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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
The use of first language in the EFL classroom:
A facilitating or debilitating device?
Mehdi Solhi
Department of English Language and Literature
Istanbul University, Turkey
solhi.mehdi@gmail.com
Münevver Büyükyazı
Department of English Language and Literature
Celal Bayar University, Turkey
munevverbuyukyazi@gmail.com
Abstract: Despite widespread use of only English in teaching EFL classes, the use of
first language in EFL class has been a perennial topic of discussion in the field of
language education. Most established L2 teaching methods discourage the use of L1 in
class. However, some scholars oppose ―English Only‖ trend in language classes
(Auerbach, 1993; and Kumaravadivelu, 2003). In a setting where the students share a
common L1, first language can create a less threatening atmosphere. In this article, the
non native speaker teachers‘ attitudes toward the use of the first language of the learners
in the classroom were asked through a questionnaire. Further, an attempt was made to
investigate whether non native speaker English teachers notice the use of the first
language as a facilitating or a debilitating factor. This article argues that first language is
one of the useful resources that students bring to the L2 classroom and can be used in a
judicious fashion.
Key words: First language, English only trend, facilitating device and judicious fashion
Introduction
It has always been a controversial issue to use the first language (L1) of the students in the foreign language
(FL) classroom. The L1 is perhaps the most useful and the least-used resource students bring to the FL classroom.
This is partly due to some factors. The theory and practice of established methods discourage the use of L1 in the FL
classroom. The monolingual approach suggests that the target language ought to be the sole medium of
communication, implying the prohibition of the native language would maximize the effectiveness of learning the
target language. In situations where students have little opportunity to meet the FL outside the classroom,
maximizing the use of the FL in the classroom is very important. One way to do is to carry out classroom
management in the FL. If it is done in a planned, consistent way, it can supply a very effective meaningful focused
input. However, in classrooms where all the learners share the same L1, there is a tendency for tasks which should
be done in the L1, and there are sound arguments that support the use of L1 in the FL classroom. Activities such as
conversation, discussion of intensive reading, preparation for writing etc. are done in the L1 because using the L1 is
more natural with others who have the same L1; it is easier and more communicatively effective, and using the FL
can be embarrassing for those who feel themselves not proficient enough in it.
Some researchers have investigated the use of the L1 in the FL classrooms thoroughly. According to one
view, the use of L1 may provide learners with additional cognitive support that allows them to analyze language and
work at a higher level than the situations where they are restricted to sole use of their FL (Anton and DiCamilla,
1998; Brooks and Donato, 1994; Swain and Lapkin, 2000). Wood et al. suggest that the L1 assists learners in the
process and completion of the tasks. In their study, Brooks and Donato (1994) showed that the L1 was used for three
functions: to comment on their FL use; to establish a joint understanding of the task and to formulate the learners‘
goals. Swain and Lapkin (2000) argue that the L1 may facilitate L2 classroom activities, particularly for lowproficiency students and on complex tasks. In addition, some researchers think that prohibition of mother tongue use
with monolingual students at lower levels of English proficiency is practically impossible (Nunan and Lamb, 1996).
According to Dôrnyei and Kormos (1998) the L1 is used by L2 learners as a communication strategy to compensate
for deficiencies in the target language. Auerbuch (1993) confirms the positive role of the mother tongue in the
classroom; she also identifies the following uses for it: classroom management, language analysis, presenting rules
that govern grammar, discussing cross-cultural issues, giving instructions or prompts, explaining errors, and
checking for comprehension. The results of the study conducted by Schweers (1999) on the attitudes toward using
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L1 in the L2 classroom indicate that the majority of students and teachers agreed that Spanish should be used in the
EFL classroom.
Using the L1 was found to have profound effects on some language skills. In a study, Knight (1996)
reported that the learners who did the preparatory L1 discussion in groups did much better on the L2 written task
than other learners who did preparatory L2 discussion even though that discussion was in the same language as the
subsequent written task. Similarly Storch and Wigglesworth (2003) determined the positive attitudes towards the use
of the L1 in completing tasks in L2 settings. Thus, it is possible to say that L1 has a useful role in helping learners
gain the knowledge needed to reach a higher level of L2 performance.
Another important effect of the L1 use has been reported on vocabulary learning. There are numerous ways
of conveying the meaning of an unknown word. Studies comparing the effectiveness of various methods for learning
always come up with the result that an L1 translation is the most effective (Laufer and Shmueli 1997). This is
probably because L1 translations are usually clear, short and familiar –qualities which are very important in effective
definitions (McKeown, 1993). When the L1 translation is combined with the word cards, learners have a very
effective strategy to speed up their vocabulary growth (Nation, 2001). This finding also receives some support from
studies of dictionary use. To effectively use a monolingual dictionary, learners need to have a large enough
vocabulary storage (at least 2000 words) and need to be able to interpret definitions, which are much more difficult
than L1 synonyms. That is why surveys of dictionary preference (Laufer and Kimmel, 1997; Atkins and Varantola,
1997) and learner use (Baxter, 1980) show that learners strongly prefer bilingual or bilingualized dictionaries.
Despite the amount of studies carried out all over the world on the L1 use in the second language and FL
classrooms, to our best knowledge, the number of studies investigating this issue in Turkey is very limited. Çelik
(2006) indicates that especially the English teachers who work for the state high schools of the Ministry of National
Education are not expected to use the foreign language efficiently enough; therefore, their use of the L1 in their
courses is inevitable. The teachers‘ inefficiency in the FL results from the ineffective use of the FL during their
education processes in the Teacher Training Institutions. Candidate teachers may prefer not to speak or to speak in
Turkish during their education (Bekleyen, 2004). ġad (2009) reported that there are four reasons for the candidate
teachers not to use FL in their lessons. These are: (1) course content or the practice of teaching; (2) not having a
collaborative or an encouraging classroom atmosphere (anxiety level of the teachers increased in such atmospheres);
(3) not being proficient enough in vocabulary and pronunciation, and (4) not having some standard norms on the use
of the FL in the lessons. According to a recent research by ġevik (2007), most of the teachers and students are not
against mother tongue, and mother tongue contributes to language learning towards various aims and at different
levels.
Inspired by the studies on the use of L1 use in FL classrooms, we decided to carry out a study on the use of
the native language in the Turkish context, where English is taught as a foreign language and where the learners and
most of the teachers share one common L1. We aimed to analyze the L1 use of the Turkish teachers in their FL
classrooms and their rationales for this.
Method of the Study
A questionnaire was devised to gain insight into how teachers evaluated their perception of the use of the
first language of the EFL learners in the classroom, from the vantage point of their daily practice. In the first four
questions, we tried to get some demographic information about the teachers. The questions inquired their age, year
of experience in teaching, their educational background, and their affiliation. The fifth question aimed at getting
some information about whether the teachers allow the learners to use their L1 in the classroom. It was an openended question so that they could explain their reasons. The purpose of the sixth question was to get some
information on the teachers‘ L1 use in the classroom. It was also an open-ended question which enabled them to
explain their rationale for that. This questionnaire was sent out to nearly 110 teachers throughout Turkey, and
exactly 72 were returned. However, only 57 of them were taken to final evaluation since some of them lacked the
information required. Data was analyzed using SPSS package program (Version 15.0). Descriptive statistics was
used to analyze the demographic information of the participants. The responses given for the last two questions were
classified under various subheadings and were given as frequencies and percentages.
Findings and Discussion
Demographic information about the participants
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Demographic information gathered via a questionnaire revealed that 17 of the teachers were males; 44 of
them were females. They have been teaching for a mean of 10.80±6.5 years. The information about their age,
education levels and affiliation is given in Table 1.
Age
Education
Affiliation
Table 1: Demographic information of the participants
n= 57
f
%
21-25 years
5
8.8
26-30 years
19
33.3
31-35 years
12
21.1
over the age of 36
21
36.8
Bachelor‘s degree
Master‘s degree
PhD
Primary school (State)
Primary School (Private)
University (State)
University (Private)
22
20
15
2
2
35
18
38.6
35.1
26.3
3.5
3.5
61.4
31.6
Attitudes of teachers towards L1 use of the learners in the class
Among the six questions asked there were two which are of particular relevance here. One elicited whether
respondents allowed the learners to use the first language in the classroom or they preferred to prevent the learners
from using it. Nearly half (f= 48; 84.2%) went for the first option, i.e. that the main emphasis had been on allowing
the L1 use in the classroom, while 15.2% said they do not allow L1 use during the lessons.
The other question elicited whether respondents, as teachers, use the first language in the classroom or they
prefer to follow the English only in the class. According to the results, 79% (f= 45) believed that using the first
language of the learners would be beneficial, while 21.1% (f= 12) said that the reverse was true.
Why do teachers allow their learners to use L1 in the class?
The first research question inquired the reasons of the teachers for allowing or forbidding the use of the L1
in English classrooms. The answers given to this question were analyzed descriptively and given as frequencies and
percentages. The reasons of the teachers who allowed the learners‘ L1 use were categorized under 16 headings
(Table 2).
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Table 2: Reasons of the teachers to allow learners to use the L1
Items
f
%
Level and interest of the learners
30
23.07
To explain something difficult and unclear and to ask questions
25
19.23
about some parts/points they haven‘t understood
To ease the burden of the learners and to lower anxiety
10
7.70
It depends on the type of the lesson
9
6.92
For vocabulary learning
9
6.92
It saves time
8
6.15
To avoid misunderstanding
6
4.61
To prevent misunderstandings
5
3.84
To ensure comprehensible input
5
3.84
Only at the beginning of the school
4
3.07
Forcing to use FL all the time can lead to negative attitude
4
3.07
To have them provide connections between L1 and FL
3
2.30
They are not confident enough to use FL
3
2.30
To give feedback on the activities
3
2.30
They lack motivation to use FL in and outside the classroom
3
2.30
While preparing for the tasks
3
2.30
TOTAL
130
100
The vast majority of teachers of English in Turkey are non-native speakers. It might be eminently useful to
have a closer look at those who allow the first language of the learners to be used in the classroom. Here are some
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comments from teachers who believe that sharing their students‘ L1 makes the learners feel relaxed and more
confident. ―Using L1 in the classroom lowers the anxiety level of the learners and the learners feel more relaxed‖
(7.70%; f= 10); ―They can explain something unclear and difficult, and they can also easily ask questions about
some parts/points they haven‘t understood‖ (19.23%; f= 25); ― Some respondents describe the shared L1 as strength:
―Using L1 helps the learners avoid misunderstandings‖ (3.84%; f= 5); ―It is very useful especially for vocabulary
learning‖ (6.92%; f= 9); ―It just saves time; the learners easily express themselves‖ (6.15%; f= 8). And several make
reference to the level and interest of the learners: ―It depends on the learners‘ level; I usually allow the low level or
beginners to use their L1, but as their level improves I restrict its use‖ (23.07%; f= 30); others state that they allow
the learners to use L1 because they lack motivation and confidence to use FL in and outside the classroom: ―Most
learners believe that they can‘t speak English, and they also believe that they will never have an opportunity or a
necessity to use the FL outside the classroom. They either use L1 or keep quiet‖ (2.30%; f= 3). Quite many teachers
believe that allowing the use of L1 is dependent on the type of the lesson: ―I don‘t allow them to use their L1 during
skill based activities, especially during speaking activities; however, they can use L1 during grammar and
vocabulary teaching sessions‖ (6.92%; f= 9). Some also find it useful while the learners prepare for some tasks
(2.30%; f= 3).
Why do not the teachers allow the learners to use L1 in the classroom?
