312 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b074027dde7f1bc3f24ef6e064b816f7.docx a80772187a11bdf4500c6c5b8bc22f38 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/58078ddb5e005dee9f7cb41e7b6b10dd.pdf 31d77a43f0f79e3eff488c76072dfbe2 PDF Text Text The Usage of Visual Aids and the Academic Achievement of the Students Melike AYPAR Gaziosmanpaşa University/ Tokat, Turkey Key words: Academic Achievement,Using visual aids,Visual aids,Grammar,FLT ABSTRACT The usage of visual aids in foreign language teaching and learning is very crucial. This study aims to investigate the effect of the usage of visual aids on the academic achievement of the students in the prep-school of Gaziosmanpaşa University, Tokat. 53 participants of the 63 students participated to the study. The results show that there is an effective usage of visual aids at the prep-school of the university. However there is not a significant effect of the visual aid usage on the academic achievement. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1898 Title A name given to the resource The Usage of Visual Aids and the Academic Achievement of the Students Author Author AYPAR, Melike Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: Academic Achievement,Using visual aids,Visual aids,Grammar,FLT ABSTRACT The usage of visual aids in foreign language teaching and learning is very crucial. This study aims to investigate the effect of the usage of visual aids on the academic achievement of the students in the prep-school of Gaziosmanpaşa University, Tokat. 53 participants of the 63 students participated to the study. The results show that there is an effective usage of visual aids at the prep-school of the university. However there is not a significant effect of the visual aid usage on the academic achievement. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a6fe72537a4e6d8c2b8e5522f14ab30b.pdf 1305cef4be1cc60c749c1116cd02888f PDF Text Text 1 THE USE OF AGENT-BASED MODELS IN COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS: AN APPROACH TO CHOMSKY’S LINGUISTICS THROUGH THE CLARION MODEL Miriam Bait & Raffaella Folgieri & Oscar Scarpello Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy Article History: Submitted: 09.06.2015 Accepted: 21.06.2015 Abstract In this paper we propose the use of Agent-Based Models (ABM) (Gilbert 2008) to study the development of historical natural languages starting from a universal grammar according to Chomsky’s "Theory of the principles and parameters" (Chomsky 1995) . The CLARION architecture, designed by Ron Sun (Sun 2002) integrates implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive levels, with the motivational aspect, i.e. accepting the cardinal principles of the embodied mind (Clark 1997) and recognizing the basic role of direct men- environment interaction in cognitive mechanisms. Ron Sun develops these points in a theory of mind and in a thorough discussion of learning problems. The goal of an artificial neural network (ANN), based on a CLARION architecture, is to verify theoretical assumptions through simulation, bringing together the dichotomy between implicit (subsymbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge through a learning mechanism realized by the extraction of explicit rules by subsymbolic knowledge, based on interaction with the world. In the real world, cognitive operations are mostly performed unconsciously. Moreover, learning is carried out through attempts, in dynamic circumstances. The methodology allows to observe the development of cognitive structures of individual agents through ABM and contribute to studying the emergence of unplanned and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural models as learning tools implies that the simulations are realistic, considering the relationship between intentional behaviour, learning, desires, individual structures and social structures. The simulation, thus, enables a study the mind from an evolutionary perspective (that of satisfying a particular need in a physical and sociocultural world), understanding how individual structures and social institutions and environment could change each other. �2 Through ANN-based models one can build realistic 'intelligent agents', i.e. with a 'mind', minimizing the programming of rules of behaviour and letting the interaction with the environment produce efficient behaviour. Key words: ABMS, Agent Based Model System, CLARION, implicit (subsymbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge, embodied cognition, language and grammar. �2 1. Introduction Following Heidegger (2013), being-in-the-world is an essential condition of the human cognition: this means to recognize the basic role of the direct, immediate, non-deliberative humans-environment interaction. It does not require the mediation of any form of representation, but consists in a functional-associative process, in which the knowledge of an object is strongly related to the instrumental value of it, in relation with the subject. Furthermore, a central idea is that also the explicit knowledge is strongly influenced by this aspect. In this paper, we focus on the study of the development of historical natural languages starting from a universal grammar according to the Chomsky ‘s "Theory of the principles and parameters" (Chomsky 1995). To do this, we needed to identify a model suited to perform a cognitive simulation of all mechanisms. But, how could we simulate and comprehend a disordered and non-intuitive system like the humans-environment learning paradigm? «One promising approach involves what has become known as an autonomous-agent theory. An autonomous agent is a creature capable of survival, action, and motion in real time in a complex and somewhat realistic environment» (Clark 1997, 6). Studying the process in their relationship with the world becomes essential, as well as the attention we must assign to the interdependency between learning and acting. A useful tool «is the use of simulated evolution as a means of generating control systems for (real or simulated) robots. Simulated evolution (like neural network learning) promises to help reproduce the role of our rationalistic prejudices and predispositions in the search for efficient solution» (Clark 1997, 87). The central element is the evolutionary character of the model. The immediateness of the cognitive processes characterizes human action also in structured social contexts: «The idea, in short, is that advanced cognition depends crucially on our abilities to dissipate reasoning: to diffuse achieved knowledge and practical wisdom through complex social structures, and to reduce the loads of individual brains by locating those brains in complex webs of linguistic, social, political, and institutional constraints [...]. Human brains, if this is anywhere near the mark, are not so different from the fragmented, special purpose, action-oriented organs of other animals and autonomous robots» (Clark 1997, 180). �3 There are situations in which the environment is structured so that an individual does not need great elaboration processes to achieve an objective. The objective of a simulation is comprehending and analysing the totality of the humans-environment relationships and Clark (1997) recognizes these possibilities. The starting point of our work is the acknowledgement that cognitive science call for a methodological approach allowing a cross-discipline study of the mind based on an evolutionary perspective. As already mentioned, in this paper we propose the use of Agent-Based Models (ABM) [Gilbert 2008] to study the development of historical natural languages using the CLARION architecture, designed by Ron Sun (Sun 2002). The simulation allows to study the mind from an evolutionary perspective (satisfying a particular need in a physical and sociocultural world), understanding how individual structures and social institutions and environment could change each other. Section two is devoted to Ron Sun’s mind theory and to the description of his CLARION model (Sun, 2002), while section three describes the designed simulation. In section four we will discuss the results and in last chapter five we will draw our conclusions and suggest possible future developments. 2. Ron Sun’s mind theory and the CLARION model Ron Sun (2002) developed these points in a mind theory and, in particular, in a thorough discussion of the learning problem. Both these aspects are then realized in a cognitive modular architecture, namely CLARION (Connectionist Learning with Adaptive Rule Induction ONline), that integrates implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive level and together with the motivational aspects, whose objective consists in verifying the theoretical assumption through a simulation. The fundament of this mind theory is the dichotomy between implicit (sub-symbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge and the learning mechanism that is the construction of explicit rules of the sub-symbolic knowledge. The latter is founded on the interaction with the world: it is a fundamental implicit process, direct and not mediated by representations. In daily activities, under the time pressure, most of the cognitive operations realised, are performed without any reflection. Furthermore, learning happens by attempts, in circumstances in which the scenario is not stationary, stable and not for the individual who acts and learns. These adaptability and dynamism are reproducible only by neural networks or �4 simulations environments. In Sun’s model this implicit process is based on the reinforcement learning and on the Q-learning algorithm. These methods simulates humans’ learning that is graduated and action-oriented (Sun 2002, 25). The following phase of the bottom-up learning corresponds to the algorithm for the extraction of rules called Rule-Extraction- Revision (RER) (Sun, 2002). This algorithm allows to extract from neural networks the essential elements to construct a rule formed in an explicit manner, that is in the “if-then” form. Our purpose is based on the use of the CLARION cognitive architecture (Sun 2002) and the agent-based model, to enable individuals to learn a language from a universal grammar, drawing on Chomsky’s "principles and parameters theory" (Chomsky 1995) and then to act and interact within an environment. The methodology allows us to observe the development of cognitive structures of individual agents through ABM and contribute to studying the emergence of unplanned and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural models as learning tools implies that the simulations are realistic, considering the relationship between intentional behavior, learning, desires, individual structures and social structures. The sub-symbolic knowledge is suited to grasp the peculiarity of the men-environment and men-men interaction. The extraction method consisting in selecting information from the implicit knowledge allows to formulate the concepts themselves in an explicit form. The fundament of the symbols must be sought in the sub-symbolic knowledge and particularly in the interaction among agents and between agents and environment. In this context, the neural models can significantly contribute to set the significance of representations and the concept of intentionality. 3. Tools and Methodology The adopted methodology is interesting for the effects we can observe in the development of the cognitive structures of single agents in information technology simulation realized through ABM (Agent Based Models) we will describe in the following. In fact, this kind of simulations allow to study the emergence of non-programmed and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural networks as learning instruments make realistic the simulations, thanks to complex architecture not limiting to act in a “reactive” way to the stimuli from the environment. �5 The realized model is composed of a cognitive architecture that allows learning and of a platform where it is possible to develop the agents simulation. The cognitive architecture is CLARION, chosen for its modularity and for the capability to integrate implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive levels, combining all these element with the motivational aspect. Figure 1: CLARION (The Connectionist Learning with Adaptive Rule Induction ON-line) We wish to highlight that the three innovative aspects of this architecture are: I. The interaction between cognition-motivation and environment: the motivations of the agent correspond to social needs, the trigger of every action and cognition. II. The ability of the agent to learn autonomously, regardless of the cultural context provided a priori. The learning and the formation of implicit knowledge is based on a trial-anderror criterion. The abstract and explicit knowledge can be extracted from the implied knowledge. It is gradually acquired through a "bottom-up" process. III. The constant interaction of multiple subsystems. �6 Neural networks are the first step of the hierarchy of knowledge: through parameter estimation it is possible to build a function that can associate (such as, map) different values, through a reward-punishment process, in a continuous interaction with the outside world. The algorithms used are the reinforcement learning and Q-learning: the advantage of these processes is that no preset external value is required in order to estimate the values of the network variables. Once the network is trained, it is possible to derive rules and concepts to create explicit knowledge. The simulation with ABMs is defined within a delimited environmental system, populated by actors who perceive a certain state of the system, interact with each other, and express a certain preference structure which might change in the very course of the simulation. To design the simulation, we chose the NetLogo (https://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/) platform because this software is suitable for complex systems evolving over time. More specifically, the purpose of this simulation is to explore how and to what extent the properties of language users, learning, environment, structure of the social network, may influence the spread of a language. In this model, two linguistic variants are at work within the social network: one variant is generated by grammar 0 and the other is generated by grammar 1. Speakers interact, at each time cycle, according to the network links. At each iteration, every speakers pass on a sentence expressed in Grammar 0 or Grammar 1 to neighbors in the network. Then individuals listen to their neighbors and change their grammars according to what they have heard. The model is organized into three distinct but interacting elements:  the environment;  speakers acting within this environment;  the social network �7 Figure 2: the simulation developed in NetLogo The structure given to the environment has been characterized by defining variables and procedures that provide a dynamic foundation for agents that act within it, interacting with each other and with the created environment. The speakers interact with two different grammars that are learned using the CLARION cognitive architecture. In this model, each grammar is associated with a weight, which determines for every speaker, the probability to access that grammar. The speakers still produce statements in compliance with the grammar of access, but individuals now have a probability to produce sentences with or without the original parameters. This allows us, according to what Troutman, Goldrick, and Clark stated in their study (2008), to detect intraspeaker variations when changing the language. Learning determines the interaction modality with the environment and, consequently, the degree of language proficiency that the speakers will acquire during the simulation. The degree of competence achieved allows to activate the algorithms and communication procedures in order to create the link between the individual speakers environment and the procedures for dissemination in the social network. �8 English speakers and Italian speakers interact with each other according to the network links. Every iteration make all agents speak, and listen at the same time, thus passing an statement to their neighbors and consequently modifying their grammars according to what they receive as input from other speakers. All speakers, after each iteration, update their grammar immediately after listening. This implies a choice for one of the two polarizing grammars on the basis on its weight. If the selected grammar is able to analyze the expression correctly, the grammar is rewarded by increasing its weight. Otherwise, the grammar is penalized by decreasing its weight. In addition, the speakers have a bias in favour of the English grammar that was introduced by Troutman, Clark and Goldrick (2008). Their results show that a bias is a crucial component in the variation pattern of the language. Finally, the implementation of the social network characterizes the interaction between speakers making communication possible and influencing with its form and structure, evolving in time, the time and modes of communication. Starting from this assumption, the implemented network was reconsidered as a structure with a mesh topology, where each node is directly connected to the other nodes by random bonds, using for each connection a dedicated branch. More specifically, the model starts from the creation of links between nodes (speakers) over time, trying to realize a fully meshed topology within a limited group of speakers who represent a kind of "eco-village" following the "Rule of 150". The number of Dunbar (or rule 150) states that the size of a social network capable of supporting stable relationships is limited to about 150 members (Hill Dunbar 2002). 4. Results and discussion In the simulation, at the initial moment of interaction of a group, the speakers of two different languages, implement accommodation strategies to communicate. Later, the increase of linguistic competence obtained by speakers during the cycles of the simulation time, transforms the process of diffusion into an individual exchange interaction. The users of a language choose one of neighbours they are randomly linked to, by adopting the grammar of the other, simply by proximity. The individual exchange between speakers is intuitively the moment where individual elements of a group, having acquired a good linguistic competence individually interact with the others in order to create personal relationships with other individuals. �9 Increasing the language competence, the simulation ends with a third phase where speakers do not start from opposite positions, since they have mediated the differences and have developed skills since the beginning of the simulation, and may aim at a common result. The following picture shows the average distribution of the languages among speakers. Italian speakers are represented by the blue line, while Anglophone agents are in the red one; the ordinate shows the distribution while the abscisses the time in the simulation. Figure 3: average distribution of the languages in speakers As a result, it is possible to notice the development of the use of one grammar instead of another to communicate among all members of the group, without being anchored to a basic form of communication given by the mediation of two different grammars. It has also been noted that the value of the bias in favour of grammar 1 has a very strong weight, and this is essential to enrich the social network with a motivation element by the subjects. Moreover, it is possible to find the percentage of the initial distribution of grammars to establish the minimum number of Italians that is required in order to invalidate the bias of prejudice in favor of the spread of English grammar. 5. Conclusion The first conclusion considering the results of the simulations and the cases examined, concerns the actual occurrence of an adjustment by the speakers and a development in the use of a grammar instead of another to communicate between all members of the group. �10 The interaction with the environment and the interaction within the social network permit the achievement of a high level of language competence. When this level is acquired, the speakers reach constantly the threshold value of one of the two grammars examined. It has also been noted that the value of the bias in favour of the English grammar is a very strong weight, and this is essential to enrich the social network with a motivational framework of speakers. The preference of a grammar enhances the language competence. Finally, it has been observed that some initial distributions into groups of speakers can invalidate the prejudice in favor of the use of a language because of their number. This might mean that an environment that is strongly characterized by the presence of a language (e.g., Italian grammar) leads the speakers not to communicate with the other (English grammar), even if the individual and the aggregate preference would say the opposite. The action of an agent within a simulation is the result of complex dynamics among factors such as action, thought and external structures. In short, the agent simulates cognitive processes. Only within an evolutionary perspective the world becomes a space of computational resources that are complementary to human cognitive processes. Therefore the mind has created much of its representations that are local and action-oriented. Under this new light, defining knowledge as "distributed" acquires even greater meaning. In fact, cognitive architectures that are based on networks, are inspired by the brain structure and it is claimed they provide excellent tools for the study of the mind and its functioning. Their development has played a very important role in the philosophical debate, in particular, within the domain of cognitive sciences and the philosophy of mind. A serious mistake, however, would be to take radical positions disregarding representational and computational methods. The problem is still open, but the concept of actionoriented representation is crucial in order to grasp one of the many aspects of the brain-world relationship. This new interpretation gives prominence to the simulation, and in particular to simulation through agents, fostering new methodological perspectives for the cognitive sciences. �11 References Gilbert N., (2008), Agent-based models. No. 153. Sage. Chomsky N., (1995), The Minimalist Program (Current Studies in Linguistics), MIT Press. Clark A., (1997), Being there: putting brain, body, and world together again, MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Heidegger, M. (2013). Essere e tempo. Utet Libri. Hill, R. A., & Dunbar, R. I. (2003). Social network size in humans. Human nature, 14(1), 53-72. Sun R., (2002), Duality of the Mind, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Troutman, C., Clark, B., & Goldrick, M. (2008). Social networks and intraspeaker variation during periods of language change. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 14(1), 25. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2897 Title A name given to the resource THE USE OF AGENT-BASED MODELS IN COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS: AN APPROACH TO CHOMSKY’S LINGUISTICS THROUGH THE CLARION MODEL Author Author Bait, Miriam Folgieri, Raffaella Scarpello, Oscar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper we propose the use of Agent-Based Models (ABM) (Gilbert 2008) to study the development of historical natural languages starting from a universal grammar according to Chomsky’s "Theory of the principles and parameters" (Chomsky 1995) . The CLARION architecture, designed by Ron Sun (Sun 2002) integrates implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive levels, with the motivational aspect, i.e. accepting the cardinal principles of the embodied mind (Clark 1997) and recognizing the basic role of direct men- environment interaction in cognitive mechanisms. Ron Sun develops these points in a theory of mind and in a thorough discussion of learning problems. The goal of an artificial neural network (ANN), based on a CLARION architecture, is to verify theoretical assumptions through simulation, bringing together the dichotomy between implicit (subsymbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge through a learning mechanism realized by the extraction of explicit rules by subsymbolic knowledge, based on interaction with the world. In the real world, cognitive operations are mostly performed unconsciously. Moreover, learning is carried out through attempts, in dynamic circumstances. The methodology allows to observe the development of cognitive structures of individual agents through ABM and contribute to studying the emergence of unplanned and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural models as learning tools implies that the simulations are realistic, considering the relationship between intentional behaviour, learning, desires, individual structures and social structures. The simulation, thus, enables a study the mind from an evolutionary perspective (that of satisfying a particular need in a physical and sociocultural world), understanding how individual structures and social institutions and environment could change each other. Through ANN-based models one can build realistic 'intelligent agents', i.e. with a 'mind', minimizing the programming of rules of behaviour and letting the interaction with the environment produce efficient behaviour. