312 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fb32c6dea4cd08dbe198d7df5a4219b6.pdf a9108b186e492ed5e5c5f0ba28c40f96 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Gabriela Tucan West University Timisoara, Romania Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 10.11.2014. Abstract Fauconnier and Turner (2002, pp. 389-396) provide an overview of how blending affects the course of a human life, and more specifically, how young children are engaged in building complex blends in very early stages of their lives. Their detailed analysis shows that only after the young child is able to master culturally recognized blends will s/he be effectively ‘living in the blend’ and prove capable of further achieving other blends with more flexibility. During early childhood, it appears that learning and mental development are intrinsically linked to our human ability to blend and deblend. Besides engaging in direct cultural blends, the young child can operate on conceptual blends that are not physically (biologically) given. For instance, this may happen when their imaginative processes are at work in a wide variety of games or fun activities, starting with Lego construction sets to fictive interactions with imaginary companions. In such games and activities, children manifest an extraordinary capacity for double-scope blending. Therefore, by playing games or getting involved in free activities, young children will bring to mastery mental integrations that are essential for their lives as adults. In this light, the paper examines a set of children-designed games and activities that can all account for cases of fictive or potential reality. That is, the mental spaces created do not refer directly to entities in the outside world. I argue that an analysis of such fantasy mental spaces (with the tools of the mental space theory) can shed new light on learning and human creativity. While playing and blending mental spaces with their counterfactual counterparts, the young subject has to manipulate his/her ‘split self’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1999) or counterfactual self. With the knowledge of early evolution of conceptual blending in children’s games, I propose that educators may apply the results in diverse areas of instruction and learning in order to better deal with the cognitive side of learning, and eventually come to terms with human creativity. 99 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Keywords: blends, early childhood, mental development, children-designed games Introduction In the exceptional and emotionally charged story of his autobiographical memoir, Joseph Anton, Salman Rushdie (2012) fights the crucial battle for writer’s freedom and – at all costs – for freedom of speech. He instructs us that in an era when we are being pushed toward “ever-narrower definitions of ourselves” (p. 576), and hence toward narrower identities, literature ought to encourage a multiplicity of identities. The human self is heterogeneous rather than homogenous: “not one thing but many, multiple, fractured and contradictory” (p. 576). Writers and readers with broad identities will always find common ground with fictional characters and, most importantly, using that knowledge, they find points of identification with their fellow beings. Rushdie’s distinction between ‘narrow’ and ‘broad’ identities shows one of the most fundamental features of our inner lives: the distinction between the human Subject and our multiple selves. If the Subject makes what we uniquely are, the self is the sum total of our thoughts, experiences, and actions. In order to construct the sense of self, the human being changes social roles and becomes acquainted with multiple personal histories. The Subject or ‘our essence’ as the locus of human consciousness differs from the self in many different aspects. Admittedly, as Rushdie explains in his memoir, “the person you were for your parents was not the person you were with your children, your working self was other than your self as a lover, and depending on the time of day and your mood you might think of yourself as tall or skinny or unwell or a sports fan or conservative or fearful or hot” (p. 575-576). It is as if the ‘home self’, the ‘lover self’, the ‘work self’, or the ‘moody self’ were various facets of different individuals, but still they all define one unique body. The split self It seems that our multiple fractured selves are under the direct control of others and our constructed identity is the reflection of external realities. If this is true, we grow up learning to constantly adapt to stories created outside our self. More specifically, this is how we actually learn how to behave and act like others; which means that from the very beginning we start to experience ourselves as split identities. This is not to say, however, that infants are blank slates written on by others, since they are all born with a set of representational and perceptual capacities. While we are generally perfectly willing to admit that parents or adults are the prime source for imitation, we have yet to address the question of imitation more pointedly 100 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics in order to show that learning by imitation largely defines our understanding of the split self. With this goal in focus, my thesis is that early imitation is a foundation for the emergence of more selves in the subject. I contend that it is precisely in early childhood forms of entertainment, as expressed in a host of imitation games (pretend play, make-believe, fantasy or imaginative play, etc.) that our sense of self begins to take a bifurcating shape. But the analysis will also go one step further in arguing that an examination of children’s fantasies provides insight into the imitative mind. Early imitation – a way to learning and communication The recent interest of theorists in the theme of imitation from across disciplines has given rise to diverse lines of inquiry (see the edited collections by Nehaniv & Dautenhahn, 2007; Meltzoff & Prinz, 2002). In this study, the term ‘imitation’ is broadly used to refer to types of imitation used in pretend games in which young children reproduce behaviours that they have witnessed prior to the instance of reproduction. Very early evidence of imitation can be found in infants. In a series of studies, Meltzoff and Moore (1994, 1998) demonstrate that imitation allows infants to determine the identity of others by replaying an imitative game they had played before with the same person. In time, this predominantly nonverbal communication realized in infant imitation develops into more mature and more abstract manifestations that will retain a sense of others. By imitating adults, infants of different ages may start to recognize what they share with other people and later this realization can open the door into the social world. The interpersonal or social relationships with parents and household members from birth force us to continually evaluate our actions in the light of how others evaluate what we do and how others choose to perform the same actions. It is this interplay between personal experience and external influence that will shape our self as adults. As the human brain develops, so does the mind– but this can only happen in the presence of others. Young children depend on others to such a great extent that their early experience of self mirrors a cluster of influences that have touched their lives until that moment. Therefore, juveniles are able to evolve through different social interactions and only through continually receiving socially relevant information. By imitating the social models around us, young children continually shape and reshape their selves in order to adjust to new changing contexts and novel roles. However, compelling scientific evidence proves that the brain is primarily responsible for who we are. Any dysfunctions of the brain caused by accidents, drugs, or aging processes may temporarily or definitely alter our perceptions of the 101 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities self. The individual radically becomes a different person. But yet brains do not live in isolation – rather “each brain exists in an ocean of other brains that affect how it works” (Hood 2012, p.17). This ultimately indicates that the self is not only modelled by our brains but is equally influenced by the external world that assaults us at all times and sends signals that are to be interpreted and internalized by our brains. Most importantly, the development of our socially created self is a long modelling process that takes place throughout our lives and occupies the largest part of early childhood. These last points highlight imitation as a social tool serving multiple purposes. At various levels, imitation can be used to initiate and maintain social interaction; it can be a mode of inter-personal communication. My paper also works on the same assumption that early imitation has a significant social function. The split self engages in pretend play In this section I propose that young children not only imitate to engage socially with others and to create their social selves, but imitation is seen as a cognitive ability to project oneself onto another or other entity in a hypothetical situation. Being able to simultaneously hold more than one identity in different mental spaces develops the concept of separate conceptual selves. I argue that pretend play or fantasy games can account for the cognitive function of imitation. Why do children construct online fictions? How do minds construct and share such imaginative mental constructs? In addressing these questions, I will rely on G. Fauconnier’s mental space theory (1994, 1997) that convincingly advances the view that humans are able to integrate two or more mental spaces as they speak, listen to a string of speech, or read texts. Mental spaces are partial mental constructs set up as the conceptualizer perceives, understands, remembers, or imagines a particular scenario. In short, mental space theory is a useful tool for analysing how individuals interpret sequences of spoken and written language. In this light, the paper examines instances of mental space mapping in children’s fantasy plays. In most pretend games, children share a communicative situation as the starting point and then project themselves onto another imaginary entity trying to imitate its behaviour and actions. As such, play companions inhabit the body of fictive participants in an imaginary scenario that may not correspond to the one in the real situation of communication. Importantly, the playfellows are physically present but the verbal interaction takes place strictly in the fantasy world. It is interesting to examine how such imaginary verbal interaction is represented in the minds of the participants. More specifically, how they can make mental contact with potential realities that would otherwise have a non-interactional relationship. The type of face102 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics to-face communication carried out during a fantasy play bears resemblance with what Pascual (2002, 2008) and Brandt (2008) call “fictive interaction”. Such interactional structure does not mirror the observable communicative situation and “constitutes an invisible – although equally present and critical – channel of communication between fictive participants, who may or may not correspond to those in the actual situation of communication” (Pascual 2008, p. 81). The examples selected for detailed analysis come from V. Gussin Paley’s A Child’s Work: The Importance of Fantasy Play. While playing, pre-school children are able to create with spontaneity highly imaginative stories and carry the plot and characters to places they have never visited. Let us look at the case of a child who engages in a fantasy play: Pretend I’m your baby dinosaur and I’m lost, and then you call me but I don’t come because I have a different name now and then you hear a noise and you think it’s a wolf but you can’t call me because you don’t know my name now. (p. 16) As revealed in the example above, in this fascinating pretend game, the child is split into two individuals in the GAME space and the FANTASY mental space. It involves simultaneously the split of the self into two parts. The same individual in actuality is referred to both as a playmate in reality and as a ‘baby dinosaur’ in the fictional scenario. The child in the REALITY space is safe from any worries and dangers and begins to stage an exciting story with a real play companion. They seem to know each other well and both enjoy the suspense of the pretend play. On the other hand, his counterpart in fiction takes a new identity (‘the baby dinosaur’) and a new name, gets lost and is unable to help his friend. He speaks as if he were the metamorphosed baby dinosaur. In the scenario of the pretend game, there is no direct reference to the other playfellow, but one may assume he is also in an altered condition. In their fictitious setting, the wolf impersonating the danger cannot be stopped because the fictional counterparts, bearing small resemblance to the playfellows in reality, do not know each other by name. All these fictional elements in the pretend play do not directly mirror the world. The wolf and the increasing tension are only present in the game and the two playmates with their counterparts in fiction contradict what they experience in actuality. In brief, the world defined by the children’s fantasy game not only splits the referents into two dissimilar parts but it also provides insight into the playmates’ cognitive capacities for representing such imaginary worlds. It seems, then, that fantasy play entails imagining a fictive identity and engaging in fictive interaction. In their imagined interaction, there are two metamorphosed interactants (the baby dinosaur and perhaps another animal) who engage in imaginary topics of conversation, but the speech and the bodies correspond to the 103 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities actual playmates. True, the fictive communication of the represented entities does not necessarily relate to the experiential domain but undeniably it has a physical grounding (the playing ground, the playmates, etc.). The child departs from the REALITY space or the BASE space to construct a potential or a hypothetical space, set up by the space builder pretend. The playfellows no longer talk about what they do in their actual world but what they pretend they share in their imaginary world. With respect to the previous factual space, the second mental space sets up a counterfactual scenario in an alternative situation, with characters behaving as if they were something else. In this hypothetical space, the fictional counterpart of the second companion hears a noise and interprets it as danger. He thinks it is a wolf, which partitions the discourse into a further BELIEVE space, but he can’t call his fictional companion because he doesn’t know his name. The conjunction but clearly shows the contrast between the need for help and the impossibility to ask for it. For further analysis, let us look at another example of a pretend game: “Pretend I’m the good mother.” “Is there a mean one?” “The step one? No, only one mother, the nice one.” “Let’s both be baby sisters and our nice mother isn’t lost yet.” “Was she lost or are we lost?” “Not yet. No one is lost. This is the part where we’re still happy.” (p.19) As in the other fantasy game, the space builder ‘pretend’ represents an overt indicator that opens up a new virtual mental space. The dialogue script shifts focus to a space in which the fellow companions become ‘baby sisters’ watched by their ‘nice mother’ who has not been lost yet. The final scenario is set up gradually after the participants hesitantly evaluate the other options: who could be the ‘good mother’ and whether there is ‘a step mother’. In this fictive address, the interactants also evaluate their new roles and, in this way, they can learn what they think of the individuals talked about in real situations of communication. This means that the underlying configuration of their fictive interaction bears the mark of the participants’ social experience and of their exposure to similar situated exchanges. The pretend space builder not only requires the conceptualization of a hypothetical mental space but it also requires the integration of incompatible structure. Even though ‘the baby sisters’ know that they and their ‘good mother’ may be lost in the real story, they set up potential realities in which nobody is lost and time is halted to a never-ending happiness. It is interesting to look at the following engaging fantasy play in which children rewrite the story of The Little Red Riding Hood: 104 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics “You be the mother,” she tells Cora. “You have to come with me in case there’s a wolf.” “First we see the hunter,” Cora decides. “He already banged at the wolf.” “But you didn’t tell me don’t talk to the wolf!” “No, see, this is the first real way it goes. The wolf sees the mother and so he runs away.” (21) Clearly, children enjoy such fantasy games for their entertainment value. But more significantly, nevertheless, they do not simply participate in the game with the purpose of enjoying the imagined stories as such: they play out concepts and beliefs from experience, animate entities, and present imaginary scenarios affectionately. The alternative framework of the story allows for complementary improvement of the original storyline: the bad wolf sees the mother and runs away. Interestingly, in their fictive interaction the fictional mother and girl incorporate conversational cues from the original story: ‘But you didn’t tell me don’t talk to the wolf!’The speaker seems to suggest that they need to repeat exactly the lessons learned experientially or taken directly from the original story. In other words, the desire to imitate the behaviours and beliefs of the original scenario takes them back to the BASE space of actuality. However, the other communicative participant presents her suggestion to keep the virtual space because it seems safe and ‘the first real way’ for a turn of the story. Blending and double-scope creativity in (pretend) games The various case studies presented in the previous section give evidence of the fact that, when involved in fantasy games, participants set up mental spaces as imaginary scenarios, interconnect them, and modify them as discourse unfolds. On the other hand, this is not the whole story of the imitative mind. For instance, the sentence “pretend I’m your baby dinosaur and I’m lost...” requires not only the conceptualization of a hypothetical mental space, but it also requires the mapping of incompatible mental spaces. Even though in the BASE space the playmates are real individuals who feel safe from any trouble, they can still imagine themselves as nonhuman figures facing danger and risking their lives. The discovery that individuals are able to imagine such a situation contrary to facts with essential consequences for thinking led cognitive scientists G. Fauconnier and M. Turner (2002, 2006) (see also Turner 1996) to advance the theory of conceptual blending. This pretend game is a double-scope network (Fauconnier and Turner 2002, p. 131139) that has input spaces with clashing structures. There is disanalogy between the safe playmate in the BASE space and the lost baby dinosaur in the second input. Further, in the space of reality both companions know each other well whereas in the counterfactual space there is no communication. If the first input is free of danger, 105 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities the presence of the wolf in the second input emphasises the clashing differences. But the inputs are not simply juxtaposed. The imagined situation in which the second playmate cannot call for help and thus may be caught by the wolf is understood as the blended space. Evidence of blending or conceptual integration can be found in other similarly engaging children’s activity. For instance, when a two-year-old picks up a banana and talks into it as if it were a mobile phone, s/he proves to have collected important pieces of cultural information to be later used for making other useful connections. With the highly imaginative Lego construction sets, the child can play, build and rebuild. The player constructs towers, castle, cars, or other miniature objects replicating physical objects from the surrounding reality. When the building is finished, players may want to change pieces, move one tower to another place, or make the castle taller; all these additions are only limited by the physical characteristics of the building blocks that cannot be divided or changed into a different size or shape. Gravity may sometimes spoil the fun. Otherwise, no one really instructs children on such physical constraints but they will know quite precisely what rules satisfy their constructions. Endowed with the capacity for integration, the child will take that information from the surrounding cultural stimuli and use that knowledge in their play. The fact that they may have already experienced boat trips and bridge crossings, they may have seen pictures of towered castles, or they may have witnessed different actions and behaviour gives them enough stimuli to reproduce them out of Lego sets. Such construction games are much more than simply imaginative imitation games: they are useful applications of early forms of human imagination. Building and rebuilding construction sets creatively and resourcefully reflects the making and unmaking of conceptual integration networks. Concluding remarks In this paper I have argued that early imitation constitutes a form of social engagement that also helps infants develop the concepts of self and others. Analysis suggested that through multiple forms of imitation, the self is largely shaped by people around us. It is through imitation that we experience ourselves as split. I further proposed that every sort of fantasy game that children play can express a sense of others and reveal the split in the self. The manifestations of imitation in fantasy or pretend games may be concerned with the social function of imitation, but most importantly, with how the self and the other are coded in the minds. More generally, children engage in fantasy games for their immensely entertaining value but, at the same time, they begin to act out theatrically on the stage of their creative 106 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics minds. By projecting themselves onto someone else or something else, the self of the young individual takes a bifurcating shape that allows them to develop broad identities. Such a fundamental cognitive activity involving the dramatization of the self helps us later understand such puzzling language: “If I were you, I'd hate me too” (Johnson & Lakoff 1999, p. 281). If fantasy games seem to impact upon the individual’s identity, they can be used as valuable teaching tools. References Brandt, L. (2008). A semiotic approach to fictive interaction as a representational strategy in communicative meaning construction. In Oakley, T. & Hougaard, A. (Eds.). Mental spaces in discourse and interaction (109148).Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Fauconnier, G. (1994).Mental spaces: Aspects of meaning construction in natural language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in thought and language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The way we think: Conceptual blending the mind’s hidden complexities. New York: Basic Books. and Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2006). Mental spaces: Conceptual integration networks. In Geeraerts, D. (Ed.). Cognitive linguistics. Basic readings (303-371). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gussin Paley, V. (2004). A child’s work: The importance of fantasy play. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Hood, B. (2012). The self illusion. London: Constable. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind its challenge to western thought. New York: Basic Books. and Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, M. K.(1994). Imitation, memory, and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 83–99. Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1998). Object representation, identity, and the paradox of early permanence: Steps toward a new framework. Infant Behavior and Development, 21,201–235. 107 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Meltzoff, A. N., & Prinz, W. (2002). (Eds.) The imitative mind: Development, evolution, and brain bases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nehaniv, L. C., & Dautenhahn, K. (Eds.) (2007). Imitation and social learning in robots, humans and animals . Behavioural, social and communicativedimensions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pascual, E. (2002). Imaginary trialogues: Conceptual blending and fictive interaction in criminal courts. Utrecht: LOT. Pascual, E. (2008). Fictive interaction blends in everyday life and courtroom settings. In Oakley, T. & Hougaard, A. (Eds.). Mental spaces in discourse and interaction (79-108).Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Rushdie, S. (2012). Joseph Anton. A memoir. New York: Random House. Turner, M. (1996). Conceptual blending and counterfactual argument in the social and behavioral sciences. In Tetclock, T. &Belkin, A. (Eds.). Counterfactual thought experiments in world politics: Logical, methodological, and psychological perspectives (291-295). Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. 108 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2787 Title A name given to the resource Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Author Author Tucan, Gabriela Abstract A summary of the resource. Fauconnier and Turner (2002, pp. 389-396) provide an overview of how blending affects the course of a human life, and more specifically, how young children are engaged in building complex blends in very early stages of their lives. Their detailed analysis shows that only after the young child is able to master culturally recognized blends will s/he be effectively ‘living in the blend’ and prove capable of further achieving other blends with more flexibility. During early childhood, it appears that learning and mental development are intrinsically linked to our human ability to blend and deblend. Besides engaging in direct cultural blends, the young child can operate on conceptual blends that are not physically (biologically) given. For instance, this may happen when their imaginative processes are at work in a wide variety of games or fun activities, starting with Lego construction sets to fictive interactions with imaginary companions. In such games and activities, children manifest an extraordinary capacity for double-scope blending. Therefore, by playing games or getting involved in free activities, young children will bring to mastery mental integrations that are essential for their lives as adults. In this light, the paper examines a set of children-designed games and activities that can all account for cases of fictive or potential reality. That is, the mental spaces created do not refer directly to entities in the outside world. I argue that an analysis of such fantasy mental spaces (with the tools of the mental space theory) can shed new light on learning and human creativity. While playing and blending mental spaces with their counterfactual counterparts, the young subject has to manipulate his/her ‘split self’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1999) or counterfactual self. With the knowledge of early evolution of conceptual blending in children’s games, I propose that educators may apply the results in diverse areas of instruction and learning in order to better deal with the cognitive side of learning, and eventually come to terms with human creativity. Keywords: blends, early childhood, mental development, children-designed games Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),LT Textbooks https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ecbd24d715cbff5716d5ab9199b0f89e.pdf 9948f1f7579dbd9dfff372c5b42ea96c PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Arta Toci South East European University, Macedonia Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 19.11.2014. Abstract Writing as a productive skill isan integral part of the language-learning process. However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.Creative writing normally refers to the production of texts that have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or pragmatic purpose. Creative writing in ESL classes has started developing lately, but only to be incorporated as a supportive skill in teaching writing.Responding to students’ writing is an important issue to discuss when considering teaching creative writing. Response is a process that includes peer review, peer editing and continuous feedback through the stages of creative writing. By providing constructive feedback, the teacherunderstandsa writer’s problems and intentions by making students responsible for finding and analyzing what needs to be improved. Key words: teaching, writing, creativity, feedback, assessment Introduction Writing as a productive skill is an integral partof the language-learning process.However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.According to Reid (1993), many ESL teachers only used writing as a skill to support language learning. This assumption led them to think that writing could be useful as a technique for adding interest or as a testing device for assessing grammar errors. Nowadays, writing has become an important communicative skill as a result of researchin this field. ESL teachers have come to recognize writing as a skill that is equal to other integral language-learning skills and many of them have investigated different approaches to writing. The importance of writing in EFL classes 31 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Like speaking, writing is a key to academic language success.From an early age, students acquire second languagesthrough words, and thencontinuing with sentences, paragraphs and longer papers.They encounter difficulties because most students find it hard to express ideas even though they have basic language knowledge. When taking on a writing assignment, students have little confidence, which leads to different preconceptions and stereotypes about writing. This problem has been a topic for discussion among many language teachers and researchers due to the great importance of writing in language learning. “Each time I am assigned a paper I stuck in my breathas if I had to move a hundred-pound stone from the entrance to my apartment in order to go on living” (Bishop, W., 1990, p.26).Anxiety makes students reluctant to engage themselves in the writing process. The fear of not doing everything right makes them step back and teachers miss out on what students really know. If students are free to express themselves, teachers will be able to see what they know and what they need to learn in order to improve. There are many contradictory opinions on whether controlled instruction should be the prevalent method for teaching writing or ifcreative writing techniques should take over. A group of researchers would prefer to use them interchangeably even though they might prefer one to the other. Having looked at different researchers’ views in this area of study, we teachers can decide to choose which instruction methodis the most useful and fruitful in teaching writing. It is crucial to bear in mind what writing really is and how we can enhance learning through the instruction of writing. “The view of writing as a tool for learning and not just a means to demonstrate learning is one of the major contributions of the research into the writing process” (Elbow, 1998). Therefore, if students are given the opportunity to use the target language in order to build their capacities to write, they will surely acquire the language at the same time. Defining creativity in writing The traditional approaches to writing have had a great impact on both teachers’ and students’ beliefs about how to teach and learn writing. Despite the fact that many researchers have reported positive results from usingcreative writing techniques, many teachers have been reluctant to adoptthis method in the classroom. It must be noted that creative writing existed in theory long before it started to be used in practice. Considering that creative writing differs in many ways from traditional methods of teaching writing, it has been considered a challenge and an unfamiliar method that does not take into account important elements such as accuracy and precision. 