Analysis of our data revealed that the majority of the teachers believed that using the first language of the
learners would be beneficial; however, 15.2% said that they would not allow L1 usage in their classes. The teachers
who indicated that they did not allow their learners to use the L1 in the classes justified themselves under six main
points. They are given in Table 3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Table 3: Reasons of the teachers not to allow learners to use the L1
Items
f
To have them practice FL
7
To increase FL development
5
To prevent L1 use from being a bad habit.
4
They are learning English so they have to use it.
4
To master all skills
4
To prevent misbehavior in the classroom
5
TOTAL
29
%
24.13
17.25
13.79
13.79
13.79
17.25
100
Of the 12 teachers, 7 believed that the learners do not have any other opportunities for practicing the FL
than the classroom; therefore those teachers wanted to provide their learners with opportunities so that they can use
the FL as much as possible (24.13). 17.25% of the teachers believed that using FL in the classroom can increase FL
development; if they let the learners use their L1, they would never improve themselves in the target language. Some
teachers also stated that allowing L1 use in the classroom leads to misbehavior (17.25%; f= 5). They also justified
themselves stating that encouraging the FL use may prevent the learners from having a bad habit of using the L1 use
whenever they find themselves in a difficult situation; in order to master all skills FL use is required; they are there
to learn English; therefore they have to use it (13.79%; f= 4 for each)
Why do teachers use L1 in the classroom?
In Turkey, most teachers of English are non-native speakers. Teachers and learners share the same
language, so there are homogenous classrooms in terms of languages shared. Some teachers make use of this
situation and state clearly that they find using the L1 in the classroom beneficial. The analysis of our data enabled us
to classify the reasons of the teachers to use the L1 in the classroom under 13 items (Table 4).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5..
6.
7.
8.
Table 4: Reasons of the teachers to use the L1
Items
f
To explain new or difficult grammar structures
26
Depending on the learners‘ language levels
16
To teach complicated or abstract vocabulary
12
To make them relaxed and confident
10
To explain how to write something (in writing courses)
7
Depending on the needs of the learners
7
To save time
6
To establish a good learning atmosphere
6
%
23.21
14.28
10.71
8.92
6.25
6.25
5.35
5.35
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9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
To check comprehension
To explain long and complicated instructions
To give feedback
To teach some sub-skills or strategies
To express some culture-based terms
TOTAL
6
5
4
4
3
112
5.35
4.46
3.57
3.57
2.67
100
Many teachers indicated that they use the L1 to explain new or difficult grammatical patterns (23.21%; f=
26). The other important thing they stated was the level of the students (14.28%; f= 16). They said that especially
with the low level students they needed to make explanations in the L1. However, as the level of the learners gets
better, they prefer to use L2 in most of the contexts. Vocabulary teaching, especially teaching abstract words also
necessitated the use of the L1 (10.71%; f= 12). Some teachers believed that using students‘ mother tongue makes
them relaxed and confident as they understand much better (8.92%; f= 10). In addition, using the L1 creates a good
learning atmosphere. Some teachers used L1 to tell some jokes or just to have an informal chat with the learners
(5.35%; f= 6). The other reasons were found related to the skills to be taught (e.g. writing), needs of the learners,
comprehension check to avoid ambiguity and confusion, and saving time.
Why do not teachers use L1 in the classroom?
Despite being in the minority, some teachers stated that they never use the L1 in their classes (21.1%; Table
5)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Table 5: Reasons of the teachers not to use the L1
Items
f
To make learners hear correct pronunciation
10
To provide massive amount of meaningful input
8
To enhance learners‘ thinking skills and communicative competence 4
In speaking classes
4
TOTAL
26
%
38.46
30.76
15.39
15.39
100
Majority of those teachers believed that they are the main sources of correct pronunciation (38.46; f= 8) and
comprehensible input (30.76%; f= 8) in the classroom. They also stated that using FL in the classroom would
enhance the learners‘ thinking skills and communicative competence (15.39; f= 4). For them, especially in skill
classrooms, the medium of instruction should be English (15.39%; f= 4).
Conclusions and Recommendations
The results of the present study on the use of the mother tongue in Turkish EFL contexts revealed many
similarities to the previous research. Similar to the previous research findings (Anton and DiCamilla, 1998; Brooks
and Donato, 1994; Schweers, 1999; Storch and Wigglesworth, 2003; Swain and Lapkin, 2000; Tang, 2002), majority
of the Turkish teachers of English participated in this study stated that they found the use of the L1 beneficial. Some
discrepancies exist and they can be explained with the level of the learners those teachers deal with and the goals of
the institutions they work in. In Turkey, there are two types of universities: state and private. In most of the private
universities the medium of instruction is English. Therefore, the learners should reach at a certain level before their
sophomore years. Teachers working in these institutions should keep the L2 use at a maximum level. Similarly, in
private primary and high schools, one of the most important objectives is to get the learner at a desired level in the
L2. However, in most of the state universities and nearly all the state primary and high schools this is not the case.
As Çelik (2006) indicated, the FL level of the English teachers working for the Ministry of National Education is not
efficient enough to enable them to use the FL as the medium of instruction. As they cannot use the FL effectively,
they have to allow the learners to use their L1 during the courses. According to Bekleyen (2004), even the candidate
teachers prefer to use their L1 during their education and in his study, ġad (2009) tried to clarify the reasons for L1
preferences of these teachers-to-be. Considering the previous research findings, we may conclude that our study
revealed similar results with the previous research either conducted in different countries or in Turkey.
Our results also draw some parallels with the previous research in terms of the reasons why teachers find
the L1 use in the classroom beneficial. According to the studies conducted before, one of the most effective ways of
teaching vocabulary is the translation of the words since they provide clear, direct and more concrete information
about the meaning (Laufer and Shmueli 1997; McKeown 1993). A great number of teachers in our study indicated
that they use and allow the use of L1 especially during vocabulary teaching and learning.
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This study also revealed that the L1 in the Turkish schools plays a supportive role rather than be the
medium of instruction because a large number of teachers stated that they allowed its use and they used it only with
the low level students (i.e. with beginners or elementary level learners). As the learners improve in the process,
teachers stated that they reduced the amount used or they restricted it to a minimum. They also stated that they use
the L1 depending on the type of the lesson and the activity. Even if the medium of instruction of the majority of the
learners will not be in English in the future, the efforts of the English teachers should be appreciated.
Our results also confirm the findings of Auerbuch (1993). Although her study was conducted in an ESL
setting, it is quite pleasing to see quite similar reasons of the Turkish teachers in their L1 using and allowing their
learners‘ L1 use. Like her identification of the L1 use, the teachers participated in this study stated that they use the
L1 to explain complicated grammar rules, difficult and abstract words; long and complicated instructions of the
activities and games, to give feedback, and to check comprehension.
Unlike the participants in Tang‘s study (2002), majority of the Turkish students are not motivated enough to
learn and to become proficient in English. According to the comments given by the teachers participating in this
study, a vast amount of learners believe that they will not use English in their future careers; they will not find
opportunities to use English outside the classroom; and most of them lack motivation and confidence to
communicate with a foreigner in English. Therefore, most of the learners consider English as a curricular requisite
and their main purpose is to get an average grade that will enable them to pass the course.
A close look at the research in the field of the L1 use in EFL and ESL classrooms show that limited and
judicious use of the mother tongue in the English classrooms can facilitate the teaching and learning processes. Thus,
the role of the L1 should not be over emphasized. We agree that English should be the main instrument in the
classroom communication. However, we suggest that second language learning can be facilitated by raising
awareness to the similarities and differences between the L1 and FL. Another suggestion can be extended to the
teachers who would like to overcome the obstacles of the learners while using the FL. If they choose manageable
tasks within the learners‘ proficiency level, use staged and graded tasks, inform learners of the learning goals of each
task, discuss the value of using the FL in class, and use non-threatening tasks, L1 use may be kept to a minimum; FL
use might be increased.
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References
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Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexaming English only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 9–32.
Baxter, J. (1980). The dictionary and vocabulary behaviour: a single word or a handful? TESOL Quarterly, 14, 325336.
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49-66.
Brooks, F. B., & Donato, R. (1994). Vygotskyan approaches to understanding foreign language learner discourse
during communicative tasks. Hispania, 77, 262-274.
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yônelik kısa bir araĢtırma. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 14, 371-376.
Dôrnyei, Z. & Kormos, J. (1998). Problem-solving mechanisms in L2 communication: A psycholinguistic
perspective. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 349–385.
Knight, T. (1996). Learning vocabulary through shared speaking tasks. The Language Teacher, 20, 24-29.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003). Beyond methods: Macrostrategies for language teaching, London: Yale University
Press.
Laufer, B., & Shmueli, K. (1997). Memorizing new words: Does teaching have anything to do with it? RELC
Journal, 28, 89-108.
McKeown, M.G. (1993). Creating effective definitions for young word learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 28,
17-31.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Storch, N., & Wigglesworth, G. (2003). Is there a role for the use of the L1 in an L2 setting? TESOL Quarterly, 37,
760-770.
Nunan, D., & Lamb, C. (1996). The self-directed teacher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schweers, W. Jr. (1999). Using L1 in the L2 classroom. English Teaching Forum, 37, 6–9.
Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2000). Task-based second language learning: The uses of the first language. Language
Teaching Research, 4, 251-274.
ġad, S. N. (2009). Aday Ġngilizce Öğretmenlerinin Alan Derslerinde Ġngilizce KonuĢmama Nedenleri: Nitel Bir
ÇalıĢma, XVIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kurultayı, 1-3 Ekim 2009, Ege Üniversitesi, Ġzmir.
ġevik, M. (2007). The place of mother tongue in foreign language classes. Ankara University, Journal of Faculty of
Educational Sciences, 40, 99-119.
Tang, J. (2002). Using L1 in the EFL classroom. English Teaching Forum, 40, 36-43.
Wood, D., Bruner, J., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 17, 89-100.
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The use of first language in the EFL classroom: A facilitating or debilitating device?
Author
Author
Solhi, Mehdi
Büyükyazı, Münevver
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Despite widespread use of only English in teaching EFL classes, the use of first language in EFL class has been a perennial topic of discussion in the field of language education. Most established L2 teaching methods discourage the use of L1 in class. However, some scholars oppose ―English Only‖ trend in language classes (Auerbach, 1993; and Kumaravadivelu, 2003). In a setting where the students share a common L1, first language can create a less threatening atmosphere. In this article, the non native speaker teachers‘ attitudes toward the use of the first language of the learners in the classroom were asked through a questionnaire. Further, an attempt was made to investigate whether non native speaker English teachers notice the use of the first language as a facilitating or a debilitating factor. This article argues that first language is one of the useful resources that students bring to the L2 classroom and can be used in a judicious fashion.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
The Use of IT Tools in Everyday Classes Where Foreign
Language is Taught
Meliha HANDZIC
International Burch University,
Faculty of Engineering
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
mhandzic@ibu.edu.ba
Merdţana OBRALIC
International Burch University,
Faculty of Economics
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
mobralic@ibu.edu.ba
Emir CICKUSIC
International Burch University,
Faculty of Economics
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
ecickusic@hotmail.com
Abstract. This paper aims to present the situation of using IT tools in everyday
classes where foreign language is taught. The research is empirical. The survey study
was conducted among students of a new private university in Bosnia and
Herzegovina. The questionnaire was applied to students from 17 to 25, male and
female students learning 2 foreign languages. The results of the study can be the
useful resource for future research and help better practical implementation of IT tools
in the class.
