. It is apparent from his classification that Abu-Yusuf widened the scope of leasing by allowing several structures. He perhaps had in mind a special consideration for public interest without sacrificing the basic principle that the partners should be clear before the start of the transaction as to the conditions of the contract. His thought on the classification coincides with the classification as known in modern time and the differentiation between a financial lease and other types of lease”. (see elAshker and Wilson 2006). After the start of the Renaissance movement in the late 19th century, Islamic economics started reemerging as an intelligent academic pursuit. Scholars like Syed Qutb (see Qutb 1953), Syed Abul A'ala Mawdudi (see Mawdudi 1996) , Hifzurrehman Sweharvi, Muhammad Yusufuddin, Syed Baqar Sadre, and Dr M. Hamidullah (see Hamidullah 1992) can be considered pioneers and scholars of the first generation in the Modern World who initiated the process of defining modern economic thought in the light of the principles of Islam. Formal work on Islamic economics in the modern world that has led to a vigorous revival of Islamic economic thought has been done by a large number of economists, notable among which are Anwar Iqbal Qureshi, Ahmad al Najjar, Nejatullah Siddiqi, Sheikh Mahmud Ahmad, Mahmud Abud Saud, Muhammad Umar Zubair, Monzar Kahaf, S.M. Hasanuz Zaman, Anas Zarqa, M.A. Mannan, Mohamed Ali Elgari, M. Umer Chapra (see Chapra 2000), Abbas Mirakhor, Mohsin S. Khan, Fahim Khan, Munawar Iqbal, Khurshid Ahmad and many others. Considerable work has been done by well-known economists including Mohsin Khan (See Khan and Abbas 1987), Abbas Mirakhor, Zuber Iqbal, Nejatullah Siddiqi, Anas Zarqa, Monzar Kahaf and other Islamic economists of the second and third generations, as mentioned above, on various segments of economic management. These works largely pertain to interest-free banking and interest-free investment and production. Also, a good deal of work has been done on fiscal policy, Zakat, auditing and accounting, banking regulations and supervision. But all of these are segments and have not been put together into a comprehensive model. These segments (with variations) are being practiced/implemented in several countries. However, even in the contents and implementation of these segments, there is a lack of uniformity. This is yet another problem which needs to be addressed both at scholarly and operational levels. Therefore, Islamic rules of economics make it binding for human beings not only to abide by the Shariah codes relating to dos and don'ts but also to keep in mind the impact of their activities on others and society as a whole. To realize the goal, the State should try to control the requirements and needs of the people through a filtering process, motivate the people to abstain from activities injurious to others and restructure the socio-economic system for the transfer of resources from one use/sector to others to ultimately realize the dual objective (see Chapra 2000). The vision of Islam in this regard is different from the role models of present market systems which have become outdated with the march of events. The Shariah indicates the directions of transformation towards a social order of justice, well-being, security and knowledge, but it does not impose these laws. It tends to provide equal chances to all for earning a livelihood leading to equitable, not equal, distribution of income and wealth. It is also because of the no coercive nature of Shariah that the market is relied upon as a natural phenomenon of ethical human transformation. The holy Prophet (pbuh) categorically discouraged intervention for price fixation as long as price fluctuations occurred due to market forces alone. But when undue monopolistic and unjust pricing, production and distributional practices were existent, Al-Hisbah (the institution of the ombudsman) was empowered as a social regulatory body to check these imbalances for purposes of reestablishing a better semblance of market-driven exchanges in the light of the just order that Shariah aims at in society at large. Islamic economics has been defined differently by different economists/scholars, keeping in mind specific aspects of human life. To Ibn Khaldun, economics meant the desire for food and other requirements and efforts to obtain them; and a science which deals with management of households and cities in accordance with dictates of reason as well as ethics, so that the masses may be directed towards a behavior that leads to the preservation and performance of their species (see Dawood 1989). Mohsin S. Khan, a senior economist at the IMF, says: "Broadly speaking, the term 'Islamic Economics' defines a complete system that prescribes a specific pattern of social and economic behavior for all individuals. It deals with a wide-ranging set of issues, such as property rights, incentive system, allocation of resources, types of economic freedom, system of economic decision-making and proper role of the government. The overriding objective of the system is social justice and specific patterns of income and wealth distribution and consequently economic policies are to be designed to achieve these ends. (see Khan and Abbas 1987)" Zaman gives his own definition: "Islamic Economics is the knowledge of application of injunctions and rules of the Shariah that stop injustice in the acquisition and disposition of material resources in order to 27 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo provide satisfaction to individuals and enable them to perform their obligations to Allah and society (see Zaman 1991)." This implies that Islamic economics is a social science which studies the economic problems of people in the light of the values of Islam. One way of looking at Islamic economics would be the use of resources for the welfare of the people within the framework of Shariah. Once a framework of the Shariah has been adopted, it will determine various aspects of economic management like the contents of production, trade, finance, distribution. The integrated model of the Islamic social framework is based, among other things, on the following criteria, which provide a positive motivation for economic activities, steered by the concept of a fair balance between material and spiritual needs and between the individual's and social needs: 1. Equilibrium between work and worship. 2. Human equality. 3. Mutual responsibilities in society. 4. Distributive justice. 5. Balanced and beneficent use of the "bounties of God". 6. Limited sovereignty of individuals in terms of "self interest" for the benefit of fellow beings and society. 7. The principle of co-existence. 8. The freedom of conscience. 4. Objectives of Islamic Economics The objective of the Islamic economic system, like any other economic system, is the realization of efficiency and equity in allocation and distribution of resources, for which it recognizes the role of market forces and the freedom of individuals. But it also recognizes the possible adverse impact of the totally unregulated market on various sections of society, particularly the poor and the disadvantaged. Thus, the system comprises the following three main elements: 1. Ownership of commodities and wealth. 2. Transfer of the ownership. 3. Distribution of wealth among the people (see Nabbani 1997). The abolition of interest (Riba), promotion of trading and other real business activities, establishment of profit-sharing as a tool, the application of Zakat and avoidance of wasteful consumption (Israf) along with an effective overseeing role of the State constitute the key macroeconomic features of an ideal Islamic economy. The Holy Qur'an says: "Those who swallow down usury cannot arise except as one whom Shaitan has prostrated by (his) touch does rise. That is because they say, trading is only like usury; and Allah has allowed trading and forbidden usury. To whomsoever then the admonition has come from his Lord, then he desists, he shall have what has already passed, and his affair is in the hands of Allah; and whoever returns (to it) these are the inmates of the fire; they shall abide in it." (2:275). “Men whom neither merchandise nor sale beguileth from remembrance of Allah and constancy in prayer and paying to the poor their due; who fear a day when hearts and eyeballs will be overturned." (24:37). “O Children of Adam! wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer: eat and drink: But waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters." (7:31). Study of these variables would indicate the state of any Islamic economy, its stability, weaknesses and strengths and various relationships among producers and users of resources. Ownership by man is thus Divine permission for utilizing the goods and assets. The Holy Qur'an says: "And give them from the Mai of Allah, which He gave to you." (24: 33). It also says: "And spend from what He put you in charge of" (57: 7). As such, Islam has set the limits and the means through which individuals, groups, the public and the State can possess property in such a way that acquisition in varying degree is within reach of all the people, despite disparities in their abilities. These limits are in terms of the quality or the means of acquiring and not in terms of quantity of wealth, as this resists human beings' strife to work diligently. Limits in terms of quality are necessary; otherwise human greed could corrupt the economy and cause chaotic relationships in society. It also conforms to human nature so as to satisfy their basic needs and enable people to benefit from comforts (see Eyub 2007). The following are the means of possessing goods: work, inheritance, and purchasing/obtaining property for sustenance, properties granted as gifts and the State granting possession of something to the citizens. To facilitate the acquisition of property and wealth, Islam has indicated legal means of ownership and its transfer through a variety of contracts. General rules for these contracts have also been defined in detail with the possibility of resolving any contemporary issues through Ijtihad, subject to observance of allowed limits. These rules allow man to utilize the resources by consuming them, benefiting from them or exchanging them via a number of contracts like sale, loan, lease (see Yusuf 1969) or gift. Rules pertaining to investment of wealth/property have also been laid down. The Holy Qur'an says: "Allah (thus) directs you as regards your 28 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Children's (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases ('s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Al-wise." (4:11). Along with property rights, income and profit entitlement are established in Islamic economics. This must occur through the effort, work or taking responsibility (Dhaman) and distribution by means like partnership, trade, joint ventures, loans, and various vehicles of transfer incomes like grants and Zakat and the control of waste. The Holy Qur'an says: “O ye who believe! When ye deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them to writing Let a scribe write down faithfully as between the parties: let not the scribe refuse to write: as Allah Has taught him, so let him write. Let him who incurs the liability dictate, but let him fear His Lord Allah, and not diminish aught of what he owes. If they party liable is mentally deficient, or weak, or unable Himself to dictate, Let his guardian dictate faithfully, and get two witnesses, out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as ye choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her. The witnesses should not refuse when they are called on (For evidence). Disdain not to reduce to writing (your contract) for a future period, whether it be small or big: it is juster in the sight of Allah, More suitable as evidence, and more convenient to prevent doubts among yourselves but if it be a transaction which ye carry out on the spot among yourselves, there is no blame on you if ye reduce it not to writing. But take witness whenever ye make a commercial contract; and let neither scribe nor witness suffer harm. If ye do (such harm), it would be wickedness in you. So fear Allah; For it is Good that teaches you. And Allah is well acquainted with all things. If ye are on a journey, and cannot find a scribe, a pledge with possession (may serve the purpose). And if one of you deposits a thing on trust with another, let the trustee (faithfully) discharge his trust, and let him Fear his Lord conceal not evidence; for whoever conceals it, - his heart is tainted with sin. And Allah knoweth all that ye do. (2:282)” Hence, the Islamic economy has a linkage between the market functions of productive involvement and growth and the institutional functions of policy and control. 4.1 Islamic Welfare Approach The concept of welfare in Islam is neither exclusively materialistic nor absolutely spiritual. It has rather dovetailed the spiritual and material aspects of life so that they may serve as a source of mutual strength and as the foundation of true human welfare and happiness. In order to meet the basic needs of each and every member of a society, Islam urges all to earn and seek the provisions for use by mankind. Islamic economy achieves this objective by obliging each capable person to work, enabling him to fulfill his and his dependents' basic needs. A number of verses of the Holy Qur'an and traditions of the holy Prophet (pbuh) reveal that Islam obliges individuals to earn and use the wealth so as to develop the economy for the betterment of society. It is the State's responsibility to take measures and adopt policies to enable those who are willing to work and anxious to work to find employment. As regards basic needs, there is total agreement among Islamic economists that it is the most important objective of the Islamic distributive policy. However, there may be some difference of opinion as to which needs should be guaranteed and how these should be fulfilled. Nevertheless, maximization of Falah (welfare in this world and the Hereafter) has firm relevance with the Islamic concept of development, which can be achieved through obedience to Allah (SWT) in worship (Ibadat) as well as Mu'amalat, including all kinds of economic activities related to production, consumption, exchange and distribution. As long as seeking the pleasure of Allah is set as the final goal, the latter will be in perfect conformity with the former (see Eyub 2007). 4.2 The Factors of Production Land, labor and capital jointly create value. As a result, the land-owner, the laborer and the owner of capital should jointly share the produce. The distinctive feature of the Islamic system is that capital has to bear the loss, if any. In addition to this, Islam compulsorily retains a portion of the produced wealth as Zakat for those who are prevented from contributing their share in production due to any social, physical or economic handicap. The factors of production in Islamic economics are: 1. Capital - includes those means of production which cannot be used in the process of production until and unless they are either wholly consumed or completely altered in form during the production process; it cannot fetch any rent. "Profit" is compensation of capital in the Islamic framework, but it comes with 29 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo responsibility or liability. So the profit on any capital is the residual revenue of a business conducted with that capital after making payment to all other parties; if the residual is negative, the capital owner has to suffer a loss that is the shortfall in the principal employed in the business. 2. Land - all such means of production which is used in the process of production in such a way that their corpus and original form remains unaltered. Their compensation is rental; these can be lent or leased. For example, an owner of a factory would claim rent of land and that of the installed machinery and plant; similarly, owners of houses, vehicles, machines, etc. are entitled to rent. 3. Labor - that is, human exertion, whether physical or mental and also includes organization and planning. Its compensation is wages (see Eyub 2007). 4.3 Restrained Individual Freedom There are certain curbs and some checks imposed by Shariah on consumers' behavior. Individuals are not at large to exercise their own will in terms of choice. Some basic rules have been laid down to govern intensity of wealth-gaining and income-consuming activities of society. It does not stand neutral as regards ends and means. It is religion-based, valuation-oriented, morality-judged and spiritually-bound. It is positive and normative science, as it links materialistic and moralistic requirements of changing nature. Thus, the scope of Islamic economics is the administration of scarce resources in human society in the light of the ethical concept of welfare in Islam. All types of work except those leading to indecency or socio-economic loss to other individuals and society are permissible. A basic principle of the Islamic legal system is that an activity or a commodity that is not prohibited through the Shariah texts is permissible. Thus, man has to observe the prohibitions only. Islamic economics would mean undertaking all activities individually or collectively that are not prohibited and that could add to the welfare and happiness of human beings (see Eyub 2007). Holy Qur'an says: " O ye who believe! Squander not your wealth among yourselves in vanity, except it be a trade by mutual consent, and kill not one another. Lo! Allah is ever Merciful unto you" (4:29). The most important prohibitions in the field of economics are the prohibition of interest, hazard and gambling due to their extremely harmful impacts on society. Such limitations are necessary for the fulfillment of the overall objectives of the Shariah for making society happy and satisfied, both materially and spiritually. The Holy Qur'an says: "O ye who believe! Strong drink and games of chance and idols and divining arrows are only an infamy of Satan's handiwork. Leave it aside in order that ye may succeed." (5:90). 4.4 Liberalism versus State Intervention The literature on Islamic economics emphasizes four types of action by government in economic life. These are: 1. Ensuring compliance with the Islamic code of conduct by individuals through education and, whenever necessary, through compulsion. 2. The maintenance of healthy conditions in the market to ensure its proper functioning. 3. Modification of the allocation of resources and distribution of income affected by the market mechanism by guiding and regulating it as well as direct intervention and participation, if needed, in the process. 4. Taking positive steps in the field of production and capital formation to accelerate growth. The Islamic State can impose some limitations with a view to avoiding distortions and keeping in mind the well-being of society as a whole. All members of a society, regardless of differences in gender and religion, are allowed to undertake any of the permissible (Halal) businesses, but this is subject to the condition that it should not harm others. Once the Pious Caliph, Umar Farooq (Allah be pleased with him) asked a person who was selling a commodity at a much lower price than the market price to increase the price/rate or to leave the market (see Eyub 2007). 5. Summary All economic and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules, with the objective of helping to achieve the well-being of people in the worldly life as well as in the Hereafter. Hence, studying economics is important for the dual purpose of having better sustenance and the religious imperatives. The sources of rules dealing with economic aspects of human beings are the Holy Qur'an and Sunnah of His last Messenger, Muhammad (pbuh). In addition to the Qur'an and Sunnah, Ijma'a, Qiyas and Ijtihad provide a hierarchical framework of sources of rules governing Islamic economics and finance. 30 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References http://rassegnastampa.mef.gov.it/mefnazionale/PDF/2009/2009-03-04/200903... Eyub, M. (2007). Understanding Islamic Finance. John Wiley & Sons Inc. Chapra, M. U. (2000) The Future of Economics: An Islamic Perspective, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester. Makhnisawi A. I. M. (2007) Imam Abu Hanifa's Al-Fiqh Al-Akbar Explained, Al-Rashad Books. Abdarahman A. (2007) Translation of Malik's Muwatta, http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/muwatta/ Yusuf A. Y. (1969) Abu Yusuf's Kitab al-kharaj (Taxation in Islam), Luzac. Dawood, N. J. (1989) The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History by Ibn Khaldun (Author), Princeton Univ. Press. El-Ashker A. A. F. and Wilson R. (2007) Islamic Economics a Short History, Leiden Boston. Qutb S., Tr: Algar H. (1953) Social Justice in Islam, Islamic Publications International, NJ. Mavdudi, S. A. A. (1996) Economic System of Islam, Kazi Publications. Hamidullah M. (1992) The Muslim Conduct of State, Kazi Pubns Inc. Khan M. S. and Abbas, M. (1987) Theoretical Studies in Islamic Banking and Finance, Iris Books. Abbas, M. (2007) An Introduction to Islamic Finance: Theory and Practice, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Nabhani, T. (1997) The Economic System of Islam. Al-Khilafah Publications, London. Zaman S. M. H. (1991) Economic Functions of an Islamic State, The Islamic Foundation. 31 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 131 Title A name given to the resource Parameters of the Islamic Economic System Author Author CAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The Vatican's official newspaper Osservatore Romano said in an article in its issue of March 4, 2009 reported that Islamic banking system may help to overcome global crisis. The Vatican said banks should look at the ethical rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. To understand economics and economic aspects of human beings in the light of Islamic Shariah, we should explain its objectives. All business and financial contracts in the framework of Islamic finance have to conform to the Shariah rules with the objective of helping to achieve the aims of the Shariah. Shariah refers to a code of law or divine injunctions that regulate the conduct of human beings in their individual and collective lives. In addition to some general rules there are some specific branches of these injunctions which are: matters of belief and worship; ethic, socioeconomic and legal systems; obligations; and prohibitions. Banking and finance are parts of economics or the economic system, as the rules governing activities of banks and financial institutions stem from the overall economic framework in which these institutions operate. It is, therefore, worthwhile to discuss the structure of Islamic economics under which the Islamic financial system is supposed to work. In this paper we discuss the fundamentals of the Islamic economic worldview having direct or indirect impact upon the business of Islamic financial institutions and markets. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/394d7d5a7ddaf4ef8c0a79fe17f3becb.pdf f46c908c315f99bf3742c9e09f0d02d1 PDF Text Text Çocuklara Tarih Şuuru Kazandırmada Tarihi Hikayelerden Yararlanma Üzerine Bir Deneme Nesîme CEYHAN Bildiri Özeti: Toplumlar da fert fert insanlar gibi ortaya çıkışlarını, hayat maceralarını, var oluş mücadelelerini, eşik dönemlerini, mutluluklarını, parlak sayfalarını bir sonraki nesle aktarma ihtiyacı içindedir. Tarih’in henüz bir bilim olma iddiasına girişmediği dönemlerde edebiyat ve tarih, insanın/insanlığın hikâyesini aktarmada müşterek hareket ediyorlardı. Bugün, eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklarımıza, gençlerimize aktarmaya çalıştığımız tarihî bilgiyi, kazandırmaya çalıştığımız tarih şuurunu edebî metinlerden destek alarak gerçekleştirmeye yönelik bir anlayış, ülkemizde de yer etmeye başlıyor. Biz bu çalışmamızda tarihî hikâyelerin örgün eğitimle birlikte yaygın eğitim içerisinde farklı yaş guruplarındaki çocuklara ulaştırılmasının gerekliliğine, seçilecek/yazılacak hikâyelerin hüviyetine ve yayın dünyasının yapması gereken hamlelere dair fikir geliştirmeye çalışacağız. Anahtar Sözcükler: tarih, edebiyat, eğitim, tarihî hikâye, tarih bilinci Modern zamanların, bilimleri birbirinden kalın hatlarla ayıran ve her dalı kendi içinde onlarca şubeye bölen tavrı, problemler üzerinde bütüncül bakışı ve bütünden hareketle çözüm önerisi sunma imkânını ortadan kaldırmıştır. Bu bağlamda sosyal bilimlerin kaynağı sayılan dil, tarih ve edebiyatın, aynı kaynaktan doğdukları ve bir sacayağı hâlinde diğer sosyal bilimleri ve birbirlerini besledikleri adeta unutulmuştur. Tarih ve edebiyat bilimleri, birçok yanlarıyla birbirini tamamlayan; diğer yanda gerçeklik tartışmalarında birbirinden ayrılan iki disiplindir. Tarih bilimi, edebî metni fiktif âlemin mahsulü sayarak gerçeklik düzleminden uzaklaştırır ve kaynak göstermede ciddiye almaz; oysa tarih yazıcılarının da mutlak gerçekliği yansıtıp yansıtamadıkları tartışma konusudur. Tarih metni, insan topluluklarının başlarından geçmiş olaylardan hareketle ortaya çıkmışken, edebî metin insanların başlarından geçmiş ya da geçmesi muhtemel hadiselerle, insanların duygularından hareketle şekillenir. İkisi de dille var olur. Dil, tarihî yaşanmışlığın ve duygulanımların taşıyıcısıdır. Tarih yazıcıları, olanı kaydetmekle görevli olsalar da bilhassa devletlerin tarih yazıcılarından devletin kabul ettiği doğruları gelecek nesle aktarmalarından başka bir şey beklenemez. İnsanlar kaleme aldığı müddetçe objektif tarih yazıcılığı hiçbir zaman mümkün olamayacaktır. Edebî metni ortaya koyan sanatkâr ise, içinde bulunduğu toplumun yaşadıklarından etkilenmekle birlikte hadiseleri ve duyguyu aynıyla aktarma imkânına sanatın mahiyeti gereği zaten sahip değildir. Her toplum, ortaya çıkışını, hayat macerasını, var oluş mücadelesini, eşik dönemlerini, mutluluklarını, parlak sayfalarını bir sonraki nesle aktarma ihtiyacı içindedir. Destan devirlerinin varlığı bunu ispatlar. İnsan, hikâyesini anlatma ihtiyacı taşıyan bir varlıktır. Tarih’in henüz bir bilim olma iddiasına girişmediği dönemlerde edebiyat ve tarih insanın/insanlığın hikâyesini aktarmada müşterek hareket ediyorlardı: Destanları, İlyada ve Odisse’yi hatırlamalıyız. Bugün eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklarımıza, gençlerimize aktardığımız tarihî bilgiyi, kazandırmaya çalıştığımız tarih şuurunu salt tarih metinlerinden elde etmeye çalışmak yerine edebî metinlerden destek alarak gerçekleştirebileceğimize dair bilhassa Tarih Eğitimi ile meşgul olan araştırmacılar dikkat çekmeye başlamışlardır.46 Biraz Tarih, Çokça Hikâye: Tarihî Hikâye 46 Bu konuya son yıllarda dikkat çeken bazı çalışmalar şunlardır: Kurtuluş Kayalı, “Edebiyatı, Tarihi Zenginleştirici Bir Malzeme Olarak Algılama Gerekliliği”, Kültür,Nu:103, 1994, s.14-17./ Bahri Ata, “Tarih Öğretiminde Bir Araç Olarak Tarihî Romanlar”, Türk Yurdu, Nu:153-154, s.158-166./ Dursun Dilek, Gülçin Soğucaklı Yapıcı, “Öykülerle Tarih Öğretimi Yaklaşımı”, I. Sosyal Bilimler Eğitimi Kongresi (15-17 Mayıs 2003), Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Buca Eğitim Fakültesi, İzmir/ Ahmet Şimşek, “Tarih Eğitiminde Efsane ve Destanların Rolü”, Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Nu:2 (3), 2001./ Ahmet Şimşek, “İlköğretim Sosyal Bilgiler Dersi Tarih Konularının Öğretiminde Hikâye Anlatım Yönteminin Etkinliği”, XI. Eğitim Bilimler Kongresi, Yakındoğu Üniversitesi, Lefkoşa, 2002./ Ahmet Şimşek, “Tarihsel Romanın Eğitimsel İşlevi”, bilig, Bahar 2006, Nu: 37, s.65-80./ A.Cüneyt Issı, Ahmet Şimşek, “İsmayıl Hakkı Baltacıoğlu’nun Çıkardığı Çocuk Hikâyeleri Dergisinin “Tarihi Fıkralar” Özel Sayısının Çocuk Edebiyatı ve Tarih Öğretimi Açısından Değeri”, htp:w3.gazi.esu.tr/web/asimsek/ismayilbalta.htm 337 �Bilhassa son yıllarda ülkemizde tarihe duyulan ilgi tarihî romanla ilgili tartışmaları edebiyat gündemine taşımıştır. Tarihî romanla ilgili değerlendirmeleri büyük ölçüde tarihî hikâye için de söyleyebiliriz; ancak iki türün uzunluk-kısalık, tek omurgalı kurgu-karmaşık kurgu, şahıs kadrosunun fazlalık ve azlığı gibi farkları tahkiyedeki kurgunun tarihî gerçekliği yansıtıp yansıtmayışı ile ilgili kısmen de olsa farklılık ortaya çıkarır. Tarihî hikâye, spesifik tek bir vak’a etrafında okuyucuya daha gerçekçi bir aktarım sunduğu izlenimi uyandırabilir. Tarihî vak’a’dan edinilen malzeme tarihî hikâye yazarının kurguyu tamamlayacak ilâveleri ile edebî metin düzlemine geçer. “Tarihî hikâye” de “tarihî roman”da olduğu gibi en az bir kuşak gelecekten geçmiş bir zamana ait oluşturulan tahkiyelerdir. Bu hikâyelerde yaşanmış ya da yaşanmış olması muhtemel olaylar, devrin yaşam tarzı, döneme uygun mekân ve dekor içerisinde, tarihî bazı simalar ya da kurgulanmış kimseler etrafında gelişir. Yazarın yazdığı dönemi yaşamamış olması tarihî roman ya da hikâye için önemli bir ölçüdür. Bu bağlamda tarihî hikâyeler için örnek olmak üzere Ömer Seyfeddin’in Eski Kahramanlar adı altında Yeni Mecmua’da yayımladığı Ferman, Kütük, Vire, Pembe İncili Kaftan, Başını Vermeyen Şehit, “Kızılelma” Neresi?, Büyücü, Teke Tek, Topuz, Diyet adlı hikâyeleri anabiliriz. Hikâyeler 1917’de yazılmıştır; ancak hadiseler birkaç asır öncesinde yaşanmış ya da yaşanması muhtemel olaylardan seçilmiştir. Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nın devam ettiği, ümitlerin her geçen gün azaldığı zor zamanlarda kaleme alınan bu hikâyeler için Hülya Argunşah şu değerlendirmede bulunur: “Destânî bir ruhla dolu olan bu hikâyeler, savaşın devam ettiği dönemde halkın ve askerin maneviyatını yükseltmek, tarihten getirilen örneklerle mücadele azmini artırmak ve ona yeni ufuklar kazandırmak fırsatını verdikleri gibi bu yıllarda tartışılan modern zamanlarda destanın olup olmayacağı konusundaki şüpheleri de cevaplar.”47 İnsanın hikâye ile bilgilendirilişi, yönlendirilişi, eğitilişi; insana hikâye ile nasihat edilişi destan devirlerinden bu yana süregelen bir hâldir. Geçmiş hadiselerden hareketle topluma kahramanlık hisleri kazandırma, toplumun ümidini yeniden tesis etme, kuvvetli vakitlerden hareketle topluma “sen bir kez daha bunu gerçekleştirebilirsin” mesajını verme mümkün görünüyor. Bugünden hareketle geçmiş devirlere ait yazılan “tarihî hikâyeler” yanında, “çağ hikâyesi/tanık hikâye” de diyebileceğimiz, yazarın şahitliklerinden doğan hikâyeler de vardır. Bugün tarihî hikâyeler arasında zannettiğimiz/gördüğümüz; ancak yazarının devrini aktardığı hikâyeler de bizim için kullanılabilecek niteliktedir. Yakup Kadri’nin Millî Savaş Hikâyeleri, yahut Hâlide Edib’in İzmir’den Bursa’ya adlı kitapta yer alan hikâyeleri, Aka Gündüz’ün Türk’ün Kitabı’ndaki hikâyeleri yaşananların hemen akabinde hikâyecilerin kaleminden çıkmıştır. Yakup Kadri, kitaba düştüğü “Hâşiye”de şunları söyler: “Küçük Hikâye, adı altında neşrettiğim bu yazılar gerçek vakalara müstenittir. Bunlar, açıktan açığa, doğrudan doğruya “Anadolu Hatıraları” ser levhasıyla çıkabilirdi. Fakat ben, onların bazılarını kendi arzu ve muhayyileme göre değiştirmek ve canlandırmak zorunda kaldığım için hepsinin birden tamamıyle edebiyata mâl olmalarını müreccah buldum.”48 Bu açıklama ile hikâyelerin kurguyla ve gerçekle ilişkisi yazarı tarafından net bir biçimde ortaya koyulmuştur. Yayımlandığı gün için “çağ anlatımı”dır bu hikâyeler, bugünden bakınca “tarihî anlatım”. Tanık hikâyeler diyebileceğimiz bu metinlerin okuyucu üzerinde, mutlak yaşanmış olduklarını düşünmekten doğan tesirleri daha kuvvetli olabilir. Tarih Şuuru ve Tarihî Hikâye Her toplum, gelen nesillerin ayaklarını ülke ve milletine dair kuvvetli bir tarihî zemine bastırarak ferde önce, bir grubun parçası olduğunu hissettirir. Bu his bireyin dünya üzerinde zaman ve mekân bağlamında varlığını temellendirebilmesini sağlar. Hiçbir millete, sosyal gruba, dîne mensubiyeti kabul etmeyen fertler bile sonuçta insanlığın ortak hikâyesine bağlılıkla bir mensubiyet taşırlar. Geçmiş, hâl ve gelecek ilgisinin sağlıklı kurulması tarih şuurunun oluşumu için temel unsurdur. Bugün orta öğrenimini tamamlamış her Türk genci Türklerin Orta Asya’dan Anadolu’ya geldiğini, Osmanoğullarından üç kıtaya yayılmış bir imparatorluk kurulduğunu, İstanbul’un fethi ile Orta Çağ’ın kapanıp Yeni Çağ’ın açıldığını, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin Osmanlı Devleti’nin çöküşü ardından kurulduğunu tarih derslerinin bir neticesi olarak kaba hatlarıyla bilir. Bu sürekliliği bilmenin yanında Türklerin devlet kurma kabiliyetine, karşılaştıkları yeni insan topluluklarıyla hoşgörülü birlikteliklerine, aile hayatlarında gösterdikleri karakteristik özelliklere, İslâm’ın bayraktarlığını yapmaya dair hizmet anlayışlarına ve mukaddes değerlere gösterdikleri hürmete, başka dinlere ve inançlara tanıdıkları toleransa,diğergâmlıklarına, adalet anlayışlarına, tabiatla münasebetlerine dair her gencin zihninde uyanması gereken karelerin tamamı tarih şuurunun bir parçasını teşkil eder. Bu şuuru hiçbir tarih kitabı Tarık Buğra’nın Osmancık’ında ifadesini bulan ruhla okuyucuya aktaramaz. Örneğin romanda bütünüyle kurgu olan Osman Gazi’nin Şeyh Edebalı evindeki rüyası, üç 47 48 Hülya Argunşah, Ömer Seyfettin Bütün Eserleri, Hikâyeler2,Dergâh Yay., İst.1999. Yakup Kadri, Millî Savaş Hikâyeleri, Varlık Yayı., İst.1947, s.91. 338 �kıtaya yayılan Osmanlı çınarını okuyucunun şuuraltına yerleştirir. Yahut hiçbir tarih kitabı Zigetvar’ın fethini, başını küffara bırakmayan Deli Mehmed’in Ömer Seyfeddin kaleminden çıkan Başını Vermeyen Şehid’indeki hikâyesi gibi aktaramaz. Fertlerin, cemiyetlerinin tarihlerinin bir bölümünü benimseyip bir bölümünü reddetmeleri, o toplumda tarih bilincinin oluşturulamadığının bir işareti sayılır. Bilhassa çocukların/gençlerin tarihe salt savaşlar, zafer ve yenilgiler olarak bakmalarının önüne geçmek; tarihin bir kısmını benimseyip bir kısmını reddeden bir algıdan onları korumak; tarihi, milletin varlık serüvenini insanî bir şekilde algılama aracı olarak görmelerini sağlamak hedeflenmelidir. Toplumumuzun gençlerde tarih şuuru oluşturma noktasındaki hassasiyeti çok eskiye dayanmaktadır. Halk meclislerinde destanlara ek olarak, gazavatnâmelerin, menkıbelerin, cenknâmelerin, okunma alışkanlığı, Türk toplumunda bu şuurun oluşturulmasındaki hassasiyeti gösterir. Yakın zamanlarda bu alışkanlığın tamamen yok olduğuna dikkat çekmeliyiz. Bunda teknolojinin olumsuz tesiri birinci derecede söylenmelidir. Bunun yanında günlük alışkanlıklarımızın, misafirlik, akşam oturması, sohbet mantığımızın değişimi, şehrin ihtiyaçlarının ve zorunluluklarının baskısı da önemlidir. Eski kültürde çocukların, çocukluktan gençliğe geçenlerin model kimlik olarak bu metinlerde/anlatılarda alp, gazi, velî, ahi tipleriyle karşılaşmaları ve toplumlarının var oluş, ayakta kalış hikâyelerini öğrenmeleri önemlidir. Toplumun, gençlerin terbiyesinde bu tiplere ihtiyacı vardır.49 Model kimlik olan bu şahıslar, cömerttir, gözü pektir, doğruluktan ayrılmaz, namusludur, inançlıdır, vatanperverdir, hükümdarına sadıktır, dar zamanda kişilerin imdadına koşan ve imdadına koşulan tiplerdir. Toplumun model kimliğe olan ihtiyacı bugün de farklı değildir. Bilhassa gençler arasında Deli Yürek ve Kurtlar Vadisi dizilerinde “Yusuf” ve “Polat” karakterlerinin gördüğü ilgi, bu ihtiyacın bir yansıması sayılabilir. Bugün tarihî hikâyeler ve romanlarla toplumun bilhassa model kimliğe olan ihtiyacı karşılanabilir. Tarihî hikâyelerle çocuklara başka ne gibi hasletler kazandırılabilir? Tarihî hikâyeler vasıtasıyla çocuklarda insan varlığının devamlılığı hissi, geçmiş, hâl ve istikbal algısı daha somut hâle getirilebilir. Vatan, millet, ülke, devlet gibi olguların toplum hafızasına tabii dahli, hayatla kaynaşması tarihî hikâyeler yoluyla temin edilebilir. Çocuklarda vatan ve yurt sevgisi oluşturma; vatan için, fedakârlıkta bulunma, gerektiğinde hayatını verebilecek bir ruha sahip olma, özellikle küçük yaşlarda bu hikâyeler aracılığıyla oluşturulabilir. Milletinin temel özellikleri sayılabilecek bazı hasletler çocuklara bu hikâyelerle kazandırılabilir: Büyüklere saygı, âlime hürmet, her hâl ü kârda doğrunun yanında olma, haklıya hakkını verme… Tarihî hikâyelerle tarihin büyük isimleri tabii birer insan olarak algılatılarak empati hissi oluşturulabilir ve bu yolla tarihî kahramanlarla çocuk, birbirine yaklaştırılarak çocuğun kendine ve toplumuna güveni arttırılabilir. Bu hikâyelerle önceki nesillerin yaşama biçimleri, teknoloji ile münasebetleri, zenginlikleri yahut fakirlikleri, eğitim anlayışları, başka insanlarla, hayvanlarla ve bitkilerle ilişkileri çocuğun gündemine getirilerek önceki nesillerle ortak tavır geliştirme imkânı, bir tür gelenek taşıyıcılığı mümkün olabilir. Günümüzde artık aile büyüklerinin milletin ortak hikâyelerini anlattığı ortamlar kaybolmuştur; dolayısıyla bu hikâyeler, bu eksikliği de giderebilir. Çocuklara Yönelik Tarihî Hikâyelerin Hüviyeti Öncelikle söylememiz gereken şey, tarihî hikâye üretiminin artması gerekliliğine dairdir; çünkü, bu sahada büyük bir kısırlıkla karşı karşıyayız. Üstelik sadece tarihî hikâye yayımlanması boyutunda değil, tarihî hikâyelerin çizgi filmi, çizgi hikâye kitapları oluşturulması boyutunda da büyük eksiklik vardır. Çocukların bu sahada ağırlıklı olarak fantastik hikâyeler, yahut bilim kurgu metinlerle ya da çizgilerle karşılaşmaları zihinlerinde köksüz bir hayal ağacı oluşturulması anlamına gelecektir. Tarihî roman gündemini kısmen yaratabilmiştir; ancak tarihî hikâyede oldukça gerilerdeyiz. Çocuklara yönelik tarihî roman yazmada da yine eksiklik vardır ve çocuklara yönelik tarihî hikâyelerde ihtiyaç büyüktür. Öncelikle evvelden yazılmış tarihî hikâyelerin çocuklara uyarlanması söz konusu olabilir. Bir kez daha Ömer Seyfeddin, bir kez daha Halide Edib ve Aka Gündüz, Ahmet Hikmet Müftüoğlu, Yakub Kadri hikâyelerine yönelebiliriz. Bu hikâyelerin dilleri mümkün olduğunca hadiselerin eskiliği ile paralel tutulmalıdır. Yazılacak yeni hikâyelerde dil yine hadiselerin eskiliğini hatırlatacak özellikleri hâiz; ama sade; ayrıca bugünün çocuklarına önceki devirlerin hayatına dair ipuçları taşıyacak zenginlikte olmalıdır. 49 Bu tiplerle ilgili olarak bkz. Mehmet Kaplan, Tip Tahlilleri, Dergâh Yay., İst.1996. 339 �Bilhassa hatırat kitapları taranarak tarihin çeşitli evrelerine dair değerler eğitimine uygun, tarihî şuuru inkişaf ettirecek hadiseler çıkarılmalı ve bunlar hikâyeleştirilmelidir. Kahramanı çocuk olan hikâyeler tercih edilmelidir. Yeni hikâyelerin yazılması teşvik edilmeli; ancak hikâyeler, yeni tarihselciliğin yapı bozumcu tavrı yerine klâsik hikâye tarzında yazılmalıdır. Çocukta kahramanlık hissi oluşturmaya çalışırken şiddet içeren sahnelerden uzak durarak zekânın kuvvetten önemli olduğunu vurgulayan metinlere yönelmekte fayda vardır. Çocukta, insan varlığının dünyadaki devamlılığı hissini oluşturma; geçmişin, hâlin ve istikbâlin varlığı idrakini kolaylaştırma, hikâyelerin temel işlevlerinden biri olmalıdır. Çocukta millî şuur, kahramanlık duygusu ve vatan sevgisi hislerini oluşturmaya yönelik metinler tercih edilmelidir. Çocuğun modern dünyada kendine model olarak aldığında sıkıntı yaşamayacağı model tipler, kahramanlar teklif eden hikâyeler oluşturulmalıdır. Tarihin sadece başarılar ve kahramanlıklardan ibaret olmadığına işaret eden hatanın insanlara göre olduğunu; ancak bazı yanlışların milletlerin kaderini belirleyebildiğini gösteren metinler seçilerek çocuklarda toplumuna karşı sorumluluk hissi oluşturmaya çalışılmalıdır. Çocukta kendisinin varlığını temin için hayatlarını tehlikeye atmış eski insanlara karşı minnet ve hürmet hissi oluşturma; geçmişe vefa ve gelecek nesilleri de sahiplenme hislerini uyandırmaya yönelik metinler tercih edilmelidir. Bütün bunların yanında çocuğun, varlığı bir mekâna bağlı olarak algılamasını kolaylaştıracak, milletinin yaşadığı diğer toprak parçalarını idrak edebileceği farklı coğrafyalarda geçen metinleri de ihmal etmemek gerekiyor. Orta Asya, Balkanlar, Arap Yarımadası, Avrupa, Orta Doğu ve Afrika’da yaşanan devirlere dair hikâyelerle bu geniş coğrafya ile çocuğun/gencin ünsiyetini temin edecek metinler oluşturulmalıdır. Sonuç Zamanın getirdiği yenilikler, teknolojik imkânlar, küreselleşme, bir bütün hâlinde çocukları ortak dünya ve insanlık algısı içerisine çekerken, ülkelerinin gerçekleri, ihtiyaçları ve ideallerinden uzaklaştırmaktadır. Ortak hayalleri olmayan insanlar bir ülkeyi kalkındıramazlar, bağımsızlıklarını koruyamazlar. Bu bağlamda, bir arada yaşayan ve aynı ülkenin vatandaşları olan insanların ortak bir geçmiş, ortak bir hâl ve ortak yaşanacak bir istikbalde fikren birleşmeleri şarttır. Tarih şuuru, bu bakımdan lüzumludur. Örgün eğitimde yakalanmaya çalışılan hedeflerden biri olmakla birlikte tarih şuuru’nun dış hayattan, yaygın eğitim unsurları ve aile çevresinden edinilmesi de önem arz eder. Bu hususta yayınevlerinin programlarına tarihî hikâye ve romanları ilâve etmeleri, televizyon ve radyonun, çocuk programlarının desteği; görsel, işitsel ve yazılı medyanın gayreti ve ailelerin desteğiyle hedefe daha sağlıklı ulaşılacaktır. 340 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 389 Title A name given to the resource Çocuklara Tarih Şuuru Kazandırmada Tarihi Hikayelerden Yararlanma Üzerine Bir Deneme Author Author CEYHAN, Nesîme Abstract A summary of the resource. Toplumlar da fert fert insanlar gibi ortaya çıkışlarını, hayat maceralarını, var oluş mücadelelerini, eşik dönemlerini, mutluluklarını, parlak sayfalarını bir sonraki nesle aktarma ihtiyacı içindedir. Tarih’in henüz bir bilim olma iddiasına girişmediği dönemlerde edebiyat ve tarih, insanın/insanlığın hikâyesini aktarmada müşterek hareket ediyorlardı. Bugün, eğitimin bir parçası olarak çocuklarımıza, gençlerimize aktarmaya çalıştığımız tarihî bilgiyi, kazandırmaya çalıştığımız tarih şuurunu edebî metinlerden destek alarak gerçekleştirmeye yönelik bir anlayış, ülkemizde de yer etmeye başlıyor. Biz bu çalışmamızda tarihî hikâyelerin örgün eğitimle birlikte yaygın eğitim içerisinde farklı yaş guruplarındaki çocuklara ulaştırılmasının gerekliliğine, seçilecek/yazılacak hikâyelerin hüviyetine ve yayın dünyasının yapması gereken hamlelere dair fikir geliştirmeye çalışacağız Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44e5438708f202d692fc67d3ee00f37a.pdf 3db89713ff2cf00b1fab0f47e747e494 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Reconstruction and Developments in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina Ali COŞKUN Assistant Professor in Department of Management Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey alicoskun@fatih.edu.tr Erkan ILGÜN Senior Teaching Assistant in Department of Management International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina eilguen@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is a young republic in the South Eastern Europe, which become independent from Yugoslavia in 1992. The independency was a though process and the economy of BIH seriously damaged in the civil war period during 19921995. But BIH Economy has been reconstructed and improved by taking important steps after the war. BIH Banking sector has also been developed significantly and restructured during the last decade. This paper examines both the current situation of the banking system of the Bosnia and Herzegovina and the developments in the sector after 1995. Main economic indicators for BIH in last decade reveal a strong post-war recovery. The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. Entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. In last 12 years banking sector of BIH significantly improved. For example total deposits in commercial banks of BIH increased by 769 %, total loans given by the commercial banks increased by 497 %, and total assets of the commercial banks increased by 530 % from 1997 to 2008. Keywords: Banking Sector, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Foreign Direct Investment. Introduction After the iron curtain collapsed many centrally planned economies, divided in those south East European (SEE1) and Central Eastern Europe (CEE) replaced the previous social system of centrally planned economy to a non-socialist society with a liberalized economy. These low-income countries use economic liberalization as their main engine of growth. Among transition economies SEE are relatively less developed and structurally lagging behind the CEE. The region of the aforementioned region experienced a different way of reconstruction and development path. Bosnia and Herzegovina lagged behind the relatively developed republics of former Yugoslavia like Croatia, Slovenia, and Serbia. In this paper we give an overview about the banking sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) analyzing in particular the developments from 2000 to 2008. 1. Economic Overview 1.1. From Yugoslavia to Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina: Historical Background For centuries powers have collided in this region. With the dissolution of the communist regime in the late 1980s national feelings comes up especially in Serbia. Attempts to save the Yugoslav Federation were made, but as opinions diverge widely about a common future among the national leaders in the new countries Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia entailed to the collapse of the former Yugoslav Federation. Consequently the new established states disintegrated it from the centrifugal. While Croatia and Slovenia was declaring independence in 1991, paramilitary origins from Serbia occupied several 1 According to EBRD Office for South East Europe, SEE is as defined Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo. (EBRD, 2009). 52 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina towns killing civil Bosniaks1 and Croats. Thousands of people died in this clash of ethnic groups, as well a lot of the population seeks for refugees. As a consequence Bosnia and Herzegovina was faced with serious humanitarian and social problems. The conflict lasted 1992-1995 until the Dayton Peace Agreement2 was signed in Paris in December 1995 between the counterparts (Malcolm, 2002). For mobilizing international support for the Agreement a Peace Implementation Conference was held in London on December 8-9, 1995 which resulted in the foundation of the Peace Implementation Council (PIC). The PIC comprises 55 countries and agencies that assist the peace process in diverse ways (PIC, 2006) So the regional political situation were 'sealed' and post-war endeavors began to overcome the existing problems in the financial and economic structure, legislation and administration as well. The prime point in the Dayton Agreement is that a multiethnic society has to be lived in a divided country with two entities but jointly guided by a central government. With a rotating and collective three-member presidency Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is being ruled. The state of BIH is the central authority. Although recognized as a parliamentary democracy it is governed by the international community under tutorship of the Office of High Representative for BIH, which was established as a condition of the Dayton Agreement. The High Representative (OHR) is charged with observing the implementation of the Dayton agreement and coordination of the activities of international organization and intervenes in situations of unwillingness of the main parties to cooperate (e.g. the new flag design) or to take economic reform seriously. (OHR, 2009) With one confederation, two entities, ten cantons in the Federation, five administrative areas in the Serb Republic, a special Brcko district, plus municipalities and local government unit presents a very complex political system in the world which conceals meaningful barriers and bureaucratic hurdles that will need to overcome to succeed (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 424). Under the supervision of the United Nations both entities and the district handles on the defined conditions of the Dayton peace Agreement separately whereas in fiscal issues, these entities are autonomous. That means 'the duplication of many domestic policy functions and weakens incentives for cooperation' (Cuc, 2005) which suggests the conclusion that interethnic trust will be undermined so that it makes difficult to agree on the decisions needed to take the country forward (OHR, 2008). All of the countries had, plain-spoken, consummately differences in starting positions at the beginning of the transnational process of the former Yugoslav countries. In 1990, BIH has also started a wide-reaching process of reconstruction and development of its political, economic, social and legal systems as an independent (apart from extensive international aid) country and capable of sustainable development beginning with economic liberalization and implementation of market-oriented reforms for pursuing long-term growth. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 418) The integration to the world economy took place under extremely complicating circumstances for Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH). First of all it had been thinking about economic restructuring and renovation. In general, economies in the Balkan region are ordinary classified as late starters. That is why their performance is described as not very stable when compared to those of Central European countries. During the communist period, through decades, enterprises and industrial plants were largely focused toward the satisfaction of wants of the ex-Yugoslavia market. Heavy industry was mainly centered in BIH. As the least developed country in the region there were efforts in BIH in the early 1990s to minimize the affect of heavy industry on the economy and develop therefore light industries such as for example consumer goods, finance, electronics. Devastations of the existing infrastructure decreases GDP per capita during the war period. With the adopting and implementation of the Mid-term Development Strategy (PRSP) BIH was being encouraged to preserve macroeconomic stability with significant growth rates boot in GDP and industrial production. Because of destroying all economic capacity3 during the ethnical conflict period, BIH was forced to follow another development path. In contrast to other transition economies where institutional transition has progressed further, a highly vexing regulatory environment in BIH has occurred inconvenient situations for investors and further success of the transition process. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 425-426) As a result complex and difficult structures which are often changing brings out that BIH has the following serious deficiencies: inefficient public sector, obstacles for business4, high current account deficit5, and complex government, fragmented policymaking inadequate coordination between the state and entities, democracy, widespread corruption and a fractured labor market which are in need of improvement. Red tape occurs with respect to independent administrative areas which are Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska and Brcko6. Different rules within the country exists (Klamert, 2008: 4-7). In spite of this claims, “....Bosnia 1 Bosniak refers to Muslims live in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 sets the bases for the establishing of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and its economic recovery. 