313 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/821113b7416c2c447cd041aba562be35.pdf ac6fc6028665a7c6eda1a36e900cc75f PDF Text Text Basic and Derived Elements of an Educational System Amel Alic University of Zenica, Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina amel.alic@pf.unze.ba Abstract: Education and the existence of an educational system are compulsory elements of every modern society. The problems of making a unique and a defined educational system, a clear and an identifiable educational policy but also the problems of inequality in education have been the subject of different researches in the social sciences, especially in pedagogy for a long time. By accepting the definition which describes education as a systematical transmission of knowledge, skills and values, the same importance must be given to the questions of institutional organization, systematical and generational aspect of the process. Although every man should have equal rights to education, equal chances are not available to all, and therefore perceptible problems that cause inequality occur. The reasons are not only related to different social and cultural heritage – unequal initial positions are to be related to the nature of the educational system and the goals of the educational policy. Key words: educational system, basic and derived elements of educational system, structure of system interests Draft of the contemporary situation In a very comprehensive study, developed in the scope of the Project of the European Union for regional economic development in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is stated that there is a decline of about 1/3 in a number of children who are at the age to start school in Bosnia and Herzegovina comparing to the past times, and that there are not enough pre-school institutions for the real needs. This report confirms that there is no need for a larger number of primary schools – as the span of generation is quite high – but there is a need for improving standards in them. The span of generation about to start secondary school has increased from 50% to 70%, while the span of the generation about to enter universities has increased from 10% to 25%. It is noticed that there is a tendency for extended education as a result of difficulties in finding jobs after schooling while education and educational system are generally influenced by political currents with an open tendency towards further disintegration and fragmentation. There are still problems in the area of adult education, especially that related to the relevance of the needed knowledge for technological changes in economy; furthermore, there are no institutions for the needs of public sector and the state administration, especially for their management. The opportunities given require a general modernization of educational system in accordance with the trends in Europe. In the scope of the same project, a working sub-group for education has very clearly presented the main forces, weaknesses, possibilities and threats/obstacles which depict the contemporary situation in the educational system. 261 �FORCES Tradition and awareness of people about the importance of education and general tendency towards aquiring knowkedge Completed primary education Existance of the net of educational institutions in the whole area WEAKNESSES Out-of-date equipment, out-of-date curriculums and outof-date educational staff Bad econimical and social situation of the people which prevents education of better quality nad variety High concentration od some educational staff profiles Existance of secondary education in the whole region and in all municipalities Shortage in specific staff profiles (agronomy and public proffesions) Exisatance of a higher education institution in the region Shortage in extracurricular acitvities which could be very helpful and useful in practice Implementation of educational reforms and adaptation to the EU standards Shortage in practical education in specific skills of various trades POSSIBILITIES THREATS - OBSTACLES Development of private educational institutions Complexity of transformation of educational system Accepted concept of 9-year primary educational system Out-of-date educational profiles Adaptation of educational system on the market and in accordance to the EU standards Development of educational menagement Implementation od Bologna treaty Development of new ways of education Non-homogeneity of educational system in relevance to the responsibility in development Lack of affinity of the political structures to adapt educational system to the needs for development and mobility of work force General resistance to changes On the basis of previous pieces of information it is quite useful to remind ourselves of some basic and derived elements of educational system, especially in a case of general anti-dialogue culture and to point at the problem of cultural reproduction and “banking” education as central places of coerced and derived interests of educational system, educational policy and society as a whole. This is especially the case, as it is still not clear what structures, in clearly changeable circumstances, control the distribution of cultural and symbolic capital. In this sense, the elements and the processes confirming the unity of educational system and the defined educational policy in a sense of anti-dialogue, even when evident, deserve the check of its query. Educational policy and educational system In the last quarter of the 19th century, practically, all “developed” regions of the world faced a very important event: an appearance of national educational systems. This notion is also important to understand in the context of developing new trade relations which were not present in the 17th and the 18th century. Simultaneous changes on an economical and educational plan gradually put the question of educational policy in the focus of attention. In what ways could education and educational system be related to the general social trends and requests, and in what ways economic policy and society could determine educational policy and educational system policy? Furthermore, some other important questions were raised: What an educational system consist of? In what circumstances could an educational system be considered as unique? What is a system and how does it function? Is it possible to expect an adequate creation of educational policy by ignoring educational system (and vice versa)? In the second half of the 20th century a number of questions were raised, that put humanistic, emancipative, anti-imperialistic and anti-militaristic goals in the focus of attention, and which are nowadays seen as socio-critical, anti-pedagogical, and alternatively pedagogical conception in the theory of education. All these question educational system and educational policy in the scope of current questions frequently asked in our society as well. Educational policy usually determines the policy of an educational system. If we focus on a formal structure of any educational system including formal and constitutional limits of a country or possible territorial units, we can make a graphical explanation of the relations among basic elementary and secondary schools and a large number of higher education institutions. In order to make lack of structural explanations less severe, we will start from the following hypothesis: We wonder if Bosnia and Herzegovina has the basic national politics. Of course, educational policy does not exist in the same form as monetary, fiscal or defense policy. If we question the authority of people in charge of the implementation of monetary or defense policy we will probably get a precise answer. But, we will confront a totally different answer if we attempt to find out anything about the basic educational policy in Bosnia. Where does it take place? Who defines it? There are no precise answers to these questions but we have 262 �to accept the fact that if we move from one place to another or from one school to another, we will find similar procedures and similar values. It is possible to notice the similarities in buildings, infrastructure and dormitories. How can this happen in an absence of any basic policy? In fact, there is some kind of system. It is obvious that every system has a structure. A system must have a unity of elements which are parts of a whole. Every system will have its structure as well. It is essential to have a law or principles and a set of common beliefs which define behaviour of the society in the system and people who are referred to the unity of the system. According to Green and others (1980), these elements could be marked as the basic, and they are basically in contrast to the derived elements of the system. School and educational system, therefore, have their own basic and derived elements. Basic elements will be defined by: 1. medium of exchange (in order that institutions become a part of an educational system there must exist some relations among schools – certificates, diplomas, etc), and 2. principle of sequence (confirms that the system of schools has been organized on levels, so that person completed n level is considered to have completed n-1 level but it is not certain that the person will enter n+1 level). Derived elements imply: 1. size of the system, 2. system of control, and as a result of it all, 3. distribution of the results. Every educational system is of a specific size. There are different sizes; there are also different ways of expanding and making one system smaller. Systems have their own interests, which should be determined and defined. The structure of interests within an educational system should consist of: - parents’ interests - pupils/students’ interests - teachers’ interests - clerical interests - economical interests and market needs, and - social interests – state interests Basic elements of the system In every society there must be some kind of pattern according to which young people grow up and become a part of the society. This pattern, whatever it is, could be described as a system for education of young people. The word “system”, in this context, means something like “way”, “method” or “pattern”, or “usual procedure of growing-up”. There is no society which can exist without some kind of raising new generations, but there are societies without determined process that could be taken for an educational system. Educational system show up only when a number of processes defer or when they are determined by specific sort of institutions. This notion corresponds with the notions of schools. The conclusion could seem unimportant but it is not. If there were no differences between a system of education and an educational system there would not be possible to raise any important questions of the educational policy. The notion of educational policy means a determined and a defined system of educational institutions. If there is an educational system, there are schools as a part of this system. In the same sense, there must be schools that are not in strong relations with other schools, but even though they function in this way they are still a part of the system. An example for this could be a hypothesis that a subject passed in one of private collages would not be accepted in a state school. But this would not be enough for functioning of the system. In order that institutions become a part of an educational system there must exist clearly determined relations among schools and other institutions of the system. A necessary way of independence is shown through certificates, diplomas and transcripts which although different, in many aspects become similar in their bases. They are instruments by which certain activities could be recognized in a school/college, and be exchanged for similar activities within other institutions. These instruments of the system are”mediums of exchange” (or “connective tissue”; Green et al., 1980). Their existence enables us to speak about a unique educational system in the same way as the existence of a local currency and its exchange for foreign currencies enable us to speak about a unique monetary system. This notion implies a sort of independence or diversity which enables a pupil to complete year 5 in one part and start year 6 in the other part of the country. 263 �There is a question: does the existence of mediums of exchange imply the existence of an educational system?Think, for example, of two schools in the same area, or in a nighbourhood, but under the different supervision, with slightly different educational missions, and let’s imagine that their activities are different so that they could not be recognized in one another. In this situation it would be quite impossible to say that they belong to the same educational system. But, despite this, if they are under the same higher institution, ministry of education for instance, they could still be considered as parts of the same educational system. Therefore, the departments of physics and literature do not have medias of exchange but belong to the same educational system as they are under the authority of the same regulatory agency (institution, university, ministry, …). This example enables us to conclude that a medium of exchange is not necessary for the existence of a system but it also questions in what proportion is the higher institution sufficient for schools of different activities to be parts of the same system. However, the notion of “educational system” does not refer to any system of schools or colleges, but to the system determined on the principles of sequence. This confirms that the system of schools has been organized on levels, so that person who completed n level of the system had obviously completed n-1 level before, but it is not certain that the person will complete n+1 level. Here, we have to accept the fact that the organization of levels are not the same in different schools, so the principle of sequence is different on different levels – primary schools, secondary schools, colleges, academies, universities, etc. (especially in the case of three-year or four-year undergraduate studies). Despite of the different definitions, the absence of the principle of sequence would mean nonexistence of the system and an existence of many other things would be questionable. Derived elements of the system Basic elements of an educational system also require the definition of derived elements: size of the system, system of control, and as a result, the distribution of results and resources. Every educational system has its specific size. There are different types of sizes; there are also different ways of expanding and making a system smaller. The dimensions of a size and the growing modules of a system are determined by the following elements: 1. the increase in number of educational institutions or making new educational outcomes (departments at the universities, professional profiles in secondary schools) 2. increase in the number of pupils 3. vertical expansion – changing the age for education (children start school at the age of 6 instead of 7, or they finish compulsory education at the age of 15 instead of 14) 4. horizontal expansion – the existence of various schools and various educational profiles: music schools, trade schools, medical schools… 5. differentiation – different curriculums among schools 6. increase in efficiency and better success by improving curriculum 7. extending the school year/school day 8. increase in number of employees in the educational system If the system expands in one dimension, it could cause a development and an expansion in its other dimension. There is a connection between different models within one system but that connection is not necessary. Mutual connection and the implication of another, depends on the needs and existing values of the system, formal politics, needs and nature of social influence on the manifestations. Structure of system interests Besides parents’, pupils/students’ and teachers’ interests, of a huge importance is an existence of state interests. There are two types of state interests: coercive and derived. Coercive interests are contained in two needs – each individual reaches economic independence or at least a minimal obedience to civic regulations. Coercive interests are minimally related to educations ideals, and maximally to the power. There is no society which can completely realize a socialization of young people or which can be immune to the crime. Therefore, coercive interests are in the function of a social community and its own survival. In this sense, education, as in the case of the physiological human needs, has a dimension of the urge of survival. A community must pay special attention to the education of young people in order to provide coerced state interests. As a consequence of coerced interests, appear secondary, additional interests, by which we mean a process of deciding who can teach, who will learn and for how long. The state determines control of capital for education, gives various clearances to teachers, specifies curriculum and defines standards. Furthermore, within this system, one of variables is the existence of derived interests. Derived interests should serve to fill up the “pots” of educational system with adequate contents, and educational values. Unfortunately, this content of derived interests is very often a negation of nature and meaning of the education 264 �and the educational system. One of the most common is inequality of educational opportunities for those who want to acquire certain educational achievements. Pierre Bourdieu talks about this phenomenon in the contest of, so called, “cultural capital”. Bourideu developed a thesis on the fact that none of the organized societies drops this defined cultural capital, but it distributes it unequally throughout the society which results in class differences and different academic achievements. Higher values, as certain monopoly of the dominant culture in a society, enable to the socially and economically more powerful to impose their own definition of reality, so every educational system is being founded on these basis. Explaining these processes, he points to a social genesis of behaviour patters and simultaneous thinking and acting on one and the development of the social structures on the other hand. According to Bordieu, for a process of internal changes which could expose this manifestation, the existence of categories such as symbolic power (social groups capable of imposing certain hierarchy in value) is necessary. This symbolic power using symbolic speech (giving diagnosis; determining directions, orders and norms; as well as making reports) and with the help of symbolic forces (which are capable to “re-make” and change the world), should grow into constitutional power (the result of a long period of institutionalizing) (Bordieu, 1998). This sort of understanding educational system is actually what made Bordieu come to conclusion that the basic purpose of education is the contribution to the continuity of social reproduction based on the relations of power and privileges within a society. The notion of the cultural reproduction and the appreciation of the fact that in every society there is a thing called cultural capital, indicates that every family (parents’ and pupils/students’ interests), in a context of its existing quality of life, could feel the pressure and strain if it is not able to become a part of social “struggle” for better status on equal terms. Also, it seems quite appropriate to mention Bordieu’s contribution in the area of understanding constant tensions among the dominant and the inferior groups within a society in which every group strive to establish and confirm its social identity, status and value. In relation to this, Pierre Bourdieu suggests: “dominant groups are capable of defining their own culture as worth of a tendency and a possession and to confirm it as a foundation of the knowledge about the educational system. However, this valuation by the dominant culture is arbitrary… The high value attributed to the dominant culture in a society as a whole is simply an aspiration of the powerful to impose their definition of reality on others”. (Haralambos, 1989, p212) If we refer the definition of education and educational system from the beginning of the text to the needs of a man, general “humanizing” and confirmation of humanity, we would necessarily have to speak about “practice of freedom”, and overthrowing the system which is developing on the basis of “banking education”, “cultural invasion” and “anti-dialogue acting” (Freire, 2002). Within this concept, educational system and all its institutions should serve the development of cultural dialogue, overreaching inequality, especially estranging from a tendency towards expansion of institutions and a development by the principle of “the garrison”. On the contrary, basic and derived elements of the system will confirm further fragmentation and question the notion of unity but it will define education as systematic transmission of knowledge, skills and values in the state of nonfreedom and for non-freedom. Literature Bourdieu, P. (1998). Društveni prostor i simbolička moć. U zborniku: Interpretativna sociologija. (priredila Ivana Spasić), Beograd: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva. Freire, P. (2002). Pedagogija obespravljenih. Zagreb: Odraz – Održivi razvoj zajednice. Usher, A. & Cervenan, A. (2005). Global Higher Education Rankings 2005. Toronto, ON: Educational Policy Institute. Gumport, P.J. (2007). Sociology of Higher Education - Contributions and Their Contexts. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Green, T.F., Ericson, D.P., Seidman, R.H. (1980). Predicting the Behavior of the Educational System. Syracuse University Press. Haralambos, M., Heald, R. (1989). Uvod u sociologiju. Zagreb: Globus. Projekt Evropske unije za regionalni ekonomski razvoj u BiH, (april / travanj 2004). Indikatori, trendovi i swot elementi izvještaj. REDAH Asocijacija za ekonomski razvoj. OECD (2008). Trends Shaping Education. Centre for Educational Research and Innovation. 265 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3e2f71de7b3c5af83aece18d96d2f1d8.doc d25c8a0a1d9f83545353767a5b78d798 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 425 Title A name given to the resource Basic and Derived Elements of an Educational System Author Author Alic, Amel Abstract A summary of the resource. Education and the existence of an educational system are compulsory elements of every modern society. The problems of making a unique and a defined educational system, a clear and an identifiable educational policy but also the problems of inequality in education have been the subject of different researches in the social sciences, especially in pedagogy for a long time. By accepting the definition which describes education as a systematical transmission of knowledge, skills and values, the same importance must be given to the questions of institutional organization, systematical and generational aspect of the process. Although every man should have equal rights to education, equal chances are not available to all, and therefore perceptible problems that cause inequality occur. The reasons are not only related to different social and cultural heritage – unequal initial positions are to be related to the nature of the educational system and the goals of the educational policy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/064c9eb339743d3fb60b69b55455132a.pdf 2352abbc7e1331acb712aff871c5d3e3 PDF Text Text Turkish University Students’ Perceptions on Bosnia-Herzegovina Mete Alım Atatürk University, Turkey metealim@atauni.edu.tr Serkan Doğanay Atatürk University, Turkey sdoganay@atauni.edu.tr Erdinç Parlak Atatürk University, Turkey parlake@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Bosna-Herzegovina, one of the Balkan countries in southeastern Europe, has declared its independence following the partition of Yugoslavia Federation. Historical and cultural ties between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Turkey are actually very strong. In this context, these two countries have signed various cultural and economic cooperation agreements.This study aims at determining the level of understandingand general knowledge of Turkish university students on BosniaHerzegovina. The samples of the study were obtained from students of Atatürk University Faculty of Education, Department of Geography Teaching. A scale consisted of open ended questions in order to determine the level of knowledge of the sample group on Bosnia-Herzegovina. Moreover, the students were asked to point of the place of Bosnia-Herzegovina and its neighbours on an empty world map. By this way we aimed to determine the situation of this country in the mind map of Turkish university students. Key Words: Bosnia-Herzegovina, Turkey, perception, Turkish university students Introduction Bosnia Herzegovina is one of the countries who declared their independence by the disintegration of Yugoslovia Federation in 1992. The country is bordered by Croatia to the north, west and south, Serbia to the east and Montenegro to the southeast. It has only 20 km of Adriatic Sea coastline. It has 51.129 km square surface area and has a population of around 4.6 million. Bosnia Herzegovina is ethnically the most distinctive country of all the countries who gained their independence after the demise of Yugoslavia Federation. Slav origin muslims who are also called Bosniaks being the most numerous population group of Bosnia constitutes more than 40% of the whole population. Bosniaks are being followed by Serbs (30%), Croats (17%), Montenegrin, Macedonian and Turks (Gözenç, 1995:107, Güner and Ertürk, 2005:53-54). Bosnia, which makes up the southern part of the country was named after Bosnian River. Herzegovina was named after the land of voivode Stefan Vukçiç who declared himself the Duke of Sava after rebelling against the Bosnian Kingdom towards the end of the medieval age (Herzeg: duke, ovina: land). There is another rumour that Turks named it Herzegovina to delineate the region (Herzeg: stone, ovin:land) (Karaman, 1992:1). There are strong ties between Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina in terms of cultural, political and economic aspects. Though they are slav community, the relations between Turkey and Bosni Herzegovina, which accommodates a substantial number of population (40%) who converted to Islam later on, are thriving day after day. In this sense, this study reflects the general knowledge level of Turkish students about Bosnia Herzegovina and their attitudes towards this country. The sample of the study is drawn from the students who receive geography education in the Faculty of Education of Kazım Karabekir at Atatürk University in Erzurum, Turkey. A survey consisting of open- ended questions was conducted to display Turkish students’ knowledge of Bosnia Herzegovina. Additionally, they were prescribed to mark the location of Bosnia Herzegovina and neighbouring countries on the blank map they were given. Thus, this was also an attempt to assess the position of Bosnia Herzegovina in their mind map. In the 150 �sense that this study reveals Turkish students’ perception of Turkey’s brother country Bosnia Herzegovina and their knowledge of map, the data obtained is thought to be beneficial. Findings The samples of the study are composed of 202 students (64 female-138 male) who study chemistry in the Faculty of Education of Kazım Karabekir at Atatürk University in Erzurum. 