32 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The movement from controlled to free or guided writing started in the early 1980s when teachers decided to embrace this new methodology (Reid, 1993).Creative writingas a writing methodology is characterized by the free expression of thoughts and ideas in a supportive and constructive classroom environment. It is also referred to as expressive or creative writing. This approach focuses on enhancing students’ ability to express their creativity and to genuinely practice writing in an anxiety-free atmosphere. Techniques that demonstrate the above-mentioned characteristics of creative writing include: writing a paragraph by describing a person or a place; writing a short story; writing an informal letter to a friend or a report about something you have read; writing about a given topic; and writing by describing a picture. Moreover, there have also been discussions about creative writingas a way of boosting critical thinking. Major (1994) has argued that creative writing activities actually improve critical thinking since they are based on students’ personal and emotional state, which gives them a sense of motivation. Elbow (1998) also supports the use of creative writing by giving arguments for its general application and even recommending it for freshman writing courses, saying that students “need to practice nonacademic writing”. Evaluating creativity in writing “Feedback has long been regarded as essential for the development of second language (L2) writing skills, both for its potential for learning and for student motivation.”(Hyland, K. & Hyland, F., 2006, p.83). Giving the wrong feedback may discourage students’ progress in creativity and decrease their creativity. Responding to students’ writingshould be seen as a process in itself and proper attention should be given to its importance in their language-learning progress. In most cases, a piece of writing is analyzed as a final product and the main focus is on error correction. However, language teachers face a permanent question: Does error correction always help to improve students’ writing in L2? “One line of argument, influenced by process theories, claims that feedback on error to L2 students is discouraging and generally fails to produce any improvements in their subsequent writing.”(Hyland, K. & Hyland, F., 2006, p.84). However, a considerable number of researchers claim the opposite. Feedback is considered a much more difficultapproach to evaluating creative writing.This is because an idea that one person considers creative may not be seen as such by another person. Another problem in measuring creativity is avoiding subjectivity and choosing the right criteria. “Self-report measures of creativity and global assessments of students’ creativity by others (such as teachers) have also failed to demonstrate sufficient validity to be trusted for most uses.” (Baer, J. & Mc Kool, Sh., 2009, p.2) 33 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Giving feedback on creative writing is thought to be very difficult since not everyone rates creativity in the same way. In addition, it is human nature to render judgments based on feelings, and a work that changespeople’s feelings is considered worthier.To better illustrate this idea, Kaufman, Christopher & Kaufman, (2008) claim: It may be the case, then, that we make judgments of a set of work based upon the pieces that made us ‘feel’ the most. If we attach an emotion to a piece of poetry, then we should be able to remember that piece better and, further, to use it as an anchor for our judgments of other works by that artist. (p. 3). What to focus on when giving feedback on creative writing? Thisis the hardest part for language teachers. Creative writing positively affects language expression through writing, which leads to a better general performance in that language. Students need to have access to this writing approach, which seeks to be aesthetic and at the same time offers relaxation for both the reader and writer. Whether approached in a traditional way or in a contemporary one, the teachers’ main aim should be to help their students progress in their language learning. With a lot of care, they should offer feedback so that students can see their strengths and errors and continue striving for optimal performance. The research This study was conducted among 25third-year students at the English department at South East European University in Tetovo. Participantswere givenassignments such as writing a letter, writing a short story, writing by using pictures, etc. All of the inclass activities mentioned above were used according to creative writing techniques and no error correction was provided. The teacher’s role during the course of these activities was to be an observer, a supporter and a guide or a prompter. Students received more peer feedback rather than teacher feedback during the in-class activities. As a result of their group and peer work, students were giving comments to each other related to the structure of ideas and the choice of vocabulary. Students received feedback from the teacher after they read what they had written. The teacher feedback included appraisal for the good and strong points of the writing task and suggestions for improvement on the weaker points. It did not include error correction or correction related to mechanics. The students were evaluated ontheir progress in the following categories: Introduction, support, organization, vocabulary and sentence structure, and grammar and spelling. 34 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Students’ assignments were collected every week. After each class the students received feedback from the teacherbased upon the following criteria: Table 1. Evaluation criteria adopted from ‘The HOT Writing Rubric’ developed by Project Zero at Harvard University and by the Composition Program at the University of California, Irvine. Criteria 5 4 3 2 1 0 Creative Writing Excellent use of imagery; similes; vivid, detailed descriptions; figurative language; puns; wordplay; metaphor; irony. Surprises the reader with unusual associations, breaks conventions, and thwarts expectations. Some startling images, a few stunning associative leaps with a weak conclusion or lesser, more ordinary images and comparisons. Inconsistent. Sentimental, predictable, or cliché. Borrows ideas or images from popular culture in an unreflective way. Cursory response. Obvious lack of motivation and/or poor understanding of the assignment. No response. All three drafts submitted by the students were analyzed according to the analytic scale in order to tracktheir progress through the workshop. Detailed results from drafts are shown in Figure 1. The following figures will show students’ progress throughout the drafts in five categories as separate units and throughout drafts as whole essays. 35 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Chart 1: Draft results for all five categories 10 9 8 grading scale 7 6 5 Draft 1 Draft 2 4 Draft 3 3 2 1 0 Vocabulary Organization and sentence structure Grammar and spelling Introduction Support Draft 1 3.12 3.92 3.2 3.84 4.48 Draft 2 5.36 6.08 5.68 5.76 6.48 Draft 3 6.32 6.56 6.8 7.28 7.84 As shown in Figure 1, students’ introductions scored an average of 3.12 inthe first draft. In the second draft, the average score improved to 5.36. Students showed additional progress in the third draft, with the average score rising to 6.32. In other words, the writers made significant progress between their first and second drafts, with the average score improving by 2.24, whereas the improvement between the second and third drafts was slighter at about 0.96. The overall average increase from the first to the thirddraft was 3.2. In the category of support, students’ performance in writing the first draft was evaluated at an average of 3.92 out of 10. Students’ ability to support their essays improved significantlyby the second draft, where they scored an average of 6.08. However, their progress slowed between the second and third drafts, where the average score was 6.56. In other words, the average score rose 2.16 points between the first and second drafts, while the improvementbetween the second and third draftswas just 0.48. Even though the progress between the second and third draftswas not significant, it must be noted that the difference between the first and third drafts was 2.64, which is a considerable success. 36 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics In the category of organization, students scored an average of 3.2 in the first draft. The second draft showed a considerable difference, with the average rising to 6.68. A slighter difference was detected between the second and third drafts, where the average score was 6.8. Nevertheless, students’ progress in organizing their essays from the first draft to the second showed a very significant difference of 2.48, while the third draft improved on the secondby just 1.12. It should also be noted that in all three categories discussed so far, students made greater progress between their first and the second drafts than between their second and third drafts. In the organization category, total progress between the first and third draftswas 3.6, which is higher than the total improvement in the first two categories, especially support. Vocabulary and sentence structure is the fourth category that was analyzed in the three student drafts. In the first draft, students’ performance with respect to the vocabulary they used and their sentencestructure resulted in an average of 3.84. The second draft showed an average increase to 5.76, while the students’ average scores rose to 7.28 in the third draft. In this category, students’ progress between the three drafts was more equal than in the first three categories. There was a difference of 1.92 between the first and the second draft, while the progress between the second and the third drafts showed a difference of 1.52. The overall progress from the first draft to the last one in this category was 3.68, slightly higher than the total progress in the organization category. The fifth category, grammar and spelling,presented the following outcomes:The average score in the first draft was 4.48 – the highest first-draft average in all five categories. The average scoresin the second and the third draftswere 6.48 and 7.84, respectively. The difference between the first and second draft was 2 points, whereas the difference between the second and the third drafts was 1.36. Overall, students’ scores improved by 3.36 points between the first and third drafts, which is approximately the same as theirrate of progress in the introduction category. Conclusions The findings of this research not only reflect the expected outcomes,but also provide insight into some interesting points with respect to writing instruction. Research on students’ progress in writing has been an issue for decades and has covered many important aspects of writing. The interpretation of the findings is similar to the results of some research projects, but different from others. This may reflect the different nature of the sample that each researcher uses. The results of this research point toa need for other related studies. If EFL students respond positively to creative writing instruction, it would be interesting to find out whether adult students of English as a foreign language respond in a similar manner. 37 �Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Other in-depth investigations into feedback and its effects on language learningmightprovide more interesting insights on the proper way to respond to student writing. Teachers and educators should practice creative writing so that students can produce a ‘self work’. The outcomes of teaching creative writing are enormous for language learners. In addition to practicing new vocabulary, students practice structure deductively and at the same time concentrate on the content. Writing drafts and peer feedback are closely connected to the final evaluation. Teachers have the main say when evaluating creative writing. Using an evaluation chart is helpful both for the teacher and the student writer. This study answers several questions. Clearly, creative writing makes students better writers. This does not mean that students who practice creative writing are able to do well in other writing approaches, but it helps in creating writing habits. Creative writing is also an approach to writing that finds a good place in literature.Creative writing, also known as a poetic or artistic writing, can help students become better writers. References Baer,J. & Mc Kool, Sh. (2009). Assessing creativity using the consensual assessment technique. USA, IGI Global. Black, Paul and Wiliam, Dylan (1998). Assessment and Classroom Learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, Vol. 5. Issue 1. pg. 7-74. Print Bishop, W.(1990). Released into a language: options for teaching creative writing. Printed in USA, National Council of Teachers of English 1111Kenyon Road, Urbana, Illinois 61801. Elbow, P. (1991).Reflections on Academic Discourse: How It Relates to Freshmen and Colleagues. College English, Vol. 53. No. 2. pg. 135-155. Elbow, P. (1998). Writing without teachers. New York City: Oxford University Press, Inc. Emërllahu, D.(1998). Bazat e MetodikëssëPunësEdukative FakultetiiMësuesisëiUniversitetittëPrishtinës. 38 .Prishtinë: �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Harasim, L.&Hiltz, S. R. &Teles, L. &, Turoff, M. (1997) A field guide to teaching and learning online;Learning Networks. London, England:The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Hyland, K. & Hyland, F. (2006) Language Teaching. Feedback on second language students’ writing.USA:Cambridge University Press. Retrieved on March 25, 2014 from: http://epi.sc.edu/ar/AS_4_files/Hyland%20and%20Hyland,%202006.pdf Kaufman, S. B. & Christopher, E.M. & Kaufman, J.C. (2008). The Genius Portfolio: How do poets earn their creative reputations from multiple products.Empirical Studies of the Arts, Vol. 26. No.2. pg.181-196. Retrieved on 27 March 2014 from: http://scottbarrykaufman.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/06/Kaufman-Christopher-Kaufman-2008.pdf Leki, I. (1998). Academic writing-Exploring processes and strategies, New York City: Cambridge University Press Lillis, Th. M. (2001). Student Writing: Access, London:Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, EC4P 4EE. Regulation, Desire. Langan, J. (1997).College writing skills with readings (4th Ed.) United States of America: McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc. Major, W (1994). Freewriting: A Means of Teaching Critical Thinking to College Freshmen. Retrieved on April 3, 2014 from: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/composition/major_freewritin g.htm Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (1998). Writing Academic English. New York City: Addison Wessley Longman. Reid, J. M. (1993). Teaching ESL writing. United States of America:Prentice Hall Regents Steinberg, M. (2000) Peninsula: Essays and Memories from Michigan. Michigan: Michigan State University Press 39 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2783 Title A name given to the resource Evaluating ESL Students’ Creativity in Writing Author Author Toci, Arta Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing as a productive skill isan integral part of the language-learning process. However, students do not consider writing an easy skill to learn and many ESL teachers certainly consider it a difficult skill to teach.Creative writing normally refers to the production of texts that have an aesthetic rather than a purely informative, instrumental or pragmatic purpose. Creative writing in ESL classes has started developing lately, but only to be incorporated as a supportive skill in teaching writing.Responding to students’ writing is an important issue to discuss when considering teaching creative writing. Response is a process that includes peer review, peer editing and continuous feedback through the stages of creative writing. By providing constructive feedback, the teacherunderstandsa writer’s problems and intentions by making students responsible for finding and analyzing what needs to be improved. Key words: teaching, writing, creativity, feedback, assessment Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),LT Textbooks https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d380f0c482d70d82167a67d1617e7bce.pdf cac035bdbed0599832d9fc052c5bc3d2 PDF Text Text LITERARINESS AS FREEDOM OF THINKING Lindita Tahiri University of Prishtina, Kosova1 Article History: Submitted:10.06.2015 Accepted:10.08.2015 Abstract: The study argues about the advantage of the linguistic approach to literature in enabling students become aware of the multiple perspectives of narration giving them the power to do the work that otherwise the supreme interpreter would have done for them, thus sharpening their critical thinking skills. Contemporary novels in Albanian will be examined, by renowned writers such as Ismail Kadare and Ben Blushi. Kadare, probably the most famous Albanian writer ever, will be argued as an example of the author who kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric, and his literature achieved this specifically with impersonal techniques of narration. These texts will be analyzed by pointing out the main linguistic indicators of interior monologue (Cohn), such as features of agency, transitivity, passivization, nominalization, deictic expressions, and free indirect speech. Examples from popular fiction will be discussed, taking into account the negative connotations about popular fiction as a kind of literature associated with industry and entertainment, as opposed to literary fiction which is studied at the academia. Popular fiction will be explored from the perspective of provoking public discussion about important societal issues, such as is the case with the Albanian author Blushi who aroused heated debate and was accused by the Muslim community for ruining the religious harmony of Albanians. This debate will be compared with the initiative to review Kosovar history textbooks due to their negative portrayal of Turkey. As conclusion, the study aims to demonstrate that perspectival narration may be used as teaching strategy to help readers explore the other’s self and develop freedom of thinking. Keywords: pedagogical stylistics, Kadare, critical thinking, literariness “Kosova" is the Albanian name and "Kosovo" is the Serbian name for the country, which institutionally calls itself the Republic of Kosova. The Serbian government does not recognize the state calling it Kosovo. Many international speakers use "Kosovo" without implying that they believe that Kosovo is Serbian. The deliberate choice in this paper is the Albanian form of the lexeme. 1 �1. INTRODUCTION Whereas early stylistics of the 60s stressed the autonomy of literature with attention on stylistically marked texts, regarding study of literature as a branch of aesthetics (Widdowson: 1996), modern stylistics views language of literature in relation to other discourses in terms of continuum rather than polarity. This perspective integrates the linguistic and literary study and develops the awareness of literature as language, which is beneficial both to teaching of language and teaching of literature. The focus of stylistics in the text of literature, rather than in vague and impressionistic judgments, makes it a useful pedagogical tool in language and literature studies (Weber: 1996). Stylistics has pedagogical usefulness because it of its basic principles such as being rigorous, retrievable, and replicable (Simpson: 2004). The teacher does not only interpret messages of the literary work, but analyzes textual features, such as lexicon and syntax, depicting their function towards producing the literariness of a text. This strategy of interpretation based on linguistic analysis avoids for the morally prescriptive language and allows for the plurality of interpretation and readings for the contemporary reader/student, who lives within the uncertainty of the modern age, where everything is opened to redefinition. According to the literary critic Jesse Matz (2004) one of the important developments of the modern novel is the replacement of a belief in absolute, knowable truth with a sense of relative, provisional truths, with the awareness of ‘reality’ as a constructed fiction. Modern writers do not aim to give a full or neutral version of a story, but they emphasize the limited perspective of the personal point of view. As Matz puts it: “…we have to do the work an omniscient narrator would otherwise have done for us, and the participation gives objective knowledge the feel of subjective involvement” (52). Therefore, the perspectival narration appears as an aesthetic strategy of individuality which helps readers grasp the idea of the content of subjectivity in the midst of the information chaos. The teaching strategy based on pedagogical stylistics not only makes literature more approachable for students but also contributes for the development of critical thinking, which is commonly listed amongst the main skills belonging to generic competencies – transferable, multifunctional knowledge, skills and attitudes that people could learn and develop in different ways and learning environments, and apply across a variety of job and life contexts (European Commission, DG Education and Culture, 2006,2012). Generic skills have been capturing growing attention all over the world by education policy makers, and therefore particular attention should be paid to the way literature is taught, as a tool to sharpen the most important competences of the modern citizens. 1.1.Literature as public space for dialogue: Albanian case The Albanian case might not be different from other former communist countries, where a great moral and ideological power was attributed to literature, even to poetry, which although usually �is the elite genre, in these countries enjoyed immense popularity. This trend may be illustrated with one of the Albanian internationally recognized authors of literary fiction, Ismail Kadare, who is a bestseller amongst Albanian readers of all ages. His work kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric. It was his work that refilled with life the drained language of mechanical thought, and it was his language that broke through the walls where the dictatorship could not make the way into. By keeping language creativity alive, Kadare succeeded to give self-dignity to the intimate language of individuals, as readers could find more life in his works than in everyday reality. With the words of the American scholar Peter Morgan (2006:9), “As the voice of an alternative, better Albania, Kadare offered to his countrymen one of the few sources of hope for change”. According to statistics, literary fiction in Albania still sells well and one may argue that literature amongst Albanian culture is not perceived as privilege of academia. Historically Albanian writers have been identified with the national aspirations and the ‘book’ has been considered as the best means to resist occupation and totalitarianism. The ‘death of the author’ is practically impossible within Albanian culture, in spite the effort of Barthes to liberate the reader from the tyranny of the limited interpretation. The Albanian author is very much alive: he has often been a public figure, and even a hero defending the national cause. Is there still need for a mission similar to Kadare’s work, a need to make readers critical towards ideological manipulations of public discourse, in the world of today, in the age of globalization and uncertainty, in the age of democracy as well as of massacres and anxiety? Many works of popular fiction, as ‘Da Vinci Code’ does with religion for example, explore important issues for society and tend to provoke public discussion about problems that preoccupy humankind, and this seems to be the feature that the modern consumer of books wants to find into the reading process- the public space for dialogue, evocative to the possibility for interaction that internet provides for its users. We propose that this need may be efficiently explored by the teacher of literature, who in this fashion encourages and inspires the critical and creative thinking as one of the most essential competences for the modern individual. This skill of critical thinking is crucial within the debates about history textbooks which are taking place in Balkans, and the literature teacher can help students became aware of the editorial, selective, interpretative roles of the historian, as well as of the author of fiction. For instance, in 2011 the Minister of External Affairs in Turkey asked the Kosovar authorities to change history textbooks, because they are “Albanian- centered and portray a negative image of Turkey” (Jazexhi: 2013). What kind of skills do students need in order to maintain the neutral attitude towards ideological maneuvering of any kind? 2. METHOD Contemporary Albanian literature is analyzed from the aspect of linguistic presentation of character’s ‘mind style ’(Roger Fowler: 1977) pointing out the pedagogical advantage of �linguistic criticism. History textbooks are also analyzed from the point of view of linguistic criticism. Linguistic structures present in the respective texts will be approached as expression of social values, based on the functional model developed by M.A.K. Halliday (1973, 1978, 1994 ) and adopted by Roger Fowler (1979, 1991,2003), Hodge, Kress and Trew (1979), referred to as Systemic Functional Linguistics. Fundamental to these models is the belief that the uses of language shape the linguistic system. The language function which will be of primary focus is the interpersonal function , as both interactional and personal, as means whereby social groups are integrated and the individual is identified and reinforced. The indicators for this function, according to Halliday are: lexical register, types of speech and modality, use of person, of modifiers and intensifiers, and in particular comments and evaluative expressions. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) will be used and the concept of van Dijk (1998) about the rhetoric of polarization will be applied. One of the typical analyses that van Dijk does of the media discourse is the polarized representation of the self and the other, which serves the definition of the social identity of the social group, whose interests are represented in respective discourse. As van Dijk claims, regardless of whether they are aware and knowledgeable about an ideology, this ideology underlies language and exists, the way grammar exists. Finally, the vigorous discussion set off by the literary theorist Eagelton (1985) about language conventionally perceived as literature, will be taken into account. Nowadays the study of literature, similarly to the study of modern linguistics, is not positioning itself as normative science prescribing one single correct language variant. Rather than aiming to define a transhistorical essence of literature and originality which is hard to clarify, literature scholars are more and more talking about literariness as a potential of all language which may be present in different kinds of discourse .Furthermore, this potential for creativity in language is considered as closely linked to the basic cognitive processes in language usage and language origin (Lakoff and Turner:1989) 3. RESULTS 3.1. Kadare: the split identity One of Kadare’s rare novels translated in English from the original is the Broken April, whose main character is Gjorg, the young mountaineer, who kills a man to avenge the death of his brother according to the provisions of the ancient Code. The novel starts with the thematic positioning of the possessive third person pronoun (His feet were cold), and throughout the text this kind of usage of the pronoun serves the narrative voice to keeps a distance and to give the impression of showing rather than telling, in particular when internal thoughts and perceptions of the character are transmitted. The thematic positioning of intensifiers, either as adjectives, adverbs, subordinate connectors or deictics, serves as an orientation towards the interior world of the character. Even the syntactic order of clauses follows the chronological experience of the �character and orients the reading process creating an impression of straightforwardness and symbolism. The author uses free direct speech and partially free indirect speech in the psychonarration (Cohn: 1978) of the character, suggesting not only his thoughts but also emotional extra-linguistics processes directly transmitted by the narrator. The literature teachers can draw out these points, focusing on all levels of language, e.g. on the lexical choice which is typical for the character and suggests interior perception with character’s focalization. They can point out the foregrounded transitivity, as typically Gjorg takes verbs denoting factual actions, but without effect on the objects. His verbs denoting physical actions refer to body movements and are self-referential. Verbs depicting his main activity (wait, shoot) are accompanied by modals (had to, must) adding connotations of obligation and involuntary actions. So his verbs show mainly lack of ability to act rather than real actions, which make him a victim more than an actor. The English translation points out the lack of action and will, as is the case in this example, by switching the agency to the object compared to the original Albanian where the agency falls on the character: “Slowly the gun barrel swept over some patches” (7). The translation succeeds to transmit the split identity, the dilemma to proceed with the action of avenge which is imposed due to social norms , and for instance students can be lead to interpret this as an ever existing dilemma of the modern individual. What is significant, students learn to be sensitive to grammatical indicators used to reinforce specific meanings in all kinds of discourses. 3.2. History through lenses of fiction Regarding accuses for nationalism in Kosova history books2, the teacher can provide a textual analysis and explain for instance that when non-factive verbs (Hudelston: 2002)are used such as: “It is thought by the scholars that Albanian language descends directly Illyrian” (History 6:24 ), this creates an impression of doubt about our predecessors rather than nationalism. Or, sentences like “Special feature of the influence and legacy of the Ottoman culture here are the various facilities built during that time” (History 7:130) show multiculturalism rather than hatred towards the ottoman culture, avoiding rhetoric of opposition of evil and righteous. Another case of telling history through fiction, Ben Blushi’s Living in an island has provoked profuse debates within the public opinion, accused by the Muslim community for endangering the religious harmony and tolerance of Albanians. The novel portrays the life of an Albanian family embracing simultaneously two religions, as historical allegory pointing to the challenging subject of the religious background of Albanians. The teacher can approach literature as historical construction, where historical characters have been explored in a different light by the author, amongst them Skanderbeg, the most prominent figure in the history of Albanians, famous for his resistance against the Ottoman Empire: “Skanderbeg fought for power and not for faith “, says Komneni, renown historical figure and one of the main characters in the novel. “The book 2 Translations from history texts and Blushi’s novel are done by the author of the paper . �belongs to the knowledgeable, who are usually the most powerful” declares Isaac to Sara in the closing chapter. “When Turks leave, we will write again the book we have lost.” The teacher may empower the readers by asking them whose word is it, and should the character’s words be taken as presentation of character’s ‘mind style’ or as author’s own judgment and distinct message ?(Wimsatt and Breadsly: 1947). The teacher can point out to the intrusive presence of the author, as in the case when the former Christian entered the mosque and “ he understood that he demonstrated logical superiority even at the very first Islam lesson”. By applying pedagogical stylistics students learn to make difference between impersonal and neutral narrative voices and the intrusive and judgmental ever-knowing story-tellers. CONCLUSION The teaching strategy based on pedagogical stylistics not only makes literature more approachable for students in this age when reading is globally declining, but also contributes for the development of critical thinking, which is commonly listed amongst the main generic skills the modern individual needs in developing life- long learning. Furthermore, the focus on interior monologue technique with the neutral presentation of the internal life of people is of social and political importance, because it is a concrete tool of arousing tolerance and understanding between people (Aurebach, 1968:552). As a result, students learn to enjoy a non-visible, nonintrusive source of narration, rather than a judgmental and evaluative privileged source of information, and this way they are more resistant to authoritarian discourse �References Aurebach, Eric.(1968) Mimesis: The representation of Reality in Western Literature. NY: Princeton University Press. Bicaj, Isa and Salihu, Arbër (2012) Historia 7, Prishtinë: Libri Shkollor Blushi, Ben. (2008) Të jetosh në ishull. Tiranë: Toena Cohn, Dorrit. (1978) Transparent Minds Princeton University Press Demaj, Frashër and Rexhepi, Fehmi (2010) Historia 6, Prishtinë: Libri Shkollor Eagelton, Terry. (1985) Literary Theory, Basic Blackwell Fowler, Roger (1981) Literature as Social Discourse.UK: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. Fowler, R., Hodge, B. , Kress, G. and Trew, T. (1979) Language and Control Routledge &Kegan Paul. Gelder, Ken. (2004) Popular Fiction, The logics and practices of a literary field. NY: Routldedge. Halliday, M. A. K.