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 941 Title A name given to the resource The use of Anglicisms in authentic Italian and Slovene commercial correspondence Author Author Lenassi, Nives Abstract A summary of the resource. Analyses of various business languages show a great presence of Anglicisms, which can be ascribed to companies’ desires to be competitive on the global market. In line with current globalization trends, the impact of English as a source language on Italian and Slovene is considerable (see Bombi 2005, Rosati 2004, Sicherl 1999, Šabec 2011). In order to determine whether there are any common tendencies or divergences between the two business languages in the use of Anglicisms, a corpus of business correspondence texts was collected and studied combining qualitative and quantitative research methods. The corpus consists of 530 business correspondence texts, written in real-life communicative situations. There are 265 texts written by Italian businesspeople that have business contacts with Slovene partners, and the same number of texts written by Slovene businesspeople for their Slovene partners. In this case, therefore, Italian is a tool for international communication, whereas Slovene is used as the language for communication on the domestic market. Bearing these important differences in mind, various trends and English-language elements may be present in both receptor languages analyzed (Italian and Slovene). However, the differences or similarities in the use of Anglicisms between the two languages can also be ascribed to the diversity of texts that emerges at the linguistic and pragmatic level: the collected texts display a wide range of differences in length (short vs. long), topic (offer, request, complaint, etc.), number of recipients (one vs. more), relationship between the sender and recipient (formal vs. informal), and medium (letter, fax, or e-mail). Taking these differences into consideration, this paper sheds light on the factors that stimulate the use of Anglicisms in the texts studied- Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f1c79fb8dd7114be56baeebed230a59.pdf 0645a0c00f4a46417b52513640671451 PDF Text Text The Use of Asphaltites in the Landfill Layer Lemi Tufan Taşpolat Bilecik University VocationalHigh School, Department of Building Technology, Bilecik Hasan Yamik Bilecik University Engineering Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bilecik Mesut Kaplan Bilecik University VocationalHigh School, Department of Food Technology, Bilecik Abstract:The waste materials emerged in developing cities should be disposed without damage to environment. Landfills must properly be designed and well managed. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. This process was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, asphaltite dust was added at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15% to mixture of 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite by weight. Geotechnic, physical and chemical experiments were carried out on the samples. The experiment results were in acceptable limits with the literature, United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Turkish solid waste regulations. As a result, the asphaltite can be used as an additive material in landfills. Introduction In recent years,as a result of condensation ofthe world's population in cities and increasing consumption, the waste management (collection, transport, processing, waste treatment, recycling or disposal of waste materials)is becoming a serious problem. The increasing of production and consumption resultsin the increase of amount of waste. In the developing countries, distinct rules of waste disposing is initiated to prevent the environment pollution. However, many technologies are developed for the recycling of wastes, many of then cannot be recycled by the economical and technological points of view. The collected wastes can be burned and/or composted by newly developed technologies, however, a final amount of trashes must be stored for the lastremoval procedure. In the regular landfill areas, highly polluted garbage water leaks and reaches to the bottom layer. This leakage water can diffuseto ground and surface water. For avoiding this diffusion, clay layers are supposed to be constructed as a bottom liner. The waste materials should be covered to isolate from surrounding environment and humans and to prevent leakage of rain water to landfill. Some properties are required for this impermeable clay barriers; ie; resistance to environmental effects, lower permeability, higher ductility to prevent crack formation, chemical stability, prevention capability of contaminants by diffusion of similar mechanism (Taşpolat, 2006). In the landfilllayers, utilization of suitable materials and possibly waste mixture material are important to block the heavy metal diffusion in garbage water. By this way,the waste materials,such as fly ash, would be gained to economy. Severalresearchers have studied the usage potential of fly ash in the clay layer as a hydraulic barrier.In these studies,itis seen thatthe fly ash can be used for leakages having alkalin character (Edil and Berthouex, 1990; Palmer et al, 2000; Prashanth et al, 2001; Kalkan and Akbulut, 2004). Zeolite-Bentonite mixture was also used as an altenative material.In these mixtures,the proportion of bentoniteto zeolite between 0,05 to 0,20 was obtained as a suitable mixtures. The cation exchange capacity and lower permeability values of the zeolite and bentonite have shown that itcould be used in clay layers (Kayabalı et al, 1997; Tuncan et al, 2003; Kaya and Durukan, 2003). Besides natural materials, the petroleum based geomembranes can also be used widely as a hydraulic barrier. The using of impermeable geomenbranes have been allowing to build thinner clay layer. In this case, the thin layer should be carefully applied in orderto preventthe tearing and puncturing. In this study, usability of asphaltite dustin the impermeable layer was investigated. For thisreason,three mixture of soilto asphaltite dust(the proportions were 5,10,15% dustto dry soil by weight) have been prepared. The following tests are carried out on the samples taken from the mixtures: Index properties of the specimens 416 �were determined by liquid limit test, plastic limit test, shrinkage test, sieve test, hydrometer test and buoyancy analysis tests. Mechanical properties of the specimens were determined by standard proctor test, permeability test, unconfined compression test and UU triaxialtest. Finally, physicochemical properties such as pH, EC, CEC were determined by chemicaltests. Materials And Method M aterials Na Bentonite Clay Bentoniteis a colloidal aluminium hydrosilicate. The volume of bentonite can rise 10 to 30 times by the addition of water. It has a swelling characteristic till 200ºC. This property loses completely over 600ºC. The vertical permeability of bentonite clay is 4,09x10-10 cm/s and the lateral swelling pressure of bentonite clay is 4,48 kg/cm2 (Mining SpecialExpert commission 2001). The bentonite clay used in this study is Na-Bentonite.It was supplied from the Karakaya Bentonite factory, Ankara (Tuerkey). Some physicochemical and geotechnic parameters of Na Bentonite clay were shown in table 2.1, the amount of total metal is shown in table 2.2, the results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown in table 2.3 (Koyuncu 1998). Kaolinite Clay Kaolinite clay is a product of a type of rock which contains a great amount of feldspar. Kaolinite consists of silica and aluminium layers. The thickness of layers are 7.2 Å, the length of layers are between1000 and 20000 Å and the specific surface area is(SSA) 15m2/g. The clay used in this study is obtained from the Bilecik district. The clay is produced by a three step procedure; first excavation from clay ores,then cleaning from fine sand by water washing and, finally crashing below 40 µ m At the end of washing, groups of clay and shale are completely decomposed. The 80 % ofthis clay consist of kaolinite mineral. Some physicochemical and geotechnical parameters of the kaolinite clay are shown in table 2.1, the amounts oftotal metal are shown in table 2.2 the results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are shown intable 2.3(Koyuncu 1998). Asphaltite Asphaltite, one of the primary energy sources, was assumed that it is a fossil fuel. While amount of oxygen is 3-44% in turba, lignite and coal,itis thought that asphaltite materials have formed as a result of oil transformation, duo to its amount of oxygen (2%). During transformation, asphaltite comes out after natural asphaltits coloris bright black or matt black.Its hardness varies between 2 and 3, specific gravity varies 1.03 and 1.20 and itsthermal value varies between 10 and 23 Mj/kg.Itcontains 10 to 55% constant carbon, 0 to 2% oxygen and from a dribletto 5% mineral material. It melts between 120-135o C and solubility of asphaltitein carbon sulphide is between 45% and 100% (Nakoman 1997). Other physicochemical and geotechnical parameters, the amount of total metal, the results of chemical analysis determined by the X-Ray Flourans Elemental analysis are given in tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 respectively (Koyuncu 1998). At the beginning;the asphaltites were used in production of dye and some chemical materials. After 1920, they has been also used for production of asphalt. Lately,itis used in production of synthetic petroleum. In addition, it is used in production of ammonia after gasifying. Asphaltite materials are also important because of valuable minerals (nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, titanium and uranium) in its contents. Asphaltites can also be used in production of energy by direct burning (Atlaş et al, 1994a).In figure 2.1, asphaltite coal and waste of asphaltite dust used in energy sector are shown. Additions pH CEC EC SM NSA GSW UVW Grain Size Distribution (%) 417 �Silt clay Cu Cc Na-Bentonite 9.50 90.22 2.69 12.7 6.82 2.76 0.94 2 46 Kaolinite 4.86 25.93 0.15 0.1 7.36 2.64 0.59 11 26 Asphaltite 8.37 4.73 0.14 0.54 1.61 2.66 0.34 ------CEC:Cation Exchange Capacity, EC:Electrical Contuctivity,WC:Water Content, OSA:Organic Substance Amount, GSG:Grain Specific gravity,UVW:Unit Volume Weight (meq/100g) (mS/cm) (%) (%) (gr/l) Sand 52 63 ---- 40 170 ---- 0.8 1.7 ---- Table 2.1: Some physicochemical properties of materials used in the study. Additions Al As Cu Na-Bentonite 90262 <5 81 Kaolinite 123750 <5 280 Asphaltite 671 <5 66 Zn Fe Cd Ca 71 10724 <0.5 12134 52 7550 <0.5 770 35 1650 <0.5 27761 Co 21 22 22 Pb Cr Mg Mn Mo 91 9 6815 2419 92 136 405 1230 870 10 63 6 6034 258 73 Ni Na K 7 16920 2558 280 3000 6000 88 5022 579 Table.2.2: Total metal amounts of materials (mg/kg). Additions Na-Bentonite Kaolinite Asphaltite SiO2 59.49 51.52 58.05 Al2O3 18.06 32.00 0.60 Fe2O3 4.14 1.75 0.33 CaO MgO P2O3 3.72 2.42 0.11 0.20 0.20 0.70 34.79 0.00 K2O Na2O SO3 Cl Mn2O3 0.91 2.50 0.10 0.003 ---0.50 0.09 0.004 0.04 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.000 ---- HL 8.02 9.60 5.32 CO2 1.31 1.03 4.84 DW ---------- HL:Heating loss,DW:Dependent Water Table 2.3: Chemical compound determined by X-Ray elemantal analysis of materials used in the study Figure 2.1:. Asphaltite coal and waste asphaltite dust used in energy production Experimental Study Impermeable clay layer was prepared by 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite mixture by dry weight This mixture was named as control specimen - 90K+10B. Then, the asphaltite dust was added to the mixture at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15%. Specimens were prepared with compaction in a standard proctor mold by using optimum water contents for every mixture. The sharpened brass pipe whose diameter is 38mm and heightis 203m m was used for taking specimens from the compaction mold. From the pipe,the specimens with 37 mm diameter and 74 mm height were obtained. Several experiments are carried out on these samples to determine the geotechnical, physical, physicochemical properties and, environmentalimpacts. Geotechnical Properties The AST M D854-2000 test was used forthe determination of specific gravity. For consistency limits, BS 1377 Part 2: 1990: 4.3 and 5.4 were applied for the liquid limittest and plastic limittests respectively. For the liquid limit test,the cone penetrometer method was utilized. The shrinkage limit test was applied according to the AST M D427 1998 standard. The grain size distribution was also determined according to the AST M standards. Generally,the soil classification study is carried out as a last geotechnical examination. For this purpose, 418 �there are two standards, namely; USCS (Unified Soil Classification System) and A ASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Office).In this study the both method are utilized for determination of soil class. The soil classification, specific gravity and consistency limits are given in table 2.4. The curves of grain size distribution were also given in figure 2.2. PARA METERS USCS A ASHTO Specific Gravity Consistency Limits (%) Liquid Plastic Shrinkage Plasticity limit limit limit index Control(90K10B) CH A-7-5(9) 2,64 50,97 32,38 1,75% 18,59 90K10B +5% Asp. CH A-7-5(12) 2,63 50,44 32,40 1,42% 23,66 90K10B +10% Asp. CH-CL A-7-5(10) 2,59 50,26 32,62 1,25% 26,11 90K10B +15% Asp. CL A-7-5(9) 2,55 49,01 32,80 1,35% 30,45 Table 2.4: Soil classifications ofthe mixtures,specific gravity and consistency limit values. Figure 2.2: Grain size distrubution curves Mechanical Properties In this study the standard proctor test was applied to the mixtures by using AST M D 698-78 and the relation between water contents and dry unit volume weight was observed. The other mechanical test in this study is permeability. “Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity, Saturated Leachate Conductivity, and Intrinsic Permeability”,indicated in USEPA Method 9100 (1986) was used in thistest. The results of tests are shown in table 2.5 The triaxial UU test was done under 100 kPa and 200 kPa surrounding pressure in accordance with method suggested in Turkish Standard No1900. The unconfined compression test was also used in triaxial UU test method but the only difference is the absence of cell pressure. The results of triaxial UU test and the unconfined compression test are shown in figure 2.3 and 2.4 respectively. PARA METERS Control(90K10B) 90K10B +5% Asf. 90K10B +10% Asf. 90K10B +15% Asf. The result of compaction opt. water content% 22,72 22,61 22,46 22,35 Permeability m/s 1.2 x 10-9 1.4 x 10-9 1.5 x 10-9 1.8 x 10-9 Table 2.5: Optimum water contents and permeability results 419 �400 0% Pressure (kPa) 380 5% 10% 360 15% 340 320 300 280 260 240 0 10 20 30 Cure time (Day) Figure 2.3: Strenght vs cure time in triaxial UU test. 180 Pressure (kPa) 160 0 5% 10% 15% 140 120 100 80 60 0 10 20 Cure tim e (Day) 30 Figure 2.4: Strenght vs cure time in unconfined compression test. Physicochemical Properties Physicochemical properties of materials are also extremely important for permeability. Therefore, pH, cation exchange capacity(CEC), electricalconductivity(EC) and the amount of organic materialare also studied forthe conclusion at usability of the studied material. U.S. EPA Method 9045 (1986) was used for of pH test. For comparison, pH values of the same mixtures were remeasured one day later. This measurement is similarto the technique suggested by Jackson(1958). The sodium saturation method was used for CEC. EC of specimens were determined by sinking electrode into the mixture (Wilcox1946; Karakouzian et al. 1996). The amount of organic materialin the mixture was determined by dry-burn method (Standard Methods 1993, Horneck et al.1989). The results are shown in table 2.6. Leachatetestis done for the physicochemicalresults and itisshown in table 2.7. 420 �Materialas pH Control(90K10B) 90K10B +5% Asp. 90K10B +10% Asp. 90K10B +15% Asp. 8,9 8,2 8,2 7,9 EC (mS/cm) 1171 1420 1674 1765 CEC (meq/100g) 13,44 16,33 17,90 17,18 O.E.M (%) 0,1 7,9 9,9 10 Table 2.6: Physicochemical properties ofthe mixtures. Cu Zn Ni Pb (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Control(90K10B) 22,25 20,50 20,00 21,25 90K10B +5% Asp. 0.25 0,25 0,00 0,00 90K10B +10% Asp. 0,25 0,25 0,00 0,00 90K10B +15% Asp. 0,25 0,25 0,00 0,00 Table 2.7: Results ofthe leachate experiment ofthe mixtures. Materials The properties belong to environmental conditions The effect of environmental conditions is another factor on the permeability of mixtures In order to determine thesebehavoir; freezing and thawing strength was determined according to “Methods for Freezingand-Thawing Tests of Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures” indicated in AST M D560-82 (1985) and results are given in table 2.8. Initial water contents The number of cycle Grain loss (%) (%) Control(90K10B) 25 12 17,6 90K10B +5% Asf. 25 12 19,9 90K10B +10% Asf. 25 12 23,8 90K10B +15% Asf. 25 12 25,2 Table 2.8: Freezing-Thawing experiment results of asphaltite powder mixtures. Materials Discussion Plasticity index values of all specimens used in this study are between 16 and 19. These values are appropriateto Ip < 50 criterion determined forlandfilllayers studied by Daniel and Wu,1993. Itis observed that the materials are CH and CL class according to USCS. However a variation was observed from higher (CH) plasticity clay to lower plasticity clay (CL) asthe amount of asphaltiteinthe mixtures has increased. This shows that CH, CL and MH type of soil can be used in landfilllayers. It was declared that the acceptable maximum volume shrinkage ratio was 4% for landfilllayers (Daniel and Wu, 1993, Kleppe and Olson, 1984). Volume shrinkage ratios is measured between 1,25%-1,75% in this study. On the other hand, the specific gravity measured for samples is 2,55 at minimum and 2.63 at maximum. These values are between 2,5-2,7 ranges observed in previous studies (Yong-Weidth, 1985, Benson 1994). The optimum water content values ofthe samples are around 22%. The solid waste regulationsis declared that the optimum water contents must be between 20 and 40%. When the amount of dissolved saltin water in soilincreases, EC also increases. The maximum EC obtained is 1765 mS/cm. In previous studies,itis declared that EC<4000 mS/cm is a reasonable value (Tuncan et al,1996). When the saltinthe soilis dissolved in water,it causes an increase in the permeability. The permeability values of samples are between 1,2x10-9 and 1,8x10-9 m/s. The highest permeability value indicated by USEPA is 10-8 m/s. On the other hand, the amount of organic materialinthe mixture has increased as the amount of asphaltitefrom 0,1% to 7,9% increased. Organic material increase makes increasing influence on permeability.It was confirmed by testresults. On examining CEC behavior of samples,it was seen thatithasincreased from 13,44% to 17,90%. Higher CEC value willreduce heavy metal pollution in leakage water. Furthermore, higher CEC means higher potential 421 �of expansion which is another criterion of permeability. The results of Leachate test were shown that the asphaltite dust added mixtures was absorbed Cu, Pb, Zn and Ni excellently. As can be seen from table 2.7,these values are reduced from 22,25 ppm to 0,25 and 0. The unconfined compression test and triaxialtestresults ofthe samples were shown that asphaltite has no positiveinfluence on strength values. Depending on curetime and amount of additives,some decline was seen in strength values. Finally, afterfreezing and thawing test consisting oftotally 12 cycles,it was seen that grain loss has increased with asphaltite increase. It has increased from 17.6% to 25,2% at the end of 12 cycles. It can be declared thatthe grain losses can make negative influence to the strength values oflayers. Conclusions It was determined that the usage of asphaltite dust has reasonable criteria as additive materials in the kaolinite-bentonite mixture landfilllayers asthe results are comparable with criteriain the literature and Turkish solid waste municipial regulations. The usage of asphaltite will also influence the environment by means of recycle of waste material. In future, studies with asphaltite dust,itis suggested thatincreasing addition ratio, considering solutions in orderto see heat effects,repetition experiments atlow and high temperature,researching mixtures which will be composed with only kaolinite or only natural clays. References ASTM D 427, 1998, Standart Test Method for Shrinkage Factors of Soils by the Mercury Method. Annual Book of ASTM Standarts ASTM D 854, 2000, Standart Test Method for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer. Annual Book of ASTM Standarts. ASTM D 4318, 2000, Standart Test Method for Liquit Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of soils. Annual Book of ASTM Standarts. Atlaş, M., Fikret, H., Çelebi, E., 1994a, Development of Energy Sector of Turkey and supply-demand projections, Turkey 6.Energy Congress, pp197-201,17-22 October, Đzmir, (in Turkish). Benson, C. H. ve Othman, M. A.,1993, Hydraulic Conductivity of Compacted and Thawed In Situ, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE,119, 2, pp276-294. Daniel, D. E., 1987, Earth Liners for Waste Disposal Facilities, Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal 87, R.D. Woods, ed., ASCE, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp 21-39. Daniel, D. E. And WU, Y. K., 1993, Compacted Clay Liners and Covers for Arid Sites, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Volume 119, pp 223-237. Das, B. M., 1998, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Fourth Edition, International Thomson Publishing, Boston. Edıl, T.B ve Berthouex, P.M, 1990, Earthen Barriers Technology For Waste Containment, Waste Management, 10, 2, pp 147-153.. Kalkan, E. Ve Akbulut, S., 2004, The Positive Effects of Slica Fume on The Permeability, Swelling Pressure and Compressive Strength of Natural Clay Liners, Engineering Geology, 73, pp145-156. Kayabalı, K, 1997, Engineering Aspects Of A Novel Landfill Liner Material: Bentonite-Amended Natural Zeolite, Engineering Geology, 46, 2, pp 105-114. Luczak-Wılamowska, B.,2002, Neogene clays from Poland as mineral sealing barriers for landfills: experimental study, Applied Clay Science, 21, 1-2, April, pp 33-43. Roehl, K.E, ve Czurda, K., 1998, Diffusion And Solid Speciation Of Cd And Pb Đn Clay Liners, Applied Clay Science, 12, pp 387-402 . Mining Special Expert Commission, 1995, Kaolin, p 1-4, (in Turkish). 422 �Mining Special Expert Commission, 2001, Bentonit, p 2-26, (in Turkish). Nozhernikova, A.N., Nekrasova, V.K., Lebeder, V.S., and Lifshits, A.B., (1993), Microbio-logical Process in Landfills, WST, Vol.27, No.2, pp 242-252. Koyuncu, H.,1998, Physicochemical, Microstructure and Geotecnical Properties of Petroleum Boring Wastes improved with Stabilization/Solidification Method, PhD Thesis, Osmangazi University,(in Turkish). Nakomon, E.,1997, Southeastern Anatolia Asphaltical Material Appearances, Mining Journal, November, pp 41-51, (in Turkish). Palmer, B.G., Edil, T.B. ve Benson, C.H., 2000, Liners For Waste Containment Constructed With Class F And C Fly Ashes, Journal of Hazardous Materials, 76, 15 September, pp 193-216. Prashanth, J.p., Sıvapullaıah, P.V., ve Srıdharan, A., 2001, Pozzolanic Fly Ash As A Hydraulic Barrier in Landfills, Engineering Geology, 60, 1-4, June, pp 245-252. Taşpolat, L.T., 2006, Utilization of Afyon Waste Marble Dust and Şırnak Asphaltite in the Landfill Liners, MSc Thesis, Afyon Kocatepe University, (in Turkish). TS 1900, 1997, Soil Laboratory Testing In Civil Engineering, Ankara, Türkiye, (in Turkish). U.S. EPA METHOD 9100, 1986, Physical/chemical methods, saturated hydraulic conductivity, saturated leachate conductivity, and instinsic permeability, triaxial-cell method with back pressure, Test Methods for Evaluating Solid DC. 20460, Environmental Protection Agency, 9100-20-24, September. U.S. EPA METHOD 9045, Physical/chemical methods, Soil pH, test methods for evaluating solid waste, (SW-846), IA, IB, IC and II., Third Edition, Doc. Control No: 955-001-000001, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Wılcox, J. C., 1946, Determination Of Electrical Conductivity Of Soil Solution, Science Agronomy. 