3 The post-war role of manufacturing and industry in GDP fell by virtually 90% of lost output, declining of Gross Domestic Product, workforce lost their jobs. 4 E.g. no central tax administration exists 5 Which will in turn lead to a further increase in the current-account deficit 6 The entities are to a large extent independent as for legislation and there is no real deferral legal system. 2 53 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo and Herzegovina are moving ahead with the implementation of their respective Interim Agreements and have made progress in important reform areas.” (Europa Press Releases 2009) 1.2. Economic Development in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Last Decade Selected economic indicators for BIH between 2000 and 2008 presented in Table 1 reveals a strong post-war recovery. Continued growth in industrial production over the past years can be seen. Inflation rate stabilized at EU levels. Economic growth in BIH has been impressive with GDP. The economy should remain strong in 2008 as a result of domestic demand with consumption and investment substantially supported by foreign aid flows. Nominal GDP in 2008 was about 12 billion Euros. In 2008, average real GDP growth rate was around 7.0%. GDP per capita reached EUR 3,648 in 2008. International trade has been a major source of economic growth. Unemployment is soaring with approximately 25%. Large and widening current account deficits are not surprising for transition economies. One of the key imbalances in the economy of BIH is its high trade deficit which is ultimately leading to a significant current account deficit in the balance of payments. The trade deficit rise remarkable for countries like BIH given that they are being swift integrated with the economies of the European Union. Encourages foreign investment have been remained. The significant increase in foreign direct investments (FDI) could be the most important instrument in financing of the overall balance of payments. Efforts to attract foreign investment lead to the development of the State Foreign Investment Policy and the successful reform of the banking system as well as the customs reform. Table 1. General Economic Indicators of Bosnia and Herzegovina Source: FIPA – Foreign Investment Promotion Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2009), Investment Opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sixth Edition, February 2009, Sarajevo, p.10 BIH is still an importing country. Main trading partner for BIH is the EU with a participation of approximately 50% beside Croatia, Turkey, Serbia and the USA. BIH holds a Free Trade Agreement with Central European Countries (CEFTA). But so far, BIH also has free trade agreements with Turkey, as well as preferential export regimes with e.g. the European Union, USA, Japan, Norway, New Zealand, and Russia. In 2007 trade amounted totally 10,141,783 (in thousand Euro) and in 2008; 11,758,560 (in thousand Euro). Consumer borrowing and growth in real wages boosts private consumption in 2007. The “golden age” of BIH was achieved during the 1970-1980 period, which culminated in the Sarajevo Winter Olympic Games in 1984 (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 425). As a middle-income country BIH reach 67% of GDP in the service sector, 22 54 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo % in industry, and 10 % in agriculture (World Bank, 2009). In 2008 BIH reached GDP per capita: amounted by 3,648 Euro. First steps regarding privatization were undertaken under the leadership of the U.S. Agency for International Development in 1997 while the Framework Law for Privatization of Companies and Banks was enacted in 1998. As in most fields the Federation and the Serb Republic have here also their own privatization laws, which complicate the ongoing process of development. (Petricevic and Danis, 2007: 428) In spite of encountering obstacles, both post-communist and postwar periods, BIH has rendered an enormous development in post-conflict reconstruction transform its economic structure, It has the willingness to be more integrated in the international environment. 1.3. Efforts to Integrate with the European Union Developments in terms of international integration depend largely by their achievement of EU integration. Forcing reforms in the judicial system is one of the primary preconditions for further support by the EU. The Stabilization and Association Progress (SAP) is the EU´s framework for the Western Balkan countries regarding pre-accession issues. It achieves a secure and fast transition to a liberalized economy, approach to a eventual EU accession as well as stress of regional cooperation. The first step towards to assist them in adopting and implementing of EU standards a membership with the EU for BIH represents the Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA), initialed in the end of 2007, after approving by the Council of the European Union and signed in 2008. Moreover, the EU assists the country under the 2007 IPA (instrument for preaccession assistance). The first step in the EU integration process has been started with establishing the Consultative Task Force in 1998 which was redefined in 2006 to “Reform Process Monitoring”. (Weyerstrass, 2008: 395) In fulfilling economic criteria for being a Membership of European Union BIH is virtually capable to do it (Efendic and Medjedovic, 2006). 1.4. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Bosnia and Herzegovina The last year evidence is given for significant effort to open its economy to foreign investments. For foreign investors relevant laws in BIH are the Law on the Policy for Foreign Direct Investments and the Guidelines on the Registration of FDI. Commensurate with the economic theory foreign investors want to take advantage of yielding a higher return who is taking a risk abroad in a capital-scarce country. However, doing business in BIH is burdensome for out coming investors with respect to nontransparent business regulations, obstacles in administrative procedures as well as weak judicial structures (Petricevic and Danis 2007: 430-431). In BIH and in the other SEE countries at all, the total amount of FDI inflows is relatively quite low and volatile and is not prevalent affected by traditional factors of FDI attraction1. It depends to a large extent on (completing) the privatization process. (Škuflić and Botrić 2006: 73) Greatest (historical) interest gains CEE countries from its immediate neighbors. Regarding the data it is apparently that the service sector in BIH absorbs more FDI than the manufacturing sector. With the increasing inflow of foreign capital into the banking sector, quality of services provided increase, overall sector’s efficiency continue to increase. (Babić-Hodović and Burić, 2005: 1429) Reforming the business environment in BIH is also high on the Worlds Bank’s agenda. The IMF also pursues assistance for BIH. Leading multinational corporations, among others Coca-Cola, IBM, Microsoft, Procter & Gamble can be quoted, seeks investments opportunities in BIH in the last years. With the actively operation in BIH of international companies domestic companies could benefit on this way from knowledge spillovers especially in management as well as profits from technology transfers. On the other side there may be a more tightly integration of local firms in the world market. So the role of FDI in this context is straightforward. The more increase investment activities in BIH from abroad is available the more positively contribution to the growth rate of the economy is possible according to the theory. When the foreign direct investment in BIH divided by sectors between May 1994 and December 2008, the largest FDI flow was in manufacturing with the 35% of the total FDI inflows. Banking follows it by 22%, and then telecommunication comes with 14%, and trade with 11% (FIPA, 2009: 16) The cumulative volume of FDI attracted to BIH had experienced a considerable amount, extensively in the banking sector after 1995. Though they have been active in promoting FDI they haven’t been as successful as countries like Croatia, Romania and Bulgaria which were the main attractors of FDI in the last years in this region. Since May 1994 to December 2008, the most investment was made by companies from Austria 27.1 %, Serbia 15.6%, Croatia 11.7%, Slovenia 11.4%, Switzerland 6.8%, Germany 5.5%, Russia 5%, The Netherlands 1 The efficiency of institutions is one of the essentially factor (Bénassy-Quéré et al. 2005). This comprises of tax systems, the ease of starting up a company, lack of corruption, law of contract, transparency, safeguarding of property rights and efficiency of justice (Škuflić and Botrić 2006: 82-83). 55 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.5%, Italy 2.1%, USA 1.9%, Turkey 1.3%, and other countries 9.1%. Investments in telecommunication, transportation, tourism, and services record constant growth. In the manufacturing sector the participation is 35% in total investment (FIPA, 2009: 15-16). Net foreign direct investment inflows recorded in the balance of payments during last 13 years for selected SEE and CEE Countries are given in Table 2. As the government is committed to meet the EU set of criteria strengthen the business environment for foreign investors in Table 2 it is shown evolving of FDI inflows. While several neighboring countries are making substantial progress towards a functioning market economy compared to the most developed Eastern European countries BIH is lagging behind in the context of attracting foreign investors. However, in terms of volume the inflow of foreign investments has been considerably increased in BIH during the past years. Additional boost to FDI inflows comes from EU candidature. With this assertiveness Bulgaria and Romania and some other Central and South Eastern Countries commended a phase of significant privatization in the last few years. Table 2. Foreign direct investment (net inflows recorded in the balance of payments) -in USD million Selected SEE and CEE Countries Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 (Est.) 97 42 45 51 143 207 135 178 344 283 325 651 880 710 0 0 100 90 146 119 266 382 708 579 2.023 1.200 Bulgaria 138 507 537 802 998 803 876 2.070 2.879 4.005 7.583 11.433 8.472 Croatia 466 348 842 1.392 1.105 1.398 552 1.927 732 1.551 3.212 4.644 4.098 1.280 1.259 3.575 6.220 4.942 5.474 8.282 1.814 3.941 11.630 4.598 7.930 5.500 30 128 32 175 441 105 117 322 94 424 700 612 3.335 3.715 Czech Republic FYR Macedonia Hungary 11 3.070 3.060 2.151 3.573 2.722 479 3.405 5.586 3.640 2.197 4.763 Moldova 23 78 75 38 127 102 132 71 146 199 223 481 679 Montenegro na na na na na 10 84 44 63 482 585 717 783 4.445 4.863 6.049 7.239 9.327 5.804 3.901 4.284 11.761 6.951 10.727 17.976 12.951 415 1.267 2.079 1.025 1.051 1.154 1.080 2.156 6.368 6.587 10.957 9.818 11.000 1656 1.681 119 10.753 6.800 20.000 Poland Romania Russia 1.492 1.102 -463 216 -72 -1.769 1.662 0 740 113 112 50 165 475 1.365 966 1.550 4.264 2.195 2.487 Slovak Republic 199 84 374 701 1.897 1.520 4.130 1.913 3.052 2.279 4.178 2.881 3.156 Slovenia 167 303 221 59 71 226 1.508 -174 281 -67 -215 -353 280 Turkey 612 554 573 138 112 2.854 957 1.252 2.005 Serbia 8.967 19.065 19.940 15.400 Source: EBRD (2006) Transition report 2006: Finance in transition, http://www.ebrd.com/pubs/econo/6813.htm, accessed 15.04.2009. 2. Banking System in Bosnia and Herzegovina The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. After privatization process of state owned banks entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. Deposit growth raised significantly during the currency conversion to the Euro in late 2001.The banking system in Bosnia-Herzegovina will continue to evolve and consolidate. 2.1. Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina The Central Bank of BIH was founded under the Dayton Peace Agreement and started its work as a federal-level institution on August 11, 1997. It is headed by the Governing Council of the Central Bank acting, by law, as an independent central financial institution. Article 7 of the BIH Constitution (Annex 4 of the Dayton Peace Accords) arranged the structure of the central bank. the “Law on the Central Bank” was adopted in June 1997. (Tesche, 2000: 319) The Central Bank of BIH is the only monetary authority in the country. Formulating, adopting as well as controlling the monetary policy of BIH are the main objectives of the CB and operates some kind of a Currency Board Arrangement as designated in the CB law and in the Dayton Peace Agreement. Both “fixed exchange rate” and “rule-based approach to monetary policy” (CEFBIH, 2004; Kovačevič, 2003: 59-60) 56 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Thus the Central Bank cannot use monetary policy to lean against rising demand1. It has few monetary policy tools at its disposal. The new country-wide currency Convertible Mark (Konvertiblina Marka, KM) was introduced in June 1998 and replaces the three different currencies in use in the different parts of BIH. It was formerly pegged to the German Mark. In 2001 the peg was changed to the Euro at a rate of 1 KM = € 0.51129. Inflation has been relatively low in the federation after the introduction of the KM, as would be expected in a currency board system: “There is no other type of monetary policy, other than the adoption of the DEM as the currency of BIH, that could have given a country like BIH a stable and trusted currency and low inflation this quickly.” (Kovačevič, 2003: 60). An institution, the Fiscal Council, has been established is responsible for coordination of fiscal policy. 2.2. Supervision Agencies From the end 1990s on new modern banking laws were issued. Within an institutional-based guidance of the banking sector, the regulation and supervising is distinguished from the systematic as in the European countries, in which, in BIH, the monitoring and observing authority is assigned to the Banking Agency of the Federation of BIH (FBA BIH), the Banking Agency of the Republic Srpska (BARS) and partly, the Deposit Insurance Agency of BIH (DIA). The Federation Banking Agency started functioning in 1997. The Federation Banking Agency is responsible for bank licensing and supervision. The National Bank of Republic Srpska has been converted to the Banking Agency of the RS in mid-1998 after enabling legislation was passed in March 1998 (Teseche, 2000: 319-321). In 1998 two laws were passed to set up bank privatization: the “Law on the Privatization of Banks” and the “Law on Opening Balance Sheets for Enterprises and Banks”. Supervisory agencies both in the FBA BIH and the BARS conducting banking supervision in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which are each governed by individual entity-level legislation. Both are authorized to grant and revoke licenses and measures banks. The CBBH coordinates the activities of the two entity agencies. Basically the FBA BIH and the BARS, among both, and also between these and the DIA exists a cooperate agreement. To effectively implement the Basel principles the banking supervision agencies got a great deal of technical assistance (IMF, 2006: 28). Deposit Insurance Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina (DIA) is established by the “Law on Deposit Insurance in Banks of Bosnia and Herzegovina” in 2002. DIA is an independent, non-profit, legal entity with full authority under the Law of the State. Head Office of the DIA is located in Banja Luka, and there is one Branch Office in Sarajevo and Banja Luka. Agency has its own regulations “and is also characterized by established policies and procedures of deposit insurance, the amount of indirect deposit and the existence of ex ante financing; disbursement of insured deposits is financed mainly by the deposit insurance institution)...”A bank can join the deposit insurance system, i.e. become a member of this program, if it meets the preconditions prescribed by the Law on Banks, holds a license from one of the entity-level banking agencies and is at least 90 per cent privately owned.” (Željko, 2008: 34)2 In 2009 there are 25 banks which are signed the Contract on Deposit Insurance (DIA, 2009) 2.3. Commercial Banks According to the Law on Banks the commercial banks in BIH are enabled for banking activities and operations. Overall, the main share of assets in BIH is today privately owned. Foreign-owned banks have been the main drivers of credit growth. The list of the commercial banks operating in the Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009 is given in Table 3. Center offices of the 19 banks in the list are in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, while center offices of the 10 of them are in RS. 1 2 Instead BH must use fiscal and income policies. For a more detailed insight, see Murph 2006 57 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 3. Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2009 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 Name of the BANK ABS banka d.d. Sarajevo BOR banka Sarajevo Bosna bank international d.d. Sarajevo FIMA banka dd Sarajevo Hypo Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank d.d. Mostar Intesa Sanpaolo Banka d.d. Bosna i Hercegovina Investiciono-komercijalna banka dd Zenica Komercijalno-investiciona banka dd V.Kladuša NLB Tuzlanska banka dd, Tuzla Postbank BH d.d. Sarajevo Privredna banka Sarajevo d.d. Sarajevo ProCredit Bank Sarajevo Raiffeisen Bank dd BiH Razvojna banka Federacije BiH Turkish Ziraat Bank Bosnia dd Sarajevo UniCredit Bank d.d. Union banka d.d. Sarajevo Vakufska banka d.d. Sarajevo Volksbank BH dd Balkan Investment Bank AD Banja Luka Bobar banka ad Bijeljina EEFC Bank, a.d. Banja Luka Hypo Alpe-Adria-Bank a.d. Banja Luka Komercijalna banka AD Banja Luka NLB Razvojna banka Nova banka ad Banja Luka Pavlović International Bank a.d. Unicredit Bank a.d. Banja Luka Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka Center Office Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Mostar Sarajevo Zenica Velika Kladuša Tuzla Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Mostar Sarajevo Sarajevo Sarajevo Banja Luka Bijeljina Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Banja Luka Slobomir Bijeljina Banja Luka Banja Luka Official Website http://www.absbanka.ba http://www.borbanka.ba http://www.bbi.ba http://www.fimabanka.ba http://www.hypo-alpe-adria.ba http://www.intesasanpaolobanka.ba http://www.ikbze.com.ba http://www.kib-banka.com.ba http://www.nlbtuzlanskabanka.ba http://www.postbankbh.ba http://www.pbs.ba http://www.procreditbank.ba http://www.raiffeisenbank.ba http://www.ibf-bih.ba http://www.ziraatbosnia.com http://www.unicreditbank.ba http://www.unionbank.ba http://www.vakuba.ba http://www.volksbank.ba http://www.bib.ba http://www.bobarbanka.com http://www.iefkbanka.com http://www.hypo-alpe-adria.ba http://www.kombank-bl.com http://www.nlbrazvojnabanka.com http://www.novabanka.com http://www.pavlovic-banka.com http://www.novablbanka.com http://www.volksbank-bl.ba Commercial banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina provide more than 10.000 jobs for residents of BIH. Number of employees of the BIH banks is increasing nearly 10 percent each year. Number of Employees of the Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina both in Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and RS are given in Table 4. Table 4. Number of Employees of the Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina BANKS 1 ABS Banka dd Sarajevo 2 BOR Banka dd Sarajevo 3 Bosna Bank International dd Sarajevo 4 FIMA Banka dd Sarajevo 5 Hercegovacka Banka dd Mostar 6 HVB Central Profit Banka dd Sarajevo 7 Hypo Alpe Adria Bank dd Mostar 8 Intesa Sanpaolo Banka dd bih 9 Investicijska Banka fbih Sarajevo 10 Investiciono Komercijalna Banka dd Zenica 11 Komercijalno Investiciona Banka dd Velika Kladuša 12 LT Gospodarska Banka Banka dd Sarajevo 13 NLB Tuzlanska Banka dd Tuzla 14 Poštanska Banka dd Sarajevo 15 Privredna Banka dd Sarajevo 16 Procredit Bank dd Sarajevo 17 Raiffeisen Bank BH dd Sarajevo 18 Turkish Ziraat Bank dd Sarajevo 19 Una Banka dd Bihać 58 2006 297 40 104 58 98 476 492 233 84 163 66 196 479 63 170 595 1.348 108 61 2007 326 42 145 101 93 465 550 479 104 154 65 2008 367 46 173 148 89 472 97 163 831 1.543 129 59 493 118 166 884 1.721 150 59 620 509 177 67 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 20 Uni Credit Banka BH dd Mostar 840 840 1.406 21 Union Banka dd Sarajevo 175 179 176 22 Vakufska Banka dd Sarajevo 175 184 197 23 Volksbank BH dd Sarajevo 285 340 358 Na 24. Nova Banjalucka banka a.d. B. Luka 521 523 Na 25. Hypo Alpe Adria Bank a.d. B. Luka 510 528 Na 26. Bobar banka a.d. Bijeljina 149 152 Na 27. NLB Razvojna banka a.d. B. Luka 497 506 Na 28. Volksbank a.d. Banja Luka 234 237 Na 29. Balkan Investment Bank a.d. B.Luka 159 162 Na 30. Pavlović International Bank a. Slobomir 205 208 Na 31. Nova banka a.d. Banja Luka 462 481 Na 32. Komercijalna banka a.d. Banja Luka 99 106 Na 33. IEFK banka a.d. Banja Luka 13 22 TOTAL Na 10.210 10.849 Source: Banking Agency of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008) and Banking Agency of the Republica Sirpska (2008) 3. Developments in the Banking Sector The reform program about banking system was also of increasingly interest in the former Social Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which aimed implementing of necessities for development. But with the beginning of the ethnical conflict in former Yugoslavia many reforms couldn’t never implemented. In the former Yugoslavia the banking system was pretty centralized. Additionally it was dominated by a number of socially-state-owned banks apart from small private banks. (Tesche, 2000) After war damage and highly influences through policies set forth by international (financial) organizations, (e.g. IMF, EBRD, The World Bank, EU, etc.) the banking sector in BIH gains the opportunity to restructure themselves in order to render regular banking services in accordance with free market conditions since 1997 with the building up the Central Bank in BIH. In compliance with the institutional framework it is aimed to reach a long-term political, security and economic stability. Decisions were made to a bank-based financial system, which underlines the predominance of banks in financial intermediation. (Sevic, 2000a, Sevic, 2000b). Reforms in the banking sector have so far produced best results. It has realized a sizable progress due to accelerated privatization and liberalization of the banking sector among all the sectors in BIH, with significant confidence in banks, improvements in terms of extending credits to businesses and households and presented one of the fundaments of economic development of the country (PRSP, 2004: 92-93). Besides, it is wide-range accepted that state ownership is in comparison to private ownership less efficient and foreign-originated banks are most efficient of all (Bonin et.al, 2008; Fries and Taci, 2005; Weill, 2003). Investments from quality banks especially from Austria, Italy, Turkey, Germany and Slovenia BIH have one of the most advanced financial sectors in the region. In the framework of the institutions-building process and the restructuring of the State Banks, foreign investors allowed entering the banking sector by buying important shares in the state-owned banks when these were “ready” for privatization and often not meeting the minimum requirements of financial soundness (Babić-Hodović and Tesche, 2006). Main foreign investors in the banking sector of BIH are shown in Table 5. In general, the financial system in BIH is dominated by the banking sector while the nonbank financial sector is not so much developed. Rapidly increasing of internet banking in developed countries has not the same insight in BIH due to various factors. Progress in e-banking needs to be done in this country. (BasheskaGjorgjieska et.al, 2006) The consolidation process of the banking sector came mainly on the back of foreign direct investments through the acquisition of private - or already privatized - banks. Privatization of the banking sector is almost completed. 