( 1973) Explorations in the Functions of Language. London: Edward Arnold. Huddleston, Rodney and K.Pullum, Geoffrey (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge University Press Jazexhi, Olsi (2013)Rrëfimet e një kombi. Tiranë: Free Media Institute Kadare, Ismail (1980) Prilli i Thyer, Tiranë Kadare, Ismail.(1990) Broken April. Translated by J.Hodgson. NY:New Amsterdam books. Lakoff , George and Turner, Mark.( 1989) More than Cool Reason. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. Matz, Jesse (2004) the modern novel. UK: Blackwell. Morgan, Peter (2006) Modern Homer or Albanian Dissident, World Literature Today: A Literary Quarterly of the University of Oklahoma, 2006 Sept-Oct; 80 (5): 7-11 Simpson, Paul (2004) Stylistics NY: Routledge Weber, Jean Jacque. 1996 ., in “The Stylistic Reader”, ed. J.J. Weber, University Centre Luxemburg Widdowson, H.G. 1996 .“Stylistics: an approach to stylistic analysis”, in “The Stylistic Reader”, ed. Jean Jacques Weber, University Centre Luxemburg, Wimsatt, William K. and Monroe C. Beardsley. "The Intentional Fallacy." Sewanee Review, vol. 54 (1946): 468-488. Education and Training 2020 Work programme Thematic Working Group 'Assessment of Key Competences' Literature review, Glossary and examples November (2012) in: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/school/doc/keyreview_en.pdf � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2956 Title A name given to the resource LITERARINESS AS FREEDOM OF THINKING Author Author Tahiri, Lindita Abstract A summary of the resource. The study argues about the advantage of the linguistic approach to literature in enabling students become aware of the multiple perspectives of narration giving them the power to do the work that otherwise the supreme interpreter would have done for them, thus sharpening their critical thinking skills. Contemporary novels in Albanian will be examined, by renowned writers such as Ismail Kadare and Ben Blushi. Kadare, probably the most famous Albanian writer ever, will be argued as an example of the author who kept the free thinking alive during the period of extreme totalitarian regime where the language was saturated with communist manipulative rhetoric, and his literature achieved this specifically with impersonal techniques of narration. These texts will be analyzed by pointing out the main linguistic indicators of interior monologue (Cohn), such as features of agency, transitivity, passivization, nominalization, deictic expressions, and free indirect speech. Examples from popular fiction will be discussed, taking into account the negative connotations about popular fiction as a kind of literature associated with industry and entertainment, as opposed to literary fiction which is studied at the academia. Popular fiction will be explored from the perspective of provoking public discussion about important societal issues, such as is the case with the Albanian author Blushi who aroused heated debate and was accused by the Muslim community for ruining the religious harmony of Albanians. This debate will be compared with the initiative to review Kosovar history textbooks due to their negative portrayal of Turkey. As conclusion, the study aims to demonstrate that perspectival narration may be used as teaching strategy to help readers explore the other’s self and develop freedom of thinking. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46157a416d9d60e83808020c541991cc.pdf 6b310361d1c5399efc9f0b73394a3156 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics “Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” James St. André The University of Manchester, United Kingdom Submitted: 22.04.2014. Accepted: 04.11.2014. Abstract While teaching first in Singapore and now in Manchester, it has come to my attention that there are certain difficulties in teaching translation theory either outside of Europe or, in Europe, to students from outside of Europe who come here to study. This paper concentrates on the role of examples in theoretical works, the problems they pose in teaching theory and the implications for universalism in translation studies. I draw on Edward Said’s discussion of travelling theory, post-colonial critiques of the hegemonic role of English, and skopos theory to propose two courses of action to help overcome the problem: first, the incorporation of the translation of theoretical material both from and into European languages as part of practical postgraduate training; and second, the use of a radical substitution policy for examples, with new examples centred around the target language, rather than preservation of the original examples, which are centred around the source-language. Using the example of China, I will demonstrate how these two strategies push us to reconsider how we approach teaching theory. Firstly, the translation of Chinese theoretical texts into English will allow for a deeper appreciation of writings in Chinese and their wider dissemination. Secondly, the search for examples which involve the target language should lead to an engagement between the target culture and the theory. Translating Vinay and Darbelnet’s path breaking essay on translation processes, for example, immediately raises the question of what exactly is meant by ‘borrowing’ in the Chinese context, and for the need to distinguish between retaining the use of the roman alphabet and transliteration using Chinese characters, a distinction that would never arise between French, English and German. Keywords: translation theory, examples, Chinese Introduction Although not a specialist in foreign language acquisition or in teaching English as a foreign language, I have long been concerned with the teaching of theoretical texts in 131 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” translation studies to non-native speakers of English. These theoretical texts include translations from other languages (mainly German and French) into English, as well as translations from English into Chinese (which is my main foreign language, and the one most commonly shared by my students). Teaching such theoretical texts raises a variety of issues, in particular the question of examples and the problem of historical specificity versus universal applicability. For over a century, we have seen the imposition of Western European theoretical ‘universals’ on the ‘East’, the ‘South’ or ‘the Rest’ (depending on which term you prefer). Tackling the challenge of development of universals today involves making models that come out of a wider range of experience across the humanities and social sciences. In translation studies in particular, there is a need to go beyond the triumvirate of English, French and German studies, and to go beyond East and West. In a postmodern vein, I begin this paper with a story of a young American who went to Asia to teach translation and how that experience changed his perception of his chosen field of study. You should detect in this preamble a very heavy whiff of postcolonialism. After that preamble, I discuss briefly some of the arguments for and against universalism in the humanities and social sciences in general. Then I lay out some of the more recent arguments in favour of universalism, especially in computational linguistics and their application to translation studies. The final section of the paper will be a discussion of how and why we might or might not want to continue looking for universals in translation studies, and how historical specificity might engage with it, taking into account various factors, including: the (non) translation of translation theory East-West; the importance of examples and case studies in translation theory; the importance of religion as a grounding for Universalism; and a modified view of what ‘universal’ means in the field today. Anecdote In 1999 I was hired by the department of Chinese Studies at the National University of Singapore to teach all levels of translation. Since primary and secondary education in Singapore is now in English, with ethnic Chinese students taking Mandarin Chinese as their required ‘Mother Tongue’ subject, there is a large bilingual EnglishChinese population there. Students in the Chinese department thus generally having fairly good skills in both languages, and Singaporean undergraduates are eminently suited for a translation programme. For the advanced module, I assigned three essays from Venuti’s Translation Studies Reader (2000) that I considered to be, if not easy, at least clearly written and engaged 132 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics with specific strategies of translation: Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet, “A Methodology for Translation” (1958/2000), Katharina Reiss “Type, Kind and Individuality of Text: Decision making in translation” (1971/2000) and Hans Vermeer “Skopos and Commission in Translational Action” (1989/2000). To my surprise, the students claimed that the essays were extremely difficult, if not incomprehensible, and my plans for in-class discussion went nowhere. When I pressed them as to what exactly they had trouble following, it turned out that the main problem was the examples that the authors used to illustrate their points. All three essays had been translated: Vinay and Darbelnet from French, the articles by Reiss and by Vermeer from German. More importantly, all three essays contained concrete examples, which I had thought would make the theoretical model easier to understand. However, the translators of all three articles had left these examples in their original form, ie, a combination of French, German, Spanish, and English. Reiss’s article was possibly the most difficult, because most of her examples were of translation between French and German, or German by itself, with no translation into English. Perhaps because I have a reading knowledge of these languages, I had not noticed the oddity of presenting an essay in English where the examples, which were supposed to illustrate the theoretical premises, were all between two foreign languages. The article by Vinay and Darbelnet was slightly better, because all the examples were English-French, so the students could at least understand one half of each example, and the article by Vermeer did not contain as many examples. Subsequently, we worked through each section of the essays, coming up with English-Chinese examples to supplement the texts, which then resulted in the students understanding them much better, but also led to the result (surprising to me at the time) that not all of the points that the theorists had to make were relevant to Chinese-English translation. Yet all of these models were couched in the language of universal applicability. Vinet and Darbelnet are typical in this respect, beginning their article by stating: “At first the different methods or procedures seem to be countless, but they can be condensed to just seven, each one corresponding to a higher degree of complexity.” (1958/2000: 84) The remainder of the article consists of discussing each of the seven types, with examples of how these seven techniques can solve (presumably) any and all difficulties a translator might encounter. There is no indication that there might be exceptions, either in the sense of a text posing a problem that one or more of these seven techniques cannot solve, or in the sense of there being alternative techniques which might produce different but equally valid translations. They end their paper with a table that sets out the seven techniques by ‘level of difficulty”, but which also enumerates how on “the three planes of expression” (ie lexis, structures, and message) these techniques are valid (1958/2000: 92). Here again the use of the 133 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” definite article ‘the” suggests that there are only these three planes, thereby strengthening the universalist claims of their seven techniques to solve all possible problems. Reiss, in turn, says that text-type is a phenomenon going beyond a single linguistic or cultural context, because the following essentially different forms of written communication may be regarded as being present in every speech community with a culture based on the written word and also because every author of a text ought to decide in principle on one of the three forms before beginning to formulate his text. (1971/2000: 163, my italics) Clearly the repetition of ‘every’ suggests that Reiss believes she is describing a universal phenomenon, and she goes on to list exactly three of them. Vermeer, similarly, opens his article with sentences that contain phrases such as “any form of translational action”, “[a]ny action has an aim”, and “[t]he aim of any translational action”. (1989/2000: 221, my italics), all of which demonstrate his belief that skopos theory is valid for all translational activity. Furthermore, the article contains an explicit defense of its universal applicability. Having been criticized (Vermeer does not specify who the critics were), he mounts a two-pronged defense, insisting both that all actions have an aim (1989/2000: 224-5) and that all translations, even of literature, have an intention (1989/2000: 226-7). All three articles make these strong universal claims with the help of examples from just four modern European languages. It was the difficulty I experienced teaching this material in Singapore that first aroused my interest in the relation between the particular and the universal in translation theory. Currently in Manchester, I have noticed again that the non-native speakers of English from non Western-European countries often have similar problems in a module I teach, Translation and Interpreting Studies II. As a result, I now teach a module entitled “Practicum: Translating Theory” in which we address this specific problem. I will return to look at some passages from these texts in more detail later in this paper; in particular, I have a few suggestions as to what might be done about those translations. First, however, I need to make a detour to discuss universalism as a general phenomenon in the human sciences. The urge to universalism Almost all theoretical models aspire to universalism, because all theoretical models are an attempt to generalize from the specific. The more widely applicable a theory is, the more powerful it is. There are many possible examples, but to choose just one, 134 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics we might examine post-colonial theory. Post-colonialism began as a movement among intellectuals living in, originally from, or studying the history of the Indian Subcontinent; an earlier term used to describe it was subaltern studies. That name derives from their attempt to theorize the development of Indian history under colonial rule, when the Indians were subalterns to the British, using Gramsci’s theoretical framework as a basis of their critique (see Guha 1982a, 1982b, and Guha 1983). The term ‘subaltern studies’, which was fairly specific to that historical time and place, was gradually replaced by the more general term post-colonial studies. At the same time, the scope of ‘post’ in post-colonial was expanded (or generalized) in three ways. First, from what was originally conceived rather narrowly as countries which had been colonized by European powers but were now independent, the term came to refer to the entire history of colonial and post-colonial rule in such countries; in this sense ‘post’ meant ‘after the beginning of colonialism’ not ‘after the end of colonialism’. (Robinson 1997: 13) Second, from the originally specific European colonialism, post-colonialism was also used to refer to, and theorize about, the colonial relation in any time period and by any country, not just European. (ibid: 1314) Third, the term was metaphorized so that it could refer to situations where, although there was not strictly speaking a colonial situation (one country controlling another, including sending significant numbers of people to live for a period of time, if not permanently) to many types of unequal power relations (ibid: 14). So for example we can now talk about one culture having a post-colonial relation with another; we can also use the term post-colonial to refer to situations such as Russia’s relation to the Eastern Block during the Cold War. Paulina Gasior’s paper at a recent conference in Prague (2009), which proposes that the relationship between Eastern and Western Europe today can be characterized as post-colonial, and that therefore a post-colonial framework can be used to examine translations between Polish and English or French, illustrates how post-colonialism can be used in such a metaphorical sense. At present, then, post-colonial has developed from what was originally a very narrow historical and temporal period (trying to understand modern India in terms of the after-effects of British colonial rule) to a set of theoretical assumptions and methodological tools that aspires to be universally applicable to an extremely wide array of historical phenomena. In effect, everyone theorist dreams of coming up with something like Newton’s laws of gravity, which are seen as being universally applicable to all physical objects in the universe. Certainly we can say that, in its weaker form (ie, generalization) universalism is a necessary tendency in human thought. It is unimaginable that we could make sense of the world if we could not group things together and say that, for all intents and purposes, these things are identical in respect to certain properties, and therefore can be treated as identical. The problem occurs when that urge to universalize erases important differences, or when a theoretical model can not in fact adequately describe dissimilar phenomena as similar. 135 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” The attack on universalism As my reference to Newton indicates, the ‘gold standard’ for universalism has been the sciences since at least the nineteenth century, if not earlier. The apogee of this valuation of science as providing universal knowledge came perhaps in the first half of the twentieth century with the emergence of logical positivism, or logical empiricism, which tried to exclude all non-scientific knowledge from having any truth value (Uebel 2008). This did not, however, prevent theorists in the humanities from pursuing universal theories; rather, the link between science and truth in logical positivism inspired a decidedly scientific turn in certain fields of the humanities, including linguistics and therefore the emergent field of translation studies, and perhaps an even more ambitious desire to map out universals in those fields. Quine’s work on the philosophy of language, and its influence in translation studies, is but one example.1 However, even as universalism in both the sciences and the humanities tried to make ever more ambitious claims, it came under attack in the twentieth century from a variety of angles. In the sciences, twentieth-century advances in both physics and mathematics were interpreted, paradoxically, as undermining truth claims. In physics, Einstein’s theory of relativity proved that Copernicus’s laws of motion were only special cases under ‘ordinary’ conditions, and that in other situations they did not necessarily hold. The theory of relativity itself claims to be universally valid; however, it was and continues to be interpreted popularly as proving that everything is relative and that therefore there is no absolute truth. In addition, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which states that it is impossible to know both the position and the momentum of a particle (Hilgevoord 2008), was similarly interpreted as meaning that scientific knowledge could not be absolute and therefore could not make universal claims. Yet Hilgevoord states at the beginning of his article on the uncertainty principle that “Quantum mechanics is generally regarded as the physical theory that is our best candidate for a fundamental and universal description of the physical world.” (2008) Thus quantum mechanics itself (for which Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is one of the foundational elements) makes strong claims to universal truth. Turning to mathematics, it was mainly the work of Gödel and Tarski in the 1920s and 1930s that raised problems. Gödel’s two incompleteness theorems and Tarski’s theorem of the indefinability of truth (which builds partly on Gödel’s work; see Gómez-Torrente 2008) led to a radical, if limited, undermining of the definability of 1 Quine 1960; see Uebel 2008 for the way in which Quine was influenced by, but critical of, the Vienna Circle and some of their tenets of logical positivism. 136 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics truth in arithmetic (Kennedy 2008). The ways in which Gödel and Tarski’s work limits truth functions and universal claims in mathematics is limited to axiomatic systems (Shalizi 2009). However, as Shalizi also points out, it has been used fallaciously to argue that there is “some profound limitation on knowledge, science, mathematics” imposed by the theorems (Shalizi 2009). Sokal and Bricmont (1999: 176-81) provide an example of such a use of Gödel’s theorems in the social sciences. Although scholars in the humanities may or may not understand quantum physics and theoretical mathematics, these theories, and the layman’s interpretation of them, have been used to caution against scientific ‘truth’ as absolute or universal. This view of scientific truth as ‘relative’ has been reinforced by the work of historians, sociologists and anthropologists of science. In the history of science, Philip Kuhn, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962), proposed the notion of paradigm shift. According to Kuhn, scientists shift from one paradigm to another, with different paradigms capable of explaining phenomena in different ways in varying degrees of usefulness.2 There is thus a strong suggestion that all paradigms are approximations of reality as we observe it, not Truth with a capital ‘T’. More recently, the work of Helen Longino (1990), Bruno Latour and Steven Woolgar (1986), and others have insisted upon the inescapable social element to scientific knowledge, challenging its claims to absolute, universal truth (for an overview see Longino 2008). These developments in history and sociology of science were linked to a more general post-structural trend in the social sciences. In particular, a distrust of ‘master narratives’ emerged. In history, for example, Hayden White (1973) attacked the idea that the historian was an objective collector of facts that were already out there as a myth. Instead, he saw all history as story-telling, often based on archetypal stories or myths. The subjectivity of the historian thus precluded any hope of reaching a description of what ‘really happened’, or an objective Truth. White’s work is only one example of the ‘post’ movement: post-modernism, poststructuralism, post-colonialism, and deconstruction. Key to post-colonialism was the resistance to hegemony and received notions of truth. Post-structuralism sought to challenge the universal theoretical assumptions of structuralism. Post-modernism argued for the disappearance of “Truth” to be replaced by ‘truths’; and Derrida and For example, although scientists may believe that Einstein’s model of the universe is more accurate than Copernicus’s, the vast majority of people, including physicists, live out their daily lives as if in a Copernican universe; moreover, a modern-day physicist sailing in a boat at night out of sight of land, using stars to navigate, is basing her decisions of how to steer on a Ptolemaic universe, wherein the stars are fixed points in the heavens and can thus be used to guide a traveler. Thanks to Douglas Allchin, personal communication, for this example. 2 137 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” others sought to dismantle the entire Western philosophical tradition, upon which claims for scientific and universal truths had been built. Finally, more recently, the New Historicism and Cultural Materialism have again insisted upon the historical situatedness of knowledge. The essay by J. Hillis Miller, “Border Crossings, Translating Theory: Ruth” (1996) is a good example of these trends, demonstrating both the power and the problems of post-structuralist arguments, like the worm Ouroboros. Miller argues that all literary theory is grounded in the interpretation of particular texts, and that therefore literary theory is untranslatable. Miller gives the examples of Derrida’s notion of dissemination as having been developed as a response to the poetry of Mallarmé, and Paul de Man’s “Resistance to Theory” as being rooted in his reading of the word ‘fall’ in Keats’s The Fall of Hyperion (1996: 213). For Miller, there is thus always a tension between the universal pretensions of theory and its origins in specific historical and cultural knowledge. This means that, like any linguistic utterance, a theoretical model is always liable to distortion in the process of transmission from one culture to the next; there is not some meta-language of theory, as there is of mathematics. Yet Miller’s essay itself could be seen as falling prey to the same problem: he claims universal validity for his thesis that all theoretical models are inseparable from their roots. However, that thesis in turn emerges from the reading of a specific text: the story of Ruth in the Bible. Miller’s argument about the impossibility of translating theory is situated at the beginning of an article on traveling theory. While discussing the impossibility of translating theory, Miller also notes that, of course, theory continues to be translated all the time despite the problematic relation between universal and particular in theoretical discourse. This leads him to a discussion of the dangers of doing so, mainly in terms of cultural contamination or cultural colonialism. However, for Miller, there is another danger: that the theorist will lose control of his theory. I use the pronoun ‘he’ advisedly, because Miller is obviously talking about himself; he makes specific mention, more than once, of the fact that his own work has been translated into languages he does not read, like Chinese, and that he does not know what has happened to his theory in this process. There is, then, a contested power relation involved between author and translator, with Miller exhibiting a deep unease at the idea that ‘his’ work is circulating in forms that he cannot control. All in all, developments in mathematics, physics, history and sociology of science, and the ‘post-’ movement in the humanities led to universalism taking quite a beating in the second half of the twentieth century. The emergence of a new universalism 138 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Developing in parallel to some of the events mentioned above, there has been continued interest in universalism, in some cases coming from a new direction: quantitative methods. The modern science of statistics and probability is a relatively young discipline, gradually evolving from several different areas between the seventeenth and early twentieth centuries. Stigler (1986) charts how at least three different impetuses (a flurry of interest in games of chance; the need to record exact measurements in the sciences, especially astronomy; the demands by emergent nation states to understand and control large populations through the collection and interpretation of census data) led to the development of sophisticated mathematical techniques for dealing with information in this new form. Statistics depends on the ability to count large numbers of things, breaking down information into simple, discrete categories that can be quantified. A typical example, and one of the earliest broad uses of these methods as applied to human activity, is the census. In a census, people are not treated as individuals having a history; they are treated as a collection of discrete bits of information (sex, race, age, profession, marital status, number of dependents, etc). Breaking someone down into these categories and quantifying them allows for easy manipulation of information and the generation of statistical knowledge (X% of the population is male; P% are under the age of 20; Q% are married; the average number of offspring is W). Such information could be enormously useful for many reasons. In London, the beginnings of the census were the Bills of Mortality, statistics regarding deaths that were collected to predict new outbreaks of the plague. It quickly came to be used in a variety of hard sciences, and was responsible for the emergence of most of the social sciences, which developed various tools, including mean and standard deviation, the rule of least squares, and regression analysis to help evaluate probability and reliability of data, to name but a few of the most common techniques (Stigler 1986). However, it was expensive and time-consuming to collect and then to process such data. Stigler (1986) mentions two early cases in the nineteenth century which give us an idea of the labour involved: the Incomplete Beta Function of Baye’s equation can be extremely difficult to calculate when certain variables are large numbers; he says that The first extensive tables of this function were not compiled until this century, when the students in Karl Pearson’s laboratory were pressed into reluctant service as ‘computers.’ A story, possibly apocryphal, still circulates in University College London of a student who resigned in disgust after a week, telling Pearson of his plans for a different career and announcing, ‘As far as I am 139 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” concerned, the Table of the Incomplete Beta Function may stay incomplete.’ (Stigler 1986: 130) The second involves the Ordnance Survey of England for 1858: The 1858 Ordnance Survey of the British Isles required the reduction of an immense mass of data through the use of least squares. The main triangulation was cast as a system of 1554 equations involving 920 unknowns. Even though they broke the system into 21 pieces of no more than 77 unknowns each before attempting a solution, the calculations took two teams of human ‘computers,’ working independently and in duplicate, two and a half years to complete (Stigler 1986: 158) Therefore it was not until the advent of computers that such techniques really came into their own, as the labour was prohibitively expensive for most researchers. Computers are ideally suited to do the ‘grunt’ work of statistical analysis, since of course computers are digital technology and therefore are most easily used to manipulate figures, performing in nanoseconds complex operations on huge amounts of data that might take a human being weeks. Along with the growing importance of computing to manipulate ever-larger datasets, sophisticated means of sampling to establish representativeness were established. Since the 1970s in linguistics, corpus studies deal with databases that contain millions of words. These corpora are then manipulated, drawing on the statistical techniques developed in the social sciences and mathematics to draw conclusions about language use. In the mid-1990s, researchers such as Mona Baker, Dorothy Kenny, and Sarah Laviosa began to apply corpus linguistics to translation studies by compiling parallel and comparable corpora. They proposed that lexical simplification, explicitation, and standardization were universals in translation. (Baker 1995; Kenny 2001; Laviosa 1998) On a more theoretical level in linguistics, the proposal by Noam Chomsky that the ability to use language was hard-wired into our brains, and that therefore there must be a limited set of universal, deep structures that generate all the permutations of known languages, also fueled the search for universals in both linguistics and in translation (Chomsky 1965 and 1981). This can probably most clearly be seen in the continued belief that machine translation was perfectible if linguistic structures could be properly understood and transformed into what was variously called a universal deep structure or an intermediary machine language, to and from which all human languages could be translated.3 3 For representative statements, see Andreev 1967; Zelinsky-Wibbelt 1988; and Hutchins and Somers 1992, especially chapters 5, 6 and 13. 140 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Universalism in Translation Studies today? I would now like to explore a bit more in detail how universalism and historical particularism intersect, not just in general in the humanities and sciences, but specifically in translation studies. First, I think one quite interesting phenomenon is the relative dearth of translation of translation theory. Given that translation studies should, of all disciplines, be open to translation, this is a rather paradoxical state of affairs. To take just one example, China, very little theoretical material is being translated either to or from Chinese and French, English, or German. From English into Chinese, two alternative strategies are employed: summaries and descriptions written by Chinese scholars, or the republication of theoretical texts in China in English. In the other direction, very little has been done on any level, the exceptions being the historical presentation of debates regarding translation in Cheung (2006) and Chan (2004). A similar situation holds for Russian; Russia had and has a large field of translation studies, but almost none of it is being made available in Western European languages.4 I am sure that this is true of other languages; to this day, Jiří Levý’s work is known in Western Europe basically from one paper only (Levý 2000).5 This means that theoretical models in the field of translation studies are being developed with very little input from one of the world’s major languages and cultures outside of Europe and North America. This in turn poses a danger in translation studies. We risk our theoretical models not being well understood, or rigorously tested against, the local situation in different parts of the globe and with different linguistic structures. How, then, can we be confident about the universal applicability of those theories? The role of examples and case studies in translation theory This last point brings me back to the role of examples and case studies in translation theory. I want to return now to the English translation of Katharina Reiss’s article, which I mentioned was the impetus for me to start thinking about these matters. Below are two excerpts from her work: Unintentional changes may arise from the different language structures as well as from differences in translating competence 4 Private communication, Sergey Tyulenev. I would like to thank Zuzana Jettmarová (2009) for drawing my attention to some of Levý’s other work. See Gile (2009) on this issue in relation to Japanese. 