31.7% of the respondents are female, 68.3% of the respondents are male (Table 1). Female f 18 6 8 10 11 11 64 First class students Second class students Third class students Fourth class students Fifth class students Non-Thesis Master Total Male % 38.2 20.0 25.8 30.3 34.4 37.9 31.7 f 29 24 23 23 21 18 138 Total % 61.8 80.0 74.2 69.7 65.6 62.1 68.3 f 47 30 31 33 32 29 202 % 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Table 1: The gender of the students and their conditions in their classes “Where does the name ‘Bosnia Herzegovina” come from?” is the question which is answered right by the least number of Turkish students. 55.4% of the students did not answer the question at all. Almost all the remaining students answered wrong. Some of the responses given by the students are as follows: “The name of the country is named after the cities Bosnia and Herzegovina” (Student:9,81,133,184). “The name of the country comes from the public of Bosnia and Herzegovina” (Öğrenci:20,60,120). “The name comes from Bosniaks” (Student:23,59, 101, 194, 120). Just one student replied that the name ‘Bosnia’ was named after the “Bosnian River”. One of the asked questions in the poll was about the country the unit of which Bosnia Herzegovina was before gaining its independence. It is seen that more than 80% of the students gave the right answer which is “Yugoslavia”. Some of the students replied as “the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, Montenegro and Austria Hungary (Table 2). Countries Yugoslavia USSR Montenegro Austria Kosovo Czechoslovakia Hungary No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 35 8 4 f 23 3 f 27 1 % 87.2 3.2 % 84.4 f 25 3 % 86.2 10.4 5 15.6 6.4 3.2 % 76.0 3.0 9.0 3.0 f 27 2 1 f 25 1 3 1 3 9.0 1 3.4 29 100 f 162 16 12 3 1 3 1 4 202 47 % 74.4 17.1 8.5 100 4 30 % 76.6 10.0 13.4 100 31 100 33 100 32 100 % 80.1 8.0 5.9 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 2.0 100 Table 2: The findings related to Bosnia Herzegovina’s gaining its independence after the disintegration of which country Another question towards to students was the ethnic structure of Bosnia Herzegovina. 24.2% of the surveyed group stated Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats as the ethnic groups in the majority. Additionally, what is astonishing is that referring to Bosnians “Turk and muslim population” was mentioned by a great number of students.Beside this, the presence of Albanian, Hungarian, Turk and Bulgarian population was also expressed. Only 5.9% of the students talked of the Slav race, but 24% of the students did not give any answer to the question at all. 151 �Map is one of the most significant equipments used in geograph education. In this sense, students were given a wordless map and they were told to mark the location of Bosnia Herzegovina and write the neighbouring countries. 69% of the students could mark the location of Bosnia Herzegovina (Table 3). The rate of the students who could write the names of the neighbouring countries was too low (16%). Most of the correct responses were received from the 4th year students. The countries which were stated as the neighbours were primarily Serbia, Croatia and Montenegro. However, their locations on the map couldn’t be marked correctly. That Greece and Bulgaria were also indicated as the neighbouring countries is bewildering. True False Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 25 22 47 f 21 9 30 f 21 10 31 f 31 2 33 f 25 7 32 f 18 11 29 f 141 61 202 % 53.2 46.8 100 % 70.0 30.0 100 % 67.7 32.3 100 % 93.9 6.0 100 % 78.1 21.9 100 % 62.1 37.9 100 % 69.8 30.2 100 Table 3:The state of marking Bosnia Herzegovina’s location on the map One more question asked to Turkish university students in the study was the capital city of Bosnia Herzegovina. It is clearly seen that the vast majority of the students (94.1%) gave the right answer which is Sarajevo. True False No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 43 1 3 47 f 29 % 96.7 f 28 % 90.3 f 31 % 94.0 f 30 2 % 93.7 6.3 f 29 % 100 1 30 3.3 100 3 31 9.7 100 2 33 6.0 100 32 100 29 100 f 190 3 9 202 % 91.5 2.1 6.4 100 % 94.1 1.5 4.4 100 Table 4: Reputation of the capital of Bosnia Herzegovina Another question asked to the students was about the short Adriatic Sea coastline Bosnia Herzegovina has (20 km). More than 80% of the students answered right. Tha fact that some students pointed out that it doesn’t have any coastline is remarkable. 5% of the students in the survey did not give any answer to the question (Table 5). Adriatic No maritime Red Sea Baltic No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 41 % 87.3 f 19 10 % 63.3 33.4 f 23 7 f 28 4 f 30 1 f 27 f 168 22 % 83.2 11.0 1 3.3 1 5 2.1 10.6 0.4 0.4 5.0 47 100 100 30 100 % 74.2 22.6 % 84.8 12.2 % 93.8 3.1 % 93.1 1 3.2 1 3.0 1 3.1 2 6.9 1 1 10 31 100 33 100 32 100 29 100 202 Table 5: Findings about the Adriatic Sea coastline of Bosnia Herzegovina It is known that there are strong historical and cultural affinities between Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina. As a consequence of this, there have been collaborations in a variety of fields. However, it is surprising that a great number of Turkish students (35.7%) are not aware of the relations between the two countries adequately.The students gave answers like “the relations are far behind than they should be”, “they should improve.” Around 12% of the students gave no answer (Table 6). The rate of those who regard the relations between the two countries good /very good is 52%. The good relations between Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina are explained mostly as religious, cultural and ethnic affinity. 152 �Good/very good Not good enough No answer Total First Class Students Second Class Students Third Class Students Fourth Class Students Fifth Class Students Non-Thesis Master Total f 25 % 53.2 f 19 % 63.3 f 24 % 77.4 f 12 % 36.3 f 15 % 46.8 f 10 % 34.4 f 105 % 52.0 10 21.2 10 33.4 3 9.7 17 51.5 15 46.8 17 58.7 72 35.7 12 47 25.6 100 1 30 3.3 100 4 31 12.9 100 4 33 12.2 100 2 32 6.4 100 2 29 6.9 100 25 202 12.3 100 Table 6: The relations between the two countries according to students’ views The responses given by the students to the question “what does ‘Bosnia Herzegovina’ evoke first for you?” are analyzed in Table 7. According to the findings, for around 47% of them it evokes “wars and violence”, for 20% of them “Mostar Bridge”, for 10% of them “Ottoman State”, and for 8% of them, it evokes the Turk population living in the country. War and violence Mostar Bridge Otoman Empire Türkish population Football İzzet Begoviç No answer Total f % 95 42 20 18 4 3 20 202 47.0 20.7 10.0 8.9 1.9 1.5 10.0 100 Table 7: The evocations of Bosnia Herzegovina for Turkish students The students who got involved in the study were asked to express the most significant common ground between the two countries. 37% of the students stated “the unity of religion”, 32.6% of them “the unity of culture and history”, and 18.3% of them “ethnic relationship” (Table 8). Religious union History and culture association Ethnic relationship No answer Total f % 73 66 26 37 202 37.0 32.6 18.3 12.1 100 Table 8: The most important common ground between the two countries according to students’ views Conclusion It is possible to say that the general knowledge level of Turkish students about Bosnia Herzegovina is lower than expected in general and the result does not differ a lot in different classes. The question which was answered right by the majority of the students was the question about the capital city of Bosnia Herzegovina and the question answered right by the least number of students was the source of the country’s name. A great number of students 153 �who participated in the survey stated that Bosnia Herzegovina was a unit of Yugoslavia before gaining its independence. Nevertheless, it is very distressing that 20% of the students, who are also receiving geography education answered it wrong. Despite the fact that maps are among the materials utilized intensively in geography education, it is seen that they are not made use of adequately (Doğanay et al., 2001:35). Moreover, it is impossible to perceive the events taking place in a region without knowing the geographical location of the region and its neighbours. Unfortunately, the number of the students who could not mark the exact location of Bosnia Herzegovina on the map is too high to ignore. The rate of those who could mark the neighbouring countries is considerably low. As for this question, though the success of the 1st year students is a bit less than others, it could be stated that there is not much difference between the classes. The reason behind these results might be students’ not making use of maps and atlas while studying lessons with content of countries. Therefore, some measures encouraging the use of map and atlas must be taken. Related to this issue again, the number of the students who pointed out that Bosnia Herzegovina does not have any coastline is not very little either. In addition to the reasons mentioned above, the fact that the country’s having the Adriatic Sea Coastline might not be visible on the commonly used atlas and maps could also have an effect on students’giving wrong answers. Turkish students expressed that the level of the relations between the countries are not as they should be. That the first thing that Bosnia Herzegovina evokes for the students is ‘war and violence” is something remarkable. It has been demonstrated once again how distressing the things that once took place in this region are for humanity. The students mentioned “Mostar Bridge” in the second place. The remark one of the students (Student:156) was quoted saying “Two cities named Bosnia and Herzegovina are located here and Mostar Bridge connects them each other” shows Turkish students misperceptions. ‘The unity of religion’was the very thing mentioned by the students who participated in the survey as the most important common ground between the two countries. Turkish students were able to know that Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats are the ethnic groups in the majority. However, according to the data we have, the students have also a perception which is not true. Muslim Bosniak population of Slav origin is thought to be of Turk ethnic background. This indicates that this has an important impact on students’ understanding of Bosnia. It is a typical example of the misperceptions of Turkish students as well. References Doğanay, H., Zaman, S. & Alım, M. (2001). Ortaöğretim coğrafya eğitiminde klasik ders materyali ve coğrafya öğretmenlerinin bunlardan yararlanma durumu. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi, 7 (6), 33-44). Gözenç, S. (1995). Ülkeler coğrafyası. Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Güner, I. & Ertürk, M. (2005). Kıtalar ve ülkeler coğrafyası. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara. Karaman, M.L. (1992). Bosna-Hersek ve Bosna-Hersekliler. Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, İstanbul. Özey, R. (2001). Dünya ve ülkeler coğrafyası, Aktif Yayınevi, İstanbul. Tunçel, H. (2008). Türk öğrencilerin zihin haritalarında İslam ülkeleri. Fırat üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12 (2), 83-103. 154 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c7cbe594b7beb0330adefec99f9a88ba.doc aff965f7a096db9a2bfd56431411f405 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 369 Title A name given to the resource Turkish University Students’ Perceptions on Bosnia-Herzegovina Author Author Alım, Mete Doğanay, Serkan Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosna-Herzegovina, one of the Balkan countries in southeastern Europe, has declared its independence following the partition of Yugoslavia Federation. Historical and cultural ties between Bosnia-Herzegovina and Turkey are actually very strong. In this context, these two countries have signed various cultural and economic cooperation agreements.This study aims at determining the level of understandingand general knowledge of Turkish university students on BosniaHerzegovina. The samples of the study were obtained from students of Atatürk University Faculty of Education, Department of Geography Teaching. A scale consisted of open ended questions in order to determine the level of knowledge of the sample group on Bosnia-Herzegovina. Moreover, the students were asked to point of the place of Bosnia-Herzegovina and its neighbours on an empty world map. By this way we aimed to determine the situation of this country in the mind map of Turkish university students. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7e39e506d4c3f0da0bc1bbbeebd0916f.pdf 55d416cf8424f145d997d5a2dff53581 PDF Text Text Türkiye’de Yabancı Dil Edinim Sorunu ve Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe Mustafa ARSLAN International Burch University, Eğitim Fakültesi Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenliği Bölümü marslan@ibu.edu.ba Özet:Yabancı dil edinimi son yıllarda sıkça tartışılan bir konu olmuştur. Toplum olarak yabancı dil öğrenimine yönelik ön yargılarımızın olduğu bir gerçektir. Bu ön yargılardan kurtulma adına neler yapılabilir? Bir yabancı dil en sağlıklı biçimde nasıl edinilir? Çocukların ve yetişkinliklerin dil edinmede yaşadıkları problemler bu makalede irdelenmiştir. Bir yabancı dil bilen kişinin kendi dili ile öğrendiği yabancı dili kıyaslama imkânı olacaktır. Bu açıdan yabancı dil öğretimi olarak Türkçenin nasıl bir dil olduğu bu bildiride ortaya konmuştur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Dil edinimi, Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe, Öğretim metotları, Motivasyon, Dil öğreniminin problemleri. Giriş Yabancı bir dil bilmenin önemli olduğu günümüzde yabancı dil öğretim yöntemleri de çok çeşitlenmiştir. Bununla birlikte yabancı dil eğitimi bir sektör haline gelmiş ve bu alanda ciddi yatırımlar yapılmıştır. Ayrıca “çağımızda hızla gelişen teknoloji insanların bireysel ve toplumsal düzeyde yakın ilişkiler kurmalarına olanak sağlamış, böylece yabancı dil öğrenimi için öteden beri duyulan gereksinme eskiye oranla alışılmış ölçülerin çok üstünde bir artış göstermiştir. Ancak yabancı dil öğreniminde karşılaşılan zorluklar henüz ortadan kalkmış değildir” (Sebüktekin 1973:95) Toplumuzda özellikle yetişkinler arasında ikinci bir dil ediniminin zor olduğu ön yargısı yerleşmiştir. “Modern dünyanın sakinleri dil öğrenme teşebbüslerinde öyle hayal kırıklığına uğramışlardır ki doğuştan sahip oldukları dil edinme yetisini belli bir dönemden sonra kaybettiklerini zannetmektedirler. Yabancı dil öğretmenleri yöntem bilimcileri arasında yaygın kanılardan biri, ergenlik sonrası genel dil edinme yetisinin kaybolduğu ve bu dönemden sonra yeni bir dilin ancak genel öğrenme mekanizmaları tarafından öğrenilebileceğidir. Yani gramer konularını matematik öğrenir gibi bilinçli olarak irdeleyip bol miktarda alıştırma yapmak suretiyle bilinçaltına yerleştirmek, yetişkinlerin takip edebileceği tek yol olarak gösterilmektedir.”1 Son yıllarda dış dünyaya açılmakta olan ülkemizde yabancı dil (İngilizce, Fransızca, Almanca, Arapça vs…) eğitimi yoğun bir şekilde yapılmaktadır. Ders programlarında ilköğretimden başlamak üzere üniversiteye kadar yüklü bir yabancı dil eğitimi programı göze çarpmaktadır. Ancak bu kadar öneme rağmen neden toplum olarak ikinci bir dili edinmekte çok zorlanılmaktadır? Bu soru gerçekle bağdaşmayacak kolay bir yoldan şu şekilde cevaplandırılmaktadır: “Biz toplum olarak ikinci bir dili öğrenme yeteneğimiz zayıf.” Fakat problemin temel kaynağına öğretim metotlarını sorgulayarak inmek doğru olacaktır. 1.Türkiye’de Yabancı Dil Edinim Sorunu ve Önerilen Çözümler Bugün bir çok Avrupa ülkesinde televizyonlarda filmler orjinal diliyle yayınlanmaktadır. Kendi dillerini ise altyazı olarak vermektedirler. Örneğin Bosna Hersek televizyonlarında dublajlı film bulunmamaktadır. İnsanlar filmleri (genellikle İngilizce) orjinal sesleriyle dinlerken Boşnakça altyazılı olarak okumaktadırlar. Bosna Hersek sokaklarında kime sorsanız mutlaka İngilizce birşeyler konuşabilmektedirler. Filmleri orjinal sesleriyle seyretme olayı çocuklar açısından daha da önemlidir. Çünkü günlük hayatta kullanılan belli kalıplar bu yolla çocukta alışkanlık haline gelmektedir. Olaya bu yönden bakıldığında televizyon başında uzun süre kalan toplumlardan olduğumuz görülmektedir. Bu durum bir zaman öldürme ya da beyni duraklaştırma yerine faydalı bir işe çevrilebilir. 309 �Böylelikle dublaj için harcanan enerji ve para kaybı olmayacak, ayrıca zararlarından dolayı sıkça şikayet edilen teknolojinin sunmuş oladuğu olanaklardan olumlu bir şekilde faydalanılmış olunacaktır. Bu bir zorunluluk, politika haline geldiği zaman toplum mecburen televizyondan dinleyeceği orjinal İngilizce kelimelerden, cümlelerden bazılarını öğrenecektir. Öğrendiği basit cümleleri bir iki defa kullanma fırsatı bulduğunda ise cesareti artacak, motive olacak ve bir yabancı dili öğrenebileceğine kendini inandıracaktır. Türkiye’de televizyon yayınlarının orjinal dilinde altyazı ile verilmesi projesinin bu bu bildiri ile bir gündem oluşturacağı düşünülmektedir. Bu durumun çocukların yeni bir dili edinmeleri açısından daha da önemli olduğu yukarıda ifade edilmişti. Çünkü çocuklar anadillerini çevrelerinden duydukları sesleri taklit ederek edinirler. Uzun süre televizyon seyreden bir toplum olarak çocuklarımızın televizyondan işitecekleri yabancı sözcükler ve cümleler zamanla bir alışkanlık haline dönüşecektir. Dilin aslı da bir alışkanlıktır. “Yeni bir dil edinememenin altında yatan temel sorunlarından biri de iyi motive olamamaktan kaynaklanmaktadır. Motive olamamanın sebebi ise dil edinmede uygulanan yanlış metotlardır. Maalesef hala kimi yerlerde yabancı dil, gramer konuları temel alınarak öğretilmektedir. Hangi topluma gidilirse gidilsin, insanlar anadillerinin dahi gramerini sevmezler. Türkiye’de yıllarca bu metodla İngilizce öğrenen kuşaklar bugün İngilizceden nefret eder hale gelmişlerdir. Toplumların bu konuda kaybettikleri zaman ve maddi kayıplar ayrı bir tartışma konusudur. Barry Farber (25 yabancı dil biliyor) “Yabancı Dil Öğrenme Yöntemleri” adlı kitabında şunları söylüyor: “İlk öğrenmeye başladığım dil Latince idi ve az kalsın bu dersi veren öğretmen yüzünden yabancı dil öğrenmeye karşı olan bütün heyecanımı yitirecektim. Çünkü Latince öğretmeni ağır gramer kalıpları anlatıyordu ve biz hiç anlamıyorduk. Daha sonra Latince derslerine gitmemeye başladım” (Farber1998:3) İyi bir dil edinimine küçük yaşlarda başlanmalıdır. Bununla ilgili adımlar Türkiye’de yeni yeni atılmaya başlanmıştır. Ancak hala öğretim metodu olarak çocukların ilgisini çekecek yaklaşımlar ortaya konamadığından yeni bir dil edinimine erken yaşta çocuklar veda etmektedirler. Fakat dil eğitiminde en önemli işlevi üzerinde bulunduran eğitimcilerin ders içinde ve hatta dışında (koridorda, bahçede) öğrettikleri dili kullanmadıklarından öğrencilerin motivasyon kaybına uğradıklarını bir gerçektir. Yurt dışında farklı ülkelerde ortaöğretim kurumlarını inceleyenler bilirler ki öğrencilerin İngilizceleri, telaffuzları gerçekten iyi derecededir. Çünkü öğrencilerin İngilizce iletişim kurabilecekleri her fırsatı değerlendirdikleri, dikkatleri çekmektedir. Teneffüs aralarında İngilizce öğretmenleriyle İngilizce iletişim kurmaları önemli bir tespittir. Türkiye’de yabancı dil öğreten eğitimciler gramer konularına hakim oldukları kadar pratikte öğrettikleri dili konuşamamaktadırlar. Bir çocuk uygun ortam sağlandığında aynı anda birçok dili öğrenebilir. Bu konuyu Melih Arat’ın gözlemlediği bir olayla daha da somutlaştıralım: Melih Arat araştırmasının sonucunda diyordu ki: “Gelişimini izleme imkânı bulduğum üç dil öğretilmeye çalışılan bir bebek oldu. Söz konusu bebek, yedi yaşına kadar Türkçe, İngilizce ve Almanca öğrendi. Nasıl mı? Anadili İngilizce olan bir dadı tutuldu. Anne baba anadilleri gibi Almanca biliyordu, bebekliğinden itibaren evde Almanca ve Türkçe konuşuluyordu, yazları da çocuk Almanya’da uluslararası bir anaokuluna götürülüyordu. Burada Alman çocuklarının yanı sıra Amerikalı çocuklar başta olmak üzere başka milletlerden de çocuklar vardı. Böylece çocuk hem Almanca hem de İngilizceyi günlük yaşamında kullanmak, Almanca ve İngilizce duyduklarıyla oyunlara katılmak zorunda kaldı. Türkiye’ye geldiğinde de Türk arkadaşları ve ailenin dil bilmeyen büyükleriyle ve tabii anne babasıyla da Türkçe iletişim kuruyordu. Şimdi on yaşlarında üç dili de gayet düzgün şekilde konuşabiliyor, okuyup yazabiliyor.”1 Özel üniversiteler ya da kurumlar yabancı dil eğitimi problemini belli bir ölçüde çözmüşlerdir. Ekonomik imkanlara sahip olan bu kurumlar yabancı dil eğitimini yurt dışından hoca getirmek (anadili İngilizce olan) suretiyle yapmaktadırlar. Yabancı biriyle iletişim kurmak öğrencilerin de zevk aldıkları bir durumdur. Öğrencilerin anadili İngilizce olan biriyle iletişim kurmaları, onunla birkaç cümle konuşmaları onları pozitif yönde motive etmektedir. Ayrıca özel kurumların öğrencileri yaz tatilinde öğrendikleri dilin ülkesinde pratik amaçlı geziler düzenliyor olmaları, dil edinimi açısından önemli bir yaklaşımdır. Bugün en yaygın yabancı dil edinim yöntemlerinden biri de edinilen dilin ülkesinde yaşamakla sağlanmaktadır. Gerçek ortamda edinilen dil kalıcıdır. Sokakta, pazarda, toplu taşıma araçlarında yani doğal ortamda o dil edinilir. Dille birlikte o toplumun kültürünü de inceleme fırsatı yakalanmış olur. Bu tür yabancı dil öğrenme etkinlikleri önceden tespit edilen bir ailenin yanında kalma ya da okullar arası öğrenci değişimi yapmak suretiyle gerçekleştirilir. Ayrıca yurt dışında yüksek lisans ve doktora yapan akademisyenler doğal ortamda akademik yabancı dili edinirler. Yetişkinler için yeni bir dil edinimi daha çok bir ihtiyaçtan kaynaklanmaktadır. “Dünyanın en iyi dil okuluna gitmek, çok yetenekli özel öğretmenlerden ders almak bile, eğer bu işi öğrenmek için gereken sabır, kararlılık ve çaba gösterilmezse, herhangi bir yabancı dilin öğrenilmesini sağlayamaz. Bu bir gerçektir. Ama bunun karşısında bir gerçek daha vardır ki onu da şöylece özetlemek mümkündür: Çağımızda, devlet adamları, bürokratlar, bilim adamları, entelektüel çevreler, ekonomistler, akademisyenler, doktorlar, hukukçular, medya mensuplarının büyük bir kesimi, şirket işletmecileri, pazarlamacılar vs gibi her ülke toplumunun artık vazgeçilmez siyasal, kültürel ve ekonomik erk sahipleri, en azından kendi alanlarıyla ilgili bilimsel, teknolojik ve kültürel gelişmeleri izlemek, global anlamda dünyada olup-biten gelişmeleri zamanında fark etmek ve şartların 310 �gereğini yaparak saygınlıklarını korumak için çok açık bir şekilde yabancı dillere gereksinim duymaktadırlar” (Yolcu 2002:21). Dil öğretiminin üzerinde durulmayan bir de politik yönü vardır. Bugün özellikle sömürge ülkelerinde yerli halk kendi dilinden ziyade sömürgeci devletin dilini kullanmaktadırlar. Sömürgeci durumda olan ülkeler hem maddi olarak hem de kültürel olarak üçüncü dünya devletlerini hükümranlıkları altına almışlardır. Burada konumuza bakan yönüyle sömürgeci devletler kontrolleri altına aldıkları coğrafyaların dillerini de değiştirmişlerdir. Bu değişim çok bilinçli ve programlı bir şekilde yapılmıştır. İşgalci ülkeler kültürün en önemli etkenlerinden dili baskıyla da olsa değiştirmeyi başarmışlardır. Şimdi ise bu ülkelerde insanlar işgalci devletlerin dilini zorlama olmadan, doğal olarak edinmektedir. “Dil, düşünce, kültür ve medeniyet arasında o kadar hassas ve güçlü bir ilişki vardır ki insanların kullandıkları dile hâkim olmak, onların düşüncelerine hâkim olmak demektir. Bir milletin dilini ele geçirenler, o milletin geleceğine de yön vereceklerdir” (Alan 1994:5) Toplumların mayasını oluşturan kültürlerin temel taşı olan anadillerimiz mutlaka muhafaza edilmelidir. Yabancı dil eğitimi ön plana çıkarılarak anadili eğitimi arka plana atılmamalıdır. Konfüçyüs’e sordular: Bir ülkeyi yönetmeye çağrılsaydınız, yapacağınız ilk iş ne olurdu? Büyük filozof şöyle cevap verdi: Hiç şüphesiz, dili gözden geçirmekle işe başlardım. Ve dinleyicilerin hayret dolu bakışları karşısında sözlerini sürdürdü: Dil düzensiz olursa, sözler düşünceyi iyi anlatamaz. Düşünce iyi anlatılamazsa, yapılması gereken şeyler doğru yapılamaz. Görevler gereği gibi yapılmazsa, adetler ve kültür bozulur. Adetler ve kültür bozulursa, adalet yanlış yola sapar. Adalet yoldan çıkarsa, şaşkınlık içine düşen halk, ne yapacağını, işin nereye varacağını bilmez. İşte bunun için hiçbir şey dil kadar önemli değildir” (Emir 1986). Bu bakış açısı doğrudur. Ancak anadilimiz yok olacak endişesi ile yabancı dil eğitimi malzeme yapılmakta ve toplumumuzda psikolojik bir baskı oluşturulmaktadır. Teknolojiyle birlikte değişen dünyamızda dil eğitimi de bu değişimden etkilenmiştir. Artık okula veya bir kursa gitmeden de insanlar yabancı dil öğrenmek istemektedirler. Bilgisayar üzerinden hazırlanmış yabancı dil öğretim programları özellikle teknolojiye yakın olan gençlerin dikkatinden kaçmamaktadır. Sanal ortamda dilin sacayağı olan işitme-anlama, konuşma, okuma ve yazma etkinlikleri programlanmıştır. Bunlardan konuşma hariç diğerleri (işitme-anlama, okuma, yazma) kısmen amacına ulaşmaktadır. Sanal ortamdaki program iyi bir konuşma fırsatı sunsa da doğal konuşma ortamındaki faydayı sağlayamayacaktır. Dil de canlı bir varlık gibidir. Doğal ortamlarda edinilir. Teknolojik araçlar tek başına yabancı dil öğrenmede yeterli olamaz ancak yardımcı olabilir. Yabancı bir dili öğrenmede farklı toplumların İngilizce, Fransızca,Rusça gibi yaygın dilleri çabuk öğreniyor olmalarının üzerimize kurmuş olduğu olumsuz bir baskı vardır. Ancak İngilizce, Fransızca, Almanca, Rusça gibi yeryüzünde çok koçuşulan diller Hint Avrupa dil ailesinin ortak üyeleridir. Hem akrabalık bakımından hem de yapı olarak bu diller birbirine yakındırlar. Dolayısı ile anadili bu dillerden biri olan bu toplumlar Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki başka bir dili öğrenmeleri kolay olmaktadır. Akraba olarak Arapça bu guruba girmese de yapı olarak Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki dillere benzemesi yönüyle Arap toplulukları da bu dilleri edinmede daha avantajlıdırlar. Her ne kadar meslenin böyle bir gerçeklik yönü olsa da başkalarının kolay yabancı ediniyor olmaları tam tersine bizi de pozitif yönde motive etmelidir. 2. Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe Yukarıda bahsedilen yabancı dil öğrenimine yönelik ön yargılar, ülkemizde değişik sebeplerle yurt dışına çıkan yurttaşlarımızın farklı yabancı dilleri öğrenmesiyle kısmen izole olmuştur. Ancak uygulanan mevcut programlar, yabancı dil eğitimcilerinin kullanmış oldukları yöntemler, kullanılan araçlar ve ekonomik boyutu düşünüldüğünde yabancı dil eğitiminde alınan sonuç tatmin edici değildir. Yabancı dillere karşı olan ilgi anadilinin önemini anlama açısından da çok önemlidir. “Bir yabancı dili bilmeyen, kendi dilini de tam olarak bilemez” (Goethe). Yurt dışında yabancılara Türkçe öğretenler, yabancı dil eğitimi olarak Türkçeyi diğer dillerle kıyaslama imkanı bulmuşlardır. Bu karşılaştırma sonucunda Türkçe yabancı dil olarak öğrenilecek en kolay dillerden biri olduğu kanaatine varılmıştır. Bu tezin doğruluğu aşağıda Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki diller ve Türkçenin karşılaştırılmasıyla ortaya konmaya çalışılmıştır. - Anadilleri Rusça olan öğrencilere Türkçe öğretilirken bazen istisnalardan bahsedilmiştir. Örneğin Türkçedeki şimdiki zaman eki /–Iyor/ eki ünlü uyumuna uymaz ve bir istisna oluşturur. Buna durumda öğrencilerin: “o! Türkçede ne kadar istisna var?” diye, Türkçeyi hafife aldıkları görülmüştür. Böyle davranmalarının asıl sebebi Rusçanın gramer yapsısı incelendikten sonra daha net olarak anlaşılmıştır. Rusçanın yeryüzünde en çok istisnası olan dillerden biri olduğu ortaya konmuştur. Rusça öğrenmek isteyen bir yabancıya gramer anlatarak bu dili öğretmeye çalışmak öğretim yöntemleri açısından diğer dillere göre daha da risklidir. Çünkü Rusçadaki gramer şekillerini, istisnaları gören bir öğrenci bu dili öğrenmek için başka metotlara başvuracaktır. - Türkçe kelimelerde birçok dilde olduğu gibi dişilik, erkeklik ve orta cins gibi şekiller yoktur. Rusçada ise kelimelerin bu şekillerini öğrenmek için iyi bir çalışma yapmak gerekir. Çünkü kelimelerin bu durumlarını bilmeden Rusçayı öğrenmek zordur. Örneğin Türkçede kadın, erkek ve herhangi bir cansız varlığa o diye 311 �- - - - hitap edilebilir. Ama Rusçada kadın için Türkçe okunuşuyla ana, erkek için on ve cansız varlıklar için ano demek gerekmektedir. Bu kelimelerin erkeklik, dişilik ve orta cinslik durumlarını bilmek için Rusçada birtakım kurallar vardır ama bu kuralları bozan bir o kadarda istisnalar bulunmaktadır. Dışarıdan bakıldığı zaman ana dili Rusça olanlar için kelimelerin bu durumlarını bilmek zor gibi görünmemekte ama yabancılar için aynı şeyi söylemek mümkün değildir. Rusçanın düzenli fiilleri diğer Hint Avrupa dillerinde olduğu gibi şahıs ve zamana göre kolayca çekimlenebilir. Ancak Hint Avrupa dil ailesindeki diller ve Arapça gibi bazı dillerde olduğu gibi Rusçanın da düzensiz fiilleri vardır. Rusçada düzensiz fiiller çekime girdiği zaman şahıs ve zaman ekleri değişmez ama ses ve yapı olarak fiil değişikliğe uğramaktadır. Rusça fiillerin bir diğer özelliği de eylemin bitip bitmemesine göre farklı şekillerde kullanılmasıdır. Örneğin başlamak eylemi gelecek zaman anlamında hala başlamamışsa Türkçe okunuşuyla naçinat şekli kullanılır, eğer eylem başlamışsa naçat şekli kullanılır. Türkçede ise düzensiz fiil yoktur, zaman ve şahıslara göre düzenli bir fiil çekimi vardır. Türkçe fiiller etken (aktif) halden edilgen (pasif) hale kökün ünlü veya ünsüz ile bitme durumlarına göre /-l/, /-n/ eklerlinden biri getirilerek yapılır. Rusçada fiiller edilgen (pasif) hale geçerken değişmektedirler. Türkçe sondan eklemeli bir dildir ve kök ya da gövdeye getirilen yeni bir ekle kelimenin temel anlamına bağlı olarak yeni anlamda sözcükler türetmek mümkündür. Göz kelimesine /–lIk/ yapım eki getirilerek gözlük kelimesi türetilir. Göz kelimesini bilen öğrenci gözlük kelimesini de kolaylıkla anımsayacaktır. İngilizcede ise bu kelimeleri söylemek için iki ayrı sözcük ezberlemek gerekmektedir. Göz için eye, gözlük için glasses kelimeleri ayrı ayrı öğrenilmelidir. Türkçe kelimeler ünlü uyumuna göre /-ler/ ve /-lar/ eklerinden biri getirerek çoğul yapılmakatdır. Rusçada her ne kadar erkek ve dişi cinslerde kelimenin sonuna Türkçe okunuşuyla /-ı/, / -i/ orta cinste ise /-ya/, / -a/ son ekleriyle çoğul yapılsa bile bir çok yerde bu kural bozulmaktadır. Örneğin anne kelimesinin çoğulu bu kuralların dışında başka bir şekilde yapılır. Anne Türkçe okunuşuyla mama anneler ise materi şeklinde yapılır; ancak kurala göre mamı şeklinde olmalıydı. Rusçaya yabancı dillerden giren kelimelerin çoğulları yine farklı bir şekilde yapılmaktadır. Türkçe kelime veya cümleler nasıl işitilirse öyle de yazılmaktadır. Kelimelerin telaffuzu farklı yazılışları farklı değildir. Hint Avrupa dil ailesinde çoğunlukla bu durum söz konusudur. Örneğin yine Rusçada nerede o, nerede a yazılacağı anadili Rusça olanlar tarafından dahi karıştırılır. Türkçede kelimeler yazıldığı gibi okunmaktadır. Örneğin Türkçede “okul” sözcüğü yazıldığı gibi okunur ancak İngilizcede “school” yazılır “sukul” okunur. Türkçede kelimenin anlamını değiştirecek seviyede vurgu yoktur. Özellikle Çince gibi dillerde vurgu doğru yapılmadığı takdirde sözcükler farklı anlaşılmaktadır. Sonuç Her ne kadar yeni bir dil edinimi için pratik çözümler olsa da “bireyler öğrenme ortamına bilgi ve tecrübe farklılıklarıyla gelmekte ve kendi kapasiteleri çerçevesinde algılayıp öğrenmektedirler. Bu nedenden dolayı dil süreçlerinin kazandırılmasında tek yöntem, tek anlayış ve tek etkinlik fikri asla uygun değildir”(Akyol 2006:i). Yabancı dil edinirken yaşanılan en ciddi problemlerden biri de yanlış yapacağım endişesidir. Birkaç defa öğrenilen dilde hata yapan kişi motivasyon olarak kendini bu konuda mağlup ilan etmiştir. Hâlbuki tüm doğrulara, güzelliklere hata yapılarak ulaşılabilir. Bu açıdan ikinci dil edinen bireyler korkmadan, çekinmeden, kırarak, dökerek hatta alay konusu olsalar bile heyecanlarını yitirmeden meselenin üzerine gitmeleri gerekmektedir. Zamanla hatalarının üzerine giden birey edinilen dili konuşmaya başladıkça bu işten çok zevk alacaktır. Toplumumuza bakan yönüyle yurt dışında genellikle iç içe, yakın yaşanıyor olmaktan dolayı hâkim olan toplulukla iletişim kurmakta zorlanıldığı bir gerçektir. Bunun en temel sebeplerinden biri mahalli dili öğrenip sosyal hayatın içine girmektense kendi içimizde kalmayı tercih ediyor olmaktır. Hatta kimi zaman bu durumdan kurtulmak için birkaç kez dil kurslarına katılma atağı da olmaktadır. Ama bu konuda çabuk pes eden bir yapıya sahip olunulduğunun sayısız örnekleri vardır. Hem kendi hem de yaşanılan toplum içinde mahalli dili konuşma iradesi göstererek bu problemin üstesinden gelinebilir. Bu durumda yerel halk tarafından her defasında vurulan “Şu insanlar yıllardır burada yaşıyorlar ama bizim dili öğrenemediler hala”damgasından kurtulunmuş olunur. Bir dilin dünya dili olabilmesi için aranan en önemli şart köklü ve güçlü bir edebiyatının olmasıdır. Bu açıdan bakıldığında Türkçe temeli çok eskilere dayanan sağlam bir edebiyatın mirasçısıdır. Anadilinin inceliklerini bilenlerin ancak iyi seviyede bir yabancı dil öğrenebileceği yukarıda birkaç kez vurgulanmıştır. Dolayısı ile yetişkinlere yönelik olarak Türkiye’de yabancı dil eğitiminden önce aslı çok eskilere varan Türk dilinin gücü bireylere kavratılmalıdır. Bu bildiride yabancı dil eğitimi olarak Türkçenin ayrıcalıkları da sıralanmıştır. Yabancı dil eğitimi olarak da Türkçenin öğrenilebilen kolay bir dil olduğu bilincine varan yetişkin vatandaşlarımız, başka bir yabancı dili öğrenmede olumlu yönde motive olacaklardır. Son yıllarda toplum olarak yabancı dil öğrenmeye yönelik cesaretimiz artmıştır. Bu konuda ortaya konan yeni ve sonuç alınan programlar uygulanmaya başlamıştır. Değişik yabancı dilleri öğrenen insanımızın Türkçenin 312 �güçlü bir dil olduğuna dair inancı da değişmiştir. Türkçe dünya dili olma yönünde bugün hayal edilemeyen yerlere gelmiştir. Türkçe gelecekte yeryüzünde en çok konuşulan birkaç dilden biri olmaya adaydır. Kaynakça Akyol, H. (2006). Türkçe Öğretim Yöntemleri. Ankara: Kök Yayınları:i Alan, Y. (1994). “Lisan ve İnsan” Sızıntı 16 (185): 5 Emir, S. (1986). Örnekleriyle Kompozisyon Yazma Sanatı. İstanbul: Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakıf Yayını Farber, B. (1998). Yabancı Dil Öğrenme Yöntemleri. İstanbul: geliştir-im kitapları:3 Sebüktekin, H. (1973). “Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Yöntem”, Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Dergisi:95 Yolcu, M. (2002). “Yabancı Dil Öğrenimi”, Dinbilimleri Akademik Araştırma Dergisi 2 (3):21 313 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4dbdcb4bad4bbc1cc46062ffef55971d.doc 3121f2f178487d5a76bb281022e84b38 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 373 Title A name given to the resource Türkiye’de Yabancı Dil Edinim Sorunu ve Yabancı Dil Olarak Türkçe Author Author Arslan, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Yabancı dil edinimi son yıllarda sıkça tartışılan bir konu olmuştur. Toplum olarak yabancı dil öğrenimine yönelik ön yargılarımızın olduğu bir gerçektir. Bu ön yargılardan kurtulma adına neler yapılabilir? Bir yabancı dil en sağlıklı biçimde nasıl edinilir? Çocukların ve yetişkinliklerin dil edinmede yaşadıkları problemler bu makalede irdelenmiştir. Bir yabancı dil bilen kişinin kendi dili ile öğrendiği yabancı dili kıyaslama imkânı olacaktır. Bu açıdan yabancı dil öğretimi olarak Türkçenin nasıl bir dil olduğu bu bildiride ortaya konmuştur Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/50f74f6fd0734f03e01276845e13aa3c.pdf 780d1f683d0907a1672ad27283b8708f PDF Text Text Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya: Applications And Public Perceptions Hakan Aslan University of Sakarya, Civil Engineering Department, Division of Transportation, Sakarya haslan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: As being one of the main tools in urban transport planning and traffic management, traffic calming is gaining more attention in the recent years. Furthermore, it is expected that its use will be increased significantly in the near future. This paper is mainly assesses the implemantation of traffic calming schemes in Sakarya and the response from the public. A questionnaire based research was designed and undertaken in some traffic calmed areas of Sakarya. The results obtained indicate the factthatthe implemantations and their public perception need to be improved through bettertechnical applications and public consultation process. The results conclude thatthere is a significant dissatisfaction among the people from poorly designed and applied schemes ending up damaging environment and being very unsightly. The paper also discusses the possible recommendations and suggestions about the ways ofimproving the traffic calming schemes and expected benefitsin Sakarya Introduction The term traffic calming is very loosely used and can therefore mean differentthings to different people. Although there is no single com mon definition oftraffic calming accepted by interested authorities[1],it can be defined as the techniques aimed at reducing vehicle speeds in residential areas, without restricting access. As a result of this, vulnerable road users and residents are protected, and the quality of life is improved for those living in the neighbourhood. As one of the main figures in the field of traffic calming, Hass-Klau [2] regarded traffic calming as ‘ the street regulations and combinations of transport policies used for the Dutch woonerven, which enforces the reduction of motor vehicle speeds to walking pace, giving equal rights to allroad users and alleviatesthe adverse environmental safety and severance effects of motor vehicles. The developments and applications of traffic calming schemes all over the world, especially in the Europe, has quite rightly brought the subject into the agenda of the transportation related people; researchers, transport professionals and highway authorities. Although one of the main objectives of the traffic calming schemes is related to the safety of the traffic environment, the degree of danger felt by people using the streets is also another important aspect of traffic calming applications. This research reveals the public perception of the applied traffic calming measures in city of Sakarya, Turkey. Traffic Calming in Europe With the increasing public awareness of environmentalissues in Germany, Federal Ministry of Regional Planning, Housing and Urban Development handled theissues relatedtotraffic calming. The Ministry played the leading role in financing traffic calming related applications and first publication about on the analysis and practical experiences oftraffic calming in 1978/79 was revealed. The two following publications from the same Ministry were Planning Booklet on Traffic Calming (1982) and Cost of Traffic Calming (1983). These publications, along with others, changed the attitutes of people and , accordingly,the organisations in highway and transportation related issues had no longer any question about the need for traffic calming on residential streets.. The recent studies [3] state that German cities obtained 50 percent increase in bicycle use, 57 percent reduction in fatal accidents, 45 percent reduction in severe accidents, 40 percent reduction in slight injuries, 43 percentreduction in pedestrian accidents, 16 percentreduction in cyclistaccidents, 16 percentreduction intraffic accident costs, 66 percent reduction in child accidentsthrough the implementation oftraffic calming projects. 424 �As being the origin country of traffic calming, Woonerf schemes of the 1970's, engineers in Delft demonstrated that the speed of vehicles could be reduced through specific design measures. The first applications became so successful not onlyinterms oftraffic management and design but also public perception. The following years led to new applications in many towns and cities, even villages, and legal legislation was introduced in 1976 [4]. The reliable and steady positive results obtained from the research projects in Netherlands [5] formed the basis forthe evolution oftrafficcalming design of our modern days. Britain was slow to startthe debate and discussion on the notion oftraffic calming as the main objectives of traffic calming was seen to reduce the accidents and Department of Transport claimed that accident levels were relatively low compared the other European countries.Đn the following years, with the changing attitudes, some local highway authorities such as Kent & Hetfordshire took the initiative and started carrying out some traffic calming projects without any clear official approval from the DOT. Britain is now one of the leading countries ofthe Europe to implementthe wide range oftraffic calming schemes successfully [6]. Turkey is stillitsinfancy regarding the traffic calming applications and the reviews ofthe current applied measures. The local authorities have the power to implement the schemes whenever and wherever they think they are necessary. The residents` opinions are frequently neglected inthe process. However,itis quite clearthat the purpose of the proposed schemes need to be communicated to local residents and allinterested parties not only to get their opinions but also to inform them about the technical necessities and possible benefits of the projecttojustify the application in their mind. The main objective ofthisresearch isto determine through a questionareifthe traffic calming schemes in Sakarya are readily acceptable by the general public and make some recommendations based on the analysis of the questionnaire. The Need for Questionnaire Survey A survey is not synonymous with a particular technique of collecting information.[7]. The way of data collection and the analysis method to be employed are the distinguishing features of the surveys. As the measurement of perception of the public attitude is atthe core of this study,itis believed thatthe questionnaire based survey would be most appropriate for giving the freedoom to the people to express theirideas. The same consideration affected the selection of the type of the attitude measurements and, accordingly, The Continuous Rating Scale and Linkert Scale were employed as the type of rating scale. Đt is thought that these two rating scales are quite appropropriateto get atrue and unbaised response by giving the best possible amount of freedom and flexibilitytothe respondents. The questionnaire is designed to get the opinion of the people affected by the traffic calming schemes regarding the main aspects below. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. the necessity ofthe project the location and the appearance the effects on journey times the effects on route choice the effects on pedestrian safety the effects on how the streetlook the effect on noise levels the effect on the safety of pedal cyclists whetherthe participants wish to see traffic calming schemes increased. The following sections are related to the presentation and analysis ofthe data obtained. The Selection Criteria of the Applied Projects Đn this study, the Cark street and 503th street were selected as the fields of the study as these two streets are quite busy in terms of vehicle and pedestrian movements along with the intensity of the residential areas. Đn addition,these streets are regarded asthe main projectsimplemented in Sakarya by the local authority. W hile the first street is a two-way district distributor, the second one is one-way local distributor. The applied technique on both streets is speed humps. Humps are located near to schools, mosques, crossings and junctions where it is thought that the vehicle speeds need to be reduced to an acceptable levels if there is a danger for pedestrian safety,.The visuality ofthe humps are enhanced through reflective paints and colouring. The selected streets are heavily used ones asthey arelinking the city centre withthe most developed parts 425 �of the city. Appraisal of Results Đn order to getthe very firstimpression and generalideas of the participants to traffic calming concept, the first question was related whetherthe traffic calming should be increased in the city as a whole. The obtained results areillustrated in Figure 1. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 YES NO Figure 1. Do You Think Thatthe Implementation of TrafficCalming Projects Should be Incresaed Thisresultclearlyindicatesthatthe general attitudes ofthe publictowardstraffic calming schemes are not in favor. The split is very significant and illustrates the fact that the City Council engineers are facing a big challenge regarding their traffic restraint policies in order to reduce in the percentage of population opposing traffic calming schemes. The necessity ofthe projects applied on the selected streetsis perveived by the public given by Figure 2. 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 YES NO Figure 2. Do You Think ThatThe Applied Projectis Necessary The Figure 1 and Figure 2 seem to be showing opposing conclusions. It is belived from Figure 2 that people are intrested in having a better and safer traffic environment, Figure 1, however, indicates that if the applications are not projected and carried out properly,this is what makes the people to be against the general concept oftraffic calming. 426 �Figure 3 illustratesthe public opinion forthe location and appearance ofthe humps. 60 50 40 Location 30 Appearance 20 10 0 Good Bad No idea Figure 3. What Do You Think Aboutthe Location and Appearance ofthe Humps As figures imply, almost 50 per cent of the general public has the idea thatthe location ofthe humps are determined properly. Those against the location are generally the people having their residants or shops in the vicinity of the application area. The respondents` perception towards the appearance of the humps are negative. This is mainly becasuse ofthe factthatthe applied humps do not have proper markings and design features. As the main objective ofthe traffic calming isto slow drivers down,itshould resultin an overallincrease in journey time. The following figures show the results of the survey regarding this point and the effect of the projects on the route choice behaviour ofthe people,respectively. 60 50 40 30 20 10 ed d ge De as c re i gh tly De cr e a se Ch an No Sl Sl i gh tl y Đnc Đn c re a se re a se d d 0 Figure 4. Effect of Traffic Calming on Journey Times 427 �no t er Ca n Ne v W ish bu t So m eti m es 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Figure 5. Effect of Traffic Calming on Route Choice Figure 4 and 5 imply interesting results. As most of the people normally do not perceive increases or decreases in journey times unless they are large and significant, more than 50 percent of the repondents stated that they did not have any impression that the journey time was extended. Although, one of the drawbacks of traffic calming schemes is that drivers seek alternative routes without any measures on them, overwhelming majority ofthe participants expressed thatthey never changed theirroutes. Thisis mainly due tothe nature ofthe selected streets of the study. The streets are the main and possibly shortest routes in time even with applied measures comparetothe other alternative routes. Another explanation ofthisisthat drivers do speed up between the humps in order to offset the lost time due to the speed reductions on humps. A lot of respondents, on the other hand, wish to chance their routes to escape the negative effects of the humps but due to the lack of alternative routesthey cannot change the road thatthey drive on. The perception ofthe public regarding the noise levelis given by Figure 6 below. 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Worst Slightly Worse No Change Slightly Better Better Figure 6. Effect of Traffic Calming on Noise Levels There seems to be significant proportion of people saying that the noise levels had gone up. This is primarily because of the sudden braking noise of the cars when they reach the speed humps, and the sudden accelaration noise for speeding up just after humps. As far as pedestrian and pedalcyclists` safety are concerned,the public perception isformed as below. 428 �70 60 50 40 Pedestrian Safety 30 Cyclists Safety 20 10 0 Đncreased No Change Decreased No idea Figure 7. Effect of Traffic Calming on Pedestrian and PedalCyclist As expected, majority of the people perceived that pedestrian safety was improved. Although only a small percentage of the respondents believe that traffic calming resulted in a decresaed pedestrian safety, it is very importantthatthese people should also be persuaded about the significant contribution thattraffic calming can make to the overall pedestrian safety. Making sense of the combination of these results are not easy, but it can be said that 63 percent of the participants did not want to see an increased traffic calming but 53 percent of them also believed that traffic calming applications are necessary. While the first figure illustrates the reaction of the people to the applied schemes, the second one indicates the fact that people are in favor of the idea of traffic calming if they are designed and applied properly. People are aware of the benefits of the traffic calming measures and can justify them in spite of the disbenefits;increased noise level and traveltime. Conclusions and Recommendations . Đtis obviousthattheimportantrolethatraffic calming plays and willcontinue to play intraffic management and restraint projects, a priority should be given by public authorities to make sure that people are given enough information aboutthe projects and communicated forthe feedback. As the aim of this research has been to evaluate the public perception of the traffic calming schemes in Sakarya and make the recommendations of how to improve this perceptions,the following recommendations are done in the light ofthis study and obtained results. 1. Without any doubt public should be consulted priorto the implementation of traffic calming measures. The current system in Sakarya seems to be not inclusive enough. Public should not be given the impression that decisions are made well before and public consultation exercise done as window dressings afterwards. 2. Questionnaires should be sent outin the early stages ofthe plans in orderto judge ifthe public assume that schemes are necessary. 3. Đnitiatives should be introduced for educating the public on the benefits of traffic calming schemes. Local tv and radio stations along with newspapers may be used for this purpose to make sure that information is given as widely as possible. 4. As majority of the people supportthe idea of traffic calming but criticise the current implementations, the utmost care should be paid for the future applications to be designed and carried out with a predetermined standards. This will surely make the engineers` job in the future easier to get public support as public might chance their perception aboutthe applied traffic calming schemes inthe past. 5. As people are quite keen to change their routes to escape the disbenefits of the applied traffic calming measures, the effects of any implementation should be considered as a package by including the possible alternative routes ofthe streets and roads subjectto implementation. 429 �References 1. MacDonald. (1993). Quantifying the traffic calming effects on vehicle user behaviour. Unpublished MSc Dissertation. University of Newcastle upon Tyne. 2. Hass-Klau. ( 1990). The pedestrian and city traffic, London. Belhaven Pres. 3. http://www.walkablestreets.com/calm1.htm 4. Lines, C.J., & Castelijn, H.A. (1991). Translation of Dutch 30kph zone design manual. TRRL, PA2046/91 5. Traffic Calming, Local Transport Note 1/107, Department of Transport, March 2007 : TSO 6. Wheeler, G.J., Kennedy, J.V., Davies, G.J., & Green, J.M. ( 2001). Traffic calming schemes in Norfolk and Suffolk. TRL Report/500. 2001 7. De Vaus, A.D.(1993). Survey in social research. UCL Pres, London 430 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e29a2ba548e47a24e9f6683d62eb5964.doc 10e90d10d4d8dbd0fb6a765d6e1f5a29 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 522 Title A name given to the resource Traffic Calming Schemes In Sakarya: Applications And Public Perceptions Author Author Aslan, Hakan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6753b80e840a8513b006a299aa681386.pdf a8d9b0a7ba51ee060a23c0f6f1f35cd6 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Sustainable Economic Development through Tourism Ventures: The Case of Turkey Ahmet BAYTOK Assist. Prof. Dr., School of Tourism and Hotel Management Afyon Kocatepe, University, Turkey ahmetbaytok@aku.edu.tr Veysel AĞCA Assist. Prof. Dr. Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe,University, Turkey agca@aku.edu.tr Mustafa KURT Associate Prof. Dr.Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Afyon Kocatepe University, Turkey mkurt@aku.edu.tr Abstract: Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in all communities. Tourism is one of the economic industries in which a great degree of involvement is needed by the entrepreneurial sector. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism and tourism products. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development of Turkey between the period of 1980 to today. Introduction Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in general and questions of how and why entrepreneurs emerge in an economy are considered as central issue of economic development (Szivas, 2001:164). It can be conceptualize as a process of doing something new or something different, to create wealth for oneself and to add value to society ( Kokkranikal and Morrison, 2002:7). Tourism industry, alongside its growing structure with stimulating effect on other industries has been directly and indirectly providing a significant contribution to the country's economies. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism (Seasonality, sensibility of tourism to politic, economic and natural unexpected events-risky industry, labor intensive etc.) and tourism product (intangibility, perishability, variability,). A large portion of the revenue of the tourism industry emerges through tourist spending for the superstructure investments (accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment facilities) and these investments are mostly made by private sector entrepreneurs. Turkey is an important touristic destination with a significant natural, historical and cultural touristic supply attractiveness. According to data from T.C. Ministry of Culture and Tourism in 2008, approximately 31 million tourists visited Turkey, and left 22 billion dollars as a tourist spending. Due to the economic crisis in the world, tourism revenues and tourist entries have decreased in many countries, while Turkey has been growth approximately 13 percent according to the previous year (www.turizm.gov.tr). The tourism industry in terms of creation of economic value, providing of new employment and creation of export revenues as the contribution of foreign trade deficit to be closed with, has played important role in Turkish economy for last three decades. Especially, in a major development of the last 30-year period of data about industry and the role of the industry played in the economy is the most important evidence. Undoubtedly, the private enterprises by entrepreneurs, make up the superstructure of the industry, is the most important reason for existing economic contribution. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development in the transformation of the tourism industry in Turkey from the period of 1980 to today. In this regard, the impact of the superstructure initiatives occurred by the private enterprises on the growth of the 430 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo economy, employment and foreign trade deficit will be examined. Secondary data will be used in this research. Statistical data in the last 29 year period will be examined and a descriptive analysis will be done. 1. The Concept of Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship is a fairly complex issue and not always easy to define (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 236). The subject of entrepreneurship has been studied from a multitude of disciplinary perspective (Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000:380). Historically the conceptualization emerging within classical economic theory was concerned with entrepreneurial activity as a key factor and dynamic element in economic performance (Ateljevic and Doorne, 2000: 379). Some authors viewing it as a process or a way of behaving (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 236). The root of the word “entrepreneur” comes from the French verb “entreprendre”, which means “to undertake”. Entrepreneurship is conceptualized from different points of view by researchers. According to Cantillion who first acknowledge this concept an entrepreneur bears uncertainty and bears risk. Say concentrate on managerial role of entrepreneur and claimed that an entrepreneur should carry out specific business tasks and also supply his own capital. Shumpeter saw entrepreneurship as a primary engine of economic development. According to him entrepreneur is innovator and innovation is a central element of entrepreneurship” (Lordkipanidze, Bretez and Backman, 2005: 788). The term entrepreneur can be defined as “an innovator carrying out new combinations of economic development such as new goods, new methods of production, new markets, new sources of raw material or new organization form” (Weiermair, Siler and Mössenlechner, 2006: 27). According to the definition certain roles of entrepreneurs can be seen an arbitrageur, an innovator, a market filler, a risk bearer, a decision maker, a creator of an enterprise and a coordinator of the factor of productions (Koy and Hatten, 2002: 25). Entrepreneurs need some driving factors in order to operate; motivation, specific conditions for success, supportive environment, the entrepreneurial climate infrastructure and support and entrepreneurship policy (Lordkipanidze, Bretez and Backman, 2005: 789-790) can be accepted as factors which encourage and form suitable background for the entrepreneurial environment. In recent years nurturing entrepreneurship has become a popular policy objective in communities. It is broadly supported recognizing a wide range of potential contributions to the development process. These include: (Kokkranikal and Morrison, 2002:10). • raising productivity, • creating employment, • restructuring and diversifying the economy, • reducing market inefficiencies, • improving the social welfare of the country, • commercializing innovative products and service • creating new markets. Entrepreneurship is the basic guiding force of countries economic development. While entrepreneurial activities which created by private entrepreneurs have important contributions to countries economic developments, in the same time it increase the level of living standards, social conditions and employment. Today entrepreneurships have some positive and negative impacts on natural, social and cultural factors, as part of social life, because of their unplanned development and they are the products of different cultural backgrounds. They are wanted and encouraged by all countries, as an economic development force even if they have some negative impacts. 2. Tourism Entrepreneurship Tourism is a dynamic and ever changing industry in modern economies. Its growing structure with stimulating effect on other industries has been directly and indirectly providing a significant contribution to the country's economies. (Russell and Faulkner, 2004: 556). Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development (Russell and Faulkner 2004; Kokranikal and Morrison, 2002; Zapalska and Brozik, 2007;Koh and Hatten, 2002). Because the richness of the touristic attractiveness is important in the destination to be visited for tourism purposes, but it is not adequate as a touristic product, in terms of attractiveness and forming economic value. Benefiting touristic attractiveness resources on formation of economic value depends on availability of accessibility and usability factors as well as attractiveness. While accessibility factor represents infrastructure, usability factor represents touristic superstructure. A large portion of the revenue of the tourism industry emerges through tourist spending for the superstructure investments (accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment facilities) and these investments are mostly made by private sector entrepreneurs. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and 431 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. Therefore they are defined as the sculptors of tourismspace. Tourism entrepreneur can be described as a person to make profit through tourism enterprise by considering market opportunities (Koh ve Hatten, 2002:23-25). Thomas Cook’s innovativeness and his role in the development of mass tourism as an entrepreneur, Walt Disney’s Disneyland ideas and development of theme parks as an entrepreneur (Russell and Faulkner, 2004:562), in today’s world the reason for Las Vegas and Dubai’s famousness in the world are entrepreneurs entrepreneurships in this cities. Tourism entrepreneur differs from the general entrepreneurs in several ways and the nature of tourism and tourism product are the driving factors of this differences. These are: (Koh and Hatten, 2002: 32) • Tourism entrepreneur create tourism enterprise. • Intangibility of tourism offerings causes greater difficulty in testing their offerings and poses greater risk to tourism entrepreneur. • Tourism is a service oriented industry. This implies that tourism entrepreneurs need to acquire serviceoriented management and marketing practices. • Seasonality of tourism products cause sales fluctuation and this have to be done more attentively and effectively. • Immobility of tourism offers causes more uncertainty and less control over the products. • Significance proportion of tourism products are owned and operated by governmental agencies (national parks, thermal springs etc). Tourism entrepreneurial activities provide important contribution to the societies’ economic, social, cultural development and welfare. While development of tourism entrepreneurship in any country provide new jobs, real income and increase revenue, tax income and because of its multiplier effects also effects other industries in economic aspects (Zapalska and Brozik, 2007;Koh and Hatten, 2000), from the social point of view it makes the destination place to be lived, worked, entertain and spend time in retirement (Kokkranikal and Morrison,2002;Koh and Hatten, 2000). The development of tourism entrepreneurship is postulated as a spontaneous process, which occurs as a result of growth in tourism development (Shaw and Williams, 1998: 237). Yet the birth of touristic enterprise is not an act of nature but an act of the tourism entrepreneur (Koh and Hatten, 2000:22). 3. Tourism Industry in Turkey Turkey is one of the most important tourism destinations in the world. According to data in 2008, approximately 31 million tourists visited Turkey, and left 22 billion dollars as a tourist spending. Turkey has been growth approximately 13 percent according to the previous year (www.turizm.gov.tr). and reach at the rank 7th in the world (www.turkiyeturizm.com). Turkey is very attractive in terms of tourism destination. This situation is an important reason behind the level of its tourism industry. With its strategic importance because of geographical position in the historical process, Turkey is a country where many of the provisions of civilization happened. Historical attractiveness of these civilizations makes Turkey a wondered and visited country. Three sides surrounded by the sea Turkey is also an important natural destination. Especially, as the basic tourism product in terms of sun and sand of the sea , the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts are important destinations (Antalya, Bodrum, Marmaris, Fethiye, Kuşadası). Every year millions of tourists visit Turkey for vacation tourism purposes. The cultural factors like Turkish hospitality and Turkish cuisine are the supporter factors of attractiveness of Turkey Its possible to distinguish the development of tourism industry into two fundamental periods in Turkey. First period, started between 1963 and 1980; at this period legal arrangements and superstructure developments directed to the tourism formed by Turkish Government. In this period main entrepreneur in Turkish tourism is the state itself. During this period the state enterprises are the basic superstructures in building TURBAN hotels in different cities and pioneering private sector at risky tourism ventures. The second period covered 1980 and today. In this period, tourism as an instrument to remedy the economic imbalances in foreign trade with exports has played important role. In this period, it started to make a tremendous contribution to the economy with its high competitive power. Also, during this period the state has begun to reveal incentives applications to private sector in the development of tourism superstructure to play basic entrepreneurial role. In this period, especially in 1982, 2634 of the "Tourism Incentive Law" (Resmi Gazete, 1982: Sayı.17635) has been the basic incentive tool for superstructure of supply in the development of tourism. In addition to Law No. 2634, the 4875 "Direct Foreign Investment Law" (Official Gazette, 2003: Sayı.25141) and No. 5084 "Investment and Promotion of Employment Act and some changes in the “Law Making" (Official Gazette, 2004: Sayı.25365) are other important incentives. In this period, statistical data belong to tourism industry, showed that entrepreneurs played important role in economic development of the tourism industry. Moreover, this situation is the best evidence that to have the rich resources in terms of attractiveness, to develop tourism industry in a country and to create economic value are not enough. 432 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Some important national and international events occurred between 1980 and 2008 shaped activities of tourism entrepreneurs in the tourism industry and the development of the Turkish tourism sector. These are: • 1991 First Gulf War • 1997 Economic Crisis in Asia • 1999 Earthquake in Gölcük • 2006 Avian Influenza, Cartoon Crisis The basic driving force of development in the Turkish tourism industry in the 1980-2008 period is the number of beds as supply of qualified tourism superstructure that increased from only 56,044 beds in 1980 to the level of 532,262 beds by the year 2007(Table 1). During these period, private entrepreneurs by increasing the supply of tourism superstructure became the basic catalyst to create economic value that tourism sector has already reached. 4. Study Findings The statistical fact sheets of tourism industry in Turkey indicate that development of tourism superstructure which is formed by private entrepreneurs is the main determinants of the sectoral size and increase in the share of tourism industry in economic development of Turkey. The tourism superstructure supply of Turkey has increased by 9.5 times between 1980 and 2008. While growth of the tourism superstructure was slower between 1980 and 1984 period, it indicated approximately 4,5 times increase between 1985 and 1997. Although increase in the bed capacity between 1997 and 2000 developed slowly, in 2001 and 2007 period it again indicated rapid development (Figur1). The process experienced in the development of Turkish tourism superstructure reflects the natural structural characteristics of tourism industry. In the first years because the tourism industry was at the beginning stage of its development and its risky character private entrepreneurs remained in distance to the industry and this caused decrease in development. The economic crisis, politic instability, terror, earthquake etc. caused decrease in tourism demand towards to turkey and slow development of tourism enterprises between 1997 and 2000. Although bird influenza through out the world, cartoon crisis between Christian and Muslim world narrowed the volume of tourism demand and caused decrease in tourism receipts, tourism superstructure supply continued its development because Turkish entrepreneurs are experienced in dealing with crisis and difficult conditions. 600 000 500 000 Number of beds 400 000 300 000 200 000 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 100 000 years Licenced Accomodation Bed Numbers Figure 1. Number of Tourism Licensed Accommodation Establishments in Turkey by Years (1980-2007) Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Directorate of Investment and Enterprise, Department of Research and Evaluation, General Statistics of Tourism Licensed Facilities 2007 September, 2008, p.23. Owing to tourism superstructure formed by tourism entrepreneurs in Turkey, While only 1 288 060 visitors visited Turkey in 1980, the number of visitors increased to 30 929 192 in 2008 which represent 24 times increase in visitor arrivals. In the same period while tourism receipts of Turkey was only 326,5 million dollars in 1980, it raised to 22 billion dollars in 2008 (Table 1). When tourism receipts are examined between 1980 and 2008, it is seen that tourism receipts of Turkey increased around by 67 times. The Fluctuations in tourism 433 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo receipts experienced in this period because of economic, social, politic and environmental factors was also the result of decreases in flexible tourism demand. The first Gulf War in 1991, economic crisis and the political conflict between Turkey and Germany and Đtaly, and Earthquake in Gölcük, the capture of head of terrorist organization between 1997-1998-1999. The bird influenza and cartoon crisis in 2006 caused the decrease in tourism demand and tourism receipts in Turkey (Figure 2) As a result of profitable activities of tourism entrepreneurs and their efforts in obtaining customer satisfaction through increasing service quality average expenditure of visitors during their holidays in Turkey increased by 3 times and reached to 700 dollars. Table 1. The Number of Visitors and Tourism Receipts of Turkey - Average Expenditure Per Capita by Years (1980-2008) Years 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Receipts (1.000 $) 326 654 381 268 370 320 411 088 840 000 1 482 000 1 215 000 1 721 117 2 355 295 2 556 529 3 225 000 2 654 000 3 639 000 3 959 000 4 321 000 4 957 000 5 962 100 8 088 549 7 808 940 5 203 000 7 636 000 10 066 500 Number of Visitors Departing 1 288 060 1 405 311 1 391 717 1 625 099 2 117 094 2 614 924 2 391 085 3 058 676 4 150 300 4 482 779 5 190 729 5 106 792 6 827 392 5 925 760 6 410 979 7 247 076 7 970 722 9 233 503 8 878 840 7 069 293 9 990 841 13 450 121 Average Expenditure Per Visitor ($) 253,6 271,3 266,1 253,0 396,8 566,7 508,1 562,7 567,5 570,3 621,3 519,7 533,0 668,1 674,0 684,0 748,0 876,0 879,5 736,0 764,3 748,0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 11 900 900 13 203 100 15 887 700 18 153 500 16 850 800 15 214 516 16 302 050 20 262 640 24 124 501 23 148 669 782,0 810,0 784,0 752,0 728,0 2007 18 487 008 27 214 988 679,0 2008(*) 21 910 964 30 929 192 708,0 NOT : (1980 - 1983) Central Bank (1984 - 1990) Foreign Visitor departure Questionnaire (1991 - 1995) Central Bank (1996 - 1998) Ministry of Tourism+ DĐE (1999 - 2000) Central Bank (2001-2002) Ministry of Tourism+ DĐE (2003-2007) KTB+TUĐK+ Central Bank (*)Data for 2008 is provisional Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 434 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 25000,00 20000,00 million $ 15000,00 10000,00 5000,00 20 08 20 05 20 06 20 07 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 95 19 94 19 93 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 80 0,00 years tourism receipts Figure 2. The Tourism Receipts of Turkey by Years (1980-2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH veGSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 One of the main characteristics of touristic product is the synchronization of production and consumption. In other words its consumed where its produced. These characteristics make tourism an export take place in the country that is an export within the country. That’s why called it invisible export with this feature the development of superstructure of tourism industry generates contribution to the continuous development of exports raises. Between 1980-2008 year periods, excluding crisis period, the share of tourism revenues in exports showed a steady growth. This contribution for some time in 1997, 2001 and 2002 increased at the level of 30 percent. (Figure 3). But it is seen the decreases in the share of tourism in total export after 2002. These decreases are due to the diversification of Turkey's export items and a rapid development of other export items. 80000,00 70000,00 Revenue , million $ 60000,00 50000,00 40000,00 30000,00 20000,00 10000,00 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 0,00 years export receipts tourism receipts Figure 3. Rate of Tourism Receipts in the Export in Turkey by Years (1980 – 2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH,Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 Economically, one of the most important problems of Turkey is the Foreign Trade Deficit. Tourism by its export characteristics provides considerable contribution to the close of foreign trade deficit of Turkey. Even though some fluctuations shown in the period between 1980 and 2008 years, tourism has played an important role to be closed Turkey's foreign trade deficit since 1985. In some years (1988, 1994) the amount of tourism revenue reached more than 80% of the foreign trade deficit and has exceeded 100% in 2001. In recent years, 435 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo depending on the increase in imports of goods, foreign trade deficit is in a fast growth so the role of tourism in the foreign trade deficit may be reduced relative to the closure but it continues to provide important contributions (Figure 4) 80000,00 70000,00 receipts, million $ 60000,00 50000,00 40000,00 30000,00 20000,00 10000,00 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 99 98 97 96 95 08 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 93 92 91 94 19 19 19 19 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 90 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 80 0,00 years deficit of foreign trade tourism receipts Figure 4. Rate of Tourism Receipts in The Deficit of Foreign Trade in Turkey by Years (1980 - 2008) (*) http://www.tuik.gov.tr/VeriBilgi.do?tb_id=12@ust_id=4 (dış ticaret, dış ticaret istatistikleri, yıllara göre dış ticaret) 16.05.2009 (**) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 Data for 2008 is provisional. Increase in the share of tourism revenues in the GNP is a significant data showing the contribution of tourism to a country's economy. Its multiplier effect of direct economic contribution as a final consumer sector and with high value added make positive contributions to GNP. The share of tourism in GDP increases as proportional with the development of tourism sector. Indeed, with only 0.6 percent it had a very low share on Turkey’s GDP in 1980. But the developments of superstructure ventures increased its share and reached its effects to 6,9 percent on GDP in 2001. In the period after 2001 decrease in the share of industry in GDP was not from reduced revenues of the sector. This decrease was related with the growth of other sectors in the economy (Figure 5). The increase of the share of tourism revenues in the GNP is a significant data showing the importance of its effects within a country's economy. One of the most important benefits of the Tourism investment and development of the superstructure to Turkey is the contribution to the employment, due to its labor-intensive structure. Unemployment is a serious problem in Turkey. Tourism is an important employment area and provides significant contributions to reduce unemployment. Tourism is a sector that creates direct employment besides indirect employment due to a final consumer sector. The development of superstructure of tourism not only creates direct qualified employment but unqualified employment. Besides this the opening of new tourism enterprises and the development of other businesses also contribute to create new employment areas to meet new demands. As tourism industry combined different sectors under one roof, it is very difficult to calculate its share in total employment. Because there is not enough data on this issue, numerical data about direct and indirect employment in the sector is used to show the employment size of the sector just for 1993-2001(Figure 6). It is seen that total employment in the relevant years of data taking into account the proportional size of employment in Turkey is almost one of every five people employed directly and indirectly in the tourism sector. 