Keywords: IT tools, foreign language, user satisfaction: survey
1. Introduction
The world is in the midst of multidimensional transformation: technological, economic, social, cultural
and political. To succeed in such a world, organisations need to have better educated workforce. Thus, it is
important to prepare next generations of graduates to live and work in the new ''information age''. In response to
the growing demand for educated workforce, universities are replacing or complementing traditional methods of
teaching and learning with IT supported approaches.
The use of IT tools in tertiary education in developed countries is very high. IT tools are employed to
help students‘ learning process and to increase the quality of offered education. The use of IT tools may also
boost students‘ learning interests (Handzic and Chumkovski 2004, Handzic and Hoor, 2005). Lecturers can also
benefit from IT. By using sophisticated IT tools, they can better and more easily express themselves and add
more meaning to what they want to say (Shum et al. 2010).
In developing countries such as Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), the use of IT in teaching and learning at
universities is relatively low. However, through stable and evolutionary development and implementation, it may
be possible to achieve greater IT adoption in this country‘s education sector (Habul and Obralic 2009). The
purpose of this paper is to examine those factors that can explain and predict students‘ IT usage behaviour in
learning foreign languages at a new private university.
The paper is organized as follows. It starts with this section introducing the issue of IT tools usage in
everyday classes where foreign language is taught. Next, the paper presents relevant literature on information
technology adoption. Then, the paper proceeds with a discussion on research methodology. After that, the results
are examined and discussed. Finally, the main findings and their theoretical and practical contributions are
assessed and the ending conclusions are drawn.
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2. Literature Review
The review of previous research on IT adoption reveals the extensive use of three adoption theories. The
most widely used model is Davis‘ Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). This model assumes that an
individual‘s perceptions of IT usefulness and ease of use are two key beliefs that influence the person‘s intended
or actual IT use (Davis 1989). Another popular approach used to investigate factors that influence IT adoption is
Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). According to TRA, social norms held by
groups to which an individual belongs put additional pressure on the person to conform and thus influence
his/her intention regarding the use of IT. Yet another theory relevant for studying IT adoption is Roger‘s
Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT). This theory identifies a series of innovation characteristics (eg. relative
advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability), organizational characteristics (eg.
formalization, centralisation, openness, interconnectedness, slack and size) and adopter characteristics (eg.
familiarity and motivation) that are related to innovation adoption (Rogers 2003).
Furthemore, one can notice several similarities between constructs from Media Richness Theory (MRT)
by Daft and Lengel (1986) and those from TAM, TRA and/or IDT. For example, medium capacity employed by
MRT is similar to perceived relative advantage or usefulness. In addition, self-efficacy beliefs defined by
Compeau and Higgins (1995) are similar to perceived ease of use. Finally, system quality construct from the
DeLone and McLean IS Success Model (DeLone and McLean 1992, DeLone and McLean 2003) is comparable
with the innovation characteristics and its perceived usefulness.
From the review of the major adoption and related theories, it is evident that they are complementary
and if integrated could provide even stronger model than if each theory is used on its own. Therefore, this
research uses constructs from all the above theories to explore the factors that influence IT tools usage in
teaching and learning foreign languages in the University context.
3. Research Method
A survey study was conducted to explore the adoption of IT tools in a university setting and from the
students‘ point of view. The survey was chosen as a preferred research method due to timeliness, low cost and
convenience factors.
The survey questions were set to find out how participants perceive IT tools medium richness,
usefulness, self-efficacy, ease of use, social norms and their intentions to use IT to support their language study.
All questionnaire items used to measure these constructs were adapted from prior studies and had proven validity
and reliability. The questionnaire consisted of a mixture of closed and open-ended questions. Sixteen closed
questions were used to find out the extent of agreement on various statements and to ease the analysis and
synthesis of the results. The responses were captured on seven-point Likert scales with end points 1 — strongly
disagree and 7 — strongly agree. Four open-ended questions were used to acquire basic demographic
information (age, sex, language) and additional textual comments on any IT aspects of interest. The survey was
designed to allow anonymity so that the subjects could freely express their thoughts and feelings.
Subjects for this study were undergraduate students enrolled in two foreign language programs. A total
of 150 students participated in the current study. Survey forms were distributed to the participants during regular
classes by one of the authors. It took between 15 and 20 minutes to answer all survey questions. Then, the
participants‘ responses were collected, encoded, entered into the computer file and analyzed using Microsoft
Excel spreadsheet program. The results of the analyses performed are presented in the following section.
4. Results
Rating Scores
Mean respondent scores for six variables (usefulness, ease of use, intention to use, social norm, selfefficacy and media richness) were calculated by language (Turkish, English), gender (male, female) and age
(junior, 17-20, senior, 21-28). Then, t-tests were performed to examine any potential differences between
different subject groups. Summary results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Results of analyses for six variables by three subject groups
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Subject
groups
1.Turkish
Usefulness
Ease of
use
Intention
to use
Social
norm
Self
efficacy
Media
richness
5.73
4.95
5.73
5.73
5.66
5.56
2.English
5.21
Sig
P=0.017
4.63
Sig
P=0.069
4.70
Sig
P=0.001
5.39
Ns
P=0.136
5.16
Sig
P=0.041
5.05
Sig
0.014
5.45
4.82
5.17
5.53
5.36
5.32
5.40
Ns
P=0.818
4.65
Ns
P=0.382
5.12
Ns
P=0.897
5.44
Ns
P=0.706
5.42
Ns
P=0.761
5.13
Ns
P=0.416
difference
(t-test)
1.Female
2.Male
difference
(t-test)
1.Junior
5.23
4.74
4.96
5.46
5.29
5.23
2.Senior
5.69
Ns
P=0.899
4.80
Ns
P=0.413
5.39
Ns
P=0.897
5.57
Ns
P=0.612
5.49
Ns
P=0.618
5.32
Ns
P=0.920
difference
(t-test)
The results from Table 1 indicate significant differences in perceptions and behaviours between Turkish
and English language students, but no differences due to their gender or age groups.
English subjects had significantly worse opinions about the richness of IT as a medium of instruction
and learning than Turkish subjects (5.56 vs. 5.05). Accordingly, they had significantly lower perceptions of IT
usefulness (5.21 vs. 5.73) in studying foreign languages than their Turkish counterparts.
Furthermore, English subjects rated their IT self-efficacy and subsequent ease of use of IT significantly
poorer compared to Turkish subjects. The mean scores of English subjects were significantly smaller than those
of Turkish subjects for both self-efficacy (5.16 vs. 5.66) and ease of use (4.63 vs. 4.95).
Consequently, English subjects expressed significantly lesser intention to use IT to support their
language study than Turkish subjects (4.70 vs. 5.73). This was evident despite similar acknowledgement by both
English and Turkish subjects of the current social norm in favour of using IT in the process of studying foreign
languages (5.39 vs. 5.73).
Textual Comments
To investigate deeper the potential reasons behind differences in scores between English and Turkish
subjects, content analysis of textual comments was done in both language groups. The analysis revealed that all
comments made by Turkish subjects were favourable, while those made by English subjects were mixed.
On a positive side, there was general recognition of the necessity, importance and potential of IT in
supporting teaching and learning of foreign languages. On the other side, there was a clear and loud request by
English subjects to explain IT subject matter in a better and more understandable manner, as well as include
more advanced IT topics in addition to basic ones.
Such comments suggest that the lack of necessary advanced IT knowledge and skills may be the main
barrier to greater intentions to use IT among English subjects. This implies that these students need to be
exposed to more sophisticated learning media and gain more practice in using IT in order to form more
favourable opinions of its usefulness and ease of use, and subsequently change mind about their usage intentions.
5. Discussion
Main Findings
Consistent with previous research on IT adoption, lower perceptions of IT usefulness and ease of use
were found to lead to lesser intentions to use IT in language study. The self-reported lack of advanced IT
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knowledge and skills among English subjects was found to be the main reason for poorer perceptions of IT
richness and usefulness, as well as self-efficacy and ease of use, when compared to their Turkish counterparts.
The findings indicate that both IT usefulness and ease of use are important to students .
Implications
The study has significant implications for theory and practice. The findings showed the influence of
perceived IT richness and thus usefulness and perceived IT self-efficacy and thus ease of use on students‘
intentions to use IT in their study of foreign languages. Further findings revealed that the lack of advanced
knowledge and skills was the major barrier to IT adoption in learning. In short, the study provided useful insights
into IT adoption process in higher education.
Based on the study findings, the community of foreign language students and teachers can devise
strategies to promote greater application of state of art IT applications; produce better plans to service different
members of language teaching and learning community; apply IT applications and training that better meet
students‘ and teachers‘ needs and ensure that they get necessary IT skills.
Limitations and Future Research
Like all research, this study has certain limitations. Thus, sample of participating students is relatively
small and may not be representative of general student population. Constructs in the study were measured
subjectively and from the students‘ point of view. Lecturers may have different views. All subjects were from
the same newly established private institution. Consequently, there may be differences between private and
public, new and long-established institutions. So, in future research, attention should be given to collect more
representative data, include different types of users, and delineate the concerns of public and private universities,
IT adopters and non-adopters.
6. Conclusions
This study examined students‘ perceptions and behaviours regarding various aspects of IT support in
studying foreign languages at the university level. The findings showed that the adoption of IT (i.e. intention to
use IT) in this context was contingent upon critical factors such as advanced IT knowledge and skills as reflected
in perceptions of IT media richness, usefulness, self-efficacy and ease of use. The findings also showed that
social norms played little role in students‘ decisions to adopt. These findings make important contributions to
theory and practice by providing empirical evidence of critical IT adoption factors, and suggesting how they can
be used to improve foreign language study in practice. Finally, these findings provide a basis for further research
that would address current limitations and extend research to other adoption issues in varying tasks, contexts and
participants.
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References
Ajzen, I., and M. Fishbein (1980) Understanding attitudes and predicting social behaviour (p. 278). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Compeau, D.R. and C.A. Higgins (1995) ―Computer self-efficacy: development of a measure and initial test‖,
MIS Quarterly, (19)2, pp.189–211.
Daft, R.L and R.H. Lengel (1986) ―Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness and Structural
Design‖, Management Science, (32)5, pp.554–571.
Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information
Technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319-340.
DeLone WH and McLean ER (1992) Information systems success: The quest for the dependant variable.
Information Systems Research 3(1), 60-95.
DeLone WH and McLean ER (2003) The delone and mclean model of information systems success: A ten-year
update. Journal of Management Information Systems 19(4), 9-30.
Habul A. and Obralic M. (2009), Development of IT in Education in Bosnia and Herzegovina, example: Eaculty
of Economics, University of Sarajevo
Handzic M. and Hoor H.J. (2005), ―Corporate E-learning: An Empirical Evaluation‖, Journal of Information and
Knowledge Management, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 229-235
Handzic, M and A Chumkovski (2004). e-Learning portal evaluation. In Proceedings of the European
Conference on Knowledge Management (ECKM 2004), pp. 425–432. Paris, 30 September–1 October.
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of Innovations. 5th Edition. The Free Press, New York.
Shum PS, Land L, Dick G. and Jamieson R. (2010), 40P. Online Lecturing: Students‘ want it, but what about the
lecturers?
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Disagree
Slightly disagree
Not sure
Slightly agree
Agree
Strongly agree
I believe the use of the IT tools is helpful for my learning foreign
language
The quality of students‘ learning will be improved by using the IT tools
I believe the IT tools will boost students‘ learning interests
Learning to operate the IT tools should be easy for me
It is easy for me to become skilful in using the IT tools
I think IT tools will be difficult to operate
I intend to use the IT tools when it becomes available
Our lectures would support the use of the IT tools while teaching
I believe I could use the IT tools if I had the help for reference
I believe I could use the IT tools if someone showed me how to use it first
I believe I could use the IT tools if I had used a similar package previously
If the lecturers feel very strongly about something (positively or
negatively), the IT tools allows them to show their feelings.