90% is private capital, of which 77% is foreign private capital, while 13% is local private capital. There are 29 commercial banks operating in BIH in 2009. A strong concentration of capital among several large banks is noticeable so a few banks holds a large amount of the total capital. Out of the total number of commercial banks, 25 are included in the state deposit insurance scheme. Investment in banking sector in period 1994-2008 amounts 1.2 billion Euros and represents 22% of total investment in BIH. BIH has been given “B2” credit rating with the stable outlook by Moody’s Agency (May 17, 2006) Standard & Poor's Rating Services assigned 'B+' credit rating with stable outlook to Bosnia and Herzegovina. (December 22, 2008) (FIPA 2009: 22) 59 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 5. Main Foreign Investors in the Banking Sector * BH Bank Country Investor Austria Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank AG Austria Raiffeisen International Bank Hold., AG Austria Millenia Beteiligungsverwaltungs GmbH Austria Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank AG Croatia Zagrebačka Banka d.d. "UniCredit Bank" d.d. Austria Bank Austria Cred. Mostar USA Internat. Fin.Corp. Italy Unicredito It. S.p.a. Spain Transmadrid "Bosna Bank International" d.d. Sarajevo UAE Dubai Islamic Bank Saudi Arabia Islamic Development Bank "Volksbank BH" d.d. Sarajevo Austria Ostereichiche Volksbank. AD "Volksbank" Banja Luka Austria Volksbank Int. AG "BBI Leasing Real Estate" d.o.o. Sarajevo Saudi Arabia Islamic Development Bank UAE Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank. "NLB Razvojna banka" a.d. Slovenia Nova Ljubljanska Banka Banja Luka Germany LHB Inter. H. Bank Serbia Vojvoñanska banka "CBS Bank" d.d. Germany LHB Inter. Hand. AG Frankfurt Sarajevo Slovenia Banka Domžale "Turkish Ziraat Bank Bosnia" d.d. Turkey T.C. Ziraat Bankasi Sarajevo "IEFK Banka" A.D. Banja Luka Russia Istočno Evropska Fin. Korporacija i drugi * The banks which also invested in BIH can be quoted as: - Komercijalna Banka a.d. Beograd, Serbia; - Poteza Adriatic BV Amsterdam, The Netherland; - Ukio Bank Invest Grupe, Litvania; - Istočno Evropska Finansijska Korporacija, Russia; - Steiermarkische Bank und Sparkasse AG Graz, Austria. "Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank" d.d. Mostar Raiffeisen BANK d.d. Bosna i Hercegovina "Нуро Alpe-Adria-Bank" AD Banja Luka 163.854 5.068 78.228 29.079 6.831 3.900 136 25.920 21.600 21.531 18.374 21.245 12.171 2.611 11.789 15.114 Amount (thousand KM) 183.000 168.922 120.837 118.174 47.520 47.000 42.471 39.905 36.028 26.993 25.000 20.000 Structural changes in the banking system, adoption of modern principles of evolving the banking industry leads to a bank-based financial system in BIH (Željko, 2008: 28). The banking system is dominated by large foreign banks, which have been the main source of credit growth in BIH, and has improved the soundness of the financial system. As a consequence these altered the nature of risks of financial stability. This means that no longer a traditional risk in banking slovenly crisis is assumed but rather the risk to the sustainability of foreign exchange reserves increasing from the potential for capital flow volatility. (IMF, 2006: 11-12, 28) The following list1 is taken from the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relation BIH, for the period May 1994- December 2008. It shows the foreign Investors in the Banking sector which registered investment in amounts higher than 20 million KM. In last 12 years there is a significant increase in both deposits and loans of the commercial banks in BIH. Total deposits in Commercial banks' accounts was only 1.382,4 million KM in 1997, while it is 12.013,2 million KM which is 769 % more than the amont in 1997. This shows the increasing confidence in the BIH financial sector. Total loans given by the commercial banks was only 2.439,6 million KM in 1997, while it is 14.561,1 million KM which is 497 % more than the amont in 1997. This shows the financial support of the financial sector to the development of the BIH economy and households (Table 6). The balance sheet volume of the commercial banks in BIH is also has been continually increased during last 12 years. Analytical Accounts of Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina are given in Table 7. Total assets of the commercial banks was only 3.336,9 million KM in 1997, while it is 21.040,9 million KM which is 530 % more than the amont in 1997. 1 The lists were kindly provided by Dušanka Brkić (FIPA) 60 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Table 6. Total Deposits and Loans of Commercial banks (of million KM) DEPOSITS Time and Demand saving Deposits deposits 784,1 598,3 983,8 678,7 1.107,7 712,1 1.385,8 568,0 2.061,5 1.209,3 2.293,8 1.430,5 2.553,8 1.812,3 3.121,7 2.456,8 3.876,1 3.000,1 4.942,2 3.896,7 6.025,8 6.112,9 5.480,5 6.532,7 Year / month 1997 / 12 1998 / 12 1999 / 12 2000 / 12 2001 / 12 2002 / 12 2003 / 12 2004 / 12 2005 / 12 2006 / 12 2007 / 12 2008 / 12 LOANS Total deposits 1.382,4 1.662,5 1.819,9 1.953,7 3.270,7 3.724,3 4.366,0 5.578,5 6.876,3 8.838,9 12.138,7 12.013,2 Year / ShortLong-term month term loans loans 1997 / 12 956,7 1.482,9 1998 / 12 1.028,2 1.892,6 1999 / 12 852,3 1.928,9 2000 / 12 878,3 2.138,6 2001 / 12 913,3 2.425,7 2002 / 12 1.097,8 3.183,3 2003 / 12 1.233,5 3.888,0 2004 / 12 1.576,2 4.350,9 2005 / 12 1.837,0 5.707,1 2006 / 12 2.218,1 7.089,8 2007 / 12 2.752,2 9.211,4 2008 / 12 3.714,0 10.847,1 Total loans 2.439,6 2.920,8 2.781,2 3.017,0 3.339,0 4.281,1 5.121,5 5.927,1 7.544,2 9.308,0 11.963,6 14.561,1 Table 7. Analytical Accounts of Commercial Banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina (in million KM) Month Year ASSETS Reserves Foreign Assets Claims on General Government Claims on NonFinancial Enterprises Claims on Private Sector Total 1997 12. 239,5 657,8 133,8 2.171,0 134,8 3.336,9 1998 12. 207,6 604,6 113,0 2.546,8 260,9 3.733,0 1999 12. 274,7 848,4 36,7 2.467,2 277,2 3.904,3 2000 12. 287,4 960,7 33,8 2.584,4 398,7 4.265,0 2001 12. 871,9 1.364,0 32,9 2.601,8 704,3 5.574,9 2002 12. 595,2 1.468,7 60,7 2.714,7 1.505,8 6.345,0 2003 12. 1.004,6 1.561,9 45,6 3.037,6 2.038,3 7.688,0 2004 12. 1.566,6 1.906,1 45,6 3.181,9 2.699,6 9.399,8 2005 12. 2.233,9 2.096,6 50,1 3.955,9 3.538,2 11.874,6 2006 12. 3.061,9 2.328,6 68,4 4.760,0 4.479,5 14.698,5 2007 12. 4.022,3 3.533,9 127,6 5.974,4 5.861,6 19.519,8 2008 12. 3.392,9 3.086,9 264,3 7.440,4 6.856,3 21.040,9 Deposits of Central Governm ent Other Demand Deposits in Domestic Currency Other Demand Deposits in Foreign Currency Time and Saving Deposits in Domestic Currency Time and Saving Deposits in Foreign Currency Month Year LIABILITIES Bonds Foreign Liabilities Capital Accounts Other Total 1997 12. 233,6 139,2 448,5 9,6 363,3 14,2 1.513,8 1.043,4 -428,5 3.336,9 1998 12. 222,2 147,5 637,9 8,0 467,0 10,6 1.605,8 1.310,9 -676,8 3.733,0 1999 12. 170,1 584,6 465,5 22,4 577,3 8,7 1.519,3 1.257,0 -700,6 3.904,3 2000 12. 143,2 749,9 554,5 77,9 428,2 4,4 1.577,1 1.096,2 -366,4 4.265,0 2001 12. 277,5 1.016,2 928,5 140,9 907,7 0,1 1.526,5 1.118,8 -341,2 5.574,9 2002 12. 390,3 1.270,3 817,1 272,2 974,4 0,1 1.793,7 1.213,6 -386,6 6.345,0 2003 12. 473,1 1.510,3 818,3 461,9 1.102,5 0,0 2.437,0 1.305,4 -420,4 7.688,0 2004 12. 419,4 1.862,9 988,1 703,4 1.604,6 0,0 2.651,1 1.472,1 -301,8 9.399,8 2005 12. 533,4 2.370,5 1.154,8 818,1 1.999,4 0,0 3.559,3 1.712,5 -273,4 11.874,6 2006 12. 755,1 3.081,9 1.358,8 1.098,8 2.544,4 0,0 4.032,8 2.071,8 -245,1 14.698,5 2007 12. 2.086,5 3.962,3 1.459,3 1.517,4 3.113,2 0,0 5.114,5 2.530,0 -263,4 19.519,8 2008 12. 1.546,7 3.684,9 1.511,6 1.799,5 3.470,6 12,9 6.307,8 3.004,5 -297,5 21.040,9 Source: Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008) 61 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Beside all these developments, an ever increasing number of newly created private banks could be seen over the years. It is a fact, that a lot of foreign investors perceive the Balkan region as a surrounding with high risks for investment. Not only due to fragile political situation, but also from weaken law enforcement agencies. With increasing political stability it can be given good signals to foreign investors. Furthermore the privatization process can be regarded as the main important institutional possible course of action that can happen to the transitional baking sector in BIH to improve the performance within this branch. It is noteworthy that international reserves have been boosted substantially in the banking sector. But overall the banking system in BIH are not internationally competitive: “Despite constantly increasing participation of foreign banks and other financial institutions in the national banking systems, it is still necessary to persuade foreign investors that the current, constantly improving overall social situation will most likely be sustained in the future, and that they have to opt for long-term operation in the country.” (Sevic, 2000b: 279) Today the banks are significant players in the Bosnian financial system. Several empirical studies proved the positive relationship between financial sector developments and economic growth (e.g. Alfaro et al., 2003; Babić-Hodović et.al., 2008; Babić-Hodović et.al., 2009) References Alfaro, L.; Chanda, A.; Kalemli-Ozcan, S.; Sayek, S. (2003). FDI Spillovers, Financial Markets, and Economic Development, IMF Working Paper, Working Paper No. 03/186: 1-33. Babić – Hodović, V.; Mehić, E.; Agić, E. (2009). Influence of Quantitative and Qualitative Factors of Banking Sector Development on Economic Growth in South East European Countries, in: Interdisciplinary Management Research, vol. 5, pages 683-693 Babić-Hodović, V.; Burić, M. (2005). The Impact of Direct Foreign Investment on Quality of Services and the Development of Banking Sector of Transitional Economies – Bosnia and Herzegovina case, 6th International Conference “Enterprise in Transition” Split, Croatia, May 26-18th. Babić-Hodović, V.; Mehić,E.; Agić, E.; Resić, E. (2008). Influence of quantitative and qualitative factors of banking sector development on economic growth in CEE countries, 4th International Conference “Transitional Challenges of EU Integration and Globalization” – ICES 2008, October 9-10, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Babić-Hodović, V.; Tesche, J (2006). FDI and the Banking Sector in BiH and the Region, International Management Development Research Yearbook; Technology, Structure, Environment and Strategy Interfaces in a Changing Global Business Arena; Advances in Global Management Development, Volume XV 2006, IMDA and SGSB, pp 498-507. BARS - Banking Agency of the Republica Srpska (2008). Information on Republika Srpska Banking Sector Condition for the Period from 01.01.2008 – 31.03.2008, Banja Luka, May 2008. Basheska-Gjorgjieska, M., Slijepčević, S., Živko, I. (2006). E-marketing and E-banking –Opportunities and Barriers in Economies in Transition (Regional Case Study), 3rd International Conference From Transition to Sustainable Development: The Path to European Integration, School of Economics and Business Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, October 2006 Bénassy-Quéré, A.; Coupet, M.; Mayer, T. (2005). 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(2006). Economic Criteria for EU membership: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosnia and Herzegovina Economic Policy Planning Unit, Sarajevo, October 2006 62 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Europa Press Releases (2008): 2009 the year of the Western Balkans, IP/08/1638, Brussels, 5 November 2008 http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/08/1638&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLangua ge=en, accessed 19.05.2009. FBA BIH- Banking Agency of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2008). Information on Banking System of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina As of September 30th, 2008, Sarajevo, November 2008. FIPA – Foreign Investment Promotion Agency of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2009). Investment Opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sixth Edition, February 2009, Sarajevo. Fries, S.; Taci, A. (2005), “Cost Efficiency of Banks in Transition: Evidence from 289 Banks in 15 Post-Communist Countries”, Journal of Banking and Finance (29): 55-81. IMF- International Monetary Fund (2006). Bosnia and Herzegovina: Financial System Stability Assessments, including Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes on the following topics: Banking Supervision and Corporate Governance, International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 06/403, November 2006, Washington D. C. Klamert, M. (2008). Country Report For Investors and Exporters Bosnia And Herzegovina, Cofeace Rating, Vienna, Kovačevič, D (2003). The currency board and monetary stability in Bosnia and Herzegovina Paper No. 17 Bank for International Settlements, part 5, 2003, http://www.bis.org/publ/bppdf/bispap17e.pdf Malcolm, N. (2002). Bosnia: A short history, Pan Books, Pan Macmillian Ltd. London Murphy, Neil B. (2006). Deposit Insurance, Banking Reform, and Financial Sector Development in Several Nations of Southeastern Europe. Financial Markets, Institutions & Instruments, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 1-55, February 2006. OHR - The Office of the High Representative (2008). 34th Report of the High Representative for Implementation of the Peace Agreement on Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Secretary-General of the United Nations (1 April-31 October 2008), Office of the High Representative and EU Special Representative, Political Department, HR´s Report http://www.ohr.int/other-doc/hr-reports/default.asp?content_id=42739, accessed 18.05.2009, 9.30 a. m. OHR - The Office of the High Representative (2009), http://www.ohr.int/ohr-info/gen-info/, accessed 19.05.2009. Petricevic, O.; Danis, W.M. (2007). Bosnia and Herzegovina: Navigation a Turbulent Business Environment, Thunderbird International Business Review 49 (4): 417-443. PIC - The Peace Implementation Council and its Steering Board (2006), http://www.ohr.int/pic/default.asp?content_id=38563, accessed 18.05.2009. PRSP - Power Reduction Strategy Paper (2004). BIH Medium Term Development Strategy 2004, Bosnia and Herzegovina Council of Ministries BIH, Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations Office of the BIH Coordination For Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (Prsp), 2004-2007, Sarajevo. Sevic, Z. (2000 a). “Problems of Institutional 'Design in Economic Development: Economic Structure and Financial System Concepts Revisited”, Nase gospodarstvo Our Economy 46(4): 467-486. Sevic, Z. (2000 b). “Banking Reform in south East European Transitional Economies: An Overview”, Moct-Most (3-4): 271-283. Škuflić, L.; Botrić, V. (2006), “Foreign Direct Investment in Southeast European Countries, The Role of the Service Sector”, Eastern European Review 44 (5): 72-90. Tesche, J. (2000), “Bosnia and Hercegovina: the post-Dayton economy and financial system”, MOCT-MOST (3-4): 311324. The World Bank (2009). Country Brief 2009, http://web.worldbank.org/wbsite/external/countries/ecaext/bosniaherzextn/ 0,,menuPK:362036~pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:362026,00.html#econ, accessed 19.05.2009. Weill, Laurent (2003): “Banking Efficiency in Transition Economies: The Role of Foreign Ownership”, Economics of Transition (11): 569-592. Weyerstrass, K. (2008). “Bosnia and Herzegovina's EU Integration Process and Economic Policy Making in the EU”, Zbornik radova (28): 393-408. Željko P. (2008): Bosnia and Herzegovina: The Banking System, http://www.globalmarketbriefings.com/, February 2008, accessed 19.05.2009. 63 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 138 Title A name given to the resource Reconstruction and Developments in the Banking Sector of Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author COSKUN, Ali ILGÜN, Erkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BIH) is a young republic in the South Eastern Europe, which become independent from Yugoslavia in 1992. The independency was a though process and the economy of BIH seriously damaged in the civil war period during 1992- 1995. But BIH Economy has been reconstructed and improved by taking important steps after the war. BIH Banking sector has also been developed significantly and restructured during the last decade. This paper examines both the current situation of the banking system of the Bosnia and Herzegovina and the developments in the sector after 1995. Main economic indicators for BIH in last decade reveal a strong post-war recovery. The developing banking system in BIH laid the base for tremendous change and improvement compared to other sectors. By promoting the institutional development of the bank regulatory authorities in both entities over the past few years most inefficient and problematic banks closed and helped to change, respectively. Entering of strong foreign banks in the country leads to the result of enhancing of the level of confidence through a sharp increase in citizens deposits as well as a total deposits increasing can be concluded. In last 12 years banking sector of BIH significantly improved. For example total deposits in commercial banks of BIH increased by 769 %, total loans given by the commercial banks increased by 497 %, and total assets of the commercial banks increased by 530 % from 1997 to 2008. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92f602b7251cd0df0f81445fe7f82b00.pdf ebb7aaca71475fab4e8ff383ad15843a PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Consciousness of Environment in Turkey M urat Cankurt Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept of Agricultural Economics,Đzmir, Turkey murat.cankurt@ege.edu.tr Bulent Miran Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept of Agricultural Economics,Đzmir, Turkey Harun Hurma Namık Kemal University, Agricultural Faculty Dept of Agricultural Economics, Tekirdağ, Turkey Abstract: Environmental issue has attracted attentions as one of the most important issues of the last century. This problem is a phenomena that threat to sustainable life. Effective solution of this issue depends on conscious and awareness of people about environmental matters. The main purpose of this study is to determine the level of awareness and attitudes to environmental issues in Turkey. The analysis was made to see the effects of age, gender, education and revenue on the awareness and attitudes to environmental pollution. Data were collected from 7 regions and 25 cities via personal interview. Water, air, soil, image and general pollution are the criteria on which awareness and attitudes were evaluated in the study. Air and water pollutions appear more significant than the others. It is determined that the media is the best way of disseminating the information regarding environmental education more efficiently. Keywords: Environmental issues, environmental conscious, Turkey. Introduction Environment,they alllivelives of continuing and their mutualinteraction as physical,biological,social, economic and cultural surroundings are defined as. (Anonymous 2007). Lives to survive, the environment is necessary to have the appropriate conditions. Environment is bring together, such as chaos and balance of two elements opposite to each other, a perfect system. Impairment of this system leads to the emergence of environmental problems. Although many sources of this environmental problem, unfortunately, people is the mostimportant one. After the industrial revolution, environmental problems are directly or indirectly have increased with the technologic development. While, developing industry was leading to air and water pollution, intensive agriculture led to pollution of soil and food, urbanization led to soil,air,rivers and sea pollutions. The pollution brought many importantissues. The environment which is living space of mankind has become threat for them more and more. W hen pollution issues occurred, human noticed that have to be more sensitivetothe environment. Then some methods has been identified for elimination of environmental pollution. The methods used for elimination of environmental pollution are high technological and quite expensive (Đleri 1998). As for the solution of environmental problems of the society to be educated is both high-efficiency and low cost method. Environmental awareness is the most important step to solve environmental pollution problems. Individuals alone can have environmental awareness. However, this is not enough. For radical solutions, individual sensitivity must be converted into social sensitivity. Then sensitivities must be converted actions. Thus, the developed solutions can be more effective for environmental pollution (Cankurt et al. 2008). If people have had environmentalsensitivitylong before,expensive methods would not have be needed. "Never, It is not too late" with the principle, thinking aboutthe future, it will be necessary to begin work for social environmental sensitivity. In this context,the first step, should be to determine the current situation. We have two questions. "What is our level of social sensitivity for environment?" and "How can we move to this sensitivity?". Answers to the questions are the mostimportantstarting point of environmental solutions. This study deals withthe firststage ofthe solution model of environmentalissues.Inthe resolution of a problem is very important to determine of the current situation. Thus, the source of the problem and solution methods can be determined. The second phase isto provide environmental education to society with appropriate training techniques for the purpose. Now then, environmental sensitivity and environmental awareness will be provided. Finally, environmentalissues will be solved with society that has environmentalawareness.(Fig. 1). 280 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. Stages of solving environmental problems As known that society consists ofindividuals.Ifindividual's environmental awareness is improved, the community's environmental awareness is improved. With reduce environmental pollution, ifthe environmental balance is rightto establish their own facilities can renew itself again (Doğan 2003). Otherwise,the results may ocur as natural structure and composition corruption and negatively affected people (Kızılaslan and Kızılaslan 2005). The main objectives ofthis study; • To reveal awareness and consciousness level of environmental pollution, • To determine people behavior of the environmental pollution, • To put forward to whatthey are doing in orderto solve environmentalissues, • To examine that how we can improve the environmental consciousness, In additionalthattryto find to cooperation with associations,foundations and corporations,the decision makers in state government for solving the environmentalissues. Inthe frame ofthe study,it was researched thatindividual consciousness and the level of consciousness into behaviortaken accountinto water, air,soil, noise and general environmental pollution criteria (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Environmental pollution criteria In this context,it was try to find the answers to the following questions. • W hat are the factorsthatlead to environmental pollution? • W hat are responsible from the environmental pollution? • W hat are we doing individually on environmental pollution? Material And Methods The main material ofthis study was the original data that obtained from the survey in 25 urban centers (Table 1). Atleasttwo provinces of each region were chosen in orderto represent all of Turkey.Itis shown that frequency and percentages ofthe citiesin Table 1. City Adana Ağrı Ankara Antalya Frequency 76 74 144 44 % 3.55 3.46 6.74 2.06 City Eskişehir Gaziantep Đçel Đstanbul Frequency 107 51 63 92 % 5.00 2.39 2.95 4.30 City Nevşehir Niğde Samsun Tekirdağ Frequency 106 77 90 114 % 4.96 3.60 4.21 5.33 281 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Balıkesir Bursa Denizli Diyarbakır Erzurum 95 63 44 32 39 4.44 Đzmir 445 20.81 Van 2.95 Kayseri 47 2.20 Zonguldak 2.06 Kocaeli 69 3.23 Batman 1.50 Konya 48 2.25 1.82 Manisa 42 1.96 Toplam Table 1. Frequency and Percentages ofthe Cities 43 79 54 2.01 3.70 2.53 2138 100.00 Questionnaire that prepared in relevant to the purpose was filled by volunteers. Questionnaire consists of socio-economic, yes-no, ranking and scale questions totally 58 questions. We used the five pointlikert scale inthe survey form (1: strongly disagree, …, 5: strongly agree). Descriptive statistics, frequency distributions, percentage distributions, grouping methods are used for analysis ofthe data. Findings Analysis of data for the individuals’ awareness of environmental issues and behaviors in terms of environmental pollution has been done in terms ofthe survey participants’ gender, age, education and revenue. 64.3% of the survey participantsis men and their average age is 20.74 and 74.0% of them are under 20 years of age. 1/3 of the participants have monthly salary under 1000 YTL. High school graduates have the largest share by 43.6 %.( Table 2) Variables Age Education Groups Freq. % Variables Groups <20 yaş 1427 74.0 Gender W o man 21-50 yaş 340 17.5 Man 50 < yaş 162 8.5 Salary Student Primry school 605 35.0 <1000 TL High school 757 43.6 1001-5000 TL Vocational school 372 21.4 >5000'TL Table 2. Descriptive statisticsfor socio-economic variables Freq. 716 1289 794 636 362 137 % 35.7 64.3 41.2 33.0 18.8 7.1 For resolution of an issue,firstitshould be seen as a problem. From this perspective itshould be useful to know whether the individuals are aware of environmental pollution or not and if they are the degree of the awareness. To do this,the participants were asked to evaluate environmental pollution generally then water, air and noise pollution respectively. This assessment and analysis has been made with five agreement scales (Table 3). The survey participants answered to the questions “There is pollution in general” with an average of 4.14 and “There is air pollution” with 4.02 averages which means “I agree”. “There are water, noise and soil pollutions” opinions have followed them. "There is soil pollution" question is answered an average of 3.40 meaning that they are not sure. Accordingly we can easily say that, the individuals in Turkey are aware of environmental pollution. Average 4.14 3.74 4.02 3.40 3.93 There is pollution in general There is water pollution There is air pollution There is soil pollution There is noise pollution Table 3.Individuals’ environmental pollution perceptions (5 Agreement Scales) What are the factors thatlead to environmental pollution? Individuals’ opinions are taken for what factors lead to the environmental pollution. In this context, agriculture and industry as sectors, coal as energy resource,nuclear energy and effects of petroleum were asked. The individuals were asked fortheiragreement scale on the factorsthatlead to pollution and the resultsare given on Table 4. 