32, pp107-117. Karakouzian, M., Pıtchford, A., Leonard M. And Johnson, B., 1996, Measurement of Soluble Salt Contend of Soils From Arid And Semi-Arid Regions, Geotechnical Testing Journal, GTJODJ, 19,4, December, pp364-372. Horneck, D.A., Hart, J.M., Topper, K., and Koepsell, B., 1989, Methods of Soil Analysis Used in The Soil Testing Laboratory At Oregon State University. SM 89:4-16. Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, U.S.A. Tuncan, A., Tuncan, M., Koyuncu, H., 1996, Applied Research of Physical and Chemical Effects of Pollution Produced by Petroleum Boring Wastes in Soil, TUBITAK Project, KTÇAG-136, p194.(in Turkish). 423 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 521 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Asphaltites in the Landfill Layer Author Author Taspolat, Lemi Tufan Yamik, Hasan Kaplan, Mesut Abstract A summary of the resource. The waste materials emerged in developing cities should be disposed without damage to environment. Landfills must properly be designed and well managed. Recently, some waste materials were began to be used with clay in landfill layer design. This process was positive effects on environment by means of recycling, regains to economy and reducing environmental pollutions. In this study, asphaltite dust was added at ratio of 5%, 10% and 15% to mixture of 90% kaolinite and 10% bentonite by weight. Geotechnic, physical and chemical experiments were carried out on the samples. The experiment results were in acceptable limits with the literature, United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Turkish solid waste regulations. As a result, the asphaltite can be used as an additive material in landfills. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f73d81cfa82f6eaedb1e342c8c4d82d2.pdf f9c9c792df96a55082a8f24e9051cde4 PDF Text Text The Use Of Building Models As An Educational Material And Their Impact On Learning Ahmet C. APAY Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Adapazari, Turkey, aapay@sakarya.edu.tr Emine AYDIN Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Adapazari, Turkey, emineb@sakarya.edu.tr Tahir AKGUL Department of Construction, Sakarya University, Adapazari, Turkey, takgul@sakarya.edu.tr Ali GURBUZ k.aligurbuz@gmail.com Abstract: Materials are an indispensable component of education and teaching and used for supporting teaching during the teaching-learning process. Aids and materials are employed in an attempt to fulfill the objectives of the teaching process during education-teaching activities. In today’s rapidly-changing and developing world, individuals are not supposed to obtain information from one single source and memorize it; in contrast, the objective is to school the type of individuals who can know how to access to information, how to use it and how to come up with ways to overcome problems encountered. The use of teaching materials designed in accordance with the principles of teaching technologies is vitally important for enabling individuals to develop such skills. A fundamental factor in increasing the level of achievement in courses, in ensuring a decent educational system and in enabling students to experience an enduring learning process is to get students to like the subject to be taught. Otherwise, students will not be interested enough to get the input and no enduring learning process will take place no matter how well-versed and experienced an instructor is in his/her field. This paper is a study into the effects of the use of educational materials on the level of students’ achievement and interest in courses. Furthermore, it includes a comparison between the efficiency of material-aided instruction and teacher-centered instruction. The effect of these two methods on the level at which particular concepts related to a lesson are learned has been analyzed through the use of experimental design with pretest-posttest control group. Keywords: Building models, education and teaching, educational materials 1. Introduction As a term the model denotes to doing a smaller or bigger copy of an object in a determined scale. Today the model usage is widespread in many fields. The models to examine human body used in biology and medicine, the earth model which is a minimized copy of the Earth used in geography, in machine sector the models with changing scales from ½ to 1/25 according to their dimensions and details, earthquake models, dynamic models showing the flow of a stream, military models, ship models, car models, airplane models, architectural models, training models, topographic models, terrain models, urban models, park-garden models, people models, building models, interior models, and etc can be given as examples. In terms of building education, the term of model brings “architectural models” such as topographic, building, furnished building interior into mind. Material use in education is a rapidly spreading application in permanently developing and renewing Turkish education system. Oral narrative technique centred and teacher-centred education model which are implemented widely until recently has started to loose its validity today. Oral narrative technique should be implemented with other education methods and supported with other materials in the education place. [1] 2. The Importance of Material Use in Education 838 �Materials are indispensable parts of education and training in our age. In order to realize educational objectives, equipment and materials are used in all of education and training studies. Artificial and natural substances are named as material when they serve for a virtual or actual purpose. When it is associated with education “education material” is named as “course material” and it defines all of the living, non-living, practical and theoretical information and affluences regarding to that course. The conception of material includes virtual, actual, artificial and natural data or affluences which serve for a purpose. [2] Material is an efficient education tool. It is possible to define the education tool as an environment to provide information sharing between a communication channel (teacher) and receivers (students) [3]. In today’s rapidly changing and developing world, it is not expected that individuals to obtain the information from one source and memorize this information, on the contrary it is intended to raise individuals who know ways to achieve information, who use them and when faced with a problem who can create solution methods by using that information. The use of education material which is prepared in accordance with the principles of the education technologies has significance for teachers to design an active and interactive learning environment which is necessary for individuals to acquire these above features. [4] 3. Using Building Model As An Education Material Department of Building Education is a department that theoretical and applied courses are taught together. In theoretical courses in order to be helpful for the correlation with applied courses and in order to develop the three dimensional thinking abilities of students, the building model is preferred as the material in this research. The achievement and attitudes of students toward Technical Drawing are examined with the designed building model. Cross-sectioning of the building plan is one of the parts for students that they densely need to use three dimensional thinking powers. Through the expression via model technique it is expected that for students to develop their perception ability better and perform a more efficient learning. The research is conducted with 60 students in total, as 30 from control group and 30 from experiment group, who are chosen according to random sampling methodology among the 1st year students who take Technical Drawing course in 2008-2009 Spring semesters and from Department of Building Education at Sakarya University Faculty of Technical Education. In this research two different learning methods are applied randomly to these two categories. No information is given to students in experiment and control groups regarding whether they are in experiment or control group. The application is done in the duration of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” which is specified in the Course Curriculum. In order to give the necessary information to students and to test their learning regarding to this course, a housing project which is constituted of the ground floor and a normal floor is prepared. Since some factors are thought such that the students meet with this issue as first time and the course hours are limited, the project is designed so simple. In order to teach the “Cross-sectioning of a plan” in a best way, two section lines are passed with “A-A Section” code on X axis of floor plans and with ““B-B Section” code on Y axis of floor plans and it is given importance that the section lines to touch to the stairs, low floor, door-window frames (Figure 1). Figure 1. Floor Plans 3.1. Preparation of the Model To express the selected issue in a best way by the model it is planned to break into horizontal pieces from 2/3 length of the height of floor and vertical pieces from the places that the A-A and B-B section lines pass in order to show the floor plans as in the project (Figure2,3,4 and 5). Hence, in this way floor plans and section lines can be understood more clearly in terms of what they mean. 839 �Figure 2. The First Floor of the Model Figure 3. The First Normal Floor of the Model Figure 4. The A-A Section View of Model Figure 5. The B-B Section View of Model A greater scale is selected compared to a standard scale and 1/20 scale is preferred in order to make all class to see the model during the course hour and more importantly to enable permanent learning which is our main objective. 3.2. Research Design In this research it is attempted to determine the effects of Expression and Teaching Activity and TeacherCentred Education Activity on students’ success and students’ attitudes toward Technical Drawing courses. For this purpose an experimental design which is suitable to “pre-test and post-test” model with control group is used. Groups Control Pre-test AT AI Education Activity Teacher-centred Education Activity Post-test AT AI Experiment AT AI Model Aided Education Activity AT AI Table 1. Research Design with Pre-test/Post-test Control Group AT: Achievement Test, AI: Attitude Inventory As seen on Table 1, the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course is taught by Teachercentred Education Activity for control group whereas it is taught by Model Aided Education Activity for experiment group. In the research, the effects of Teacher-centred Education Activity and Model Aided Education Activity are compared in terms of learning of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. Before the application of two different education activities both for experiment and control groups the Achievement Test (AT) is applied firstly as pre-test to evaluate their pre-information level toward “Cross-sectioning of a plan” and then applied as post-test after courses of experiment and control groups. And again, in order to determine the pre-attitudes of students toward Technical Drawing Courses “Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory” is applied firstly as pre-test and then applied as post-test after courses of experiment and control groups before the application of two different education techniques both to experiment and control groups . 3.3. Variables of Research 3.3.1. The Achievement Test The Achievement Test (AT) is prepared under the control of field specialists. It is constituted of drawings and questions which are prepared according to the “Cross-sectioning of a plan” unit of the Technical Drawing Course Curriculum which is prepared by the Head of Department of Building Education at Sakarya University Faculty of Technical Education. The Achievement Test is implemented two times for two groups in the form of pre-test and post-test as being before the education and after the education. Before the education activity the pre-test is applied in order to evaluate the pre-information level of students regarding to “Cross-sectioning of a plan” and after the education activity the post-test is applied to reveal the effect of these two different activities on students to learn this issue. 3.3.2. Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory Fivefold Likert-type attitude inventory (I strongly agree, I agree, I neither agree nor disagree, I don’t agree, I strongly disagree) toward Technical Drawing which comprises of 12 items as being 6 of them positive and 6 of 840 �them negative statements in order to determine the approaches of students toward the Technical Drawing Course. The scale results are evaluated by scoring the positive questions as “I strongly agree” (5 points), “I agree” (4 points), “I neither agree nor disagree” (3 points), “I don’t agree” (2 points),“I strongly disagree”(1 point) and the negative questions as “I strongly agree” (1 point), “I agree” (2 points), “I neither agree nor disagree” (3 points), “I don’t agree” (4 points),“I strongly disagree”(5 points). The pre-test before the education and the post-test after the education are implemented to the experiment and control groups of “Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory”. (Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory is given in Appendix-B). 3.4. Course Teaching for Control Group The achievement test and attitude scales are applied as pre-test in order to determine students’ pre-information, skills and attitudes regarding to this issue. Teaching of this issue is started after one week. During the course oral narrative, written expression and question-answer methods are applied. The topic is transferred to students with the classical method as oral and written by using blackboards. The questions regarding to the incoherent parts are answered after lecturing and the lecture is ended with a last repetition. After the course “Technical Drawing Achievement Test” and “Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory” are applied as post-test and the results are recorded. 3.5. Course Teaching for Experiment Group Before one week from the course the achievement test and attitude inventory pre-test applications are applied in order to determine the pre-information, skills and attitudes of students regarding to this topic as in the control group. The prepared model material is used actively during the course and showing the details regarding to this issue on the model as three dimensional become useful for students to animate plans and sections in their minds regarding to this issue. After course by preserving same conditions with control group The Achievement Test and The Attitude Inventory are applied as post-test and the results are recorded. The results of pre-test and posttest Achievement Test and Attitude Inventory for Experiment and Control Groups are given in APPENDIX C-F. 3.6. Data analysis For independent groups the t-test is performed in SPSS 16.0 package programme in order to reveal whether there is a statistical difference among the experiment and control groups in terms of readiness regarding to this issue and attitudes toward courses such as Technical Drawing and occupational drawing. For dependent groups the ttest is performed in package programme in order to reveal the effect of two different education methods (Teacher-centred Education Activity and Model-Aided Education Activity) on success and attitudes toward “Technical Drawing Course, Cross-sectioning of a Plan”. One Factor Covariance Analysis (ANCOVA) is performed in order to compare the effects on learning of two different education activities after performing the educational activities and after bringing the pre-information and readiness level of students under control. ANCOVA is recommended in order to show the effectiveness of the applied experimental operation in experimental designs with pre-test and post-test control group. The ANCOVA test is defined as a “powerful technique which allows comparison among the groups by providing the statistically control of another variable or variables which are related to the dependent variable and named as common variable, besides the independent variable which is tested in a research to observe its effect. ” [5]. 3.7. Findings The findings which are obtained through testing the data of experiment and control groups are given in this section. The hypothesis statements which are to evaluate changes in the points of achievement and attitude points of groups are tested with t-test by using SPSS 16.0 (Statistical Package for Social Sciences for Personal Computers) package programme. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results for independent groups according to AT pre-test points, which is done to reveal the pre-information of experiment and control groups regarding to the issue of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course and to determine the difference between groups in terms of pre-information regarding to the specified topic, are summarized on Table 2. Group N X S.S Experiment 30 18.50 11.08 Control 30 15.83 9.20 t p 1,014 0,315 N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: standard deviation, t: tscore , p: significant coefficient 841 �Table 2. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of groups according to AT pre-test points On Table 2, according to AT pre-test results of experiment and control groups t=1,014, p=0,315 values are obtained. Since p-value is greater than the significance level of 0.05 there is no statistically significant difference between experiment and control groups in terms of pre-information regarding to the “Cross-sectioning of a plan” topic of Technical Drawing Course. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results for independent groups which are obtained according to pre-test results are summarized on Table 3 with the aim of determining the attitudes of experiment and control groups toward the Technical Drawing Course before educational activity. Group N X S.S Experiment 30 3,67 0,59 Control 30 3,37 0,83 t p 1,386 0,171 N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: standard deviation, t: tscore , p: significant coefficient Table 3. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of groups which are obtained by Technical Drawing Course Attitude Inventory pre-test points Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results, which are obtained according to the pre-test points of Attitude Inventory toward Technical Drawing Courses, are seen on Table 3. According to this, t=1,386, p=0,171 values are obtained from pre-test points of Attitude Inventory toward Technical Drawing courses of experiment and control groups. Since founded p–value is greater than the significance level of 0.05, there is no statistically significant difference between experiment and control groups in terms of their attitudes toward Technical Drawing course. Hypothesis- 1: Hypothesis Sentence: The model-aided education activity has no effect on students to gain information and skills regarding to the issue of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. In order to test the hypothesis the t-test is performed for dependent groups. Test type N X S.S AT Pre-test 30 17,50 11,08 AT Post-test 30 79,83 19,32 t p -13,160 0,000 N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: standard deviation, t: tscore , p: significant coefficient Table 4. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of experiment group according to AT pre-test and post-test points According to Table 4, the model-aided education activity has an effect on students to gain information and skills regarding to the issue of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. A significant difference is found between the pre-test points and post-test points of experiment group with model-aided education activity. Hypothesis-2: Hypothesis Sentence: Teacher-centred education activity does not have an effect on students in terms of gaining information and skill regarding to the topic of “Cross-sectioning from a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. In order to test the hypothesis the t-test is performed for dependent groups. Test type n X S.S t p AT Pre-test 30 15,83 9,20 -13,521 0,000 AT Post-test 30 65,00 18,98 N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: Standard deviation, t: t score , p: significant coefficient Table 5. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of control group according to AT pre-test and post-test points 842 �According to Table 5 teacher-centred education activity has an effect on attainment of information and skills by students regarding to the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. A difference is found among the pre-test and post-test points of control groups with teacher-centred education activity. Hypothesis-3: Hypothesis Sentence: There is no significant difference between the model-aided education technique and teacher-centred education activity for students in terms of gaining information and skills regarding to the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing Course. Group Experiment Control N X S.S 30 79,83 19,31 30 65,00 18,98 F p 9,701 0,003 N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: Standard deviation, F: analysis points , p: significant coefficient Table 6. The covariance analysis results of experiment and control groups according to the AT post-test points According to Table 6, when the AT pre-test results of students are brought under control, the following result is achieved that there is a significant difference between the teacher-centred education activity and model-aided education activity in terms of their effects on learning. According to AT post-test results, with their higher achievement average the difference is in favour of the experiment group. Hypothesis-4:Hypothesis Sentence: “There is no statistically significant difference between the students educated with model-aided education activity and students educated with teacher-centred education activity in terms of attitudes toward Technical Drawing course after the education”. Group Experiment Control N X S.S 30 3,89 0,53 30 3,83 0,64 t p -0,374 0,711 N: Number of students, X: Arithmetic mean, S.S: Standard deviation, t: t score , p: significant coefficient Table 7. Arithmetic mean, standard deviation and t-test results of groups according to Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory post-test points According to Table 7, there is a significance difference between the experiment and control groups in their attitudes toward Technical Drawing Course. According to this result, both model-aided education activity and teacher-centred education activity affect students in terms of developing positive attitudes toward Technical Drawing course. Although the difference between the average points of groups is not statistically significant, it is in favour of control group with model-aided education. 