The IT tools allow the lecturer to add meaning to what they want to say by
using as many cues (body language, voice, tone, etc) as possible.
The IT tools allow the lecturer to be flexible with the way
language (verbal, non-verbal and/or graphics) is used in order to increase
understanding
Nowadays use of IT in all sectors is inevitable
I believe that most whole research is done with usage of IT
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Statement
Strongly disagree
Appendix A – Survey Questions
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Title
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The Use of IT Tools in Everyday Classes Where Foreign Language is Taught
Author
Author
HANDZIC, Meliha
OBRALIĆ, Merdžana
CICKUSIC, Emir
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This paper aims to present the situation of using IT tools in everyday classes where foreign language is taught. The research is empirical. The survey study was conducted among students of a new private university in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The questionnaire was applied to students from 17 to 25, male and female students learning 2 foreign languages. The results of the study can be the useful resource for future research and help better practical implementation of IT tools in the class.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a1c961ef832f6c327239148208e117f.pdf
374ad04437a1d3610c150cc97ef8709c
PDF Text
Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
The Use of Literature in Teaching English Grammatical Structures as well
as Some Linguistic Components
Assist.Prof.Dr.Gencer ELKILIÇ
Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey
gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com
Research Assist.GülĢen ERĠġEN
Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey
gulsenerisen@hotmail.com
Assist.Prof.Dr.Ahmet KAYINTU
Bingôl University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Bingôl, Turkey
akayintu@hotmail.com
Intructor Harun KARACA
Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey
hkaraca@hotmail.com
Abstract: Literature is one of the most important resources supporting the grammatical
structure of English as a Foreign Language/as a Second Language ( EFL/ESL) learners as
well as the linguistic components of English language, and thus literature help students
improve their English and at the same time reach communicative competence. Therefore,
the aim of this study is to show how literature can be used effectively for students to
improve their English and how it can support the grammatical structure of EFL/ ESL
learners as well as linguistic components of English language. Throughout the study,
previous research and its relationship with present study has been given in detail.
Key Words: Literature, grammatical Structure, linguistic, morphology, phonology,
tenses, syntax
INTRODUCTION
There has been a debate on different approaches for FL teaching throughout the history of language
teaching. These different approaches have not been the same as a result of change in theories and methods used
in FL teaching especially for the objectives of language teaching (Celce & Murcia, 2001). Furthermore, language
teachers have been forced to develop and use new and different methods in the process of language teaching to
be effective in laguage teaching..
Literature is, undoubtly, one of the main resources used as an effective means of language teaching.
Particularly, literature was regarded as the most important part of foreign or second language teaching during the
period of Grammar Translation Method. The purpose of this method was to enable language learners to read the
classical texts successfully through the method of translation (Hall, 2005). This method helped language learners
to learn the target language through translation of sentences from target language into the learners‘ first
language and from the first language of learners into the target language. Students had a chance to practice on
grammatical rules and vocabulary. Language teachers expected from their students to read and translate literary
texts because these texts were assumed to represent ―models of good writing and illustrations of the grammatical
rules of the language (Duff & Maley, 1990:3).
On the other hand, with the emergence of other methods and approaches such as Audio-Lingual
Method, Silent Way, Desuggestopedia and the Communicative Approach, literature lost its prestige. For
example communicative approach focused on the language activities and effective communication. Hall
explained the communicative method as ―learners negotiating meaning for themselves, learning by doing things
with language in authentic contexts‖ (2005: 51). During communicative period, effective communication was
important but literature was ignored and it lost its function in the field of language learning and teaching. But
there was a problem about the function of Communicative approach. The main aim was to get and convey the
correct message but not to be careful about the correct grammar or pronunciation.
In the early 1980s, the attitude toward the use of literature in language teaching seemed more
encouraging. Some language scholars and researchers such as Duff and Maley (1991), Collie and Slater (1987),
Gower and Pearson (1986), Hill (1986), Brumfit and Carter (1986), Carter and Long (1991) and Lazar (1993)
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explored that literature was neglected as a language learning material. Gilroy and Parkinson (1997), point out
that literature as a language learning material ―never went away and has always been a large part of EFL for
many learners‖ (p. 213).
In addition, many language scholars stress that the language of everyday communication is significant
in Communicative approach and the language of literature has no real linguistic difference. Zyngier (1994) as a
language scholar also thought that ―language of literary texts was not much different from the language of
everyday communication‖ (p.3). Carter and Nash (1990) also claimed that communicative language and literary
language have no real difference.
Problem
In order to motivate learners, EFL/ESL teachers are always in a challange in the process of teaching
English. Gozales (1998) points out that the important factors such as the lack of motivation of students, lack of
effectiveness in the teaching resources and methodology, limited time and large classes are the main reasons of
failure in language teaching.
In this sense, literature is accepted as one of the most effective resource in FL teaching. Most language
teachers prefer literary texts as effective materials while some language teachers hesitate to use literary texts in
their classroom (Johnson,1999). For example Lazar (1990) states that not only the language teachers are
reluctant to use literary texts in their language classrooms, but students are hesitant as well. The use of literature
in the process of EFL/ESL teaching requires background language of the issues presented in these literary texts,
so most of the language teachers remain sceptical and lack interest in using literature in their English lessons.
Purpose of the Study
This paper aims to show the effective role of literature as a resource supporting the grammatical
structure and liguistic components of English language. Furthermore, this paper aims at emphasizing the place of
literature as a means of teaching the different aspects of grammatical structures and certain linguistic categories
such as prepositions, tenses, and morphological, phonological, syntaxical structures of English.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Literature is regarded as a means of reflecting the different aspect of people‘s life. It is undoubtly
certain that many linguistics, critics, and authors have been in conflict over what literature is.
John McRae (1994) defines the literature in a different way by distinguishing ‗the capital L‘ and ‗small
l‘. Literature with a capital L represents the classical texts e.g. Marlow, Shakespeare, Dickens… and literature
with a small l represents the products of popular fiction e.g. ballads, fables, elegies, lyrics…
Basnett and Grundy (1993) explain that literary texts are cultural documents and reflect different
aspects of society and provide deeper understanding of a country or countries.
On the other hand, we cannot seperate literature from art. Hoggart (1964) stresses that ―it can never be
aesthetically ‗pure‘ or abstractly comtemplative. There can be no such thing as ‗abstract literature‘ as there is
such as thing as abstract painting. By its nature –because its medium, language, is used by almost everybody in
all sorts of everyday situations; and because it tries both to say and to be – literature is an art which invites
impurities‖ (p.34).
According to Collie and Slater (1987:3-6), in the language classes literature provides valuable authentic
material, developes personal involvement and help contribute the readers‘ both cultural and language
enrichment.
Reasons of Using Literary Texts and Extracts in Foreign Language Teaching
There are many good reasons for using literary texts and extracts as materials in foreign language
teaching. According to McKay (1982) and Widdowson (1984), literature is used to develop linguistic
knowledge both on usage and use level. Similarly, Povey states that ―literature will extend linguistic knowledge
by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and complex and exact syntax (1972: 187).
Parkinson and Thomas (2000) also state that literature provide learners to see a model of good writing.
Literary texts and extracts also offer learners to practice language skills- in addition to exemplifying grammatical
structures and presenting a new vocabulary. Most of the present-day literary texts assume that literature can
provide a basis for extending language usage. They mainly focus on the grammatical points that are salient in the
text (Fassler and Lay, 1979).
Another reason of using literature is about its motivating affect on learners. Collie and Slater (1987)
stress the function of literature as an exhibition of real life language. And so, the real life situations, language
and relations of people are motivating factors for the learners.
Furthermore, literature helps learners to understand the different cultures and develop tolerance and
awareness of difference. Marshall (1979: 333), in using literature with Puerto Rican students, found that as she
worked to help students overcome the difficulties of the text, her own appreciation of the text was clarified and
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her respect for the students‘ own cultural framework enhanced. Marshall‘s experience verifies that literature
promotes a greater tolerance for cultural differences for both teacher and the student.
Another reason of using literature is that it helps learners to use their imagination and lead them to
develop their own creativity. The learners try to find out what happens as events and share different or similar
emotion through literary text. Literature forms interaction between learner and literary text. Rich literary texts
can convey multiple meaning, and cause discussions and reflection of different feelings and opinions. This can
be useful for the learners in the process of language learning.
The Use of Literary Texts and Extracts in Foreign Language Teaching
Regarding of the crucial part of literature in maintaining the interest of the students, teachers exploit
literary texts in a large number of ways in the classroom. Using the extracts from short stories novels, dramas
and poems helps maintain the interest of the students in the process of language learning. Pulverness (2003)
advises language teachers to maximise the use of literature in the classroom. For him, firstly, language teachers
should introduce the theme of the text, and then necessary vocabulary items and use prediction tasks to arouse
the curiosity of the students. Secondly, language teacher should minimize the text so as not to disturb the
students‘ reading. Thirdly, language teacher should draw attention to grammar and linguistic structures used by
the author. Finally, s/he should encourage students to find creative views and invite them to modify, extend or
add to a text.
Therefore, it is essential that language teachers bring the literature into language classroom especially
for teaching structures of grammar, morphology, phonology and syntax of the target language, using their own
imagination and developing the own creativity of the students.
Using short stories
Using short story as a material will be a useful technique for language teachers not only to provide
various rules of grammar, syntax and phonology but also to improve the students‘ creativity. As all known, short
story as a genre is always simple and short. Therefore, It will not distress the students and lead to understand the
theme easier. According to Arıoğul (2001), short story used as amaterial in ESL\ EFL cirriculum offers these
benefits: (a) provides more creative, encrypt, challenging texts that require personal exploration supported with
prior knowledge for advanced level readers, (b) promotes critical thinking skills, (c) makes the students‘ reading
task easier due to being simple and short when compared with other literary genres, (d) facilities teaching a
foreign culture (i.e. serves as a valuable instrument in attaining cultural knowledge of the selected
community…(pp 11-18). Furthermore, short story makes contribution to the development of cognitive analytical
abilities by bringing the whole self to bear on a compressed account of a situation in a single place and moment
(Sage, 1987: 43).
A teacher can follow up these activities while using short stories in his\her lesson :
want students to predict what will happen next, or what happened just before.
want students to select familiar structures of grammar, morphology, syntax.
ask students to choose unknown words and to try to guess the meaning of them before looking at
dictionary.
want them to write a background character description of one of the characters.
ask students to imagine they are in the same story as a character and ask whether they have different
reaction against the events in the story.
In brief, using short story give a chance to raise the students‘ awareness towards the target language and culture,
and become familiar with different structures of grammar, morphology, phonology and syntax of the target
language.
Using poems
The advantages of including poetry in teaching a foreign language can be beneficial for the students to
see different uses of language in relation to vocabulary, syntax, morphology and grammar structures (Lazar,
1993:15). The activities about the use of poetry as a material in ESL\EFL cirriculum have been developed and
tested by many experienced language teachers in their classrooms around the world (Bassnett&Grundy,
McRae&Boardman, McRae&Pantaleoni, Maley&Moulding, Lazar, Maley&Duff, Collie&Slater, and Gower).
Arnold (1999) stated that using poetry give a chance to exercise freely students‘ imaginative and cognitive
ability, while working with texts creatively, subjectively, and collaborately, is very invaluable to enable them to
improve their overall language and discourse competence.