282 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Factor Average Agriculture 2.32 Industry 4.06 Coal energy 3.84 Nuclear energy 3.54 Petroleum energy 3.60 Table 4. Factorsthatlead to environmental pollution (5 Agreement Scales) According to the results,industry sector is much more polluter than agriculture sector. Individuals do not believe enough that energy resources lead to pollution.However,they stated thatthe energy resource of coal is more polluter then nuclear energy and petroleum energy. The survey participants expressed that the lowest polluter of the energy resources is nuclear energy. Accordingly, industry is the main factor of pollution. In addition,they pointed outthatcoal power causes environmental pollution. What are responsiblefrom the environmental pollution? It will be useful to look at the environmental polluters from the individuals’ eyes to find out the roadmap. For this purpose, individuals were asked to evaluate the major environmental polluters with five agreement scales (Table 5). Polluter Average Unawareness 4.1 Remissness 4.1 The ignorance ofindustrial organization 4.1 Lack of education 4.0 The ignorance of governments 3.7 Lack ofinternational action 3.6 Ignorance of advanced countries 3.5 Ignorance of politicians 3.5 Lack of newspapers and TV broadcasts 3.4 Table 5. Environmental polluters (5 Agreement Scales) Individuals stressed that primary polluters of the environment are again they are. In this context, the individuals highlighted their own personal ignorance, carelessness, lack of education. Individuals blame that industrial organizations are as guilty as they are. It is a very interesting self-criticism that the individuals are blaming themselves. It is obvious that the individuals that can make self-criticism will also easily contribute to the measurements to decrease pollution. The individuals accuse that industry organizations causing environmental pollution include the solution to who they are going to work with.Individuals are not sure thatthe media sector does well for their responsibilities. It points out that the media should improve their environmental awareness. However itisinteresting thatthe individuals do not blame the newspapers and TV’s like the other factors. What are we doing individually on environmental pollution? Until now, itis described thatthe individuals are aware of environmental pollution and the problems that it causes. However, how much of this awareness is reflected to the individuals’ behavior has a special importance. The scale of positive response or efforts to protect the environment that will be developed is affected by how much ofthe knowledge istaken to the action. Things to do againstthe environmental pollution can be analyzed in two groups as personal and social activities. Personal activity means working to eliminate the environmental problems individually. Social activities are the commitments to protect the environment by the institutions, foundations and clubs. Participation to the co-operative activities like this is a good indicator of environmental consciousness. This shows thatthe individuals realize thatthere is a problem and need to getrid ofit. Similarly,individuals who share similar thoughts to enter into joint action with other individuals, is a significantindicatorthat he/sheisin charge of solving the environmental problems. Forthis purpose, participants were asked whether they have memberships to the institutions and foundations and their attendance to the environmental activities (Table 6). 283 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Actions % I am a member of Environmental associations or foundations 23.2 I’m participating the environmental awareness activities 31.6 I’m participating the protest actions against polluting the environment 23.8 I’m participating the trash/waste collection activities. 33.2 Table 6. Rate of participantsto the social activitiesto avoid environmental pollution (%) It’s seen that participation rate of the individuals to co-operative social activities against the environmental pollution is very low. The most important social activity against the environmental pollution is garbage / waste collection by 33%. This percentage is more than expected because some of the survey participants are students. Personal behaviors ofthe individualsto protectthe environment have shown on Table 7. Actions Average I always throw the garbage/wastetothe trashcan 4.0 I do notthrow solid mattertothe toilets 3.8 I use unleaded gasoline in my vehicle. 3.6 I do regular checks to exhaust 3.6 I do not use solid fuelthat has too much smoke 3.6 I do not speak loudly at home, at work and in the streets. 3.5 I check my vehicles exhaust volume regularly. 3.4 Generally ilisten to the music inlow volume. 3.4 W hen buying deodorant and sprays,itake care ofthe ozone layer. 3.4 I avoid sounding the horn 3.4 I do nottrade with street vendors with annoying noise. 3.4 I considerthe amount of detergent while using. 3.3 I buy organic (ecological) products 3.3 W hen buying detergent,icare aboutits environmental side effects. 3.2 Itry to reduce my consumption level. 3.2 I often participatein tree planting campaign. 3.2 I'm againstthe celebrations such as wedding, engagement etc.In the streets 3.1 I demand less nylon bag while shopping 3.1 Ithrow used batteriesto special gathering center 3.0 I preferto use the paper or cloth bags in shopping. 2.9 I sortthe organic and inorganic garbages. 2.9 I never use deodorant, and spray 2.9 I never collecttrash in plasticbags. 2.8 Table 7. Personal activitiesto avoid environment pollution (5 Agreement Scales) The participants have expressed they agree to the question “I always throw the garbage/waste to the trashcan”. This statement with an average of 4.0 hasthe highest valueinthe question. This resultalso means that not all of the garbage/wastes are thrown into the trashcan by the participants.Itis engrossing thatthe statement although is one ofthe simplest actions to protectthe environment, has only 4 in 5 agreement scales. The participants agree to the statement “I do not throw solid matter to the toilets” with an average of 3.8.Itshows thattheindividuals do not care enough to environmentthat can harm their own houses. Similarlyit is engrossing thatthe participants are not sure on simple actions like “Ithrow used batteriesto special gathering center” (3.0), “I demand less nylon bag while shopping” (3.1). The results show that things that can easily be done could not be done. The best example of thisis “I avoid sounding the horn”(3.4) meaning thatthey are not sure. If we consider the agreement scale average beyond 3.5 or higher, 6 out of 23 personal efforts can be selected as remarkable. Accordingly the individuals are extremely inadequate to avoid environmental pollution. As much as the awareness of the environmental problems itis also very important that how much the individuals feel themselves adequate in solving these problems. Undoubtedly, even if the individual feels himself/herself adequatein this situation,it will not be possible to take action in case ofinadequate personal and 284 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo socialactivities.Inthis contextthe participants were asked “Do you think that you are doing what you have to do avoid environmental pollution?”(Table 8) I believe thatI did what I have to do I believe thatI did what I have to do with co-operation. Average 3.45 3.29 Table 8.Individuals’ satisfaction leveltotheir activities on avoiding environmental pollution.(5 Scales) As you see, individuals are not sure about their personal and social activities to avoid environmental pollution. Thisis a good result.Ifthey felttheireffortssufficient,it would be extremely difficultto have positive resultsin increasing community awareness. However,the study shows it will be easy to get positive results for accommodating community awareness. Discussion And Results In this Turkey-wide study, the participants strongly agreed to the statement “Generally there is environmental pollution.” They expressed that airis more polluted than water.Individuals are not sure about soil pollution. In a research about environmental pollution in Helsinki, Moscow and Talin with 13-18 age groups,the participantsthink that air and water pollution isthe most significantthreatto plant and animal species.(Hokka at all,1999).In a research done with the medicalstudents of Finland,itisfound that most ofthe students are aware of environments; more than half of them indicate that water pollution is the biggest problem of all other environmental pollutions.( Kasma Ronkainen and Virokannas, 1996). The participants have answered the question "Isthere environmental pollution?" with an average of 4.20 from 5 agreement scales meaning “I agree”. To the question “What are you doing to avoid the environmental pollution?” they answered with 3.30 meaning “I’m not sure”.So thereis a difference in whatis being considered and whatis being done. In other words, we are having difficultiesin our environmental awareness to putin real life. This points that, the work for developing environmental consciousness has to focus on transforming our thoughtsto action. Itis obvious that the people, living in Turkey are aware of environmental pollution. Individuals’ selfcriticism to their inadequate effort on avoiding environmental pollution will have positive effect on thoughtaction. Turkey has a vision that with small efforts, it can give social solutions to avoid the environmental problems. Underthese circumstances it will not be wrong to say “The solution of environmental problems is not too far”. References Anonymous (2007) Ministry of Environment and Forestry, the official web page (www.cevreorman.gov.tr/ et: 16.02.2007) (in Turkish) Cankurt, M., Miran, B., Günden, C., Şahin, A., (2008). Awareness to environmental pollution in turkey , Southern Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, February 2-6, Dallas, TX. Doğan M (2003) Industrialization and Environmental Issues. (http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~dogan/4.html et:05.11.2006) (in Turkish) Hokka P, Palosuo H, Zhuravleva I, Parna K, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Lakomova N, (1999) Anxiety about environmental hazards among teenagers ın Helsinki, Moscow and Tallinn. The Science of the total environment, 234, 95-107. Đleri R (1998) Environmental Education And Supplement, Journal of Ecology 28, 3-9. (in Turkish) Kasma Ronkainen L, Virokannas H, (1996) Concern about the environment among medical students. Scand Journal of Soc Med. 24, 121-123. Kızılaslan, H. ve N. Kızılaslan (2005) Çevre konularında kırsal halkın bilinç düzeyi ve davranışları (Tokat Đli Artova Đlçesi örneği), Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1, 67-89. (in Turkish) 285 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 483 Title A name given to the resource Consciousness of Environment in Turkey Author Author Cankurt, Murat Miran, Bulent Hurma, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. Environmental issue has attracted attentions as one of the most important issues of the last century. This problem is a phenomena that threat to sustainable life. Effective solution of this issue depends on conscious and awareness of people about environmental matters. The main purpose of this study is to determine the level of awareness and attitudes to environmental issues in Turkey. The analysis was made to see the effects of age, gender, education and revenue on the awareness and attitudes to environmental pollution. Data were collected from 7 regions and 25 cities via personal interview. Water, air, soil, image and general pollution are the criteria on which awareness and attitudes were evaluated in the study. Air and water pollutions appear more significant than the others. It is determined that the media is the best way of disseminating the information regarding environmental education more efficiently. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/566242db3d2b1a7ebf34e1abc4bf63a4.pdf b720b5256936eb9eb33b782793ff579b PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Development of Aquaculture in Turkey and Its Constraints Meh met Ali Canyurt m.ali.canyurt@ege.edu.tr Yusuf Guner Erol Toksen Ege University, Faculty of Fisheries, Department of Aquaculture, Izmir, Turkey Abstract: Aquaculture means the farming of aquatic animals and plants. Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 136 000 tonnes in 2007. Keywords: Sustainable Development, Aquaculture, Fish Farming, Turkey Introduction The historic of aquaculture is very old. The first records of aquaculture activities in 2500 BC can be found inthetomb of Aktihep during the ancient Egyptian civilisation.Inthe Etruscan Culturein Italythe earliest marine farms date back to 6th century BC. The China is the first country in Asia where aquaculture has been started during the dynasty of W hen Fang (1135-1122 BC). Fan Li wrote Classic of Fish Farming atthe years of 460 BC in China (Canyurt 2005). Marine and inland waterresources provide an important source of protein for human nutrition. Because ofthisreason fish farming inthe worldis a growing industry in recent years. According to the FAO statisticsthe world aquaculture production by inland and marine waters grows from 24.456.561 tonnes in 1993 to 51.385.912 tonnesin 2002. The total world fisheries production (capture and aquaculture)is 143.647.650 tonnes and aquatic plant production is 15.075.612.tonnes in 2006. The aquaculture sector in Turkey is facing some constraints, such as: the complexity of licensing procedures, site selection problems,the complexity of project preparation and application, problems with some other sectors,like tourism, protected areas and navigations, high prices of inputs and difficulties in supplying, disease risk with imported eggs and fry, marketing and quality control problems, organization and governance (Canyurt at al. 2003; Canyurt2005). Development of Aquaculture in Turkey Numerous rivers drain Turkey’s plateaus and mountains. The rivers are usually swift flowing and relatively short. A number of rivers do not flow during the dry summer. Some rivers are, however, important 45 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo sources of hydroelectric power and water forirrigation. The Kızılırmak (1,150 km/715 mi long), is the longest river flowing entirely within Turkey. The Sakarya River and the Kızılırmak flow into the Black Sea. Gediz and Büyükmenderes (ancient Meanderes) in Aegean rigion, the Ceyhan and Seyhan rivers in south flow from the Taurus Mountains to the Mediterranean. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which flow southeastthrough Syria and Iraq to the Persian Gulf are important riversin Turkey. Production fields Number Surface Area (Ha) Length (Km) Natural Lakes 200 906.118 - Dam Lakes 193 342.377 - Ponds (Artificial Lakes) 750 15.500 - Rivers and streams 33 - 177.714 Seas (Coastal Strips) - 24.607.200 8.333 TOTAL 25.871.195 Table 1: Water Capacity of Turkey for Aquaculture (TUIK 2007) Years Product. (Ton) Export (Tons) Đmport (Tons) Domestic consump. (Tons) Processed (fish meal and oil factories) (Tons) Not processed or consumed (Tons) Consump. per capita (kg/year) 1997 500 260 18 402 39 829 490 339 21 000 10 348 7.663 1998 513 900 11 558 31 417 528 935 30 000 4.824 8.119 1999 636 824 15 955 39 552 503 249 150 000 7.172 7.590 2000 582 376 14 533 44 230 538 764 71 000 2.309 7.985 2001 594 977 18 978 12 971 517 832 62 755 8.383 7.547 2002 627 847 26 860 22 532 466 289 156 000 1.230 6.697 2003 587 715 29 937 45 606 470 131 120 000 13.253 6.649 2004 644 492 32 804 57 694 555 859 105 000 8.523 7.812 2005 544 773 37 655 47 676 520 985 30 000 3.809 7.229 2006 661 991 41 973 53 563 597 738 60 000 15.843 8.191 2007 772 323 47 214 58 022 604 695 170 000 8.436 8.567 Table 2: Production, export,import and consumption of fishery products (TUIK 2007) 46 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The largestlake in Turkey isVan Gölü (Lake Van),located in eastern Anatolia. The water of Van Gölü is saline and contains soda. A member of the Cyprinidae family,the Chalcalburnus tarichiis a fish species that only inhabitsthe Lake Van Basin. The Lake Van isthe biggest soda lake in the world, Lake Tuz islocated near the center of the Anatolian Plateau. Freshwater lakes include Beyşehir, Eğridir and Burdur in the southwest (Arabacı &Sarı 2004). Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 naturallakes, about 750 artificiallakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips (Tab. 1). Some lagoons covering of 70.000 hectaresin Aegean and Mediterranean coastalstrips are very suitable for aquaculture Another aquaculture potential will be obtained with the South East Anatolia Project (GAP) in the lower Euphrates River and Tigris River basins. This projectisthe largestregional development projectin Turkey, and one of the largest in the world, integrating development of irrigated agriculture and agro-industry, supporting services,including communications, health and education (Canyurt 2006). The project area covers 74.000 km2 that correspond to 9.2 % of the total surface area of Turkey. About 224.000 ha of water surface will be obtained atthe end of this project;this will be a big aquaculture production potentialforthe country. Situation of Aquaculture in Turkey Aquaculture production, exportation,importation and consumption: According to TUIK data (2007), Turkey produces 772.323 tonnes, exports 47.214 tonnes and imports 58.022 tonnes of fish and fisheries products. The amount of non-food usage is 170.000 tonnes that is used for feed and oil industry. The population of the country is 68.279.000 tonnes and consumption per capita is 8.6 kg/year (TUIK 2007). All activities in fisheries and aquaculture in Turkey are based on the Water Products Law No. 1380, enacted in 1971 (Canyurt 1996, Canyurt and Gökoğlu 1997). The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs is responsible for all kind of aquaculture activities and fisheries in the country (Deniz 2007). The Ministry undertakes its duties in aquaculture and fisheries management through four General Directorates and as well as 81 Provincial Directorates. During 1980’s significant effort was devoted to preparing laws which are related to the management of coastal and inland water sources. Aquaculture has been included in the encouragement decree published by governments and the Agriculture Bank of Turkey applied interest rates to support and to encourage investments in aquaculture. In addition to encouragement measures and financial support of the Governments, the Universities attach great importance to the research activities and education of engineers and technicians in 17 Faculties of Fish Products and 6 Professional Colleges and Fisheries Department expanded all ofthe country.. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp) (Tab. 3) (Canyurt, 2005). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily overthe years from 5.782 tonnesin 1990 to 63.000 tonnesin 1999 and to 139.873 tonnes in 2007 (Tab. 3). The aquaculture production in inland water is 59 033 tonnes, but it reaches 80 840 tonnes in marine watersin 2007. Aquaculture production (Tons) 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 39 674 543 43 432 683 48 033 571 56 026 668 58 433 600 Inland water Trout Carp Marine water 47 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Trout Sea bream Sea bass Mussel Other 1 194 1 650 1 249 1 633 16 735 20 435 27 634 28 463 20 982 26 297 37 290 38 408 815 1 513 1 500 1 545 2 000 2 200 Table 3: Aquaculture Production in Turkey (2003-2007),(TUIK 2 740 33 500 41 900 1 100 1 600 2007) The numbers of aquatic farms are shown in Table 4. There are 1.261 farms in inland water producing approximately 55 425 tonnes of fresh water fish species and 120 farms producing 160 000 000 fish eggs, 324 farms at sea producing 91.815 tonnes of sea fish species, mainly Gilthead sea bream and European sea bass and 348 000 000 fish eggs (Deniz 2007). Fish Species Trout Com mon carp Trout Hatchery Sea bass and Sea bream Troutin sea cages Trout and sea bass BluefinTuna Sea bass,sea bream and other species hatchery Mediterranean mussel Number of Farms 1 112 29 120 286 6 6 6 17 Capacity (t/year) 53 020 2 405 160 000 000 egs 80 509 2 250 1 160 6 300 348 000 000 3 1 596 TOTAL Table 4: Number of Licensed Aquaculture Farms and Capacities (Deniz 2007) Constraints of Sustainable Aquaculture in Turkey The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) is the main organization responsible for fisheries including aquaculture administration, regulation, protection, promotion and technical assistance. The Directorate General for Agriculture Production and Development of MARA is the responsable authority for development and management of aquaculture Deniz 2007). There are also a number of other ministries and institutions with a role in fisheries and aquaculture development in Turkey. The Undersecretariat of Treasure and Foreign Trade of the Prime Ministry, which regulates fish import and export, State Planning Organization which formulate policy and determines the development targets for the fisheries and aquaculture sector, and the Agriculture Bank through which fisheries and aquaculture credits are channelled (Canyurt & Gökoğlu 1997 and FAO 2008). According to Fisheries Law numbered 1380 the procedures and principles related to aquaculture are determined by the Aquaculture Regulation. This regulation sets out the methods for site selection for farms, application of the projects, giving technical supports and surveying environmentalimpacts (Deniz2007). Especially marine aquaculture systems are criticised for their environmental and ecological impacts. The extensive and semi intensive farming methods have less environmental impacts than intensive aquaculture (Basurco & Lovatelli2004; Canyurt 1996).Itis necessaryto supportthe development of sustainable aquaculture. For this purpose European Com mission (2002)designed a strategy document forthe sustainable development of aquaculture in Europe. As a candidate country to the European Com munity, Turkey takes all the measures to respect and to adopt the rules designed by the European Com mission. Fisheries and Aquaculture file is one of the 31 files have been discussed with Com mission in 2005. The importance of aquaculture has been recognized by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs and by the private sectorin collaboration with the Universities. The development of aquacultureis very importantin Turkey because it provides jobs. The aquaculture sectorin Turkey isfacing some constraints,such as: -The complexity oflicensing procedures, 48 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo -Site selection problems, -The complexity of project preparation and application, -Problems with some other sectors,like tourism, protected areas and navigations, -High prices ofinputs and difficultiesin supplying, -Disease risk with imported eggs and fry, -Marketing and quality control problems, -Lack of organization ofthe sector can be cited as major constraints of aquaculture in Turkey to be solved. For this purpose a research project has been conducted by M A R A and TUBITAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) to evaluate the impacts of fish farms on the aquatic environment, This research program has been leaded in Izmir, Mugla, Aydın and Ordu. In conclusion of this study we can say that the sustainable development of aquaculture is very important economically and environmentally. We can consider that the impact of fish farms depends on the biological activities ofthe species produced and managementtechniques used. The oxygen consumption,the metabolism of nitrogen and phosphorous and chemicals used for different deseases are some factors determining thisimpact on the environment. The constraints faced in sustainable aquaculture in Turkey have to be examined and discussed. References Arabaci M, & Sari M (2004). Induction of ovulation in endemic pearl mullet (Chalcalburnus tarichi), living in the highly alkaline Lake Van, using GnRHa([D-Ser(tBu)6, Pro9-Net]-GnRH) combined with haloperidol. Aquaculture 238:529–535. Basurco, B.,& Lovatellı, A., (2004). The Aquaculture Situation in the Mediterranean Sea. Prediction for The Future. The International Conference on the Sustainable Development of the Mediterranean and Black Sea Environment. Available at: http://www.iasonnet.gr, Canyurt, M.A., (1996). Interaction Between Aquaculture and Environment. Symposium on Agriculture and Environment Interactions, Sustainable Use of Natural Resources, 13-15 May 1996, Mersin. (in tr) Canyurt, M.A.,& Gökoğlu, M., (1997). Aquaculture in Turkey. International Workshop in Intensive Aquaculture Farming. March-1997, Cinadco, Shefayim, Israel. Canyurt, M. A., Akhan, S., Takma, Ç.,( 2003). A Study on Short Term Storage of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum,1792) Milt. E.U. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences , 20 (3-4):537-542 ( in tr). Canyurt M.A., (2005). The Development of Aquaculture in Turkey. Research for Rural Development 2005. 