4. Conclusion And Suggestions In this research according to the t-test results of independent groups which is performed to evaluate the AT pretest results of experiment and control groups, a statistically significant difference is not found in pre-information of experiment and control groups intended to the concepts regarding with the “Cross-sectioning of a plan”. In the Achievement Test post-test covariance analysis (ANCOVA) which is applied by controlling the preinformation regarding to the topic of “Cross-sectioning of a plan” of Technical Drawing course of experiment and control group, a significant difference is founded between the teacher–centred education and model-aided teaching activity. With higher achievement average in terms of the Achievement Test post-test results this difference is in favour of the experiment group. This result shows that the students that are educated with modelaided education activity are more successful than the students that are educated with the teacher-centred education activity. It is observed that students learn better and become more successful in the classroom where the model material is used. 843 �According to the t-test results which are performed for independent groups as a result of the pre-test results of Technical Drawing Attitude Inventory, a statistically significant difference is not found in terms of pre-attitudes of experiment and control groups regarding to the Technical Drawing course. According to the Attitude Inventory post-test results which are applied after two different education activities performed by controlling the pre-attitudes of students toward Technical Drawing course, a positive transformation is determined in the attitudes of students toward this course after both of these education techniques. A significant difference is not found by obtaining group averages as 3.83 and 3.89 for two groups according to the post-test results of attitude inventory. However, the average pre-test points of control group with the teacher-centred education techniques increases from 3.67 to 3.83 whereas the average of experiment group with model-aided education technique increases from 3.37 to 3.89. The increase rates in averages can be evaluated as in favour of the model-aided education activity. Since models and other visual materials which are used in education and training meet the conditions of education by doing and living, they provide permanence and will be helpful to raise successful individuals. Reference BUYUKOZTURK, S. (2001). Pre-Experimental Designs finaltest Control Group Designs and data analysis, Pagem A data analysis, (pp. 1-3), Ankara, TURKEY. DEMĐRKUŞ, N., (1999). “Fen Bilgisi Öğretim Yöntemleri ve Uygulamalarının Verimli Hale Getirilmesi”, Symposium on Teacher Education and Contemporary Perspectives, D.E.U. Buca Faculty of Education Journal Special Issue (11) (pp. 414425), Izmir, TURKEY. DOĞDU, S., ARSLAN, Z., (1993). Applications of Educational Technology and Education Appliances, (pp.40), Ankara, , TURKEY. YALIN, H. Đ., (2001). Instructional Technology and Material Development, Nobel publishing, (pp. 82), Ankara, TURKEY. ZAMAN, S. (2006). “Mitoz ve Mayoz Bölünme Konusunda Geliştirilen Bilgisayar Destekli Biyoloji Öğretim Materyalinin Değerlendirilmesi” KTÜ Science Institute, (pp. 129-131). 844 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 636 Title A name given to the resource The Use Of Building Models As An Educational Material And Their Impact On Learning Author Author APAY, Ahmet C. AYDIN, Emine AKGUL, Tahir GURBUZ, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Materials are an indispensable component of education and teaching and used for supporting teaching during the teaching-learning process. Aids and materials are employed in an attempt to fulfill the objectives of the teaching process during education-teaching activities. In today’s rapidly-changing and developing world, individuals are not supposed to obtain information from one single source and memorize it; in contrast, the objective is to school the type of individuals who can know how to access to information, how to use it and how to come up with ways to overcome problems encountered. The use of teaching materials designed in accordance with the principles of teaching technologies is vitally important for enabling individuals to develop such skills. A fundamental factor in increasing the level of achievement in courses, in ensuring a decent educational system and in enabling students to experience an enduring learning process is to get students to like the subject to be taught. Otherwise, students will not be interested enough to get the input and no enduring learning process will take place no matter how well-versed and experienced an instructor is in his/her field. This paper is a study into the effects of the use of educational materials on the level of students’ achievement and interest in courses. Furthermore, it includes a comparison between the efficiency of material-aided instruction and teacher-centered instruction. The effect of these two methods on the level at which particular concepts related to a lesson are learned has been analyzed through the use of experimental design with pretest-posttest control group. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0d9e79ec2ddcf44be35d2e708cee70c2.docx 80f00e69bff7c837b8f78cc452b776d9 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3391084faa9b0b09ffe779bd1cddaa07.pdf 56501b28516e5232e2e4e98cdf2a2bfd PDF Text Text Yakup Doganay, MA* Suleyman Demirel University USING CARTOONS AND COMIC STRIPS IN TEACHING A LANGUAGE INVOLVEMENT METHOD COGNITIVE APPROACH BEHAVIORICTIC PSYCHOLOGY Abstract Nowadays a lot of methods have been searched to be able to find out the better, easier and more beneficial, techniques and principles of teaching a language more effectively. In this article you can see one of these studies. Writer presents and discusses here ‘Using Cartoons and Comics in teaching a language’ to make it more sensible and concrete that we can have the sense of touch and we can apply practically he gives each step of appliance of the lesson and its principle he also uses methods of asking and answering the questions to make it be more understandable. As a result he mentions that they may not be used as main resource but at least supplementary materials to make the lessons more comfortable, profitable and less stressful. INTRODUCTION As the other methods, principles and techniques, this method is not completely new and is full challenging ideas. I am still not sure whether it can be called completely a new method. As far as I researched almost all of the methods use at least some cartoons and comic strips as parts, techniques and principles of them. Or you can also see some techniques and principles of this method that I’ll mention below has already been being used by the other methods. But none of them use Cartoon and Comic strips based method in teaching a language. We use our senses to perceive the world and our environment. So in any method the principle ‘the more senses you can apply in teaching-learning a language the better you can acquire it’. Or the other idea ‘explain me I’ll forget, show me I’ll possibly remember, involve me I’ll learn and not forget’ according to the knowledge that we learn from lexicology, students can settle or build up a bridge between word and meaning thorough concepts. And concept is defined like visual mind or images that we have in our mind for each word. And again it is written there that we can get these concepts by observations. According to behaviorist psychology ‘teaching is enabling the students to have planned and expected behaviors in planned time. 1 �Thus this method has been developed to use the sense of sight and involvement activities as much as possible as a target. The use of the target language is also aimed or admitted as one of the rules. Now we will try to come to an understanding of this method by observing an imaginative lesson that is delivered in one of the secondary local schools. The class has 20-24 students and attending the lessons two times a week and two hours for each time. So we observe the elementary level class attending their lesson mentioned for the second month. OBSERVATION As we come in the classroom teacher has already begun his lesson. Students have been given some cartoons-pictures and a list of words. They are supposed to match the cartoonspictures with the words. These cartoons represent some verbs, nouns, propositions and adjectives appropriate to the level of the students. As the students match teacher walks around the class checking students’ study. After the students finish matching, the teacher checks the answers of the students by giving them chance to say a word for each cartoon-picture. If any of them makes mistake, he asks his question in suspicious tone to give him a chance of self correction, or sometimes he gives alternatives and asks him/her to make the right choice or slips to another student for answer. This activity for getting the meanings of the words thorough concepts by seeing and observing the pictures-cartoons continuous for 8-10 minutes according to needs of the students and characteristics of the unit, subject and lesson. Then the teacher asks some students to read the words randomly. Some of them make some mistakes with the pronunciation, he noted as they read about it. Then he makes the students repeat after him the words especially mispronounced several times. Then he leads them have some practice in pair work by covering the cartoonspictures and asking the words for them or vice-versa process. Then teacher asks the student to tell where the objects are in the cartoons-pictures to teach them the use of right propositions for right places. He encourages the students to ask questions, some of them raise their hands and he gives them chance for it. When any of them makes mistake he uses the some ways for error correction. He follows the similar ways to that of the word mastering practices. Right after that he again leads the students to do pair work for propositions. It activity continues for several minutes. This time the teacher attracts the students; attention to the pictures-cartoons representing verbs. And he begins to ask what the people are doing in pictures. Each student voluntarily or obligatorily answers the questions. Then teacher encourages the students to ask question by using cartoons as for the others answer them. After that he personalizes the question and uses the students’ names by showing the pictures representing the verbs. For this time teacher is very careful using just The Present Continuous Tense. Then he again leads the students to do pair work for practice. 2 �Finally teacher shows them the pictures in correct order. He tells them to put them in correct order, write who and what is where and what they are doing and after that create a short and simple-imaginative story about those pictures using both The Simple Present Tense and The Present Progressive Tense. During the remaining of one more class this week the class will, 1. Continue practicing the use of The Present Progressive Tense telling what each person probably is doing now in their families. 2. Put some cartoons into correct order according to the story. 3. Make comments on some cartoons especially comic strips. 4. Practice the use of The Simple Present Tense with the times. 5. Practice the use of The Simple Present Tense and The Present Progressive Tense together. THINKING ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE Observations Principles 1. Student match the words with the cartoons- Understanding the meaning occurs through pictures concepts most of the time. Concepts are visual minds. Involvement enable the students acquire the language better. Language is not only speech but also understanding, application of this understanding, cognition. A lot of explanation is not necessary for understanding. 2. There are as many pictures as possible for the The use of the sense of sight and each word. involvement in the activities are very important for cognition and application of understanding. 3. The teacher uses the target language for The native language shouldn’t be used in instruction and other needs and the students use the classroom. the target language even it is very simple. 4. The teacher encourages the students to ask The aim of teaching a language is their questions also. communication actually. So the communications doesn’t consist of just answering the questions. It includes having the ability of asking the questions as well. 3 �5. The teacher works with the students on the Pronunciation should be worked on the right pronunciation some mispronounced words. from the beginning of the language instruction. 6. The teacher corrects grammar mistake by Self correction facilitates language learning asking the student to make a choice. and encourages the students to use it more. 7. The teacher asks the questions to the students and the students ask question to each other. The students are also given a pair work after each new structure, instruction or activity is given or done. Lessons should contain some conversational activities. Students must be given as the opportunity of using the target language. Students should be able to speak in the target language as much as possible. 8. At most one structure is thought in each The step by step process is important for the lesson. students to master each structure and switch to another one then use the previous ones with the present one. 9. Grammatical structure is given to the Grammar is given inductively. But students students in patterns. are aware of the structure. 10. The teacher gives the students to put the Using logic, imagination makes the cartoons in correct order and write an language studying enjoyable and being able imaginative story about them to express them in target language facilitates perception and mastering it. 11. The students are encouraged to make Avoiding the stressful atmosphere of a comment on some comic strips. lesson and using humor lower the effective filter of the students. So learning occurs easier. 12. The teacher leads the students to tell about Personalization and free use of language their families using the presented structure. gives the students the sense and feeling use of language in the real atmosphere. REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES In this chapter we will consider the principles of The Use of Cartoon and Comic Strips in language teaching (The Involvement Method) by answering the ten questions below. 1. What are goals of the teachers who use The Involvement Method? 4 �Teachers who use this method intend that the students grasp and cognate the meaning of the words, languages and expressions. To be able to do this they should learn it by involving the activities in getting the meaning and concepts of the expressions. 2. What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students? Teacher is leader and model for the activities and the correct use of language. Students are also active. They are like partners in teaching/learning processes. 3. What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process? Teachers who use this method believe that perception and cognition of structures of a language and applying them when necessary is very important. Humans can reach up to meaning through concepts. So enabling the students to get the concepts of the words and structures is unavoidable. In order to do this, when the teacher presents any new subject he doesn’t explain it directly. He uses the cartoons and the words representing them jumbled. As they match them they can cognate and perceive the meaning of each word by concepts and by involving the activity they strength their perception and understanding and they won’t forget what they have learned. By getting the chance of doing pair or group work as many times as possible, they can master their practice of the use of language in real and free atmosphere. Teacher gives them some tasks for creating stories along with the pictures so they can express their ideas, imaginations and inner worlds. Grammar is not thought directly. But they can master enough through practice and with a bit of an explanation when necessary. All the instructions and activities are run in target language. So communication language is in the target language and the use of native language is not intended. Students are encourages to learn how to ask questions as well as to answer the questions. Self-error correction is used for the most of the time. Right pronunciation is intended to teach from the very beginning of the course. 4. What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of studentstudent interaction? Teacher is like the orchestra chief and facilitator of learning a language. He doesn’t explain everything very much. He expects students to grasp the meaning and master the language through involvement the activities and practice. The student-student interaction is almost more than teacher-student interaction. Mastering the language by matching that they can do individually, group work and pair work activities and practices are applied very often. 5. How are the feelings of students dealt with? By contributing them some comic strips they are expected to learn and master the language in not stressful but enjoyable atmosphere. By using self-error correction teacher tries to avoid of making them feel themselves shy in front of their friends. 6. How is language viewed? How is culture viewed? The patterns, meanings and rules of a language are perceived and cognated first. Then it is used for communication of the conceptions. The concepts-understanding the native speakers- and logic of humor are also learned by cartoons and comic strips. 5 �7. What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized? Vocabulary and getting the true concepts of words is emphasized over all the other language skills firs. Then speaking comes. After that reading and writing are emphasized. Pronunciation gets the attention from the very beginning of the course. The accuracy of the use of the grammatical structures is also not ignored. 8. What is the role of the students’ native language? The student’s native language is not used during the lesson. 9. How is evaluation accomplished? As the time passes in this methods student are expected to match the words with the pictures better and easies with less mistakes. They should create better stories with more accuracy. And they are intended to use the grammatical patterns more correctly. Their writing skill develops by creating and writing the stories. Their ability of expressing themselves is also improved by again creating and telling the stories. 10. How does the teacher respond to students’ errors? The teacher using some different techniques, tries to get students to self correct whenever possible. CONLUSION We cannot claim that this is one of the best and profitable methods you have ever heard. But at least we think that you can find some of the principle worthwhile. Do you offer another more practical way for the students to grasp the meanings of the words without mistakes. We think it would be rather practical and useful. We also can offer you use the creating stories using the cartoons to enable them to be able to express themselves better. How about taking the chance of using comic strips and cartoons to supply the students some enjoyable and less stressful atmosphere of learning a language. We thing these kinds of free atmosphere facilitate language learning more than disciplined atmosphere. As being experienced teachers we think you will decide all these. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Diana Larsen Freeman, TECHNIQUES AND PRINCIPLES IN LANGUAGE TEACHING, Oford university press, 1986, London Jack C. Richards and Theodore S. Rodgers, Approaches and methods in language teaching, Cambridge University press, 1995. David Nunan, language teaching methodology, Macquarie University, Sydney. Marianne Celce-Marcia, Sharon Hilles, Techniques and Resources in Teaching Grammar, Oford university press, 1988, London N, N Marazova, G. B. Antrushina, O. B. English lexicology, Drofa press, Moscow, 2004. Web references 6 �1. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/language-assistant/teaching-tips/using-cartoons-comicstrips 2. HTTP://APPRENDREANGLAIS.BLOGSPOT.COM/2006/11/TEACHING-USINGCARTOON-STORYBOARDS.HTML 3. http://jeffreyhill.typepad.com/english/2008/11/slate-magazine-cartoonbox.html 4. Lecture notes about Education by Yakup Doganay. 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept 6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Understanding 7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching 9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognition 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perceiving 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorist_psychology Түйін Тіл үйрету принциптары мен әдістерін өнімдірек, оңайырақ және қолайлы жолға қою үшін бүгінгі күнге дейін көптеген методтар зерттелген. Бұл мақалада сіз осы зерттеулердің бірін таба аласыз. Бұл жерде автор «Тіл үйретуде мультипликация және комикстарды қолдануды» ұсынады және қарастырады. Өзінің методының маңыздылығын және де оның тәжірибеде қолдануын түсіндіру үшін ол сабақтың әрбір қадамын жекелеп түсіндіреді, оқырмандарға түсінікті болу үшін сұрақ-жауап методын да қолданады. Қорытындылай келе, автор оқырманның бұл методты басты материал ретінде қолдана алмайтынын айтады, бірақ, жоқ дегенде оны қосымша материал ретінде қолдана отырып сабақтарды өнімдірек және қолайлы етуге болатынын айтады. Аннотация Много методов было испробовано в настоящее время для выяснения лучшей, легкой и более выгодной методики эффективного обучения языка. В этой статье вы увидете одно из этих исследований. Автор представляет и рассматривает здесь ‘Использование мультфильмов и комиксов в обучении языка’. Чтобы объяснить значительность своей методики и применение в пратике, он подробно описывает каждый шаг методики урока, а также ипользует метод вопроса и ответа, чтобы читателям было более понятно. В результате он говорит, что читатель не сможет использовать его методику как главный ресурс, но, по крайней мере, как дополнительный материал, чтобы сделать уроки более плодотворными и менее напряженными. ВВЕДЕНИЕ Как другие методы, принципы и методы, этот метод не абсолютно нов и является полными стимулирующими идеями. Я все еще не уверен, можно ли это назвать полностью новым методом. Насколько я исследовал почти все использование методов, по крайней 7 �мере, немного мультфильмов и комиксов как части, методы и принципы их. Или Вы можете также видеть немного методов и принципов этого метода, что я упомяну ниже, уже использовался другими методами. Но ни один из них не использует мультфильм, и Комиксы базировали метод в обучении языка. Özet Yazarımız makalesinde dil öğretiminde çizgi romanlardan ve fıkralardan yaralanmanın faydalarından bahsetmektedir. Gerek öğrencileri bazan tedirgin edecek dereceye varan sınıftaki ciddi atmosferi yumuşatmak gerekse öğrencilerin derslere daha istekli ve korkmadan,endişelenmeden ve heyecana kapılmadan katılımlarını sağlamak ve böylece öğrenmelerini daha da kolaylaştırmak ve etkili hale getirmek için fıkra ve çizgi romanların aktif bir şelikde kullanılmasının etkilerinden bahsetmektedir. 8 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1040 Title A name given to the resource THE USE OF CARTOONS AND COMIC STRIPES IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGE Author Author Doganay, Yakup Abstract A summary of the resource. Nowadays a lot of methods have been searched to be able to find out the better, easier and more beneficial, techniques and principles of teaching a language more effectively. In this article you can see one of these studies. Writer presents and discusses here ‘Using Cartoons and Comics in Teaching a Language’ to make it more sensible and concrete that we can have the sense of touch and we can apply practically he gives each step of appliance of the lesson and its principle he also uses methods of asking and answering the questions to make it be more understandable. As a result he mentions that they may not be used as main resource but at least supplementary materials to make the lessons more comfortable, profitable and less stressful Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d8159db02732c1f9259835df34afcdbd.pdf 79743106bdb5a90e13805efd702de25a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Use Of Collocations By Advanced Learners Of English: Noun –Noun And Adjective-Noun Collocations Gözde Balıkçı Department of Foreign Language Education, Faculty of Education Middle East Technical University, Turkey balikci@metu.edu.tr Abstract: The study‘s main aim is to find out how advanced learners of English whose mother tongue is Turkish are dealing with collocations and where these learners‘ main errors stem from. In order to have a basic insight into the sources of error, the learners‘ written works will be exploited. The students are at the department of langugage teaching education and they will be the prospective teachers of English. This paper attempts to investigate these students‘ written works to figure out to what extent they make use of collocations, their sources of errors and mistakes. Introduction In the field of second language learning and teaching, the question of how to learn/ teach huge amount of vocabulary of a foreign language has always been discussed. There have been lots of methods and techniques developed to find solution to this vocabulary learning problem. ―With the growth of corpus linguistics there has been increasing interest in collocations. In addition, Lewis‘ influential Lexical Approach (1993) stressed the importance of learning collocations.