A teacher can follow up these activities while using poems in his\her lesson :
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ask students to check their pronunciation while they are reading the poem loudly to each other and then
to do the same thing for the whole class reading in chorus.
ask students to rewrite the poem using the same structures but not in the same meaning.
ask students to predict the possible story behind the poem.
give an opportunity to discuss on issues the poem.
These ideas can be beneficial for students to be familiar with different structures of grammar, vocabulary and
they can undoubtly be useful for their pronunciation. Moreover, students have a chance to exercise freely their
imaginative ability and to discover their iner world.
Along with the above mentioned benefits, poetry comprises so many cultural elements-allusions, vocabulary,
idioms, tone that are not easy to translate into another language ( Sage, 1987: 12-13).
Using plays
As well known, ESL\ EFL learning becomes internalized as a direct relation of the learners to the real
situations and specific purpose of communication for the learners. Through the use of drama in foreign language
teaching, students learn about the daily expressions of the target language and have the chance to use both
receptive and productive skills. Lenore (1993) explains that using drama in ESL\ EFL classrooms (a) promotes
language development, (b) develops both critical thinking and listening skills, (c) stimulates the imagination, (d)
reinforces positive self concept, (e) fosters self respect and group cooperation.
A teacher can follow up these activities while using dramas in his\her lesson :
ask students to prepare a play extemporarily in company with their friends.
ask students to read out the dialogue but to give the characters special accents. It will be useful for them
to acquire different aspects of pronunciation.
ask them to read out dialogues loud and listen other friends‘ dialogues.
ask them to write a new version of the play using the daily expressions used frequently.
In sum, the use of plays is a very beneficial technique in today‘s ESL\ EFL classrooms. As it is a colourful
language learning technique, it is also a motivating factor for the learners to promote their comprehension of
grammar structures in context and verbal or nonverbal aspects of the target language.
Using extracts from novels
The use of extracts from novels in ESL\ EFL classrooms is a beneficial resource for language teaching. Novel as
a literary genre not only reflects the daily lives of characters but it also provides to evaluate the events in
different points of view. Helton et al., (1998: 1-5) stressed that the extracts used in ESL\ EFL classrooms have an
important educational role as it (a) develops oral and written language skills, (b) helps students get information,
identify problems and events, (c) motivates them to learn different structures of the target language without
getting bored.
Through the use of extracts from novels, students build vocabulary and develop their reading skills. Like other
literary genres, novel is a very effective way of acquiring grammar structures, and morphological, phonological
and syntactical aspects of the target language.
Criteria for choosing literary texts and extracts in foreign language teaching
Choosing an appropriate text to be used in ESL\ EFL classrooms should be carefully considered. Because the
success in using literature in the classroom depends on the works selected for the lesson. First of all, language
teachers should not forget that the aim is not to teach literature but to teach language and they must be aware of
the difficulties of choosing the appropriate literary texts or extracts for students.
Lazar (1993: 56) listed some criteria according to the type of course and students, and other text-related factors
as follows:
Type of course
level of students
students‘reasons for learning English
kinds of English required
length\ intensity of course
Type of students
age
intellectual maturity
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emotional understanding
interests and hobbies
cultural background
linguistic proficiency
literary background
Other text-related factors
availability\ length of text
exploitability
fit with syllabus
To know about the cultural and literary background of the learners will help teacher to pay attention to the needs
and abilities of the learner group. In addition, knowing the linguistic proficiency of the learners and an
appropriate choice of text will provide the students with examples of many features of the written language, the
structure of sentences, different usages of structures and the different ways of connecting ideas. Similarly, the
use of imagination particularly while discussing literature ―enables the leamers to shift their attention beyond the
more mechanical aspects of the foreign language system‖ (Collie & Slater, 1987: 5). Apart from its motivating
affect, using literary texts and extracts can gain learners the awareness of different cultures. About this function,
Lazar states (1993) that ―although students may find it easier to respond personally to a text from within their
own culture, there is a strong arguement for saying that exposing students to literature from other cultures is an
enriching and exciting way of increasing their awareness of different values, beliefs, social structures, and so on‖
(p. 63). This situation is substantial to motivate students, but language teachers should not select culturally dense
texts so as not to prevent learners from understanding the essential meaning.
CONCLUSION
There is a known fact that literature used as a source for teaching ESL\ EFL in classroom has been in the key
position. In this context, the teacher has an important role in the process of teaching English.
First of all, while choosing the appropriate text for the students, the teacher should consider not only the
appreciation of the student but s\he also think about her/his own appreciation. Likewise, Povey (1979) states that
―literary text is one that the teacher himself or herself enjoys‖ (p. 164).
Secondly, the students‘ age, intellectual maturity, emotional understanding, motivation, needs, language
proficiency, cultural and literary background should be taken into account so as not to bore them using
inappropriate materials. At the same time, for many students literature has a duty of motivating them to learn
English. If the literary work has simple language and short in length, this will facilitate the comprehension of the
literary text and be a crucial factor for motivation of the students towards learning English.
Furthermore, literature provide students to look at the situations and events from a different aspect. Custodio and
Sutton (1998: 20) stated that ―literature can open horizons of possibility, allowing students to question, interpret,
connect and explore‖.
Apart from these benefits, ―the use of literature helps students, acquire a native-like competence in English,
express their ideas in English well, learn the features of modern English, learn how the English linguistic system
is used for communication, see how idiomatic expressions are used, speak clearly, precisely, and concisely, and
become more proficient in English, as well as become creative, critical and analytical learners‖ (Obediat,1997:
32).
There is no doubt that there are many good reasons for language teachers to use literature in ESL\ EFL
classrooms. But the selection of appropriate texts and extracts is, of course, very difficult. As long as to be
careful about some factors such as age, intellectual maturity, emotional understanding, motivation, needs,
language proficiency, cultural and literary background of the students, teaching a foreign language won‘t be so
complicated, contrarily it will be enjoyable and advantageous.
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REFERENCES
Arıoğul, S. (2001). ―The Teaching of Reading Through Short Stories in Advanced Classes‖. Unpublished M.A
Thesis. Ankara: Hacettepe University.
Arnold, J. (Ed.). (1999). Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Brumfit, C.J., & Carter, R.A. (1986). Literature and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Carter, R. & Long, M. (1991). Teaching Literature. Harlow: Longman.
Carter, R. A. & Nash, W. (1990). Seeing through language: a guide for styles of English writing, Oxford: Basil
Blackwell.
Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.). Boston, MA:
Heinle & Heinle.
Collie, J. & Slater,S. (1987). Literature in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Custodio, B. & Sutton, M.. (1998). ―Literature-Based ESL for Secondary School Students‖ in TESOL Journal.
Vol 7, No.5, p.p: 19-23.
Duff, A. & Maley, A. (1990). Literature. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Fassler, D. & Lay, N. (1979). Encounters with a new world. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Gilroy, M. & Parkinson, B. (1997). Teaching literature in a foreign language. Language Teaching, 29(4), 213225.
Gonzalez, D. (1998). A whole language project: Using story grammars in the EFL high schoolclassroom.
English Teaching Forum, 36,1, pp.14–15.
Gower, R., & Pearson, M. (1986). Reading Literature. London: Longman.
Hall, G. (2005). Literature in Language Education. New York: Palgrave.
Helton, C.A, Asamani, J. & Thomas, E.D. (1998). ―A ‗Novel‘ Approach to the Teaching of Reading‖. Tennessee
State: Tennessee State University, p.p: 1-5, Available Internet Address: http: // www.nade.net /
documents / SCP98 / SCP98.19.pdf.
Hill, J. (1986). Using Literature in Language Teaching. London: Macmillan.
Hoggart, R. (1957). The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working Class Life with Special Reference to Publications
and Entertainments. London: Chatto andWindus.
Johnson, K.E. (1999). Understanding language teaching: Reasoning in action. New York: Heinle & Heinle.
Lazar, G. (1990). ―Using novels in the language-learning classroom.‖ ELT 44/3: 204-214.
Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lenore, K.L. (1993). The Creative Classroom A Guide for Using Creative Drama in Classroom. U.S.A.:
Elsevier, Inc.
Maley, A. & Moulding, S. (1985). Poem into Poem. Cambridge UP.
Marshall, M. (1979). "Love and death in Eden: Teaching English literature to ESL students." TESOL Quarterly,
13, 331-337.
McKay, S. (1982). Literature in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 529-536.
McRae, J. & Boardman, R. (1984). Reading between the Lines Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres.
McRae, J. & Pantaleoni, L. (1994). Words on the Page, A Course in English Literature. Italy: Nuova Edizione,
La Nuova Italia & Oxford University Press.
Obediat, M. (1997). ―Language vs. Literature in English Departments in the Arab World‖ in English Teaching
Forum.
Parkinson, B. &Thomas, H.R. (2000). Teaching Literature in a Second Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Povey, J. (1972). "Literature in TESL programs: the language and the culture." In Allen, H. & R.Campbell
(Eds.), Teaching English as a Second Language. New York: McGraw Hill,.187-193).
Povey, J. (1979). "The teaching of literature in advanced ESL classes." In M. Celce-Murcia & L.McIntosh
(Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 162-186.
Pulverness, A. (2003). ‗Literature' in English Teaching Professional, October, Issue 29, Modern English
Publishing.
Sage, H. (1987). Incorporating Literature in ESL Instruction. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Widdowson, H. (1984). Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Zyngier, S. (1994). At the crossroads of language and literature: literary awareness, stylistics and the
acquisition of literary skills in an EFLit context. Thesis (PhD in Applied Linguistics) – School of
English, University of Birmingham, Birmingham.
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The Use of Literature in Teaching English Grammatical Structures as well as Some Linguistic Components
Author
Author
ELKILIÇ, Gencer
ERISEN, Gülşen
KAYINTU, Ahmet
KARACA, Harun
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Literature is one of the most important resources supporting the grammatical structure of English as a Foreign Language/as a Second Language ( EFL/ESL) learners as well as the linguistic components of English language, and thus literature help students improve their English and at the same time reach communicative competence. Therefore, the aim of this study is to show how literature can be used effectively for students to improve their English and how it can support the grammatical structure of EFL/ ESL learners as well as linguistic components of English language. Throughout the study, previous research and its relationship with present study has been given in detail.
Date
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2011-05
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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The Use of Non-verbal Communication in the classroom
Salah Ali Mohammad Ali
Tabuk University, KSA
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study:
Good communication is the foundation of successful relationships, both personally and
professionally. But we communicate with much more than words. In fact, research shows that the
majority of our communication is nonverbal. It includes our facial expressions, gestures, eye contact,
posture, and even the tone of our voice.
The field of nonverbal communications has grown rapidly over the last few decades, and it has
applications in business, media, international relations, education, and indeed any field which
significantly involves interpersonal and group dynamics. Certainly there is a need for more
psychological mindedness in all these realms.
More than three-quarters of communication is non-verbal. We all use no-verbal communication
every time we talk to someone throughout the tone of our voices, our body movements, and our
gestures to express our feelings and thoughts. Actions speak louder than words. Teachers would know
more about their students by watching their actions than by listening to what they say.
Problem of the Study:
Body language plays a great role in having a successful communication inside and outside the
classroom. However, it is worth noticing that through our experience, classes with low percentage of
using body language have difficulty in communication and thus have unsuccessful outcomes. Teachers
should know about the importance of body language and how it affects communicating with their
learners. In multinational classrooms, for example, the less you use body language in the classroom, the
less successful your class is.
Purpose of the Study:
We are conducting this study to:
1. Highlight the importance of using body language in the classroom;
2. Make it clear that body language is a must in the classroom; and
3. Raise the teacher‘s awareness of how the effective use of body language can facilitate the learning
process and encourage them to apply it.
4.