11 International Scientific Conference Proceedings, Latvia University of Agriculture, 260p: 19-22., Jelgava, Latvia Canyurt, M. A., 2006. The Importance of Aquaculture in The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) in Turkey. 12. International Scientific Conference- Research For Rural Development 2006. Latvia University of Agriculture, 324p: 12-16, Jelgava, Latvia. Commission of the European Communities, (2002). Communication from the Commission to the Council and European Parliament. A Strategy for the Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture. COM-2002-511, Bruxelles. Deniz, H. (2007) Aquaculture development in Turkey, Aquaculture and Fisheries Infoday and Networking Event, 14-15 November 2007, Brussels. Available at: http://www.fp7.org.tr/tubitak_content_files/268/r_d_news/Profiles_Ministry_of_Agriculture_and_Rural_Affairs_Hayri_Deni z.pdf. 12.03.2009. FAO, (2008). Profile de la Peche. Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation et l’agriculture. The Republic of Turkey. FID/CP/TUR. Available at www.fao.org (12.05.2009). Ministry of Agriculture, Country Note on National Fisheries Management Systems–Turkey. Available at http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/9/29/34431494.pdf. TUIK (2007). Fisheries statistics 2007, Aquaculture production. Turkish Statistics Instuition: Available at http://www.tuik.gov.tr/balikcilikdagitimapp/balikcilik.zul, 26.02.2009. 49 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 469 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Development of Aquaculture in Turkey and Its Constraints Author Author Canyurt, Mehmet Ali Guner, Yusuf Toksen, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. Aquaculture means the farming of aquatic animals and plants. Turkey has rich inland water sources, about 200 natural lakes, about 750 artificial lakes or ponds, about 193 reservoirs, 33 rivers and streams of 177.714 km length and 8.333 km of coastal strips Aquaculture sector in Turkey is new when compared with European countries. The first fish farm was established as a rainbow trout farm in 1970s. The following years, new fish farms have been established year by year. The main fish species cultured in Turkey are Carp (Cyprinus carpio), Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), Black sea turbot (Psetta maxima), Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Shrimp (Penaeidae spp). Aquaculture production of Turkey has grown steadily over the years from 5782 tonnes in 1990 to 63 000 tonnes in 1999 and to 136 000 tonnes in 2007. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/59e3a327d891f91708746832c9cbb900.pdf beba306fa9c687fb9ecfa43904e00781 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Tax-House Unit System and the Collection of Ottoman Extra-Ordinary Taxes, c. 1600-1700♣ Süleyman DEMĐRCĐ Assoc. Professor, Chair/Lecturer in Early Modern Ottoman Studies Erciyes University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences Department of History 38039 Kayseri-TURKEY sdemirci@erciyes.edu.tr Abstract: Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. This paper will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. Keywords: Ottoman economy, taxation, tax collection, tax house units The extra-ordinary levies were among the most important of the regular sources of government revenue in the Ottoman empire during the seventeenth century, but there has been relatively little study of them. Originating in the late fifteenth century as irregular imposts levied at times of military need, it is clear that by the first quarter of the seventeenth century these levies had become virtually annual levies throughout the majority of the Rumelian and Anatolian provinces. Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. In this paper we will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. It is important to determine how many real households (gerçekhâne) constituted one tax-unit (avârizhâne). The term avârizhâne denotes an administratively-defined 'tax household' or 'tax house unit'. The usually accepted generalisation for the empire as a whole, that one tax-unit/avârizhâne could be made up of between 3 and 15 real households (gerçekhâne), is too broad to be of much practical value. The number of gerçekhânes within an avârizhâne varied considerably from place to place and from region to region. It is clear from the archival documents consulted, that the number of real households/gerçekhânes was determined by the wealth of the taxpayers within the region for which the survey was carried out. The archival document examined shows that the final registration status of tax-payers were subject to the central government's final approval as the end-product of a process of negotiation. It is clear that one tax-unit (avârizhâne) was clearly made up of one real households (gerçekhâne) in the 16th-century. Similarly, Bernard Lewis found the word avârizhâne in his documents on sixteenth-century Palestine to be equivalent to one gerçekhâne(see Demirci 2006). However, it is not clear from the available sources, when the classical households were no longer used for avârizhâne tax assessment purposes and when the change occurred to avârizhânes counting of several gerçekhânes. The tax registers from the turn of the sixteenth century show that avârizhânes were by then composed of a number of gerçekhânes. A record of Balıkesir in 1603, indicates the number of individuals or gerçekhânes in one tax-unit (avârizhâne), prescribing that three married men and six bachelors constituted one tax-unit (avârizhâne)(Darling 1996& Akdağ 1950). An entry relating to Alaiye shows that one tax-unit (avârizhâne), was made up of three real household/gerçekhâne in 1606 (Güçer 1964), while Muslims settling in Cyprus in 1606 were counted as five nefers per tax-unit/avârızhâne. Here, nefer clearly does mean heads of household. For example, entries in MM 2576 Maliye Ahkam register /Finans Registers, dating from 1633-1640, reveals that taxunit/avârizhâne assessment in both Rumeli and Anadolu, was figured at an even 5 nefers per tax-unit/ avârizhâne, except that of Dimetoka where it was placed at 7 nefers per hâne and Beyşehir at 3 nefers per taxunit/avârizhâne (see Darling 1996&Demirci 2006) ♣ Author’s note: I would like to take this opportunity to thank Erciyes University for the finacial support provided to me towards my treval expences in order to participate in this scholary event. 446 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Considering the changes in the number of gerçekhânes within one tax-unit/avârizhâne during the 16th and early 17th centuries one therefore could suggest that in various parts of the empire one avârızhâne was composed of at least around 3 to 5 gerçekhâne at the beginning of the seventeenth century, while between 1610 and 1650, the number of gerçekhânes in one avârizhâne ranged more widely, from 3 to 15. This is, however, based only on a small sample of available material. The existence of these carefully considered variations in the nefer/avârizhâne ratio in table 1 show the differentiation principle at work in the mid-17th century. It is clear evidence of extreme flexibility in graduated allocations as well as the functioning of the avârizhâne-tax-unit system. The detailed tax registers (mufassal avâriz defter) shows that the nefer/avârizhâne ratio was set at kaza level. It is clear from material used that most tax-payers were organised into particular avârizhâne groups (Demirci 2009). The Collection Procedure This section considers how tax collection proceeded, how the collectors were required to work with provincial kadıs and other prominent local leaders, and the various stages of performing the collection (See Demirci 2005). The main source of evidence are the sicils /court records of Kayseri, which contain a number of imperial decrees relating to the collection of these taxes, and to complaints about problems of payment, extortion and malpractice. From these imperial decrees we are able to explain, to a certain degree, how the tax (avâriz) collection was made in the Ottoman Empire. Appointing the Collector Evidence on the appointment and verification of a tax collector appears in the Kayseri sicil for 1626. Imperial order regarding the bedel-i nüzul collection; To the kadıs of sub-province of Niğde (Niğde livası) when my sublime firman arrives, let it be known that, the bedel-i nüzul substitute in the year 1036/1626 for each avârizhânes in the districts of Niğde livasi is to be collected at the rate of 600 akçes by Cafer Mustafa, from 209 standing cavalry regiment of ulufeciyan-i yemen, in accordance with sealed and stamped register in his hand. … when my noble command arrives, you should act in accordance with the firman issued for this matter, and the bedel-i nüzul in those districts for the year should be collected by my servant (Cafer Mustafa) at 600 akçes from each avârizhânes in accordance with the beratlu and sealed mevkufat register (avârizhâne defteri). The record for this matter should be kept in a register and that …you shall act justly in this matter and not let anything be demanded contrary to my firman and the register. You should know this and trust in the Noble Tuğra … Written on 9 July 1036/1626." (See Gündüz 1995, p. 811-812). This entry shows that the collector was appointed centrally, in Đstanbul, to serve for bedel-i nüzul collection in all the kazas within the liva of Niğde. The liva was the standard collection unit, with collectors usually appointed to most, if not all, the livas in a province for a given year. The rate per avârizhâne is clearly stated to be 600 akçes. Kadıs are instructed to assist the named collector, and to see that no malpractice occurs. Personal information was also given in this decree explaining who the collector was, i.e. Cafer Mustafa, for which year the levy was about to be collected, and the actual rate that was set by the central government. Before setting off from Đstanbul Cafer Mustafa was given an official order, emr, to prove his status, and a copy of the avârizhâne tax registers for the liva, listing all the taxable population liable for avâriz levies, to enable him to collect the right amount of money set for each tax-unit / avârizhâne in the areas concerned. Archival evidence shows that the extra-ordinary (avâriz) levies’ collection was made in the following stages: • The selection of the collectors. It was the central government's job to select the potential collector from variety of people. The available information on avâriz and nüzul collectors in both avâriz defters and sicils used in this study do not indicate how collection appointees were selected. • An order was issued, and sent to the local area where the collection was about to be made. • A copy of the order was given to the actual collector in order to verify his position as tax collector to the kadıs of the area and other officials. • Then the named collector carried out the collection in accordance with this emr and the avârizhâne register, in accordance with the actual rate set for each avârizhâne. • In case of any dispute or complaint regarding the collection, written evidence was needed. • Once the collection was made then the collector of the levies reported the money collected to the local kadı who issued a certificate stating the amount of money collected and handed it over to the collector (more on this see Demirci 2005). The following discussion raises further matters of detail relating to these various stages. 447 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The Collection How was the money actually collected and handed over to the collectors? Did collectors collect separately from each avârizhâne in a karye or mahalle, or did they expect to collect the full total for a given village or mahalle from a headman or another leading person who had previously collected it from the others? Was one person responsible for collecting the cash ready for the official avariz collector? To answer all these questions from the registers available is very difficult, because the central government's tax records stop at the point when the tax collector is sent out and begin again when he returns, or sends back money or communications. It is possible, however, that the collection process within a village, a mahalle, or kaza varied according to the nature of the community. That is, whether or not it was religiously homogeneous, whether the people shared a common lifestyle or a way of living etc. A homogenous community would be more likely to be collected as a unit, whereas if it were diverse religiously, ethnically, or in some other way, the different groups might be treated separately. For example, in the very beginning of the sixteenth century, the tax collectors caused some inconvenience to the non-Muslim leaders during the collection of these levies in Ottoman Rumelia, which resulted in complaints to the central government. In response to this, therefore, an imperial decree, dated 1501, was sent both to the sancak beyi of Avlonya and the kadı of Berat ordering them that it was the kethüda's (steward, agent) duty to assist the collectors. Collectors involved in certain types of levies i.e. avâriz, nüzul and cizye should work in association with the kethüda. According to this particular imperial order he, not the religious leaders, was the person to deal with any inquiry regarding the collection of these levies in the areas concerned. "A decree to be written to sub-province Governor of Avlonya and the kadı of Berat, It is heard that in these days those who came for avariz or the poll-tax collectors (haracci), or some other services, asking the priests to help them with tax collecting and treating them badly. In fact, it was kethüdas’ (“steward, agent”) responsibility to assist the tax collectors not the priests’. In that case, I have ordered that I give no approval to any transgression or cruelty to them, and so long as they pay their share of poll-tax, I urge you not let anything be demanded contrary to the regulation (kanun). You should know this. Written in the first ten days of June 1501 (see Şahin- Emecen 1994, p. 63). From this it appears that, from the earliest period of the Ottoman taxation system, the government sought to have someone in each village, or mahalle (city quarter), responsible for assisting the tax collector when required. In the seventeenth century, it is quite possible that one person from each avârizhâne unit in the area was kept responsible for the collection of avâriz by the kethüda. Having said that, however, the entries regarding complaints and corruption in the system in Kayseri court records suggest that the villagers acted as a group in relation to the number of avârizhânes assessed for the entire village, and that therefore there may also have been some community responsibility involved in raising and handing over the avâriz money. One example states: "We demand avâriz taxes which he refuses to pay [...]". The complainants here are asking the kadı to help them get someone to pay their share, who had refused to do so. It is not clear from the documents used so far who was included in such a grouping of people locally responsible for pre-collection of avâriz taxes. It may have consisted of the elders in a mahalle or karye (village), the kethüda, the kadı or his deputy (naib), as the actual collector etc. Collection would not necessarily have been from the head of a gerçekhâne (real household), or from those grouped in a simple avârizhâne, but would most likely to have been undertaken by a person or persons acting as representative(s) of the group of avârizhânes in that particular mahalle or village. Information in an imperial order of 1640 regarding an avârizhâne survey in Menteşe and Suğla livasi in western Anatolia, sheds more light on the precedure for carying out a new avâriz survey, suggesting that the surveyor was instructed to work closely with local people to gain the most accurate information possible.1 This paper has focussed on the procedure for actual collection of certain levies during the seventeenth century as seen in the most relevant archival documents. The probable involvement of local assessors and prior collection systems is of particular interest in the study of Ottoman administrative practices and may contribute to knowledge of social relations in provincial localities (more on this see Demirci 2009). References Akdağ, M., (1950) "Osmanlı Đmparatorluğunun Kuruluşu ve Đnkişafi Devrinde Türkiyenin Đktisâdi Vaziyeti", Belleten 14. Darling, L., (1996) Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire 1560-1660, New York. Demirci, S., (2009). The Functioning of Ottoman avâriz taxation: an aspect of the relationships between centre and periphery, The Isıspress, Đstanbul. 1 KK2576 Maliye Ahkam Defteri (1043-49/1633-40), pp. 47-49. 448 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Demirci, S.,(2006). “Demography And History: The Value of The Avârizhâne Registers For Demographic Research: A Case Study of The Ottoman Sub-Provinces of Konya, Kayseri And Niğde, C.1620s-1700”, Turcica 38, 181-211. Demirci, S., (2006). “Avâriz and Nüzul Levies in the Ottoman Empire: A Case Study of the Province of Karaman, 1620s-1700” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 70/258 , 563-590. Demirci, S., (2005). "Collectors of avâriz and nüzul levies in the Ottoman Empire. A case study of the province of Karaman, 1621-1700", ” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 69/255, 539-565. Demirci, S., (2005). “Collection of avâriz and nüzul levies in the Ottoman Empire, 1620- 1700”, ” Turkish Historical Society Belleten, 69/256, 897-912. Emecen, F., (1982). “Kayacik Kazasi Avariz Defteri”, Tarih Enstitüsü Dergisi, , 12, Đstanbul, Güçer, L., (1964) Osmanli Đmparatorluğunda Hububat Meselesi ve Hububattan Alınan Vegiler, Đstanbul Universitesi Đktisat Fakültesi Yayını, Đstanbul. Gündüz, A., (1995). 27/3 Numaralı Kayseri Şer'iyye Sicili 1035/36-1625/26, Unpublished MA Thesis, Erciyes University, Kayseri. Đlhan Şahin- Emecen Feridun (1994), Osmanlılarda Divân-Bürokrasi-Ahkâm: II. Bâyezid Dönemine Ait 906/1501 Tarihli Ahkâm Defteri, Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, Đstanbul. Table 1: The number of nefers in one tax-unit/avârizhâne in different locations within the Ottoman Empire, c. 1640s The place Number of nefers in one avârizhâne/ tax-unit Konya kazası 11 Eskiil ve Akcaşehir kazası 12 11 Insuyu kazası Kureyş mea Berendi 12 Belviran kazası 11 14.5 Gaferyad kazası Larende kazası 14 Aladağ kazası 12.5 Pirluganda kazası 10.5 Beyşehir kazası 12 Seydişehir kazası 12 Kaşaklu kazası 10.5 Bozkır kazası 11.5 Kucu-i kebir 11 Kırili kazası 11.5 Akşehir kazası 13 Ishaklu kazası 9 Ilgun kazası 12 Aksaray kazası 11 Eyübili kazası 8 Niğde kazası 10 Ürgüb kazası 10 Anduğu kazası 14 Develü kazası 9 Çamardı kazası 10 449 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 290 Title A name given to the resource Tax-House Unit System and the Collection of Ottoman Extra-Ordinary Taxes, c. 1600-1700 Author Author DEMiRCi, Süleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. Empire-wide historical developments of the early modern period have long been interesting subjects of discussion among historians and various attempts have been made to explain both the nature and the reasons for the developments which occurred in the Ottoman Empire at the turn of the seventeenth century. The importance for the central government to maintain a regular and adequate tax revenue was crucial. This paper will examine the tax-unit system as well as the collection of the extra-ordinary levies in the Ottoman Empire for the period 1600s to 1700. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5656f4a15f46856ce50f9ef8d1c2bbc7.pdf 6dac25b660f03eca326d332889cca3ea PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Strategy and Structural Change: The Lessons from the Department of Homeland Security Mehmet Akif DEMĐRCĐOĞLU Indiana University-Bloomington, School of Public and Environmental Affairs. Bloomington, Indiana, USA mdemirci@indiana.edu Abstract: Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration. There are four types of organizational change: Products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in the United States is an example of this change. Key Words: organizational change, strategy and structure, the department of homeland security, public organizations The nature of change is not unidirectional or unalterable. An organization may resist or facilitate change in a way consistent with its nature. Organizational change is not isolated to singular effects within an organization; rather, it is likely to affect the other variables under consideration. It is clear that public organizations pursue multiple goals. Charles Wise believes that organizing—or perhaps more accurately, reorganizing—for homeland security will implicate numerous issues of organizational functioning. While not always explicitly identifying the causal mechanisms of change, extant proposals seek to remedy multiple perceived dysfunctional attributes of the current organizational system (Wise, 2002a, 132). This paper will examine organizational change, particularly strategy and structural change, and its implementation within the Department of Homeland Security in the Unites States of America. Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration and organization theory (Fernandez & Pitts, 2005, 1). Many journal articles address topics relating to organizational change, such as the adaption and implementation of “reinventing government” and New Public Management Reforms1 (e.g., Berman and Wang 2000; Brudney and Wright 2002; Fernandez and Rainey, 2006; Grizzle and Pettijohn 2002; Hood and Peters 2004; Julnes and Holzer 2001; Thompson and Fulla 2001). A growing number of scholars have focused their research on the implementation of planned change (Fernandez and Rainey 2006, 6). Change, according to Van de Ven and Poole (1995), is one type of event process, or progression, of an organizational entity's existence over time. It is classified as an empirical observation of difference in structure, quality, or status over time in an organizational element, such as an individual's job, a work group, an organizational strategy, a program, a product, or the whole organization. Organizational change is sometimes accompanied by the word, ‘development’, which is a process involving change. Process theory is an explanation of how and why and organizational elements change and develop. Theoretical explanations are useful for identifying the generative mechanisms that cause events to happen and the context in which they occur. It is important to mention here is that as Lois Wise puts, studies of change in organizations may take different approaches (Lois Wise, 2002, 556) According to Robbins, change involves four categories: structure, technology, physical setting, and people. Changing structure involves making an alteration in authority relations, coordination mechanisms, job design, or similar structural variables. Changing technology encompasses modifications in the way work is processed and in the methods and equipment used. Changing the physical setting covers altering the space and layout arrangements in the workplace. Changing people refers to change in employee attitudes, skills, expectations, perceptions, and/or behavior (Robbins, 2000, 543). 1 According to Rago, it is the premise of an increasing number of reform movements in both private and public sectors all over the world that the hearts and minds of staff need to be won over to a new attitude and style in order to secure new managerial techniques and for innovations to ‘‘take root’’ (Rago 1996). 228 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Four Types of Changes Daft’s strategic types of changes are similar to Robbins’ classification. Four strategic types characterize organizational change: products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Each of the areas are interdependent, a change in one may affect another. Organizations should focus on their unique configuration of these strategies for maximum impact upon their chosen markets (Daft, 2001). Technology changes are related to an organization’s production process, including its knowledge, skills, and experience base, which provide distinctive capability. It is expected that these changes are designed to make production more efficient or to produce more output. Using Internal Revenue Service e-files1 can be considered as one type of technology change. Product and service changes refer to the product or service outputs of an organization. New products include either small adaptations of same products or new product. For instance, Turkish Statistical Institute established a new statistical law,2 which has been prepared in compliance with the EU standards. With this law, personnel benefits and salary have been improved. Thus, this change provides better conditions for the employees, which can be considered as product and service changes. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the DHS is an example of this change. Daft explains that structure and system changes are usually top-down, that is, mandated by top management. On the other hand, product and technology changes may often come from the bottom up (Daft, 2001, 357). Management of culture is one of the most frequently discussed organizational concepts of the last two or three decades (Driscoll and Morris 2001). Culture changes are related to values, attitudes, expectations, beliefs and behavior of employees. Therefore, this change is related to mindset. Ates argues that the successful implementation of new programs and policies often requires not only changes in systems and procedures but also a change in the culture of the organization, the underlying values of an organization, and the way in which management reinforces those values. Culture colors the look, feel, and focus of management and service delivery (Ates, 2004, 34). For instance, entrepreneurship in the public sector is related to cultural change, “Entrepreneurship can be defined as ‘‘the process of creating value by bringing together a unique package of resources to exploit an opportunity’’ (Stevenson and Gumbert 1985, 85). Underlying entrepreneurial attitudes and behaviors are three key dimensions: innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness (Covin and Slevin 1989). Hence, these three variables—innovativeness, risk taking, and proactiveness can be considered as the cultural change. A government’s sending students to abroad can be expected to changes the organizational culture in the long term. From Theory to Practice: Organizing for Homeland Security The United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is a Cabinet department of the United States federal government with the primary responsibilities of protecting the territory of the U.S. from terrorist attacks and responding to natural disasters. While the Department of Defense is charged with military actions abroad, the Department of Homeland Security works in the civilian sphere to protect the United States within, at, and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for, prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, particularly terrorism. According to Raphael (2004), the creation of DHS constituted the biggest government reorganization in American history and the most substantial reorganization of federal agencies since the National Security Act of 1947, which placed the different military departments under a secretary of defense and created the National Security Council and Central Intelligence Agency. DHS constitutes the most diverse merger of federal functions and responsibilities, incorporating 22 government agencies under itself (Raphael, 2004, 176-177). Figure one shows these 22 government agencies. A DHS reorganization plan of November 25, 2002, sets out a blueprint for the new organization. Included are five directorates: (1) Border and Transportation Security; (2) Emergency Preparedness and Response; (3) Science and Technology; (4) Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection; and (5) Management. 1 http://www.irs.gov/efile/index.html?portlet=4 Turkish Statistical Law has been published in the Official Gazette numbered 25997 on 18th of November 2005 and entered into force on the same day. The new law has been adopted in accordance with our commitments on account of statistical system applied in EU countries. The new law has changed the name of our institute as Turkish Statistical Institute (TURKSTAT) (http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?method=tarihce). 2 229 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo In response to the September 11, 2001 attacks, President George W. Bush announced the establishment of the Office of Homeland Security (OHS) to coordinate "homeland security" efforts. In January 2003, the office was merged into the Department of Homeland Security and the White House Homeland Security Council, both of which were created by the Homeland Security Act of 2002. The Homeland Security Council, similar in nature to the National Security Council, retains a policy coordination and advisory role and is led by the Assistant to the President for Homeland Security (http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nat_strat_hls.pdf). Original Agency (Department) The U.S. Customs Service (Treasury) Current Agency/Office U.S. Customs and Border Protection - inspection, border and ports of entry responsibilities U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement customs law enforcement responsibilities The Immigration and Naturalization Service (Justice) U.S. Customs and Border Protection - inspection functions and the U.S. Border Patrol U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement immigration law enforcement: detention and removal, intelligence, and investigations U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services adjudications and benefits programs The Federal Protective Service U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement The Transportation Security Administration Transportation Security Administration (Transportation) Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (Treasury) Federal Law Enforcement Training Center Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service U.S. Customs and Border Protection - agricultural (part)(Agriculture) imports and entry inspections Office for Domestic Preparedness (Justice) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA The Federal Emergency Management Agency Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Strategic National Stockpile and the National Disaster Returned to Health and Human Services, July, 2004 Medical System (HHS) Nuclear Incident Response Team (Energy) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA Domestic Emergency Support Teams (Justice) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA National Domestic Preparedness Office (FBI) Responsibilities distributed within FEMA CBRN Countermeasures Programs (Energy) Science & Technology Directorate Environmental Measurements Laboratory (Energy) Science & Technology Directorate National BW Defense Analysis Center (Defense) Science & Technology Directorate Plum Island Animal Disease Center (Agriculture) Science & Technology Directorate Federal Computer Incident Response Center (GSA) US-CERT, Office of Cybersecurity and Communications in the National Programs and Preparedness Directorate National Communications System (Defense) Office of Cybersecurity and Communications in the National Programs and Preparedness Directorate National Infrastructure Protection Center (FBI) Dispersed throughout the department, including Office of Operations Coordination and Office of Infrastructure Protection Energy Security and Assurance Program (Energy) Integrated into the Office of Infrastructure Protection U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Coast Guard U.S. Secret Service U.S. Secret Service Figure 1: Government Agencies which became under the DHS. 230 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Administrative Change in the DHS An organization’s structure is defined by how tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated. Change agents can alter one or more of the key elements in an organization’s design. For instance, departmental responsibilities can be combined, vertical layers removed, and spans of control widened to make the organization flatter and less bureaucratic. More rules and procedures can be implemented to increase standardization (Robbins, 2000, 543). For instance, when establishing a government agency or department (such as the DHS), the principal decides whether the organization is either a hierarchical or a network style; both of them are related to the organizational change. Theoretically the network style is considered for the DHS, practically the former is implemented. That means that the government is organized in terms of superior-subordinate relations, a chain of command that extends from the chief executive to the lowest level civil servants in the government. Similarly, oversight bodies such as Office of Management and Budget and the General Accountability Office in the U.S. federal government and the legislature exercise oversight through chains of command that are structured vertically through departments (Fountain, 8). Administrative change typically comes from a leader and/or the senior management. Most organizations in both the public and private sector are organized on a hierarchical basis, even if there is now a growing preference for relatively flat hierarchies (that is, few layers of management). Key policy decisions about the direction of the organization and its structure are made at the top of the hierarchy. That is where the power to change resides. Accordingly, it is commonplace, yet essential, to acknowledge that organizational reform requires strong and committed leadership and direction from the top. Although legitimacy, credibility, and trust are necessary factors for public organization, it is expected that public organizations administrative performance are also high. Perry believes that administrative performance involves the attainments of public organizations and institutions against goals established implicitly or explicitly by political, social, or organizational sources. Public administration has always been centrally concerned with one or more facets of administrative performance. The field's historical concerns about administrative performance can be summarized by four concepts each beginning with the letter "e", economy, efficiency, effectiveness, and equity (Perry, 1991, 12). Hence, it can be said that in public sector, not only equity, but also economy, efficiency, and effectiveness should be considered. However, it is widely accepted that these four “e”s did not considered when the DHS was established due to emergency situation. Implementation and Process of Change of the DHS 1) Incremental versus Radical Change The changes used to adapt to the environment can be evaluated according to scope – that is, the extent to which changes are incremental or radical for the organization. Exhibit 1 shows the differences between these two changes. Incremental change represents a series of continual progressions that maintain the organization’s general equilibrium and often affect only one organization part (Daft, 2001, 353). Generally, incremental change occurs through the established structure and management processes, although it may include technology and product change; it does not include cultural change. Radical change, on the other hand, breaks the frame of reference for the organization, often transforming the entire organization. Radical change involves the creation of a new structure and new management processes. The technology is likely to be breakthrough, and new products thereby created will establish new markets (Daft, 2001, 354). It is also expected that radical change is related to structural change in the short term and cultural change in the long term. When we look at establishing the DHS, it is very clear that this change was radical, which transform the entire organization, and tried to establish the new culture. For instance, during the creating of the DHS, new structure and management has been created, the paradigm was extra-ordinary, and the entire organization has been transformed. 2) Dual-core approach. When organizational change occurs, it may happen within the administrative or technical core functions. Each core has its set of employees, tasks, and environmental domain. Innovation and change can begin in either one. Administrative changes relate to the design and structure of the organization itself, including restructuring, downsizing, teams, information systems, and departmental groupings. Technology-based changes happen more frequently than administrative changes and fall under the hierarchical oversight of the administration (Daft, 2001). The dual-core approach to organizational change identifies the unique process associated with administrative changes (Daft, 1978). The administrative core responsibility encompasses control and coordination of the organization itself. The technical core transforms raw materials into organizational products and services. Daft summarizes findings 231 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo from research that indicate a mechanistic organization structure is best fitted for frequent administrative changes. Successful administrative changes usually occur in organizations that have a large administrative ratio, are larger in size, and are centralized and formalized (i.e., bureaucratic). The reason is the top-down flow of control in response to changes in the external environment. It can be said that the creation of DHS is an example of an administrative structure. By contrast, an organization with an organic structure, in which lower-level employees have more freedom and autonomy, may resist top down directives. An organic structure is much more conducive to technical changes. These are summarized in Exhibit 2. Incremental vs. Radical Change Incremental Change Radical Change Continuous progression Paradigm-breaking burst Affect organizational part Transform entire organization Through normal structure and management processes Create new structure and management Technology improvements Breakthrough technology Product improvement New products, new markets . Exhibit 1 Sources: Based on Alan D. Meyer, James B. Goes, and Geoffrey R. Brooks, “Organizations in Disequilibrium: Environmental Jolts and Industry Revolutions,” in George Huber and William H. Glick, eds., Organizational Change and Redesign (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 66-111; and Harry S. Dent, Jr., “Growth through New Product Development,” Small Business Reports (November 1990): 30-40; Daft, 2001, 354) Dual-Core Approach to Organization Change Type of Innovation Desired Administrative Structure Administrative Core Technical Core Direction of Change: Top-Down Examples of Change: Strategy Downsizing Structure Best Organizational Design for Change: Mechanistic Exhibit 2: Type of Innovation Desired. Daft, 2001. 232 Technology Bottom-Up Production techniques Workflow Organic �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo A change in administration such as downsizing usually has the most far-reaching impact on an organization. In drastic situations, where the change results in elimination or creation of a management level, a consequence is the creation of a new organization chart with new lines of reporting and possibly new responsibilities for individuals and their departments as seen in the creation of the DHS. Induced organizational chart changes may occur for strategic purposes, such as seeking new markets, changes in the environment, or changes in client or customer. 3) Administrative Structure and Core After the September 11, 2001 attaches, establishing the DHS was not surprising because environmental influences play significant roles in institutionalizing new organizations. As Hall suggests, organizations do not always try to maximize effectiveness. Environmental and technological variations affect the internal characteristics of organizations (Hall, 1972, 65). When looking at the homeland security system, efficiency is not a priority; the priority is to prevent attacks. In public sector, since there is no clear market as the private sector, the market can be considered as an international environment and/or all public. In other words, public organizations have very different purpose than their private counterparts. As Fountain believes, governmental organizations are not simply technical structures formed to produce outputs; they are institutions that confer legitimacy, credibility, and trust within society. They do not and cannot “go out of business” if they fail to perform well. They are not market-based entities (Fountain, 8). Thus, during the creating of the DHS, after the September 11, the conditions (legitimacy, credibility, trust) are well for to creating this department. As DiMaggio and Powell and then Wise clearly stated, leaders will seek to overcome the liability of newness by imitating established practices within the field. This is particularly true for new organizations, which could serve as sources of innovation and variation (DiMaggio and Powell 1983). In the federal government, this often means some hierarchical design (Wise, 2002a, 132). Conclusion Public organizations always need to make changes in their strategies and structures; otherwise they cannot be sustainable and effective. Meaningful change in public organizations requires that managers exert a concerted effort to implement it successfully (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006, 6). Similarly, change in response to environmental shifts is necessary in order to maintain strategic fit and remain competitive (Andrews, 1971). As seen the new public management and administrative reforms, for instance the DHS, public organizations need to make radical changes in technology, services, culture and strategies in order to adapt to new competitive demands. It has been widely accepted that networks and horizontal structures are more important than vertical and hierarchical structures. Still, many organizations, especially military organizations are highly hierarchical. Thus, the DHS tends to be more hierarchical due to its structure. The environment for U.S. homeland security could hardly be characterized as stable. As the president— George W. Bush—said, just considering international terrorist organizations, dozens of such organizations exist and are capable of doing harm to the United States. In addition, some of these organizations—such as the preeminent foe at the moment, al Qaeda—are very complex and highly differentiated. In fact, reports suggest that al Qaeda does not operate as an organization, but rather as an organizational network. Rather than a single, hierarchically integrated organization, al Qaeda is a loosely coupled collection of terrorist organizations that communicate and cooperate for actions against mutually identified targets of opportunity. This makes it—or rather, those—much more difficult to identify and track, much less counteract. In addition, these organizations do not act according to standard operating procedures, nor do they attack a standard set of targets or follow any set timetable. Also, this is but one terrorist network. It should be expected that other terrorist organizations will be represented by other organizational configurations. Thus, homeland security confronts an organizational field of terrorist organizations of considerable variation and complexity (Wise, 2002a, 132). One imperative of organizing for homeland security may be developing the capacity for organizations to engage in learning in complex, unstable environments. Nonetheless, another imperative is for new or reorganized organizations to fit into the federal governmental structure. That is, the Constitution and laws constitute organizational imperatives that the organization of homeland security will have to confront (Wise, 2002a, 134). As Vasu suggests, organizational change actions start with diagnosis, but managing change is a snowballing process (Vasu et al, 1998, 280). References Andrews, K. R. (1971). The Concept of Corporate Strategy. New York: Dow Jones-Irwin. 233 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ates, Hamza. (2004). Management as an Agent of Cultural Change in the Turkish Public Sector. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 14 (1), 33–58. Berman, Evan, and Xiao Hu Wang. (2000). Performance Measurement in U.S. Counties: Capacity for Reform. Public Administration Review 60: 409-20. Brudney, Jeffrey L., and Deil S. Wright. (2002). 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Research in Public Administration, 1 (1), 1-18 Rago, William V. (1996). Struggles in transformation: A study in TQM, leadership, and organizational culture in a government agency. Public Administration Review 56 (3): 227–34. Robbins, Stephen P. (2000). Organizational Behavior, 9th edition, Prentice-Hall, inc, New Jersey. Stevenson, H. H., and D. E. Gumpert. (1985). The heart of entrepreneurship. Harvard Business Review, March–April: 85–94. Thompson, James R., and Shelley L. Fulla. (2001). Effecting Change in a Reform Context: The National Performance Review and the Contingencies of 'Microlevel' Reform Implementation. Public Performance and Management Review, 25: 155-75. Van de Ven, A. H, & Poole, M. S. (1995). Explaining development and change in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 510-540. Vasu, Michael L., Stewart Debra W., and Garson David G. (1998). Organizational Behavior and Public Management. Edition: 3. CRC Press. Wise, Charles R. (1990). 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Public Administration Review, 62 (5): 555-567. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10968&page=179 http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nat_strat_hls.pdf http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/dhs-org-chart-2003.pdf http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/history/editorial_0133.shtm http://www.irs.gov/efile/index.html?portlet=4 http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/UstMenu.do?metod=tarihce http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/search/allsearch?mode=quicksearch&products=journal&WISsearch2=15406210&WISindexid2=issn&contentTitle=Public+Administration+Review&contextLink=blah&contentOID=118484994&WIS search1=charles+r.+wise&WISindexid1=WISauthor&articleGo.x=13&articleGo.y=7 http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118944767/PDFSTART 235 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 206 Title A name given to the resource Strategy and Structural Change: The Lessons from the Department of Homeland Security Author Author DEMiRCiOĞLU, Mehmet Akif Abstract A summary of the resource. Organizational change is one of the enduring issues in the study of public administration. There are four types of organizational change: Products and services, strategy and structure, culture, and technology. Strategy and structure changes are related to the administrative field in an existing or new organization. Changing in organization structure, policies, mission, and vision as well as re-organizing, restructuring, downsizing, and privatization can be considered as changes. The creation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in the United States is an example of this change. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/66a62e459fb2f7018d65a99a7c930209.pdf cf1c57985f53535cdd1624724e9ca6c5 PDF Text Text Teachers’ Disfunctional Attitudes Mücahit DILEKMEN Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey dilekmen@atauni.edu.tr Şükrü ADA Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey sukruada@atauni.edu.tr Birol ALVER Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey balver@atauni.edu.tr Durmuş KILIC Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Turkey dkilic@atauni.edu.tr Abstract:In this study it was aimed to analyze dysfunctional attitudes of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding dysfunctional attitudes of teachers was obtained through Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) which was originally designed by Weissman ve Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) is a 40-item with 1-7 score margin likert type scale which aims to measure patterns of maladaptive thoughts of depressed individuals Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level whereas gender (β=-.138) is the only and the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a certain level (t=-1.984, p=.049). Introduction Schoolteaching has the foremost place among the professions requiring one to one interaction and sharing. Along with transfering contemporary knowledge and culture to the next generations, teachers play effective roles in personality development of individuals and in fitting them for future in, especially primary and secondary education institutions. Teachers are the role models with personality attributes, attitudes and behaviors they exhibited in addition to cognitive gainings the students are provided with. It can be said in the light of the issues being discussed that teachers have significantly positive effects on students’ recognizing themselves and the environment as well as their understanding and attaching meanings to the things happening around-especially in primary education level-. Dysfunctional beliefs that are used to express desires of individuals, are happened to come forward more often when people change their desires and choices pertaining themselves and events into compulsory desires and 69 �demands (Jones, 1982; Corey, 2001). People’s thoughts and behaviors are important sources of power (Eisen, Kearney, 1995). According to cognitive approach, changes in opinions play important role in forming emotions and behaviors. Therefore, changing opinions are important in order to correct negative behaviors. Cognitive theories are being perceived important from the aspect of conceptualizing personality and personality disorders in these days. Those theories have helped to explain perceptions, opinions and attitudes in defining personality (Sperry 1999). Cognitive concepts and psycho-social effects play more important role in personality disorder when compared to biological structure (APA 1994, DSM-IV-TR 2008). According to Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) theory, individuals inherit most of the opinion/belief structures leading their lives in their childhood period, imitating the persons they’ve perceived to be respectful (Corey, 2001). Considering the issue within the scope of these facts, the importance of teachers’ being role model from the aspect of personality, cognitive and emotional development of children within the primary education period becomes self-evident. Corey ( 2001) has emphasized that teachers’ being perfectionist against some cases or having strict attitudes and beliefs towards some events as well as having wrong thoughts such as “I must be the best in everything” or “there has to be no sound in the class to be heard at all” cause students to develop similar behavior patterns. Ellis (1962) defined eleven irrational beliefs or opinions, some of which are : • Past experiences are the determinants of today’s behaviors of an individual. Things/events having strong effects on our past lives will definitely have similar effects in future life. • Some people are evil-minded and baleful and that’s why they deserve to be blamed and punished. • Unhappiness is caused by external factors which individuals have little control of. • I must be liked and approved by everyone in society. • I must be perfectly successful, efficient and competent to consider myself as a “gem”. • There are the definite and perfect solutions to human problems. If they cannot be found, the result is disaster (Ellis, 1962; Ellis, 1973; Jones, 1982; Dryden ve Ellis, 1988). In one of his studies, Özgüven (1999) revealed that frequency of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes observed in crisis are significantly higher than other cases. He also suggested that cognitive limitations are effective on crisis emergence and thus, cognitive therapy approaches embracing automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes be more beneficial from this aspect. Psychological problems emerge when individuals consistently have negative opinions (Franklin, 2002). It was also revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes tend to be more depressive and anxious (Azizoğlu 1993; Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; ve Tschacher 1996). Frequency level of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes of an individual in crisis is observed to be significantly higher when compared to other individuals. Dysfunctional attitude scale (DAS-A) was designed to measure long lasting thoughts and attitudes rather than immediate behaviors. For this reason, it can be suggested that improper automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes be accepted as a risk factor for crisis rather than be considered as the result of crisis which is an instant action (Abramson ve ark 1978; Peterson ve Seligman 1984). According to a study conducted by Gündoğdu, Çelikkaleli and Çapri (2003) with the students studying at different faculties, it was found that irrational belief scores of educational faculty students were signifcantly higher than irrational belief scores of students of other faculties. Hamamcı and Duy (2007) revealed a positive relation at significant level between loneliness and “perfectionistic attitudes” which is one of the subdimension of dysfunctional attitude scale (SDAS-A). Furthermore, it was also revealed that cognitive behavioral approach based social skills training significantly lessened dysfunctional attitudes of university students who had received it and a further monitoring analysis proved the persistency of the attainments. Problem Statement The purpose of this study is to analyze dysfunctional attitudes of teachers from the aspect of different variables. The following question is tried to be answered in parallel with this purpose. “Do the dysfunctional attitudes of teachers differentiate in accordance with the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication ?” Method Population and Sampling 70 �Population of this study consist of the teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. 215 teachers were chosen randomly out of the population as the sample of the study. Data Collection Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) Data regarding dysfunctional attitudes of teachers was obtained through Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DASA) which was originally designed by Weissman ve Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Moreover, data on personal, institutional and social variables concerning teachers was obtained through Personal Information Form that was developed by the researchers. Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) is a 40-item with 17 score margin likert type scale which aims to measure patterns of maladaptive thoughts of depressed individuals and specifically to bring along occurance frequency of dysfunctional attitudes of those patients. It was developed by Weissman and Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish with reliability and validity by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Answers to each item is scored by a range of 1 to 7 points. Items numbered 2, 6, 12, 17, 24, 29, 30, 35, 37 and 40 were graded inversely with the assumption of their pointing out functional attitudes. Overall score margin is 40-280. The higher the score obtained from the scale, the more often dysfunctional attitudes are likely to be observed for an individual. After studies on students chosen as the sample, cronbach alfa reliability coefficient of the scale was found between .87 and .92 and the total score correlation coefficient was found between .20 and .50. Re-test test reliability coefficients of the scale vary between .54 and .84. In criterion connected validity study of the instrument, range of the correlation of this study with Beck Depression Inventory varied between .30 and .64. Personal Information Form Teachers of the sample group were given Personal Information Forms developed by the researchers concerning information about the variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through this form. Data Analysis SPSS 16.0 packaged software was used for statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. Findings Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Genders t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their gender were given in table 1 below : Gender n X sd Female 100 184.05 34.63 Male sd: 213 p<.05 115 175.59 29.45 t p 1.935 .050 Table 1. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Gender 71 �As is seen in table 1 above, there was found a significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of male and female teachers in favor of female teachers (t213= 1.935, p=.050). In other words, dysfunctional attitude level of female teachers are significantly higher than that of the male teachers. Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status were given in table 2 below : Marital Status n X sd Single 65 180.07 36.49 Married 150 179.28 30.23 t p 0.165 . 869 sd: 213 p>0.05 Table 2. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Marital Status As is observed from table 2, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their marital status (t213=0.165, p=.869). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type Institution They Teach At Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the type of institution they teach at were given in table 3 below : n X sd 92 106 17 215 180.05 180.41 171.11 179.52 30.96 31.84 40.70 32.17 Institutions Teachers Teach At Dysfunctional Attitudes Primary Education Secondary Education Milli Eğitim Müdürlüğü Total Table 3. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Type Institution They Teach At The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding the type of institution they teach at are shown in table 4 below : Dysfunctional Attitudes 72 Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 1311.380 220210.229 221521.609 s d. 2 212 214 Mean of Squares 655.690 1038.727 F 0.631 p .533 �Tablo 4. Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Type Institution They Teach At As seen in table 4, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the type institution they teach in or they work for (F(2,212)= 0.631, p=.533). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their service period were given in table 5 below : Service Period Dysfunctional Attitudes n 122 81 12 215 1-10 years 11-20 years 21-30 years Total X 181.95 175.17 184.16 179.52 Sd 32.63 31.15 33.68 32.17 Table 5. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Service Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding their service period are shown in table 6 below : Dysfunctional Attitudes Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 2515.567 219006.042 221521.609 Mean of Squares 1257.784 1033.047 s d. 2 212 214 F 1.218 p .298 Table 6. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding Their Service Period As seen in table 6, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their service period (F(2,212)= 1.218, p=.298). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving ınservice training were given in table 7 below : n X sd 73 �Status of Receiving Inservice Training Dysfunctional Attitudes Never received Received only once Received twice Received three times and more Total 215 32 67 18 98 46,30 181,53 181,01 178,50 178,04 13,96 28,37 31,05 26,89 35,18 Table 7. Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Status of Receiving Inservice Training The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding the status of receiving inservice training are shown in table 8 below : Dysfunctional Attitudes Source of Variance Inter-gropus In-groups Total Sum of Squares 512.319 221009.291 221521.609 Mean of Squares 170.773 1047.437 s d. 3 211 214 F .163 p .921 Table 8. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Status of Receiving Inservice Training As seen in table 8, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the status of receiving inservice training (F(3,211)= 0.163, p=.921). It other words inservice training plays almost no role in terms of changing dysfunctional attitudes. As Ellis (1962) stated, children learn negative opininons from the individuals around by imitating them. However, it can be considered that way the individual is brought up may have certain effect on developing dysfunctional attitudes. Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period Standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period were given in table 9 below : Dysfunctional attitudes The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period Village Town City Metropolis Total n X sd 19 29 60 107 215 175.47 180.44 176.03 181.95 179.52 32.94 28.65 35.77 30.98 32.17 Table 9. Standard Deviation And Mean Values Of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores Of Teachers In Accordance With The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period The results of variance analysis (ANOVA) applied in order to determine significance of the difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers regarding the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period are shown in table 10 below : 74 �Dysfunctional Attitudes Source of The Variance Inter-groups In-groups Total Sum of Squares 1699.000 219822.609 221521.609 s d. 3 211 214 Mean of Squares 566.333 1041.813 F 0.544 p .653 Table 10. The Results of Variance Analysis (ANOVA) Applied In Order To Determine Significance of The Difference Between Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Regarding The Settlement They’ve Taught For The Longest Period As is seen in table 10 above, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period (F(3,211)= 0.544, p=.653). Shortly, the settlement they’ve taught for the longest period plays almost no role in terms of changing dysfunctional attitudes. Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing are given in table 11 below : Sports Playing n X sd Playing Sports 91 176.03 34.63 Not Playing Sports sd: 213 p>0.05 124 182.08 30.12 t p -1.366 .173 Table 11. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Sports Playing As is seen in table 11 above, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with sports playing (t213= -1.366, p=.173). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with artiness are given in table 12 below : Artiness Yes, Iam interested in arts No, I am not that much interested in arts sd: 213 p>0.05 n X sd 168 177.89 32.15 47 185.36 31.89 t p -1.410 .160 Table 12. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Artiness As seen in table 12, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with artiness (t213= -1.410, p=.160). Findings Regarding Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication t-value, standard deviation and mean values of dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication are given in table 13 below 75 �Perceived Style of Communication Positive Perceivers (humaniterian, constructive and emphatetic) Negative Perceivers (critical, judging and apathetic) sd: 213 p>0.05 n X sd 179 179.94 32.36 36 177.41 31.55 t p 0.430 .667 Table 13. t-Value, Standard Deviation And Mean Values of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers In Accordance With Their Style of Communication As seen in table 13, there was found no significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers in accordance with their style of communication (t213= -1.101, p=.272). Findings Regarding Precursor Variables of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers The results of multiple regression analysis applied to determine the dysfunctional attitude score predictive strength of the variables of gender, marital status, type of institution they teach at or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived type of communication are given at table 14 below : Precursor Variables Gender Marital Status Type of institution they teach at or work for Service Period Status of receiving inservice training The settlement they’ve taught fort he longest period Sports playing Artiness Perceived Communication Style B Predictive Error β t p -8.871 .823 -2.960 -3.580 -1.615 4.471 2.661 3.737 3.967 2.030 -.138 .024 -.057 -.067 -.058 -1.984 0.309 -0.792 -0.903 -0.796 .049 .758 .429 .368 .427 1.705 2.362 .052 0.722 .471 5.220 5.956 -.143 R=.212 4.754 5.538 6.078 R2=.045 .080 1.098 .077 1.076 -.002 -0.024 F(9-205)=1.071 .274 .283 .981 p=.385 Table 14. The Results of Multiple Regression Analysis Regarding Precursor Variables of Dysfunctional Attitude Scores of Teachers Considering the results of multiple regression analysis seen at table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (R=.212, R2=.045, F(9-205)=1.071, p=.385). This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 4,5% of variance of the dysfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.138) is the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a certain level (t=-1.984, p=.049) whereas other variables couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. Discussion There was found a significant difference between dysfunctional attitude scores of male and female teachers in favor of female teachers (t213= 1.935, p=.050). In other words, dysfunctional attitude level of female teachers are significantly higher than that of the male teachers. It was also revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes 76 �tend to be more depressive and anxious (Azizoğlu 1993; Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; ve Tschacher 1996). In one of his studies, Özgüven (1999) revealed that frequency of automatic thoughts and dysfunctional attitudes observed in crisis are significantly more often than other cases. This aspect, however, can be explained by effectiveness of cognitive limit in crisis emergence. According to another prospect, cognitive concepts and psycho-social effects play more important role in personality disorder rather than biological structure (APA 1994, DSM-IV-TR 2008). Considering those results, it can be affirmed that cognitive limitations of female teachers are more than that of the male teachers and thus, they are more inclined to experience crisis and can be more depressive and anxious. The result that dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers do not differ at a significant level in accordance with variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and their communication styles perceived as being authoretative or democratic. This result have demonstrated that gender is the only variable, dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers differs accordingly at a significant level. As Ellis (1962) stated, children learn negative opininons from the individuals around by imitating them. Considering this prospect, it can be said that dysfunctional attitudes are mostly developed in personal development period. Considering the results of multiple regression analysis seen at table 14, it can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (R=.212, R2=.045, F(9-205)=1.071, p=.385). This finding demonstrates that all those assumed precursor variables could only explain 4,5% of variance of the dysfunctional attitude scores of the theachers. Results of independent t-test applied have confirmed that gender (β=-.138) is the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level (t=-1.984, p=.049) whereas other variables couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level. This result demonstrated that only gender out of nine assumably precursor variables could be predictive on developing dysfunctional attitudes. According to Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) theory, individuals inherit most of the opinion/belief structures leading their lives in their childhood period, imitating the persons they’ve perceived to be respectful (Corey, 2001). This assumption makes the reserchers to think that participative teachers developed dysfunctional attitudes in their childhood period and that marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and their communication styles have had no effect on developing or changing dysfunctional attitudes in their adulthood period. It can also be inferred that, except for gender, no other variable have any effect on predicting dysfunctional attitudes. Considering the total score margin of dysfunctional attitude scale, which is 40-280; there are dysfunctional attitudes of teachers at a certain level (yet not significant) despite its not varying in accordance with above mentioned variables. Karahan, Sardoğan and Özkamalı (2006) revealed in their study that individuals with poor social competence expectancy and with dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts, needs more psycho-social support than the others. It was also revealed that people having dysfunctional attitudes and negative automatic thoughts tend to be more depressive and anxious (Azizoğlu 1993; Palabıyıkoğlu ve ark 1995; ve Tschacher 1996). Considering the scores obtained pertaining automatic thoughts together with the results obtained from the study, it can be inferred that teachers may need psycho-social support to a certain extent and that they might experience some problems with social competence expectancy and tend to experience crisis as well as their becoming depressed and anxious to a certain extent. Conclusions and Recommendations In this study, it is achieved as result that participative teachers have certain dysfunctional attitudes and they do not vary in accordance with above mentioned variables except for gender. In addition, it is also attained that gender variable could predict dysfunctional attitudes. Going through literature review, it has been ascertained that dysfunctional attitudes results from erroneous cognitive schemas formed within the childhood period and that it may cause some certain psychological problems afterwards. Considering those assignations, following recommendations could be suggested : Recommendations 1. Particular inservice training programs should be arranged in order to raise teachers’ awareness on dysfunctional attitudes, their sources and their effects. Different effective authorities such as Guidance Research Centers (GRC) and guidance counselors in schools should be made use of. 77 �2. Studies on dysfunctional attitudes of teachers can be conducted in educational faculties as one dimension within the scope of psychological counseling and guidance services and thus, necessary proactive interferences could be made fort he prospective teachers. 3. Informative education pertaining dysfunctional attitudes should be given to families. 4. Confirming teachers with dysfunctional attitudes, necessary therapeutic studies could be conducted. References Abramson, L.Y, Seligman, MEP, Teasdale JD (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: ritique and reformu-lation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, (87, pp. 49-74). American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed).Washington, DC. Azizoğlu, S. (1993). Psikolojik yardım arama davranışını etkileyen bazı faktörler açısından kriz merkezine başvuran ve başvurmayan bireylerin karşılaştırılması. Kriz Dergisi, (1(3), pp. 143-149). Corey, G. (2001). Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotheraphy. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Dryden, W. ve Ellis, A. (1988). Rational-emotive therapy. (Ed. Keith S. Dabson.) Handbook of Cognitive Behavioral Therapies (pp.214–272), London: Hutchinson. Eisen, A.R.& Kearney, C.A. (1995). Practitioner's Guide to Treating Fear and Anxiety in Children and Adolescents: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach, Jason Aronson, Northvale. Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and Emotion in Psychotheraphy. New York: Springer. _____ (1973). Rational-emotive psychotheraphy. (Ed: Patterson, C.H.) Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy (pp. 49–57). New York: Harpe and Row Publishers Franklin, D. J. (2002). Cognitive therapy for depression. http://www.psychologyinfo.com Gündoğdu, M., Çelikkakeli, Ö. ve Çapri, B. (2003). Üniversite öğrencilerinde akılcı olmayan inançlar ve dindarlık. VII. Ulusal Psikolojik Danışma veRehberlik Kongresi, 9–11 Temmuz, Malatya. Hamamcı, Z., Duy, B. (2007). Bilişsel davranışçı yaklaşıma dayalı sosyal beceri eğitiminin üniversite öğrencilerinin yalnızlık düzeyleri ve fonksiyonel olmayan tutumları üzerindeki etkisi. Eğitim Bilimleri ve Uygulama Dergisi, Sayı. 7. Hamamcı, Z.ve Duy, B. (2007). Sosyal beceriler fonksiyonel olmayan tutumlar akılcı olmayan inançlar ve ilişkilerle ilgili bilişsel çarpıtmaların yalnızlıkla ilişkisi, Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, (26, pp. 121-130). Jones, N. (1982). The theory and Practice of Counseling Psychology, (Çev: F.Akkoyun ve ark.), Ankara. Özgüven, H.D.( 1999). Psikiyatrik kriz vakalarında hatalı otomatik düşünceler ve fonksiyonel olmayan tutumların sıklığı. Kriz Dergisi, (7(2), pp. 9-16). Palabıyıkoğlu, R. Berksun, O.E., Güney, S., Yazar, H. ve Duran, A (1995). Krize müdahale merkezine başvuranların değerlendirilmesi: Demografik özellikler, sorun alanları, yaklaşım. Kriz Dergisi, (3(1-2), pp. 118-123). Peterson, C. Seligman MEP (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review (91, pp. 347-374). Sperry, L . (1999). Cognitive Behaviour Therapy of DSM-IV Personality Disorders. London, Brunner- Mazel. Şahin, N, Şahin, N (1992). How dysfunctional are the dysfunctional attitudes in another culture. Br J Med Psychol, (65, pp. 1726). Tschacher, W. (1996). The dynamics of psychosocial crises: Time courses and causal models. J Nerv Ment Dis, (184, pp. 172179). 78 �Weissman, A. N, Beck AT (1978). Development and the validation of the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale: A preliminary investigation. Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Toronto, Ontario. 79 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 332 Title A name given to the resource Teachers’ Disfunctional Attitudes Author Author DILEKMEN, Mücahit ADA, Şükrü ALVER, Birol KILIC, Durmuş Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study it was aimed to analyze dysfunctional attitudes of teachers from the aspect of variables of gender, marital status, institution they teach or work for, service period, status of receiving inservice training, the settlement they’ve taught or worked for the longest period, sports playing, artiness, styles of communication. Subjects were 215 randomly chosen teachers teaching at primary and secondary educational institutions in province center of Erzurum-Turkey within the 2008-2009 academic (school) year. Data regarding dysfunctional attitudes of teachers was obtained through Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) which was originally designed by Weissman ve Beck (1978) and adapted to turkish by Şahin and Şahin (1992). Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS-A) is a 40-item with 1-7 score margin likert type scale which aims to measure patterns of maladaptive thoughts of depressed individuals Personal and professional data about participant teachers obtained through personal information form which was developed by the researchers. For statistical analysis of data obtained. t-test, one way variance analysis (ANOVA) and multiple regression analysis tests were applied. It can be affirmed that assumed precursor variables of gender, marital status, type of institution, service period, status of receiving inservice training, sports playing, artiness and perceived communication styles couldn’t predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a significant level whereas gender (β=-.138) is the only and the strongest variable to predict dysfunctional attitude scores of teachers at a certain level (t=-1.984, p=.049) Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General)