‖ (Shin& Nation, 2008). Firth who was the introducer of the term ―collocation‖ claims that ―you shall know a word by the company it keeps" (as cited in Kennedy, 2003).Therefore, he claimed that collocations should be taken into consideration while teaching and learning vocabulary. This small scale study primarily concerned with the concept of collocation and the use of collocations by advanced learners of English who are also prospective teachers‘ of English. It is important to know how advanced learners of English who are probably learning and using that language for at least five years are dealing with collocations. While the necessity of teaching and learning collocations are widely accepted among the researchers, it is worth investigating the use of collocations by the prospective teachers who are real practitioners in the classroom. If they give importance to the collocations and make use of them, then it may be concluded that they will teach collocations to their students, as well. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate twenty advanced learners‘ of English writings studying in the Foreign Language Teaching Department to explore their use of collocations specifically adjective- noun and noun -noun collocations. The main questions are; do they use these types of collocations while writing essays, how many noun-noun and adjective-noun collocations do they use and what are their mistakes while producing these collocations. In order to answer these questions, twenty students‘ analysis papers are investigated and noun-noun and adjective-noun pairs are manually extracted from the text. Then, these pairs are counted and it is decided whether they can be called as collocations so their collocational strength is determined by using Oxford Collocations Dictionary (OCD) and British National Corpus (BNC) and Google. It is believed that the results obtained from this study will probably make positive contribution to the field and it will provide us with insights into the use of collocations by advanced learners. Firstly, as there are various definitions of collocations among the linguists, these definitions and different approaches to collocations and the classification of them will be mentioned and discussed. Then, the importance of collocations for second language learners will be discussed. The studies carried out to investigate the use of collocations by advanced learners will be under investigation and their common findings will be thoroughly examined. Afterwards, the procedure of the study and the results will be explained. The findings and the implications of the study for the field will be carefully examined. 513 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Defining Collocations As stated above the term ―collocation‖ was first introduced by Firth (1957) who argued that ―you shall judge a word by the company it keeps.‖ ―Although the concept has long been a popular topic in linguistics there is no universally accepted formal definition of collocation (Lewis, 2001; Grant and Bauer 2004, as cited in Wang& Shaw,2008). ―Therefore, there are various terms such as ―fixed expression, word-combination, idiom, phrase, prefabricated language.‖ (Wang& Shaw,2008) Leśniewska (2006) has stated that ―collocations are notoriously difficult to define and different (often slightly contradictory) definitions proliferate in the literature‖. In his much quoted study, ―Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency‖ Howarth (1998) has examined various approaches to define collocations and he defines them as ―combinations of words with a syntactic function as constituents of sentences (such as noun or prepositional phrases or verb and object constructions). He also pointed out another problem and stated that: Although the term phraseology (the study of word combinations) is increasingly used by writers in a number of language related disciplines, the field has perhaps not yet achieved wide recognition in applied linguistics nor are the implications of research within the field fully understood by or easily available to language teachers. (p.24). Howarth (1998) has provided us with a figure illustrating this continuum; Free combinations Restricted Figurative Idioms collocations Blow a fuse Blow your own Lexical composites Blow a trumpet trumpet verb+noun Under the table Under attack Under the Grammatical microscope composites Preposition+noun Figure 2 Collocational continuum (Howarth, 1998) Pure idioms Blow the gaff Under the weather According to Howarth (1998); Free combinations (also referred to as open and free collocations) include elements used in their literal senses and freely substitutable (carry a trumpet, on top of the table). Restricted collocations have one component (usually the preposition, verb or adjective ‗collocator‘ of the base noun, to use Haussmann‘s (1979) terms) that is used in specialized, often figurative sense only found in the context of a limited number of collocates. (p. 28) Wang&Shaw (2008) define restricted collocations (also referred to as fixed combinations or collocations) usually have one item used in a non-literal sense, often a specialized, or figurative sense, and the other used in its normal meaning such as run a company, bitterly contested. The vocabulary choice is less predictable in this category of collocations than in free collocations. In terms of idioms, figurative ones have metaphorical meanings and have a literal interpretation, pure idioms have a unitary meaning that cannot be derived from the meanings of the components, and are the most opaque and fixed category. (p. 28). The role of collocations in second language learning and teaching Lewis (1997), in his ‗lexical approach‘ theory points out that fluency in a foreign language is conditioned by the acquisition of a number of pre-fabricated chunks. He also regards collocation as central feature of a language production. (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Lewis (2000) has also claimed that the number of collocations understood as word combinations is greater than the number of all words because the same words can occur in various collocations. That is the reason why even advanced learners have difficulties in producing collocations. In addition, collocational competence which is suggested by Hill (1999) enables learners to produce texts which not only grammatically correct or merely probable or hypothetical but, authentic, which means it is this collocation which a native speaker would use in this specific situation. (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Shin & Nation (2008) has discussed the question of why collocations should be learned and taught. They stated that the main reason is ―they help learners‘ language use, both with development of fluency and native like selection.‖ (p.340). 514 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pawler and Sydner (1983) argue that there is usually more than one possible way of saying something but only one or two of these ways sound natural to a native speaker of the language. (as cited in Shin & Nation ,2008) Moreover, Oxford Collocations Dictionary claims that ―with the right choice of word combinations you can express your ideas much more convincingly‖. Therefore knowledge of collocations can be considered very important for developing writing skills in a second language, as well. Collocations as a source of difficulty for advanced learners Although Nesselhauf (2003) has stated ―especially at an advanced level, learners‘ difficulties with collocations have not been investigated in much detail so far‖, some important researches have been carried out in this field. DeCock et al(1998), Oppenheim (2000), Foster (2001), and Adolphs and Durrow (2004) have all looked at the use of formulaic language in advanced non-native speech, while Yorio (1989), Granger (1998), Lorenz (1999), Howarth (1998), Kaszubski (2000) and Nesselhauf (2005) have investigated writing (as cited in Durrant &Schmitt, 2009). Durrant and Schmitt (2009) pointed out the general picture emerged from these studies; Advanced learners do appear to use formulaic language (in some cases quite selfconsciously (Oppenheim 2000), but often not to the same extent as natives (Foster 2001, Granger 1998; Howarth 1998). At the same time, learners tend to overuse (in comparison to native norms) a small range of favourite phrases, especially if they are frequent/ neutral items or are cognate to L1 forms. (Foster (2001) Granger (1998) Kaszubski (2000) Lorenz (1999), Nesselhauf (2005), DeCock et al(1998). Wang & Shaw (2008) have summarised the results of some other studies investigating collocational errors made by EFL learners. They have stated that one of the difficulties in collocation use is the lack of knowledge as to collocational possibilities of verbs (Lennon, 1996); hence mismatches between lexical items as in stop the fire instead of put out the fire. A second type of error is blending (Howarth, 1998) such as pay care (blend of pay attention and take care). Nesselhauf (2003), in his much quoted study, found out that all errors made by advanced learners of English stem from the mismatch between the verb and noun. Prepositional errors as in the raise the question about (raise the question of) and determiner errors as in get the permission (get permission) are also fairly frequent among advanced EFL learners. Most of the studies focusing on the analysis of verb- direct object collocations in a corpus of academic writing (Nesselhauf, 2003, Howarth, 1998) suggest that ―the most problematic area for learners in terms of collocational knowledge is made up by the collocations which are on the borderline between free combinations and restricted ones.‖ (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Howarth claimed that; It may be claimed that the problem facing the non-native writer or speaker is knowing which of a range of collocational options are restricted and which are free. Unlike idioms and more restricted collocations, the ‗somewhat restricted‘ word combinations are not learned as wholes. It appears that the ability to manipulate such clusters (collocations which are partly restricted) is a sign of true native speaker competence and is a sign of true native speaker competence and is a useful indicator of degrees of proficiency across the boundary between non-native and native competence‖(p.38). Although it is not possible to find out studies analysing noun-noun or adjective-noun collocations, most of the studies investigating verb- noun collocations find out that the most problematic category for even advanced learners of English is the use of restricted collocations such as take a picture (as we cannot say take a movie or film). Leśniewska (2006) states that these findings fit in with certain implications of the psycholinguistics research, namely, that fixed multi-word units, such as idioms, may be less problematic for learners than subtler kinds of restrictions. Because when a second language learner encounters idioms that are opaque and figurative compared to the collocations, the idioms will probably attract the attention of the learners. Therefore; they will be more permanent as they are perceived as salient. In addition, Leśniewska (2006) has claimed that ―because of the demanding nature of foreign language production, learners seem to rely on familiar expressions, which recalled as wholes, contribute fluency. While there is no empirical support for the view that the learners use fewer formulaic expressions, there is evidence that they use fewer restricted collocations.‖ Siyanova&Schmitt (2008) conducted a study investigating processing of adjective –noun collocations (social services) among advanced learners of English. Overall, the studies carried out by them suggest that ―L2 learners are capable of producing a large number of 515 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo appropriate collocations but that underlying intuitions and the fluency with collocations of even advanced learners do not seem to match those of native speakers.‖ Waller (1993) has carried out research exploring the characteristics of near-native proficiency as they are thought to demonstrate themselves in writing. The texts are collected from both native speakers and non native speakers at the advanced level. In the light of this study, Waller concluded that in learners‘ writings the most tangible marker of non- nativeness is the use of collocations. He states that ―what is even more interesting, however, is that problems in collocational usage were found to be restricted to the texts written by non-native speakers, whereas other problems (e.g. syntactic errors, or lexical errors other than collocational) were found in both groups of texts. Therefore, Waller concludes that the use of collocations may create ―a foreign accent in writing‖. (Waller, 1993, as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Kälkvist (1998) reached similar conclusions in his study analyzing the types of collocational errors made by advanced Swedish learners of English. ―The most common type of error was that of overextension, which resulted in awkward collocations, pointing to the unawareness of usage restrictions on the part of the students.‖(as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Three main findings aroused from Durrant and Schmitt‘ study (2009) which investigated both advanced learners and native speakers of English. When compared to native speakers, learners use more high frequency collocations. Also learners make at least as much use of collocations as do natives. In addition, they overuse strong collocations in comparison to native norms. Learners rely on forms which are common in the language. Thus, it may be concluded that second language learners do acquire quite effectively much of the high-frequency phraseology of the target language. (Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). It is suggested that ― language teachers wishing to hasten their students along the route of developing an authentic native like phraseology may benefit from drawing their attention to collocations that are less common but strongly associated items (e.g. densely populated, bated breath, preconceived notions)‖ (Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). These are the studies analysing advanced learners‘ use of collocations in their written productions. In essence, most of them suggest that advanced learners make use of collocations however; they make mistakes while using the restricted collocations rather than free combinations or idioms. In addition, they may overuse most frequent collocations probably due to the greater exposure to these collocations. Although these various studies appear to give the same results, prior to making generalisations, one should be careful. As Howarth (1998) has warned; While analyzing what makes an individual collocation non-standard can help in understanding what the non-native has done on a particular occasion, and some general conclusions can be drawn, there is a need for alternative perspectives to increase our understanding of deeper processes of acquisition such as learner strategies. In discussing strategies in relation to phraseology, one must distinguish between two different phenomena. On the one hand, there is the repeated use of routines and patterns as an early communication strategy used by a speaker to overcome a lack of linguistic resources (discussed in Krashen and Scarcella 1978), on the other hand, there are cognitive strategies used by more advanced learners when consciously attending to collocational knowledge. (p.39). Howarth (1998) has also listed five strategies the learners adopted while using collocations. Therefore, one should take these strategies into consideration while investigating the use of collocations by the learners. These strategies are ―avoidance, experimentation, transfer, analogy, and repetition.‖ Avoidance refers to the strategy that learners adopt when they cannot produce the target collocation, they can simply avoid using it. Experimentation can be adopted by the risk taker learners. When they do not know an English restricted collocation, they can try to find a synonymous one (free combination). Also the learners can simply transfer a L1 collocation to L2 if they cannot find a suitable one. The process of adapting a known L2 collocation which is called analogy (by substituting one element for another known lexical item) could be regarded as a form of intralingual L2 transfer and it is claimed to be highly productive. Lastly, ―repetition can be adopted if the learners do not have enough confidence or inclination to extend collocations by analogy, a writer may fall back on the repeated use of a limited number of known collocations‖. (p. 41). Methodology The participants: For this study, I worked with twenty students nearly at the age of twenty who are first year students in the Foreign Language Education Department at METU. Their educational background and level of English is nearly same. All of them graduated from teacher training high school. They passed YDS and EPE exam to enter the department at which they are studying now. Therefore, they are at advanced level. At the department, they are taking courses contextual grammar, linguistics, advanced reading and writing, oral 516 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo communication skills, English literature. Therefore, they are mainly focusing on English language; they also try to develop their language skills. In addition to these must courses, all of them took an elective course; ―Critical Reading and Thinking‖. Throughout the semester, I attended that course in order to make observations. The Data: During the course, they read articles on some controversial issues such as abortion, gun control, bilingualism, gay marriages and international adoption. Each week is spent on one controversial issue. Besides reading articles on the topic, they watched a movie about the same issue. Then each student is required to write a rhetorical analysis of one issue. In these analysis, they are expected to evaluate the writer‘s and the director‘s point of view, their approach to the topics, their way of expressing their thoughts and refuting other people‘s ideas. While analysing the articles and movies, they try to detect the specific strategies that the writers and directors use. In addition, they try to find out the appeals (logical, emotional, and ethical) that writers achieve to have. Finally, they try to examine the fallacies in the movie or in the articles. Therefore, my data include twenty rhetorical analysis reports sixty seven pages long. Their topics are gun control, gay marriages and international adoption. According to Leśniewska (2006), there are different ways of assessing collocational knowledge such as analyzing the language production of learners either written or spoken, using corpora of L2 writing analyzing only specific, pre-selected collocations, eliciting collocational decisions of learners for specific items using gap filling tasks or in the form of closed tasks such as multiple choice.(p.96). The procedure: Of these data collection methods mentioned above, I only used the first one, analyzing the language production of learners in a written form. First of all, I read all of the papers, and then I chose to investigate noun-noun and adjective-noun collocations. In the literature, nearly all of the researchers study the verb-noun collocations as they are more frequent and they are more widely used than the noun-noun or adjective- noun collocations. Identification of word combinations: The present analysis is limited to directly noun-noun and adjective-noun combinations. They are chosen because they are particularly common in the texts analysed. First of all, all of the noun-noun and adjective- noun pairs are extracted manually. Combinations such as pronouns, possessives, semi determiners- as listed in Biber et al. (1999), i.e. same, other, next, such (as cited in Durrant& Schmitt, 2009) are not included. Also the quotations are not included in the analysis as they do not represent learners‘ real performance. However, as these papers are analysis papers so learners quoted extensively from the writers of the articles. In addition, when encountered such phrases currency of the subject matter I did not separate them. The total number of words that learners write in their papers (including content and function words) is 43986. This procedure retrieved a total of 937 noun-noun and adjective- noun combinations. However, this number includes repeated word combinations as well. I do not name them as collocations yet as some of them have never appeared in the British National Corpus (BNC) or Oxford Collocation Dictionary (OCD). Calculation of collocational strength: While evaluating these combinations in terms of collocational strength I used BNC, OCD and Google. The main aim of the evaluation is first to find out if the words are really collocating with each other and how frequently they are collocating. BNC is apparently preferred by many researchers (Nesselhauf, 2005, Shin &Nation, 2008, Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). Nesselhauf (2005) explains why he uses BNC in his much quoted study; The British National Corpus consists of 100 million words of modern British English. It contains about 90 million words of written language and 10 million words of spoken language of various text typed ranging from formal academic prose and popular fiction to transcribed radio shows and informal conversation. (Nesselhauf, 2005). OCD is also well known collocation dictionary which contains 150.000 collocations of 9.000 nouns and verbs and adjectives. (Oxford Collocation Dictionary, 2002). The reason why I used Google is trying to find out the frequency of the word combinations. Google can be unreliable source of information; therefore I used it with meticulous care. I examined the websites that Google offered to find out whether they are trustable or not. For most of the word combinations I looked at first OCD to find out if the dictionary gives the collocation. If the word combination is in the dictionary, it is accepted as collocation. If not, then I searched the word combination in the BNC. When I could not find the pair in the BNC, then I googled it. If the number of the results given by the Google is under thousand, then the word pair is not accepted as collocation, some of them are accepted as free collocations. The results: The total number of words is retrieved from the twenty papers are 43989. (including content, function words and quoted words). There are sixty seven pages of papers. 285 word combinations are noun –noun collocations, 652 combinations are adjective-noun combinations. All of the collocations in the papers can be found in Appendix A. If we exclude the repeated collocations, there are 698 combinations in which 188 noun-noun combinations and 510 adjective noun combinations occur. Only one noun-noun combination is considered as wrong; humane sentiment. (it may be human sentiment). 