Research Question:
What is the influence of the use of non-verbal communication in the classroom?
Does body language play an important role for having a successful communication inside the
classroom?
Do teachers who use body language effectively have better communicative classrooms than
those who do not apply it?
Research Hypotheses:
1. Educators, psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists define body language or nonverbal
communication as communication without words. It includes overt behaviors such as facial
expressions, eye contact, touching and tone of voice. It can also be less obvious, however, as
through dress, posture and spatial distance. The most effective communication occurs when verbal
and nonverbal messages are in sync, creating communication synergy.
2. Nonverbal communication has implications for the teacher as well as the learner. It is often said
that one can always recognize a language teacher by their use of gesture in normal conversation,
while it is certainly true that a system of gestures has evolved which allows a teacher to perform
aspects of classroom management quickly, quietly and efficiently.
3. It is not only what you say in the classroom that is important, but it's how you say it that can make
the difference to students. Nonverbal messages are an essential component of communication in
the teaching process.
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Significance of the Study:
By conducting this research, teachers, students, and administrators will benefit from it, for it will
contribute to have a successful and easy communication in the classroom. In addition to that,
administrators will benefit concerning good reputation and having more money.
Research Delimitations:
1. This study will take three months (about 30 sessions). Each one is about fifty minutes.
2.
We will collect data from both governmental and private schools/ Universities in Tabuk, Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia (We will choose six schools/Universities randomly; three public and three private
schools/Universities).
3.
4.
We focus only on both elementary and pre-intermediate students.
Key Concepts:
1. Non-verbal communication: communication throughout the tone of voices, body movements, and
gestures.
2. Actions speak louder than words: (idiom) People would know about you by watching your actions
than by listening to what you say.
3. Multinational classrooms: classrooms involving people from different countries.
4. Facial expressions: The human face is extremely expressive. Unlike some forms of nonverbal
communication, facial expressions are universal.
5. Eye contact: Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging
the other person‘s response.
Review of the Literature:
Theoretical Framework:
Body language in the classroom
Communication is more than words, and it is important for teachers and administrators to
understand the nonverbal messages they are sending and receiving in the classroom.
Article Excerpt
Ralph Waldo Emerson and Mae West would seem to have little in common, but there is one thing
they both understood—the importance of body language.
"The telltale body is all tongues," Emerson once said, while West famously noted, "I speak two
languages, body and English."
Educators, psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists define body language or nonverbal
communication as communication without words. It includes overt behaviors such as facial
expressions, eye contact, touching and tone of voice. It can also be less obvious, however, as through
dress, posture and spatial distance. The most effective communication occurs when verbal and
nonverbal messages are in sync, creating communication synergy.
Just how important is nonverbal communication? Some research findings suggest that two-thirds
of our communication is nonverbal. Other experts suggest that only seven percent of a message is sent
through words, with the remaining 93 percent sent through facial expressions (55 percent) and vocal
intonation
(38
percent).
In the classroom, teachers and students--both consciously and unconsciously--send and receive
nonverbal cues several hundred times a day. Teachers should be aware of nonverbal communication in
the classroom for two basic reasons: to become better receivers of students' messages and to gain
awareness of the student's communication.
(I think that the role of non-verbal communication is so important in the classroom because both
teachers and students send and receive messages through body language).
http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5060801/Body-language-in-the-classroom.html
Nonverbal communication has implications for the teacher as well as the learner.
It is often said that one can always recognize a language teacher by their use of gesture in normal
conversation, while it is certainly true that a system of gestures has evolved which allows a teacher to
perform aspects of classroom management quickly, quietly and efficiently. Gestures for 'work in pairs',
'open your books', 'listen' and 'write' are universal, while individual teachers have developed nonverbal
repertoires involving the use of fingers to represent words, expressions to denote approval/disapproval
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and gestures to indicate time, tense and other linguistic features, and hence systems for instruction,
correction and management which well-trained learners respond to immediately. The effective use of
nonverbal cues assists in a wide range of classroom practices by adding an extra dimension to the
language:
reducing unnecessary teacher talking time
increasing learner participation
confidence building
reducing fear of silence
clear instructions
efficient classroom management
classroom atmosphere
improving listening skills
improving performance in pair and group activities
self and peer correction
avoiding misunderstandings
improving intercultural competence
Teachers, however, should always remember that the meanings of gestures and other nonverbal
cues need to be taught in the same way as the meaning of essential classroom language, also that a
number of nonverbal techniques already exist in their repertoire, such as the use of Cuisenaire rods,
colors and charts, adapted from the Silent Way. Make sure that the learners understand your codes, and
teach them to use them themselves.
(We can notice that non-verbal communication has an implication for both teachers and students)
It is not only what you say in the classroom that is important, but it's how you say it that can make the
difference to students.
Nonverbal messages are an essential component of communication in the teaching process.
Teachers should be aware of nonverbal behavior in the classroom for three major reasons:
An awareness of nonverbal behavior will allow you to become better receivers of students'
messages.
You will become a better sender of signals that reinforce learning.
This mode of communication increases the degree of the perceived psychological closeness
between teacher and student.
Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, it's not the
only crucial element. Creating a climate that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal
and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your speaking on video tape. Then ask a
colleague in communications to suggest refinements.
(It is obvious that teachers should be aware of non-verbal behavior in the classroom and this is due to:
allow you to be better receivers of students' messages and to reinforce learning in addition to increasing
the degree of the perceived psychological closeness between teacher and student.
Research Methodology:
Research Design:
Survey Research
Subjects:
Elementary and pre-intermediate students in addition to teachers
Research Instruments:
Observation
Survey
Video taping
Interviews
Note taking
Research Procedures:
1. The first step: choosing six schools randomly (three public and three for private).
2. The second step: attending classes; each class 4-5 sessions. Observing and videotaping and taking
notes (for three months).
3. The third step: interviewing both teachers and students.
4. The fourth step: distributing questionnaires to some students and teachers.
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References:
-Barnett, Marya A. (1983). Replacing teacher talk with gestures: Nonverbal
communication in the foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 16, pp: 173-176.
-Pennycook, Alastair (1985). Actions speak louder than words: Paralanguage, Communication,
and Education. TESOL Quarterly, 19, pp: 259-282.
-Miluse Soudek and Lev I. Soudek. Non-verbal Channels in Language Teaching. ELT Journal,
Volume 39/2 April 1985. 109-114.
Appendices:
Survey:
We are a team doing the survey about body language in the classroom. We are studying the
use of non-verbal communication in the classroom. Would you please answer the questions below?
1. How much do teachers move around? Do they stand? Sit? Where?
2. Gestures how much do teachers move their hands? What do these movements mean? Do any
gestures differ in meaning in the two countries?
3. Eye Contact Where do teachers look when teaching? If they make eye contact with students, do their
eyes sweep across the group or focus on individuals? If they focus on individuals, how often and how
long do they make eye contact?
4. Facial Expressions and Head Movements how often do teachers smile? How do they show anger?
What do they do when students ask questions? How do students indicate dissatisfaction? Boredom?
Interest? Confusion? Understanding? How do teachers indicate agreement disagreement? confusion?
Understanding or unhappiness before the students in class?
5. Touching Do teachers ever touch students? What does it mean if a teacher touches a student? In
what situations, if any, would a student touch a teacher? In what situations, if any, would students
touch each other?
6. Time How late to class can teachers be without offending the students? How late to class can
students be without offending the teacher? What do people do or say when they are late?
7. Classroom Behavior Do students or teachers smoke, drink or eat in class? How do students sit? How
do Students get the teacher's attention? Under what circumstances do students leave the class while it is
still in session? What do they do or say if they want to leave?
8. Dress and Cleanliness How do teachers dress for class? How do students dress for class? How
important is cleanliness or the lack of body odor?
9. Manner of Speaking How loud a voice is appropriate for lecturing? Does appropriate loudness of
voice differ for men and women? What speed of speaking is appropriate for lecturing?
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The Use of Non-verbal Communication in the classroom
Author
Author
Mohammad Ali, Salah Ali
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2011-05
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Text
The Use of Pragmatically Motivated Phraseological Units in Print Advertisements
Mirza Džanić
Tuzla University / Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Key words: pragmatics, print ad, culture
ABSTRACT
The advertising itself is said to be a sort of persuasive discourse. Namely, it is ‘‘to a large extent a discourse of
highly meaningful word-puns, hard-hitting slogans or other textual devices characteristic of a maximum economy of
expression’’ (Cap 2002: 41). According to Angela Goddard (2005: 71), ‘‘advertisers often rely on the fact that
readers approach texts in an active way, being prepared to work to decode messages’’. Therefore, the message ought
to be colorful and memorable. One of the main features of advertising is the abundance of phraseological units that
should be familiar to the majority of readers within a chosen target group. To put it simply, the wording of an
advertisement must fulfill the basic aim: to become an effective tool which will make a potential customer pursue an
action i.e. buy a product or at least to ‘‘develop some kind of favorable mental state towards an action i.e. admit
possibility of buying a product at a later date’’ (Cap 2002: 42). The paper deals with the discourse of print
advertising, focusing on the stylistic potential of phraseological unit as a lexicalized bilexemic or polylexemic word
group, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations and may
have an emphatic function in a text.
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1899
Title
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The Use of Pragmatically Motivated Phraseological Units in Print Advertisements
Author
Author
DZANIC, Mirza
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Key words: pragmatics, print ad, culture ABSTRACT The advertising itself is said to be a sort of persuasive discourse. Namely, it is ‘‘to a large extent a discourse of highly meaningful word-puns, hard-hitting slogans or other textual devices characteristic of a maximum economy of expression’’ (Cap 2002: 41). According to Angela Goddard (2005: 71), ‘‘advertisers often rely on the fact that readers approach texts in an active way, being prepared to work to decode messages’’. Therefore, the message ought to be colorful and memorable. One of the main features of advertising is the abundance of phraseological units that should be familiar to the majority of readers within a chosen target group. To put it simply, the wording of an advertisement must fulfill the basic aim: to become an effective tool which will make a potential customer pursue an action i.e. buy a product or at least to ‘‘develop some kind of favorable mental state towards an action i.e. admit possibility of buying a product at a later date’’ (Cap 2002: 42). The paper deals with the discourse of print advertising, focusing on the stylistic potential of phraseological unit as a lexicalized bilexemic or polylexemic word group, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations and may have an emphatic function in a text.
Publisher
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IBU Publishing
Date
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2013-05-03
Keywords
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Article
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8355fff68b756abd4e335ffafd4d4fe2
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Journal of Education and Humanities
Subject
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Education and Humanities
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THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TRUST IN THE TREATMENT OF ANXIETY
Author
Author
Ülkü Er, Doğan Yücel, Sueda Gül, Emin Osman Uygur, Metin Aysel, Beyza Aydın and Burcu Kara
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study aims to explain the psychological effects of trust orientation and trust use in anxiety
disorders. Content analysis and descriptive analysis were performed in the research. According to the
research findings, it has been observed that trust is an important psychological support mechanism for
behaviors the situation of people who do not rely on research, the formation process of trust, the
emotions, thoughts, and behaviors that prevent the feeling of trust, the untrustworthy features that
increase the level of anxiety in people, the submissive prototype of the trustee and the methods that
can be used for therapy by relying on the characteristics of the person will be given in treatment.
Homework process and finally these indicators were discussed. The study's findings were discussed
based on the relevant literature and suggestions were made for future research. In cases where the
decision-making stages of the trust, health problems, economic problems, and the trust opinions of the
participants are compatible with the definitions of trust in the literature; It has been observed that it is
an orientation used in moments of uncertainty, helplessness, or distress. As a result of trust, it has
been revealed that people feel more comfortable and peaceful, their psychological resilience increases
and they accept the results. Research findings show that trust is an essential psychological support
mechanism for believers.