5 141 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” Ex. 1: Je suis allée à la gare (French: information about a female person; no information about the means of travel) Ich bin zum Bahnhof gegangen (German: no information about the person; information about the means of travel) = Linguistically conditioned communicative difference. Ex. 2: La France est veuve. (Pompidou at the death of de Gaulle) Frankreich ist Witwe — Frankreich is Witwe geworden — Frankreich is verwitwet — Frankreich is verwaist [orphaned] Linguistically conditioned: La France — Witwe [Widow] “Frankreich” is neuter in German. The image of “widow” is odd to a person ignorant of French. “Waise” [orphan] is also neuter; the image of an emotional attachment programmed differently. (pp. 160-61) and further down: Written texts may have single or plural intentions. Plural intentions may be of the same rank and order. Mostly, however, one intention (and, with it, the text function) is dominant: Ex. 3: C vor o und u und a spricht man immer wie ein k; soll es wie ein c erklingen, lässt man die Cedille springen. (mnemo-technical rhyme: Intention 1 — to convey a rule Intention 2 — to facilitate remembering by giving the text an artistic form Intention 3 — to “sweeten” the learning process by giving the text a pleasing form) (p. 161-62) Here in the first example the source language is French and the target language is German, while in the second example, the example is only in German. In neither case did the translator provide an English translation. The vast majority of students in East Asia know neither of these languages (although a small minority will have learned some of one or the other). Moreover, the point on which the first example turns, the problem of mismatched gender of nouns in the two languages, is completely foreign to such students, who may know three or four languages, none of which feature gendered nouns, and will therefore be completely at sea. Such students, if they know English, might know mnemo-technical rhymes, such as “i before e except after c”, but of course cannot make any sense of the German. Instead of helping the students to understand the points Reiss is trying to make, the 142 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics examples thus serve only to frustrate the student, making the theory seem alien, incomprehensible and irrelevant because the example is opaque to her or him. Another, perhaps more ironic example, is the article by Vermeer concerning skopos theory. Skopos theory argues that the skopos, or purpose, of the translation is vital in determining the form that the finished translation should take. The skopos may derive from a variety of factors, including the commissioner, the translator, and the audience. Depending upon the skopos, different translations of even the same text into the same language by the same translator might look radically different from each other, and possibly also depart sharply from the source text. Yet the translation into English of Vermeer’s explanation of this theoretical approach to translation is itself full of examples between German, French, and Spanish, with seemingly no thought given to how the skopos of translating an article about skopos in translation might affect the examples used. In other words, if the skopos of the translation is to make Vermeer’s theoretical model understood by an English reader, how does leaving the examples in the original languages with no explanation help to fulfill the skopos of the translation? What exactly are examples used for anyway in these articles? Reiss, Vermeer, and other theorists use concrete examples for at least three different purposes. First, to demonstrate how their theoretical models function in relation to translation of actual texts. Second, to make the theory more accessible to the readers. Finally, to prove that the theoretical model is in fact valid by demonstrating that it can be applied to a real translation. However, when a student either does not know the source or the target language, then these goals are not being met. When teaching Reiss’s article in Singapore, I eventually came up with my own examples for the first example above that made sense to an audience bilingual in Chinese and English: She went to buy eggs with her brother. 她跟她的弟弟一起去买鸡蛋。 additional information concerning respective age of siblings less information about time and number. 请您把书放在桌子。 Please put the books on the desk. Additional information about number (plural) and object (desk is more specific than the Chinese term, which could also refer to a table) 143 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” Less information about formality of the situation (The Chinese pronoun is the polite form, similar to the way in which French has vous and tu) For the second example, I substituted the English mnemo-technical rhyme “i before e except after c”.6 When explaining this article to students in class and using these as additional examples, no one had a problem with it. However, when I later suggested to students that it would make more sense to substitute these examples for the original ones if the article were to be translated into Chinese, I encountered strong resistance. To the students, such substitution was a betrayal of the original. Taking examples outside of Europe Vinay and Darbelnet list seven techniques which translators can adopt, ranging from word-for-word translation to very extreme forms of adaptation. These seven techniques are illustrated with examples of translation between English and French for obvious reasons: Vinay and Darbelnet are Canadian, and these are the two official languages of that country. These techniques, which are developed in relation to two specific languages with a long history of interaction, are presented as the seven techniques of translation. In other words, they are presented as a complete and universal toolkit for any translator, working with any combination of languages. However, of the seven techniques they list, at least one is not directly applicable to Chinese. Procedure one, “direct borrowing”, is presented as being a ‘direct’ manner of using a word from French in English, as the historic theatre (from théâtre) or more recent borrowings such as déjà vu. This technique, however, actually does not make much sense in the case of English-Chinese translation because they use different writing systems. Instead, we need to distinguish between at least two different techniques. The first technique is Borrowing while retaining the use of roman alphabet, which results in a string of roman letters in the middle of a sentence otherwise composed of Chinese characters: 我不要买Persil, 我要买的是Daz [I don’t want to buy Persil, I want to buy Daz.] Although this technique was seldom used before the twentieth century, since at least the Republican Revolution of 1911 there have been periods when it has been widely practiced, especially by certain authors of the May Fourth Reiss’s second example is the kind of rule (phonetic) she would like to see for her own work - in other words, a rule that is simple, hierarchic, and logical. 6 144 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Movement in the 1920s and 1930s, and writers such as Yu Dafu (Levan 2007). The technique continues to be widely used, especially among bilingual speakers, although it is not in fact simply “direct borrowing”, but rather the creative re-use of English or other European languages in Chinese. Consider, for example the sentence “你 un不understand?” [do you or do you not understand?] Here a native speaker of Chinese has used a typical Chinese grammatical pattern of using the first part of a multisyllabic verb, followed by a marker of negation, and then full verb, to ask a question. In the process, however, the English word is used in a fashion that would be incomprehensible to an English speaker. Transliteration, on the other hand, which Vinay and Darbelnet do not mention, is the more commonly employed method of ‘borrowing’ a foreign loan word in Chinese, and involves finding roughly one Chinese character per syllable for a foreign word. Since the characters are chosen for their sound instead of their meaning, this results in a string of nonsense words, a bit like the famous transliteration of Mother Goose Rhymes into French by Luis d’Antin van Rooten as Mots d'Heures: Gousses, Rames (1980). When transliterating foreign words into Chinese, there are certain considerations to be kept in mind, especially regarding the appropriateness of the characters, either in isolation or in combination. For example, certain characters are avoided; you would not normally use the character “死” [si, to die], although one notable exception was an early transliteration of AIDS was “爱死病” [ai-si bing, love-to-death disease]. Also, certain combinations sometimes may result in unfortunate connotations, so that a company may choose a string of syllables that does not actually sound very close to the original term rather than get something such as “口渴口辣” [kouke koula, (makes you) thirsty and your mouth burn] for Coca Cola, which is instead rendered as “可口可乐” [kekou kele, tasty and pleasing].7 both of these techniques are also used in various hybrid forms, such as the commonly used T-血. (T-shirt), where the letter “T” is actually used as the first half of the word, with a transliteration of ‘shirt’ with the Chinese character “血” which is pronounced ‘xue’. The example of AIDS given above is similar, with the first two characters, ai-si, used for the sound of “AIDS”, and the final character, bing, which means disease, supplied for its meaning. One of the most famous stories of the May Fourth movement, mentioned above is entitled “阿Q正传” [The Story of Ah Q], where Chinese character Ah (阿) and the Roman letter “Q” were used together in the title and throughout the story to refer to the main character, Ah Q. There are in fact several other hybrid forms possible involving some of the other techniques Vinay and Darbelnet discuss. Two of the most common are borrowing and coining, and transliteration and coining. Thus once we begin to consider languages other than the ones originally used to develop Vinay and Darbelnet’s list, 7 : For more detailed discussions of transliteration, see Ching 1966 and Li 2007. 145 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” it becomes apparent that their list is neither exhaustive nor universal. The fact that English and French use the same writing system disguises a problem which emerges when we consider Chinese, Russian, Greek, or any other language that does not use the Roman alphabet. It is only when we look at how their techniques might be applied in a wide variety of cases that we can test their work’s claim to universalism. Moreover, once we have considered the Chinese case, and seen how transliteration results in words that do not actually sound exactly like the original English, we might wish to return to the examples of French and English, and ponder over why in some cases the accent marks have been preserved (déjà vu) or erased (theatre). If the accent marks are erased, is it really direct borrowing? Or what are we to make of their example of ‘direct borrowing’ into French of redingote, from the English “riding coat”, where the spelling has been modified? (1958/2000: 85) Even when the spelling is identical, the pronunciation is often changed; my favourite example is Goethe Street in Chicago, which is pronounced “go-eethy” by locals. Another possibility Vinay and Darbelnet do not mention is summary. This may perhaps be due to their adopting a fairly restricted definition of translation; however, in the world of professional language manipulation, this technique is widely practiced. Again to give a Chinese example, I mentioned that it is not common for European translation theory to be translated into Chinese; however, it is quite common for such theories to be ‘rewritten’, either in summary or adapted form, such as Liu Miqing’s 当代翻译理论 [Contemporary Translation Theory (1993)]. Eugene Nida, although in many ways a very ‘old-fashioned’ theoretician, is actually much better regarding examples than many of his contemporaries, or indeed most recent theorists. His short essay “Principles of Translation as Exemplified in Bible Translating” (1959) uses many diverse examples from little-known languages, to make his case for dynamic equivalence. Moreover, since he cannot assume that his readers will be conversant with all the languages he cites, he carefully explains the linguistic context for each. In teaching Nida, I ask students to come up with examples of the types of things he is discussing in relation to their own language combination. This often reveals that they have not understood the reading, because they either cannot come up with an example, or their example is in fact incorrect. After I have given them several examples, the ideas seem to sink in better. So working through examples can be effective way of learning theory. Conclusion Although universalism has come under attack from various quarters, we should not lose sight of the fact that, without generalization, we are left with atomistic facts that 146 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics do not add up to anything. Newton’s law of gravity is still the ‘gold standard’ against which most theories are measured. The attack by the ‘post’ movements (postmodernism, postcolonialism, poststructuralism) has been fairly effective in denying hope that we can achieve that sort of certainty in the human sciences. Instead, the emergence of computer-based number crunching has seen the emergence of statistical probability disguised as universalism. The challenge now is to build inclusive models that take into account the great range and variety of human linguistic expression and translation practice. Indeed, it would seem to be antithetical for a theoretical model based on statistics, which depends upon the concept of representativeness, not to be constructed on the basis of as wide a range of sample languages as possible. References Andreev, N. (1967) “The intermediary language as the focal point of machine translation” in Machine Translation, edited by A. D. Booth, Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1-27. Baker, Mona (1995) ‘Corpora in Translation Studies: An Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Research’, Target 7(2): 223-243. Chan, Leo (2004) Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues and Debates, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Cheung, Martha, editor and annotator (2006) An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation. Volume 1: From Earliest Times to the Buddhist Project, Manchester: St. Jerome Press. Ching, Eugene (1966) “Transliteration or Translation: A Case of Cultural Borrowing” Chinese Culture: A Quarterly Review 7:2 : 107-116. Chomsky, Noam (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chomsky, Noam (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding, Dordrecht: Foris. Gasior, Paulina (2009) ‘Translating between Eastern and Western Europe – postcolonial contexts and parallels’ Paper presented at the 11th Prague 147 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” International Conference in Translation and Interpreting Studies: Translating Beyond East and West. Charles University, Prague 14-16 October. Giles, Daniel (2009) “East and West: Leveraging Stereoscopic Vision in TS” Keynote speech, the 11th Prague International Conference in Translation and Interpreting Studies: Translating Beyond East and West. Charles University, Prague 14-16 October. 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Kennedy, Juliette, "Kurt Gödel", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2008/entries/goedel/>. Accessed 3 Feb 2010. Kenny, Dorothy (2001) Lexis and Creativity in Translation: A Corpus-based Study, Manchester: St. Jerome. Kuhn, Thomas S. (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Latour, Bruno and Steven Woolgar (1986) Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. 2d ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 148 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Laviosa, Sara (1998) “The English Comparable Corpus: A Resource and a Methodology”, in Lynne Bowker, Michael Cronin, Dorothy Kenny & Jennifer Pearson (eds) Unity in Diversity: Current Trends in Translation Studies, Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 101-112. Levan, Valerie M. (2007) “Incorporating the Foreign: Translation in Yu Dafu’s Sinking” in Collected Essays from Translation: East Asian and the West, An International Conference for Junior Scholars, Taipei: Graduate Institute of Translation and Interpretation, National Taiwan Normal University, 203-220. Levý, Jiří (2000) “Translation as a Decision Process” in The Translation Studies Reader, ed. Lawrence Venuti, 1st. ed. London: Routledge, 148-159. Li, Chris Wen-Chao (2007) “Foreign Names into Native Tongues: How to transfer sound between languages—transliteration, phonological translation, nativization, and implications for translation theory” Target 19.1: 45-68. Liu, Miqing 刘宓庆 (1993) 当代翻译理论[Contemporary Translation Theory], Taipei: Bookman Books. Longino, Helen (1990) Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Longino, Helen, "The Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/scientific-knowledgesocial/>. Miller, J. Hillis (1996) “Border Crossings, Translating Theory: Ruth” in Sanford Budick and Wolfgang Iser, eds, The Translatability of Cultures, Stanford U. Press, 1996, 207-223. Nida, Eugene (1959) “Principles of Translation as Exemplified in Bible Translating” in On Translation, edited by Reuben Brower, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Universiyt Press, 11-31. Reiss, Katharina (1971/2000) “Type, Kind and Individuality of Text: Decision making in translation”, translated by Susan Kitron, , in The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, London: Routledge, 160-71. Robinson, Douglas (1997) Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained, Manchester: St. Jerome Press. 149 �“Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability” Rooten, Luis d’Antin van (1980) Mots d'Heures: Gousses, Rames, London : Penguin. Shalizi, Cosma Rohilla (2009) “Gödel’s Theorem” in his Notebooks http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/godels-theorem.html. Accessed 3 Feb 2010. Sokal, Alan and Jean Bricmont (1999) Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern I ntellectuals' Abuse of Science, New York: Picador. Stigler, Stephen M (1986) The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900, Cambridge, MA, and London: Belkap Press of Harvard University Press. Stigler, Stephen M (2000) Statistics on the Table: The History of Statistical Concepts and Methods, Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press. Uebel, Thomas, "Vienna Circle", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2008/entries/vienna-circle/>. Accessed 3 Feb 2010. Vermeer, Hans (1989/2000) “Skopos and Commission in Translational Action”, translated by Andrew Chesterman, , in The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, London: Routledge, 221-32. Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet (1958/2000) “A Methodology for Translation”, translated by Juan C. Sager and M.-J. Hamel, in The Translation Studies Reader, edited by Lawrence Venuti, London: Routledge, 84-93. White, Hayden (1973) Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in NineteenthCentury Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Zelinsky-Wibbelt, Cornelia (1988) “The transfer of quantifiers in a multilingual machine translation system” in From Syntax to Semantics: Insights from Machine Translation, edited by E. H. Steiner, P. Schmidt and C. ZelinskyWibbelt, London: Pinter Publishers, 187-215. 150 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2790 Title A name given to the resource Teaching Translation Theory outside Europe: Historical Specificity Versus Universal Applicability Author Author St. André, James Abstract A summary of the resource. While teaching first in Singapore and now in Manchester, it has come to my attention that there are certain difficulties in teaching translation theory either outside of Europe or, in Europe, to students from outside of Europe who come here to study. This paper concentrates on the role of examples in theoretical works, the problems they pose in teaching theory and the implications for universalism in translation studies. I draw on Edward Said’s discussion of travelling theory, post-colonial critiques of the hegemonic role of English, and skopos theory to propose two courses of action to help overcome the problem: first, the incorporation of the translation of theoretical material both from and into European languages as part of practical postgraduate training; and second, the use of a radical substitution policy for examples, with new examples centred around the target language, rather than preservation of the original examples, which are centred around the source-language. Using the example of China, I will demonstrate how these two strategies push us to reconsider how we approach teaching theory. Firstly, the translation of Chinese theoretical texts into English will allow for a deeper appreciation of writings in Chinese and their wider dissemination. Secondly, the search for examples which involve the target language should lead to an engagement between the target culture and the theory. Translating Vinay and Darbelnet’s path breaking essay on translation processes, for example, immediately raises the question of what exactly is meant by ‘borrowing’ in the Chinese context, and for the need to distinguish between retaining the use of the roman alphabet and transliteration using Chinese characters, a distinction that would never arise between French, English and German. Keywords: translation theory, examples, Chinese Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6dc4015d721288e5352bf6ce9be6b1eb.pdf 2826293dd8b793ef7009448868f81261 PDF Text Text LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE NON-DIVERSE CLASSROOM Lindita Skenderi & Carly Terese Jerome State University of Tetovo Article History: Submitted: 05.06.2015 Accepted: 10.07.2015 Abstract: The aim of the paper is to propose some simple ways of promoting linguistic and cultural diversity in a homogenous classroom made of students brought up in a bi-lingual environment and country. The ideas and suggestions come from the experiences of the authors in different environments and workplaces. The comparing groups are of different ages from compulsory school to a university/college level. The paper will be divided in two parts: on one hand there are suggestions which would be useful in a classroom with a teacher coming from the same place as the students, and on the other hand how would those and other ways work out in promoting a linguistic and cultural diversity in a classroom where the teacher/lecturer comes from another cultural and linguistic background. What has been the meeting point, how this type of cultural and language diversity would affect the critical thinking of the students; why would students benefit from diversity-promoting classes are some of the questions answered in the paper. This is a cross-sectional study which tries to put together some possible forms of promoting diversity in the aspect of a language and culture in the classroom which does not mean that is based on a longitudinal type of research but on personal experiences and views of the authors. Moreover it is based on a questionnaire and displays its results Keywords: classroom, culture, language, diversity, teacher, students �INTRODUCTION The armed conflict which occurred during 2001 brought the Republic of Macedonia to the brink of civil war. The end of the conflict was marked by the signing the Ohrid Framework Agreement (further on: OFA), under which certain constitutional and legal changes were adopted to reform the organization and functioning of the state. On the surface, at least, the accord put relations between the Macedonian and Albanian communities on a new footing, especially those reforms which boosted Albanian representation in state institutions and local government1. Still a lot of work has to be done in Macedonia's quest for a peaceful and democratic society. As one of the changes as a result of the OFA refers to the use of the language of ethnicities, this research would try by exploring the foreign language classroom to promote the culture as a tool to promote diversity in a not very diverse classroom thus becoming a vehicle to a peaceful coexistence in the country. The area of Tetovo, the schools and the State University of Tetovo could be considered as a micro society out of which lessons could be learned to be implemented into the wider society of Republic of Macedonia and in a foreign language classroom. The objects of the empirical research are individuals/ teenagers/ students/teachers of ethnic Albanian and ethnic Macedonian origins who are mutually involved in co-education in the Republic of Macedonia. The research subject is the promotion of diversity in the classroom. The assumptions have been that not much culture elements are brought into the classroom and there is a need to further raise the awareness among the teachers and the students about the role of the culture in the classroom for getting to know and understand the other better. Although multicultural country, the state schools of the Republic of Macedonia regardless if Albanian or Macedonian have been languages of instruction, do not always provide enough space among the classroom activities for culture to be promoted as a tool to cherish the diversity in the classroom. The belief is that the foreign language classroom could be used as a way to accomplish it. Hence, the representatives of the two or the more cultures would be brought closer. Moreover, by getting to know to each other better they would understand better. That would be a step forward to a better coexistence. Based on these assumptions a questionnaire has been developed. Students (teenagers and college level) both Macedonian and Albanian and teachers also of both nationalities have been interviewed. Limitations of the research: The number of interviewees is not high enough to give more reliable results. However, I do hope that this research could generate ideas for further studies in the area of the foreign language teaching in my country and would raise the awareness about the role of culture in the foreign language classroom. Further more about it being a vehicle for promoting diversity in the classroom which by itself is not very diverse. 1 OFA – Framework agreement,13.08.2001. �1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The purpose of this section is to offer a theoretical framework to provide concepts to be applied to the specific case of Macedonia or just to establish the grounds based on which the specific case of Macedonia provided in the research component of the paper has been established. It starts with the issues emerging in the post conflict systems and through the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages establishes the idea to promote the culture as a vehicle to promote diversity in a non diverse environment. One of the particularly problematic issues for post-conflict school systems in multiethnic and multilingual societies is determining which languages will be used to instruct schoolchildren. Although it is important for children of a multilingual country to learn the language (and, by extension, culture) of other main groups of citizens in addition to their own mother tongue, having too many official languages in the schools can promote semi literacy, poor performance, high repetition, and high dropout rates (as seen in many African countries). At the same time, the rising importance of English as a useful language in the global marketplace is increasingly influencing language policies.2 Here comes in the role foreign language teaching could play. How might a culturally responsive educator push against human nature's natural aversion to the unknown and help students become more respectful of cultures with different ideas? The best way to combat this tendency is to provide students with ample evidence that people that don't look like them are, at the core, people just like them. Such a viewpoint can be taught by promoting a culture of learning from one another rather than a culture of passing judgment on differences in values and beliefs.3 In addition, all too often, students are exposed to ethnic stereotypes on television and in movies. Providing diverse students with role models who demonstrate exceptional leadership qualities and make social contributions in a non-stereotypical way helps students recognize the limitless ways in which they can have a positive impact on society. 4 Moreover, if students are taught about the contributions that people of various ethnicities, genders, and creeds have made to a variety of different artistic, scientific, and political fields then they're more likely to respect and value diverse cultural backgrounds as a whole. Such touches will help promote an environment in which students from diverse backgrounds feel more comfortable being themselves and will help insulate students from the cultural and ethnic stereotypes that pervade television and other mass media outlets. 5 Native American educator Cornel Pewewardy (1993) asserts that one of the reasons Indian children experience difficulty in schools is that educators traditionally have attempted to insert culture into the education, instead of inserting education into the culture. However, culturally relevant 2 Unite or Divide, The challenges of teaching history in societies emerging from violent conflicts, Special USIP Report, Elizabeth A. Cole and Judy Barsalou 3 Promoting Respect for Cultural Diversity in the Classroom, Matthew Lynch, Ed.D, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/promoting-respect-for-cul_b_1187683.html? (accessed on 25.03.2015) 4 5 Ibid. Ibid. �teachers utilize students' culture as a vehicle for learning.6 Despite the recommendations of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (2001) and the national curricula for language teaching in many countries, the focus of language learning and teacher education is still, to a large extent, the development of grammatical and lexical competence. A good knowledge of grammar rules, a rich vocabulary, a few memorized speech acts and cultural facts will not sufficiently help non-native speakers of a foreign language to socialize, negotiate or make friends in the foreign language. Furthermore, native or near native fluency alone will not necessarily help native or non-native speakers of a language to successfully communicate with people from other cultures either. Unfortunately, there is still very little emphasis placed on the cultural dimension of language learning because very few teacher training institutions include intercultural communication training in their curriculum, and intercultural competence usually does not feature among their graduation criteria. Moreover, when language teachers are asked about what culture means to them, they most frequently answer by listing subjects such as literature, geography and arts. Although these subjects are all extremely important ingredients, it seems that there are other equally significant components of culture that should find their way into second and foreign language classrooms.7 In line with the above said the author of the paper conducted a survey. Presented below are the findings of the research which make the case of Macedonia. 