15 adjective-noun combinations are considered as wrong. These findings can be seen in the table and in the figure below; 517 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Number of papers analysed: 20 The total number of words : 43989 Total page of the papers: 67 The number of combinations (repeated combinations included) : The number of noun-noun combinations (repeated combinations included): 937 285 The number of adjective-noun combinations (repeated combinations included) : The number of collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of noun-noun collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of adjective-noun collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of noun-noun combinations that are not accepted as collocations The number of adjective-noun combinations that are not accepted as collocations Table 1 Summary of the numbers of retrieved combinations 652 698 188 510 1 15 Figure 3 Analysis of the types of collocations Word combinations that are not accepted as collocations The possible source of error 518 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. interrupted internet L1 transfer first hand related events Intralingual error certain happenings Intralingual error neat mantage Grammatical error second hand alternative Intralingual error oncoming questions Intralingual error well known reputation L1 transfer ethnic roots L1 transfer respectable awards L1 transfer furious comments Intralingual error pathetic movies Grammatical error pitiable feelings Intralingual error legitimate judgements L1 transfer constant beliefs Intralingual error first hand opinions Intralingual error Table 2 Word combinations that are not accepted as collocations and possible sources of errors The Discussion The study has aimed to find out the extent to which advanced learners of English make use of word combinations, how learners are dealing with collocations. Although the learners wrote these papers at their homes without time pressure, it may be inferred from the results that they did not use collocations extensively. To be able to write effectively, they should have made use of these word combinations. As Howarth (1998) suggested that learners can use some strategies while using collocations, maybe these students opt to make avoidance and avoid using collocations. If the collocations are examined thoroughly, it can be clearly seen that the collocations used frequently are the ones used in the course frequently. While they are reading the passages, watching the movies, discussing about the controversial issues, they both use the collocations and they are exposed to these collocations such as controversial issue, striking movie, logical appeal, violent history, gun issue, emotional issue, single mother, contradictory issues....Therefore, it may be inferred that exposure to collocations may affect the use of collocations in a positive way. Furthermore, the learners repeated these collocations so they use another strategy Howarth (1998) mentioned; repetition. Although I did not intend to categorise collocations as free, restricted ones; the findings demonstrate that most of the collocations are free combinations. There are not much strong collocations. Therefore, this study also supports the other studies investigating the use of collocations in advanced learners‘ writings. As they also find out those learners heavily rely on free collocations as restricted ones are difficult to use (they can be considered more marked than the free collocations.) 519 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Durrant, P. Schmitt, N.(2009). To what extent do native and non-native writers make use of collocations? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 47, pp.157-177. Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency. Applied Linguistics. 19/1. 24-44. Kennedy, G. (2003). Amplifier Collocations in the British National Corpus: Implications for English Language Teaching. Tesol Quarretly 37/3, Lesnievska, J. (2006). Collocations and Second Language Use. Studia Linguistica.123, 95-105 Martynska, M. (2004). Do English language learners know collocations. Investigationes Linguisticae. 9/1-15. Nesselhauf. (2003). The use of Collocations by Advanced Learners of English. Applied Linguistics 24/2: 223242. Shin, D., Nation, P. (2008). Beyond Simple Words: The most frequent collocations in spoken English. ELT Journal. 62/4. 339-48. 520 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 78 Title A name given to the resource The Use Of Collocations By Advanced Learners Of English: Noun –Noun And Adjective-Noun Collocations Author Author Balıkçı, Gözde Abstract A summary of the resource. The study‘s main aim is to find out how advanced learners of English whose mother tongue is Turkish are dealing with collocations and where these learners‘ main errors stem from. In order to have a basic insight into the sources of error, the learners‘ written works will be exploited. The students are at the department of langugage teaching education and they will be the prospective teachers of English. This paper attempts to investigate these students‘ written works to figure out to what extent they make use of collocations, their sources of errors and mistakes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/93a75548e5e2bc5dce8962e9487a7f95.pdf 5d566ef5d73aa240f4a4729a47616cd7 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Melisa Okičić & Merima Osmankadić University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 07.11.2014. Abstract Teaching English as a foreign language at university level is quite a different challenge compared to teaching high school or young non-native learners. This is due to the fact that university students are expected to acquire specific grammar terminology in order to master the grammar system of the target language. At the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, during the first three (undergraduate) years of study the students are introduced to several grammar courses, focusing on the analysis of English grammar through descriptive explanations given in English. The courses serve as a basis that is expected to improve both the grammar and translation competence of the students. This paper examines to what extent the acquired descriptive knowledge of morphosyntactic properties of English is helpful in terms of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the knowledge of contrastive rules. The research has been designed as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test (delayed) post-test control-treatment group. As the research findings have revealed, teaching grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translation, which is a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. On the other hand, grammar teaching supported by the presentation of relevant contrastive rules has proved to be an efficient learning technique in terms of reducing errors and improving both grammar and translation competence of non-native learners. Key words: verb phrase, erroneous translation, transfer, contrastive analysis, pre-testing, post-testing, treatment Introduction An Introduction to Morphosyntax is a course delivered during the second year of study at the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, English Department. It is one of the six mandatory grammar courses introduced during a three-year undergraduate programme of study, listed as follows: 1st year: Morphology and A Survey of English Grammar; 2nd year: An Introduction to Morphosyntax and Nonfinite Constructions; 3rd year: Syntax of the Simple Sentence and Syntax of the Complex Sentence. Each course consists of lectures and practical classes, and is designed in the form of a structural syllabus.1 All the courses are aimed at the description of the target language grammar, which is done through form-focused instructions in English.2 In addition, none of the course syllabi anticipate a contrastive analysis unit. However, all the courses share the same goal: to increase students’ grammar competence “A structural (or formal) syllabus is one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples of structures include: nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements, questions, complex sentences, subordinate clauses, past tense, and so on, although formal syllabi may include other aspects of language form such as pronounciation or morphology.”(Krahnke, 1987, p. 10) 2 The focus is on standard British English, but the students are made aware that there are other standard varieties of English. 1 179 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level in the target language, thus also enhancing both their communicative and translation competence. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that translation exercises are not done within grammar courses. The translation exercises are done within a skill-based course titled Contemporary English Language.3 The syllabus for this course does not anticipate any contrastive lectures/exercises since the grammar courses are expected to provide a solid basis for the purpose of translation. An Introduction to Morphosyntax is focused on the description of morphosyntactic properties of the English phrase structure (noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase and prepositional phrase). Upon the completion of the course, the students are expected to master the English phrase structure, to recognize different kinds of phrases at both the phrasal and the clausal levels and to use the accurate structure of a certain phrase for the purpose of translation. However, taking into account that the course does not anticipate any contrastive lectures, the lecturer and the teaching assistant decided to conduct research in order to assess to what extent the acquired knowledge of the English phrase is useful in terms of translation. This research aimed at assessing the quality of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the use of contrastive rules. The research was restricted to the translation of verb phrases appearing in Bosnian conditional/passive/Perfect Tense/Present Tense sentences. For the purpose of the research, the following hypothesis has been defined: teaching English grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translations, being a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. The paper is organized as follows: after the Introduction, which is given in the first section, the second section gives a theoretical background and a short overview of the recent literature that is relevant to the main objective of the paper. The third section presents details as to the methodology of the research. The paper proceeds in the next section with the analysis of the results and the discussion thereof. In the end we give some final remarks. Theoretical Background Contrastive Analysis (CA) is a foreign-language teaching theory that was born in the early 1960s, which was the period when structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology enjoyed great popularity. Proponents of this theory came to advocate that foreign language learning is actually a process of acquiring different structures from the source into the target language. Such an approach gave birth to the basic concept of CA known as the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH): “... in the comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in foreign language learning (...) Those elements that are similar to (the learner’s) native language will be simple for him and those elements that are different will be difficult.” (Lado, 1957, pp. 1-2). In other words, contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to identify potential errors for the purpose of determining what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a situation of foreign or second language learning (Gass & Selinker, 2008, p. 96). Numerous contrastive analyses that were undertaken at that time resulted in different pedagogical materials. One such set of materials was the outcome of the Yugoslav Serbo-Croatian – English Contrastive Project (YSCECP) that was carried out under the leadership of Professor Rudolf Filipović, then Director of the Linguistic Institute of Zagreb University and professor in the English Department of that University. There are several volumes of studies and separate reports that were published under the auspices of the Project, and although contrastive analysis has long been abandoned (unjustly, in our opinion), and these studies and reports neglected, we can see 3 During the undergraduate study, there are six courses of this kind (two per academic year) during which the students translate selected texts from Bosnian into English and vice versa. 180 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics today how invaluable their contribution is both from the perspective of theoretical linguistics and from that of teaching English as a foreign or second language to learners whose first languages are Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian. After the initial CAH had been defined, many CA proponents focused on a further development of the CA theory in terms of describing the hierarchy of difficulties and the CA methodological framework. Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1965) analysed the difficulties of an English speaker learning Spanish and defined eight different degrees of difficulty for phonological and 16 degrees of difficulty for grammatical structures of the two languages in contrast. The hierarchy was based upon the impact of positive, negative, and zero transfer from the source into the target language.4 A few years later, Whitman (1970) proposed the CA methodological framework comprising the following steps: description, selection, contrast and prediction. In short, during the first phase (description), the teacher describes the two language systems using standard grammar rules. In the second phase (selection), the teacher selects a set of structures to be contrasted. This phase actually “reflects the conscious and unconscious assumptions of the investigator” (Whitman, 1970, p. 193). In the third phase (contrasting) the selected structures are contrasted and accordingly described. In the end, in the fourth phase (prediction) the learning difficulties have been defined following a three-step procedure as previously explained. Although CA seemed to be a revolutionary theory, it soon became the subject of much discussion. With reference to it, Wardhaugh (1970) severely criticized Lado’s CAH, defining it as the strong CAH version, and additionally describing it as quite demanding and completely unrealistic: “at the very last, this version demands of linguists that they have available a set of linguistic universals formulated within a comprehensive linguistic theory which deals adequately with syntax, semantics, and phonology. ... Does the linguist have available to him an overall contrastive system within which he can relate the two languages in terms of mergers, splits, zeroes, over-differentiations, underdifferentiations, reinterpretations, and so on?” (Wardhaugh, 1970, pp. 125-126). Wardhaugh proposed a new version of the CAH defined as the weak version. In Wardhaugh’s words, CA should not be used a priori but during the process of foreign language learning where it should be primarily used for the purpose of explaining errors that have been identified during the learning process. On the other hand, some other authors claimed that both strong and weak versions should be viewed as a unique version of the CAH. Therefore, Oller and Ziahosseiny proposed the so-called moderate version of CAH, defined as follows: “The categorization of abstract and concrete patterns according to their perceived similarities and differences is the basis for learning; therefore wherever patterns are minimally distinct in form or meaning in one or more systems confusion may result.” (Oller & Ziahosseiny, 1970, p. 186) The moderate version of the CAH was proposed on the basis of the study of spelling errors in which the authors concluded the following: English spelling proved to be more difficult for people whose native language used a Roman script (French, Spanish), than for those who used a non-Roman script (Arabic, Japanese). This conclusion was actually quite surprising, and in opposition to the CAH strong version, which predicts more difficult acquisition of those features that are different in the two languages in contrast. On the other hand, this conclusion has also revealed some important observations as to the complexity of human learning, thus outlining that interference should not necessarily be caused by different, but also by similar features of the two languages (interlingual and intralangual errors). Such conclusions actually announced the development of the so-called Error Analysis approach, being quite popular mainstream in recent years. As for the current status of CA, it can be said that this theory has not achieved a huge success as initially expected. Over the period of the last fifty years, CA has been criticized for the lack of reliability of CA predictions. As a consequence of such a situation, the CA approach has been largely disregarded from a standard practice of foreign language teaching. Nevertheless, there are some recent studies that rely heavily on what was at the core Ellis argues that negative transfer occurs when the learner’s first language is one of the sources of error in learner language, whereas positive transfer occurs when the learner’s L1 facilitates L2 acquisition (Ellis, 1997, p. 51). 4 181 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level of contrastive analysis. Callies, for example, in his study of the tough-movement in German and English, combines contrastive analysis with the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) postulated by Eckman (1977), which claims that L1 structures that are different from L2 structures and typologically more marked will not be transferred, whereas those L1 structures that are different from L2 structures and typologically less marked are more likely to be transferred (Callies, 2008, p. 37).5 We can predict, on the basis of typological features, the order and difficulty of linguistic features in the acquisition process: less marked structures will be acquired first and without difficulty, while more marked structures will be acquired later or with greater difficulty. In other words, the MDH identifies potential difficulties in the L2 learning process not merely on the basis of similarities and differences derived from a contrastive analysis (CA) of two languages (as in traditional CA), but through a combination of the concepts of typological markedness and cross-linguistic influence (Callies, 2008, p. 37). This is in accordance with the claim that there are cognitive constraints that govern the transfer of L1 knowledge. Two of these constraints are learners’ perceptions of what is transferable and learners’ stage of development. Learners themselves are able to perceive some structures in their L1 as more basic (less marked or more universal) and others as more unique to their own language (more marked). They are more willing to transfer those structures that they perceive as basic than those that they perceive as unique to their L1 (Ellis, 1997, p. 53). From Callies’ study we can see that contrastive analysis has been recycled after a long period of hibernation, albeit combined with the new scientific insights into the nature of foreign or second language acquisition. There is no doubt that CA has revealed some important facts as to the complexity of language learning, therefore remaining an available technique which can be used (in whichever form appropriate) for the purpose of explaining interference, whenever such explanations might be required. We are of the opinion that it is university level students of English that can greatly benefit from such contrastive explanations. Methods Research Design This study is defined as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test – (delayed) post-test control – treatment group (Mackey & Gass, 2011). A mixed methodological approach has been chosen due to the following reasons. According to Mertens, action research is the research ‘that is done by teachers for themselves. It is truly a systematic inquiry into one’s own practice.’ (Mertens, 2012, p. 4) Since the research of this paper was primarily initiated by the lecturer and the teaching assistant with the express purpose of reviewing our own teaching practice, our research has the characteristics of action research. However, we wanted to create an experimental and a control group in order to strengthen the methodological framework, and since action research does not usually imply the creation of such groups, nor does it imply the questioning of a hypothesis statement, the action research was additionally designed as a quasi-experimental pre-test - (delayed) post-test control-treatment group.6 The quasi-experimental design has been selected due to inability to employ randomly selected 5 Eckman, F. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 27, 315-330, as cited in Callies. Tough-movement is a uniform cross-linguistic phenomenon because it explicitly indicates topicalisation of the raised NP. In spite of the fact that this phenomenon is universal, the formal linguistic means with which their function is expressed vary from language to language (Callies, 2008). 6 “In an action research project you are not trying to prove anything. You are not comparing one thing to another to determine the best possible thing. Also, there are no experimental or control groups, independent or dependent variables, or hypotheses to be supported. The goal is simply to understand. As an action researcher you are creating a series of snapshots in various forms and in various places to help us understand exactly what is going on.” (Johnson, 2005, p. 25) 182 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics sampling, which is one of the key features of a pure experiment.7 Randomly selected sampling could not be employed, since the research took place during the regular teaching process, and therefore a non-random method of sampling was used. The research was done with two intact classes, one being defined as a control, another as a treatment group.8 Moreover, for the purpose of research, independent and dependent variables were also defined. A common teaching practice (teaching English grammar without contrastive input) was considered the independent variable, whereas a newly introduced teaching method (presentation of contrastive analysis input) was considered the dependent variable. Furthermore, for the purpose of strengthening the validity of the research, a special focus was also given to the analysis of extraneous variables, as will be explained in the following section.9 Participants The participants in the research were all the full-time second-year students (50), a lecturer (1) and a teaching assistant (1). The students were the subject of the research while the lecturer and the teaching assistant were the facilitators of the research. In order to identify general characteristics of the students relevant for the validity of the study, prior to the pre-testing phase the following extraneous variables were analysed: age, high-school profile, enrolment status, attending school in English-speaking countries, spending more than six months in English-speaking countries, additional English language learning activities (commercial English courses/private classes) and the most common practice of studying grammar. The data were collected by means of a questionnaire, jointly created by the lecturer and the teaching assistant. The results have been summarized in the following figures: “Randomization is usually viewed as one of the hallmarks of experimental research. Design types can range from truly experimental (with random assignment) to what is known as quasi-experimental (without random assignment).” (Mackey & Gass, 2005, p. 146) 8 “However, there are situations when randomization of individuals may not be feasible. For example, in second language research we often need to use intact classes for our studies, and in these cases the participants cannot be randomly assigned to one of the experimental or control groups. Intact classes are commonly and often by necessity used in research for the sake of convenience.” (Mackey & Gass, 2011, p. 142) 9 Strengthening the validity of the research is “an indication of accuracy in terms of the extent to which a research conclusion corresponds with reality.” (White & McBurney, 2012, p. 143) “Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed extraneous variables. (...) Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designated that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.” (Kothari, 2004, p. 34) 7 183 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level 4% 2% 1986 4% 2% 8% 1989 16% 16% Grammar School 1990 1991 56% 1992 Vocation al School 92% 1993 Figure 1. Age of students Figure 2. High School Profile 1st time 2nd time 3rd time 4% 0% 96% Figure 3. Enrolment Status Figure 4. Additional English Language Activities (Commercial Courses) 0% 20% No Yes 80% Yes No 100% Figure 5. Additional English Language Activities (Private Classes) Figure 6. Consulting Senior Fellow Students in Studying Grammar 17% 12% Yes No 50% 33% Internet Sources - online grammar exercises Cambridge Grammar of English 88% Figure 7. Use of Additional Grammar Literature commonly used grammar sources (additional literature) 2% 184 No 98% Yes Figure 8. The most �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 2% No 98% Yes Figure 9. Spending more than 6 months in school in English-speaking English-speaking countries Figure 10. Attending countries Therefore, the general characteristics of the second year students can be summarized as follows: 56% of the students are at the age of 20. 92% graduated from Grammar High School. 96% enrolled in the second year of study for the first time. None of the students takes any additional learning activity in parallel with studying (commercial English courses/private classes). 20% consult senior fellow students in studying grammar. 