436 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 800 000,0 700 000,0 Revenue, milyon $ 600 000,0 500 000,0 400 000,0 300 000,0 200 000,0 100 000,0 19 80 19 81 19 82 19 83 19 84 19 85 19 86 19 87 19 88 19 89 19 90 19 91 19 92 19 93 19 94 19 95 19 96 19 97 19 98 19 99 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 06 20 07 20 08 ,0 years GNP tourism receipts Figure 5. Share of Tourism Receipts in the Gross National Product (by Current Consumer Prices) (1980 - 2008) Source: http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009 25000000 Number of workers 20000000 15000000 10000000 5000000 0 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 years total tourism employment total employment in Turkey Figure 6. Employment of Tourism Sectors in General Employment in Turkey by Years (1993-2001) Source: http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler/04istihdam.htm 29.04.2009 5. Discussion and Summary When statistical data about Turkish Tourism sector over the last 29 years is evaluated, it is seen that tourism industry provides important contributions to Turkish economic development. In the contribution of tourism sector to general economic development, because of the development of superstructure supply of sector, private entrepreneurs play main roles. When data for the period of 1980-2008 which is accepted as the starting date of tourism sector development in Turkey is compared, it is seen that the development of superstructure supply in sector has direct positive impact on export, trade balance deficits, GDP growth, and employment which are accepted as the main indicators of economy. In the same period, superstructure supply has developed 9,5 times and because of this development, the number of tourists increased 24 times and the income of tourism grew 67 times. The development, economical value creation and fluctuations and declines in the contribution to general economy of superstructure supply of sector are the result of sectoral features of tourism sector and it only shows that why government should support tourism entrepreneurs. Turkey is a country which has permanently 437 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo trade balance deficit and high unemployment rate and also the development of its competitive goods in international area is limited. In these economic conditions, in order to maintain sustainable economic development, Turkey needs value added sectors which have high competitive capacity. In this context, tourism is important sector for the sustainable development of Turkish economy. Moreover, in order to eliminate the regional development differences, Turkey which has different touristic resources in its different regions should stimulate value added sectors in underdeveloped regions. In this point, practices to encourage private entrepreneurs for investments in these regions make a major contribution to both regional and general economic growth and development. Therefore, that government plans development regions and give some incentives to private sector is so important. As a result, tourism is a risky sector and has long payback period. Therefore, it is not a preferred investment area for private sector. Meanwhile, the determination of the development of sector, value creation, and sectoral size is private sector enterprises. A tourist comes to a place to satisfy his/her curiosity and meet his other needs and doesn’t pay for sunbath and swim. Tourist pays for accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment and other superstructure facilities and all these facilities are supplied by tourism entrepreneurs. References Ateljevic, I., & Doorne, S. (2000). Staying Within The Fence: Lifestyle Entrepreneurship in Tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 8 (5), 378-392. Koh, K.Y., & Hatten, T.S. (2002). The Tourism Entrepreneur: The Overlooked Player in Tourism Development Studies. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3 (1), 21-48. Kokkranikal, J., & Morrison, A. (2002). Entrepreneurship and Sustainable Tourism: The houseboats of Kerala. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4 (1), 7-20. Lordkipanidze, M., Bretez, H., & Backman, M. (2005). The Entrepreneurship Factor in Sustainable Tourism Development. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13, 787-798. Ministry of Culture and Tourism; Directorate of Investment and Enterprise, Department of Research and Evaluation, General Statistics of Tourism Licenced Facilities 2007 September, 2008. Resmi Gazete, “2634 sayılı Turizmi Teşvik Kanunu” Resmi Gazete, 16.03.1982, sayı:17635, 1982. Resmi Gazete, “4875 sayılı “Doğrudan Yabancı Yatırımlar Kanunu” Resmi Gazete, 17.06.2003, sayı:25141, 2003 Resmi Gazete, “5084 sayılı Yatırımların ve Đstihdamın Teşviki Đle Bazı Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılması Hakkında Kanun” Resmi Gazete, 06.02.2004, sayı:25365, 2004. Russell, R., & Faulkner, B. (2004). Entrepreneurship, Chaos and The Tourism Area Lifecycle. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (3), 556-579. Shaw G and Williams, M.A.(1998), Entrepreneurship, Small Business Culture and Tourism Development, In D. Ioannides and K.G. Debbage (eds) The Economic Geography of The Tourism Industry, London: Routledge, pp.235-255. Szivas, E. (2001). Entrance Into Tourism Entrepreneurship: A UK Case Study. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3 (2), 163172. Weiermair, K., Siller, H.J., & Mössenlechner, C. (2006). Entrepreneurs and Entrepreneurship in Alpine Tourism: Past, Present and Future. Journal of Teaching in Travel &Tourism, 6 (2), 23-40. Zapalska, A.M., & Brozik, D. (2007). Managing Family Business in The Tourism and Hospitality Industry: The Transitional Economy of Poland. Zb. Rad. Ekon. Fak. Rij, 25 (1), 141-165. http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler/04istihdam.htm 29.04.2009 http://www.turizm.gov.tr (10.04.2009) http://www.turizm.gov.tr (Turizm Đstatistikleri, Turizm Geliri ve Gideri, GSMH ve GSYĐH, Đhracat ve Đthalat ile Ortalama Harcamalar) 08.05.2009. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/VeriBilgi.do?tb_id=12@ust_id=4 (Dış Ticaret, Dış Ticaret Đstatistikleri, Yıllara Göre Dış Ticaret) 16.05.2009. http://www.turkiyeturizm.com/news_detail.php?id=18909 (16.05.2009 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 287 Title A name given to the resource Sustainable Economic Development through Tourism Ventures: The Case of Turkey Author Author BAYTOK, Ahmet AĞCA, Veysel KURT, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. Entrepreneurship is considered as a central force of economic development in all communities. Tourism is one of the economic industries in which a great degree of involvement is needed by the entrepreneurial sector. Entrepreneurship is a critical factor in tourism development, both globally and regionally, because of the nature of tourism and tourism products. Tourism entrepreneurs are the basic determinants of successfulness of a society, who aims economic growth, development and differentiation via tourism. Entrepreneurs determine the magnitude of tourism industry, and what, where and when touristic enterprise will be created. The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of the developments occurred in the superstructure of the tourism industry and show the importance of private sector entrepreneurial efforts in the sustainable economic development of Turkey between the period of 1980 to today. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f64a75c30170ba37ecb6190e9bbfccbb.pdf 0fb8297b89c7539dfcc50ad8755308ab PDF Text Text Exploring Variation and Sustainable Progress of Vegetable Genetic Resources in The Black Sea Region, Turkey Ahmet Balkaya Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Samsun –Turkey abalkaya@omu.edu.tr Abstract: Turkey is an important center for plant genetic resources and genetic diversity. In Turkey, the Black Sea Region is very rich in vegetable genetic resources due to its diverse geographical, climatic and ecological conditions. Conservation and maintenance of these valuable genetic resources is essential. In order to protect the highly threatened vegetable genetic resources in this region, it was very important to set up a collection, conservation, utilization and research system. The aim of this review was to outline some of the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region; their distribution, their collection and characterization; and to describe cultivar breeding programmes from 1994 to 2009 and beyond. This overview will give the agricultural scientist an insight to into the large degree of genetic diversity in Turkey, and provide information about the distribution and potential utilization of these irreplaceable genetic resources. Introduction The utilization of plant genetic resources is one key to improving agricultural productivity and sustainability. Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are part of the biological wealth indispensable for securing world food supplies, alleviating poverty and sustaining rural development (Morico et al. 1998). Use of genetic resources is as old as the history of agriculture. Hundreds of plants have been bred over many hundreds of years and thousands of varieties have been developed by natural and artificial selection. Genetic erosion occurred through natural causes in earlier times, whereas recently, forest fires, misuse of forests and agricultural fields, and excessive and careless use of fertilizer and pesticides have reduced plant genetic diversity (Sarı et al. 2008). Intensive genetic improvement, together with the development of agricultural inputs, has led to the replacement of many local varieties by a few uniform modern cultivars in developing countries. For this reason, preservation of populations and landraces are very important (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2005). The genetic uniformity of cultivars of a widely grown crop makes them uniformly susceptible to biotic or abiotic hazards, and this genetic vulnerability may lead to complete crop loss. The main goal to be achieved by conservation of genetic resources is their present and future utilization for the benefit of mankind (Yawen et al. 2001). Organized collection, evaluation and conservation of crop genetic resources have gone on for two hundred years (Brush & Meng 1998). Currently, projects are being conducted in many countries for the conservation of genetic resources. Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment, so that these needs can be met not only in the present, but also for future generations. Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with the social challenges facing humanity (Moffat et al. 2001). Wild plant forms and local village cultivars in any country are necessary genetic materials for improving the traits of cultivated plants, or developing new cultivars. The sustainability of plant production will only be assured by the preservation of these materials. For this reason, preservation of the genetic resources Turkey, which has rich genetic diversity, is necessary for both sustainable agriculture and life (Karayel & Bozoğlu 2008). The conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of resources, technology transfer, intellectual property rights, provision of financing and the principle of equable sharing of benefits, have also been promoted (Waldman & Shevah 2000). The genetic diversity of landraces is thought to be of substantial economic value as part of global biodiversity, and is considered of paramount importance for future world production (Tan 2000; Stoilova et al. 2005). Turkey is one of the most important countries in the world for plant genetic resources and genetic diversity (Tan 1998). It is also one of the the centers of origin, and /or, diversity of several crop plants, and many plant species. Turkey is endowed with a rich diversity of families (163), genera (1,225) and species (9,000) of plants (Tan 1996; Özgen et al. 2000; Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005), and also has the genetic diversity centers of many wild, transitional and cultivated forms of annual and perennial, herbaceous and woody plants (Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005). The Black Sea region in the north of Turkey is one of its richest regions for crop genetic resources diversity. The region covers approximately 18 percent of the land area of Turkey, with a surface area 21 �of 141,000 km2. The Black Sea Region, which gets its name and characteristics from the adjacent sea, extends from the border of Georgia in the east to the eastern edge of the Adapazari Plain in the west. The provinces of Artvin, Rize, Trabzon, Gumushane, Bayburt, Giresun, Ordu, Sinop, Samsun, Amasya, Kastamonu, Zonguldak, Bartin and Bolu are all in the Black Sea Region. Access inland from the coast is limited to a few narrow valleys because mountain ridges, with elevations of 1,525 to 1,800 meters in the west, and 3,000 to 4,000 meters in the east in the Kaçkar mountains, form an almost unbroken wall separating the coast from the interior. Because of these natural conditions, the Black Sea coast historically has been isolated from Anatolia. The North Anatolian Mountains are an interrupted chain of folded highlands that generally parallel the Black Sea coast. The climate of the Black Sea region is generally relatively warm and humid.It is the wettest area in Turkey, although summers are generally dry, with midsummer the driest time. The summers are shorter when compared to those of the south and the west, and the winters are rainy, with occasional snow. The moderate climate and the prevalence of reasonable to good soils make this region ideal for many forms of agriculture. Historically, the Black Sea region has seen the intensive cultivation on small holdings of a wide variety of crops such as corn, beans, peas, pumpkins, kale and cabbages. The conservation and maintenance of these valuable local genetic resources is essential because they are an important source of diversity which can be used in future breeding programs (Balkaya et al. 2005). The aim of this study is to document the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region, including the distribution of species, their collection and characterization, present and ongoing cultivar breeding programs, and the utilization of documented species from 1994 to 2009. The Study Knowledge of the extent of genetic diversity, and identification, differentiation, and characterisation of genotypes, and populations, respectively, provides an information tool for the detection of duplicates in collections, their effective extension, and better characterisation and utilization in breeding (Hornakova et al. 2003). Conserved germplasm requires accurate characterization for its efficient utilization in the future. Knowledge of variation found in a cultivated species and its pattern of distribution is important for the development of breeding programs (Gil & Ron 1992; Balkaya & Ergün 2007). Within a certain region, wide variation of plant and fruit types is observed as a consequence of natural and human selection. There is currently a large information gap with regard to the collection, classification and evaluation of Turkish genetic resources (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2001). Because of the increasing use of commercially released varieties, local varieties and genetic resources are rapidly disappearing. Consequently, there is a need to collect, characterize and evaluate remnant local populations before they disappear. It was essential to set up a collection, conservation, research and utilization system for the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea Region. Unfortunately, the collection and evaluation of vegetable genetic resources in that region was very limited until the early 1990s. From 1994 to the present, the vast majority of these studies have been undertaken by the Horticulture and Field Crop Departments of the Agriculture Faculty at Ondokuz Mayis University in Samsun, Turkey, and The aim of this study was to describe the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region, the distribution of species, their collection and characterization, present and ongoing cultivar breeding programmes, and the utilization of presented species from 1994 to 2009. The summarized results are presented in this article. Findings Species belonging to the Leguminosae family are widely grown in the Black Sea region. The common bean is a crop of considerable global importance as a vegetable and as grain legume.The annual production of leguminous vegetable species in Turkey is 709,000 t (Turkstat 2005). Snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is by far the most important cultivated legume in Turkey with a 76.9 % share, and pinto bean has a share 7.3% with 52 000 t annually (Turkstat 2005). Samsun province has a large share (17.3%) of snap bean production (94 019 t) in Turkey. In Turkey, common bean landraces still represent important genetic resources used directly by farmers on a small scale (Balkaya 1999). Despite its foreign origin, it has adapted well and shows broad variation in the Black Sea region (Bozoğlu & Sozen 2007). Turkish farmers have grown common bean landraces due to their ability to adapt to local environmental conditions and because local people prefer them. Consequently, the common bean populations show an appreciable diversity attributable to the range of ecological and human influences. However, the old bean landraces have progressively been replaced with ‘improved’ new cultivars, which ensure higher yields and incomes, and meet the processors and consumers’ requirements (Balkaya & Ergün 2007). From 1995-1998, a study was undertaken to firstly determine plant characteristics, and then to select suitable green bean cultivars for fresh consumption from local populations of the Black Sea region (Balkaya 1999). In the first year of the study, 166 climbing, and 34 dwarf types were collected (Table 1). Thirty-one climbing and nine dwarf lines were selected by the pedigree selection method in the second year. In the third year, 7 promising climbing lines and 1 dwarf line were determined to be cultivar 22 �Table 1: Ex-situ collections of vegetable genetic materials in the Black Sea Region. English name/Turkish name Scientific binomial Collected sites Number of Accessions Leguminosae Green bean/ Taze fasulye Pinto bean/Barbunya Dry bean/ Kuru fasulye Pea/ Bezelye Broad bean/ Bakla Phaseolus vulgaris L. P. vulgaris var. pinto Phaseolus vulgaris L. Pisum sativum L. Vicia faba L. 9 1 1 5 4 200 44 400 27 10 Kale/Yaprak-Kara lahana Cabbage/Baş lahana B. olearaceae var. acephala B. olearaceae var.capitata 5 11 127 95 Pumpkin-Bal kabağı Winter squash-Kestane k. Cucurbita moschata Duch. Cucurbita maxima Duch. 4 4 22 115 Pepper-Biber Green peper/sivri biber Red pepper/Kırmızı biber C. annum var. longum C. annum var. conoides Mill 7 1 37 56 Brassicaceae Cucurbitaceae Solanaceae candidates (Balkaya & Yanmaz 1999). Twenty one bean cultivars (15 cultivar candidates and 5 commercial cultivars) were identified in both laboratory and field tests. In field tests, earliness, plant (height), leaf (color, size of terminal and side leaflets, shape of terminal leaflet), flower (size of bract, color), pod (size, shape of cross section, color, stringiness, surface texture, degree of curvature, prominence of grains) and seed (size, shape, color), were determined. In laboratory tests, seed protein bands were obtained by SDS-PAGE. Candidatesfor cultivar status and commercial cultivars showed different morphological characters and protein banding (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2003). Pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Pinto) is a traditional crop in Turkey. Farmers grow local varieties selected and maintained by themselves. Pinto bean is an especially important food in Samsun province of the Black Sea region. It is consumed as fresh pods, fresh seed or dry seeds. Forty four pinto bean populations were collected (Table 1) and evaluated according to morphological, earliness and yield traits under Samsun ecological conditions in 2003 and 2004 (Balkaya & Ergün 2007). Results showed that populations displayed significant differences for pod length, width, pod shape in longitudinal section, pod shell thickness, pod color, stringiness and pod curvature. Principal component analysis showed that the first four PC axes explained 83.3% of the total multivariate variation. Data were subjected to cluster analysis and several groups were identified, with most of the populations clustered into six groups. A dendrogram was prepared to evaluate morphological differences among populations. It revealed high variation. The results provided information on the diversity and breeding potential of Turkish pinto bean germplasm (Balkaya & Ergün 2008). Another study was conducted to identify and select valuable genetic resources of the pinto bean populations. From observations, 10 genotypes were determined superior after using a weighting based ranking method for fresh pod and fresh grain pod in the first year. In the second year, from these superior genotypes; 4 genotypes (55ÇA07, 55ÇA15, 55TE15 and 55TE20) for fresh pods and 5 genotypes (55ÇA01, 55ÇA05, 55ÇA15, 55ÇA24 and 55TE 15) for fresh grain pods were selected as promising genotypes. At the end of this research, selected genotypes will be developed into new pinto bean varieties in future years (Balkaya & Ergün 2007). Artvin province is located in the eastern Black Sea region. Landraces of common bean were collected from 279 locations in 74 villages in 7 districts of the province (Bozoğlu & Sözen 2007). Landraces were sorted into 400 samples according to their growth habit, seed color, color pattern and shape. It was determined that these populations can be used in cultivar improvement programs and other breeding studies for both fresh consumption and dry seed yield. Pea (Pisum sativum) is important species in the grain legumes. Twenty seven populations were collected (18 from Samsun, 3 from Giresun and Sakarya, 2 from Artvin and 1 from Tokat (Table 1). Wide variation in agronomic characteristics was observed between genotypes (Karayel & Bozoğlu 2008). It was determined that these populations could be used in cultivar improvement programs and breeding studies for both fresh consumption and forage varieties. 23 �Ten faba bean populations were collected from districts and villages of Samsun, Amasya, Sinop and Tokat provinces (Peksen et al. 2006). There was no significant difference among faba bean populations for green pod yield. Green pod yield per plant was positively and significantly correlated with the number of pods per plant, and pod length and thickness. Seed length, seed width, seed thickness and 100 seed weight ranged between 18.04-23.56 mm, 13.24-17.10 mm, 7.93-8.94 mm and 119.07 and 162.61 g for faba bean populations, respectively (Pekşen et al. 2007). Brassicas are widespread as wild, weedy and cultivated forms throughout Turkey (Davis 1982; Küçük 1996). Vegetable brassicas are an important and highly diverse group of crops grown world-wide that belong mainly to the species Brassica oleracea and Brassica campestris (Monteiro & Lunn 1998). In Turkey, cabbage is the most economically important member of the genus Brassica. According to FAO records from 2007, Turkey’s total cabbage production was 658,665 t (Faostat 2008). Morphological variability is high among the white head cabbage genotypes of Turkey (Balkaya et al. 2005). Cultivar selection studies have been conducted on cabbage populations in various parts of Turkey since 1980. Ninety five white head cabbage populations were collected before and during harvest time between September 1998 and March 1999 from different eco-geographical regions of Turkey. (Yanmaz et al. 2000). They are mainly used for preparing cooked meals or salads. The cabbages were divided into two groups on the basis of their head morphology. The first group was flat and round, of dark green leaf color, medium hard with leaves having a thin midrib, used for stuffing, and the second group was round or long round, of light green leaf color, with thick leaves and midrib, used for pickling (Yanmaz et al. 2000). Data from field experiments conducted between 1999 and 2001 were analysed by multiple variance analysis. Cluster analysis based on 12 quantitative and 10 qualitative variables identified 10 distinct groups. A dendogram was prepared to evaluate morphological similarity among the white head cabbage genotypes. The multiplication and evaluation of these genotypes was carried out at the Black Sea Agricultural Research Institute in Samsun province. Appropriate lines were evaluated during the S4-S8 inbreeding generations. The first Turkish hybrid cultivar candidates were developed at the end of this research, and the registration applications for new hybrid cultivars were done in 2008. Kale production is economically important in Turkey where it is grown intensively in the Black Sea region, but it is not commonly grown in the other regions of Turkey (Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005). Annual production is approximately 92,000 t and Samsun province produces over 40% of Turkish kale (Turkstat 2005).Kale is mainly used as a green vegetable, Many of the kales grown as vegetables have very crisp and curled leaves. Farmers often use the most tender leaves for human consumption and older ones for forage (Balkaya 2002). Kale populations were collected in 2001 from the Black Sea region, and evaluated according to morphological characters (Balkaya et al. 2004). In the first year, 127 kale populations were collected from different eco-geographical areas in this region. Twenty-two populations were determined superior by using a weight based ranking method. The populations exhibited a range of 15.9-21.9 cm for leaf length, 10.4-13.2 cm for leaf width, and 0.26-0.35 mm for leaf thickness. Eleven types were selected as being promising for further breeding efforts (Balkaya & Yanmaz 2005). According to two-year yield results from trial data, 4 kale cultivar candidates (namely Balkaya, Yanmaz, Elif, and Ayça cv.) were selected. Registration of these new kale cultivars was done in 2008 . Cucurbitaceae is one of the most important cultivated families in Turkey. No wild types, or forms of genera, such as Cucumis, Cucurbita, Citrullus and Lagenaria have been found in Turkey. (Küçük et al. 2002; Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005) However, in many crops, including cucurbits, diversity centers have been identified in Anatolia (Harlan 1951). In almost all regions of Turkey, landraces of Cucurbitaceae are highly variable in morphology and taste. Winter squash (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) and pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) are two of the most important cucurbit vegetable crops in the Black Sea region. Winter squash populations show great diversity in morphological characteristics, particularly in fruit length, fruit diameter, fruit shape, fruit brightness, skin thickness, and flesh thickness and colour, in the Black Sea region of Turkey. One hundred and fifteen populations of winter squash, Cucurbita maxima Duch. were collected from different provinces of the Black Sea region (Bolu, Sinop, Amasya and Samsun provinces) in 2006 and 2007 (Balkaya et al. 2008a). The collection showed appreciable phenotypic variation in fruit shape, fruit color, fruit brightness, fruit dimensions and fruit weight. This study also demonstrated that substantial differences in seed dimensions exist in Turkish winter squash populations. Seed length ranged from 15.0-25.7 mm, seed width from 7.6-15.5 mm, and seed thickness from 1.4-6.1 mm. With regard to seed length to thickness ratio and seed width to thickness ratio, populations showed a range of 3.2 to 14.2, and 2.2 to 8.5, respectively. Data were analysed using principal component analysis (PCA). PCA revealed that the first two PC axes explained 67.0% of the total multivariate variation (Balkaya et al. 2009). From observations, 26 winter squash genotypes were evaluated as superior by utilising a weighting based ranking method in the first year. In the second year, from these selected genotypes; 9 winter squash genotypes were selected as promising genotypes. At the end of this research, selected genotypes will have beee developed into new winter squash varieties. In addition, selected types were evaluated at the DNA 24 �level using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers for some morphological characters,and this evaluation showed that these genotypes are genetically different each other. (Balkaya et al. 2008a). Twenty two local populations of pumpkin were collected in the Black Sea Region during and after the harvest in September 2005 and February 2006 (Table 1). The populations have been maintained by farmers for generations and are representative of the different pumpkin types growing in the Black Sea region. The geographical distribution of pumpkin populations was 8 populations from Amasya, 6 from bothBolu and Samsun, and 2 from Sinop (Balkaya et al. 2008b), and results showed a large variation among the genotypes. This study showed that pumpkin genotypes from the Black Sea Region of Turkey have a number of characteristics useful for breeding programs. Four types were evaluated as superior when using a weighting based ranking method. At the end of this research, 1 genotype (14BO01) was selected as being promising for further breeding efforts. Turkey is a micro-gene centre for many landraces, including the Solanaceae (Küçük 2003) These landraces are still grown by farmers in almost all regions of Turkey. Peppers are commonly grown in the Black Sea Region of Turkey and Samsun is a major producer province. Thirty seven green pepper populations were collected from Samsun, Amasya, Tokat, Kastamonu, Bartin, Gumushane and Giresun provinces in the Black Sea Region (Table 1). Morphological identification of collected populations were done by documenting their vegetative and pomological traits (Kar et al. 2007). In another study, fifty six red pepper populations were collected from different eco-geographical areas in the research region. Research showed that populations had 11.2-19.2 cm fruit length, 4.8-7.2 cm fruit width, and 4.3-5.8 mm for flesh thickness. They exhibited a range of 653.9-1415.5 g for the total fruit weight/plant, 7.2-13.5 for fruit number/plant, 53.0 -155.0 mg/100 g for ascorbic acid, 5.2-8.0 % for total soluble solids, and 8.0 -11.9 % for total dry weight (Karaağaç 2006). The collection protocol was designed to ensure that the collected genotypes effectively represented the vegetable genetic resources present in the Black Sea region. Some of these vegetable genetic resources may not be suitable for standard cultivars in terms of productivity and plant characteristics, but their genetic content should be conserved (Balkaya & Karaağaç 2005). The seeds of populations collected and characterized in these studies were preserved at -20o C for long term storage in the Turkish seed gene bank (AARI), and they are also stored at 4o C at the Horticultural Department of Ondokuz Mayis University’s Agriculture Faculty in Samsun, Turkey. All these materials form a vegetable gene pool which is used to maintain important traits, to broaden the genetic base of cultivars, and serve as a source of new diversity for agriculture. Conclusions The variation and diversity of vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region has greatly contributed to the genetic improvement of many vegetables. Many registered vegetable cultivars and cultivar candidate have been developed from those plant gene collections. On-going research at Ondokuz Mayis University may help to improve the economics and sustainability of vegetable production in both the Black Sea region and Turkey. References Balkaya, A. (1999). A research on collection of genetic resources, characterization of green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and selection of suitable types for fresh consumption in the Black Sea Region. (In Turkish). PhD Diss., University of Ondokuz Mayis, Turkey. Balkaya, A. & Yanmaz, R. (1999). The promising green bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) cultivars candidate determined by pedigree selection method in the Black Sea region. (In Turkish). III. Turkish Horticultural Congress, 14-17 September, Ankara, Turkey. Balkaya, A. & Yanmaz, R. (2001). Bitki genetik kaynaklarının muhafaza imkanları ve tohum gen bankalarının çalışma sistemleri. (In Turkish). Ekoloji Çevre Dergisi. Yıl:10, Sayı:39, 25-30. Balkaya, A. (2002). Kale growing (In Turkish). Journal of Türk-Koop Ekin. 5(18):19. Balkaya, A. & Yanmaz, R. (2003). Bazı taze fasulye çeşit adayları ile ticari çeşitlerin morfolojik özellikler ve protein markörler yoluyla tanımlanmaları. (In Turkish). Ankara Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi. 9(2):182-188. 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Kar, H., Karaağaç, O., Kibar, B., Apaydın, A. (2007). Karadeniz Bölgesi yerel sivri biber genotiplerinin toplanması ve morfolojik özelliklerinin belirlenmesi üzerinde bir araştırma. (In Turkish). Türkiye V. Ulusal Bahçe Bitkileri Kongresi. 4-7 Eylül, Erzurum. 82-87. Karaağaç, O. (2006). Bafra kırmızı biber (Capsicum annuum var. conica) gen kaynaklarının karakterizasyonu ve değerlendirilmesi. (In Turkish). Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Fen Bilim. Enst. Y. Lisans Tezi. Samsun. Karayel, R. & Bozoğlu, H. (2008). Türkiye’nin değişik bölgelerinden toplanan yerel bezelye populasyonunun bazı agronomik özellikleri. (In Turkish). OMÜ Zir. Fak. Dergisi .23(1):32-38 Küçük, A.S. (1996). Plant genetic resources activities in Turkey-brassicas. Report of working group on Brassica. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). Third meeting. 27-29 November Rome, Italy. Küçük, A. (2003). Solanaceae genetic resources activities in Turkey. National Collections. Solanaceae Genetic Resources in Europe. Report of two meetings 21 September 2001, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; 22 May 2003, Skierniwice, Poland. Küçük, A., Abak, K., Sarı, N. (2002).Cucurbit genetic resources collections in Turkey.Cucurbit Genetic Resources in Europe. Report of meeting. 19 January 2002, Adana, Turkey. Moffatt, I., Harley, N., Wilson, M.D. (2001). Measuring and Modelling Sustainable Development. The Parthemon Publishing Group Inc., New York, USA. 305pp. Monteiro, A. & Lunn, T. (1998). Trends and perspectives of vegetable Brassica breeding world-wide. World Conference on Horticultural Research. 17-20 June 1998, Rome, Italy. Morico, G., Grassi, F., Fidegpina, C., Grassi, M.F., Fideghelli, C. (1998). Horticultural genetic diversity: Conservation and sustainable utilization and related international agreements. World Conference on Horticultural Research.17-20 June 1998. Rome, Italy. Özgen, M., Adak, M.S., Söylemezoğlu, G., Ulukan, H. (2000). The preservation of plant genetic resources and latest approaches of their usages. (In Turkish). V. Turkey Agriculture Engineer Congress. 17-21 January 2000, Ankara, Turkey. Peksen, A., Peksen, E., Artık, C. (2006). Bazı bakla (Vicia faba L.) populasyonlarının bitkisel özellikleri ve taze bakla verimlerinin belirlenmesi. OMÜ Zir. Fak. Dergisi . 21(2):225-230 Peksen, E., Gülümser, E., Artık, C. (2007). Yöresel bakla (Vicia faba L.) populasyonlarında tohum özelliklerinin ve bunlar arasındaki ilişkilerin belirlenmesi. Türkiye VII. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi, 25-27 Haziran 2007, Erzurum 26 �Sarı, N., Tan, A., Yanmaz, R., Yetişir, H., Balkaya, A., Solmaz, I., Aykas, L. (2008). General status of cucurbit genetic resources in Turkey. Cucurbitaceae 2008. Proceedings of the Ixth EUCARPIA meeting on genetics and breeding of Cucurbitaceae (Pitrat M.ed.).INRA. Avignon, France.21-32p. Stoilava, T., Pereira, M.M., Tavares De Sousa, M.M., Carnide V.I. (2005). Diversity in common bean landraces (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from Bulgaria and Portugal. J. Cent. Eur. Agric. 6(4): 443-448. Tan, A. (1996). Turkey: Country Report to the FAO International Technical Conference on Plant genetic resource. Leipzig, Germany. p.46. Tan, A. (1998). Current status of plant genetic resources conservation in Turkey. The Proceedings of International Symposium on in Situ conservation of plant genetic diversity. 4-8 November, Antalya, Turkey. Tan, A. (2000). Biodiversity conservation ex situ, in situ conservation: A case in Turkey. In: Watanabe K. and A. Komamine (eds.). Chalenge of Plant and Agricultural Sciences to the crisis of biosphere on the Earth in the 21st Century. Eurekah, Texas. Turkstat, 2005. Agricultural Structure (Production, Price, Value) 2003. Publishing No:2949. Ankara, Turkey. Waldman, M. & Shevah, Y. (2000). Biological diversity-An overview. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. 123:299310. Yanmaz, R., Kaplan, N., Balkaya, A., Apaydın, A., Kar, H. (2000). Investigation on the identification of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L. subvar. alba) gene sources of Turkey. (In Turkish). III. Vegetable Growing Symposium. 11-13 September 2000, Isparta, Turkey. Yawen, Z., Jianjun, W., Zongyi, Y., Shiquan, S., Lihua, W., Xiaoyan, C., Jingui, M. (2001). The diversity and sustainable development of crop genetic resources in the Lancang River valley. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. 48:297-306. 27 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 644 Title A name given to the resource Exploring Variation and Sustainable Progress of Vegetable Genetic Resources in The Black Sea Region, Turkey Author Author Balkaya, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Turkey is an important center for plant genetic resources and genetic diversity. In Turkey, the Black Sea Region is very rich in vegetable genetic resources due to its diverse geographical, climatic and ecological conditions. Conservation and maintenance of these valuable genetic resources is essential. In order to protect the highly threatened vegetable genetic resources in this region, it was very important to set up a collection, conservation, utilization and research system. The aim of this review was to outline some of the vegetable genetic resources of the Black Sea region; their distribution, their collection and characterization; and to describe cultivar breeding programmes from 1994 to 2009 and beyond. This overview will give the agricultural scientist an insight to into the large degree of genetic diversity in Turkey, and provide information about the distribution and potential utilization of these irreplaceable genetic resources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44db670e2b855d596593b7a5a4efb994.pdf 0e10bc9a6c40fddd9d2c2376e1e80d74 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Consumer Willingness to Pay for Pesticide Free Tomatoes in Turkey Zeki Bayramoğlu Selcuk University Faculty ofAgriculture Depertmant of Agricultural Economics Konya, TURKEY Ziya Gökalp Göktolga Gaziosmanpasa University Faculty of Agriculture Depertmant of Agricultural Economics Tokat, TURKEY Abstract: Willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes were calculated and its effects of socio-demographic and risk variables were measured. The data were obtained from 666 consumers by survey method in May 2005. The surveys are conducted in Ankara and Tokat Provinces at same time. Ordered probit model was used to determine the probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes. The findings showed that 34.23 % of Turkish consumers not willing to pay, are 77.02 % willing to pay less than 30 percent premium and 22.97% are willing to pay more than 30 percent premium. This is shown that Turkish consumers will accept to pay only a small premium for pesticide free tomatoes. Furthermore, gender, education, statue of mother, acknowledges of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index factors are impact on willingness to pay. Keywords: Willingness to pay; Consumer Preferences; ordered probit. Introduction The main use of pesticides is in agriculture to ensure that crops remain healthy and wastage through disease and infestation is prevented. According to the FAO data, 4046 metric tons of fungicides and bactericides, 5946 metric tons of herbicides and 13169 metric tons of insecticides were used in Turkey. In addition total pesticides use by per hectare was calculated in Turkey as 0.56 kg. Although, this amount is low when compared with some developed countries,for example cost of 48221 tons of fungicides and bactericides, 9982 metric tons of herbicides, and 8874 metric tons of insecticides were used in Italy. Total pesticides use by per hectare in Italy is 4.32 kg.This amountis 1,73 in UK (FA O, 2005). In this study, tomato was selected to determine consumer’s willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh vegetables. In the Turkey, consumers commonly think that tomato has highest level residues pesticide and hormone (Akmaz, 2005). In addition,in another study tomato was chosen since tomatoes are widely purchased by Turkish consumer (Akgungor et al., 1999). Consumers are very concerned about pesticide residues on food in recent years. In some researches shows that consumers are very concerned about pesticide residues on food and are willing to pay a significant premium to purchase food they perceive to be less risky. There are a lot of studies connected with pesticide residues at food in developed country. For examples (Buzby et al. 1995; Misra, et al. 1991; Fu, et al. 1999; Boccalettiand Nardella 2000). Thereis only one study made on this areain Turkey (Akgungor et al.,1999). Our study is a example for consumer’s willingness to pay free pesticide residues in developing country. This study can provide a comparison between developed and developing country about consumer’s attitude. The purpose of this study is to calculate the effects of socio-demographic and risk variables on willingnessto pay for pesticide freetomatoes.Itis believed thatthisstudy will produce some results which could provide importantinformation for producers and retailers and help them. Material and Methods The data were obtained from 406 householdsin Ankara province and 260 householdsin Tokat province by survey method in May 2005. The surveys were made face to face by technique. Total 666 surveys were conducted in Ankara and Tokat provinces. We used ordered probit model to analyze willingness to pay. To see this, consider the following 98 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo regression (Greene, 2000): WTP * = β ' x + ε (1) * where WTP isthe an unobserved latent variable, X is a vector ofindependent variables effecting WTP (age, gender, education, household size,income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, Healthy food, risk index), ß is a vector of parameters demonstrating the relationship between dependent variable (WTP) and independent variables, ε is an unobserved disturbance term. The relation between the unobserved WTP* and observed outcome for respondenti, WTP (WTP=0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7) can be summarized as follows: W TP = 0 if WTP*≤ 0, (2) =1 if µ 0< WTP*≤ µ 1, = 2 if µ 1< WTP*≤ µ 2, … … … ….. = 7 if µ 6 ≤ WTP*, W here µ is a parameter representing a threshold separating the categories in the observed variable. The probability can be written following equations (3): Prob (wtp=0)=Φ(-β … … … ….. ' x ). Prob(wtp=7)= 1- Φ( µ 6 – β x ). For the probabilities,the marginal effects ofthe repressors are ' ∂pr ( wtp = 0) = −φ ( β ' x) β , ∂x ∂pr ( wtp = 1) = φ (− β ' x) − φ ( µ − β ' x) β , ∂x [ ] (3) (4) … … … …. ∂pr ( wtp = 7) = −φ ( µ 6 − β ' x) β . ∂x Inthe study,thresholds are ranked eight categories. Thisisfollowing: Not willing to pay (0), willing to pay one to five percent premium, willing to pay six to ten percent premium, willing to pay 11-15 percent premium, willing to pay 16-20 percent premium, willing to pay 21-25 percent premium, willing to pay 26-30 percent premium, willing to pay more than a 30 percent premium. Survey design Respondents were asked to answer several questions grouped in the three main sections. In the first section, we asked to respondent’s socio-demographic characteristic such as age, gender, education, household size,income, statue of mother.In the second section, we asked to questions related to respondent’s risk attitude. For design of the risk index follow question was asked. “According to you, how many percent peoples damage because of pesticide residues in no certificated tomatoes (regular tomatoes)?” The maximum value was standardized at 100. In addition, we asked to questions about healthy food. “Which alternative is the most importantto you in food?” The alternatives are healthy food, price of food,taste of food, promotion of food. In the section we asked acknowledge of ecologic agriculture. “Do you know the ecologic agriculture?” In the last section we asked to questions related to WTP. Willingness to pay (WTP) was used the dependent variable. We elicited WTP by asking respondents to indicate how much above regular prices they would be willing to pay for pesticide free tomatoes. Answers of the consumers about WTP for pesticide free tomatoes are collected and they are as follows: 1-No (0%), I would never pay above regular prices 2-Yes,I would pay between 1% and 5% more for pesticide free tomatoes 3-Yes,I would pay between 6% and 1%0 more for pesticide free tomatoes 4-Yes,I would pay between 11% and 15% more for pesticide free tomatoes 5-Yes,I would pay between 16% and 20% more for pesticide free tomatoes 6-Yes,I would pay between 21% and 25% more for pesticide free tomatoes 7-Yes,I would pay between 26% and 30% more for pesticide free tomatoes 8-Yes,I would pay more than 30% more for pesticide free tomatoes. 99 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Results Variables Definition and code Number of Responde nts Percentage (%) 58 130 221 158 99 8.71 19.52 33.18 23.72 14.86 Gender Male =1 Female =0 458 208 68.77 31.23 Education Primary school =1 Middle school = 2 High school = 3 University =4 Graduate =5 111 98 273 173 11 16.67 14.71 40.99 25.98 1.65 Household size 1-2 =1 3-5 =2 6-8 =3 9-+ =4 75 501 87 3 11.26 75.23 13.06 0.45 Income - 500 YTL =1 501 - 1000 YTL =2 1001 – 1500 YTL =3 1500 - + YTL =4 49 284 174 159 7.36 42.64 26.13 23.87 Statue of mother Employed mother=1 Unemployed mother=0 234 432 35.14 64.86 Age - 25 = 1 26-30 = 2 31-40 = 3 41-50 = 4 51 + = 5 Acknowledge of ecologic agriculture If know of ecologic agriculture 295 before survey =1, 371 otherwise=0 Healthy Food 398 If selectthe healthy food as 1 st.=1 If other alternative( price, shape, 268 taste, promotion) select as 1 st. =0 Code Mean Variable Mean 3.16 39.04 0.68 0.68 3.03 3.03 2.02 4.17 2.66 1329.24 0.35 0.35 0.44 0.44 0.40 0.40 44.29 55.71 59.75 40.25 Risk Index 666 100 -Consumer’s risk perceive in regular tomatoes. (100 %) 1YTL= 1, 37$ in May 2005. Table1. Definition ofindependent variables and its base statistics 26.24 Definition of independent variables and its base statistics have showed in Table 1. According to the 100 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo survey results,average age of consumersis 39.04. The male respondents constitute 68.77 % of totalrespondents while female respondents constitute 31.23 % of it. The survey results have showed that 16.67% of households are primary school graduates, 14.71% are middle school graduates, 40.99% are high school graduates, 25.98% are university graduates, and %1.65 are post graduates. The average household size has been found as 4.17 people that is lower than the average household size (4.9 people) in Turkey [9]. Average monthly income of households has been found as 1329.24YTL. Mother of households 35.14% are study in any work, 64.86% are unemployed. The respondents 44.25% have got acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, but 55.71% haven’t got acknowledge of ecologic agriculture. Risk difference variable calculateimpact of health risk perception. Table 2 shows distribution of dependent variable (WTP). Respondent’s 34.23% not willing to pay, 77.02% willing to pay less than 30 percent premium. 22.97% of respondents are willing to pay more than 30 percent premium. This is shown thatthe respondents will acceptto pay only a small premium for pesticide free tomatoes. W T P category Category Number of Code Respondents Not willing to pay (0) 0=0 228 Willing to pay one to five percent premium 1-5=1 44 Willing to pay six toten percent premium 6-10=2 89 Willing to pay 11-15 percentpremium 11-15=3 20 16-20=4 49 Willing to pay 16-20 percentpremium 28 Willing to pay 21-25 percentpremium 21-25=5 55 Willing to pay 26-30 percentpremium 26-30=6 Willing to pay more than a 30 percent premium 31-+=7 153 Table 2. Distribution of dependent Variable (WTP) Percentage (%) 34.23 6.61 13.36 3.00 7.36 4.20 8.26 22.97 Table 3 shows thatthe resultsof the ordered probit model of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes. The loglikelihood ratio testindicates that the estimated model is statically significant at 0.01 level. Gender, education, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index variables are significant at 0.01 levels. Statue of mother variable is significant at 0.05 levels. Age, household size,income variables are not significant. Coefficient of gender variable has a positive sign. This sign shows that male respondents are willingness to pay more a premium to pesticide free tomatoes than female respondents. Coefficient of education variable has a positive sign. The coefficient indicates that probability of willingness to pay higher prices for pesticide free tomatoes increases as the levels of education increase. This resultsupportsthe results of previous studies which were made by several other authors (Fu, et al.,1999; Sukant et al., 1991; Goktolga, et al., 2006). Coefficient of statue of mother variable has a positive sign. The coefficient illustrated that employed mothers are more willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes than unemployed mother. This resultis natural because of employed mothers are more conscious for safe food than unemployed mothers. Coefficient of acknowledge of ecologic agriculture variable has a positive sign. The positive coefficient of this variable indicates that there is a positive relationship between the probability of paying a premium and acknowledge of ecologic agriculture variable. The result shows the probability of W TP for pesticide free tomatoes increases when consumers are more concerned about organic agriculture. Variables Coefficient t-statistic Constant -1.08 -3.875 Age 0.447 1.132 Gender 0.321 2.989* Education 0.112 2.872* Household size 0.769 0.830 Income 0.424 0.689 Statue of mother 0.230 2.204** Acknowledge of ecologic agriculture 0.461 4.780* Healthy food 0.318 3.557* Risk Index 0.623 5.074* Log likelilihood: -1114.113 ,Chi-squared: 155.773, Degrees of freedom: 9 Note: * and ** denotes significance atthe 0.01 level and at0.05 level,respectively. Table 3. Results ofthe ordered probit model 101 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Healthy food variable’s sign is positive. This sign shows thatthere is positive relationship between the probability of paying a premium and healthy food variable. The probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes increases when consumers would rather food healthy than other choice. Risk index variable’s sign is positive. Positive sign shows that probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes increases when consumer’s risk perception increase in regular (uncertificated)tomatoes. Marginal effects of ordered probit model have been showed in Table 4. Marginal probabilities have been calculated from the estimated model. In each row, the sum of marginal probabilities is zero in ordered probit model (Greene, 2000). In the Table 4 all variable’s sings are negative until WTP2. After this category all variables have got positive sing. These signs show a unit increase variables of age, gender, education, household size, income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index decreases the probability of willingness to pay a premium for pesticide free tomatoes in categories lower than WTP 3 category, while the probabilitiesinthe higher categoriesincluding WTP 3 increases. The most positive change the probabilities of age, gender, education, household size,income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index variables have observed in the WTP 7 category. Coefficient of variables in this WTP 7 category show that a unit increase age, gender, education, household size, income, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index increases the probabilities of a positive WTP by 0,0123, 0.0886, 0.0308, 0.0212, 0.0117, 0.0634, 0.1269, 0.0876 and 0.0017 in WTP 7 category,respectively.In other one study,for willingnessto pay more than 20%, marginal coefficients of knowledge of pesticide-borne health risks, pesticides concern index and food-borne risk concern index were calculated as 0.0079, 0.0021 and 0.0004, respectively in Italy (Boccaletti and Nardella, 2000). variables Constant Age Gender Education Household size Income Statue of mother Acknowledge of ecologic agriculture Healthy Food Risk index W TP=0 0.3907 -0.0161 -0.1155 -0.0402 -0.0276 -0.0152 -0.0827 -0.1656 -0.1142 -0.0022 W TP=1 0.0299 -0.0012 -0.0088 -0.0031 -0.0021 -0.0012 -0.0063 -0.0127 W TP=2 0.0096 -0.0004 -0.0028 -0.0010 -0.0007 -0.0004 -0.0020 -0.0041 W TP=3 -0.0069 0.0003 0.0020 0.0007 0.0005 0.0003 0.0015 0.0029 W TP=4 -0.0304 0.0012 0.0090 0.0031 0.0021 0.0012 0.0064 0.0129 W TP=5 -0.0259 0.0011 0.0077 0.0027 0.0018 0.0010 0.0055 0.0110 -0.0087 -0.0028 0.0020 0.0089 .0076 -0.0002 -0.0001 0.0000 0.0002 0.0001 Table 4. Marginal Effects for Ordered Probit W TP=6 -0.0675 0.0028 0.0199 0.0069 0.0048 0.0026 0.0143 0.0286 W TP=7 -0.2995 0.0123 0.0886 0.0308 0.0212 0.0117 0.0634 0.1269 0.0197 0.0004 0.0876 0.0017 Conclusion The purpose of this study is to calculate the effects of socio-demographic and risk variables on willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes. The results of the study suggest that Turkish consumers in Ankara and Tokat provinces are generally concerned with pesticide free tomatoes, with only 34.23% ofthe respondents not willing to pay higher prices for pesticide free tomatoes.In other words, 65.77% of the respondents are willing to pay higher prices for pesticide free tomatoes, 77.03% of those respondents are not willing to pay a premium higher than 30% of the regular price. According to results; gender,education, statue of mother, acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index variables are statically significant and they have positive effects on the WTP pesticide free tomatoes. The results suggest that the firms marketing and producing farmer to pesticide free tomatoes should develop strategies for male individuals, persons have high education level, working mother, individuals have acknowledge of ecologic agriculture, consumers who prefer food healthy as first choice and consumers who don’tlike a risk. The results can provide important findings for pesticide free tomatoes marketing firms and pesticide free tomatoes producers. For successful a marketing and product, pesticide free tomatoes price premium should not exceed 30% of regulartomatoes pricesin market.Ifthe premium exceeds 30% regular price in market,sales rate will be low. In addition,the results can provide important findings for policy maker working this area. 102 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References Akmaz, M., 2005. Determination of consumer’s consciousness level about of ecologic agriculture in Tokat Province. GOP University, license seminar, Tokat. Akgungor , S., Miran, B., and Abay, C., 1999. Consumer willingness to pay for reduced pesticide residues in tomatoes: The Turkish case. American Agricultural Economics Association –1999, Selected Paper, Available from: http://agecon.lib.umn.edu/ Boccaletti S. and Nardella M., 2000. Consumer willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh fruit and vegetables in Italy. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 3, 297–310. Buzby, J., Ready, R.C., and Skees, J.R., 1995. Contingent valuation in analysis: a case study residue risk reduction food policy of a pesticide- residue risk reduction. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics 27 (2), 613-625. FAO, 2005. Statistical databases, Available from: www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics Fu, T., Liu, J., and Hammitt, J., 1999. Consumer willingness to pay for low-pesticide fresh produce in Taiwan. Journal of Agricultural Economics 50, 220-233. Goktolga, Z.G., Bal, G.S., and Karkacier, O., 2006. Factors effecting primary choice of consumers in food purchasing: The Turkey case, Food Control 17, 884-889. Greene, W.H., 2000. Econometric analysis. Prentice-Hall.Inc., Fourth Edition. Misra, S., Huang, C., and Ott, S. 1991. Consumer willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh produce. Western Journal of Agricultural Economics, 16, 218–227. SIS, 2003. Statistical yearbook of Turkey 2002. State Institute of Statistics Prime Ministry Republic of Turkey, Publication number. 2779. Sukant, K.M., Huang, C.L., and Ott, S.L ., 1991. Consumer willingness to pay for pesticide-free fresh produce, Western Journal of Agricultural Economics, 16 (2), 218-227. 103 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 486 Title A name given to the resource Consumer Willingness to Pay for Pesticide Free Tomatoes in Turkey Author Author Bayramoğlu, Zeki Göktolga, Ziya Gökalp Abstract A summary of the resource. Willingness to pay for pesticide free tomatoes were calculated and its effects of socio-demographic and risk variables were measured. The data were obtained from 666 consumers by survey method in May 2005. The surveys are conducted in Ankara and Tokat Provinces at same time. Ordered probit model was used to determine the probability of WTP for pesticide free tomatoes. The findings showed that 34.23 % of Turkish consumers not willing to pay, are 77.02 % willing to pay less than 30 percent premium and 22.97% are willing to pay more than 30 percent premium. This is shown that Turkish consumers will accept to pay only a small premium for pesticide free tomatoes. Furthermore, gender, education, statue of mother, acknowledges of ecologic agriculture, healthy food and risk index factors are impact on willingness to pay. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/95d6e28b17f6270c8ecdeab7988eb137.pdf 7572812c058f28ee0796067ff64b751c PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Which Way is More Suitable for Turkey's Real Estate Market? Erhan BĐRGĐLĐ Assoc.Prof., The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Sakarya University Turkey birgili@sakarya.edu.tr Fatih GÜMÜŞ Researcher, The Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Sakarya University Turkey, fbgumus@sakarya.edu.tr Ali AKAYTAY Lecturer, Cilimli Vacational School, Duzce University, Turkey, akaytay@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Real Estate Finance or mortgage finance is more popular economic issue around the World and Turkey. Real estate markets are more productive markets than other markets. This market energize nearly 200 other main and submain sector. Because of that, after the economic crises and recessions countries start going to vitalize this sector for accelareting other sector and whole economy. Nowadays, Mortgage finance’s negative effects have been shocked to economies. Turkey is among to countries which effected less than other countries. The question of “ Which strategy is more sutiable and useful for Turkey’s real estate market?” is more controversial now adays in Turkey. Because of that we prepared a survey and studied to detemine more sutiable strategy for vitalizing to real estate market of Turkey. We applied to survey to certificated or working in any bank 200 real estate specialists. After the survey, we entered the data to SPSS program and we found the econometric market, credit structure, funding, demand, strategy models which suitable to Turkey. Keywords: real estate, mortgage, Turkey, Survey, models Introduction Housing market has an effect on national economies more than other markets. Housing market is directly connected to other sectors which are supposed to exceed 600. In addition, housing market has a direct or indirect stimulant effect on other sectors (Klein and Bestani, 2004:77). Housing sector is not only a technical application, but also is a sector which has some aims to control system risks, labour market and macro economic conditions (Stephens, 2006:60). According to a research conducted in USA in 1984, USA housing sector increased in value exactly seventeenfold from 1947 to 1982 (Koh and Edward, 2005:2). This show us the importance of housing sector in countries` development. States attaches priority to housing sector at the time of economic stagnation and economic crisis to restore their economies (Arslan, 2008:29). Housing sector has quite different attributes than other sectors. One of the important one of these attributes is that housing sector is accounted of a development indicator of other sectors. That is, sanitary housing sector means sanitary other sectors. On the contrary, unsanitary housing sector means unsanitary other sectors (Kirecci, 2005:7). Housing sector is an indicator and cause of prosperity. Housing sector gives us information about national economies. If looked at developed countries, it can be seen easily that housing market is quite in good condition in terms of economic indicators. Housing sector also gives us information about socio-cultural attributes of states as well as their economic conditions. The housing sector reflects personal preferences of citizens, their domestic attributes as well as attributes of human capital of states (Bicakova and Serminska, 2008:7). 331 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Mortgage System Mortgage system is the transfer of an interest in property to a lender as a security for a debt - usually a loan of money. Mortgage system is the lender's security for a debt. It is a transfer of an interest in land (or the equivalent) from the owner to the mortgage lender, on the condition that this interest will be returned to the owner when the terms of the mortgage have been satisfied or performed. In other words, the mortgage is a security for the loan that the lender makes to the borrower (Deloitte,2005:3). Since long term funds are provided by capital markets, mortgage system serves as bridge between housing markets and capital markets (Mufad,2007;126). In mortgages system, the agreement is that the loan is repaid in fixed periodic payments, typically monthly. The contract interest rate is the interest rate that the borrower pays the lender in exchange for having the money today. There are two risks connected with lending. The first, named default risk, is the prospect that the borrower fails to refund the loan. The second, named market risk, appear when interest rates change over time. The possibility of default has led societies to create laws and mechanisms to protect the lender. One of these is collateral. In the case of mortgages, the collateral is almost always the property being purchased. Loan agreements can also comprise a variety of restrictions. Some of these are aimed at protect the lender, while others protect the borrower. For instance, in the past, many mortgages were “assumable,” meaning that if the borrower sold the house, the mortgage could be assumed or transferred to the new owner. This harm lenders when interest rates increased as the new owner could get a “below market interest rate” by assuming the previous mortgage. Now, mortgages are typically not assumable. There was also a time when many mortgages had a prepayment penalty. Today, mortgage contracts typically stipulate that there is no penalty for paying the loan off before its maturity date. Mortgage System in the World Financial markets has been experiencing significant changes especially within the last 20-25 years. Today` financial markets, which base on technology, comprise of banks, insurance companies as well as hundreds of other financial institutions and financial instruments instead of banks and insurance companies of 1960s and 1980s. The market has been varied and deepened. In the world, the biggest and the most developed mortgage market is in the USA. The ratio of mortgage in GDP in 1949 was %20 and %73 in 2001 (Green and Watcher,2005:93). Prosperity of many people in this country comes from their investment in real estate sector and it constitute %50 of total assets (Klein and Bestani,2004:77). Citizens spends %25-30 of their incomes on their mortgage loans (Englund et.al, 2002:167). The application of mortgage systems goes back to the beginning of 1900`s, especially to the great depression in 1929. Before the great depression, the mortgage market of the USA was the market which could provide loan for 5 to 10 years and up to %50 of house` value (Green and Watcher,2005:93). House prices decreased significantly in 1930 as a result of the crisis leaving mortgager in a situation that they could not sell their houses as well as pay their debts (Green and Watcher,2005:94-95). In order to mitigate the effects of the great depression on financial markets, the Federal government founded financial institutions in the beginning 1930s. These were Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae and Ginnie Mae. These financial institutions afford implicit guaranty to banks in the case of default. By these institutions, banks reach the secondary markets and keep cash flow open as well as remove risks from their balance sheets (Covan,2003:2). That is, banks in the USA provide housing loan with the help of these financial institutions to market and sell their receivables converting them into property under the guaranty of these institutions. The customers of mortgage backed securities are mostly index directors, pension funds, banks and hedge funds (Heidari and Wu,2004:6). As a result of the balance between supply and demand, around the half of volume of security is provided by this market. (Heidari and Wu,2004:6) Mortgage System in Turkey Turkey’s dynamic economy and attractive demographical feauters show that real estate sectors future will be brilliant. Half of the population is under 25 in Turkey with 1,5 % of population increase rate, 2,7 % of urbanization rate and 2,8 % of household expanding level, is quite more when compared with the other countries. Its shown that in a recently research, close to half of the Turkey’s people’s first investment choice is to real estate market (www.gyoder.org.tr). Turkey begin mortgage system to put into practice in 2007 with a mixture of two different mortgage system thats are applied in the world. But with the global financial crisis and the absence of appropriate substructure conditions of mortgage system, it could not be applied efficiently in Turkey. 332 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo This system planned to setup secondary markets and work it together with international markets. Also in primary markets there are many regulations that the bank and the customer come face to face. Its called as “mortgage financing agency” that buy or take over the receivables of “mortgage credit establishments”. These establishments will obtain of funding these establishments that are acting in primary markets like, banks, special financing agencies, real estate developers, leasing companies, Housing Development Administration of Turkey (TOKĐ), by lending or by buying these receivables with guarantee of receivables got from given credits. These agencies that are acting in the secondary markets and buy or take over the receivables will find new funds by exporting bonds or mortgage-backed securities with a guarantee of receivables that they lend or buy. There are 2 kinds of securities in the system. First one is “mortgage-backed securities” that are exported by banks by showing their receivables in their balance sheets and showing them with their financial power as guarantee without lending them to secondary market enstitutions. The second one is “mortgage-based securities” that banks lend their receivables to intermediaries or secondary market establishments that give possibility to show their balance sheets less risky and more liquid. With the mortgage law two different funds are formed. “Housing Finance Fund” for whom wants to invest to mortgage-backed securities, “Assets Finance Fund” for whom wants to invest to assets-backed securities. These funds can be called as “special aimed establishments” as we know from the samples in other countries. Methodology In this study, We aimed to design a real estate finansing model for Turkey’s real estate market using a survey and we think over carefully to be special to Turkey’s culturel, social and economical condition Our survey paper was filled by 200 real estate specialist working in a bank or not. Survey expressions designed like ; 1: I strongly agree……5: I do not strongly agree in accordant to 5 likert scale. Survey took into practise usinng witk 2 different style. One of them is by telephone and other web page. The data recorded by cd and limevire survey program. Our web site was www.mortgageanket.com The survey took 3 month ( february, march, april) and analyses of survey took nearly 1 week. Results of Survey In accordane to survey result, we constitute 5 factor. First of all is finding fund factor. Finding Fund Factor Analyses: Our first factor is divided to 3 secondary factor. These are encouragement, state assistance and small funds aid. Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,599. This means that our factor passed to reliability test. The result of KMO test is %73. becauese of 0,73>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses Constitution Of Statistical Model With Multiple Regression Model Multiple regression model is like this: y = β 0 + β 1 x1 + L + β n x n + ε Factors represent to variables of Model. We found this opinion using with R Square test. R Square test was found % 97. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below; FF = 3,69 + 0,38 .ENC + 0,32 SA + 0,24 SFA + e FF: Finding fund ENC: Encouragement SA: State Assistance SFA: Small Funds Aid This means; When the encouragement subfactor increase 1unit, finding fund factor will increaes 0,38 unit. This means; When State Assistance subfactor increase 1unit, finding fund factor will increaes 0,32 unit. This means; When : Small Funds Aid subfactor increase 1unit, finding fund factor will increaes 0,24 unit. Credit Sructure Factor Analyses: Our second factor is divided to 2 secondary factor. These are personel credit and personel peciluarities. Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,584. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with low degree 333 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo The result of KMO test is %58. becauese of 0,58>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 99. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below; CS = 3,77 + 0,54 .PC + 0,35 PP + e CS: Credit Structure PC: Personel Credit PP: Personel Peciluarities This means; When the Personel Credit subfactor increase 1unit, credit structure factor will increaes 0,54 unit. This means; When Personel Peciluarities subfactor increase 1unit, credit structure factor will increaes 0,35 unit. Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor Analyses : Our thirth factor is divided to 6 secondary factor. These are market organisation, adequacy, REIP ( Real estate investment partnership) , local market, central establishment and foreign partner . Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,701. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with strong degree. The result of KMO test is %70. becauese of 0,70>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 99. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below; RS _ MS = 3,85+ 0,28 MO + 0,20 REIP + 0,17 AD + 0,13 LM + 0,15 CE + 0,10 FP + e RS_MS: Role Of The State And Market Structure MO: Market organisation LM: Local Market REIP: Real Estate Investment Partnership CE: central establishment FP: Foreign Partner AD: Adequacy This means; When the Market organisation subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,28 unit. This means; When the REIP subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,20 unit This means; When the Adequacy subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,17 unit This means; When the local market subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,13 unit This means; When the central establishment subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,15 unit This means; When the Foreign Partner subfactor increase 1unit, Role Of The State And Market Structure Factor factor will increase 0,10 unit Demand Factor Analyses Our fourth factor is divided to 2 secondary factor. These are decrease to cost and increaes to demand. Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,687. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with strong degree The result of KMO test is %67. becauese of 0,58>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 37. This means that independent variables explain to model with %37 rate The estimation result of model is below; DM = 3,85+ 0,23 DC + 0,13 ID + e DM: Demand Factor DC: Decrease To Cost ID: Increaes To Demand This means; When the decrease to cost subfactor increase 1unit, demand factor will increase 0,23 unit This means; When the demand subfactor increase 1unit, demand factor will increase 0,13 unit 334 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Other Alternate Suggestion factor Analyses: Our fifth factor is divided to 8 secondary factor. These are HDAT ( Housing Development Administration of Turkey), Turkey’s condition, Market Data, rent prices, Istanbul finance center, dual structure, European Union, partnership Our factor’s Cronbach Alpha value is 0,745. This means that our factor passed to reliability test with strong degree. The result of KMO test is %77. becauese of 0,70>0,50, data set is suitable for factor analyses. Bartlett’s test shows this data (0,00<0,05). This means that there is a high coralation between variables. Thus data set is suitable for factor analyses R Square test. R Square test was found % 97. This means that independent variables explain to model with very powerfully. The estimation result of model is below OAS = 3,91+ 0,23 HDAT + 0,21TC + 0,19 MD + 0,17 RP + 0,15 IFC + 0,11 DS + 0,11EU + 0,10 PA + e OAS: Other Alternate Suggestion HDAT: Housing Development Administration of Turkey TC: Turkey’s Condition MD: Market Data RP: Rent Prices IFC: Istanbul Finance Center DS: Dual Structure EU: European Union PA: Parthnership This means; When Housing Development Administration of Turkey subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,23 unit This means; When the Turkey’s Condition subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,21 unit This means; When the Market Data subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,19 unit This means; When rent prices subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,17 unit This means; When the Istanbul Finance Center subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,15 unit This means; When the Dual Structure subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,11 unit This means; When the European Union subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,11 unit This means; When the parthnership subfactor increase 1unit, other alternate suggestion factor will increase 0,10 unit Conclusions Turkey’s real estate market is very strong structure. Turkey is the country which has alot of advantages which more country have not these advantages. For example, house demand is very high, builder sector is very strong, building resource is very plentiful. This is the most importtant work is that advantegeus must be used productive and thinking of common benefit. Turkey is in the financial crises of which its effects feel less in accordant to other countries like USA and developed european countries. It is not true that to behave fast and in panic.This conditions mark to recession period all of world. Turkey’s real estate market is stable period. This period must be though to solve this problem “ How we will set a new and strong real estate market and finance?” There is no a concensus on optimal real estate market and finance. Every country had established to real estate market in accordance to their culturel, sociel, geographic, economic conditions. In according to our survey and last financial cirises, turkey need to new real estate structur and finance. Common benefit, working together inside or outside of Turkey will be most important issues in near future. At this important point, new conditions must be read very carefully and true. This period is open to new financial and economic period. References Klein, Johanna and Robert Bestani (2004), “Housing Finance In Asia”, Asian Development Bank Working Paper. Koh, Winston and H. K. Edward (2005), “Investing in Real Estate: Mortgage Financing Practices and Optimal Holding Period” February, www.ssrn.com. Arslan, Cenk Murat (2008), “Konut Finansmanının Uygulaması ve Birlikte Getirilen Vergisel Teşvikler”, Vergi Dünyası Dergisi, Yıl: 27, Sayı: 320, Nisan 335 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Kireççi, Tebernüş (2005), Emlak Yatırım Rehberi, Neden Kitapçılık, Temmuz, Đstanbul Bicakova, Alena and Eva Sierminska (2008), “Mortgage Market Maturity and Homeownership Inequality among Young Households: A Five-Country Perspective” April, www.ssrn.com Ceylan, Ali (2002), Finansal Teknikler, 4. Baskı, Ekin Kitapevi, Bursa Stephens, Mark (2006), “The Role of Housing Finance in the Housing Policy of Transition Countries” Open Society Instıtute, Housing finance Congress, Hungary, Edited By Jozsef Hegedus And Raymond J. Struyk, 12-26 March 2006, pp.43-63 Green, Richard; Watcher, Suzan M. ; “The Amerıcan Mortgage In Hıstorıcal And Internatıonal Context ” Journal of Economic Perspectives; Volume: 19, Number: 4 Fall 2005—Pages 93–114 Covan, Cameron (2003), “Hearing On Protecting Homeowners, Preventing Abusive Lending While Preserving Access To Credit, American Securitization Forum, November 5 Klein, Johanna and Robert Bestani (2004), “Housing Finance In Asia”, Asian Development Bank Workig Paper. Heidari, Massud and Louren WU (2004), “What Constitutes a Good Model? An Analysis of Models for Mortgage Backed Securities”, August, www.ssrn.com. IMF Country Report (2007), “Denmark: Financial Sector Assesment Program - The Danish Mortgage Market: A comparative Analyses”, International Monetary Fund March. www.deloitte.com (www.gyoder.org.tr). 336 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 241 Title A name given to the resource Which Way is More Suitable for Turkey's Real Estate Market? Author Author BiRGiLi, Erhan GÜMÜS, Fatih AKAYTAY, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Real Estate Finance or mortgage finance is more popular economic issue around the World and Turkey. Real estate markets are more productive markets than other markets. This market energize nearly 200 other main and submain sector. Because of that, after the economic crises and recessions countries start going to vitalize this sector for accelareting other sector and whole economy. Nowadays, Mortgage finance’s negative effects have been shocked to economies. Turkey is among to countries which effected less than other countries. The question of “ Which strategy is more sutiable and useful for Turkey’s real estate market?” is more controversial now adays in Turkey. Because of that we prepared a survey and studied to detemine more sutiable strategy for vitalizing to real estate market of Turkey. We applied to survey to certificated or working in any bank 200 real estate specialists. After the survey, we entered the data to SPSS program and we found the econometric market, credit structure, funding, demand, strategy models which suitable to Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/87a3067196164679cb268bb9d0161811.pdf db5a24ff924928c1e05d8abf1eb8666e PDF Text Text Production Of Banana In Turkey Beyza Biner Meliha Temirkaynak Meh met Oten West Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey Abstract: Banana, the production of which is restricted in some regions in both the world and in Turkey, is a rather demanded product as it is delicious, exotic and nutritious. The production, consumption and trade of banana is in high volumes in the world. Banana is the fourth most important crop species in the world and is critical for food security in many tropical countries. Bananas have been cultivated economically for a long time in subtropical regions of Turkey where production and productivity per hectare have significantly increased due to the adoption of protected cultivation. In Turkey, banana is mainly cultivated in Anamur and Bozyazı, where protected cultivation is common, and Alanya and Gazipaşa, where open cultivation is widely used. The area of protected cultivation in Alanya has lately been increasing. The objective of the study was to evaluate sustainability in banana production of Turkey. Keywords: Banana, production, sustainability, Turkey. Bananas are grown mostly between 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South latitude. It is grown in nearly 107 countries, the major banana growing regions are India, China, Brazil, Ecuador, Philippines, and Indonesia in tropics (FAO, 2006). Although banana is a fruit of tropical climate,it can be grown in subtropical climate belt countries like Spain, Israel, Morocco, Egypt, Portugal, and Turkey which have microclimate characteristics. Banana growing in Turkey is made in Mediterranean Region, in Mersin-Antalya coast line and especiallyin Alanya, Gazipaşa, Anamur and Bozyazı counties which are protected by the Taurus Mountains and have microclimate features, between 36. and 37.latitudes.(Türkay, 2007). Banana was first brought to our country in 1750 from Egypt as an ornamental plant to Alanya. It has been grown for commercial purposes after 1930’s for its fruit.(Anonymous a 2009). Banana production, which has been just hobby gardens for the first years, has reached to an importantlevelin terms of area and amount of production. In 12 000 da area with a production of 30 000 tones, productivity per da was 2500kg in 1994. In 2008, production areas raised to 40 000 da and production amount raised to 200 000 tones, and the fruit quality was at world level (Anonymous b 2008).In our country, with the numbers of 2008, 200 000 tones of banana is produced and 100 000 tones is imported (Anonymous c 2008). Therefore, our total banana production has still not to met the domestic demand. Nonetheless, with some betterment as a result of both the growing system and some technical and cultural applications, our banana production willincrease at places which show microclimate characteristics. As our country is out of the main banana production areas,itis seen that at such times, cold affected banana plantation negatively. For this reason, especially in Anamur and Bozyazı bananas are grown in greenhouses instead of open areas.In spite ofthis, protected cultivation cannot be adopted to Gazipaşa because of its slope areas. In these areas,terracing is being used. In Alanya some of the plantation areas are sloping??? and some ofthem are plain.In plain areas itis not possibleto build tall greenhouses because ofthe strong wind. Under the subtropical conditions, watering is one of the major subject in banana producing. In our country, while drip irrigation is widely used in closed areas,in open areas 50% drip irrigation and 50 % furrow irrigation systems are used. Especially in terracing areas of Gazipaşa with the effect of recent drought water of the well withdrew. As the wells are 80-140 meters depth, it is difficult to use them for watering. Watering is done by carrying water by tankers. In our country, when looked atits planting area, yield, production, quality and potential,Anamur and its zone has become a trade mark of banana producing. For the sake of natural conditions, with itstaste and odor, banana of Anamur became a brand name. Moreover,in our marketing domestic banana is being soldin the name ‘Anamur banana’. Banana production in Turkey has been initiated by clonal production of Dwarf Cavendish that is intensively used for dominant material. This variety has been known since many years due to its dwarfness and is convenient for protected cultivation. The growers are used depth shoots to proliferate the young plants or 437 �meristematic shoots in establishing of the new plantations. As in the world, many growers also have initiated to plantation by cultivars comm only used in our country to increase yield in banana production (Türkay, 2007). It has been informed that Grand Nain and Williams are convenient cultivarsto be produced in protected cultivation and, Grand Nain, Willams and Basrai for open fields according to adaptation test plots conducted in Bozyazı town. These varieties have been recommended as alternative to Dwarf Cavendish in view of quality and yield (Gübbük vd 2003). These banana however, clones have different agronomic properties. For instance; Dwarf Cavendish isresistantto Panama disease, Grand Nain heightis moderatelevel, Williams shows more yield butit is high plants. On the other hand, Dwarf Cavendish variety is produced by 90% ratiointotal production fieldsin which the plantation has been established by banana clones. This case results in increase individuals having remarkable bunch weight and quality from time to time resulted from unexpected mutations occurred in plants (Türkay 2007). The heating systems aren’t used in banana greenhouses.In stead of that,the systems which can change the temperature and humidity of the greenhouses such as misting and sprinkler irrigation are used. During the summer season especially when the temperature is over 34o C, greenhouses temperature get lower by using misting system. Natural vantilation systems are used through all of the banana greenhouses in Turkey (Türkay 2007). Bananas harvesting becomes dense in certain periods in our country. Harvesting is done densely between November and March. However banana production in greenhouses extends the harvesting period. As bananas are climacteric fruits,they are harvested in green ripe and then are matured. In our country after bananas were harvested,they were directly sent to consuming areas in wooden chestsin the past and they were being matured according to the need. Recently, bananas are matured with ethylene in ripening rooms for consuming. If bananas are to be storage for a long time, they are stored at 12-13 o C, % 90-95 ratio of humidity (Paydas and Pekmezci 1983). As a result bananas are produced in extreme conditions in Turkey. Banana production areas are sharp slopes surrounded by mountains on the north, and by sea on the south. Mountainous lands are being terracing for banana production. Although bananas need plenty of irrigation, production areas are lack of water. Moreover, these production areas making transportation of the crop to the market difficult. In spite of these negative conditions,inthese areasthere is no alternative productto banana to grow. According to the statistical data, our recent banana producing covers the 2/3 of our consuming. However, our country’s production potential is enough to correspond to the consumption if assessed enough. References Anonim a 2009. http://www.bahce.biz/bitki/meyve/muz.htm Anonim b 2008. tüik.gov.tr Anonim c 2008. http://www.muz.gen.tr/yayin/MUZ%20RAPORU%20-%202008.pdf FAO 2006. FAO Statistical Databases. Available at http://www.fao.org Gübbük, H. 1990. Cam Serada Yetiştirilen Cavendish ve Basrai Muz Klonlarının Beslenmesi, Muhafazası ve Olgunlaştırılması Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Bahçe Bitkileri Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi. 1990. Adana. Gübbük, H., Pekmezci, M. and Erkan, M. 2003. Meristem Kültürü ile Çoğaltılan Değişik Muz Klonlarının Açıkta ve Örtüaltında Yetiştirme Olanakları Üzerinde Araştırmalar. Anadolu, J. of AARI, 13(2), 73-87. Lahav, E., Turner, D.W. 1983. Fertilising for High Yield Banana, IPI Bulletin 7, 62 p. Türkay, C., Öztürk, H. H., Pınar, H. and Hocagil, M. M. 2006. Anamur Yöresindeki Muz Seralarının Yapısal ve Đşlevsel Özellikleri. Alatarım, 5 (2):17-22 Türkay, C. 2007. Anamur Yöresindeki Muz Seralarının Özellikleri ve Doğal Havalandırma Etkinliğinin Belirlenmesi Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Tarım Makinaları Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi. 2007. Adana. Padaş, S. and M. Pekmezci, 1983. Muzların Depolanması ve Olgunlaştırılması Üzerinde Araştırmalar. TÜBĐTAK-TOAG Türkiye'de Bahçe Ürünlerinin Depolanması Pazara Hazırlanması ve Taşınması Simpozyumu, Tübitak Yayınları 587, TOAG 118, 306-321. 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 524 Title A name given to the resource Production Of Banana In Turkey Author Author Biner, Beyza Temirkaynak, Meliha Oten, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Banana, the production of which is restricted in some regions in both the world and in Turkey, is a rather demanded product as it is delicious, exotic and nutritious. The production, consumption and trade of banana is in high volumes in the world. Banana is the fourth most important crop species in the world and is critical for food security in many tropical countries. Bananas have been cultivated economically for a long time in subtropical regions of Turkey where production and productivity per hectare have significantly increased due to the adoption of protected cultivation. In Turkey, banana is mainly cultivated in Anamur and Bozyazı, where protected cultivation is common, and Alanya and Gazipasa, where open cultivation is widely used. The area of protected cultivation in Alanya has lately been increasing. The objective of the study was to evaluate sustainability in banana production of Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/54a1eb16effc25e9e93924fda4500dfc.pdf 50084f3872cae99e3b63793f85e2f367 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Arsenic Removal By Electrochemical Treatment Process Recep Boncukçuoğlu Department of EnvironmentalEngineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey Berrin Z. Can VIIIst Regional Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSĐ), Erzurum, Turkey Alper E.Yilmaz Department of EnvironmentalEngineering, Engineering Faculty, Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey M. Muhtar Kocakerim Abstract: In the present study, electrocoagulation (EC) has been evaluated as a treatment technology for arsenic (As) removal from aqueous solutions. Iron plate electrode was used in experiments. The experiments was used were carried out in a batch reactor. The effects of operational parameters such as current density, initial pH, electrolysis time and initial arsenic concentration were investigated. The obtained experimental results showed that efficiency of arsenic removal increased with increasing current density and decreased with increasing arsenic concentration in the solution. It has been established that the pH has a considerable influence on the performance of electrocoagulation process. Under the optimum conditions of an initial pH of 4, current density of 1,07 mA/cm2, stirring speed of 150 rpm, electrolysis time of 30 minutes, Arsenic was removed from aqueous solutions including arsenic concentration of 50 mg/L, at a rate of 99,50%. Keywords: Arsenic removal, electrocoagulation, water treatment, iron electrode 1. Introduction Arsenic, a toxic trace element present in natural waters (ground and surface water), has become a major unavoidable threat for the life of human beings and useful microorganisms. Arsenic concentration in water can become elevated due to several reasons like, mineral dissolution, use of arsenical pesticides, disposal of fly ash, mine drainage, and geothermaldischarge [1]. Arsenic contamination in potable water suppliesis a serious health problem in many countries around the world. As is a cause for skin,liver,lung and kidney or bladder cancer,itis a big headache to the nation. Due to carcinogenic nature of arsenic compounds, the purpose should now be to reduce the exposure of arsenic-contaminated water to a level as close to zero as possible [2.] . According to theWorld Health Organization (WH O), the maximum contamination level of arsenic in drinkingwater is 50 and 10 µg/L as a provisional guideline value [3]. This standard has been retained by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and is currently the maximum contaminant level. The range of values under consideration by USEPA is from 2 to 20 µg/L for total arsenic. Several methods have been investigated for removal of arsenic,including ion exchange [4, 5],coagulation and precipitation withiron and aluminum salts[6, 7], adsorption [8, 9], electocoagulation [10, 11], membran techniques like ultrafiltration [12, 13], Nanofiltration [14],electrodialysis,reverse osmosis [15]. EC (electocoagulation) is an emerging watertreatmenttechnology and could be a good choice to remove As (III)from water:the amount ofrequired chemicalsis much lower,a smaller amount of sludge is produced, no mixing of chemical is required, coagulant dosing as well required overpotentials can be easily calculated and controlled, operating costs are much lower when compared with most ofthe conventionaltechnologies [16,17]. W hen iron is used as electrode material, the chemical reactions which occur on electrode and in the solution, are shown in Table 1. The following mechanisms describe the formation of the iron hydroxides Fe(OH)n where n = 2 or 3. The Fe(OH)n(s) formed remains in the aqueous stream as a gelatinous suspension, which can remove the pollutants from wastewater either by complexation or by electrostatic attraction, followed by coagulation [18]. 194 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Mechanism Mechanism 1: Anode : In the solution Cathode: Overall: Reactions 4Fe(s) → 4Fe2+ (aq) + 8e4Fe2+(aq) +10H2 O(1) + O(2) →4Fe(OH)3(s) + 8H+ (aq) 8H+ (aq) + 8e- → 4H2(g) 4Fe(s) + 10H2 O(1) + O2 (q) → 4Fe(OH)3(s) + 4H2(g) Anode : Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2eIn the solution Fe2+(aq) + 2OH- (aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) Cathode: 2H2 O(1) + 2e- → H2(g) + 2OH -(aq) Overall: Fe(s) + 2H2 O(1) → Fe(OH)2(s) + H2(g) Table 1. The reactions occurred atiron electrode and in the solution Mechanism 2: The H2 produced as a result of the redox reaction may remove dissolved organics or any suspended materials by flotation. The purpose of the present study is to assess the performance of EC on the treatment of arsenic, by exploring the effects of various operational parameters such as current density, initial pH and initial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal efficiency. 2. Experimental 2.1. Materials All chemicals were of analytical grade. Stock arsenic solutions of 1.32 g/l were prepared according to the EPA standard method by dissolving arsenic oxide (As2 O3) in 2N NaOH and then diluting the solution up to 1 liter with de-ionized water. Solutions of lower concentrations were prepared by proper dilution. The pH of the solution was adjusted by adding either sodium hydroxide or sulfuric acid. 2.2. Analytical methods The concentration of As was determined by a Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer model Shimadzu AA 6800 equipped with a hydride generation. Hydride generation is, perhaps, the most popular sample derivatization method used for inorganic arsenic detection. Initially it was developed as a method for AAS, whereby sodium or potassium tetrahydroborate (III) is used for arsine production (Eq 4,5). The reduction reagents NaBH4 and KBH4 have proved to be exceptionally reliable reagents forthe conversion ofthe sample to volatile forms [19]. The hydride generation procedure can be also used for differential determination of As (III) and As (V), based on the fact that As (III) reacts with tetrahydroborate at a higher pH than As (V).Thus tetrahydroborateis acting as a reductantfor As (V) as wellas a hydride source. The inclusion of on-line hydride generation generallyincreasesthe sensitivity of detection and reducesthe possibleinterferences from the sample matrix. In this study sodium tetrahydroborate (NaBH4) was of analytical grade and was dissolved in sodium hydroxide solution just before use. − As(OH) 3 + 3BH4 + 3H + → AsH3 + 3BH3 + 3H 2 O (1) 3BH3 + 3H 2 O → H 3 BO3 + 3H 2 (2) Electrocoagulation was conducted at different electrolysis time, different pH, different current density, and differentinitial concentrations,different stirring speed using Fe electrodes. 2.3. Electrocoagulation test The experiments carried outin a 1600 mL3 laboratory-scale batch reactor made of plexiglass. Two groups of alternating electrodes being cathodes and anodes (by six plates of each type) made ofiron with total area of approximately 700 cm2 were arranged vertically. The net spacing between the iron electrodes was 5 mm. They were treated with the solution of HNO3 for cleaning priorto use. At the end of run,the electrodes were washed thoroughly with water to remove any solid residues on the surfaces, and dried. Electrodes were connected to a digital DC power supply characterized by the ranges 0.36–2.14 mA/cm2 for current and 0–30V for voltage in monopolar mode. G W GPC -3060 D was used as a power supply. Cell current was measued using WT W Multiline 340i multimetre. During the experiments, the electrocoagulation unit was stirred at 150 rpm by a magnetic stirrer. (Heidolph M R-3004). The pH and conductivity were measured by a multimeter (WT W, 195 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Multiline 340 i), which was freshly calibrated by 2 points (4.01, 7.00) before each test. The experimental apparatus is given in Fig. 1. The reactor was fed with 1500 mL of arsenic containing solution atthe beginning of each run performed at constanttemperature (293 K). After each run was timed starting with switching the DC power supply on,the residual arsenicinthe samples filtered and taken from the reactor was measured. Concentrations of arsenic were measured spectrophotometrically before and after electrolysis. The samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy (Shimadzu A-A 6800) by the standard method (APHA). 1. Water Circulator, 2. D.C. Power Supply, 3. Ampermeter,4. Voltmeter, 5. Reactor, 6. Magnetic Stirrer Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. The effect ofinitial pH The initial pH is one of the important factors in affecting the performance of electrochemical process. It has been established thatthe pH has a considerable influence on the performance of electrocoagulation process. To investigate this effect, a series of experiments performed using aqueous solution containing arsenic of 50 mg/L were carried out atinitial pH of 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0 8.0 under conditions in which current density of 1,07 mA/cm2 and stirring speed of 150 rpm were kept constant during experiments. After the removal experiment, we observed 99% removal,in the water samples with initial Arsenic concentration at 50 mg/L and initial pH at 4.0, 3.0 and 5.0 respectively. In the study initial pH was chosen as 4 and other experiments were done at pH 4. 196 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 100 As removal, % 80 60 pHi=2 pHi=3 40 pHi=4 pHi=5 pHi=6 20 pHi=7 pHi=8 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 time, min Figure 2. Effect of pH on arsenic removal 3.2. The effect of current density The current densityis defined asthe ratio of currentinputto the electrolytic celltothe surface area of the electrode. It is well known that current not only determines the coagulant dosage rate but also the bubble production rate, size and the flocks growth, which can influence the treatment efficiency of the electrocoagulation. Thus,this parameter should have a significant impact on removal efficiencies of pollutants. To investigate the effect of current density on the energy consumption, a series of experiments were carried out under the experimental conditions of current density being varied from 0.36 to 2.14 mA/cm2 solution pH of 4.0, temperature of 293 K and stirring speed of 150 rpm. 100 As removal, % 80 60 0,25 amper 0,50 amper 0,75 amper 1,00 amper 1,25 amper 1,50 amper 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 time, min Figure 3. Effect of current density on arsenic removal Increasing the current density 0.36 mA/cm2 to 1.07 mA/cm2 the removal efficiency isfurtherimproved. A higher current density means a higher Fe3+ and OH- dosage, and a better removal should therefore be the result. On the other hand,increasing the current density to 2.14 mA/cm2 no real difference in As removal. 197 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 3.3. The effect ofinitial arsenic concentration The effect of initial arsenic concentration on the arsenic removal was examined with solutions including arsenic of 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg/L. Current density of 1.07 mA/cm2, optimum pH of 4.0 and stirring speed of 150 rpm were kept constant in the experiments. The solution conductivity increased with increasing arsenic concentration. As a result ofthis situation, applied potentialand energy consumption decreased. On the contrary, arsenic removal efficiency decreased with increasing arsenic concentration. This can be explained as following; although the same amount Fe3+ passed to solution atthe same current density for all arsenic concentration, Fe3+ was insufficient for solutions including higher arsenic concentration. Because of increasing arsenic concentration, potential applied to solution and energy consumption decreased. The results obtained were shown graphically in Fig. 4. 100 As removal, % 80 60 40 10 mg/L As 25 mg/L As 20 50 mg/L As 100 mg/L As 0 0 10 20 30 40 time, min 50 60 70 Figure 4. Effect ofinitial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal. 4. Conclusions The present study clearly demontrated the applicability of electrocoagulation process using the iron electrode for arsenic removal. The effects of operational parameters such as current density, initial pH, electrolysistime,initial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal efficiency were studied in detail and explained as well. It has been observed that the pH is an important operating factor influencing the performance of electrocoagulation process. Optimal initial pH was found as 4 in the use of iron as sacrificial electrode material inthetreatment. Oxidation of As(III)to As(V) was occured asthe firststep and then subsequent adsorption on to hydrous ferric oxides. As(III)is more mobile and more toxic than As(V), so itis an advantage to convert As(III) to As(V).Increasing the current density 0,36 mA/cm2 to 2,14 mA/cm2,the Fe3+ and OH- dosage isincreased too, and thereby favouring the removal of As. On the other hand,itseems thatincreasing the current density beyond a maximum value,the electrocoagulation process would notimprove further. This could probably be explained by passivation of the anode. When effect of initial arsenic concentration on arsenic removal efficiency was investigated,the obtained results shown thatincreasing arsenic concentration increased conductivity of solution. Thus, solution with higher arsenic concentration had more ions atthe same volume. As a result under the optimum conditions of an initial pH of 4, current density of 1,07 m A/cm2, stirring speed of 150 rpm, electrolysis time of 30 minutes, As was removed from aqueos solutions including arsenic concentration of 50 mg/L, at a rate of 99,50. It can be concluded from this study that electrocoagulation is a promising technique for arsenic removal. 198 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo References [1] Kumar, P.R., Chaudhari, S., Khilar, K.C., Mahajan, S.P., (2004) Removal of arsenic from water by electrocoagulation, Chemosphere 55 (9) 1245-1252. [2] Basha, A., C., Josephine Selvi, S., Ramasamyc, E., Chellammal, S., (2008). Removal of arsenic and sulphate from the copper smelting industrial effluent, Chemical Engineering Journal 141, 89–98. [3] World Health Organization (WHO), Guidelines for DrinkingWater Quality, WHO, 1993, p. 41. [4] Greenleaf, J.E., Lin, J.C., Sengupta, A.K., (2006) Two novel applications of ion exchange fibers: arsenic removal and chemical-free softening of hard water, Environ. Prog. 25 (4) 300–311. [5] Anirudhan, T.S., Unnithan, M.R., (2007) Arsenic(V) removal from aqueous solutions using an anion exchanger derived from coconut coir pith and its recovery, Chemosphere 66 (1) 60–66. [6] Edwards, M., 1994. Chemistry of arsenic removal during coagulation and Fe–Mn oxidation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 86, 64–78. [7] Hering, J.G., Chen, P.Y., Wilkie, J.A., Elimelech, M., (1996). Arsenic removal by ferric chloride. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 88, 155–167. [8] Manning, B.A., Goldberg, S. 1997. Arsenic(III) and arsenic(V) adsorption on three California soils. Soil Sci. 162: 886895. [9] Bajpai, S., Chaudhuri, M., (1999) Removal of arsenic from ground water by manganes dioxide-coated stand, J. Environ. Eng. 125(8) 782-784,. [10] Parga, J.R., Cocke, D.L., Valenzuela, J.L., Gomes, J.A., Kesmez, M., Irwin, G., Moreno, H., Weir, M., (2005), Arsenic removal via electrocoagulation from heavy metal contaminated groundwater in La Comarca LaguneraM´exico, J. Hazard. Mater. 124 (1–3) 247–254. [11] Hansen, H.K., Nunez, P., Grandon, R., (2006) Electrocoagulation as a remediation tool for wastewaters containing arsenic, Minerals Engineering 19 (5) 521. [12] Weng, Y.-H., Chaung-Hsieh, L.H., Lee, H.-H., Li, K.C., Huang, C.P., (2005) Removal of arsenic and humic substances (HSs) by electro-ultrafiltration (EUF), J. Hazard. Mater. 122 (1–2) 171–176. [13] Iqbal, J., Kim, H.J., Yang, J.S., Baek, K., Yang, J.W., (2007) Removal of arsenic from groundwater by micellarenhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF), Chemosphere 66 (5) 970–976. [14] Kim, D.H., Kim, K.W., Cho, J., (2006) Removal and transport mechanisms of arsenics in UF and NF membrane processes, J.Water Health 4 (2) 215–223. [15] Ning, R.Y., (2002) Arsenic removal by reverse osmosis, Desalination 143 (3) 237–241. [16] Rajeshwar, K., Ibanez, J. G., 1997 Environmental Electrochemistry, Fundamentals and Applications in Pollution Abatement Academic Press, San Diego, , pp. 410. [17] Ihoş, M., Negrea, A., Lupa, L., Ciopec, M., Negrea, P., (2005) Comparative Study of As (III) Removal Efficiency from Water by Electrocoagulation and Conventional Coagulation, Chem. Bull. "Politehnica" Univ. (Timişoara) 50 (64) 1-2. [18] Mollah M.Y.A., Schennach R., Parga J.R., et. al., (2001) Electrocoagulation (EC) – science andapplication, Journal of Hazardous Materials, B84, 29-41, [19] Howard, A.G., (1997) (Boro)hydride techniques in trace element speciation, J. Anal. At. Spectrom. 12 267-272. 199 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 509 Title A name given to the resource Arsenic Removal By Electrochemical Treatment Process Author Author Boncukçuoğlu, Recep Can, Berrin Z. Yilmaz, Alper E. Kocakerim, M. Muhtar Abstract A summary of the resource. In the present study, electrocoagulation (EC) has been evaluated as a treatment technology for arsenic (As) removal from aqueous solutions. Iron plate electrode was used in experiments. The experiments was used were carried out in a batch reactor. The effects of operational parameters such as current density, initial pH, electrolysis time and initial arsenic concentration were investigated. The obtained experimental results showed that efficiency of arsenic removal increased with increasing current density and decreased with increasing arsenic concentration in the solution. It has been established that the pH has a considerable influence on the performance of electrocoagulation process. Under the optimum conditions of an initial pH of 4, current density of 1,07 mA/cm2, stirring speed of 150 rpm, electrolysis time of 30 minutes, Arsenic was removed from aqueous solutions including arsenic concentration of 50 mg/L, at a rate of 99,50%. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)