2. THE RESEARCH The first idea has been to conduct the survey with various groups of students starting from a rather lower classroom age up to the highest being at the university. However, as the questionnaire has been developed based on the assumptions that there is a low level of awareness about having culture as part of the language classroom instruction at such a young age and for the purpose of this research it has been realized that it would be more appropriate to target the survey at the higher school level of students, the teenagers who are still “pure” and open to new things. Hence, it has been conducted with two categories of students or more specifically high school students with language of classroom instruction being Albanian, but also with students whose native language is Macedonian. Thus, the Macedonian and the Albanian students would make the two subcategories. The school whose students are interviewed is a High School in Tetovo ( a town and area with predominantly Albanian population). The same goes for the College level students. Interviewed students are from the State University of Tetovo (later in the text: SUT) which is a university with teaching instruction in Albanian language but also with 6 Ladson-Billings, But That’s Just Good Teaching!, THEORY lNTO PRACTICE, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995 Copyright 1995 College of Education, The Ohio State University 0040-5841/95$1.25 7 Developing and assessing intercultural communicative competence, A guide for language teachers and teacher educators, Ildikó Lázár, Martina Huber-Kriegler, Denise Lussier, Gabriela S. Matei and Christiane Peck, http://www.ecml.at. �students whose native language is Macedonian. The common ground for them in a foreign language classroom is the foreign language, in this case the English. On the other hand, the teachers have been classified based on the working experience and not the age. This would mean that among the high school English teachers there would be more experienced teachers and more samples could be obtained regarding the level of awareness about the role of the culture as a tool for promoting diversity in a not very diverse environment in this case being the language classroom. The questionnaire had nine (9) questions. Six (6) of them were statements and a number from 1 to 5 was to be circled (1 being “agree at least”, 5 “agree the most”). The assumptions have been that these would display respondents’ attitude and feelings, thus providing how homogeneous or various their feeling are upon the issue being asked. The other three were of open type necessitating some narration hoping that the answers the respondents would provide would display their opinions and understanding of the concepts i.e. ideas. The questionnaire was given to 12 respondents of each category and the expectations were that at least 10 of each category of respondents would respond. As the media of conduct was an electronic communication (the stake of today’s world) the number of respondents varies. However, it is still enough the make some conclusions. For the purpose of this paper the results are given in tables. Tables 1 - 6 are the results of the teenagers followed by interpretation. Tables 7- 12 are the results of the SUT students followed by interpretation. Tables 13 – 18 are the samples obtained from the teachers followed by interpretation. Although one of the variables is the work experience based on the obtained samples the tables have been sub categorized as Albanian and Macedonian teachers. Reasoning behind Questions 7-9 has been to see how the interviewed samples define and understand the culture. The obtained samples from the teenagers and students do not show high level of awareness about the culture and for them it is mostly the life in general. Consequently for the purpose of the paper the answers of the teachers are provided in the tables related to the Questions 7-9) as they are those that could initiate and implement the changes in the classroom. Teenagers’ samples (Tables 1-6) Q;1.Many teachers have little or on training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic background Teenagers Macedonian Responses by people 1 1 2 3 2 3 4 Albanian 5 1 2 3 4 5 �4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL / 1 1 2 2 2 / 0 / 0 / 4 / 1 2 Q;2.Cultural differences have little effect on the way students learn Teenagers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 / TOTAL 1 0 5 1 1 / / / / 1 0 1 2 3 Q3. Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big deal of multicultural education. Teenagers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 �7 8 / TOTAL 3 0 2 0 / 3 / 1 / 3 2 Q4. Schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective Teenagers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 / / / / / TOTAL 2 4 0 1 1 2 3 0 1 1 Q5. Multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach Teenagers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL 1 / 0 0 4 1 3 2 / 2 3 / 0 4 / 1 5 / 0 4 / 0 1 �Q6. Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group students Teenagers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 / / / / / TOTAL 2 1 2 0 3 2 2 3 0 0 According to the responses provided by the teenagers it seems that Albanians are more convinced that many teachers have little or on training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic background. Macedonian ones feelings seem to vary and they are not sure about it. About the question whether cultural differences have little effect on the way students learn both Macedonians and Albanians feel concentrate something in between presumably meaning they are not very sure or they have not thought about it a lot. As for the statement that Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big deal of multicultural education Macedonian students mostly least agree while the Albanian feelings are divided. There is almost equal number of those who strongly agree and disagree. Both Albanians and Macedonians have the same opinion about the statement that Schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective. They least agree about this issue. It seems that for the both of groups multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach. An interpretation of this might mean that if it is by the book then it should be part of the class if not they would not feel that they have missed a lot in the class. Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group students like a question could be interpreted in various ways depending who is considered to be the minority group whether the Macedonians in the predominant Albanian �environment or vice versa so the responses could be a subject of a further interpretation or a research. Regardless of this the provided answers display that Albanian teenagers have various feelings about this. Macedonians are mostly of a same opinion of the issue and their feelings concentrate along 1-3 on a scale from 1-5 where one is least agree and 5 being the most agree. Students’ responses (Tables 7-12) Q1. Many teachers have little or no training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic background Students Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 / / / / / 11 / / / / / 12 / / / / / TOTAL Q2 Cultural differences have little effect on the way students learn Students Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 / / / / / 5 �11 / 12 / TOTAL / / 0 / / 1 / / 4 / / 1 3 1 0 6 2 3 Q3. Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big deal of multicultural education Students Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 / / / / / 11 / / / / / 12 / / / / / TOTAL 2 0 4 1 2 2 3 3 1 3 Q4. Schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective Students Albanian Responses by people 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 / 11 / 12 / 2 / / / 3 / / / Macedonian 4 / / / 5 / / / 1 2 3 4 5 �TOTAL 5 2 0 1 1 5 4 2 1 1 Q5.Multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach Students Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 / 11 / 12 / TOTAL 2 / / / 1 3 / / / 2 4 / / / 0 5 1 2 3 4 5 4 0 0 2 6 4 / / / 2 Q6. Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group students Students Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 / 11 / 12 / TOTAL 2 / / / 4 3 / / / 1 4 / / / 2 5 1 2 3 4 5 2 6 3 1 1 1 / / / 0 �The second category of respondents the students related to the statement that many teachers have little or no training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic background feel similar. Since the answers of both categories vary on the scale it implies they are not sure if this is true or not, As or the statement that Young children don’t really notice differences, so why make a big deal of multicultural education with both groups the feelings vary but are mostly concentrated on the medium level like they are not very sure. Both groups strongly disagree that schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective. They seem to be getting aware for the need of a multicultural perspective. Macedonian students mostly feel that multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach, while Albanians feelings vary upon this issue. However, their feelings about children from minority groups being considered to be weaker students than the majority group students are similar on the line that most of the both groups and mostly disagree. Teachers’ samples (Tables 13-18) Q1. Many teachers have little or no training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic background Teachers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people OTAL 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 4 2 3 2 / 0 0 3 2 3 0 Q4.Schools in which there are no minority groups don’t need a multicultural perspective Teachers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 �2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL ponses by people TAL 5 0 2 1 0 4 2 1 0 Q5. Multicultural education is a total curricular and instructional approach Teachers Albanian 1 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 0 4 3 1 0 1 Macedonian 2 3 4 2 1 4 Q6. Children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group students Teachers Albanian Macedonian Responses by people 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL 4 1 2 0 1 1 3 3 1 5 0 �Teachers both Albanian and Macedonian are more inclined to feel that many teachers have little or no training in working with children from diverse cultural and linguistic background. Both groups are not certain whether cultural differences have effect on the way students learn. However, both groups think even if there are no minority groups in the schools they need a multicultural perspective. As their feelings are in the middle as far as the statement about multicultural education being a total curricular approach it seems that in the real class they would adhere to the curriculum and if it is out of it they would avoid. Both groups seem to feel inclined to disagree that children from minority groups are considered to be weaker students than the majority group students, although Albanians are much stronger in this respect. Questions 7 – 9 have been summarized in the tables below: Nationality QUESTION 7. What culture means to you? Try to explain .....Culture is a collection of beliefs and values shared by a particular group of people. Albanian answers Culture embraces the system of knowledge, beliefs, religion, art, law, social habits, attitudes, and values ... possessions acquired by of a group of people through generations. Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, defined by everything from language, religion, social habits, music and arts. Culture means realizing that you belong somewhere, being part of something and sharing your differences with someone. Culture for me is the unique characteristic that makes each community different, special. It is what an individual grows up with, how an individual is “carved” in life. It is tradition, religion, it is food, it is clothes, speech, attitude etc. �Macedonian answers Nationality Albanian Way of living and behaving. Each culture has its own specifics and it is very important if we learn those specifics for the cultures that are surrounding us. In addition, it is said that if you learn a new language, you have learnt a new culture. For me culture is way of life, how we learn, eat, behave, feel, think... Culture is the way of living, eating, talking, celebrating, cooking ,. Culture for me as a teacher is what the students bring with him/her to school, beliefs, values, meanings, religion etc. The beliefs, traditions, attitudes, customs of a particular country or society Culture can be seen in different ways. Someone sees it as language, someone as way of living, someone as religion. Culture is way of expressing, living, speaking and collection of little things that make us complete Culture is the student identity, teaching culture is alpha omega in order to have an good education and society. Culture is the background, the history and the present of a person. Culture for me means a way of life and a way of behaving. Culture is a wide term in which different aspects of life are included. QUESTION 8. Are enough teaching materials being used in your classes which include different cultures? .....I try to include lesson materials from various ethnic and religious backgrounds in my classes, such as studying literature written by minority authors or literature that has subject matter relating to minorities’ life experiences Not really, because I have a non-diversity class of students. Yes I try to use different materials teaching culture through music, art, movies �I must admit that I am lucky enough to work at a private teaching institution, where I possess all the necessary tools and equipment. I feel sorry for my colleagues working within state owned schools. Not really. We tend to actually use American culture more than culture in which we life in. Not really. We are learning only about one culture, and that is Technology. Not enough! No there aren’t. I would like to use these kind of teaching materials during my classes. Magazines, articles, stories, songs, videos, literature No, we use only books for grammar or vocabulary Macedonian We try to use some magazines or internet sources Yes, I mostly make my own materials (combined with textbooks) depending on my group of students. There are no enough teaching materials that include different cultures. There is not enough materials. It should be invested in materials, programs, hours and tools and training for professionals. Nationality QUESTION 9.Do you organize/attend school events to celebrate various religious holidays? No. Not really, just some of them like Easter, Eid, New Year...! Albanian �Not really unfortunately Occasionally we receive various invitations from other institutions to participate in different religious festivals, which we gladly accept and join them. However, since we live in a multicultural society where we have various religious festivals with regards different religions, we are being extremely careful to respect all of our students’ diversity by organizing some celebrations of behalf of the major religious festivals considered as national holidays in R. Macedonia. Since I work at university level, I do not usually organize such events. I think they are more appropriate for younger students. At our university, we really don’t celebrate religious holidays, we mostly celebrate national holidays. Religious holidays are celebrated home with families. Unfortunately, I haven’t attended at various religious holidays! I have attended only at our religion holidays! Our school never organizes or celebrates various religious holidays. “We” enjoy having a day off without knowing the reason. The pleasure that there is no school is higher than the curiosity or respect. Events such as Halloween, Mother’s Day We only celebrate national holidays. No never Yes, again it depends on the groups of students: Christmas, Easter, Eid, New Year etc. Yes, our school organizes celebrations for Bajram and Easter. Macedonian No. CONCLUSIONS The survey shows that there is some awareness and a need for a multicultural perspective in a foreign language classroom. The feelings of all the interviewed categories seem to be mixed. �In some cases their answers could be misinterpreted. Still, Republic of Macedonia being a multicultural country needs to take care of this issue and the multicultural perspective especially in a non diverse classroom environment regardless if it is dominant Albanian or Macedonian should be promoted. Foreign language teaching (FLT) seems to be the most suitable for it. Having in mind the large number of classroom instruction allocated to FLT not only the English language instruction but other foreign languages classes can be used to introduce cultural element. FL curriculum is mostly topic based and the abundance of topics and the large number of classroom instruction provide many opportunities to cover plenty of cultural elements related not only to the culture of the target language be it English, German or other FL but to the states’ one of the Macedonians, Albanians and the languages of the other ethnicities of the country not necessarily present in the given class. By doing so, and getting each other better the ties among the communities would strengthen and this would lead to the real multicultural environment as the State constitutionally is. �References 1. OFA – Framework agreement, 13.08.2001 2. Unite or Divide, The challenges of teaching history in societies emerging from violent conflicts, Special USIP Report, Elizabeth A. Cole and Judy Barsalou 3. Promoting Respect for Cultural Diversity in the Classroom, Matthew Lynch, Ed.D, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/matthew-lynch-edd/promoting-respect-for-cul_b_1187683.html? (accessed on 25.03.2015). 4. Ladson-Billings, But That’s Just Good Teaching!, THEORY lNTO PRACTICE, Volume 34, Number 3, Summer 1995 Copyright 1995 College of Education, The Ohio State University 0040-5841/95$1.25. 5. Developing and assessing intercultural communicative competence, A guide for language teachers and teacher educators, Ildikó Lázár, Martina Huber-Kriegler, Denise Lussier, Gabriela S. Matei and Christiane Peck, http://www.ecml.at. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2955 Title A name given to the resource LANGUAGE AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN THE NON-DIVERSE CLASSROOM Author Author Skenderi, Lindita Jerome, Carly Terese Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the paper is to propose some simple ways of promoting linguistic and cultural diversity in a homogenous classroom made of students brought up in a bi-lingual environment and country. The ideas and suggestions come from the experiences of the authors in different environments and workplaces. The comparing groups are of different ages from compulsory school to a university/college level. The paper will be divided in two parts: on one hand there are suggestions which would be useful in a classroom with a teacher coming from the same place as the students, and on the other hand how would those and other ways work out in promoting a linguistic and cultural diversity in a classroom where the teacher/lecturer comes from another cultural and linguistic background. What has been the meeting point, how this type of cultural and language diversity would affect the critical thinking of the students; why would students benefit from diversity-promoting classes are some of the questions answered in the paper. This is a cross-sectional study which tries to put together some possible forms of promoting diversity in the aspect of a language and culture in the classroom which does not mean that is based on a longitudinal type of research but on personal experiences and views of the authors. Moreover it is based on a questionnaire and displays its results Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5fe5b1037580d91333fb9ada9b8a724e.pdf 59f934dc301f8fac3ae915d02fb91942 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian Ines Skelac & Ružica Stanić University of Rijeka, Croatia Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 16.11.2014. Abstract Native speakers of Croatian often have problems with appropriate usage of English tenses that do not exist in Croatian, frequently associating past forms in English with perfective meanings in Croatian and non-past forms with imperfective meanings (because Croatian has verb aspect). They also encounter difficulties with nontemporal uses of English tenses. Apart from the central meaning of tense as temporal reference, there are four nontemporal meanings of English tenses (Tyler, 2000): (1) emotional distance or intimacy; (2) the relative salience or status of the information being conveyed; (3) negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario; (4) to express requests, commands and invitations. Although some non-temporal meanings are very similar to those in English, there are also significant differences that cause difficulties to native speakers of Croatian in learning English as L2. Some of the differences are caused by metaphorical and metonymical shifts in meaning between the source domain (time distance) and the target domain (distance between wish and reality, simulating of distance in order to avoid direct appeal, distance of the deictic centre, counterfactual possible situation, etc.). In order to examine those assumptions, 102 students – English learners – were tested. Differences mainly occurred in cases when the past tense is used in English to signal (1) a negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario and (2) tense as an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and suggestions, because Croatian speakers tended to use the present tense in some cases. We argue that a consistent description of non-temporal uses of tenses in Croatian and English, with analysis of differences, can facilitate the learning of these frequently occurring non-temporal uses of English tenses. Keywords: Croatian, English, meaning, second language acquisition, tenses 109 �Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian 110 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Introduction Native Croatian speakers often have problems with appropriate usage of English tenses that do not exist in Croatian, frequently associating past forms in English with perfective meanings in Croatian and non-past forms with imperfective meanings (because Croatian has verb aspect); they also encounter difficulties with nontemporal uses of English tenses. In order to investigate how differences in non-temporal uses of tenses in English and Croatian cause difficulties to native Croatian speakers in learning English as L2, four groups of non-temporal uses in English (as presented in Tyler & Evans, 2000) will be analysed and compared with non-temporal uses in Croatian. The data obtained by the research carried out with 102 students will be processed. The conclusions may be used in further investigations with the purpose of facilitating the learning and teaching of those frequently occurring non-temporal uses of English tense in the case of native speakers of Croatian and related languages. Theoretical background Tenses are primary used to determine whether an event takes place in the past, present or future; moreover, to express modality or some kind of distance (emotional, the change of reference point, unreality, etc.). Some authors, like Peter Ludlow (1999), argue that grammatical phenomenon called tense is a mixture of other phenomena, including modality and evidentiality, therefore tense is a compounded category developed by combining those categories. As people have problems in comprehending time, especially its flow and direction, they often map features of space relations to time relations. Many scientists concluded that tense is a deictic phenomenon which refers to time with respect to a deictic centre (a reference point in relation to which a deictic expression is to be interpreted). There is a strong connection between temporal concept 'now' and locational concept 'here'; we cannot perceive the present moment differently than in frames of our physical environment and sensory experience. Therefore, it is not surprising that time and space are conceptually strongly connected, which can be shown by conceptual metaphors such as TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, p. 42). In accordance with that metaphor, the future is considered as moving towards us, for example: 111 �Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian (1) The time has come to stand for all we believe in. (2) I look forward to your arrival. (3) Time flies. By virtue of TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT metaphor, time receives a front-back orientation facing in the direction of motion, as any moving object. These metaphors facilitate conceptualizing time by reducing it to something more familiar and concrete. Non-temporal use of tenses entails the use of tenses not in order to talk about time, but some other phenomena. As the past tense is by default used to express that an event took place in the past, if the same tense is used when talking about the present, it obviously means something else than past reference. Hence, time distance is mapped onto some other type of distance, for example, distance between wish and reality, simulating distance in order to avoid direct appeal, distance of the deictic centre (in the case of reported speech), distance of a possible world that contradicts the real world, etc. Tyler and Evans (2000) argue that temporal use of tenses precedes the non-temporal one, but they emphasize the importance and appropriate treatment of non-temporal use, which is not arbitrary and peripheral phenomenon. There are four main groups of non-temporal uses of tenses in English: 1. Emotional distance or lack of intimacy: My first husband was Italian. Now he is a super star. 2. Relative status of the information (i.e. the past tense signals background information, while the present tense signals foreground status: In November 1859, Darwin’s Origin of the Species was published in London. The central idea in this book is the principle of natural selection. 3. Negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario (contrary to fact wish or a belief opposite to reality): If she studied harder, she would get better grades; I wish I knew what he'll say next. 4. Tense as an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and suggestions: Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York. There are some differences between non-temporal uses in English and Croatian. In Croatian, non-temporal uses are not necessary regarding epistemic stance, because sentences like I wish I knew what he'll say next can be translated in two ways, using the present tense or conditional mood and appropriate connective ('da' plus present or 'kad' plus conditional): Da barem znam što će sljedeće reći; Kad bih barem znao što 112 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics će sljedeće reći. Furthermore, in some cases of expressing attenuation, when there is past tense in English, the present tense is used in Croatian: Oprostite, zanima me je li ovo vlak za York. If the past tense were used in that sentence, it would have temporal meaning. Non-temporal uses of English tenses are presented in the following schema: Source domain Target domains The target domain is always temporal, i.e. talking about past or present events, while the source domains include metaphorical and metonymical shifts. Analysis of the data In order to examine the issues native Croatian speakers encounter in the acquisition of non-temporal meanings of English tenses, 102 students at the University of Zagreb and at the University of Rijeka were examined. The average age of students was 23, there were no students of English language and literature and they had studied English for approximately 9 years in primary and secondary school. The questionnaire contained ten statements and four translations for each of the statements. Eight of the statements were in Croatian with English translations and two were in English with Croatian translations. The students were instructed to choose one or more translations for the statement in question. They were also given 113 �Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian an option of providing a different translation. There was no time limit for completing the questionnaire. Emotional distance and lack of intimacy (1) a. Moj je prvi dečko bio Talijan. Sad je velika zvijezda. The correct translation of these sentences is (1) b. My first boyfriend was Italian. Now he is a superstar. The vast majority of the students (85%) selected the correct answer. However, some respondents chose incorrect translations: (1) c. My first boyfriend is Italian. Now he is a superstar. (1) d. My first boyfriend has been Italian. Now he is a superstar. A possible explanation for these mistakes could lie in the second sentence: the first boyfriend is still alive (Now he is a superstar) and he hasn't change nationality, therefore, he hasn't stopped being Italian. In example (1) a. the use of was does not code time, as the first boyfriend is still Italian. Since the sentence describes a romantic involvement, some degree of intimacy is implied. The degree of intimacy is distal because the adjective first suggests that there were other boyfriends. The use of past simple implicates a relationship which is no longer intimate. Tense is employed in reported speech also to express distance, but between the reference point and the speaker in direct and indirect speech act: the hearer in the direct speech act becomes the speaker in the indirect speech. In English, the change of the reference point and the distance regarding transfer of someone else's words result in the change of tense, while in Croatian the tense remains unchanged. The respondents chose the correct translation predominately (71%), as it was expected, because they have learned how to convert direct speech into indirect speech. Relative status of the information Tense is employed to express saliency and to signal the relative status of the information. Even if an event took place in the past, if it is still relevant, it can be expressed using the present tense. (3) a. U studenom 1859. godine u Londonu je objavljena Darwinova knjiga Podrijetlo vrsta. Središnja je ideja te knjige princip prirodne selekcije. The predicate in the first sentence in (3) a. is in the past tense and the predicate in the second sentence is in the present tense. Though there is a correspondence between tenses in English and Croatian, almost one-third (32%) of the students didn't choose the appropriate translation: (3) b. In November 1859, Darwin’s Origin of the Species was published in London. The central idea in this book is the principle of natural selection. 114 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The publication date is not the central idea of the paragraph. Was in (3) b. establishes background information (Origin of the Species' publication date) for the important information, which is in the second sentence – the principle of natural selection. The appropriate epistemic stance towards a particular scenario A fact or belief opposite to reality In counterfactual conditionals and similar constructions containing if-clauses, hypothesizing a situation that seems highly unlikely to occur, for example Imagine if you were the president of the USA. What would you do to make the world a better place?, the past tense in the if-clause does not signify a past event, but the fact that the content expressed by the if-clause is not true or even does not have the real possibility to become realized. In Croatian, if-clauses in those constructions can contain both the past and the present tense. In both examples used in the questionnaire students needed to select the correct translation of a Croatian sentence containing present tense in the if-clause. The majority of them chose the right translation in both cases, but 32% chose translations with the present tense in the if-clause in the case of counterfactual conditional. This result may be explained by the occurrence of present tense in the Croatian original. Contrary to fact wish As in the previous examples, English past tense is used to express a contrast between the speaker's wish and the state of affairs. In Croatian the same information is expressed by present tense and the connective 'da' or conditional mood and the connective 'kad', which are used in if-clauses of counterfactual conditionals. Therefore, English sentence (6) a. It's freezing today. I wish it wasn’t so cold. has two correct translations: (6) b. Danas je mrzlo. Da barem nije tako hladno. (6) c. Danas je mrzlo. Kad barem ne bi bilo tako hladno. Almost all of the students (99%) chose one or both of the right answers. Surprisingly, a similar conclusion cannot be drawn regarding example (7) a., which seems similar to (6) a.: (7) a. I wish I knew what he'll say next. Only 64% of the students selected the right answer: (7) b. Da barem znam što će sljedeće reći. One student offered an alternative, also correct answer: (7) c. Kad bih barem znao što će sljedeće reći. 115 �Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian A significant number of respondents (35%) picked one of the wrong answers, which included the past tense in the if-clause. In Croatian, the past tense cannot appear in those sentences because it would change the meaning, i.e. the sentences would refer to an event occurring in the past, not in the present. Tense as an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and commands Attenuated invitations The English past tense is sometimes used where the present tense could be expected, its intention being to avoid directness of the question and decrease the amount of imposition on the hearer. The Croatian past tense is sometimes used for the same reason, but as far as requests are considered, it is not as important to attenuate them by tense, therefore the present tense is used. In (8) a. the past tense is used to avoid directness of the question because the situation is probably unpleasant for both the speaker and the hearer. (8) a. Ona: O čemu razmišljaš? On: Pitao sam se bi li izašla sa mnom. The correct translation also has the past tense, so the majority of respondents selected translations containing the past tense. 