12% use additional grammar literature, with Cambridge Grammar of English being the most frequently used (50%). Only 2% of the students spent more than six months in Englishspeaking countries (one academic year). Materials During the research five kinds of materials were used: a questionnaire (1) (already explained in Participants Section), two tests (pre-testing and post-testing phases), supporting teaching material (treatment phase) comprising the handouts summarizing contrastive rules (3) and the translation exercise handout (1). All the materials were jointly produced by the lecturer and the teaching assistant. During the pre-testing and post-testing phases the testing method was employed with the test being a key instrument of the research. The first test (henceforth Test 1) was designed to test the background knowledge of the students in terms of assessing their translation competence (from Bosnian into English). Test 1 consisted of three sets of sentences written in Bosnian (12 sentences/total), focusing on the translation of the main verbs (verb phrases). Each set of sentences was selected following the wellknown contrastive differences between Bosnian and English (Dubravčić, 1985; Mihailović, 1985; Riđanović, 2007; Riđanović, 2012). These sets of sentences were limited to the translation of verb phrases in Bosnian conditional sentences (potential and hypothetical condition) (2), the translation of verb phrases in Bosnian passive sentences (2), and the translation of verb phrases in Bosnian Perfect Tense (6)/Present Tense (2) sentences.10 After the pre-testing data had been collected, additional teaching material (henceforth treatment material) as well as the second test (henceforth Test 2) were produced. Test 2 was distributed during the (delayed) post-testing phase. Procedure 10 The figures in brackets indicate the exact number of examples in particular sets of sentences. 185 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level The overall research took place during the regular teaching process (practical grammar classes). The second year students attend practical grammar classes divided into two groups. During the first week of the 2013/2014 academic year (winter semester), the data as to the general characteristics of the students (extraneous variable analysis) were collected and analysed. The pre-testing phase took place in the third week, before any lectures relevant for the purpose of translation were delivered. The students were not previously informed about the task, nor were they given any additional instructions during the completion of the task. The time for the pre-testing task was 45 minutes. Following the pre-testing results, the two groups of students were classified as a control and a treatment group. The group that demonstrated weaker results was considered the treatment group, whereas the group that achieved better results was defined as the control group. After the groups had been established and the pre-testing data had been analysed, the supporting teaching material (treatment phase) and Test 2 (post-testing phase) were produced. Taking into account that the treatment material consists of two kinds of handouts, it is important to outline the following: the treatment material was not presented during the lectures, but only during the practical classes. In addition, the handouts summarizing contrastive rules were delivered only to the treatment group of students, while the translation exercise handout was distributed to both groups (treatment/control). Moreover, the handouts presented to the treatment group were not handed in to the students for the purpose of avoiding their potential distribution (copying) among the students of the treatment and the control group. The presentation of the contrastive rules was done as follows: using the pre-testing examples, the teaching assistant would first write an example on the blackboard, at the same time explaining the contrastive differences in terms of the structure of the verb phrase in Bosnian and English. After all the examples had been presented, the students were given a translation exercise handout and were asked to translate the sentences into English. During the translation, the students were required to identify the main verb in the Bosnian sentence, briefly describe the verb phrase (structure, tense, aspect, voice) and justify their translation choice recalling the rules previously presented. On the other hand, the control group was not exposed to the presentation of the contrastive rules. The students were given the translation exercise handout and were asked to translate the sentences immediately. In a case where the student provided a correct answer, no further discussion was initiated. If a student faced a problem in translation, the elicitation of a correct answer was done through explanations as to the use of English tenses. A delayed post-testing was done in the first week of summer semester. Just like the pre-testing, the post-testing was not previously announced to the students, nor were additional instructions given during the task completion. The time for the post-testing task was 45 minutes. After the post-testing phase, the findings were compared to the pre-testing results and final conclusion remarks were made. For the purpose of the pre-testing and post-testing analysis, the three categories of answers were defined: target translation (TT), descriptive translation (DT) and erroneous translation (ET). The target translation was considered a correct translation realized by the use of a target verb phrase structure (tense). The descriptive translation was considered a translation realized by the use of those verbal tenses that do not significantly affect the meaning of a sentence. The erroneous translation was considered an incorrect translation caused by an inappropriate use of the verbal tense that significantly affects the meaning of a sentence. Results and discussion 186 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Pre-testing Since the research was divided into four phases (extraneous variable analysis, pre-testing, treatment and (delayed) post-testing), and since the extraneous variable analysis has already been presented in this paper (see Participants Section), in the following paragraphs we will discuss the results obtained during the remaining phases of the research, focusing first on the pre-testing phase. The pre-testing findings are summarized in Table (1): Table 1. An overview of pre-testing findings No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Sentence s (includin g target translatio n (TT)) Da imam novca, kupio bih novi kompjuter . (If I had money, I would buy a new computer. ) Da sam znala da dolaziš, ostala bih kod kuće. (If I had known you were coming, I would have stayed at home.) Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine. (The museum was built three years ago.) Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine. (This museum was being built for three years.) Upravo je stigla u London. (She has just arrived in London.) Vozio sam motor samo jednom. Bosnian GROUP 1 (25 students) TT DT ET n % n % n % GROUP 2 (25 students) TT DT ET n % n % n % BOTH GROUPS DT ET n % n % n Total n % Conditiona l (potential) 16 64 0 0 9 3 6 18 7 2 0 0 7 2 8 34 68 0 0 16 32 50 10 0 Conditiona l (hypotheti cal) 6 24 0 0 1 9 7 6 3 1 2 0 0 22 8 8 9 18 0 0 41 82 50 10 0 Bosnian biti passive 13 52 0 0 1 2 4 8 11 4 4 0 0 14 5 6 24 48 0 0 26 52 50 10 0 Bosnian se-passive 11 44 0 0 1 4 5 6 4 1 6 0 0 21 8 4 15 30 0 0 35 70 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 TT % 187 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. (I have driven a motorbike only once.) Već sam pročitala tu knjigu. (I have already read that book.) Živim u Sarajevu od 2010. (I have lived/hav e been living in Sarajevo since 2010) Radim na fakultetu već 5 godina. (I have worked/h ave been working at the faculty for 5 years.) Bio sam u Americi tri puta. (I have been to America three times.) Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice. (I have not seen him this week.) Jesi li vidio mog asistenta jutros? (Have you seen my assistant this morning? ) Total Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Present Tense 16 64 0 0 9 3 6 9 3 6 0 0 16 6 4 25 50 0 0 25 50 50 10 0 Present Tense 15 60 0 0 1 0 4 0 12 4 8 0 0 13 5 2 27 54 0 0 23 46 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 21 84 0 0 4 1 6 18 7 2 0 0 7 2 8 39 78 0 0 11 22 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 22 3 74 0 0 7 7 2 6 20 0 6 7 0 0 10 0 3 3 42 3 70,5 0 0 0 17 7 29,5 0 60 0 10 0 The analysis of the pre-testing findings has revealed the following: As shown in Table (1), the same examples appeared to be more or less equally problematic for both groups of students. In addition, the translation difficulty can be defined as strictly an erroneous translation since no cases of descriptive translations were confirmed. An additional in-depth analysis of the pre-testing findings has shown that, compared to Group 1, Group 2 demonstrated weaker results and was therefore defined as the treatment group. An overview of pre-testing findings per groups is given below: 188 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 26% TT 0% 33% TT DT DT 74% ET Figure 11. Pre-testing Results (TT, DT and ET Control Group) 0% 67% ET Figure 12. Pre-testing Results (TT, DT and ET Treatment Group) The Translation of Bosnian Conditional Sentences The translation of Bosnian conditional sentences into English turned out to be quite problematic. The errors were made in terms of an inappropriate choice of the tense form of the main verb appearing in the English subordinate if-clause (Bosnian ako/da - clauses). Therefore, 32% of students translated the example Da imam novca, kupio bih novi kompjuter (potential condition) by using the Present Simple form of the main verb in the subordinate clause, cf. *If I have money I would buy a new computer (instead of If I had money, ...). The same error (but having a much higher percentage) was identified in the case of Da sam znala da dolaziš, ostala bih kod kuće (hypothetical condition). 82% of students translated the sentence by choosing the Past Tense form of the main verb in the subordinate clause, cf. *If I knew you were coming I would have stayed at home (instead of If I had known ...). Taking into account that the main verbs in Bosnian subordinate clauses appear in the Present (potential condition) and the Perfect tense (hypothetical condition), it becomes clear that the errors were made due to the negative transfer from the source into the target language, cf. imam/1.sg.present > have/1.sg.present, sam znala/1.sg.past > knew/1.sg. past. The Translation of Bosnian Passive Sentences Before we proceed with the analysis of the translation of Bosnian passive sentences, it is important to outline the following: Compared to English, Bosnian has two different structures of passive verb phrases. The first one is known as biti-passive or jesam-passive11. This type of Bosnian passive is formed by the proper enclitic form of the present/future of the auxiliary biti (Eng. be) and the passive verbal adjective. A distinctive feature of the Bosnian biti-passive verb phrase is that “the present form of the auxiliary jesam is used to form the passive past tense”, which means that this auxiliary cannot be used to form the Bosnian present tense passive verb phrase (Riđanović, 2012, p. 356). The example of biti-passive verb phrase in the past tense would be Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine/This museum was built three years ago, in which the passive verb phrase is formed by the present enclitic form of the auxiliary biti > jesam > je + passive verbal adjective izgrađen (Eng. built). On the other hand, the Bosnian se-passive can take the present, past and future tense forms. The example of the se-passive verb phrase in the past tense would be as follows: Ovaj muzej se izgradio za tri godine/This museum was built over a period of three years, in which the passive verb phrase is formed by the passive se and the imperfective past form of the main verb izgraditi > izgradio (Eng. built). As Riđanović points out, the key difference between biti and se passive verb phrases is as follows: “In sentences with imperfective predicate verbs, the se passive is generally preferred, in all tenses and moods, over the form with passive verbal adjective. (...) On the other hand, if the predicate is realized with a perfective verb, we usually employ the jesam passive.” (Riđanović, 2012, p. 280) As it is called by some linguists, cf. Riđanović (2012). For the purpose of a brief illustration of Bosnian passive verb phrases we will use the term biti-passive. 11 189 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level The analysis of the translation of Bosnian passive sentences has revealed a high level of errors with both structures of passive verb phrases. Here it is important to outline that the students were restricted to the translation of the two Bosnian sentences containing the passive past tense verb phrase, one being realized as the biti-passive, another as the se-passive sentence. In addition, for the purpose of a precise illustration of the past time reference the adverbials prije tri godine/three years ago and tri godine/for three years were also included. The biti-passive sentence Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 52% of students as *This museum is built three years ago, while the remaining 48% offered a proper translation This museum was built three years ago. The error made is a consequence of the negative transfer from the source language, i.e. the direct translation of the present enclitic form je by the same (but inappropriate) Present Simple Tense form of the verb be > is in English. On the other hand, the se-passive sentence Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was correctly translated by 30% of students as This museum was being built for three years, whereas the incorrect translation was offered by 70% of students. 42 % (out of 70%) used the Present Perfect form of the passive verb phrase as in *This museum has been built for three years, whereas the remaining 58% used the Present Simple Tense form of the passive verb phrase, as in *This museum is built for three years. The offered translation solutions were considered an error, since the choice of the tenses does not reflect the proper time reference (past), thereby significantly affecting the original meaning of the sentence (cf. the museum is still being built). The Translation of Bosnian Perfect Tense/Present Tense sentences Before we take a look at the pre-testing findings, we will first mention a few important facts as to the selection of Bosnian sentences offered for testing the use of the English Present Perfect. First of all, it is important to outline that the English Present Perfect does not have its corresponding tense in Bosnian. Therefore it is not surprising that understanding the basic concept of this tense, as well as mastering its use for the sake of translation (in particular from Bosnian into English) is usually quite a problematic issue for Bosnian learners of English. In other words, Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the Perfect Tense are usually translated into English by the Past Simple Tense. Such a situation is completely justified in cases where the translation by the Past Simple Tense is the only available choice, as in Sreo sam je juče > I met her yesterday. However, Bosnian Perfect Tense sentences sometimes may need to be translated by the Present Perfect Tense, e.g. Upravo je stigla u London/ She has just arrived in London. Moreover, there are some cases in which Bosnian Present Tense sentences require the English Present Perfect, e.g. Živim u Sarajevu od 2010/I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010. In addition, the use of the Present Perfect Tense differs in BrE and AmE. As is widely documented in the linguistic literature, the main verbs appearing in sentences containing adverbs such as just, ever, never, already, yet (signalling the use of the Present Perfect Tense in BrE) are frequently realized in AmE by the Past Simple Tense (Hundt & Smith, 2009; Žetko, 2004; Žetko, 2010). This difference is explained by different cognitive processing of native (AmE and BrE) speakers, i.e. a different perception of the time of an action expressed by the main verb. As pointed out by Žetko “the difference between the two variants occurs because different conceptualizations are possible. The BrE speaker conceptualizes just as almost reaching to, and therefore locates the situation in a period that leads up to it and employs the present perfect. The AmE speaker, on the other hand, conceptualizes just as lying completely before to, and therefore locates a situation in a period that lies wholly before to and thus uses the preterit.” (Žetko, 2004, p. 520) 190 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics On the other hand, in the case of some other adverbials such as since + time expression and for + time expression, the grammar books prescribe the use of the Present Perfect in AmE and BrE, cf. I have not seen him since last week or I have lived in Sarajevo for 10 years. In order to test the use of the English Present Perfect in translation, we employed the following criteria: First of all, the examples of Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense sentences without adverbials such as Donio sam konačnu odluku/I have made a final decision were disregarded, since we believe that at this stage the students should first be introduced to the basic explanations as to the contrastive differences between Bosnian and English through the systematization of typical Bosnian adverbials signalling the use of the Present Perfect Tense.12 The students were offered the sentences containing the main verbs in the Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense including adverbials, as follows: a) upravo > just, već > already , signalling the perfect of recent past use of the Present Perfect Tense; b) samo jednom > only once, signalling the experiential use of the Present Perfect Tense; c) već (for) + time expression and od (since) + time expression , signalling the continuative use of the Present Perfect Tense (Huddleston and Pullum 2002: 141-146).13 The analysis of the pre-testing findings has revealed the following observations: First of all, the most common errors were identified in the case of the Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the Present Tense (such as živim/live, radim/work, non-perfective, progressive aspect) and adverbials realized by preposition od/since + time expression (2010) and preposition već/for + time expression (5 godina/5 years). The sentence Živim u Sarajevu od 2010/I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010 was incorrectly translated by 50% of students, whereas the sentence Radim na fakultetu već 5 godina /I have worked at the faculty for 5 years was incorrectly translated by 46% of students. The error is a consequence of the negative transfer from the source into the target language by which the Present Tense forms of the Bosnian verbs živim/radim (Eng. live/work) were translated by the same (but not appropriate) tense in English as *I live in Sarajevo since 2010/*I work at the faculty for five years. Bearing in mind that the presence of the adverbials since/for + time expression explicitly highlights the duration of an action rather than the general characteristics, the translation in which the Present Simple Tense was used was considered incorrect.14 In addition, it is worth mentioning that the correct translation was mostly done by the Present Perfect Progressive Tense (instead of the Present Perfect Tense). Therefore, the sentence Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was correctly translated by 50% of students. 16% (out of 50%) used the Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010, while the remaining 34% used the Present Perfect Progressive, cf. I have been living in Sarajevo since 2010. The sentence Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was correctly translated by 54% of students. 13% used the 12 By selecting Bosnian sentences containing adverbials, our aim was not to focus exclusively on teaching the Present Perfect through “adverbial-tense matching”, which is the most commonly used approach in many grammar books. Taking into account that adverbials can rarely be linked to only one tense use (cf. I have lived in Sarajevo for three years (I still live in Sarajevo) vs. I lived in Sarajevo for two years (but now I live in London)), as well as the fact that Bosnian learners experience a lot of problems in terms of mastering this tense caused by the absence of a corresponding tense in Bosnian, the selection of Bosnian sentences with adverbials should be viewed as an initial phase in teaching this tense for the purpose of clarification the key concept of “merging” the past and the present time, being a typical feature of the English Present Perfect. 13 Huddleston and Pullum give the following classification of the Present Perfect in English: The continuative perfect/universal (=states) (1) She has lived in Berlin ever since she married. The experiential perfect/existential (= occurrences within the time span up to now) (2) His sister has been up Mont Blanc twice. The resultative perfect (=change of state) (3) She has broken her leg. The perfect of recent past (=news announcements) (8) She has recently/just been to Paris. (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, p. 141f). The resultative use of the Present Perfect has been disregarded in this research strictly for pedagogical reasons (this use has already been illustrated by Donio sam konačnu odluku > I have made a final decision). 14 Expressing general characteristics is a typical feature of the English Present Simple Tense. 191 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have worked at the faculty for five years, whereas 41% used the Present Perfect Progressive, cf. I have been working at the faculty for five years. Another error (although having a much lower percentage) was identified in the case of the following example Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice/I have not seen him this week. 22% of students used the Past Simple form of the main verb, cf. * I did not see him this week. Taking into account that the phrase this week clearly indicates that the duration of the period is still ongoing, the use of the Past Simple Tense was ruled out. As for the nature of the error made, it seems that the students were more focused on the translation of the verb phrase, thus almost completely disregarding the meaning of the adverbial this week and its impact on the action expressed by the main verb/translation. In the end, it is worth mentioning that the Bosnian sentences containing the adverbials upravo/just, već/already and samo jednom/only once were correctly translated by 100% of students. However, an in-depth analysis has also revealed the following: although the target tense was the Present Perfect, in some examples the students used the English Past Simple more frequently. Such translations were considered correct due to the already mentioned frequent use of the Past Simple Tense in AmE. The use of the Past Simple vs. the Present Perfect is summarized as follows. The example Upravo je stigla u London was translated by 66% of students as She just arrived in London, while 34% used the Present Perfect She has just arrived in London. The example Vozio sam motor samo jednom was translated by 78% of students as I drove a motorbike only once, while the remaining 22% used the Present Perfect as in I have driven a motorbike only once. The example Bio sam u Americi tri puta was translated by 44% of students as I was in America three times, while 46% used the Present Perfect I have been to America three times. Finally Već sam pročitala tu knjigu was translated by 32% of students as I already read that book, while the remaining 68% used the Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have already read that book. However, since the students were not asked to explain their translation choices, it remained unclear whether or not they were aware of a different use of the Present Perfect in AmE and BrE. This observation was taken into consideration and was accordingly presented and explained during the treatment phase. Treatment Phase During the treatment phase the handouts summarizing the contrastive rules were orally presented only to the treatment group of students. Since the research procedure has already been explained earlier (see Procedure Section), in this part we will briefly illustrate the content of the handouts presented to the treatment group. The handout material was produced in accordance with the results of the pre-testing findings. Handout 1 – Translation of Bosnian Conditional Sentences (summary of contrastive rules) Conditional dependent clause (Bosnian) 1) Da –clause containing the Present Simple Tense form of the main verb (Da imam dovoljno novca ...) 