Keywords
Keywords.
Trust, Trust, and Psychology, Trust therapy, the person who puts his trust.
Publisher
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International Burch University
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Title
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THE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA NETWORKING SITES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING
Author
Author
Bayrakci, Serkan
Aslan, Alaattin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
As the World turns into a “Global Village”, learning a foreign language has become an important need to people to communicate with people of other cultures. To meet this need, there are various ways such as taking the language class, visiting the country, the Internet and so on. By the development of Web 2.0, the internet had the property of interactivity which is enabled by social networking. It is known that interaction is one of the characteristics of ideal language learning environments. (Lomicka & G. Lord, 2009). This characteristic of language learning atmosphere looks like an intersection of the language learning and social media networking. The aim of this study is to examine the use of web 2.0&new media and social networking web sites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and Skype in the development of writing, listening, reading and speaking skills. Also, the importance of these social media tools to students in enhancing learning a foreign language by the property of interactivity. During the study methodologically it is used a survey to the university students. It is hoped to accomplish by this study to understand which social media networking sites are used for improving of different language skills which are reading, listening, speaking and writing. Keywords: Language Learning via Social Media; Social Networking Sites and Language; Web 2.0; Foreign Language
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2014
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/330138e930bf1dc48a493eebfe2305c7.pdf
540f834119fecc503a3523088e6683a9
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International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo
The Use of Statistics in the Agricultural Sector in the
Province of Kutahya
Süleyman Tiryaki
Kütahya Vocational School of Social Sciences, Kütahya, Turkey
suleyman.tiryaki@dpu.edu.tr
Murat Kurt
Kütahya Vocational School of Social Sciences, Kütahya, Turkey
murat.kurt@dpu.edu.tr
Kenan Alp
Balıkesir University Manyas Vocational School, Balıkesir, Turkey
kenanalp83@gmail.com
Aydın Kahraman
Balıkesir University Havran Vocational School, Balıkesir, Turkey
aydin1975@gmail.com
Turkey has a structure that is growing and developing with each passing day in
the agricultural sector. Because consciousness occurred that agriculture cannot
be done with daily approaches, but with strategic planning and approaches.
Turkey is in the 7th range the list of world agricultural economies and the 1st in
Europe range in terms of the size of the agricultural economy. Kütahya is one
of the cities that affect the results significantly. Kütahya has been one of the
major centers in the agricultural field from past to present. The world's first
stock exchange was established in the town of Çavdarhisar that has 4900
hectares of agricultural area. The reason for this is the period between 0 and
1000, agricultural and livestock is being done widely in this area.
A questionnaire is prepared to determine whether the statistics, which is very
important nowadays, is used enough or not in Kütahya. The questionnaire sent
to 35 companies via fax, e-mail and personally, by who are working in
agricultural sector. 22 of these companies filled out our questionnaire. The
statistics using level and R&D activities were asked to the companies with 8
items in this questionnaire. The obtained data were entered to the packaged
software and then analyzed with these data. The results of this analysis are
interpreted. The companies believe that the use of statistics is important for
developing but important part of the companies has not recorded the statistics
of their companies till now. Also they do not follow the TÜİK istatistics
published by Ministry of Agriculture.
Keywords: Statistics, Research & Development (R&D), Agriculture.
263
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The Use of Statistics in the Agricultural Sector in the Province of Kutahya
Author
Author
TIRYAKI, Suleyman
KURT, Murat
ALP, Kenan
KAHRAMAN, Aydin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Turkey has a structure that is growing and developing with each passing day in the agricultural sector. Because consciousness occurred that agriculture cannot be done with daily approaches, but with strategic planning and approaches. Turkey is in the 7th range the list of world agricultural economies and the 1st in Europe range in terms of the size of the agricultural economy. Kütahya is one of the cities that affect the results significantly. Kütahya has been one of the major centers in the agricultural field from past to present. The world's first stock exchange was established in the town of Çavdarhisar that has 4900 hectares of agricultural area. The reason for this is the period between 0 and 1000, agricultural and livestock is being done widely in this area. A questionnaire is prepared to determine whether the statistics, which is very important nowadays, is used enough or not in Kütahya. The questionnaire sent to 35 companies via fax, e-mail and personally, by who are working in agricultural sector. 22 of these companies filled out our questionnaire. The statistics using level and R&D activities were asked to the companies with 8 items in this questionnaire. The obtained data were entered to the packaged software and then analyzed with these data. The results of this analysis are interpreted. The companies believe that the use of statistics is important for developing but important part of the companies has not recorded the statistics of their companies till now. Also they do not follow the TÜİK istatistics published by Ministry of Agriculture. Keywords: Statistics, Research & Development (R&D), Agriculture.
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International Burch University
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2013-05-10
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ISSN 2303-4564
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THE USE OF VIDEO AS A LANGUAGE TEACHING TOOL
Author
Author
Eminović, Lejla
Abstract
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Using film and television shows as a language teaching tool has become a popular choice among language teachers, especially with English language. This paper attempts to explain how film and television is beneficial in the language learning process thus the ideas presented here are in order to help incorporate this method of teaching into the lessons of English language. The use of long feature films, television shows, and short film clips in the classroom can be used to motivate students by finding films or shows which they find interesting and entertaining, enhance their grammar, and even teach the culture of the English speaking world. This paper provides the insight into different research on the topic of feature film and television shows as a language learning aid, as well as providing some guidelines for future research. It is intended to provide teachers with some ideas for using video in combination with course books, and it contains a variety of suggestions for activities to use in the ESL classroom in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also in other countries where English is not the native language.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2014
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
PE English
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27ad977a2ffc3183c1137636304545e5.pdf
821315dec698f5ad8af1c68a54dfe9ab
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1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
The Use of Wild Edible Fruits
in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey
Sezai Ercişli
Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty
Department of Horticulture
Erzurum, Turkey
M uharrem Güleryüz
Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty
Department of Horticulture
Erzurum, Turkey
E mine Orhan
Ataturk University Agricultural Faculty
Department of Horticulture
Erzurum, Turkey
Yaşar Ertürk
Ataturk University
Hamza Polat Vacational School
Erzurum, Turkey
Hüseyin Karlıdağ
Ataturk University
Hamza Polat Vacational School
Erzurum, Turkey
Abstract: More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for
sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world.
These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry,
wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher
amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also
not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic
nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective
effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as
well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been
discussed
Introduction
Horticulture plants including fruits, vegetables and grapes are important to the well-being of people in
every country of the world, providing essential ecological,economic and cultural services. They are main food
resources for humans because they include several vitamines for example vitamin C, A, B6,thiamine, niacin, E,
several minerals and dietary fiber (Quebedeaux and Bliss, 1988; Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Wargovich, 2000).
As well known, most of the vitamins are produced by horticultural plants. Their contribution as a group is
estimated at 91% of vitamin C, 48% of vitamin A, 27% of vitamin B6, 17% of thiamine,and 15% of niacin in
diet. Horticultural plants are also supply 16% of magnesium,19% of iron, and 9% of the calories. They are also
an important protein sources,particularly nutsincluding almond, hazelnut, pecan, pistachio, chestnut and walnut
fruits. When compared proteins between fruits and the other plant crops,itis clear that proteins of fruits are of
high quality as to their content of essential amino acids. Fruits, particularly nuts are well known for their high
fatty acid content as well (Verma and Joshi, 2000). However there were wide genotypic effects on these
parameters which mostly related to genetic derivation. Environmental and pre and post harvest conditions are
also affecting its contents.
Fruits in the daily diet have been strongly associated with reduced risk for some forms of cancer, heart
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
disease, stroke, and other chronic diseases (Quebedeaux and Eisa, 1990; Tomas-Barberan and Robins, 1997;
Prior and Cao, 2000; Southon, 2000; Wargovich, 2000). Some components of fruits are strong antioxidants and
antioxidant capacity varies greatly among fruitspecies and genotypes (Prior and Cao, 2000).
There are some fruit growing countries such as China, Turkey etc. has great ecological diversity within
the country. This ecological diversity has contributed not only to a high genetic diversity, but has also allowed
the successfulintroduction and cultivation of a great number of fruittree taxa.
On the other hand these countries have also a long history offruit cultivation. Fruit culture has played an
important role in Turkey’s history. Over 85 fruit species including almost all the deciduous, most of the
subtropical and some tropical fruits are grown. Deciduous fruits are spread all over the country. However, the
subtropical and tropicalfruitsare grown mainly in the south where the winteris warm and the summer is hot.In
the north of Turkey, tea, some citrus,loquat, persimmon and kiwi can be grown (Agaoglu et al. 1997; Ercisli,
2004). In rural areas, apricot, almond, walnut, chestnut, cornelian cherry, plum, hawthorn, rose hips etc. have
been propagated to alarge extent from seed, resulting in a wide range of variability (Ercisli, 2004).
In this review we are discussed about wild growing fruits and possible use of in sustainable fruit production in
Turkey.
Classification of Fruits
Fruitspecies are mainly classified either climatic orfruit properties. According to climatic properties,fruit
species can be classified into 3 main groups (Temperate fruits, subtropical fruits and tropical fruits). In fruit
properties, the species can be classified as citrus fruits, pome fruits, stone fruits, nuts, berries, Mediterranean
fruits etc.(Agaoglu et al., 1997).
Fruitspecies can also classified as cultivated or domesticated,semi domesticated and wild.In most part of
Turkey,itis possibleto see all 3 kinds of fruits.
The cultivated fruits mostly seen in commercial orchards, semi-domesticated are can be seen near cities,
towns, villages. Howeverthe wild edible fruits are widely distributed far away from cultivated araes. Particularly
rural areas of Turkey are very rich interms of wild edible fruits. The most distinct characteristics ofthree groups
are fruit sizes. The fruit size of three groups as follow; cultivated>semi-domesticated>wild. Sometimes wild
term is as ‘Black box’ because in general wild plants are belongs to different speciesthen cultivated ones.
Wild Fruit Diversity in Turkey
The biodiversity ofthe wild fruitsin Turkey is an important bio-gene poolthatis essentialto human life,
biological and agricultural development in the future. Areas of wild fruitsin Turkey are mainly concentrated in
Mediterannean, Black Sea, Middle, East, North East and South Anatolia regions (Ercisli, 2004).
Turkey holds a greatrichness of wild fruits with regardto variety and biological diversity. Withtheir wide
variety of form the wild fruits create unbelievable displays in the region's unique landscape. Since the
availability of land for cultivation in some region (North East Anatolia, Black Sea Region)islimited due to the
steepness of the land, wild fruits dominates fruit production and collecting wild fruits in these areas has been
more important than fruit growing. The rich diversity of fruit species in the country can be explaining of its
unique location. As well known Turkey is junction of different gene centers of crop origin and domestication.
The main families in Turkey including fruits are; Juglandaceae, Berberidaceae, Saxifragaceae, Rosaceae,
Rhamnaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Grossulariaceae, Anarcadidaceae, Cornaceae, Coryllaceae, Ericaceae,
Caprifoliaceae, Moraceae etc.(Ercisli, 2004). To exploitation of the bioresources of the wild fruitsin Turkey,
more recently several projects were started. In order to conserve the resources of the semi-wild and wild fruits
some institutes belongs to Ministry of Agriculture in Turkey set up some collections from them.
Nutritive Value of Wild Fruits
Having lower water content and nutritionally richerthan cultivated fruitsthe wild fruits areindispensable
foods not only for wild animals but also forlocal people. The wild fruits collected are consumed fresh orin dried
forms or alternatively some of them are used for making syrup and pestils(dried fruit pulp).Itcan be concluded
thatthe wild edibles eaten by thelocal peoples are a good source of nutrients,and considering theirlow cost and
easy availability, need to be popularized and recommended for commercial exploitation.Considerableinterest
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
has been generated by recent studies on the chemical composition of some wild fruitsin most parts ofthe world.
Some of these wild fruits have higher nutritional values compared with levels found in cultivated fruits
(Eromosele, 1991; Netzel et al.,2007; Wang and Lewers, 2007). Wild fruits which are pesticide residue free are
important food sources for rural populations. Nutritious wild fruits have the potentialto be promoted for wider
use, domestication and comm ercialization. As has been evidenced by studiesin many parts of world, wild fruits
provide an important component of the diet, particularly for children (Falconer, 1990). Wild fruits contribute
greatly to diet quality ratherthan quantity. Anotherimportant characteristic of some wild fruits are their storage
capacity.
Secondary Metabolite Production
Plant secondary metabolites are a generic term used for more than 30,000 different substances which are
exclusively produced by plants. The plants form secondary metabolites e.g. for protection against pests, as
colouring,scent, or attractants and asthe plant's own hormones.It used to be believed thatsecondary metabolites
were irrelevant for the human diet. The importance of these substances has only recently been discovered by
scientists. Secondary metabolites carry out a number of protective functions in the human body. Plant secondary
metabolites can boostthe immune system, protectthe body from free radicals, kill pathogenic germs and much
more (Agrawal, 1999; van Baarlen et al., 2007). Among seconder metabolites anthocyanins which is very
abundan particularrly wild and semi-domesticated colorfulberries and smallfruitssuch as wild strawberry, wild
raspberry, wild blackberry, sea buckthorn, bilberry, wild bluberry, black and red mulberry, barberry, cornelian
cherry etc. has anticancerogen, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antiinflammation effects. Caratenoids has
anticancerogen, antioxidant and antiinflammation effects. Flavonoids has anticancerogen, antimicrobial,
antioxidant, antithrombotic, strength immune system. Glucosinalats has antimicrobial, antioxidant,
anticancerogen and also reduce cholesterol levels. These seconder metabolites are also the most importan raw
materialsfor medicines. The studies have shown thatthese compounds prevent harmful UV radiation penetrating
through leaves. The wild plants are more tolerant than cultivated plant to damaging effect of UV radiation and
water stress because in these negative conditions they accumulate more seconder metabolites (Davies, 2004).
In contrast to the primary metabolites (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins and mineral nutrients)
secondary metabolites do not have nutrient characteristics for human beings. They are usually found in very
small amounts but have an effect on humans. The function or importance ofthese compounds to the organism is
usually of an ecological nature as they are used as defenses against predators, parasites and diseases, for
interspecies competition, and to facilitate the reproductive processes (coloring agents, attractive smells, etc).
Wild fruits can synthesize and accumulates a variety of secondary metabolites. Some of the biologically active
secondary metabolites substantiate the claim made in traditional system of medicine. Wild fruits appear to be a
resource of many biologically active compounds. Their derivates are already in extensive use for the control of
drug-resistant malaria. In vitro studies on some of the other active compounds identified in wild fruits will
hopefully give new therapeutic and agricultural products ofcommercialimportance
Threats on Wild Fruits in Turkey
As elsewhere in the world, the wild fruits in Turkey face an onslaught of threats from human activities,
habitat destruction, over-grazing, over-harvesting and the increasing impact of global climate change. For rural
communities the forests including numerous wild fruits also provide grazing for livestock and the under-storey
of wood pastures is cut for hay to provide fodder during the winter months. A high proportion of the threatened
taxa are critically endangered,thatis,they face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Many of these
are narrow endemics, such as Crataegus tanacetifolia, whose fragmented populations are threatened by cutting
and/or over-grazing. Others, relatives of domesticated fruit trees and shrubs such as Pyrus elaegnifolia is
threatened by collection of saplings as rootstock for grafting.
Although an important source ofincome for rural communities, unsustainable rates of harvesting of these
plants such as chestnuts continue to pose a huge threattothe country’s unique fruit and nut forests. The threatis
further compounded by unregulated logging, grazing, hay-making and, more recently, a number of the species
that are endangered or vulnerable are wild relatives of domesticated fruit and nut varieties. This includes seed
propagated semi-wild apricots(Armenica vulgaris), which isthreatened by unsustainable harvesting and cutting.
The wild apple species are still found in the fragmented fruit in Turkey and are threatened by habitat
degradation, mainly from agricultural development and overgrazing. Therefore, there is necessity to come to
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
grips with conservation of invaluable bioresources, understanding of the relationships between eco-environment
and humankind. During the initial stages of agricultural development, the wild fruit forest was seriously
damaged through the reclamation of wasteland. In order to gain great benefits from the wild fruits,the peoples
cut down ancient wild fruittrees/shrubs. Some herdsman also cut down wild fruittreesto enlarge their meadow
area, leading to the disappearance of primary wild chestnut forest. According to previous investigations, there
has been a reduction inthe number of wild appletree seedlings due to over-grazing and dung injuries,leading to
a decrease in the activity of wild apple trees to reproduce. The human activities have accordingly caused
environmental degradation and a reduction in species numbers and distribution area, which willinevitably lead
tothe endangerment and extinction of many rare species.
The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production
Wild fruit species are very important source of adapted plant material especially when unfavorable
climatic and soil conditions are present. These species are also more effective than non-native species in
controlling soil erosion. Once established, since they are adapted to local dry conditions,their care is easierthan
non-native species. Deep spreading roots help combat soil erosion (Kaya, 1999). They also grows in a
tremendous range of conditions from very dry, sterile, sandy woodlands to river bottoms to rocky hillsides and
moist or very dry locations.Itthrives on almost any type of soil. The wild fruitshrubs orthreestolerates drought
and cold. It develops strong lateral roots and grows fast (Gungor et al., 2002) and is valued for their ability to
reclaim degraded soils. It has also been used for wildlife habitat plantings. There is some indication that new
markets for specialty native berries and fruits may be opening up.
Considerations for a Rural Development Strategy
As well known wild or indigenous fruit species has been played an important role in Anatolia’s history.
As mentioned before in the past Anatolia had the host a lot of civilization. All previous civilizations have been
used fresh and dried fruits as well as extracts for medicinal and social purposes. However,atthe beginning 19th
century the commercial orchards established with monoculture fruit species and thus wild fruits are neglected.
As well known wild fruits, particularly berries widely found in foreststhus one strategy would be to enhance the
recreational and tourism potential value of wild harvesting. This could be done in conjunction with innovative
interpretive programs toimpartto visitorssome ofthe historicalsignificance of native fruits and berries and their
uses by local peoples living rural areas in Turkey. To be successful on this topic, harvesting areas remain in as
natural because the tourists will be seek wild experience. Also,itisimportantthatthese areas should be not far
away for walk and suggested distance from town, village or resorts should be maximum 40 km. These areas are
also must be uncontaminated. Local festivals and celebrations, native recipes and cooking traditions, and local
history can be helpfulto success on thisstrategy. Near villages ortowns each house can produce special products
from these wild fruits and can be sellrelatively higher prices because visitors may have remote this culture. The
one ofthe mostimportantthings for selleristhatthey mustimply that all products are fully nature. The villagers
can also establish some small nurseries to multiply nature wild fruits and can sellthem as planting material to
tourists.
References
Agaoglu Y.S., Celik H., Celik M., Fidan Y., Gulsen Y., Gunay A. et al. (1997). General Horticulture. A.U.Z.F. No:4, p 339.
Agrahar-Murugkar, D., & Subbulakshmi, G., (2005). Nutritive values of wild edible fruits, berries, nuts, roots and spices
consumed by the Khasi tribes of India. Ecology of Food and Nutrition, 44, 207-223
Agrawal, M., (1999). Environmental pollution and plant responses. CRC Press, ISBN 1566703417, pp. 393.
Davies, K.M., (2004). Plant pigments and their manipulation. Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 1405117370, pp 352.
Ercisli, S., (2004). A short review of the fruit germplasm resources of Turkey Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 51,
419-435.
Eromosele, I.C., Eromosele, C.O., & Kuzhkuzha, D.M., (1991). Evaluation of mineral elements and ascorbic acid contents in
fruits of some wild plants. Plant Food Human Nutrition. 41,53-57.
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�1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo
Falconer, J., (1990). `Agroforestry and Household Food Security', in Agroforestry for Sustainable Production, Economic
Implications, R T Prinsley (ed), Commonwealth Science Council, London.
Gungor, I., Atatoprak, A., & Ozer, A., (2002). Bitkilerin Dunyasi, Bitki tanıtımı detayları ile fidan yetistirme esaslari, Lazer
Ofset Matbaa, Ankara
Kaya, Y., (1999). Fırat vadisi'nde erozyon ve erozyon alanında iyi gelisen bitkiler. Türk Tarım ve Ormancılık Dergisi, 23,724.
Netzel, M., Netzel, G., Tian, Q., Schwartz, S., & Konczak, I., (2007). Native Australian fruits-a novel source of antioxidants
for food. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 8, 339-346.
Prior, R.L., & Cao, G., (2000). Antioxidant phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables; diet and health implications.
HortScience 35:588-592.
Quebedeaux, B., & Bliss, F.A., (1988). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 1st Intl.
Symp. Hort. and Human Health. Prentice Hall, Englewood, NJ.
Quebedeaux, B., & Eisa, H.M., (1990). Horticulture and human health. Contributions of fruits and vegetables. Proc. 2nd Intl.
symp. Hort. and Human Health. HortScience 25,1473-1532.
Southon, S. 2000. Increased fruit and vegetable consumption within the EU: potential health benefits. Food Research
International, 33,211-217.
Tomas-Barberan, F.A. and Robins, R.J. (eds.). 1997. Phytochemistry of fruits and vegetables. Oxford Science Publ., Oxford,
UK, 375 pp.
Van Baarlen, P., Van Belkum, A., & Thomma B.P.H.J., (2007). Disease induction by human microbial pathogens in plantmodel systems: potential, problems and prospects. Drug Discovery Today. 12, 167-173.
Verma, L.R., & Joshi, V.K., (2000). Postharvest technology of fruits and vegetables. Indus publishing Co. New Delhi, India.
Wang., S.Y., & Lewers, K.S. (2007). Antioxidant capacity and flavonoid content in wild strawberries. Journal of the
American Society for Horticultural Science, 132, 629-637.
Wargovich, M.J., (2000). Anticancer properties of fruits and vegetables. HortScience 35:573-575.
82
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Title
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The Use of Wild Edible Fruits in Sustainable Fruit Production in Turkey
Author
Author
Ercisli, Sezai
Güleryüz, Muharrem
Orhan, Emine
Ertürk, Yasar
Karlıdağ, Hüseyin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
More recently wild edible fruits have been gained more importance particularly for sustainable agriculture and land protection not only in Turkey but also throughout the world. These kinds of fruits including rose hip, mountain ash, wild persimmon, wild grape, barberry, wild cherries, wild figs, European elderberry, wild raspberry, blackberry etc. has higher amount healthy promoting compounds compared to cultivated fruits. This wild fruit has also not been spraying by chemicals. Therefore, they can accept health fruits. The synthetic nutrition’s are also not used for these kinds of fruits. This wild grown fruit has also protective effects against soil erosion. These wild fruits increased biodiversity where they abundant as well. In present study, wild edible fruits and their use in sustainable agriculture has been discussed
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)