72% chose the accurate translation (8) b. and 6% chose translation (8) c., containing the past simple, instead of past continuous, while 22% thought that the present simple or present continuous was the correct tense. (8) b. I was wondering if you'd like to go out with me. (8) c. I wondered if you'd like to go out with me. 116 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Attenuated requests It was different in a Croatian sentence with the present tense: (9) a. Oprostite, zanima me je li ovo vlak za York. Only 44% of the students chose the correct translation: (9) b. Excuse me, I was wondering if this was the train for York. Others assumed that the present simple or present continuous should be employed. English expression “I was wondering” is considered more polite than “I am wondering...” In this particular case, it's not possible to employ past tense in Croatian with the same intention, because it would mean that you were interested whether the train was for York sometime in the past. Attenuated commands Finally, past tense is used to attenuate commands, making them more polite by mitigating the amount of opposition on the hearer. For that purpose the past tense is used in the English subordinate clause, contrary to the present tense in Croatian. (10) a. Krajnje je vrijeme da odemo. Only 26% of the respondents chose sentence (10) b. as the translation of the given sentence: (10) b. It's high time we left. A high number of students (70%) selected the sentence that contained present tense: (10) c. It's high time we leave. This mistake occurred because of the difference in tense in Croatian and English iterations of the same statement: sentence (10) b. contains only present tense. A small number of students (3%) recognized the difference in tenses, yet chose the incorrect translation: (10) d. It was high time we left. Conclusion This paper has given an account of the issues native Croatian speakers encounter when acquiring non-temporal meanings of English tenses. Our research has shown that native Croatian speakers are often misled by the tense used in their native language, except in the cases when they had learned the rules for e.g. counterfactuals and reported speech. Due to the fact that the past tense is employed in both English and Croatian, no significant deviation was found between expected and obtained responses in examining an example expressing emotional distance and the lack of intimacy. Croatian indirect speech uses the same tense as direct speech; consequently, native speakers sometimes have problems with converting direct speech into indirect speech in English. The research has shown that Croatian 117 �Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian speakers have some difficulties understanding the use of English past tense when it expresses actuality, especially when the past tense appears in the if-clause of a conditional sentence. The past tense cannot be employed in Croatian to attenuate invitations, requests and suggestions in all of the same situations as in English, because in Croatian it sometimes has temporal meaning. For that reason, Croatian speakers displayed difficulties concerning the non-temporal use of past continuous to attenuate requests and invitations and past tense to attenuate commands. In conclusion, if native speakers were referred to the differences between nontemporal use of tenses in Croatian and English, especially if the approach were focused on presenting non-temporal use as a systematically organised and structured appearance in language, it is conceivable that learners would show better comprehension and therefore better use of those non-temporal meanings, as in the cases of reported speech and counterfactual conditionals. References Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live By. London: University of Chicago Press. Ludlow, P. (1999). Semantics, tense and time: an essay in the metaphysics of natural language. Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT Press. Tyler, A. (2008). Applying cognitive linguistics to second language teaching: the English modals. In N. Ellis & P. Robinson (Eds.), The handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition (pp. 456– 488). New York and London: Routledge. Tyler, A. & Evans, V. (2000). My first husband was Italian (and he still is): examining “exceptional” uses of English tense and pedagogical grammar. Essen: LAUD. 118 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2788 Title A name given to the resource Issues in acquisition of non-temporal meanings of tenses in English by native speakers of Croatian Author Author Skelac, Ines Stanić, Ružica Abstract A summary of the resource. Native speakers of Croatian often have problems with appropriate usage of English tenses that do not exist in Croatian, frequently associating past forms in English with perfective meanings in Croatian and non-past forms with imperfective meanings (because Croatian has verb aspect). They also encounter difficulties with non-temporal uses of English tenses. Apart from the central meaning of tense as temporal reference, there are four non-temporal meanings of English tenses (Tyler, 2000): (1) emotional distance or intimacy; (2) the relative salience or status of the information being conveyed; (3) negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario; (4) to express requests, commands and invitations. Although some non-temporal meanings are very similar to those in English, there are also significant differences that cause difficulties to native speakers of Croatian in learning English as L2. Some of the differences are caused by metaphorical and metonymical shifts in meaning between the source domain (time distance) and the target domain (distance between wish and reality, simulating of distance in order to avoid direct appeal, distance of the deictic centre, counterfactual possible situation, etc.). In order to examine those assumptions, 102 students – English learners – were tested. Differences mainly occurred in cases when the past tense is used in English to signal (1) a negative epistemic stance towards a particular scenario and (2) tense as an expression of attenuation: invitations, requests and suggestions, because Croatian speakers tended to use the present tense in some cases. We argue that a consistent description of non-temporal uses of tenses in Croatian and English, with analysis of differences, can facilitate the learning of these frequently occurring non-temporal uses of English tenses. Keywords: Croatian, English, meaning, second language acquisition, tenses Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/343c2ec5eb4312ed2a05e390089cd768.pdf 767189a7bf17b73beda9da0240fa7492 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria Mohammed Shuaibu Department of Economics, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Kaduna, Nigeria mohammed_shuaibu@yahoo.com Abstract: The difference between estimated parameters of money supply and currency-deposit ratio is used to examine the behaviour of real deposits in Nigeria between 1960 and 2012. This is done using unrestricted error correction modelling within the bounds testing approach to cointegration proposed by Pesaran et al. (2001). Our findings revealed that inflation, real income and interest rates remain major factors influencing real deposit dynamics in Nigeria. Interestingly, financial innovation measured by the ratio of credit to the private sector and GDP was found to increase real deposits by 0.014% while the shadow economy accounted for the 0.96% fall in real deposits recorded. While interest rate and inflation remain quantitatively important in explaining longrun real deposit behaviour in Nigeria, our finding further underscores the need for monetary authorities to mainstream the informal sector into the financial system given the significant negative influence the shadow economy exerted on real deposits. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 Keywords: Money Demand; CurrencyDeposit Ratio; Real Deposit; Cointegration; Error Correction Model; JEL Classification: E41, E51, G21 Article History Submitted: 15 October 2014 Resubmitted: 7 November 2014 Resubmitted: 23 January 2015 Accepted: 9 April 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS15522 127 �Mohammed Shuaibu Introduction A requisite component of economic growth and development is a well-functioning financial system characterised by a banking sub-sector that efficiently intermediates between surplus and deficit holders of funds. In a developing economy like Nigeria where the non-bank component of the financial sector is limited, problems in deposit money banks (DMBs) are instantly transmitted to the rest of the economy (Olofin and Afangideh, 2008). This is in view of the fact that commercial banks facilitate a bulk of financial transactions. Nevertheless, banking dominance of the Nigerian financial system has, however, dropped as controlled financial system assets fell from 90.5% in 2006 to 78.6% in 2011 (IMF, 2013). The main sources of the banking liquidity in Nigeria are public and private sector deposits which DMBs transmit to deficit holders of funds. However, growth rate of deposits have been lopsided in recent times as the rate fell from 65% in 2008 to -11.3% and -1.6% in 2010 and 2012, respectively (International Monetary Fund, 2013). It follows therefore that a negative shock to the depositary base will inhibit the flow of credit, constrain development of domestic industries and adversely affect economic growth. Therefore, factors influencing savings’ decisions of households and firms become important determinants of a stable banking sector with particular reference to its intermediation role.i An assessment of real deposits has gained ample attention in the literature (See Tvalodze and Tchaidze, 2011 for Georgia; Kibet, Mutai, Ouma, Ouma and Owuor, 2009 for Kenya; Dadkhah and Rajen, 1988 for India; Felmingham and Qing, 2001 for Australia; Hasan, 2001 for China; Mutluer and Yasemin, 2002 for Turkey; Lucas, 1988 for US; Vega, 1998 for Spain). Similarly, the behaviour of real deposits has been analysed within the context of currency deposit ratio. In this regard, Khaskeli, Ahmed and Hyder (2013) analysed the behaviour and determinants of the currency deposit ratio in Pakistan based on the notion that an increase in currency in circulation reduces deposits and invariably, loanable funds. This is because an increase in the volume of currency in circulation implies that deposits are being withdrawn from the banks, which restrict their ability to meet investors’ credit demand. Research on the factors affecting real deposit creation in Nigeria is scanty, as inadequate attention has been given to the behaviour of real deposits with specific reference to the dynamic interaction of money supply and currency in circulation. The dominant strand of literature has focused on estimating the determinants and behaviour of real deposits (See Nwachukwu and Odigie, 2009; Odemero, 2012; Uneze, 2013; Nwachukwu and Egwaikhide, 2007, Nwachukwu, 2011) while some others have inferred real deposit behaviour on the basis of money demand models (See Aschani, 2010; Kumar, Webber and Fargher, 2010; Chukwu, Agu and Onah, 2010; Omotor, 2010; amongst others). It is against this background that this study departs from the literature by examining the behaviour of the real deposits in Nigeria by considering the difference between estimated broad money balance (money supply) and currency deposit ratio.ii 128 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria An investigation of the behavioural patterns of real deposits in Nigeria is expected to play a pivot role in formulating and fine-tuning financial sector and monetary policies, respectively. Notably, a major component of such policy considerations is increased transmission of funds to the real sector; particularly geared towards stimulating non-oil sector growth that has remained at the forefront of government’s policy objectives over the years. For an emerging economy like Nigeria with high savings and investment gaps, enhanced real deposit is critical for sustained “trickle-down” growth. This is further exacerbated by the crucial role of domestic saving mobilisation in the sustenance of domestic saving-investment-growth chain in developing economies (Nwachukwu, 2011). Moreover, the level of domestic saving and its determinants will not only help ascertain the policy variables that should be considered in macroeconomic policy formulation, but stimulate the much needed credit for real sector development. The empirical analysis is premised on annual data between 1960 and 2012. We utilise the bounds testing approach to cointegration, developed by Pesaranet al. (2001) within an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) framework, to test for a long-run level relationship. The bound testing approach has certain advantages in comparison to other cointegration procedures (such as Engle and Granger, 1987; Johansen and Juselius, 1990). Firstly, endogeneity problems and inability to test hypotheses on the estimated coefficients in the long-run associated with the Engle-Granger (1987) method are avoided. Secondly, the long and short-run parameters of the model in question are estimated simultaneously. Lastly, the approach is relieved of the burden of establishing the order of integration amongst the variables and of pre-testing for unit root. The study is organised as follows: Section two examines the trend and behaviour of real deposits in Nigeria while Section three discusses the related literature. Analytical framework and estimation techniques are explored in Section four while Section 5 concludes and highlights policy implications. Facts about Real Deposits and its Potential Determinants A remarkable development in the Nigerian financial sector that is directly related to real deposits formation is the recent increase in electronic (e-card transactions). The value and volume increased accordingly from 195,525,568 and N1,072.90 billion in 2010 to 355,252,401 and N1,671.4 billion in 2011, reflecting an increase of 81.5% and 55.8%, respectively. A plausible explanation for this jump is the increased confidence in electronic card payments. Data on various e-payment channels indicated that ATMs remained the most patronised, accounting for 97.8%, followed by web payments, 1.0 percent, Point-of-Sale (POS) terminals, and mobile payments, 0.6% each (Central Bank of Nigeria, 2011). Likewise, in value terms, ATMs accounted for 93.4%, web 3.5%, Point of Sale (POS) 1.9% and mobile payments, 1.2% (ibid.). The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) annual report and statement of accounts 2011 revealed that the number of Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) stood at 9,640, while the volume and value of transactions amounted to 347,569,999 and N1,561.75 billion, at end-December 2011, respectively. According to the report, these figures reflected increases of 86.7% and 63.7%, respectively, over the volume and value of186,153,142 Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 129 �Mohammed Shuaibu and N954.04 billion, in 2010.Likewise, the volume and value of mobile payments increased by 215.6 and 185.8% from1,156,553 and N6.7 billion to 3,649,374 and N19.0 billion, respectively, at end-December 2011. The level of financial innovation may have accounted for the increased deposits recorded. Illustratively, aggregate financial savings rose by N427.9 billion or 6.7% to N6,858.5 billion, compared with N6,430.6 billion in 2010. The ratio of financial savings to GDP was 18.8%, compared with 32.9% in 2010. The DMBs remained the dominant depository institutions within the financial system and accounted for 95.2% of the total financial savings, compared with 92.6% in the preceding year. Other savings institutions, namely, the PMBs, life insurance funds, the pension funds, the Nigerian Social Insurance Trust Fund (NSITF), and microfinance banks accounted for the balance of 4.8%. The depth of the financial system (M2 to gross domestic product ratio) fell to 36.4% down from the 42.7% and 39.5% recorded in 2009 and 2010, respectively while the ratio of private sector credit to gross domestic product (GDP) (bank financing of the economy) stood at 53.1% compared with the 58.8% observed in 2010. In addition, the intermediation efficiency indicator, as measured by the ratio of currency outside banks to broad money supply, at 9.4%, remained the same as at 2010.The ratio of financial savings to GDP declined to 17.9%, from 20.2% in the preceding year. The ratio of CIC to GDP (volume of cash in circulation) declined slightly to 4.3% from 4.7%recorded in 2008, 2009 and 2010. Similarly, the size of the DMBs’ assets relative to the size of the economy, indicated by the ratio of DMBs total assets to GDP, declined slightly from 58.8% at end-December 2010 to 53.1% in 2011. Figure 1. Monetary Aggregates and Measures of Financial/Banking Developments Aggregates (N’ Billion) 2006 2007 2008 Nominal GDP 18,709.6 20,657.3 24,296.3 24,712.7 29,108.0 36,531.9 Broad money (M2) 4,027.9 5,809.8 9,166.8 10,767.4 11,488.7 13,300.3 Quasi Money (Savings) 1,747.3 2,693.6 4,309.5 5,763.5 5,954.3 6,531.9 Currency in circulation (CIC) 779.3 960.8 1,155.3 1,181.5 1,378.0 1,565.8 Currency Outside banks (COB) 650.9 737.9 892.8 927.2 1,082.2 1,244.8 Credit to Private Sector (CPS) 2,650.8 5,056.7 8,059.5 10,206.1 9,703.7 12,934.3 DMBs Assets 7,172.9 10,981.7 15,919.6 15,522.9 17,331.6 19,396.6 CBN Assets 10,034.5 8,689.0 10,204.0 8,898.4 8,767.7 15,796.1 Banking System Assets 17,207.4 19,670.7 26,123.5 27,726.8 26,230.0 28,164.3 130 2009 2010 2011 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria Monetary Ratio (%) M2/GDP 21.5 28.1 37.7 43.6 39.1 36.4 CIC/ M2 19.3 16.5 12.6 11.0 12.0 11.8 COB/ M2 16.2 12.7 9.7 8.6 9.4 9.4 Quasi Money/ M2 43.4 46.4 47.0 53.5 51.7 49.1 CIC/GDP 4.2 4.7 4.8 4.8 4.7 4.3 CPS/GDP 14.3 24.5 33.2 41.3 58.8 53.1 CPS/Non-Oil GDP 13.7 38.5 55.4 67.2 50.2 58.7 DMBs Assets/GDP 22.1 53.2 65.5 70.9 58.8 53.1 CBN’s Assets/GDP 38.3 48.6 35.8 41.3 30.2 24.0 BSA/GDP 23.6 95.2 107.5 112.2 88.9 77.1 FS/GDP 92.0 12.9 17.5 22.8 20.2 17.9 Source: Central Bank of Nigeria Annual Report and Statement of Account (2008, 2011) Although the Nigerian financial sector has particularly in the last decade evolved, many questions regarding real deposit formation and its underlying determinants remain unanswered. Although banking reforms undertaken in 2004 (banking sector consolidation) and the progress made subsequently in the regulatory framework with respect to enhanced risk management have led to a stable financial sector, real deposits have remained relatively low recording only marginal increments. Stable growth as well as improvement in governments’ fiscal position has mitigated the economy’s exposure to risks. This has resulted in the financial sector being a major driver of the Nigerian economy even in the absence of requisite credit to finance real sector funding deficit. Review of Related Literature There is a huge pool of studies relating to money demand and currency-deposit that to assess their determinants. Some authors have focused on estimating money demand functions such as Odularu and Okunrinboye (2009), Achsani (2010), Kumar, Webber and Fargher (2010), Chukwu, Agu and Onah (2010), Omotor (2011), Tvalodze and Tchaidze (2011)found an the existence of a stable money demand functions. However, efforts by Nwachukwu and Odigie (2009), Uneze (2013), Odemero (2012), Kibetet al. (2009), Nwachukwu and Egwaikhide (2007), Khaskheliet al. (2013) and Nwachukwu (2011) have also estimated deposit equations to ascertain its driving factors. Nwachukwu and Egwaikhide (2007) examined the determinants of private saving in Nigeria by comparing estimation outcomes of an error correction model with results from partial adjustment, growth rate and static models. Based on their findings, they conclude that the error correction model performs better than the other models. Its results reveal that saving rate rises with the level of disposable income but falls with Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 131 �Mohammed Shuaibu the rate of growth of disposable income. The real interest rate on bank deposits has a significant negative impact while public saving did not crowd-out private saving. Furthermore, external terms of trade, inflation rate and external debt service ratio had a positive impact on private saving. Kibetet al. (2009) also investigated the underlying factors that influence savings among groups- teachers, entrepreneurs and farmers- in rural parts of Nakuru District of Kenya. The sample comprised of 359 teachers, entrepreneurs and farmers which, were selected through multi-stage sampling technique from seven rural administrative divisions of the district. Using least squares method the study found that type of occupation, household income, age and gender of household head, level of education, dependency ratio, service charge determine household saving, transport costs and credit access. Finger and Hesse (2009) examined the determinants of commercial bank deposits in Lebanon. They found that domestic factors such as economic activity, prices, and the interest differential between the Lebanese pound and the U.S. dollar are significant in explaining deposit demand, as are external factors such as the economic and financial conditions of developed countries as well as variables that measure the availability of funds in the Gulf. Impulse response functions and variance decomposition analyses underscore the relative importance of the external variables.iii Nwachukwu and Odigie (2009), predicated on the life cycle hypothesis, examined the determinants and trend of private saving in Nigeria during the period 1970 – 2007 by considering the effects of a group of policy and non-policy variables on private saving (income growth, interest rate, fiscal policy, and financial development). Relying on error correction modelling approach, the results revealed that saving rate rises with both the growth rate of disposable income and real interest rate on bank deposits. However, public saving seems not to crowd-out private saving while the degree of financial depth was found to have a negative but insignificant impact on saving. Odularu and Okunrinboye (2009) tried to ascertain whether financial innovations that occurred in Nigeria after the SAP of 1986 affected the demand for money in Nigeria using Engle and Granger two-step cointegration technique. While the study revealed that income is positively related to the demand for cash balances and interest rate inversely related to demand for real cash balances, it also showed that the financial innovations have not significantly affected demand for money in Nigeria. This may be attributed to the fact that a financial innovation does not directly affect money demand and the expected channel of effect is through real deposits. This issue was addressed by Tvalodze and Tchaidze (2011) in their study of deposit formation in Georgia. The authors modelled the demand for the real broad money balances and the cash-deposit ratio between the period 1996 and 2009. Their findings suggested that the main factors that affected deposits were income, development of the financial sector and changes in the tax burden, while changes in the interest rate and inflation played a minor role. The results also showed that geopolitical events affect banking sector confidence. 132 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria Nwachukwu (2011) discusses the trend in Nigerian saving behaviour and reviews policy options to increase domestic saving. It also examined the determinants of private saving in Nigeria during the period1970–2010. Employing error correction modelling, the study revealed that saving rate rises with both the growth rate of disposable income and the real interest rate on bank deposits. The result also revealed that public saving did not crowd out private saving; suggesting that government policies aimed at improving the fiscal balance has the potential of bringing about a substantial increase in the national saving rate. The degree of financial depth had a negative but insignificant impact on saving behaviour in Nigeria. Odemero (2012) investigated the dual determinants of savings mobilisation among agri-business entrepreneurial self- help groups in Edo state, Nigeria and data for the study was based on questionnaires issued to 96 agro-allied businesses. The data was analysed using descriptive statistics (percentages, mean, and other statistical tools) and inferential statistics (multiple regression analysis). The result showed that interest rate, farm income and age distribution of savers significantly (5%) contributed to saving mobilisation. Uneze (2013) assessed how socio-economic factors of farmer-members of cooperative in agricultural group lending scheme influence their decisions to make financial savings with their cooperatives. The focus of the study was on Anambra state and data was sourced from 296 farmer-members of cooperative societies randomly selected from National Programme for Food Security (NPFS) and Rural Finance Institution Building Programme (RUFIN) agricultural group lending schemes. The study relied on descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution, percentages and means to analyse the data. The results showed that about 43.1% of the total variation in deposit mobilisation was explained by the 10 socio-economic variables included in the model. The significant variables affecting deposit mobilisation in cooperatives by farmers in the group leading scheme were value of assets, off-farm income, age of household head, level of farm diversification and total value of farmer’s loan. Khaskheli et al. (2013) assessed the driving factors underlying the significant increase in currency deposits ratio since. The authors found a negative relationship between currency and total private sector deposits which confirmed that an increase in currency depletes deposits, which in turn inhibits economic growth by restricting supply of loanable funds. Digging further, using graphical analysis, they attempt assess determinants of currency deposits ratio and revealed that inflation, government budgetary borrowing, industrial production index, investment in national saving schemes, remittances inflow, and wheat procurement were found to be the prominent factors behind increasing currency deposits ratio. Nwankwo, Ewuim and Asoya (2013) assessed the effect of cooperatives on the savings behaviour of members in Oyi LGA of Anambra State Nigeria with data from 195 randomly selected members of various credit cooperatives. Utilising descriptive and multiple regression analysis the study showed that cooperative membership had a positive impact on savings behaviour of members. The study found that older members Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 133 �Mohammed Shuaibu had more savings than newer members. The marginal propensity to save (MPS) of 9.3% was significant as it showed that rural dwellers were more inclined towards saving. Length of membership in cooperative was also found to be an important determinant of savings thus confirming that older members saved more. Methodology Analytical Framework and Model Specification Economic theory gives no a priori specification as to the correct functional form of the demand for money relation (Mills, 1978). Nevertheless, the foundation of money demand functions is rooted in the simple money demand model which postulates that demand for money depends on income and is algebraically expressed as: Invoking the Keynesian approach and including interest rate (r) as a measure of the implicit cost of holding real cash balances rather than a wide range of interest-bearing assets as well as income (Y), as a measure of the transaction demand for money yields; Taking the logarithm results in This implies that the demand for real balances (M) is a function of income and interest rate. Apriori, and While this approach has been adopted in various studies, it independently and explicitly fails to account for factors affecting households’ savings decisions which are important determinants of overall financial system stability. As noted by Tvalodze and Tchaidze (2011), decisions made by households and firms on allocation of financial resources are significantly affected by the country’s economic conditions and subsequently, depositors’ behaviour based on these decisions, impacts on liquidity available to DMBs. This invariably affects the stability of the financial sector. Ezema (2009) noted that in the Nigerian monetary policy framework, although the currency-deposit ratio is a function of the cash preferences of the economic agents, it may be sensitive to interest rate movements. In this regard, Cagan (1965), Boughton and Elmus (1979), Dadkhah and Rajen (1988), Hasan (2001) examined the behaviour of currency-deposit ratio considering the role of interest rates and income.. This study is predicated on the following identity: RD = RBM - CDR (1) Where denotes real deposits while RBM and denote real money balances and curren- 134 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria cy-deposit ratio, respectively. Real broad money balance ( is modelled as a decreasing function of interest rate (r) and an increasing function of income (Y) and is presented as; (2) iv However, we adopt the specification of Tvalodze and Tchaidze (2011) by augmenting equation 2 with inflation which represents the opportunity costs of holding money with respect to real assets and is expected to have a negative coefficient. (3) Other variables are as earlier defined while and represent inflation rate and the error term (assumed to be white noise), respectively. In the literature, the currency-deposit ratio is modelled as a function of income growth (Hasan, 2001), opportunity cost of holding currency or nominal interest rate (Dadkhah and Mookerjee, 1988), inflation (Tvalodze and Tchaidze, 2011), financial sophistication (Cagan, 1965) and spread of the shadow economy (Mathews, 1982). The cash-deposit ratio model is specified as follows; (4) All variables are as earlier defined. and denote the effective tax burden measure and level of financial innovation. As income (Y) rises, the share of deposits increase and thus, the ratio fall. Likewise the increase in nominal interest rate (r) reduces the attractiveness of holding currency relative to deposits and invariably reduces the currency-deposit ratio. Inflation is also an indirect function of the ratio while an increase in the range of available liquid financial assets reduces domestic demand for currency. Lastly, transactions in the informal economy tend to be in form of cash since bank records could lead to detection by the tax authorities. Thus, it is expected that the demand for cash will vary directly with the average rate of tax, which, stimulates the shadow economy. The following dynamics of the model is rooted in the work of Tvalodze and Tchaidze (2011). Recall from equation 1; a real deposit is the difference between real broad money balances and real currency. Assume equations 3 and 4 are re-expressed as follows; (5) (6) Where is a vector of independent variables in the real broad money equation while is a vector of explanatory variables in the currency-deposit ratio equation. RCIC and RD refer to real currency in circulation and real deposits, respectively. Recall from equation 1 that and therefore, Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 135 �Mohammed Shuaibu (7) Substituting equations 5 and 6 into equation 7 results in; (8) (9) (10) (11) Log-linearising equation 11 results in; (12) Estimation Technique Deposit formation is calibrated using a three-step procedure: (i) estimation of the money demand function (ii) estimation of the currency-deposit ratio; and (iii) real deposits is characterised on the basis of the output of (i) and (ii) above. We propose to use the bounds testing approach to co integration proposed by Pesaranet al. (2001).v This approach has several advantages over other cointegration techniques. It eliminates the burden of having to establish the order of integration amongst the variables and/or pre-testing for unit roots. The ARDL approach to testing for the existence of a longrun relationship between the variables in levels is applicable irrespective of whether the underlying regressors are purely I(0), purely I(1), or fractionally integrated. Also, the approach is applicable to studies using data with limited time coverage. The ARDL representation of equation (3) and (4) are: (13) (14) Where represent the first differences of real money balances, currency in circulation, income, interest rate, inflation, effective tax burden 136 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria and financial innovation respectively. The bounds test is a Wald Test (or F-test) in which the joint significance of coefficients for lagged variables is tested with F-statistics calculated based on the null hypothesis. The distribution of the test statistics under the null is non-standard, in which critical values depend on the order of integration of variables involved. The joint significance test with respect to equations (13) and (14) is conducted based on the following hypothesis: Based on Monte Carlo simulation, Pesaranet al. (2001) tabulates asymptotic critical values, depending on whether or not drift and/or time trend terms are included as well as the number of independent variables. Given the number of independent variables, if all variables are I(0), the critical value approaches a minimum and, if they are all I(1), the corresponding critical value becomes a maximum. In the case of a mixture of integrating order, the critical value falls between a minimum and a maximum. Therefore, if the calculated F-statistics under the null is located outside the maximum, the null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected, while if it is located inside the minimum, the null is not rejected. Finally, if the test statistics falls between them, one cannot draw a conclusive decision. In this case, further investigation based on more information about orders of integration is required to reach a definite conclusion. Finally, the cumulative sum (CUSUM) and cumulative sum of squares (CUSUMSQ) stability tests based on the recursive regression residuals are carried out to determine the stability of the model. Data Issues Annual dataset between 1960 and 2012 is utilised. The data is sourced from the Central Bank (CBN) of Nigeria statistical bulletin (2011) and various issues of the annual report and statement of account. The price level CPI (INF) is used to capture inflation while real GDP is used to capture real income (RGDP). Money supply defined as sum of money outside banks and deposits denominated in local and foreign currency is used (RBM). The nominal rate of return of broad money is captured by nominal interest rate (NIR). Financial sophistication of the economy is captured by the credit to the private sector-GDP ratio (CPGR) since more appropriate measures such as debit and credit cards in circulation, automated teller machines, point of sale machines etc are not readily available over a long period of time (CPGR). The shadow economy effect is captured by the ratio of tax revenues to the nominal GDP (TRGR). All the variables excluding ratios and rates are in logarithmic form. Empirical Analysis and Discussion of Results The summary statistics and correlation analysis of variables used in the estimation are presented in Tables 2 and 3. The average values of the nominal rate of return on deposit (NIR), inflation (INF), log of real broad money (lnRBM) and log of real GDP (lnRGDP) Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 137 �Mohammed Shuaibu during the period used in the study are 9.38%, 16.38%, 9.44 and 12.12 respectively. Currency-deposit ratio (CDR), nominal interest rate (NIR), total revenue-GDP ratio (TRGR) and private sector credit-GDP ratio (CPGR) recorded mean values of 0.85, 9.4, 0.1 and 14.72, respectively. During the period under review, the minimum and maximum values of inflation were -3.37% and 72.84% which was significantly above values recorded for other variables. The lowest minimum and maximum values were observed for tax revenue-GDP ratio with 0.04 and 0.24, respectively. Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of Variables used in Estimation INF lnRBM lnRGDP CDR NIR TRGR CPGR Mean 16.38 9.44 12.12 0.85 9.38 0.09 14.72 Median 11.58 9.58 11.14 0.72 8.00 0.07 12.46 Maximum 72.84 11.22 17.33 1.84 26.00 0.24 51.66 Minimum -3.73 7.82 7.71 0.20 3.46 0.04 4.78 Std. Dev. 16.27 0.93 3.25 0.44 5.44 0.05 9.67 Skewness 1.80 -0.05 0.19 0.64 0.80 1.57 2.01 Kurtosis 5.73 2.48 1.66 2.58 2.90 4.06 7.31 Jarque-Bera 45.06 0.62 4.32 3.99 5.62 24.27 76.69 Probability 0.00 0.73 0.12 0.14 0.06 0.00 0.00 868.14 500.10 642.29 45.18 497.02 4.62 780.15 44.68 548.00 9.92 1539.97 0.15 4860.07 53 53 53 53 53 53 Sum Sum Sq. Dev. 13771.73 Observations 53 Table 3. Correlation Analysis of Variables used in Estimation CDR CPGR INF NIR lnMS lnRGDP TRGR CD 1.00 -0.63 -0.11 -0.23 -0.75 -0.71 0.70 CPSG -0.63 1.00 -0.02 0.04 0.66 0.60 -0.28 INF -0.11 -0.02 1.00 0.47 0.19 0.19 -0.36 IR -0.23 0.04 0.47 1.00 0.54 0.55 -0.38 MS -0.75 0.66 0.19 0.54 1.00 1.00 -0.54 RGDP -0.71 0.60 0.19 0.55 1.00 1.00 -0.53 TRG 0.70 -0.28 -0.36 -0.38 -0.54 -0.53 1.00 Long-run and Contemporaneous Dynamics In order to ascertain the existence of a long run relationship among the variables in equations (13) and (14), the F-statistic (Wald test) for the bounds test was computed. The F-statistic and critical bounds values for testing the null hypothesis of no cointegrating relationship are reported in Table 4. The computed F-statistics of 5.40 and 4.30 in both models were found to exceed the lower and upper bounds critical 138 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria values at the 5% significance level using the critical values provided by Pesaranet al. (2001). Therefore, the null of no cointegration is rejected. This implies that the variables in equations 13 and 14 are cointegrated. Table 4. Bound Testing for Cointegrationvi Critical Bound F-stat Lower Upper k Model 1 (Equation 13) 5.40 3.47 4.45 3 Model 1 (Equation 14) 4.30 3.03 4.06 4 The long run coefficients are presented in Table 5. In the case of model 1, the estimated long run elasticities for interest rate (NIR) and income (RGDP) are 0.532 and -0.015 respectively. Both estimated elasticities have the expected signs but only real income was statistically significant at the 5% level of significance. For example, our results suggest that a 1% increase in real income (RGDP) will increase real broad money (RBM) by 0.53% while an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money will reduce real money demand (RBM) by 0.015%. Unexpectedly, our results also showed that a 1% increase in inflation engenders an infinitesimal 0.008% decrease in money demand. Nevertheless, inflation was found to be insignificant in explaining money demand. The currency deposit equation expressed in model 2 revealed that the degree of responsiveness of the currency-deposit ratio (CD) to income and interest rate are 0.493% and 0.107% and are both statistically significant. The financial innovation measure, captured by credit to the private sector to GDP ratio (CPSG) was positive and statistically significant at the 5% level. The measure of the shadow economy (TRG) was also positive but statistically insignificant. Table 5. Estimated Long-run Coefficients Model 1 (Dep. Var.: RBM Variable Model 2 (Dep. Var.:CD Coefficient Prob. Constant 1.220 0.081 Trend 0.120 0.000 lnRGDP 0.532 NIR INF Variable Coefficient Prob. Constant -2.246 0.035 Trend -0.163 0.001 0.000 lnRGDP 0.493 0.005 -0.015 0.170 NIR 0.107 0.000 -0.008 0.843 CPSG 0.037 0.008 TRG 0.480 0.753 Notes: ARDL (2,0,0,1) selected based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion. The estimates of the error correction model are presented in models 1 and 2 of Table 6. Evidently, the results of the long-run estimates are not supported except for inflation whose coefficient was negative and statistically significant. From model 1, the coefficient of the first difference of income and real money demand were both statistically significant with coefficient values of 0.141% and -0.004%, respectively. In Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 139 �Mohammed Shuaibu the short run, the effect of the first difference of inflation is significant and negatively related to money demand as a 1% increase in price will reduce money demand by 0.003% in Nigeria. In model 2, the short run estimates of the currency-deposit equation are presented. While the first difference of real income is found to be negatively related to currency deposit ratio, interest rate was found to be positively related to currency deposit ratio. Both findings were statistically significant. However, a pertinent observation is the negative effect of the first difference of the one period lagged value of nominal interest rate which was found to be negative and statistically significant. However, contrary to expectation, financial deepening or innovation did not have the expected negative effect on currency-deposit ratio as the Nigerian financial system, despite significant deepening, is faced with high currency in circulation and less deposits.vii In other words, a 1% increase in the depth of the financial sector induced a 0.004% increase currency-deposit ratio. The error correction terms ect(-1) in both models are negative and statistically significant, thus corroborating the results of the cointegration tests which suggested the existence of a long run relationship between the variables. The error correction value of -0.265 in model 1and -0.359 in model 2 indicates that 26.5%and 35.9% of the previous year’s deviation from long run equilibrium will be restored within a year. Table 6. Error Correction Representation of ARDL Model Model 1 (Dep. Var.: D(RBM)) Variable Coefficient T-Ratio (Prob.) C @TREND D(lnRGDP) D(NIR) D(INF) ect(-1) 0.323 0.032 0.141 -0.004 -0.003 -0.265 1.161(0.114) 3.331(0.002) 4.102(0.000) -1.311(0.196) 2.751(0.009) -5.241(0.000) R-Squared Adj R-Squared S.E. of Regresion F-Statistic Prob. (F-Statistic) DW-Statistic 0.67 0.62 0.08 14.58 0.00 2.09 Model 2 (Dep. Var.: D(CD)) Variable Coefficient T-Ratio(Prob.) C @TREND D(lnRGDP) D(NIR) D(NIR(-1)) D(TRG) D(CPSG) ect(-1) -0.805 -0.058 -0.041 0.001 -0.024 -0.96 0.014 -0.359 -2.338(0.024) -3.804(0.000) -3.364(0.718) 0.320(0.750) -3.319(0.002) -1.735(0.090) 3.600(0.001) -4.070(0.000) R-Squared Adj R-Squared S.E. of Regresion F-Statistic Prob. (F-Statistic) DW-Statistic 0.5 0.38 0.1 5.8 0.00 2.44 Notes: 51 observations (1962-2012) were used and ARDL (1,1,2,1,0) was selected based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion. 140 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria The diagnostic tests of our model revealed no evidence of serial correlation. The model passes the Jarque-Bera normality tests suggesting that the errors are normally distributed. The RESET test indicates that the model is correctly specified while the F-forecast test indicates the predictive power of the model. Finally, the adjusted R-square of 0.67 (model 1) and 0.56 (model 2) indicate that 67% and 56% of the variation in broad money and currency-deposit ratio is explained by the independent variables in the respective models. Also, the Durbin-Watson statistic in both models is approximately 2. The outcome of these statistical diagnostic tests suggests the model is well behaved. The model also satisfies the stability test- the CUSUM of recursive residuals (Figure 1) and the CUSUMQ of recursive residuals tests (Figure 2) of structural stability. Both figures show that the parameters of the model are stable during the sample period. Model 1 Stability Test 1.4 20 1.2 15 1.0 10 0.8 5 0.6 0 0.4 -5 0.2 -10 0.0 -15 -0.2 -0.4 1975 1980 1985 1990 CUSUM of Squares 1995 2000 2005 2010 -20 1975 1980 1985 1990 CUSUM 5% Significance 1995 2000 2005 2010 5% Significance Model 2 Stability Test 1.4 20 1.2 15 1.0 10 0.8 5 0.6 0 0.4 -5 0.2 -10 0.0 -15 -0.2 -0.4 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 CUSUM of Squares 5% Significance -20 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 CUSUM 5% Significance In order to obtain the final specification for real deposits, invoking equation 1, we combine two equations as stipulated in the identity represented by equation 1. The resulting equation yields; Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 141 �Mohammed Shuaibu This equation reveals that the degree of responsiveness of real deposits to changes in income is 0.182%. This implies that people increase their deposits as the economy expands. Unexpectedly, interest rates and its one period lagged value were found to be negatively related to real deposits while inflation, in line with theoretical expectation was found to negatively affect deposits. The effect of financial innovation is marginal but positive as increased financial sophistication spurred deposits. The reason for this outcome may be the growing financial innovations provided by DMBs and the cashless policy pursued by the central bank of Nigeria, which increases the attractiveness of deposits relative to cash. Another plausible explanation for the very low coefficient observed is that in Nigeria, security of e-banking and e-payment services remains an issue of concern to depositors as it would take time to adjust to such technological changes and innovations in the banking sector. Notably, the shadow economy had a negative effect on deposit formation in Nigeria. Conclusion The paper assessed the formation of real deposits in the Nigerian banking sector between 1960 and 2012. Real deposit was modelled as an identity that captures the difference between an estimated money demand and currency-deposit ratio models. The ARDL bounds testing approach to cointegration and unrestricted error correction model was used to ascertain the long- and short-run relationships. Our findings showed that inflation, real income, money supply and financial depth where negatively related to depositary base. This implies that if prices are high, real deposits will fall while higher incomes, contrary to theory led to a fall in deposits. A deeper financial system characterised by innovations increases the incentive to save. The one-period lagged value of the currency-deposit ratio and interest rate where found to be positive functions of real deposits. In other words, higher interest rates enhance saving behaviour. Evidently, financial innovation, domestic price and interest rate play a significant role in real deposit behaviour. The effect of income did not conform to theory as it exerted a negative effect on depositary base and we expected that higher incomes should enhance savings. However, this was not the case in Nigeria and this may be partly explained by the general increase in prices and low purchasing power occasioned by high inequality and poverty which negatively affects real deposit behaviour of households. A major implication of our finding is the need to increase access to financial services as a deepened financial system was found to significantly influence depositors’ saving behaviour even though the coefficient was low. In addition, reducing the financial transactions through the informal sector may spur real deposits as our measure of the shadow economy negatively affected real deposit formation. Also, government may consider the pursuit of labour-intensive policies that create wealth thereby increasing disposable incomes and encouraging deposits. 142 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria References Achsani, N. A. (2010). Stability of money demand in an emerging market economy: An error correction and ARDL model for Indonesia. Research Journal of International Studies, 13, 54.-62. Ajayi, I. S. (1977).Some empirical evidence on the demand for money in Nigeria.The American Economist, 21(1), 51-54 Boughton, J. M. & Elmus R. W. (1979). The behavior of the currency-deposit ratio during the great depression,” Journal of Money, Credit and Banking 2(4), 405-18. Cagan, P. (1965). Demand for currency relative to the total money supply, Journal of Political Economy, 66, 303-329. Central bank of Nigeria (CBN) (2009). Annual report and statement of account Central bank of Nigeria (CBN) (2011). 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(2013).The behaviours and determinants of the currency-deposit ratio in Pakistan, SBP Research Bulletin 9(1), 82-101. Kibet, L. K., Mutai, M. K., Ouma, D. E., Ouma, S. A. &Owuor, G. (2009). Determinants of household saving: a case study of smallholder farmers, entrepreneurs and teachers in rural areas of Kenya, Journal of Development and Agricultural Economics, 1 (7), 137-143. Kumar, S., Webber, D. J. & Fargher, S. (2011). Money demand stability: a case study of Nigeria, Department of Economics Auckland University of Technology Working Paper No. 2. Lucas, R. E. (1988). Money Demand in the United States: A Quantitative Review,” Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy, 29, 137-67. Matthews, K. (1982). Demand for currency and the black economy in the U.K., Journal of Economic Studies, 9, 3-22. Mills, T. C. (1978). The functional form of the U.K. demand for money, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series C (Applied Statistics), 27(1), 52-57. Mutluer, D. & Yasemin, B. 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(2013).Effect of cooperatives on the savings behaviours of members in Oyi local government area Anambra State Nigeria, African Research Review 7 (1) 209-227. Odemero, A. F. (2013). Dual determinants of saving mobilization among agribusiness enterpreneurial groups in Edo State, Nigeria, Experimental Agriculture and Horticulture 2(1), 14-22. Odularu, G. O. & Okunrinboye, O. A. (2009). Modelling the impact of financial innovation on the demand for money in Nigeria, African Journal of Business Management 3(2), 039-051. Omotor, D. G. (2011). Structural breaks, demand for money and monetary policy in Nigeria, EkonomskiPregled, 62 (9-10) 559-582. Pesaran, H., Y. Shin & R.J. Smith (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships, Journal of Applied Econometrics 16(3): 289–326. Tvalodze, S. & Tchaidze, R. (2011). Deposit formation in Georgia, International Monetary Fund (IMF) Working Paper No. 78. IMF Washington DC. Uneze, C.U, (2013). 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Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 145 �Mohammed Shuaibu Appendix Table A1: Autoregressive Distributed Lag Estimates Model 1viii Model 2ix Variable Coefficient T-Stat (Prob) Variable Coefficient T-Stat (Prob) c @trend MS(-1) MS(-2) RGDP IR INF INF(-1) 0.323 0.032 1.156 -0.421 0.141 -0.004 0.003 -0.003 1.612 (0.114) 3.331(0.002) 9.329(0.000) -3.811(0.000) 4.102(0.000) -1.312(0.197) 2.751(0.009) -3.099(0.003) c @trend CD(-1) RGDP RGDP(-1) IR IR(-1) IR(-2) TRG TRG(-1) CPSG -0.805 -0.058 0.641 -0.04 0.218 0.002 0.013 0.024 -0.96 1.132 0.013 -2.338(0.024) -3.804(0.000) 7.278(0.000) -0.364(0.718) 2.089(0.043) 0.320(0.750) 1.826(0.075) 3.319(0.002) -1.735(0.091) 2.353(0.024) 3.600(0.001) Diagnostic Tests R-Squared 0.99 R-Squared 0.95 Adj. R-Squared 0.99 Adj. R-Squared 0.94 S.E. Regression 0.08 S.E. Regression 0.10 F-Stat. 13.90 F-Stat. 76.25 Prob. (F-Stat.) 0.00 Prob. (F-Stat.) 0.00 DW-Statistic 2.09 DW-Statistic LM Version F Version 0.300(0.58) 0.249(0.621) Functional Form 2.859(0.09) 2.495(0.122) Normality 1.131(0.57) Heteros. 0.093(0.76) Serial Correlation 2.44 LM Version F Version Serial Correlation 3.993(0.046) 3.313(0.076) Functional Form 3.892(0.049) 3.222(0.080) na Normality 50.978(0.000) na 0.089(0.766) Heteros. 8.435(0.004) 9.710(0.003) This stability is affected as liquidity of DMBs is influenced by depositors’ saving and investment decisions which, are in turn influenced by domestic macroeconomic conditions and external shocks. i 146 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria This is further reinforced by the effectiveness of money demand and currency deposit ratio parameters in explaining real deposit behavior (See Tvalodze and Tchaidze, 2011 for a lucid exposition of the linkages). iii At the micro level, the authors also found that bank-specific variables such as perceived riskiness of individual banks, liquidity buffers, loan exposure, and interest margins significantly influence demand for deposits. iv It is pertinent to note that inflation and real interest rate enter the model independently in a bid to distinguish between two effects: the interest rate on deposit is the rate of return on broad money with an expected positive sign, while inflation represents the implicit cost of holding money relative to real assets with an expected negative sign. v Also, the Engle and Granger (1987) co-integration test and the Johansen (1988) and Johansen and Juselius (1990) co integration test, which may not may not be appropriate, especially when a small sample size is considered (see, Narayan and Smyth 2005). vi No trend and intercept were considered in models 1 and 2. Table C1.v: Case V with unrestricted Intercept and unrestricted trend Pesaran et al. (2001). vii There are at least two economic costs of currency in circulation that need to be highlighted. First, an increase in currency in circulation implies a decline in deposits and consequently a decrease in the availability of loanable funds for investment by restricting credit creation which is crucial for economic growth. Second, a rise in currency in circulation signals inflationary pressures (Khaskheli et al. 2013). viii ARDL(2,0,0,1) selected based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion. ix ARDL (1,1,2,1,0) selected based on Schwarz Bayesian Criterion. ii Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 147 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2924 Title A name given to the resource An Empirical Analysis of Real Deposits in Nigeria Author Author Shuaibu, Mohammed Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The difference between estimated parameters of money supply and currency-deposit ratio is used to examine the behaviour of real deposits in Nigeria between 1960 and 2012. This is done using unrestricted error correction modelling within the bounds testing approach to cointegration proposed by Pesaran et al. (2001). Our findings revealed that inflation, real income and interest rates remain major factors influencing real deposit dynamics in Nigeria. Interestingly, financial innovation measured by the ratio of credit to the private sector and GDP was found to increase real deposits by 0.014% while the shadow economy accounted for the 0.96% fall in real deposits recorded. While interest rate and inflation remain quantitatively important in explaining long-run real deposit behaviour in Nigeria, our finding further underscores the need for monetary authorities to mainstream the informal sector into the financial system given the significant negative influence the shadow economy exerted on real deposit Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/062cb798aee013ee2de0f10308f8e028.pdf 437ac6f7844a93dfa75db8cf969334aa PDF Text Text TOPIC: ARSCOMBINATORIA IN THE NOVEL “THE NAME OF THE ROSE” BY UMBERTO ECO Emine Shabani State University of Tetova, Macedonia Article History: Submitted: 11.06.2015 Accepted: 28.06.2015 Abstract The difference between modernism and postmodernism is difficult to make, but we take as a reference the hypotheses of well-known literary theorists and critics like Terry Eagleton, Pavao Pavliçiç, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Gerard Genette, TzvetanTodorov, JurijLotman Julia Kristeva, MiekeBaletc, a hypothesis of the canadian theorist Linda Hachion, as far as my opinion is concerned is very straightfoward and rational, as far as the definition of postmodern art is concerned, where she sees it as a field where the presence of the past in context of the critical reflex over it, dominates. The poetics of postmodernism is the result of the concept of the domination of irony, the contraverse role, great aesthetic, ideological, substantial paradoxes, the post-modern work of art as such represents a subversive and contraversial phenomenon, that builds and ruines the same phenomena it provokes and raises. Unlike previous currents of art, in postmodernism we have the elements of idelogical and gender movements. Postmodernist writers are: Borges, Marquez, Buzzati, Umberto Eco etc. And it is Umberto Eco’s “The name of the Rose” (Ilnomedellarosa) that is the subject of my study, with a new substantial, ethical, aesthetic, ideological, religious form. In the epilogue of the novel Eco uses the phrase “revisiting tradition” because the past, according to the author cannot be undone but it rather needs to be revisited with irony and not innocence, to highlight the dissension within the head of the church, that in the name of triumph of an idea crimes are commited in an abbey and the epicenter of the occurences is the library rich in ancient and modern texts... �The references of our study were libraries, interviews, newspapers, raports and studies published in the internet as well as scientific journals. Key words: Intertext; arscombinatoria; unresolved and enigmatic crime; forbidden love; inquisition; limits of ethics; asceticism. �1. Introduction A novel that made a name for itself in the 80-ties, with a success that continues to this day. Written about the middle ages, “The name of the Rose” represents an almost perfect literary description, the value of which lies in the history and tradition of the lives of hermits in the middle ages, viewed from the perspective of a Benedictine monk from Melk and his experience during seven days of 1327 in a monastery in the north of Italy. Right from the beginning the narrator emphasizes that “The terrible events that occurred do not advise me to give a better identification”. Adson from Melk represents the implicated author, (The masque of authorship, the second ego, an implicated portrait of the author in the text). Eco choses this form of narration, of a narratorprotagonist that views the events from his perspective. The novel represents a erudite work of literary fiction, rich in information from the world of science, art, philosophy, history, theology, mysticism, etc. 2. Used bibliography For this study we have utilized professional bibliography, for the theoretic matters concerning the art of the word and fiction we have chosen the names of J. Kaller, M. Solar, for focalization: Viktor Shklovsky, V. Propp, for structuralism: Barthes, C. L. Stross, V. Bitti, for the characters and the actantial model of Greimass, S. Chattman, for the narrator and time G. Genette, Sh. Rimon-Kenan, for intertextuality J. Kristeva, the classics of literary science, the theory of prose: Tz. Todorov, Е. Аuerbach, М. Becket, V. Butt, R. Velek, O. Waren, R. Јаkobson, Ј. Lotman, Ch.K. Оgden, Ј. А. Richards, K. Hamburger, D.H.Pageau, G. Prince, for semiotics and semiology M. Pozzato, R. Bronwen Martin dheFelizitasRingham, Barthes, Literary theory: A. Vincadhe M. Becker, essayistics: B. Croce, D. Grlic, etc. 3. Methodology We have utilized a modern approach as a method of study which is used in all social sciences and widely used in natural sciences: observation (studying of facts)- interpretation (study of meaning)- application (study of utility). By means of interpretation all knownlegde is included: the internal structure of the literary work and its study, the semiologic, semantic, allegoric, �narratological meaning (types and narrative strategies), monologue, dialogue, thoughts, the mental and emotional structure of the protagonists, the utilized codes: the doubled, biblical. The normative group of interpretation, is concerned with literal aspects as well as figurative, cultural and historic observation, the justification of the text etc. 4. Results and discussion The novel begins with the words “In the beginning was the Word and the Word was with God, and the Word was God”. This automatically reminds us of the beginning lines of Faust by Goethe: in the beginning there was the work, and then the word. And it is the word as such that in this novel forms the lethal curiosity, integrated in books and rare parchments. The plot in the novel is set in the period before the upheavals of the renaissance, in the year 1327, while the figure of William represents the intellectual with encyclopedic knowledge, intuition, sharpness and other admirable traits. He was a humanist, although he had been an inquisitor, but he never sentenced anybody to death by burning and for ethical reasons he abdicated from his position, as a man of reason an ratio, while his antagonists are Jorge from Borges, the Abbot, Ubertini and all the officially undeclared heretics. Adson represents the implicated narrator who writes with preterition about the events, that occurred in the middle ages, for those that we are aware but he still writes about them! “the truth, before it is revealed to all, face to face, we see in fragments (alas, how illegible) in the error of the world, so we must spell out its faithful signals even when they seem obscure to us and as if amalgamated with a will wholly bent on evil” . This kind of semiotics guides us in an anaphoric way to the sequence of events that will follow within a period of seven days, while William makes very censured investigations in the abbacy. Adson is fascinated by his teacher for whom he says that he admires him for his knowledge and the reasonable way in which he perceives things, events, actions and makes very precise decisions based on his knowledge, experience and intuition. The semiotics of the text represents the plain of expression and is consistently present from the beginning till the end. The whole building and the Library are build according to the architectural code, which Eco mentions in his “Absent structure”, after the typological code that he calls the grammar of building where he says: “ Based on the dialectics between information and redundancy, we could �try to build a church, which even being a church, it would be different from the ones that are seen to this day and as a result it would require us to worship god and to feel the connection to him in an unusual way: this does not mean that we have violated the rules of architecture and sociology as of how the churches should be used.” Here Eco puts spiritual temples and labyrinths in the category of semantic codes, spatial typological crossroads. This abbacy was unlike all of its sister abbacies in Italy and Europe, in the text it is an arena of events and mystic and macabre crimes. According to Bashlar the corner is the negation of space and human beings choose it to find their cogito. While Sartre calls it the topoanalytics of the external an internal and with this he signifies the two directions that psychoanalists call introvert and extrovert before life and before passions, in the scheme of existence itself, the author finds this duality and this means return to himself and for himself. Ernst Bloch, a German philosopher, mentions Vitruvius for his architectural utopia and emphasizes the thought that: “A building must encompass simultaneously the utility, structural strength and aesthetic beauty! , Vitruvius also thought that the parts of the human body should be measured and the proportions be used to determine the proportions of a temple in the ancient times. The building that is the epicenter of the plot, crime and the effort to uncover the truth, was built in such an aesthetic beauty and manner that not everyone could understand it. Especially when we take into account that the library was guarded with fanaticism from everyone except the few who were allowed to roam freely like the librarians and their helpers as future successors. The secret entrance from the small chapel in the garden and the altar to the ossuary one could exit to the spiral stairs that led to the library and this was not the only secret way that led to it. Among other things it was enigmatic for the way it was oriented as well as for the things it kept secret- the forbidden books and the strange miniatures that caused controversy in the middle ages. An interesting fact is that virtually everyone was interested in the forbidden artifacts, the second book of Aristotle that was concerned with the effects of laughing, the books of the so called infidels, their science, the poetry of the African poets etc. We are able to observe that Jorge and his apprentice librarian conveyed to their assistants, the secrets of their duty that not everyone was allowed to visit the library and that this area was forbidden �5. The narrative aspect as an internal structure of the novel A novel with historic contents that talks about the history in distance between the author narrator and the first person narrator.The narrator who tells the history focused on a certain time and space is Adso, whereas digressive tales often come from William, Ubertino, Salvatore, Nicholas, Severinus, etc. The old Adso speaks about an early time and his judgment on the past, at a later time: Middle Age – 18-year-old Adso – 80-year-old Adso + the 20th-21st century reader. It is about two narrative tenses and one of the reader’s. Adso’s narration is more or less subjective and it sometimes happens that the border between the narrator and the author is mixed; the holder of the narration cannot be distinct sometimes, especially in the description of monologs and other opinions and feelings (the kitchen scene). We can often see that the narrator expresses his opinions, knowledge and experience, but on the other hand the author too successfully extracts the plot and the experience from it from previous narrations of Adso. The duplicated code is felt way to the end. The narrative voice in the text is multiplied; the author, Adso/narrator, William, Ubertino, Berengar, Salvatore, episodic characters, etc. narrate there; however, the aim of the narration is common. There are also cases when the narrator addresses the reader, which adds a special emotional weight to the whole situation. When the author describes to the narrator all the hidden events, then he tells all intimate things to the reader, i.e. the sins, mistakes, challenges, temptations, and this case occurs in the scene of love in the peasant girl and what happens later with Adso; things that other characters cannot see, apart from the reader and William whom he partially tells the event. The chronotope of the labyrinth is very special and interesting, in a duplicated form too, physical and figurative (based on Bakhtin’s form, which he determined as “the chronotope of saloons, of the provincial city, the sill, the intrigue”1 and I added that of the crossroads and the labyrinth); the work is a labyrinth of knowledge, scientific information, semiotic information, follows and discovers the criminal, who is unconsciously helped by both the abbot and the rules of the order. Jorge appears to be the serial killer with the poison he has put in the book, hidden signs that lead to him, including the banned books with anecdotes and other texts that have comic contents. He disdains Aristotle who has given a philosophical importance to laughter. 1 ZdenkoSkreb-AnteStamacUvod u Knjizevdnost, CGP Dello, Ljubljana, 1986, p. 523. �The whole novel is full of interesting passages from the medieval age which we know very little about; however, Eco as a good knower of the works by Thomas Aquinas has good knowledge of that period. Aquinas tried to adapt Aristotle to the teachings of Catholic Church, where his teachings became the highest level of the medieval scholastic thought and the foundations of the Christian dogmatism until to date. There is no doubt that Eco has integrated part of his philosophy because the whole event welters around Aristotle’s book. Not in vain are his verses admired, where he makes his characters say the following: “The best treaties of cryptography are a deed of treacherous scholars [...] Bacon was right when he said that the acquisition of knowledge goes through the knowledge of languages. Abu Bakr Ahmad ben Ali ben Washiyya an-Nabati centuries ago wrote a book on the devoted human’s incandescent desire to learn about antique writings and presented many rules in order to shape and decode mysterious alphabets…”2 The letters of the verses of the Apocalypse are seven, seven days of God who constructed the world, seven book chapters, according to this sacred number, seven days of investigation, and the quarter of the seven, the digit that opened the door of the mirror where the book “Super thronusvigitiquator”; every letter that contained the mechanism of opening the glassy door had to be typed. That was the secret code. The critics consider that as a work with a double code, in the semiotic and figurative context, with the presence of the metaphor, metonymy, allegory, preterition, etc. The five codes determined by Barthes, such as the hermeneutic, semic, symbolic, proairetic, and cultural, at the narrative level, are those without which an artistic prose as such cannot exist. A novel that speaks about a medieval religious community, where the actions of main and secondary characterscombined with enigmatic elements, even though it seems that William and Adso are the main characters; in fact, they are characters of narrated situations and have a limited effect on them, whereas the one that has the central role and moves all the events with a previously planned mechanism, is Jorge of Silos/Borges. He appears to be the hidden, allknowing narrator, even though the whole situation that is created is brought into play by the old man himself, appearing at the end, during the dialog between William and Jorge. 2 Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.151. �The views from the inside of the portal, sculptures and the complexity of the construction of the library, which Adso beholds to fantasy and admiration, are overspread in the text with a luxuriant taste; the esthetic essence here lies on the way of description and narration of those sights and the feelings they cause in the novice; they also cause an esthetic emotional load in the reader himself. The semic code expresses theopinions and actions of main and secondary characters. The other parts of the novel are supplemented by historic and scientific digressions of the achievements at that time, representing a piece with general erudition. The symbolic code has to do with the symbols of figures, pictures and sculptures that are closely related to the mystical events and circumstances of the time as well as with perspective digressions. On a return to the abbey years later, Adso finds ruins symbolic of the collapse of religious authority in the late Middle Ages: “I still glimpsed there, dilated by the elements and dulled by lichens, the left eye of the enthroned Christ, and something of the lion’s face [...] all over the place they seemed as some empty eyes from which tears of reptilian carrions were hanging down. The collapsed roof seemed like capsized angels”.3 External actions as an opposition of what they think and feel, are in fact a caustic irony against their controversial behavior (monks Salvatore, Remigio, who take an advantage of the little peasant girl’s misfortune for bizarre aims, Ubertino who led a bohemian life, Abo who asked for help from William and censored his research, as well as the gathered wealth, jewels and artworks). The Latin footnotes in the library show the order of books according to their contents and the construction based on biblical teachings, analog to the design of the world and the universe by God. “It was clear where the cartridge phrases had been taken from; they were verses from John’s Apocalypse, though it was not clear at all why they had been drawn on walls or what logic of order they had followed”.4 By walking further on, William and Adso got lost and could not find the way, since they got to where they had previously been, without knowing how to get 3 Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.447. Umberto Eco Struktura e papranishme Dukagjini, Pejë, 1996, p. 154. 4 �to the doorsteps. Tired of the library labyrinth, William asked Adso: “What was the last room from where we got back called?” I tried to recall: Equusalbus.5 From the beginning to the end, the novel is a mountain, a semiotic world. According to apocalyptic predictions, the white horse represents an infectious disease and a wound; these are the semiotic anaphoric elements from page 30, along with Vrachi/the black horse and the third horse left in the stall… Eco uses the ideological and psychological contrast through which he reveals a clear picture of the mentality and simplicity of the human being, regardless of the century, rules, prohibitions, nihilism, or other destructive elements, in the struggle with the unavoidable human nature, with the greedy curiosity for knowledge, new prohibited things, their curiosity dominates prohibition and obstacles, and gets induced in the infinite world of knowledge; they become demanding till death in order to posses and enjoy them. The semiotic element is in the center; it is hidden just after a single word and phrase, even after the concrete and abstract signs: pictures, images, miniatures, sculptures, signs and codes in the library, cryptographic writings in the Pergament of Venanci, Adelmo, Berengar, Benchi, etc. However, the photography is a second language for other reasons as well: because it is a speech that exists to transmit. According to Barthes, photography is a “target function” in order to understand that it is a symbolic speech in a literary system and in a social sphere that reflects; it is an issue of imagology.6This has been expressed through the few poetic verses in the novel: “Oh my lovely Adso, - my teacher told me. – I’ve been teaching you all the way down the signs, through which the world talks to us, just as a huge book. The Alan of the Isles used to say: Every creature in the world As a book and a picture 5 Umberto Eco Struktura e papranishme Dukagjini, Pejë, 1996, p. 155. 6 Daniel-Henri Pageau, La littѐrature gѐnѐrale et comparѐe Arman Colin Edituer, Paris, 1994, p.106. �Is like a mirror to us”7 According to Pageau, the picture/drawing is the translation of the other, and a self-translation too.8 The semiotic integration of cognition, the library represents a conglomerate of signs, from the way of cataloguing, selection, nomination, placement of rooms based on world map and its sides, systemization of books and authors in those sections, based on their residential, racial, anthropologic and theologicalaffiliation, etc. In Eco’s opinion, the reader-interpreter has to possess a series of competences such as grammatical competence, semantic-encyclopedic competence, the ability to eliminate ambiguity of implication, the ability to draw conclusions, etc. in order to comprehend the full meaning of the work. The semantic-encyclopedic sphere of William’s arrival in the abbacy is understood by the emergence of his trajectory in a timeframe of seven days; despite the obstacles, he manages to discover the crime, but the punishment for his discovery is first taken by the abbot who did not allow even William to step into the library.(There is no doubt that the irony is very perceptive and we have to deal here with a sadomasochistic oxymoron personified in the figure of the double-blind friar Jorge (duplicate code). “From this book, Lucifer’s spark can flash, which would set the whole world on fire: and laughter would be determined as an art to subdue fear [...] And from this book the new destructive aspiration can be born in order to outrun death through overcoming fear [...]And see how these novices are embarrassed when they read the Grotesque parody of Coena Cypriani [...] The people of God would turn into an assembly of monsters, risen from the abysses of the unknown land [...]Mythological horses would climb up Peter’s throne, the Blemas would go to assemblies, stomach-bloated big-headed dwarfs would protect the library! The servants would do the laws, and we (and you as well), would comply with the absence of any kind of law. A Greek philosopher (your Aristotle cites him here, as an accomplice filthy authority) once said 7 Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.31. Daniel-Henri Pageau, La littѐrature gѐnѐrale et comparѐe Arman Colin Edituer, Paris, 1994, p.106. 8 �that the seriousness of the enemy has to be repudiated with laughter and enemy’s laughter has to be refuted with seriousness…”9 The narrative level: Adso is the actor/the subject has one goal – to help William in discovering the crime. Adso and novice the new Benedict (the discursive level) first person narrator of the Ich form, which is an indicator that the text is homodiegetic with internal focalization. The discursive trajectory is the place of the emergence of actions, events and crimes abbacy and especially the library, where knowledge was kept with aggressive and pathetic bigotry by Jorge of Borges. Eco says that the novel could have been called The abbey of Crime, as a work with dual code, he decides to call it The Name of the Rose, a love connotation, which when analyzed from the semantic-encyclopedic perspective, the position that love takes in the novel is greater than hatred, bigotry and crime, the oppositional positive fid appears to be more powerful and he calls it The Name of the Rose. The steps that the criminal seems to follow, he preaches and commits a crime (he has two faces, both of them demonic) due to the fact that even the preaching is deconstructive, opposes laughter, is against the grotesque drawings of Venanci, against poems that motivate imagination and intimate in sensual love. The categories of historic non-fictional characters, are known figures of popes, the emperor, hereditaries, St. Francis of Assisi, St. Benedict, or less known such as monks, friars, who gain importance only when mentioned by William, Abath, Ubertino, etc. With programs, tasks and models, the reader gets integrated in the text and discovers the ideology, mentality of characters that gives the effect of truthfulness of the character. We will use R. Barthes’s denomination in this case, whereupon we see another category of characters – the deictic ones, which are omens of the participation of the author of the text in cases where Adso describes and tells, though between the lines one can feel the intervention of the author’s hand, which becomes easier to comprehend at the postscript of the novel where he himself says, “Who speaks? The 80-year-old 9 Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë 1996, p.427. �Adso or the 18-year-old Adso? Both [...] so, me the narrator and narrative characters, including the narrative voice.”10 The novel representative or spokesperson is Adso, through whom we find out about all the events, even though he is not an all-knowing narrator, but understands from others and through William’s great knowledge and intuition. In the novel, the author’s effect is disguised, hardly noticeable and silent; however, the issue of the hero is in the center, and in this case, it is undoubtedly William and his rational behavior, obstacles and challenges during the investigation of the crime, when he feels weak under unexplainable and surprising circumstances, which means that the main character is not ideal, unmistakable, and all-knowing, but rather a human being with mental acuity, knowledge and ratio. The anaphoric characters Ubertino, Salvatore, Jorges’s signs, semic warnings through library codes/catalogs and the order of the books, signs on the room walls, all adapted to John’s gospel for the upcoming of the Apocalypse, he makes calls and warnings in the form of syntagma, words, paraphrases, other elements essentially organized and cohesive, which are in a way mnemotechnical signs for the reader, such characters pre-narrators that have the gift of memory, sculptures, monuments for which Adso daydreams due to the synthesis of beauty, arts, enigma and semantic depth that they create. Dreams that speak through their symbolism (before the death of Adelm and Venanci), the scene of omens or faith, memories, flashbacks (William’s past, as an inquisitor, or Ubertini as Dolchinian), the citation of predecessors (Thomas Aquinas, Bacon, John of Jandun, Bailek al Kabaiki, William of Okam) penetration, planning, verification of a program, which are authorized attributes, or figures of those types of characters (investigation, discovery and punishment).11 According to Bjelinski, “the typical is the author’s emblem” and thinks that “every normal person can be a type in his daily life. To the reader, the type in a literary work is “an unknown acquaintance”.12 10 Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p.463. Philipe Amon, Teorija na Prozata, NIP, Nova Makedonija, Skopje, 1996, p. 242. 12 AnicaSavicRebac, Epohe i Pravci u Knjizevnosti, Nolit, Beograd, 1965, p. 122. 11 �The chrononym is present in this novel since chapters themselves have been divided according to a canonical religious logic in seven days, as long as William’s and Adso’s stay and investigation in the abbacy lasts, i.e. the time needed to investigate and find the criminal. In addition to the division in days, this creates the impression of the consciousness flow in Joyce’s style, which he used in his works. Chapters, i.e. days are also divided in special sections, as part of the ritual, such as after midnight, praises, the first hour, the third hour, the sixth hour, the ninth hour, the evening, the hour of the last canonical service of the priests, etc. Chrononyms, anthroponyms and toponyms help in creating a referential illusion and unification at the figurative level. The verb tense also matters in terms of the narrative combinations, the narration that builds on delays in time depths, by breaking the chronological order of events/retrospection; the continuous tense creates the impression of the author being present in the event he tells, whereas the transition from the simple past to the past perfect creates a time distance and takes the reader back in time. These time gradations that can be found in this novel create an emotional burden in the reader; they strengthen its philosophical and historical subtext, motivate internal and external actions of the characters, etc.13 The title of the novel Based on the denotative aspect, The Name of the Rose is a connotation of love, or the house of God (temple, monastery, abbacy, etc.). The valuable items, books, knowledge, desire, love and the need of monks for books. The semiotic, symbolic aspect: the rose symbolizes love, having in mind different types of love: divine love (God, angels, sacred house, saints, prophets), brotherly (between brothers, friars, and all of those in service to the house of God), human (towards people, the poor, peasants, the sick, etc.), paternal (the love of Adso for William), whereupon he says, “Yes, I want to talk about William once and forever, because there were some special features in him that impressed me a lot, and the youngsters tend to follow an older and wiser man than them, attracted not only by his words and acuity, but also by his appearance, which seems to them very alluring, as is the case with the appearance of a holy father in whom you take notice of everything, the way he moves, the way he darkles, the way he smiles, without being spoilt by any kind of depravity”14. 13 Floresha Dado, Teoria e Veprës Letrare Poetika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2003, p. 251. Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p. 22. 14 �The sensual love (the girl towards whom Adso feel mercy, love, pain and empathy; however, above all, after the fatal night, he feels that all of that spiritual and emotional disturbanceis not anything else but a forbidden and dangerous love), the love for knowledge, science, books (monks endanger themselves by getting into the library secretly), love for justice, humanism, etc. In an abbacy in the north of Italy something absurd happens, something reproaching, which has powerful elements of theological existentialism, what Sartre explains with the second principle of the existentialist opinion in Being and Nothingness, the concealment, “When someone tries to deceive the others and reveal a false image, or rely on hypocrisy.”15 A successful mysticist, monk Jorge, double blind, dream hunter and reader, keeps with bigotry and nihilism the only copy of Aristotle’s second book On the laughter and comical, the author chooses this detail in order to achieve the goal of the post-modern novel, admonition, irony, perhaps contempt about medieval mentality on laughter and comical. Monasterium sine libris [...] estsicutcivitassineopibus, castrum sine numeris, coquina sine suppellectili, mensa sine cibis, hortus sine herbis, pratum sine floribus, arbor sine foliis…”16 Spatialization: Places and location included in the discourse. Everything that happens in the abbacy is closely related to the building itself, the tactics and strategy that William would use is very limited: “The abbot asked me to investigate Adelm’s death at times when he thought there was something dull happening among his monks. But now, Venanci’s death induces other suspicions; perhaps the abbot has felt that the key to the mystery is the library and he doesn’t like me to investigate in there. That’s why he points at cellar man in order to deteriorate my focus from the building [...] the abbot told me from the beginning that the library cannot be touched. He should have his own reasons. He could have been implicated in one of these events that can have to do something with Adelm’s death, but now recalls that the scandal is spreading and can grip him as well. Therefore he doesn’t want the truth to be revealed, or at least he doesn’t want me to discover it...”17 15 JeanPaulSartreQenia dhe Hiçi, Fan Noli, Tiranë,2011, p. 200. Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p.41. 17 Umberto Eco Emri i Trëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë1996, p.141. 16 �The reader follows the directions of the internal moves of the work which is the dynamics of action of the characters led by the desire and curiosity for prohibited books; he understands and experiences the emotions that the narrator creates – a suspenseto quench the curiosity. In The Name of the Rosethe dynamism of actions and thoughts from the past can be felt, which creates the feeling of irony and judgment on the activities that happen in the abbacy, especially in relation to the priest Jorge. Facing the monks’ curiosity and the nihilism of the library custodian priest, throws some light on the obscurantist medieval thought with the fact that Jesus Christ had never smiled; therefore the book, or books (because those with cartoons and anecdotes belonged there), in his opinion, were prohibited, along with a series of books written by the “faithless”, that represented heresy and danger to the Christian world and the abbacy order. The labyrinth library, as if its complicated construction was not enough, had to produce smoke at night by incinerating daydreaming medications in one of the key rooms so that the mirror would produce a twisted image. He had planned everything, even its self-destruction, because he felt it as part of his own, and as a young man had worked a lot for it; he had furnished it with rare books, he had copied and catalogued based on John’s Apocalypse, the strictly forbidden rooms Finis Africae, Leones, CoenaCiprianu, and especially the mirror, above it and behind it. Nihilism and spiritual meanness had made him destroy it for the price of death. In the novel, one can feel the intertextual metanarrative irony, which has been encompassed within words, old texts; books with miniatures, against the order of life in the monastery, the untouchable superiority of books can be felt, over this practice in the abbacy. The whole irony is that Jorge decides for this prohibition, the others do not support him and do not feed his nihilistic desire. However, the drama occurs in this part of the building; it is cursed and the curse is the poison, whereas the opposite semiotics is called rose/love. The last scenes are full of anxiety, delirium, words as if coming from the bottom of hell, Jorge’s sub-consciousness is revealed, the poison has been stolen and used to kill the knowledge inquiring, William and Adso are anxious for their lives and the drama that is happening to them, the prepared intrigue by the old man, the conflict between the danger and salvation and the spillover of the oil, is the resolution of the sharp conflict, that caused casualties and would continue to do so with the burning of the building and its further destruction. The esthetic essence, the beauty/the ugliness, the moral/the �immoral, love/hate/ knowledge/ignorance, etc. The strongest fid wins, love against hatred. The evil remains buried under the ruins, as planned, taking with it the secret as well. Eco represents all of these things in a doubled mode, including all sides of the fid. And the narration for the poisoned book is a parallel approach to the narration of 1001 Nights, whereupon doctor Duban is sentenced to death after he saves the King’s life. He says that he will tell him the tale of the crocodile but his request is not accepted. While taking Duban to execution, he gives the King a book. The doctor’s cut-off head tells him to read it; after he flips the first seven pages of the book, he sees that they are attached, and he tells him to move further. After a couple of minutes, the drug begins to react and the King dies. The book that does not narrate, kills.18The antithesis of the non-narration in 1001 Nights is the narration in the Name of the Rose, i.e. who tells, dies. 6. Conclusions At the end of the novel, in the dialog with William, the reader feels Jorge’s demonic apology, who commits a suicide by eating Aristotle’s book – a controversial action against his faith and preaching. The last movements are devilish; he has already killed the abbot and now threatens William too, and has found the proper place where he will put an end to his life, in the mirror room, especially when adding the fact that he could better “see” in the dark rather than in the light – a duplication of his blindness. The mess that is created from the darkness and the attempts to get the book from the Jorge, the fall of Adso, whereupon his lantern falls down, the oil spills and the pergaments are set o fire, then the shelves and finally the library and the whole building. The narrative semantic closure ends with the death of old Jorge, although at his very last moments he was planning to kill William. The novel has a closed ring-like composition by beginning and ending in abbacy, though now in a burning one, and despite the attempts to put it out, it had already spread all over the place. The last images reveal the novices, monks and other workers who were leaving the abbacy. There were dead people, others wounded and hurt from the ruins and leftovers. The split of William and Adso in Bavaria, the death of William caused by the plague and the closure of Adso’s diary with blasphemic words, is a powerful turn discovered at the end as in other novels. He ends his diary with his apostasic words: “God is a complete 18 TzvetanTodorov, Poetika e Prozës, Panteon, Tiranë, 2000, p. 35. �nothing; He is not touched either by the present or the here”. This is an extreme transformation of what is said from the beginning to this final stage. Adso confesses his atheism at the end, or earlier with his intuition and his proven reason, in an implied way, together with William. He worked like the bees in an empty trunk and filled an emptiness of this time, by placing powerful figurative emphases on the events, heresies, inquisition, superstitions, occultist sects, patarins, bogomils, people that marked this era, such as St. Francis of Assisi, Ludwig II of Germany, Pope John Paul, etc. References Barthes, R.(1989).AventuraSemiologjike. Prishtinë. Baslar, G. (1969). PoetikaProstora, Kultura, Beograd. Biti, V. (1992).Suvremenateorijapripovedanja. Zagreb. Bronwen, M-Felizitas, R. (2000).Dictionary of Semiotics, Cassell, London and New York. Çapaliku, S. (2004).EstetikaModerne,Tiranë. Dado, F. Teoria e VeprësLetrare-Poetika, SHBLU, Tiranë, 2003. Daniel-Henri Pageau, (1994).La littѐraturegѐnѐraleetcomparѐe, Arman Colin Edituer, Paris. Eco, U.(1996).EmriiTrëndafilit, Elena Gjika, Tiranë. Eco, U.(2000).Struktura e Papranishme, Dukagjini, Pejë. Gërliq, D.(1984).Estetika, Rilindja, Prishtinë. Gërliq, D.(1986).FjaloriFilozofëve,Rilindja, Prishtinë. Horhe, L.B. (2002).NjëUniversnënjëRrokje, Tiranë. Pozzato, M. P. (2005). Semiotika e Tekstit, SHBLU, Tiranë. Prince, G.(2003).Dictionary of Narratology, University of Nebraska Press. �Robey, D. &Jefferson, A. (2004).TeoriaLetrareModerne, Tiranë. Sartre, J. P.(2011).QeniadheHiçi, Fan Noli, Tiranë. SavicRebac, A. (1965).EpoheiPravci u Knjizevnosti, Nolit, Beograd. Škreb, Z.-Stamać, A.(1986).Uvod u Književnost, CGP DELO, Ljublana. Todorov, Tz. (2000).Poetika e Prozës, Panteon, Tiranë. Vinca, A. (2002).PanteoniiIdeveLetrare, Shkodër. Тодоров, Ц. (1998). Поетика, Детска Радост, Скопје. Мекдоналд, М.et al, (1996). Теорија на Прозата, Детска Радост, Скопје. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2908 Title A name given to the resource TOPIC: ARSCOMBINATORIA IN THE NOVEL “THE NAME OF THE ROSE” BY UMBERTO ECO Author Author Shabani, Emine Abstract A summary of the resource. The difference between modernism and postmodernism is difficult to make, but we take as a reference the hypotheses of well-known literary theorists and critics like Terry Eagleton, Pavao Pavliçiç, Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jacques Lacan, Gerard Genette, TzvetanTodorov, JurijLotman Julia Kristeva, MiekeBaletc, a hypothesis of the canadian theorist Linda Hachion, as far as my opinion is concerned is very straightfoward and rational, as far as the definition of postmodern art is concerned, where she sees it as a field where the presence of the past in context of the critical reflex over it, dominates. The poetics of postmodernism is the result of the concept of the domination of irony, the contraverse role, great aesthetic, ideological, substantial paradoxes, the post-modern work of art as such represents a subversive and contraversial phenomenon, that builds and ruines the same phenomena it provokes and raises. Unlike previous currents of art, in postmodernism we have the elements of idelogical and gender movements. Postmodernist writers are: Borges, Marquez, Buzzati, Umberto Eco etc. And it is Umberto Eco’s “The name of the Rose” (Ilnomedellarosa) that is the subject of my study, with a new substantial, ethical, aesthetic, ideological, religious form. In the epilogue of the novel Eco uses the phrase “revisiting tradition” because the past, according to the author cannot be undone but it rather needs to be revisited with irony and not innocence, to highlight the dissension within the head of the church, that in the name of triumph of an idea crimes are commited in an abbey and the epicenter of the occurences is the library rich in ancient and modern texts. The references of our study were libraries, interviews, newspapers, raports and studies published in the internet as well as scientific journals. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/305f2881c396e06118c0d94a836be1d9.docx ae3d30244f19e97bf977d1aa5a5ee8b1 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2978 Title A name given to the resource AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL NETWORKS AND ENGLISH ATTAINMENT OF BOARDING STUDENTS IN DUBAI Author Author Sabawi, Aimon Yildiz, Yasemin Abstract A summary of the resource. This study explores the effects of social networks on English progress in a UAE international English National Curriuclum (ENC) boarding school. The observed population consisted of a case study of 11 boarding students, three female and eight male, who completed their first year of International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) curriculum in Year 10. Social network data was collected through the administration of a customized questionnaire, in addition to a semi-structured teacher questionnaire conducted with their English as an additional language (EAL) instructor. The results indicated that the plexity of social ties and the number of relations who used the target language had the highest positive relationship to the students’ English progress across most skills. An increased frequency of ‘non school friends’ in the social network had the strongest negative impact on language progress. This study proved that there may be various significant links between social relationships and language acquisition. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e5e6edb647dbde72b52331fa0e685aa7.docx 334cee9e66a2d2a53cc241a6ce8bb7cc https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1ccc0658d9cb5b8437b4a34bf2d503dc.pdf c1dfaef0972d187545e073f19b97ba28 PDF Text Text The Relationship among Ethical Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: a study of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina Authors Hatice Şenyurt, Muhammet Said Dinc Publication date 2015 Conference International Conference on Economic and Social Studies Volume 1 Issue 1 Pages 138-144 Publisher International Burch University ABSTRACT As a recent modern concept, ethical leadership inspires researchers in many ways. Relations between ethical leadership and organizational citizenship behaviors, though a new field of study, is a big mine that requires some digging. The so-called extra-role or pro-social actions of employees is called the organizational citizenship behavior meaning that whatever extra job they do than what they are supposed to do is within Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Namely, how the school teacher’s perception of �his/her superior’s ethical behavior influences the organizational citizenship behavior has evoked curiosity in the developing country context. This study tries to examine the effects of the ethical leadership on Organizational Citizenship Behavior of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina which is a developing and transitional country. Data collected from 80 teachers. The relationship among multiple variables is evaluated on the basis of factor analysis, reliability, descriptive statistics, correlations, and linear regression. The study showed a positive and strong influence of ethical leadership on teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior in private primary and high schools. Keywords: Organizational citizenship behavior, ethical leadership, factor analysis, correlation, regression. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3234 Title A name given to the resource The Relationship among Ethical Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: a study of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author SENYURT, Hatice DINÇ, Muhammet Sait Abstract A summary of the resource. As a recent modern concept, ethical leadership inspires researchers in many ways. Relations between ethical leadership and organizational citizenship behaviors, though a new field of study, is a big mine that requires some digging. The so-called extra-role or pro-social actions of employees is called the organizational citizenship behavior meaning that whatever extra job they do than what they are supposed to do is within Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Namely, how the school teacher’s perception of his/her superior’s ethical behavior influences the organizational citizenship behavior has evoked curiosity in the developing country context. This study tries to examine the effects of the ethical leadership on Organizational Citizenship Behavior of private primary and high school teachers in Bosnia and Herzegovina which is a developing and transitional country. Data collected from 80 teachers. The relationship among multiple variables is evaluated on the basis of factor analysis, reliability, descriptive statistics, correlations, and linear regression. The study showed a positive and strong influence of ethical leadership on teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior in private primary and high schools. Keywords: Organizational citizenship behavior, ethical leadership, factor analysis, correlation, regression. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)