2) Kad-clause + present conditional (Kad bih imao dovoljno novca) 192 Main clause (Bosnian) 1) Present conditional of the main verb (kupio bih novo auto) 2) Present conditional of the main verb (kupio bih nova kola) Conditional dependent clause (English) Main Clause (English) Condition Time Reference If - clause containing the Past Simple tense form of the main verb (If I had enough money...) Present conditional of the main verb (would buy a new car) Open potential Present Translation into English BOS: Da imam dovoljno novca, kupio bih novo auto. ENG: If I had enough money I would buy a new car. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Da-clause containing the Perfect Tense form of the main verb Da sam imala dovoljno novca... Present conditional of the main verb (kupila bih novo auto) If - clause containing the Past Perfect Tense form of the main verb (If I had had enough money...) Past conditional of the main verb (would have bought a new car) Unreal Past BOS: Da sam imala dovoljno novca, kupila bih novo auto. ENG: If I had had enough money I would have bought a new car. Handout 2 – Translation of Bosnian Passive sentences (summary of contrastive rules) Bosnian Passive Time reference Formation Example Bitipassive Past Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine. Sepassive Past The Present form of the auxiliary biti > jesam (enclitic forms) > je.sg/su/smo.pl + passive verbal adjective (e.g. graditi > građen) Se-passive + past form of the main verb Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine. Corresponding English translation This museum was built three years ago. This museum was being built for three years. Formation Time reference Past form of the auxiliary verb be > was/were + passive participle of the main verb (build > built) Past continuous form of the verb be > was/were being + passive participle of the main verb (build > built) Past Past 193 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Handout 3 – Translation of Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense sentences (summary of contrastive rules) BOSNIAN Example Adverbial English Corresponding Tense AmE: Past Simple Tense (more frequently) and Present Perfect Tense (less frequently) BrE: Present Perfect (most frequently) resultative use) English Corresponding Adverbials Translation Perfect Tense > auxiliary verb jesam (enclitic form) + active verbal adjective Sam stigla, sam vozio Upravo, samo jednom, već, nedavno, Upravo > just, samo jednom > only once, već > already Jutros, ove sedmice, danas Present Perfect Tense Jutros > this morning, ove sedmice > this week, danas today Da li si vidio Jutros, ove sedmice, danas Present Perfect Tense Jutros > this morning, ove sedmice > this week, danas today Živim, radim Od + time expression (eg. od 1992.), već + time expression (e.g. već deset godina), do sada Present Perfect (continuous use) Od + time expression > since + time expression; već + time expression > for + time expression, do sada > so far, up to now BOS: Upravo sam stigla u London. BrE: I have just arrived in London. AmE: I just arrived in London. BOS: Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice. BrE/AmE: I have not seen him this week. (NOTE: this week is still ongoing) BOS: Da li si vidio mog asistenta jutros? BrE/AmE: Have you seen my assistant this morning? (it is still morning) NOTE: I did not see him this morning (it is already afternoon or evening) BOS: Živim ovdje od 1992. godine. AmE and BrE: I have lived here from 1992. Perfect Tense Vidio sam (ga), Nisam ga vidio Perfect Tense (Questions) Present Tense > verb infinitive base + present tense suffixes (m, -š, -i/-a/-e, mo, -te, -ju/-u) Delayed Post-testing The delayed post-testing phase took place in the first week of summer semester (one month after the completion of winter semester). During the practical grammar classes, the students were asked to do the translation test (Test 2). The test comprised the same number of sentences (12), but offered different examples. An overview of delayed post-testing findings is given in Table (3): 194 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Table 2. An overview of delayed post-testing findings N o 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sentences (including target translatio n (TT)) Da imam problem, razgovaral a bih sa svojom majkom. (If I had a problem, I would talk to my mother.) Da nisi bio tako lijen, položio bi taj ispit. (If you hadn’t been so lazy, you would have passed the exam.) Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina. (That project was completed five years ago.) Ta cesta se popravljala pet godina. (That road was being repaired for five years.) Upravo sam završila zadaću. I have just finished my homework. (BrE)/I just finished my homework. (AmE) Samo jednom sam bila u Engleskoj. I have been to England only once. (BrE) /I was in England only once. (AmE) Već sam čula tu priču. I have already heard that story. CONTROL GROUP (25 students) TT DT ET Bosnian TREATMENT GROUP (25 students) TT DT ET BOTH GROUPS TT DT ET Total n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % n % Conditiona l (potential) 14 56 0 0 1 1 4 4 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 39 78 0 0 1 1 22 50 10 0 Conditiona l (hypothetic al) 7 28 0 0 1 8 7 2 22 88 0 0 3 1 2 29 58 0 0 2 1 42 50 10 0 Bosnian biti passive 11 44 0 0 1 4 5 6 21 84 0 0 4 1 6 32 64 0 0 1 8 36 50 10 0 Bosnian se-passive 12 48 0 0 1 3 5 2 23 92 0 0 2 8 35 70 0 0 1 5 30 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 195 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level 8. 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . (BrE) /I already heard that story. (AmE) Damir uči njemački od 2012. Damir has studied/has been studying German since 2012. Ona spava već tri sata. She has slept/has been sleeping for three hours. On je pobijedio sedam puta. He has won seven times. (BrE) /He won seven times (AmE) Nisam dobio nikakav mail od njega ove sedmice. I have not got any email from him this week. Jesi li jutros razgovaral a sa profesorom ? Have you talked to the professor this morning?/ Did you talk to the professor this morning?15 Total Present Tense 12 48 0 0 1 3 5 2 20 80 0 0 5 2 9 32 64 0 0 1 8 36 50 10 0 Present Tense 16 64 0 0 9 3 6 21 84 0 0 4 1 6 37 74 0 0 1 3 26 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 22 88 0 0 3 1 2 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 47 94 0 0 3 6 50 10 0 Perfect Tense 25 10 0 0 0 0 25 10 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 0 0 0 0 50 10 0 21 9 73 0 0 8 1 28 2 94 0 0 1 8 6 50 1 83,5 0 0 0 9 9 16,5 0 60 0 10 0 2 7 An overview of post-testing findings per groups would be as illustrated in the following figures: 15 In the case of different time orientation. 27% 196 0% TT 73% DT ET �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Figure 13. Post-testing results (TT, ET and DT - Control Group) 0%6% TT DT ET 94% Figure 14. Post-testing results (TT, ET and DT - Treatment Group) The findings have revealed the following: while the treatment group has demonstrated a significant improvement, the control group has shown even slightly weaker results compared to the pre-testing findings. In other words, the total of ET for the control group during the pre-testing was 26%, which has been increased by 1% in the post-testing phase. In addition, a detailed analysis of post-testing findings (control group) has revealed the following: the pre-testing example (potential condition) Da imam novca kupio bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 36% of students.16 On the other hand, the post-testing example expressing the same kind of condition Da imam problem, razgovarala bih sa svojom majkom was incorrectly translated by 44% of students *If I have a problem, I would talk to my mother. The pre-testing example (hypothetical condition) Da sam znala da dolaziš kupila bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 76% of the students, whereas the post-testing example Da nisi bio tako lijen, položio bi taj ispit was incorrectly translated by 72% of students, *If you were not so lazy, you would have passed the exam. The example of the Bosnian biti-passive sentence (pre-testing example) Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 48% of students. The post-testing example Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, *That project is finished five years ago. The pre-testing example of the Bosnian se-passive Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, whereas the post-testing example Ta cesta se popravljala pet godina was incorrectly translated by 52% of the students, *That road is being built for five years. When it comes to the translation of Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the present tense, the results for the control group are the following: during the pre-testing phase, the example Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was incorrectly translated by 36% of students, while Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was incorrectly translated by 40%. The post-testing example Damir uči njemački od 2012 was incorrectly translated by 52% of students as *Damir studies German since 2012, whereas Ona spava već tri sata was incorrectly translated by 36%, cf. *She sleeps for three hours. The only slight improvement has been confirmed in the translation of the Bosnian sentences containing the time expression ove sedmice/this week. Compared to the pre-testing phase in which the example Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 16% of students, the post-testing example Nisam dobio nikakav mail od njega ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 12 %, cf. *I did not get any email from him this week. As for the translation of the Bosnian sentences containing adverbials već/already, upravo/just, samo jednom/only once, tri puta/three times, sedam puta/seven 16 Out of 25/100 % students - control group. See Table (1): An overview of pre-testing findings. 197 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level times, 100% of students of the control group translated the sentences correctly, but with an increased use of the Past Simple Tense. A parallel in terms of an overview of the use of the Past Simple tense in pre-testing and post-testing phase is given in the following table: Table 3. An overview of pre-testing and post-testing findings in translation of Bosnian sentences containing adverbs signalling the use of Past Tense in AmE – control group. Example Testing Example Past Tense Upravo je stigla u London Upravo sam završila zadaću Pre-testing Vozio sam motor samo jednom Samo jednom sam bila u Engleskoj. Već sam pročitala tu knjigu. Već sam čula tu priču. Bio sam u Americi tri puta. Pre-testing She just arrived in London I have just finished my homework. I drove a motorbike only once. I was in England only once. . On je pobijedio sedam puta. Posttesting Posttesting Simple Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 80% 82% 72% 80% Pre-testing I already read that book. 40% Posttesting Pre-testing I already heard that story. I was in America three times. 45% Posttesting He won seven times. 50% 48% Present Tense Perfect She has just arrived in London She has just arrived in London. Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 20% 18% I have driven a motorbike only once. I have been to England only once. I have already read that book. 28% I have already heard that story. I have been to America three times. He has won seven times. 55% 20% 60% 52% 50% On the other hand, the post-testing findings of the treatment group have revealed a significant improvement in translation compared to the pre-testing, summarized as follows: during the pre-testing phase the example of the Bosnian conditional sentence expressing a potential condition Da imam novca kupio bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 28% of students, while the post-testing example Da imam problem, razgovarala bih sa svojom majkom was translated correctly by 100% of students, If I had a problem, I would talk to my mother. The pre-testing example of the Bosnian conditional sentence expressing a hypothetical condition Da sam znala da dolaziš, sačekala bih te kod kuće was incorrectly translated by 88% of students, whereas the post-testing example Da nisi bio tako lijen, položio bi taj ispit was incorrectly translated only by 12% of students (*If you were not so lazy, you would have passed the exam). The pre-testing example of the Bosnian biti-passive Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, whereas only 16% of students incorrectly translated the post-testing example Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina (*That project is finished five years ago). The pre-testing example of the Bosnian se-passive Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was incorrectly translated by 84% of students. The post-testing example Ta cesta se popravljala tri godine was incorrectly translated only by 8% of students (*That road is being built for three years). The translation findings of the Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the present tense and adverbials od/since + time expression and već/for + time expressions have also revealed an immense improvement. While the pre-testing example Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was incorrectly translated by 64% of students, the post-testing example Damir uči njemački od 2012 was incorrectly translated only by 20% (*Damir studies German since 2012). In addition, the pre-testing example Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was incorrectly translated by 52% of students, whereas the post-testing example Ona spava već tri sata was incorrectly translated by 16% of students (*She sleeps for three hours). The pre198 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics testing example containing adverbial ove sedmice/this week Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 28% of students, whereas no incorrect translation was confirmed with the post-testing example. As for the examples containing adverbials već/just, samo jednom/once, upravo/already and sedam puta/seven times, all the examples were translated correctly by 100 % of students. In addition, compared to the control group, the treatment group of students more frequently used the Present Perfect Tense in translation, which was usually accompanied by a short comment on a potential (correct) use of the Past Tense as an American variant. A summary of the translation per percentage is given in Table (4): Table 4. An Overview of pre-testing and post-testing findings in translation of Bosnian sentences containing adverbs signalling the use of Past Tense in AmE – treatment group Example Testing Example Past Tense Upravo je stigla u London Upravo sam završila zadaću Vozio sam motor samo jednom Samo jednom sam bila u Engleskoj. Već sam pročitala tu knjigu. Već sam čula tu priču. Bio sam u Americi tri puta. On je pobijedio sedam puta. Pretesting She just arrived in London Posttesting I just finished my homework. 2% Pretesting 84% Posttesting I drove a motorbike only once. I was in England only once. Pretesting I already read that book. 24% Posttesting Pretesting I already heard that story. I was in America three times. He won seven times. 10% Posttesting Simple Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 52% 20% 40% 10% Present Perfect Tense She has just arrived in London I have just finished my homework. I have driven a motorbike only once. I have been to England only once. I have already read that book. I have already heard that story. I have been to America three times. He has won seven times. Percentage (out of 25 students (100%) 48 % 88% 6% 80% 76% 90% 60% 90% Conclusion In conclusion, the research has revealed that the use of contrastive analysis in teaching English as a foreign language at university level can be viewed as a valuable technique in assisting students to significantly reduce interfering effects, thus improving their grammar and translation competence. Taking into account that the current grammar syllabi are focused on the description of the target language, the results of the research have also highlighted the importance of the revision of the existing syllabi in terms of an inclusion of a contrastive module within each undergraduate grammar course, thereby creating a solid basis for more successful transfer of structural knowledge into the actual language use. References 199 �The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Callies, M. (2008). Argument Realisation and Information Packaging in Tough- Movement Constructions: A Learner-Corpus-Based Investigation. In Danuta Gabrys-Barker (Ed.), Morphosyntactic Issues in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 29-46). Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters. Filipović, Rudolf (Ed.). (1985). Chapters in Serbo-Croatian –English Contrastive Zagreb: Institute of Linguistics. Gass, Susan M., & Selinker, Larry (2008). Second Language Acquisition – An Course. 3rd edition. New York and London: Routledge. Grammar. Introductory Dubravčić, Maja (1985). A Contrastive Analysis of the English Present Perfect and Its SerboCroatian Correspondents. In Rudolf Filipović (Ed.), Chapters in Serbo-Croatian English Contrastive Grammar (pp. 247- 283). Zagreb: Institute of Linguistics. Ellis, Rod (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Huddleston, Rodney, & Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002). The Cambridge Grammar of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. the English Hundt, Marianne, & Smith, Nicholas (2009). The Present Perfect in American and English: Has there been any change recently? ICAME Journal, 33, 45-63. British Johnson, A.P. (2005). A Short Guide to Action Research. 2nd edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Kothari, C.R. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. Delhi: International. New Age Krahnke, Karl (1987). Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Teaching. New Lado, Robert (1957). Linguistics across culture. Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press. Mackey, Alison, & Gass, Susan M. (2005). Second Language Research Methodology London: Lawrence Erlbaum. and Design. Mertens, Craig A. (2012). Action Research: Improving Schools and Empowering Educators. SAGE Publications. London: Mihailović, Ljiljana (1985). Passive Sentences in English and Serbo-Croatian. In Rudolf Filipović (Ed.), Chapters in Serbo-Croatian – English Contrastive Grammar (pp. 329 -423). Zagreb: Institute of Linguistics. Oller, J., & Ziahosseiny, S. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis and Language Learning, 20, 183-189. spelling errors. Riđanović, Midhat (2007). Praktična engleska gramatika. Sarajevo: Šahinpašić. Riđanović, Midhat (2012). Bosnian for Foreigners with a Comprehensive RABIC Publishing Company. 200 Grammar. Sarajevo: �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Stockwell, Robert, Bowen, Donald J., & Martin, John W. (1965). The English and Spanish. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Grammatical Structures of Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 4, 123-30. White, Theresa and McBurney, Donald (2012). Research Methods. Belmont: Wadsworth. Whitman, Randal (1970). Contrastive analysis: Problems and procedures. 20, 29-41. Language Learning, Žetko, Katarina Dea (2004). Adverbials with the Present Perfect Tense in BrE and AmE. In Diana Stolac, Nada Ivanetić, & Boris Pritchard (Eds.), Suvremena kretanja u nastavi stranih jezika, Vol. 16 (pp. 513-527). Zagreb-Rijeka: Hrvatsko društvo za primijenjenu lingvistiku. Žetko, Katarina Dea (2010). The Present Perfect and Preterite in British and American English. in Smiljana Komar & Uroš Mozetič (Eds.), English Language Overseas Perspectives and Enquiries, Vol VI, (pp. 27- 46) 201 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2794 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level Author Author Okičić, Melisa Osmankadić, Merima Abstract A summary of the resource. Teaching English as a foreign language at university level is quite a different challenge compared to teaching high school or young non-native learners. This is due to the fact that university students are expected to acquire specific grammar terminology in order to master the grammar system of the target language. At the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, during the first three (undergraduate) years of study the students are introduced to several grammar courses, focusing on the analysis of English grammar through descriptive explanations given in English. The courses serve as a basis that is expected to improve both the grammar and translation competence of the students. This paper examines to what extent the acquired descriptive knowledge of morphosyntactic properties of English is helpful in terms of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the knowledge of contrastive rules. The research has been designed as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test (delayed) post-test control-treatment group. As the research findings have revealed, teaching grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translation, which is a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. On the other hand, grammar teaching supported by the presentation of relevant contrastive rules has proved to be an efficient learning technique in terms of reducing errors and improving both grammar and translation competence of non-native learners. Key words: verb phrase, erroneous translation, transfer, contrastive analysis, pre-testing, post-testing, treatment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3491 Title A name given to the resource THE USE OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AT TERTIARY LEVEL Author Author Okičić, Melisa Osmankadić, Merima Abstract A summary of the resource. Teaching English as a foreign language at university level is quite a different challenge compared to teaching high school or young non-native learners. This is due to the fact that university students are expected to acquire specific grammar terminology in order to master the grammar system of the target language. At the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, during the first three (undergraduate) years of study the students are introduced to several grammar courses, focusing on the analysis of English grammar through descriptive explanations given in English. The courses serve as a basis which is expected to improve both grammar and translation competence of the students. This paper examines to what extent the acquired descriptive knowledge of morphosyntactic properties of English is helpful in terms of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the knowledge of contrastive rules. The research has been designed as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test (delayed) post-test control-treatment group. As the research findings have revealed, teaching grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translation, which is a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. On the other hand, grammar teaching supported by the presentation of relevant contrastive rules has proved to be an efficient learning technique in terms of reducing errors and improving both grammar and translation competence of non-native learners. Keywords: verb phrase, erroneous translation, transfer, contrastive analysis, pretesting, post-testing, treatment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 865 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Exercises in Foreign Language Grammar Lessons Author Author Gordana, Bojicic Abstract A summary of the resource. In foreign language teaching in general, exercises must have a dominant position, since a large variety of exercises is a prerequisite for mastering any foreign language. All other processes in the classroom should have a subsidiary function, to facilitate the language learning and to contribute to more rational and more efficient use of exercises. After a short review of existing classifications of language exercises, in this paper we will try to provide some basic methodological remarks on the exercises and their use in grammar lessons. We will also analyze the textbooks for Italian as a foreign language in order to determine which type of language exercises prevails in them. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics